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CLOP^EDIA
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TEENTH EDITION
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vIOWLEDGE
VOLUME
23
SE TO ZYGOTE
THE £1
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LONDON
•DIA BRTTANNICA. INC.
JNEWYORK
INITIALS Al
wr
NAMliDF COlfTfl
THE ITICLES
IS IN VOLUME XXIII
BY THEM.
A. A. M.
A. A. MlCHEL&J
'H.D., ScJ
*.T>.
i
Distinguisli| i
iPhysics),.!).
^rvice Profeil
I
f>hysica, University of Chicago. Nobel Prizeman ^Velocity of Light
A.B.
AUBREY Frrxcfc;
> Brrr m
)
Author of m
alfnriJtepM
\ese; etc.
1 Vincente, Gil.
A. B. G.
ALFRED BRADL*
OUCIT, M.AJ
;.D.
/ -]
Sometime A
University •
rd Scholar ol
\ John's Collcg
f., Oxford, English Lector in the |- Westphalia, Treaty of.
A. C. Ho.
SIR ALEXANDEM
Director of •
Rivers as SMk
lOLSTON, K]
•r Examinati
of \Valer Suj.
S.f C.V.O., i\|
Metropolitan
; Rural WateM
' Water Board, London. Author of V Water Purification.
Supplies and their Purification; ctc.J
A. D. I.
A. D. IMMS, M»D.Sc.
F
|
Chief EntoA^ist, K ithamst
Formerly F» Zoologist to
University t»ihaba<j. Aufc
Experiment.''
Govern^
Station, Harpenden, Hertfordahire. LWasp:
of India and Professor of Biology, Weevil.
^xtbook of Entomology; etc. J
A. D. L.
ALEXANDER DtMp LINDSAY! (
Master of BB College, (1/r
F
!>. [ Workers, Education of.
:<? Philosophy of Bcrgson; etc. J
A. D. M.
A. D. MiTCHET.Msn r r ri
•^ wr .
Assistant &Wto' th^jLta,
Chemistry, Wrsity of L§on
, 1 Water;
cat Society. Assistant Examiner m X^ ^n part)t
of Chemistry. '
A. F. B.
ALDRED FARRE»KER, M.»
Professor of Ve IijdustMj,f
tries; etc. • M
• Author of Wool and Textile Indus- ^Woollen Manufacture;
J Yarn.
A. F. Be.
ARCHIBALD FRA*CKI- , Illf
Major, KoyaB Arti'lleiltir
, T , • 1 Waterloo Campaign, 1815*
f Introduction to the History of Todies. )
A. F. Hu.
A. F. HuTcmso»v. I
\ Wallace, Sir William (in
Sometime Rc»f tho llmch
I part).
A. GeL
SIR ARCHIBALD (»^ F,R.I
( '.eologist. Dh-.Gcnc!
Director of th«eum of;*
ical article: G^ SIR
A, G. P. ARTHUR GEORGE
Emeritus Profjformerh
Faculty of TcAgy.
1025. Joint Alof The.
A. Hn. ARTHUR HARDEN,! pr
Head of Bioclii I
London Univef
A. Ho. SIR ADAIR HOSE,
Principal Assisj
A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON
Late Librarian,]
A. K. C. ANANDA K. COOM>
Keeper of Ind
Author of The
A. L. B, ARTHUR LYON Bcr
Professor of
ma tics and I
tics; Measuremel
War; etc, |.\t
A. L. Q. A. L. QUAINT ANCK,
Associate Chief,
A. L. S. ANDR£ L. SIMON. M
Of Messrs. Pomi
Wine Trade.
A. L. WL A. L. WlDGERY,
A. Mor. A. MORA,
Director of PlywdtV
Sutvcy of the United Kingdom and lyesuviuS (in part).
onAm, 1881-1901. S^thebiograph-
cry and Dyeing, Dean, 19*2-4 of the
};\vy Medallist of the Royal Society,
olouring Matters.
istitutc. Professor of Biochemistry, > Vitamins*
] War Pensions.
sions. '
1 Venezuela (in part).
University. '
' ^* *\A Hi A *«i 1
['Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. VYaksaS.
'tonal Idealism; Art arul Swadeshi. J
mdon. Formerly Professor of Ma the- 1 Wages: Statistics of United
eadsng. Author of Elements of 5w«- f Kingdom.
Bourse of Prices and Wages During the\
hington.
of The Blood of the Grape;
Ltd., London.
(in part).
Wales (i* party
| Veneer.
VI
A. N.
A. P. Hi
A. P. W.
A. P. WL
A. Sa.
A. S. P.-P.
A. Sy.
A. W. Hu.
A. W. K.
A. Wf R.
A. W. W.-E.
A.Yo.
B. F. C. A,
B. F. F.
B. H. L. H.
B. H.-S.
B. S. R.
C. A. C. B.
C. A. S.
C. E. Co.
C. E. T.
C. F. A.
C. G. D.
C. Go.
C. H. H.
INITIALS AND NAM
ALLAN NEVINS, A.M.
Professor of American History, Cornell Uni
Emergence of Modern America; etc.
ARTHUR P. HIROSE.
Manager, Market Analysis Department, McC
of Domestic Klectric Refrigeration.
COLONKL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.
Late the Black Watch. General Stall Officer
Attach6 on the Caucasus Front, Nov. 1916-
Brigadier General, General Staff, with Egypt
A. P. WILLS.
Professor of Mathematical Physics, Columbia University
SIR JAMKS ARTHUR SALTKR, K.C.B.
Director of the Economic and Finance Section of the Leag
Secretary to the Reparations Commission, 1920 -• Secretar
ment of the Supreme Economic Council, 1919- Secretary
Transport Council and Chairman of Allied Maritime Lra
Author of Allied Shipping Control: An Experiment in Interna
ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.P., D.C.L., F-
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Ldu
in the University of Aberdeen, 1 911-3; Edinburgh, *92I~3
in tlte Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; etc.
ARTHUR SYMONS. f ,
English poet and critic. Author of Studies i\ Two Ltten
Charles Baudelaire; etc. See biographical artic1! : SYMONS,
REV. ARTHUR \VOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A.
Author of Life of Cardinal Newman; Life of Car,
ARTHUR WILLIAM KIDDY.
City Editor of The Morning Post and
spondent in London of The Neiv York ,
zine, London. IoN.L.L.1
SIR ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, K.C., Khor of T1
Puisne Justice, Supreme Court and P
1901-5; Ceylon, 1905-15. Chief Justice^ Chemi
Editor of Encyclopaedia of English £a7£>£nstitute
REV. ARTHUR WADE WADE-EVANS.
Vicar of Pottersbury since 1926. Authciniversit\
ALLYN YODNO, PH. P.
Late Professor of Political Economy in
B. F. C. ATKINSON, PH.D. Author o
Under Librarian, University College, O
LIEUTENANT B. F. FELLERS. Stirling.
Instructor in the Department of Engli
Point.
CAPTAIN B. H. LIDDELL HART, FJ
Military historian and critic. Military o
of the Military and Military History sec
MAJOR BROOKE HECKSTALL-SMITH. '
Secretary to the Yacht Racing Associatij^^jg*
Yachting Editor of The Fit-Id^ 1900-28, ^rganic
correspondent of The Daily Telegraph, L
,v-HiU Publisl Company. Auil
Nations.
he British
e Allied Marit
(-Washington, George.
[| Washing Machines.
of the.
{ Vector Analysis.
War c°ntroi of Shipping.
Gifford LcctT {
^or of Ufan's He C
Law.
Days and
R.
AY*; >Xeriai<ne>
/ Villiers de
*
U Financial (re-
t0'* Bankers' ga- I
leral, Ma-ius, (
r act ice of lit
.War Finance- (Cost
World War).
of the
*
IwS:
WZ'
AcadeiWest j West Point.
-legrafiditor
cdia
]
C
B. SEEBOHM ROWNTREE.
Chairman of Rowntree and Co., Ltd.
Way to Industrial Peace; The Human
author of Unemployment: A Social Stud
CHARLES A. C. BROWN.
Lister Ir
-H' of Pen;
Institute of Agriculture and Engineering
C. A. SMITH, M.A. *• Corne"
Secretary of the Faculty, University of ^.S., F.C
CHARLES E. COFFIN. ^^NW
President of the American Whist Leagu. >'s ™*
CECIL EDGAR TILLEY, B.Sc., Pn.D., F.G. ,> * ^f *Lc
Lecturer in Petrology, University of Gat^^ ^
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. ^a; The t
Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Mi
The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
C. G. DARWIN, M.A..F.R.S. >4gy, Was
Tait Professor of Philosophy in the VI n
Lecturer, Christ's College, Cambridge.
C. B. GOULDEN, M.A., M.CH., M.D., F.I
Specialist in Ophthalmology, London V
London Ophthalmic Hospital. |
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, AIM., Pn.p J
Professor of History in Columbia Univdi
ican Historical Association.! t I
Wisconsin, University of.
Whist.
\
s (in part).
'owandZeeman Effect.
Author
or Sight (in part).
o Amer- Uictor (,'„ farf)f
C. H. W.
C. J.
C. K. W.
C. L. K.
C.L.S.
C. Mi.
C. M. Kn.
C. M. L.
C. Mn.
C. Ra.
C. R. B.
C. R. Bl.
C. R. Fi.
C. Sey.
C. W. Ro.
D. C. B.
D. C. S.
D. C. So.
deBr.
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
D.Hu.
v
•Vienna, Congrats
•Whittington,
"]
f f
J
Coundl>
INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUT
CAMILLA H. WEDGWOOD, B.A.
Department of Anthropology, Sydney University, N.S.W. Formerly Lecturer
Sociology, Bedford College, London.
CHARLES JAMES.
Professor of Chemistry, New Hampshire University, Durham, Nfew Hampshire.
CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A., Lirr.D.
Wilson Professor of International Politics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth. Pro-
fessor of Modern History, Liverpool University, 1914-22, Secretary, Military sec-
tion, British Delegation, Conference of Paris, 1918-9. Author of British Diplomacy,
1813-5; The Congress of Vienna, 1814-5. Contributor to the Cambridge History
of British Foreign Policy.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, 1905-12. Sometime member of the staff of
Dictionary of National Biography. Ford Lecturer in English History, University of
Oxford, 1923-4, Author ol Life of Henry V. Editor of Chronicles of London and Stow 'a
Survey of London.
CORNELIUS L. SHEAR, PH.D.
Principal Pathologist in Charge, Office of Mycology and Disease Survey, Bureau of fVine (in part)*
Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn.
Formerly Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author
Publizistik im Zcitalter Gregor VII., Qucllen sur Geschichte des Papstthums; etc.
C. M. KNOWLES, LL.B. ) Workmen's CompeijAdfe
Barrister-at-law. Assistant Legal Adviser, Home Office, London. ) (in part). ^: •.
CHARLES MOSTYN LLOYD, M.A. "] i *
Barristcr-at-law. Lecturer and Head of the Department of Social Service and [\
Administration in the London School of Economics, University of London. Assistant f
Editor of The New Statesman. J
CHRYSTAL MACMILLAN, M.A., B.Sc.
Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple.
CORNEUA M. RAYMOND, A.B.
Director, Bureau of Publication, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S.
Professor of History, University of Birmingham. Late Fellow of Merton and Uni-
versity Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford. Formerly on Council of Royal
Geographical Society and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a member of the
Ho,usc of Laymen. Member of Advisory Committees of British Labour Party for
International Affairs and for Education. Member of Executive of Birmingham
Labour Party. Author of History of Russia; Nineteenth Century Europe.
CARLETON R. BALL, M.S., D.Sc. 1
Principal Agronomist in Charge, Office of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of f Wheat (in part).
Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. J
CARL RUSSELL FISH, M.A., Pn.D. ]
Professor of American History in the University of Wisconsin. Author of Develop- > Wisconsin.
mcnt of American Nationality; American Diplomacy; etc. J
CHARLES SEYMOUR, PH.D., LITT.D,, LL.D. T
Provost and Sterling Professor of History, Yale University. Author of Electoral Re- I Washington Conference;
form in England and Wales; The Diplomatic Background of the War; The Intimate f Wilson, Thomas T"~ "
Papers of Colonel House; Woodrow Wilson and the World War; etc. J
Workhouse
*«VIMW«
[Women, Legal Position of
} (in part).
) Vassar
) vassar
Vespucci, Amerigo;
"Zemarchus.
tnn**\ ^/\
Battle of).
MAJOR-GENERAL CHARLES WALTER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L.
Author of Strategy of the Peninsula War; etc.
DANIEL CARTER BEARD, C.E. t "
Instructor in Animal Drawing, Woman's School of Applied Design, 1893-1900. Chief ..Woodcraft
Scout, Department of Woodcraft, Culver (Ind.) Military Academy, organizer and j
chief, 1911 5. Author of American Boys Book of Camplore and Woodcraft. ^
REV. CANON DAVID CAPELL SIMPSON, M.A., D.D. ^
Oriel Professor of Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford University. Canon of I Wisdom, Book of J
Rochester Cathedral. Fellow of Oriel College. Reader in Semitic Languages and f Wisdom Literature.
Old Testament, Manchester College, Oxford. J
DAVID CHURCHILL SOMERVELL, M.A.
Assistant Master, Tonbridge School, Tonbridge, Kent.
Due DE BROGLIE.
Officer of the Legion of Honour. Mernbre de 1'Academie des Sciences, Paris.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY, M.A., Mus.Doc. ] ^
Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University. Author of Essays in Musical Victoria! Tomxn
Analysis, comprising The Classical Concerto, Tlie Goldberg Variations and analyses of f Ludovico da;
many other classical works. Editorial Adviser, Music section, I4th Edition, £wcyc/0- Wagner (in
podia Britannica. J
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A., C.M.G., D.LITT. *)
Late Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College,
Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1889 fXanthus,
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-5; Assiut, 1906-7. Director of the British School at Athens,
1897-1900. Late Director of the Cretan Exploration Fund. J
DARD HUNTER. ^|
Author of many articles on printing, paper-making and water-marking. Author of X Watermarks.
Primitive Papermakinz; Old*Paperrnaking; The Literature of fapermaking, 1390-1800.)
) Y
J A-
viii INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS
D. M. S. W. DAviO MEREDITH SHARKS WATSON, M.Sc., F.R.S. "1 . .
r Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. [Zoological Regions;
/ Author of many papers on Vertebrate Palaeontology and connected subjects in Pro- 1 Zoology.
cccdings of the Zoological Society; Journal of Anatomy; etc. J
D. No. , DAISUKE NOHARA. t Yokohama Specie Bank,
' Manager, Yokohama Specie Bank, Ltd. ) Ltd., The
D. R.-M DAVID RANDALL-MAC!VER, M.A., D.Sc., F.S.A. 1
Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester fVillanovans.
Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Mediaeval Rhodesia; etc.J
D. £• F« DAVID THEODORE FYFE, M.A., F.R.I.B.A. 1 Western Asiatic
Lecturer in Architecture, and Director of the University School of Architecture, r A -^u:*— *r!L
Cambridge. J Architecture.
D. W, K. DUDLEY W. KNOX. 1
Captain, United States Navy. History Section, Naval Records and Library, Navy /-War of 1812, The.
Department, Washington. Author of The Eclipse of American Sea Power. j
E. A. CAPTAIN EDWARD AJLTHAM, C.B., R.N. ")
Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution since 1927. [
Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expedition, 1918-9. Secretary and Editor of VWilson, Sir Arthur Knyvet
the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. Editor of the Naval section, i4th
Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. J
B. A. A. E. A. ATKINS, M.I.MECH.E. 1 Wire*
Member of the Iron and Steel Institute and the Institute of Welding Engineers. L'ii7:rAlT
Director of Research, The Pearson and Knowles and Ryland Bros. Research Labora- [ ^£® Springs
E. A. Al. EDWIN ANDERSON ALDERMAN, LL.D., Pu.B., D.C.L. "1
President, University of Virginia. Author of Southern Idealism; The Spirit of the V Virginia, University of.
South; etc. J
E. Bra. Emeu BKANDENBURG. "]
Lecturer in Philosophy and History at the Prussian Akadeniie der Wissenschaften, [-William II.
Berlin. J
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, D.Lnr.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Gesckichte des
Alterthumt; etc. v *
J Yazdegerd.
E. B. Hu. E. E. HUGHES, M,A. 1 Wai^R fir h
Professor of History, University College of Swansea, Wales. \ WaleS (lh p
E. E. K. E. E. KELLETT. \ Webster
Author of Suggestions, Literary Essays; The Appreciation of Literature. J irwaKM,
E.P. A. E. F. ALBEE. "|
President of the Keith-Albee Circuit, New York. Vice-President, Actors' Fund of > Vaudeville.
America. President, Keith-Albee Vaudeville Exchange. J
E. F. H. ELDRED F. HITCHCOCK, C.B.E. ">
Government Wool Statistician. Assistant Director of Raw Materials and formerly >Wool, War Control of.
Deputy Director, Wool Textiles, War Office, London. * J
E. F. LA. LIEUT.-COLONEL E. F. LAWSON, D.S.O., M.C.t T.D. . ? vpftmftnrv
General Manager, The Daily Telegraph, London. f leomanry.
E. F, P. ELLEN F, PSNOLETON, A.M., Lirr.D., LL.D. f Welleslcv College
President of Wellcsley College, Member of Jury of Award for American Peace. ) weueslcy College.
E. G. SIR EDMUND GOSSE, M.A., C.B., LLJ3M HON.LITT.D.
.
Collected Poems; Books on the Table; etc. See the biographical article: GOSSE, SIR
EDMUND. J
E. G. EOT. EDWIN G. BORING, A.M., PH.D. i Visceral Sensations
Professor of Psychology, Harvard University. { Visceral Sensations.
E. G. Bow. E. G. BOWEN, M.A. "|
Late Cecil Frosser Post-Graduate Scholar of the University of Wales and author of VWales (in part}.
varioua scientific papers. J
E. H. EBUL HATSCHEK, F.I.P. "1
Lecturer on Colloids at the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London. Editor on Lviscositv
behalf of British Association Colloids Committee of a collection of classical papers f •y*
entitled The Foundation of Colloid Chemistry. J
E. Hoi. E. HOLLO WAY, A.M. "|
Professor of English, Adelphi College, Brooklyn, New York. Author of Whitman: An ^Whitman, Walt.
Interpretation in Narrative. Editor of Leaves of Crass. )
E. Ja. EDOAB JADWIN, HON.D.E. i Washington
Major-General, Chief of Engineer^ United States Army, Washington. 3 * '
E. J. T, EDWARD J. THOMAS, PH.D. 1 Zend-Avesta (in fiar
Translator, Vedic Hymns. Author of The Life of Buddha as Legend and History. ) *ena Ave5Wl ^m pan
E. L. P. R. ELSA LIWKOWXTSCH, PH.D., B.Sc.(Hons.), A.R.C.S. | Whale OU (in part).
INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS ix
E. M. G. E. M. GULL, M.A. 1 t f _ ,
Formerly Secretary, Associated British Chambers of Commerce in China and >• Wei-Hai-WeL
Hongkong. J 4
E. M. Ha. E. MURRAY HARVEY. ^ t
Commercial Secretary at Belgrade, 1920-8. Author of Report on Economic Conditions > Yugoslavia (in part).
in Yugoslavia. - J
E. M. He. EDWIN MUSSER HERR, PH.D., D.Sc. \ Westinghouse Electric and
President, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, New York. J Manufacturing Company.
E. M. Wa. REV. EDWARD M. WALKER, M.A. 1
Pro-Provost of Queen's College, Oxford. Author of Greek History^ Its Problems and >Xenophon.
Its Meaning; etc. J
E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADE, D.Sc., PH.D., F.lNST.P. ]
Ouain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of The Structure of I wit-—, r\f**A rttomK**
The Atom; Airs; The Atom; etc. Editor of the Physics section, I4th Edition, Encyclo- fwuson Cloua UumDen
p&dia Britannic a. J
E. 0. EDMUND OwrfN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. 1
Formerly Consulting Surgeon to St. Mary's Hospital and to the Children's Hospital, XVenereal Diseases (in part).
Great Ormond Street, London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. J
E. Pu. MONSIGNOR ENRICO Pucci. "I
Domestic Prelate to the Pope; now on the staff of the Corriere d' Italia. Author of ^Vatican, The.
La Pace del Lalerno. j
E. S. R. EDWARD STANLEY ROSCOE. ")
Barristcr-at-law. Official Law Reporter in the Admiralty Court, 1883. Admiralty
Registrar, 1904. Assessor, North Sea enquiry, 1905. Registrar of Prize Court, 1914. r Wreck (in part).
Author of Admiralty Law and Practice; The Measure of Damages in Actions of Main-
lime Collision.
1
J
E. V. A. EDWARD VICTOR APPLETON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. ) Wireless Telegraphy (in
Wheatstone Professor of Physics, King's College, London University. 1 part).
Radiological Research Department, Woolwich. jX-Rays, Nature of (in part),
F. A. B. FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 1
Assistant Keeper of Zoology, British Museum, 1924-8. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1 n^ i • i wr i ^
for research in Biology, 1892. Author of " Echinoderma" in A Treatise on Zoology; pOOJOglcal Nomenclature.
Trias sic Rchinoderms of Bakony; etc. J
F. A. M. W. CAPTAIN F. A. M. WEBSTER. \Walking Races;
Joint-Kditor of The Blue Magazine, London, and writer on athletics. j Weight Throwing.
F. Bl. F. BLUETHGEN. ) Vereinigte Glanzstoff-
Director of the Vereinigte GlanzstofT-Fabriken A. G. J Fabriken A. G.
F. Bu. FRED BULLOCK, LL.D., F.C.I.S. ^)
Of Gray's Inn, Barrister-at-law. Secretary and Registrar, Royal College of Veterinary LV^*^I..— . e-* /• ^ ^
Surgeons. Author of Handbook of Veterinary Surgeons; Law Relating to Medical, f vcwnn«y odence (tn part).
Dental, and Veterinary Practice. J
F. C. Ba. FREDERICK CHARLES BARTLETT, M.A. "|
University Reader in Experimental Psychology, and Director of the Psychological ^Vision (in part).
Laboratory, Cambridge. J
F. G. H. T. FRANCIS G. H. TATE, F.C.S. { w. . . ..... .
First Class Chemist, Government Laboratory, London. J wmsKy or WHiSKey,
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. ) ,«
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. J wesse*-
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMKR PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.S.A. "j
Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society of
Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas' Hospital and the ?• Veins.
London School of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at Royal
College of Surgeons. J
F. H. FRED HORNER. ^
Consulting Engineer. Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; Engineer- V Wood-working Machinery.
ing; Machinery. J
F. Kei. " FRANK KEIPER, M.A., M.E., LL.B. ]
Patent Attorney. Inventor of the roller interlock used on all voting machines. L
Lecturer on inventions and patents. Author of Pioneer Inventions and Pioneer \
Patents. J
F. M. S. F. M. STENTON. ~\
Professor of History, University of Reading. Editor of the History (Mediaeval) sec- >Witan or Witenagemot
tion, 1 4th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. J
F. M. Su. FRANK MACY SURFACE, M.A., PH.D. ' ^
Assistant Director in Charge of Domestic Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domes- 1 War Control of Food (in
tic Commerce, Washington. Author of American Pork Production During, the World \ part).
War; The Grain Trade During the World War. J
F. N. F. FRANK N. FREEMAN, M.A., PH.D. ^
Professor of Educational Psychology, University of Chicago. Author of The Teaching >Vteual Education.
of Handwriting; Visual Education; Mental Tests; etc. J
x INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS
F. N. M. COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B., R.E. "I
Author of Cavalry: Its Past and Future; Evolution of Strategy; War and the World's x
Life; Campaign of Leipzig; of Jena; of Vim and many other technical essays. J
P. R. C. FRANK RICHARDSON CANA, F.R.G.S. i
Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5. Staff of The Times, I ^ wi AIII
London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; 77/£ f ~amD®21>
Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement. Zanzibar;
J Zululand (in part).
F. T. H. F. T. HARVEY, F.R.C.V.S. } Veterinary Science
Kxaminer in Veterinary Medicine to the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. ( (/;; part).
F.'T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. ) Zola, Emile Edourd Charles
Accountant General of the Army, 1898-1904. Editor of "Great Writers" series. ( Antoine.
F. W. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FABIAN WARE, K.C.V.O., K.B.E.. C.B., C.M.G. |
Formerly Director-General of Graves Registration ana Enquiries. Permanent Vice- f War Graves.
Chairman, Imperial War Graves Commission. J
F. W. Ta. F. WILBUR TANNER, M.S., Pn.D. ]
Professor of Bacteriology, also Head of the Department of Bacteriology, University f Yeast,
of Illinois. Author of Bacteriology and Mycology of Foods. J
G. A. C. REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, D.D. ""I
Regius Professor of Hebrew and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Oriel ^Zenobia (in part).
Professor of the Interpretation of the Scripture, Oxford, and Canon of Rochester.;
G. B. GAMALIEL BRADFORD, Lirr.D. \ m^^^r r^Q »tt1
Author of Damaged Souls; Darwin; See the American; etc. ' ( weDSier> ^anieL
G. B. B. GEORGE BARR BAKER. ]
Chairman of The Central Press Association, New York. Formerly Director of Amer- lTi7ar Relief Wnrlr
ican Relief Administration, and Member, Executive Committee,. Commission for f -R-eiiei wont.
Relief in Belgium. J
G. C. H. GEORGE CHARLES HUSMANN. ) v. /. *
Specialist in Viticulture, United States Department of Agriculture. \ vine ^m ran>*
G. C. R. GUY COLWIN ROBSON, M.A. ) Whelk
Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum. \
G. D. H. C. GEORGE DOUGLAS HOWARD COLE. 1
University Reader in Economics, Oxford. Author of The Payment of Wages; Self- ^Wage-Systems in Industry.
Government in Industry; Guild Socialism Restated; etc. J
G. F. Z. GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.lNsr.C.E. 1 Wazon Tionl
Consulting Engineer and Joint -Editor of Engineering and Industrial Management. ) ** ippiers.
G. G. A. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GEORGE G. ASTON, K.C.B. "1
Lecturer on Naval History, University College, I -ondon. Irormerly Professor of Forti- I Vi. /• . .^
iication at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of Sea, Land and A ir f I "s051*™ (lfl Pan)>
Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of To-day. Editor of The Study of War.}
G. Go. GERALD GOULD, B.A. ^
Associate Editor of The Daily Herald, 1919-22. Fellow of University College, London, >Wells, Herbert George.
1906, and Merton College, Oxford, 1909-16. J
G. G. W. GEORGE GRAFTON WILSON, PH.D., LL.D. ^
Professor of International Law, Harvard University. Author of International Laiv >Visit and Search (in part).
Situations and Topics; Hague Arbitration Cases; etc. J
G. H. G. G. H. GUTTERIDGE, M.A. ]
Professor of History at Berkeley, California. Author of The Colonial Policy of Wil- \ whia nnH TWt
Ham II I. in America am I the West Indies (Choate Memorial Prize Essay); Life of f w m^ ana lory*
David Hartley t the American Patriot. J
G. H. W. GEORGE H. WARBURTON. ^
Editor of the Sixth Edition of Oils, Fats and Waxes by E. Lewkowitsch and C'hief V Whale Oil (in part).
Chemist of the Lewkowitsch Laboratories. J
G. Kr. GUSTAV KRAEMER. "I Vereinigte Industrie-
Of the Vereinigte Industrie-Unternehmungen Aktiengcscllschaft. >• Unternehmungen
J Aktiengesellschaft.
G. McL. Wo. GEORGE MCLANE WOOD. ]
Editor, United States Geological Survey, Washington. Secretary, Chesapeake and I v « i /• +. \
Potomac Telephone Company. Author of Texts for United States Geological Survey [ venezuela (™ part)-
' and press notices. J
G. M. McB. GEORGE M. McBniDE/B.A., PH.D. ^)v . .,. -
University of (California at Los Angeles, Calif. Author of Agrarian Indian Com- Wir eZ?6i? V*far')>'
munities of Highland Bolivia. J West Indies (in part) .
G. P. E. GEORGE PEARSE ENNIS. ~\
Member, American Water Color Society, Guild of American Painters, Society of rWater-ColoUT Painting.
Painters, etc. Director and Secretary, Grand Central School of Art, New York. J
G. T, M. GILBERT T. MORGAN, O.B.E., F.I.C., D.Sc., F.R.S. "]
Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, I 75 *
Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Ireland r^^co^unL
and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Editor of the
Chemistry section, I4th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. J
G. W, T. REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. } Waqidi;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old >Ya'qfcbI*
Testament' History at Mansfield College, Oxford. ,. J 2xiliir.
INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS x
H. C. HUGH CmSHOLM, M.A. 1 WflltPr Tnhn (in tarti
Editor of the nth and I2th Editions of The Encyclopedia Britannica. \ wairer> Jonn V"» P&n).
H. C. L. H. C. LONG, B.Sc. "] Vetch Y™ toir/) •
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London. Author of Common Weeds of the Farm r«ri_ f / • *\ f\
and Garden; Plants Poisonous to Livestock; Poisonous Plants on the Farm. J wneat \in P<*ri).
H. C. Sc. HENRY C. SCHNEIDER, M.E. (Windmills and Wind Power
Charge of Windmill Department, Morse and Company, Chicago, 111. ) (in part).
H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. I Vitus St
Joint-Editor of the Bollandist publication, Ada Sanctorum. ) '
H. E. C. H. E. Cox, M.Sc., PH.D., F.I.C. )
Public Analyst for the Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead, London. (
H. F. HELENA FRANK. ) Yiddish Language and
Translator from the Yiddish of Stories and Pictures by Perez; Yiddish Talcs; etc. J Literature (in part).
H. F. Br. HORATIO ROBERT FORBES BROWN, LL.D. ]
Editor of the Calendar of Venetian State Papers for the Public Record Office. Author > Venice (/;/ part).
of Life on^the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington Symonds, A Biography; etc. J
H. F. By. HARRY FLOOD BYRD. ) Virginia
Governor of Virginia. ) guua.
H. H. C. SIR H. HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B., M.A. ^
Harrister-at-law. Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office, 1894-1913. Vice-Prcsi- V Watches (•/// part).
dent, Institution of Electrical Engineers. J
H. He. HALLDOR HERMANN SSON. "]
Professor of Scandinavian Languages and Curator of the Fiske Icelandic Collection, I T
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Author of numerous works on Icelandic Literature f
and History. J
H. H. G. HERBERT H. GRIMVVOOD. ) Wood-Carvin* (in
Principal, School of Wooclcarving, South Kensington. ) * ^
H. H. L. B. HUGH HALE LEIGH BELLOT, M.A., D.C.L. ]
Late Associe de 1'lnstitut de Droit International, Hon. Secretary, International Luvv yjg:* an(4 Search (in
Association, and Grotius Society, Acting Professor of Constitutional Law, University fw f T .^ , y
of London and Secretary of the Laws of War Committee. Author of Commerce in wat^rS, lemtonai.
War; The Pharmacy Acts; Permanent Court of International Justice. J
H. J. F. G. H. J. F. GOURLEY, M.ENG., M.lNST.C.K., F.G.S. ] w t SUDDIV
Director of Sir Alexander Btnnie Son and Deacon, Water Engineers. j ouppiy.
H. Jn. HENRY JACKSON, O.M., Lrrr.D., F.B.A. ]
Late Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity ( Xenocrates, of Chalcedon
College. Author of Texts to Illustrate the History of Greek Philosophy from Thales to [ (in part).
A rist-otle. J
H. J. R. HERBERT JENNINGS ROSE, M.A.
Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter
College, Oxford, 1907-11. Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University, 1911-5. Lyesta
Professor of Latin, University. College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27. Author of '
The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primitive Culture in Greece; Primilwf Culture in
Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology.
H. La. HERBERT LAPWORTII, D.Sc., M.lNST.C.E., F.G.S.
President of the Institute of Water Engineers; Chartered Civil Engineer.
H. L. J. HENRY LEWIS JONES, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. ]
Formerly Medical Officer in Charge of the Electrical Department and Clinical Lee- 1 v j
turcr on Medical Electricity at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of f
Medical Electricity; etc. J
H. L. St. HERBERT L. STONE. ]
Editor of Yachting, New York. Author of The America's Cup Races; The Yachtsman's ^Yachting (/;/ part).
Handbook. J
H. Lu. HERMANN LUTZ. ' "|
German political and historical writer. Author of Der Weg zum Kriege; Lord Grey f War Guilt (///• part),
und der Weltkrieg. J
H. M. S. HERBERT MARTIN SNOW, M.V.O. ) Wagons-Lit, Compagnie
Agent-General, Cie dcs Wagons-Lits. ) Internationale des.
H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. ^|
Late of Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici xWales (in part).
Popes; etc. J
H.N. H. NISBET, F.T.I. Ivelveteen-
Textile Technologist and Consultant. Author of Grammar of Textile Design. J V fta
H. No. HIDEYO NOGUCHI, M.D. 1
Japanese Bacteriologist. Discoverer of parasite of yellow fever (1918). See the r Yellow Fever.
biographical article: NOGUCHI, HIDKYO. J
H. Sp. HOWARD SPENCE. } Walnut
Managing Director, Peter Spence & Sons, Ltd., Manchester Alum Works. f
H. T. P. H. T. PARSON. J Wonlworth Co P W
President, F. W. Woolworth Company, New York. } wooiwortn UO., *. W.
H. W. C. IX HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. ] Wace Robert'
Late, Director, Dictionary of National Biography, Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Walter nf Tnvintrv
Oxford, and Regius Professor of Modern History. Fellow of All Souls, Oxford, 1895- fwmiam L;
I9°2' J William of'Newburgh.
xii INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS
H. W. Ga. HEATHCOTE WILLIAM GARROD, C.B.E., M.A., F.R.L.S. "]
Professor of Poetry, Oxford University, and Fellow of Merton College. Author of >• Wordsworth, William.
Wordsworth. J
H. W. R. REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A., D.D. ]
Principal of Regent's Park College, London. Professor of Church History and the l7echariflh
Philosophy of Religion, Rawdon College, Leeds, 1906-20. Author of Hebrew Psy- r^ecnanan'
chology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology (in Mansfield College Essays); etc. J
H. W. V. T. HAROLD WILLIAM VA/EILLK TEMPERLEY, O.B.E., M.A., LITT.D., F.B.A. "I
University Reader in Modern History and Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. Military I v^i-caiHae TV frr f
Adviser at the Peace Conference, Paris, 1919. Edited, A History of the Peace Con- f versauies» Dreary Oi.
ference of Paris (Vols. I. to VI. ). J
I. A. R. IRMA A. RICHIE R. ) Vivarini;
Artist and writer. j Zurbaran, Francisco de.
I. H. H. IDA HUSTED HARPER. j
Author of Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony. Joint-Author of History of Women's r Women's Suffrage (in part}.
Suffrage. J
I. J. C. ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, A.B., PH.D. 1
Professor of History, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Author of Nicaragua ^Wilkinson, James.
and the United States; etc. J
J. A. St J. A. STRAHAN, LL.D. ]
Barrister-at-Law. Emeritus Professor of Jurisprudence, University of Belfast. LWJII /*«. T^o4-««, * /• ^ A
Reader of Equity, Inns of Court, London. Author of The Bench and Bar of England; f WIU or lestament V* Pa")-
etc. J
J. B. P. J. B. PEARMAN. 1
Secretary of the Avi Publishing Company, Incorporated, New York. Author of Heel [-Wrestling (in part),
and Toe Walking. J
J. D. Be. J. D. BERNAL, M.A. ? X-Rays and Crystal
Lecturer in Structural Crystallography, Cambridge. j Structure. x
J. E. E. BRIGADIER-GENERAL SIR T. E. EDMONDS, C.B., C.M.G., F.R.G.S. ] World ^ar //,. Mrt\ .
Officer in charge of Military Branch, Historical section, Criminal Investigation De- Lvr^e TV,^ i«^i i
partment, London. Serve<l in South African and European Wars. Author of Official f *Pres» i™/1*™68 ol»
History of the War; etc. J YPres» Battles of, 1915.
J. E. L. J. E. LLOYD, M.A., D.Lnr. "]
Professor of History, University College of North Wales, Bangor. Author of A His- l-a/oW (•" • * i\
lory of Wales to the Edwardian Conquest. Editor of Hubert Lewis's Ancient Laws of f Yvaies **" Pllrl>
Wales. J
J. E. Ta. TAMES EDWARD TAUSSIG. j w«u«*,u T>«-I, r\ «
President, Wabash Railway Company and also of the Ann Arbor Railroad Company, f WaDas* Railway Company.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D F.R.HiST.S. Wega Carpio, Lope Felix de
Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, University of Liver- >- /*• h fx
pool. Author of a History oj Spanish Literature. J v ?"•">•
J. F. W. JOHN FORBKS WHITK, M.X', LL.D. 1 Velazquez (in part)
Joint-Author of Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R.S.A. \ veiazquez (in pa i>.
J. Gal. JKAN GALLOTTI. 1 . .
Inspecteur dcs Arts Indigenes au Maroc. Charge du cours d'histoire de Tart Musul- >Wood-Carving (/;/ part).
man a la Facult6 des Lettres de Bordeaux. J
J. G. K. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. 1 Vertebrata'
Regius Professor of Zoology, University of Glasgow. Author of Primer of Zoology; > vertebrate Embryology.
Textbook of Embryology; etc. J J aj"
J. G. R. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. ]
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London, Director of l^jeland Christoph Martin.
the Department of Scandinavian Studies. Author of History of German Literature; ( '
Schiller After a Century; etc. J
J. H. JOHN HILTON. } Wage Statistics: Internation-
Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London. ) al Comparisons (in part).
J. Har. JIRO HARADA. ]
Of the Imperial Household Museums, Japan. Formerly Professor in the Nagoya
College of Technology, and in the 8th Higher School. Imperial Japanese Government ?-Wood-Carving (in part).
Commissioner to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco,
1915. Author of The Gardens of Japan. J
J. H. Mi. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. " ]
Sometime Slade Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge, and Art Director of the South I Verona (in part);
Kensington Museum. Author of The Engraved Gems oj Classical Times; Illuminated [Wren, Sir Christopher.
Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. }
J. H. P. SIR J. HERBERT PARSONS, C.B.E., M.B., HoN.D.Sc., F R.C.S., F.R.S. ]
Surgeon. Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital. Ophthalmic Surgeon, University 1 vicmn /\r QiaHt (in
College Hospital; Member of Medical Research Council. Fellow of University Col- f vlslon or ai«ni vwl
lege, London. Author bf The Pathology of the Eye; etc. J
J. I. H. JOHN I. HARDY. \ w . ,. . t}
Senior Animal Fiber Technologist, United States Department of Agriculture. } v v"*t-
J. L. G. JAMKS LOTTIS GARVIN, Lixx.D. I w«r
Editor-in-Chief of the Encyclopedia BriKinnica. Editor of The Observer. London, ( War
J. L. W. ^^J^-^^m(l_ , \ Wolfram von Eschenbach.
INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS xiii
J. M. Ca. JAMES MORTON CALLAHAN, A.M., PH.D. *]
Head of Department of History and Political Science and Dean, West Virginia Uni- VWest Virginia.
versity. Author of History of West Virginia; The South in the Making of the Nation.)
J. M. F. R. J. M. F. ROMEIN. ) Vistula
Member of the Transit Section of the League of Nations, Geneva. > *
J.M.La. J. M. LANDIS, A.B., LL.B., S.J.D. l^^r^L^i 'r . M
Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School. \™ Of Testament (in part) ;
' J Writ (in part).
J. O. LIKU TENANT-COLONEL JOSIAH OLDFIELD, M.D., F.R.S.M., D.C.L. ^
Warden of and Senior Physician to the Lady Margaret Fruitarian Hospital, Sitting- > Vegetarianism.
bourne. Author of Diet in Rheumatism; Flesh-Eating a Cause of Consumption. }
J. O. B. JOHN OLIVER BORLKY, O.B.E., M.A., F.L.S. ) Whale FishpriRR
Discovery Committee, Colonial Cilice, London. J wnaie *lsnenes-
J. P. JOHN PERCIVAL, M.A., Sc.D. "]
Professor of Agricultural Botany, University of Reading. Author of The Wheat > Wheat (in part).
Plant; etc. J
J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BKODHURST. 1 Vernis Martin
Consulting Editor of The Guardian, London, formerly Editor. j '
J. R. B. J. R. BOND, M.B.E., M.Sc, N.D.A. ^ v t h , . } .
Agricultural Organiser for Derbyshire. Contributor to the Journal of the Ministry of }-w, . v, . ^ '(
Agriculture. J wneai V* Part)-
J. R. Co. JOHN ROGERS COMMONS, A.M., LL.D. -] waffes. statistics of United
Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin. Author of Legal Foundations of - ' oiausacs OI un»Wa
Capitalism; History of Labor in the United States (with associates) ; etc.
J. S. SIR JOSIAH STAMP, G.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.A.
Chairman and President of the Executive, London, Midland and Scottish Railway.
Director of the Bank of England. Member of the British Royal Commission on
Income Tax, 1919; of the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924. British
Representative on the Reparation Commission's Committee on German Currency
and Finance, 1924, and Member of the Committee of Experts, Paris, 1929. Author
of Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers; Wealth and Taxable Capacity.
J. Sw. JOSEPH SWIRE, F.R.G.S. ^ 1 William;
Wealth, National;
-Wealth and Income,
Distribution of.
Member of the Institute of International Affairs, and a Member of the Balkan /-„ A,-
Committee. J Zo«u> Ahmed.
J. Te. REV. JOHN TELFORD, B.A. ]
Wesleyan Methodist Connexional Editor since 1905. Editor of Wesleyan Methodist [Wesley (Family);
Magazine, Preacher's Magazine; etc. Author of Life of John Wesley; Wesley's Chapel [Wesley, John.
and Wesley's House; Portraits and Sayings of Charles Wesley. J
J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. 1
Professor Emeritus of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The i-Vinet, Alexandra Rodolphe.
Apostolic Age. j
J. V. D. LlF.UTENANT-COLONEL J. V. DKLAHAYE, D.S.O., M.C.(retircd). 1
C. R. A. North Russian Expedition, 1919. British Military Representative, Baltic i-Woolwich (in part).
States, 1920. Staff College, 1921-2; General Staff, War Office, 1925-8. J
J. Wil. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. ' ]
Barrister-at-law, UncoJn's Inn. Formerly All Souls Reader in Roman Law, VJni- I -nr-i, T f f
versity of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln College. Author of Law of the Universities; f nm or iesiaraeni
Wills and Succession; etc. J
K. G. KARL FRIEDRICH GELDNER. ( Zend-Avestfl a,, hart\
Emeritus Professor of Indian Philology, University of Marburg, Germany. £*ena /wesia yn pan).
K. G. J. KINGSLEY GARLAND.JAYNE. j
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. >Xavier.
Author of Vasco da Gama and His $iu;ces$ors. - J
L. A. T. LAURENCE A. TURNER, F.S.A., HoN.A.R.I.B.A. ]
Past Master, Art Workers' Guild. Past President* Master Carvers' Association. >Wood-Carving (in part).
Author of Decorative Plaster Work in Great Britain. J
L. C. L. LIONEL CHARLES LIDDELL, M.V.O. "1
Sometime British Consul at Lyons and Copenhagen, successively Secretary of the I War Trade Advisory
Restriction of Enemy Supplies Committee, and the Grand Committee on Trade in | Committee.
the War, 1914-8. J
Vickers, Limited;
L. C. M. SIR LEO CHIOZZA MONEY, F.R.STAT.S., K.K.G.S.
Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8.
Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the Ton-
nage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Indus-
tries section, I4th Edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Wall Paper Manufacturers,
Ltd.;
•Westminster Bank, Ltd.;
White Star Line;
Yorkshire Electric Power
Company.
L. G. B. LOTTIE G. BISHOP. ....... {Yale University.
Executive Secretary, Yale University. ) *
L. J. S. L. J. SPENCER, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.R.S. } Witherite-
Keeper of the Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensing- V woii« gtonite •
ton. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. f«A/vl., " '
Editor of the MineralogicaL Magaainc. J ^eoutes-
L. Li. L. LIEGLER. ) Vienna (in barti
Author of Karl Krans und sein werk. \ Vienna V» Par*>-
L. O. H. LELAND OSSIAN HOWARD, PH.D., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D, ]
Principal Entomologist, United States Department of Agriculture. Author of Mos- ^Woolly Apple Aphis.
quitoes: How They Live; The Insect Book. )
xiv INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS
L. Ro. LKNNOX ROBINSOX. "]
Manager of the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, 1910-4, 1919-23. Director, Abbey Theatre, !-YeatS, William Butler.
1923. Editor of Golden Treasury of Irish Verse; Poems of Thomas Parnell. J
L. St. * LEONARD STEIN.
Political Secretary to World Zionist Executive. Author of Zionism.
L. T. T. LEONARD T. TROLAND, B.S., A.M., Pir.D. ]
Assistant Professor of Psychology, Harvard University and Director of Research, Ivi<ciifl1
Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation, Boston. Author of The Present Status of ( vls>Uttl
Visual Science; etc. J
L. V. LUIGI VlLLARI. ]
Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907. Acting-Consul at I Victor Emmanuel II. J
Boston, 1907-10. On the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 1920-3. Author of (Victor Emmanuel III.
Italian Life in Town and Country; The Fascist Experiment; The Awakening of Italy.)
L. W. LITCIKN WOLF. ... ]
President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Represented Anglo-Jewish I 7:nn:crn /• , ,\
Community at Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Author of Diplomatic History of the r^lomsm (tn Pal'1)'
Jewish Question. J
L. Wa. LINA WATERFIELD, O.B.E. \
Correspondent for the Observer (London), in Rome. Member of the Academy of ^Venice (/;/• part).
Perugia. Author of Home Life in Italy; The Story of Rome; etc. J
L. W. H. COLONEL LAWRKNCK WIIITAKKR HARRISON, D.S.O., F.R.C.P. "]
Special Medical Officer (Venereal Diseases), Ministry of Health, London. Director I Venereal Disease (•///• parl);
of Venereal Department and Lecturer on Venereal Diseases, St. Thomas' Hospital, f WaSSermann Reaction.
London. J
M. A. M. MARGARET ALICE MURRAY, F.S.A., F.R.A.L 1
Assistant Professor of Egyptology, London University. Fellow of University College. [-Witchcraft.
Author of Witch Cult in Western Europe; etc. J
M. E. W. MARY P:\IMA WOOLLEY, Lrrr.D., L.H.D., LL.D. ( Women, Education of (in
President of Mount Holyoke College, South Hadlcy, Mass. ) part). ^
M. G. F. DAME MILLICENT G. FAWCETT, G.B.E., J.P., HoN.LL.D. 1
Author of Some Eminent Women of Our Time; Women's Suffrage; Josephine Butler; /^ Women's Suffrage (•/// part).
etc. See the biographical article: KVWCKTT, DAME MII.LICENT C.ARRKTT. J
M. I. N. MARION I. NEWBIGIN, D.Sc. }
Editor of The Scottish Geographical Magazine. Author of .1 Geographical Study of the ^Yugoslavia (•/// payt).
Peace Terms; Mediterranean Lands; etc. J
M. J. C. M. J. CURRY. } Western Pacific Railroad
Vice-President, The Western Pacific Railroad Company, New York. \ Corporation, The.
M. J. T. MARGARET JANSON TUKE, M.A. ? Women, Education of (in
Principal, Bedford College for Women, London University. \ part).
M. S. D. MABEL S. DOUGLASS, \.ft., Lrrr.D. } Women, Education of (in
Dean, New Jersey College for Women, Rutgers University, New Brunswick. ) part).
M. Sh. , MARY SHERMAN. "1 Women's Club* The General
President, General Federation of Women's Clubs, 1924-8. Now Chairman, American f £ 7 *' * Urenerai
Home Department, General Federation. J ^eaeration Ot.
M. SL MAX SlLBERSCHMIDT, PH.D. \ 7«r:rh /• , h. f\
Assistant Professor, Cantonal Technical School, Winterthur, Switzerland. J ^uricn (ui pan).
N. C. NEVVCOMB CARLTON. \ Western Union Telegraph
President of the Western Union Telegraph Company. J Company, The.
N. E. C. NORMAN E. CRUMP. " ]
Statistical Correspondent to the Financial Times. Member of the Council of the [-Yen.
Royal Statistical Society. Joint Author of Clare's A. B. C. of the Foreign Exchanges.}
N. G. G. NICHOLAS G. GEDYE, O.B.E., B.Sc., M.Ixsi.C.E.
Consulting Civil Engineer. Formerly Chief Engineer, Tyne Improvement ( ()in~ I we;r-
mission. Served B.E.F. Lieutenant-Colonel (late K.E.). Acting Director, Civil/-— . . ' „
Enginecr-in-Chicf's Department, Admiralty. Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Mar- ^Ulder Zec (l" f>"rl).
hours and Inland Waterways, Ministry of Transport. J
N. Ma. MAJOR-GEN F.RAL SIR NEILL MALCOLM, K.C.B., D.S.O. (retired). ]
Served N. W. Frontier, India, South African War and World War. Editor of The f Wilson, Sir Henry Hughes.
Science of War. )
N. M. P. NORMAN MOSI.KY PENZER, M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. \
Author of Cotton in British West Africa; The Tin Resources of the British Empire; The rZinc (in part).
Mineral Resources of Burma; Non-Ferrous Metals and Other Minerals: etc. J
N. Z. NATHANIEL ZALOWITZ. j Yiddish Language and
Editor, English section, Jewish Daily Forward, Chicago. } Literature (•/;/• part).
O. C. S. O. C. STINK, Pir.D. 1
Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash- [-Wheat (in part).
iugton. Editor of Journal of Farm Economics; Agricultural Ilistorv. )
O. H. T. R. (VII. T. RISHUETH, M.A., F.R.G.S. ' \ Victoria (in barfi '
Professor and Head of the Department of Geography, University College, fw<l* A n P™\1' ,.
Southampton. ' J west^n Australia (/;/
O. W. ORVILLE WRIGHT, LL.D., Sc.D., M.A. )
Chairman, Advisory Commission, Daniel Guggenheim School of Aeronautics, New Lwvj^ht *
York University. Was the first to fly (with his late brother) in a heavier-than-air | s '
machine. J
P. B. PiK.RRE BKRNUS. 1 ...
Foreign Editor of the Journal des Dcbats. Paris correspondent of the Journal de >Viviani, Ren6.
Geneve. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. ' J
INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS xv
P. C. M. PETER CHALMKKS MITCHELL, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. 1
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. Author of Outlines of Biology; The r Zoological Gardens.
Childhood of A nimals, J «
P. Ge. PIETKR GEYL, LITT.D. 1 William m>,» e
Professor of Dutch History and Institutions, University of London. j wuuam unc M
P. Gm. PERCY GROOM, M.A., D.Sc., F.R S. " 1
Professor of the Technology of Woods and Fibres, Imperial College of Science and
Technology, London. Author of Trees and Their Life Histories; etc. J
P. H. W. PERCY HENRY WINFIELD, B.A., LL.D. ]
Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple. Rouse Ball Professor of English Law, University of >Writ (in part).
Cambridge, and Fellow of St. John's College. J
P. L. PERCY LONGHURST. "]
Hon. Secretary, National Amateur Wrestling Association. Hon. Secretary and Treas- I Wr*»ct1in«r
tirer, International Amateur Wrestling Federation. Author of Wrestling; Ju Jitsu; f wre5UU1g
.Self Defence; etc. J
P. M. C. PAUL M. CHAMBERLAIN, B.S., M.E. 1
Consulting Mechanical Engineer. Author of various monographs on engineering and r Watches (in part).
horological subjects. J
P. Rn. P. RENOUVIN. 7 Tirflr
Lecturer in the Historical Origins of the World War, University of Paris. i war
P. Vi. SIR PAUL VINOCRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. 1
Late Corpus ProfevSsor of Jurisprudence in the University of Oxford. Formerly Hon. I Village Communities;
Professor of History in the University of Moscow. Author of Villeinage in England; [Villeinage.
English Society in the nth Century; etc. J
P. Z. C. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR PERCY Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., O.C.I.E., K.C.S.I., F.R.G.S. ~]
Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20; High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, I yezd
1920-3; Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, 1914; Consul and |
Political Agent, Muscat, Arabia, 1899-1904. J
R. An. Ro-- i^'-donal ArdlK,S) 1>aris. 1 Vendee, Wars of the.
R. C. D. ROMESH CHUNDER DUTT, C.I.E., F.R.S.L., M.R.A.S. ]
Late Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. Author of Economic History of India in the xVidyasagar, Iswar Chand
Victorian Age, 1837 1 900; etc. * J
R. E. C. DAME RACHEL ELEANOR CROWDY. ) wvrt QI T ffi
Chief of Social Questions and Opium Traffic Section, Secretariat, League of Nations.) wmte Slave iramc.
R. F. R. FIRTIT, M.A., PH.D. •}
Member of the Polynesian Society. Author of Primitive Economics of the AViv1 Zealand [-Wealth, Primitive.
Maori. J
R. H. Ra, ROBERT HERON RASTAI.L, Sc.D., F.G.S.
University Lecturer in Economic Geology. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.
Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, and Mineralogical Society, 1918. ^Wolframite Of Wolfram.
Attached to War Office, 1915 9. Author of Geology of the Metalliferous Deposits.
Editor of the Geology section, I4th Edition, Encychpcdiia Britannica. *
R. L. P. REGINALD LANE POOL, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.B.A. . ]
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Lecturer in Diplomatics in the University,
1896-1927. Keeper of the University Archives, 1909-27. Curator of the Bodleian >-Wycliffe, John (in part).
Librarv, 1914-26. Author of Wycliffe and Movements fur Reform. Editor of Wydiffe\
dc CivHi Dominio Liber /. and De Dominio Divino. J
R. McKe. ROLAND McKEE, B.S. ) Vetch ,-n . ^
Senior Agronomist, United States Department of Agriculture. ) r
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN. ^ Vladimir, St;
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia — The Politi- \ Vorosmarty, Mfhaly ;
col History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613- fWallqvist, Olaf;
172$; Slavonic Europe— The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1706.} WitOWt.
R. N. R. B. R. N. RUDMOSE BROWN, D.Sc. "|
Head of Department of Geography, University of Sheffield. Member of the Scottish [wrp««r*l idon/l
Antarctic Expedition, 1902-4, and of the Scottish Arctic Expeditions to Spitsbergen, [ vvranKei ASiana.
1909-12, 1914 and 1919. Author of Spitsbergen. J
R. Pa. SIR RICHARD ARTHUR SURTEES FACET, Hox.A.R.I.B.A., F.lNST.P. "I
Barrister. Assistant Secretary, Admiralty Board of Invention and Research, 1915-8. I yo:ce Sounds
Author of papers in Proc. Royal Society and Physical Society on the nature and arti- [ volce Oouna5»
ficial production of speech sounds. J
R. P. B. RUDOLF P. BERLE, A.M., LL.B. ] Workmen's Compensatio
Attorney, Hale and Dorr, Boston, Mass. Formerly Law Secretary to the Justices of > /.- /,-.*\
the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. J u p j*
R. Pn, RALPH PEARSON.
Lecturer, New School of Social Research, New York. Author of Fifty Prints; Hw
to See Modern Pictures; etc.
R. Po. ROSCOE POUND. A.M., PH.D., LL.D. ^ Tir^^o« T ttwot D^M^I r
Carter Professor of Jurisprudence and Dean of Law School, Harvard University. Lwomen, i-egai I'osmon c
Author of Interpretation of Legal History; Law and Morals; etc. ' J ^m Pan)>
R. St MRS. RAY STRACHEY (Mrs. Oliver Strachey). ^
Author of Life of Frances Wittard; Short History of the Women's Movement. Con- ^Women's Suffrage (in p(
tributor to Hannsworth's Universal History; Nation and Athenaeum. J
xvi INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS
R. Van O. MAJOR R. VAN OVERSTRAETEN, D.S.O. ")
Member of the Order of Leopold and of the Legion of Honour. Aide-de-Camp to ^Yser, Battle of the (in part).
His Majesty the King of the Belgians. Graduate of the Belgian Staff College. J
R. W. F. H. ROBERT WILLIAM F. HARRISON. 1 . .
Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant Secretary of the Royal Society, > Violin (in part).
London. J
R. W. P. RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE. ]
Author and Journalist. Editorial staff of the I4th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britan- [win,** T/>hn
nica. Author of The Bolshevik Tlieory; Revolution from 1789 to 1906; The Builders' f ""***» J*""*-
History; ed. Pervigilium Veneris. )
R. W. S.-W. ROBERT WILLIAM SETON-WATSON, Lirr.D. ^ 1
Masaryk Professor of Central European History in the University of London. Lvu«-osiflv;fl //« />,7rA
Founder and Joint-Editor of The New Europe, 1916-20. Joint-Editor of The Slavonic riU*UBA*vltt \™ ?<*">•
Review. Author of The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans; The New Slovakia; etc. J
S. A C. STANLEY A RTHUR COOK, Lrrr.D. ]
University Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic. Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and I .
Syriac, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, fZephaiuah.
London University, 1904-^8. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Co-editor of |
The Cambridge Ancient History. Author of Religion of Ancient Palestine. J
Sh. THOMAS SHAW, BARON SHAW OF DUNFERMLINE, P.C., K.C., M.A., LL.B., D.C. I Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien
Lord of Appeal. Lord Advocate for Scotland, 1905-9. J (in part).
Assistant, Department of Phonetics, University College, London. ] ° ce 'm tar®'
S. K. L. SAMUEL K. LOTHROP, A.B., PH.D. 1
M useurn of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York. Author of Tulum: A n Lvah^an
.-I rctiaeological Study of Eastern Yucatan; Pottery of Costa Rica and Nicaragua; Pottery | **"'
Types ana Their Sequence in El Salvador. )
S. L. Ph. SIDNEY LOVET.L PHIPSON, M.A. I witn*»«: (*„ *nr/\
Late Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple. Author of The Law of Evidence. J witness (m part). ^
S. T. H. W. CAPTAIN S. T. II. WILTON, R.N. (retired). ) World War (in
Formerly Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London. J """" war v*«
S. Wi. SPENSER WILKINSON, HoN.Lnr.D. 1
Chichele Professor of Military History, University of Oxford, 1909-23. Fellow of All >War.
Souls. Author of The Coming of War; First Lessons in War; etc. J
~ Veil; Velletri;
T. A. THOMAS ASHBY, D.LITT., F.B.A., F.S.A., HuN.A.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of Turner's Visions of
Rome; The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; Roman Architecture. Revised and
completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Professor
J. B. Plattner). Author of numerous archaeological articles.
Venetia; Vercelli;
^Verona (in part);
Vesuvius (in part);
Vicenza; Viterbo;
Volterra.
T. Ad. THOMAS ADAMS. ]
Director of Plans and Surveys of Regional Plan of New York. Sometime Town
Planning Adviser to the Commission of Conservation of Canada and Adviser to I
Cabinet of Federal Government on Post-War Housing Schemes. First Town Plan- f
ning Inspector of Local Government Board (now Ministry of Health) of England
and Wales, 1909-14. J
T. A. J. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. , O.B.E, ]
Deputy Keeper, Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Author of South >West Indies (in part).
American Archaeology; Central American Archaeology; etc. J
T. E. R. P. REV. THEODORE EVELYN REKCE PHILLIPS, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.MET.Soc. "]
Secretary, Royal Astronomical Society, 1919-26; President, 1927 and 1928. Director lyenus.
of The Jupiter section of the British Astronomical Association; President, 1914-6. f
Jolnt-Euitor of The Splendour of the Ileav&n3; etc. J
T. E. Wi. THOMAS E. WILSON. 1 WUson & Co., Inc.
President, Wilson and Company, Chicago, III, >
T. F. H. TALBOT F. HAMLIN, B.A., B.ARCH. |
Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Chair- 1 Vault;
man, City Plan Committee of the Merchants1 Association, New York. Author of [Window.
The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture. J
T. J. E. MAJOR T. J. EDWARDS. ]
Secretary to the Honours and Distinctions Committee, The War Office, London. Uy^ar Office
Author of The Perforated Map; The Non-Commissioned Officer's Guide to Promotion f
)
in the Infantry.
T. P. N. T. PERCY NUNN, M.A., D.Sc. 1 Vocational Training (in
Principal, London Day Training College; Professor of Education, University of f . ^
London. " J Vw*h
T. W. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. I Wire Rone
Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. } ™ * '
T, W.-D. THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. 1 wvcheriev William (in
English Man of Letters. Author of The Renascence of Wonder; The Coming of Love; L^ycneney, ™>"iam yn
etc. See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. J PanJ-
T. W. F. THOMAS WILLIAM Fox. 1
Late Professor of Textiles in the Univeraity of Manchester. Author of Mechanics o/VWeaving (in part).
Weaving. J
V. Co. VAUGHAN CORNISH, D.Sc., F.R.G.S., F.R.CJ. \
President, Geographical Association. 1028, and of the Geographical Section of the >• Waves of the Sea.
. British Association, 1923. Author o/ Waves of the Sea; Waves of the Sand and Snow.)
INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii
V. E. N. V. E. NEGUS, M.S., F.R.C.S.
Hon. Lecturer of Laryngol
at King's College Hospital Medical School.
J> O.^JC«\JV0, A»J..U., A .A1*.. VX.kJ. I
Hon. Lecturer of Laryngology, King's College, University of London, and Lecturer f Voice (in part).
•ital MecT
V. M. C. MRS. V. M. CAMBRIDGE. ^1
President of the Middlesex Ladies' Athletic Club. Hon. Editor of The British Olympic > Winter Sports.
Journal. - J
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., HON.PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-9; etc.
W. A. Bn. W. A. BENTON, F.C.S. 1 Weichin* Machines
Second Chief of the Research Department of Messrs. W. T. Avery, Ltd., Birmingham. J weiKnmg iviacnmes.
W.A.H. W. A. HANTON, M.SC.TECH. } .
Head of the Weaving section, Textile Department, Manchester College of Tech- > Weaving (in part).
nology. J
W. A. J. F. WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE FORD, B.A. \ Tir0if
Professor of Singing at the Royal College of Music and University of Reading. ( v >
W. A. P. W. AusoN PHX.UPS, M.A.
Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University. Contributor to The Cam- y
bridge Modern History; etc. J
W. Cro. WILLIAM CROCKER, A. B., D. PH. 1 Weeds
Director of the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Yonkers, N. Y. )
W. Da. W. DALTON. \
Author of Bridge Abridged, or Practical Bridge. J
W. E. WILLIAM ECCLES, D.Sc., F.R.S. "|
President of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1926-7. Formerly Professor of 1 Wireless Telegraphy (m
Applied Physics arid Electrical Engineering, City and Guilds of London Technical f part}.
College, Finsbury, and University Reader in Graphics, University College, LondonJ
W. E. Br. WINIFRED ELSIE BRENCHLEY, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.E.S. ^
Botanist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden. Fellow of University Col- >Weed Destruction.
lege, London. Author of Weeds of Farmland; etc. J
W. E. E. W. ELMER EKBLAW, M.A. ^ Wyandotte Cave;
Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Assistant Editor, Economic Geography. Special > Yellowstone National Park;
field of research, agricultural geography and arctic geography. J Yosemite.
W. E.Wh. W. E. WIIITEHOUSE, M.Sc. ]
Lecturer in Geography, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Formerly Gil- fZiirich (Canton).
christ Scholar in Geography. J
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. ^| Wflrnmt (in *ari\ .
Late Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple, and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, ^?T > • * *{'
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading. J Witness (in part).
W. F. R. WILLIAM F. RASCHE, B.Sc., M.A., PH.D. ? Vftrfltionfll Training (in tart)
Director of Personnel, General Motors Truck Corporation, Pontiac, Mich. ] Vocational Training (in part).
W. F. Sn. WILLIAM FREEMAN SNOW, M.A., M.D. ^
President, National Health Council. Lecturer, Columbia University. General > Venereal Diseases (in part).
Director of American Social Hygiene Association. J
W. H. Bev. SIR WILLIAM HENRY BEVERIDGE, K.C.B. "]
Barrister-at-law. Director of London School of Economics and Political Science. I War Control of Food (in
Second Secretary, Ministry of Food, 1916-8; Permanent Secretary, 1919. Author of f part).
British Food Control; etc. J
W. H, Cr. WALTER HILL CROCKETT. 1 Vermont
Editor of publications, University of Vermont, Burlington. !
W. He. WILLIAM HENRY. \
Late Founder and Chief Secretary of the Royal Life Saving Society. Joint-Author >Water Polo.
of Swimming; etc. J
W. J. Gr. WILLIAM JOHN GRUFFYDD, M.A. ] w « h
Professor of Celtic, University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.
Author of History oj Welsh Literature (1450-1600); etc.
W. K. McC, WILLIAM KIDSTON MCCLURE, C.B.E. }
Attached, British Embassy, Rome, as Press Officer. Formerly Correspondent of The L
Times (London) in Rome. War Correspondent for The Times on the Italian front, r
^7- Author of Italy's Part in the War; Italy in North Africa; etc. J
W. L. B. WILLIAM LEWIS BLENNERHASSETT, D.S.O., O.B.E. ^
Formerly Acting British Vice-Consul at Kovno, Lithuania. Member of the London >Vilna or Wilno (in part).
Stock Exchange. J
W. M. WILLIAM MILLER, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., ]
Hon. LL.D. in the National University of Greece. Hon. Student of the British
Archaeological School of Athens. Correspondent of The Morning Post (London) in >Zaimis, Alexander*
Athens and Rome. Author of The Latins in the Levant; The Ottoman Empire and Its
Successors; etc. J
Wm. Sp. WILLIAM SPHARAGEN. ) Txr , ,.
Technical Secretary and Editor, American Welding Society. j weioing.
W. O. S. WILLIAM OSCAR SCROGGS, PH.D. ^
Editorial Staff, New York World. Professor of Economics and Sociology, Louisiana ^Walker, William*
tsfnfo I Tni\7»reif\r ir»T-3— n I
xviii INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS
W. S. L. W. S. LEWIS, M.Sc., F.R.G.S. 1 vun«« r , * t\
Professor of Geography, University College, Exeter. J Vienna (in part).
W. S. L.-B. WALTER SYDNEY LAZARUS-BARLOW, M.D., F.R.C.P. ^
Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Formerly Professor of Ex- 1
penmen tal Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. L
Author of A Manual of General Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy and r
Histology for Students. Editor of the Medicine section, I4th Edition, Encyclopedia
Britannica. J
W. S. Ro. WILLIAM SPKNCE ROBERTSON, Pn.D. . "|
Professor of History in the University of Illinois. Author of Rise of the Spanish- ^Venezuela (in part).
American Republics; etc. J
W. T. C. WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. 1 Wfttcr Flefl.
Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History). Author r-wr j T
of "Crustacea" in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. J WOOd-Louse.
W. V B. W. VALENTINE BALL, O.B.E., M.A. 1
Barrjster-at-law. Master of the Supreme Court, King's Bench Division. Author of >Venue (in part).
The Law of Libel as Affecting Newspapers and Journalists; Bankruptcy; etc. J •
W. Y. S. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. ")
Late Professor of Humanity, Edinburgh University. Author of The Roman Poets of ^Virgil (in part),
the Republic. J
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA
FOURTEENTH EDITION
VOLUME 23
VASE TO ZYGOTE
IASE, a vessel, particularly one of orna-
mental form or decoration; the term is
often confined to such vessels which are un-
covered and with two handles, and whose
height is greater in proportion to their
width. (See POTTERIES AND PORCELAINS.)
VASELINE is a term frequently, but
inaccurately, applied to the paraffinum
molle of the British Pharmacopoeia, also
known as petrolatum and petroleum jelly, a commercial product of
petroleum largely employed in pharmacy, alone and as a vehicle
for external application of medicinal agents, especially when local
action rather than absorption is desired; as a protective coating
for metallic surfaces and for other purposes. "Vaseline" is the
registered trade mark of The Chesebrough Manufacturing Co.
(Cons'd), used upon a line of products perhaps the best known
of which is petroleum jelly.
"Vaseline" petroleum jelly consists of a semi-solid mixture of
hydrocarbons, having a melting-point usually ranging from a little
below to a few degrees above 100°. It is colourless, or of a pale
yellow colour, translucent, fluorescent, and amorphous. It does
not oxidize on exposure to the air, and is not readily acted on by
chemical reagents. It is soluble in chloroform, benzene, carbon
bisulphide and oil of turpentine. It also dissolves in warm ether
and in hot alcohol, but separates from the latter in flakes on
cooling.
VASILKOV, a town of the Ukrainian S.S.R., in 50° 12' N.,
30° 18' E., lying south of Kiev. Pop. (1926) 20,743. It is an
agricultural centre. Founded in the tenth century, it was laid
waste by the Mongols 1239-42, captured by Lithuania in 1320, and
later by the Poles. In 1686 it was annexed to Russia.
VASSAL, the tenant and follower of a feudal lord (see
FEUDALISM). The etymology of the word after much discussion
remains obscure. Under the Frankish empire the vassi dominid,
essentially servants of the royal household, were great officers
of State, sent on extraordinary missions into the provinces, to
supervise local administration in the interests of the central power.
Sometimes they were sent to organize and govern a march,
sometimes they were rewarded with benefices, and as, with the
growth of feudalism, these developed into hereditary fiefs, the
word vassus or vassallus was naturally retained as implying the
relation to the king as overlord, and was extended to the holders
of all fiefs whether capital or mediate. In course of time the
word came to acquire a military sense, and in mediaeval French
poetry vasselage is commonly used in the sense of "prowess in
arms," or generally of any knightly qualities. In this sense it
became acclimatized in England, but in countries which were not
feudally organized — in Castile, for instance — vassal meant simply
subject, and during the revolutionary period acquired a distinctly
offensive significance as being equivalent to slave.
See Diclionnaire de Vancienne langue franfaise (1895), and Du
Cange, Glossarium, s. "Vassus."
VASSAR COLLEGE, a non-sectarian institution for the
higher education of women, two miles east of Poughkeepsie, N.Y.,
and 75 m. from New Ycvk city. In 1861 it was incorporated as
Vassar Female college, a name which was changed in 1867 to
Vassar college. Immediately after the incorporation, the founder,
Matthew Vassar, transferred to a board of trustees of his own
selection about $400,000, increased by his will to almost twice that
amount, and 200 ac. of land on which the college was to be built.
Three buildings were erected and the college was opened on Sept.
20, 1865, but before that time Milo P. Jewett, selected by Mr.
Vassar as the first president, had resigned, and John Howard Ray-
mond, one of the trustees, was chosen by the board as his suc-
cessor. To Dr. Raymond fell the task of creating the curriculum,
selecting the entire faculty and planning the organization of the
first adequately endowed and equipped college for women. After
his death in 1878 Samuel L. Caldwell was called to the presidency.
He resigned in 1885 and after one year, during which James
Ryland Kendrick served as provisional president, James Monroe
Taylor began a long and successful administration (1886-1914).
The number of students increased until in 1906 it was decided to
limit them to 1,000; new chairs were established, and many impor-
tant policies adopted; the preparatory department was abolished
and the department of wardens created. In 1915 Henry Noble
MacCracken, who is president now (1929), began his administra-
tion. While maintaining the early high standards and preserving
the spirit and ideals of the founder, he has accepted the changed
conditions of the times and adopted modern educational policies.
Increasing powers of self-government have been granted to the
students. They share with the faculty the responsibility of main-
taining the good name of the college, and, through the student
curriculum committee, they participate in the discussion of educa-
tional problems. Voluntary chapel has been substituted for
compulsory attendance at religious . services and a Community
Church has been established. The curriculum has been revised so
VASTO— VATICAN
that more freedom is given each student in choosing her course of
study and more guidance is given by faculty advisers in making
her choice. A new department is that of euthenics, a word that
has been defined as the science of efficient living. Its purpose is
to apply the arts and sciences to the improvement of living con-
ditions of the individual and the race, and since 1926 there has
been held on the college campus a summer institute of euthenics
for graduates of Vassar and other colleges, both men and women.
The college opened with a faculty of eight professors and 20
instructors and an enrolment of 353 students. The first graduat-
ing class was that of 1867, and comprised four members, to whom
were given temporary certificates stating that they were "entitled
to be admitted to the first degree of liberal arts," the propriety
of awarding the degree of bachelor to women being questioned at
that time; in 1868 these certificates were replaced by diplomas
bestowing the degree of A.B. At present (1929) the college has a
faculty of instruction numbering 153, 96 of whom are of pro-
fessorial rank, besides 33 other officers of academic administration.
The first lady principal was Hannah W. Lyman (1865-1870 ; in
1913 the office was abolished and in its place was organized the
department of wardens, consisting of the warden, who has a house
on the campus, and an associate warden in each residence hall. The
wardens are responsible for material living conditions and the
social life of the college. In 1923 the trustees voted to continue
the policy adopted in 1905 of limiting the number of students but
to increase the enrolment to 1,150. Candidates are accepted each
year according to fitness for college, not to priority of applica-
tion, the only exception being that candidates who filed their
applications before March i, 1923, are entitled to admission on
a non-competitive basis. All applicants must present 15 acceptable
entrance units and pass entrance examinations.
The college confers the baccalaureate degree in arts (A.B.)
upon the completion of the regular courses of four years, and a
second degree in arts (A.M.) upon bachelors of arts of Vassar or
any approved college who have completed by examination and
thesis a course of advanced non-professional study. In 1928, the
endowment was more than $6,500,000 and the funds available for
scholarships about $720,000. The present equipment includes
about 40 buildings exclusive of faculty houses, and the total area
of the college grounds is 1,000 ac.-, inclusive of a farm of 600 acres.
The library contains over 150,000 voi'imes. Just west of the
campus is the Alumnae house which serves as headquarters for
the activities of the alumnae association, including also the
offices of the educational secretary and of the Vassar Quarterly,
and as a centre for returning graduates. The most recent addi-
tions are the Georgia Avery Kendrick house which provides apart-
ments and single rooms for about 25 members of the faculty;
Gushing hall, named in honour of Florence M. Gushing, a member
of the class of 1874 an(l the first woman elected to the board of
trustees; the Mildred R. Wimpfheimer Nursery school which
accommodates 35 children and provides facilities for child study;
and the Minnie Cumnock Blodgett hall of euthenics with class-
rooms, laboratories and facilities for research. There is an open
air theatre, capable of seating 3,000 people; an old English gar-
den; and an outdoor botanical laboratory designed to contain
specimens of all plants growing in Dutchess county.
Student government, especially in social matters, is in effective
operation, and all undergraduates are members of the Students'
Association empowered by the faculty. (C. RA<)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Benson J. Lossing, Vassar College and its Pounder
(New York, 1867), Life and Letters of John Howard Raymond (New
York, 1881) ; Frances A. Wood, Earliest Years at Vassar (Pough-
kccpsie, N.Y., 1909) ; James Monroe Taylor, Before Vassar Opened
'(Boston, 1914); James Monroe Taylor and Elizabeth H. Haight,
Vassar (New York, 1915); Elizabeth H. Haight, editor, The Autobi-
ography and Letters of Matthew Vassar (New York, 1916), The Fifti-
eth Anniversary of the Opening of Vassar College (Vassar College,
1916) ; Elizabeth H. Haight, Life and Letters of James Monroe Taylor
(New York, 1919) ; Vassar College, 1860-1877, a list of books and
articles about Vassar College printed between 1860-1877; Reports of
Officers (issued annually).
VASTO (anc. Histoiduiit)* a fortified town of the Abruzzi,
Italy, in the province of Chieti, about a mile from the Adriatic,
32m. direct S.E. by E. of Chieti and 131 m. by rail from Ancona,
525 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 11,071 (town); (commune)
14,366. It is surrounded by mediaeval walls, and commands views
extending to the Tremiti islands and Monte Gargano.
The ancient Histonittm was a town of the Frcntani, and an
Oscan inscription of the period of its independence speaks of
censors there, probably officers of the community of the Frentani,
It appears to have flourished in Roman times and also lay on the
line of the ancient road which prolonged the Via Flaminia to the
south-east, and reached the coast here after having passed through
Anxanum (Lanciano). It is subject to severe earthquakes.
VATICAN, THE, the official residence of the pope, situated
upon the Vatican hill in the city of Rome. The article which
follows contains sections on history, art, services, organization,
representatives' court, and "Vacancy of the Holy See." See also
ROME, PAPACY, etc.
HISTORY
The Vatican hill, a low eminence on the right bank of the Tiber
at the north-west end of Rome, first began to occupy a place in
world history at the death of the Apostle Peter. In Roman times
it was a district occupied by villas and gardens. It probably took
its name from the vaticinia which were pronounced there in the
neighbourhood of a famous temple of Apollo. The principal
building in the ager vaticanns at the time of St. Peter was the
circus constructed by Caius Caligula and therefore called Caianum.
It was here that in A.D 64 and 65 the "great multitude" of Chris-
tians mentioned by Tacitus (Annals xv., 44), who were accused
by Nero of having caused the burning of Rome, were martyred
with cruel tortures, which the Roman historian describes in detail.
Tradition. — According to the most wide-spread and authori-
tative tradition, the martyrdom of St. Peter took place in A.D. 67.
The disciples obtained possession of his body, as Roman law
allowed them to do, and buried it in a tomb near the Via Cor-
nelia, which ran past the Circus not far from the place of mar-
tyrdom. The fact of St. Peter's coming to Rome and his martyr-
dom there, which is attested by strong historical evidence, is
strikingly confirmed by a discovery made in 1912 during the
excavations which were made under the Basilica of St. Sebastian
on the Appian Way. A number of incised inscriptions (graffiti)
were discovered on the walls containing invocations to St. Peter
and St. Paul in Greek and Latin. This entirely corresponds to the
tradition that the bodies of the two Apostles were transported to
that spot and remained there some time, possibly for concealment,
during the period when the persecutions were at their height. The
tradition which places the martyrdom of St. Peter on the Vatican
hill is also the oldest and the best established; another view, ac-
cording to which it took place on the Janiculum near to where the
Church of St. Peter-in-Montorio now stands, is now to a large
extent discredited amongst scholars. An inscription was placed
in 1923 on the site of Caligula's Circus on the small piazza south
of the Vatican basilica beside the sacristy. The inscription, which
was engraved by order of the Collegium Cultornm Martyrum,
indicates that the first Roman martyrs suffered death at that spot
"under the leadership of the Apostle Peter."
Constantino's Basilica. — The first successors of St. Peter de-
sired to be buried near his tomb; for this reason his third suc-
cessor, St. Anaclete, was obliged towards the end of the first
century A.D. to construct, around the cella which contained the
body of the Apostle, a memoria large enough to contain not only
St. Peter's tomb but those of his successors. It was only in the
third century that it began to be the custom for the popes to be
buried in the catacombs. The Emperor Constantino I. gave free-
dom to the Church in 313, and showed it all possible marks of
favour. He presented the pope with the palace of the senator
Plautius Lateranus as a residence. This palace had become im-
perial property as a result of its confiscation by Nero. Con-
st antine also built the Basilica of the Saviour, now St. John
Lateran, which became "the cathedral of the pope" and "the
Mother Church and the head of all churches of the city and of
the world" (Urbis et Orbis). According to tradition it was in
324 that he began the construction of a splendid basilica on the
Vatican hill over St. Peter's tomb. This church was enriched
with valuable ornaments, including a great golden cross. The tomb
VATICAN
itself remained untouched. Constantino's basilica was not com-
pleted until 349, in the reign of Constantius. In order to build
it, it was necessary to demolish what remained of Caligula's
Circus. Nothing was left of the Circus except the central obelisk,
which was moved to the centre of the piazza of St. Peter's in
1586 by order of Sixtus V.
Nothing unfortunately remains of Constantine's basilica or of
the splendid monuments with which it was adorned in the course
of nearly twelve centuries, with the exception of a few remains
preserved in the crypts (grotte) of the present basilica. The
Museum Petrianwn was built next the basilica during the pon-
tificate of Benedict XV., and was opened in 1925 under Pius XI.
All the monuments relating to the history of St. Peter which
existed in various places have been collected in this museum.
Although the history of the present basilica can easily be
traced, that of the ancient basilica is extremely difficult to dis-
cover. Constantine's basilica had five naves; its walls were
adorned with paintings and mosaics, which were much admired
by pilgrims; its five doors opened on a great square atrium called
Paradisus, which was surrounded by a colonnade and in which
there gradually accumulated the tombs of all the popes, em-
perors, kings and princes who expressed a wish to be buried near
St. Peter's tomb.
The most notable of the buildings erected after the Basilica
are the Mausoleum, constructed early in the 5th century for the
burial of Honorius and Theodosius II., in which other members
of the imperial family were also buried, the oratory of St.
Andrew, which was dedicated by Pope Symmachus (498-514)
and destroyed by Pius VI. in 1776 to make room for the present
sacristy, the Campanile built by Stephen II. (752~757), the
oratory of Sta. Maria Antiqua whose image is preserved in the
crypt of the present basilica, and the oratory of John VII. (705-
707), which was built to contain the Veronica or Portrait of Our
Lord. The remnants of the decorations of this oratory are pre-
served in the Museum Petrianum.
One of the ornaments of Constantine's basilica was the fountain
which was placed in the middle of the atrium for the refreshment
of pilgrims. It dated from the end of the 4th century, but was
repeatedly improved and restored. Nothing remains of it to-day
except two bronze peacocks and* the central pine-apple, also of
gilded bronze, from which the water sprang. This pine-apple is
mentioned by Dante in the 3ist canto of the "Inferno." The
basilica was decorated with mosaics of various periods. Among
the most important were that placed on the fagade of the oratory
of St. Mary-in-Turri under Paul I., that situated near the entrance
of the basilica, which represented Our Lord between St. Peter
and St. Paul, and which is at present in the crypt, and that rep-
resenting St. Peter walking on the water, which was executed
by Giotto early in the XlVth century by order of Cardinal
Stefaneschi. The latter mosaic, which fs known as the Navicella^
was destroyed when the ancient basilica was demolished.
Emperors and Kings, — Of the historical events of which the
Vatican Basilica was the scene during the Middle Ages, the most
famous, and that which had the most influence on the history of
the world, was the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, which
was founded when Leo III., on Christmas Day 800, crowned
Charlemagne as emperor of the West with solemn rites. After
that time some of the emperors came to Rome to receive their
crown from the pope in St. Peter's. The last to do so was Fred-
erick III., who was crowned by Nicholas V. on March 19, 1452.
Perhaps the most solemn coronation was that of the Emperor
Conrad, who came to Rome accompanied by Canute, king of
England,' Denmark and Norway, and Rudolph, king of Bur-
gundy, and was anointed by John XIX. on Easter Day 1027.
Napoleon I. intended to be crowned in St. Peter's after having
been anointed by Pius VII. at Notre Dame in Paris, but his inten-
tion was not carried out owing to his dispute with the pope.
Many kings and princes have made pilgrimages to St. Peter's
tomb in the Vatican Basilica. In particular, a number of Anglo-
Saxon sovereigns made this pilgrimage, for not far from the
Vatican basilica was the Schola Saxonum or hospice for English
pilgrims. The hospice no longer exists, but it has given its name
to the Church of the Holy Spirit in Sassia, which stands near
St. Peter's. The first king of the West Saxons to visit Rome
was Caedwalla, who was only a catechumen when he arrived at
Rome under the pontificate of Sergius I. (689-701). He was bap-
tised in St. Peter's, but died a few days later and was buried in
the atrium of the cathedral near the tomb of the Emperor Otho II.
King Ina came to Rome in 720 and visited St. Peter's. It was
he who founded the hospice for Saxons. Queen Frothogitha came
in 787, Ceolwulf, king of Northumberland, in 758, Ethelwulf in
855 — he restored and enlarged the Saxon hospice — and Alfred,
Ethelwulf s son, was sent as a child by his father to be anointed
by Leo IV. and later, in token of his devotion to the Vatican
basilica, required each family in his kingdom to pay a silver coin
to the pope every year. This was the origin of "Peter's Pence."
The basilica of St. Peter has several times been sacked and
devastated. At the time of the barbarian invasions Alaric and
Genseric gave orders that it should be respected, but it was not
always spared during the civil wars. On some occasions it was
occupied by anti-popes, who endeavoured to resist the legitimate
pope. The most terrible devastation suffered by the basilica
was, however, that of 846, during the Saracen invasion. It was as
a result of this event that Pope Leo IV. (847-855) built round
the basilica and the Vatican hill a wall called the Leonine Wall
after him. The same name has been given to the part of Rome
enclosed by the wall. Terrible damage was again done in 1527
by the Lutheran soldiers of Charles V., commanded by the
Constable of Bourbon, at the time of the famous sack of Rome.
The New Basilica*— When Nicholas V. became pope, Con-
stantine's basilica was falling into ruin. Vain attempts had been
made during the preceding centuries to restore the edifice, more
particularly by the popes who reigned after the return to Rome
following the Western Schism, The basilica leaned so much to
one side that the famous architect Leo Baptista Alberti ascer-
tained that the southern wall was 1*75 metres out of the perpen-
dicular. Drastic action was clearly necessary. Nicholas V., on the
advice of Alberti, decided that the best, or indeed the only
remedy, was to demolish Constantine's basilica, and to build a
new one on the same site. The demolition of the apse was begun,
but was suspended by the death of this humanist pope.
On April n, 1506, Julius II. laid the first stone of the
new basilica, which accruing to Bramante's original design, was
to have been in the form of a Greek cross. Work was carried
on with great activity until the end of the pontificate of Leo X.
(1521) under the direction of Raphael, who succeeded Bramante
in 1514, and that of Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo da
Verona, Baldassare Peruzzi and Antonio da Sangallo. After the
death of Leo X. the work was carried on with less energy until in
1546 Paul III. entrusted its direction to Michelangelo. Michel*
angelo returned to Bramante's plan, which had been modified by
the intervening architects, and added the famous dome, which he
himself designed. The work again slackened after the death of
Michelangelo (1564), when it was carried on by Vignola, Pirro
Ligorio and Giacomo della Porta. Sixtus V., however, took the
matter up with his usual energy, and appointed his favourite archi-
tect, Domenico Fontana, to act with Giacomo della Porta. In
1590, Michelangelo's great cupola, slightly modified by Giacomo
della Porta, was completed after only 22 months* work. In 1603,
during the reign of Clement VIII., the new basilica was completed,
according to the original plan, in the form of a Greek cross. Some
remains of the ancient basilica were still left standing. Paul V.
decided in 1605 to demolish them. He adopted Carlo Maderno's
plan of giving the basilica the form of a Latin cross by extending
the eastern arm. The facade, which was designed by Maderno,
was completed in 1612. The new basilica was solemnly consecrated
by Urban VIII. on Nov. 18, 1626.
The majestic beauty of the basilica is completed by the
splendid piazza which gives access to it. In the centre is an
obelisk, and on the two sides are two beautiful fountains con-
structed by Maderno in the reign of Paul V. The piazza is sur-
rounded by the two marvellous semi-circular colonnades erected
by Bernini in 1667 under Alexander VII. They consist of 284
columns of Travertine marble placed in four rows and surmounted
VATICAN
by a balustrade on which are 140 statues. The general effect pro-
duced by the piazza is unequalled throughout the world.
The Papal Palace*!—- On the left of the basilica (to the spec-
tator's right) is the imposing group of the papal palaces. Sym-
machus was the first pope to reside in the Vatican, on account of
the occupation of the Lateran by the anti-pope Laurentius. He
built two episcopal residences, one to the left and the other to the
right of the basilica. At the end of the schism, however, he re-
turned to the Lateran. Leo III. improved the left-hand residence
for the reception of Charlemagne in 800. Gregory IV. (827-844)
built a new residence to be used by the pope when he desired to
spend several days near St. Peter's in order to officiate in the
cathedral. Eugenius III. (1145-53) began another palace, which
was continued by Celestinus III. (1191-98) and completed by
Innocent III. (1198-1216). Other buildings were constructed by
Innocent IV. (1243-54) and Nicholas III. (1277-80). The latter
pope undertook a great deal of building, and may be regarded as
the real founder of the Vatican as the residence of the popes. He
laid out the Vatican gardens, which were surrounded with walls
and towers. When the Holy See was transferred from Rome to
Avignon, the Vatican and the Lateran were abandoned and fell
into dilapidation. Urban V. resided in the Vatican during his
temporary return from Avignon in 1367, and Gregory XI. estab-
lished himself there when the papacy was finally transferred back
to Rome. The Lateran was then abandoned, and the Vatican be-
came the official residence of the popes ; from the time of Paul V.
to that of Pius IX. they also resided in the Quirinal.
From the 15th to the 17th centuries,— During the Renais-
sance period the Vatican became a centre of ,art and culture. The
celebrated humanist, Nicholas V. (1447-55), included all the
buildings on the left of the basilica in a single palace surrounded
with walls and towers, one of the latter of which is still intact.
On the ground floor he placed the library, which he enriched with
manuscripts collected from all countries. The library was enlarged
by Sixtus IV. (1471-84) and was transported to the premises
which it now occupies by Sixtus V. in 1588. Nicholas V. com-
missioned Fra Angelico in 1449 to paint frescoes in a chapel in
his apartment. Pius II. (1458-64) and Sixtus IV. (1471-84)
enlarged and completed the buildings begun by Nicholas V. Sixtus
IV. built the Sistine chapel, which was completed in 1483 and
adorned with frescoes by Cosimo Rc^selli, Sandro Botticelli,
Domenico Ghirlandajo and Pietro Perugino. Half a century later
Michelangelo also painted frescoes in the Sistine chapel. Paul
II. (1464-71) built colonnades round the court in front of the
palace of Nicholas V. and constructed the staircase giving access
to the storey on which the library is situated. Innocent VIII.
(1484-92) erected a new structure next to the entrance to the
papal palace and adjoining the atrium of the basilica. On the
side of the Vatican hill which looks towards Monte Mario, he
built another palace which was magnificently decorated by Pin-
turicchio and Mantegna. Little trace now remains of this palace,
which was replaced under Pius VI. by new structures intended to
be used as museums. Alexander VI. (1492-1503) commissioned
Pinturicchio and Mantegna to paint frescoes on the first floor of
Nicholas V.'s palace. These frescoes are one of the glories of the
Vatican. Julius II. (1503-13) ordered Michelangelo to paint
the ceiling of the Sistine chapel, and invited Bramantc to come
to Rome. This architect, as well as designing the new Vatican
basilica as stated above, undertook the systematic arrangement
of all the Vatican palaces, reaching from that of Innocent VIII.
on the Belvedere to that of Nicholas V. adjoining the basilica.
This was the origin of the immense and magnificent rectangular
structure which surrounds the court of the Belvedere, and in
which in course of time the papal art collections were deposited.
This palace was only completed under Pius V. (1559-65). Bra-
raante himself designed the three tiers of galleries or loggie which
were later extended around the three sides of the court of St.
Damasus, formed by the papal palaces. Julius II. also commis-
sioned a number of the most famous artists of the day to decorate
the rooms or stanze in the Vatican. Raphael was one of the artists
so employed at the suggestion of Bramante. Considering him to
be superior to all the rest, the pope dismissed the other artists
and entrusted Raphael alone with the direction of the work, which
was continued under Leo X. (1513-21). Raphael died in 1520,
and the decoration of the stanze was completed by his pupils
under Clement VII. (1523-34). Paul III. (1534-49) recalled
Michelangelo and commissioned him to paint the famous "Last
Judgment" on the end wall of the Sistine chapel. This painting
was completed in 1541. Michelangelo also painted the "Martyr-
dom of St. Peter" and the "Conversion of St. Paul" in the Pauline
chapel which the pope had just had built from the designs of
Antonio da Sangallo. The same architect built the Sala Regia,
which was decorated with frescoes by several painters, including
Giorgio Vasari, under Paul III. and Gregory XIII. (1572-85).
Next to this hall were two large rooms which were also adorned
with frescoes by the order of Paul IV. (1555-59) and Pius V.
(1566-72). These rooms were afterwards thrt>wn into one by
Bernini and formed the Sala Ducale. The decoration of the lower
part of the walls was only completed under Benedict XV. (1914-
22), who had them covered with coloured marbles. Pius IV.
0559-65) commissioned Pirro Ligorio to build him a summer ca-
sino in the Vatican gardens. Pius V. ordered the brothers Antonio
and Ignaaio Danti to paint maps of the various countries of the
world on the walls of the third loggia. These maps throw an inter-
esting light on the history of geographical knowledge. Gregory
XIII. ordered the same painters to decorate another large gallery
in one of the wings of the Belvedere palace with maps of the
various districts of Italy. He constructed the "Tower of the
Winds" above the same wing in -memory of the reform of the*
calendar. He extended the three loggie which shut in the Court of
St. Damasus on the northern side and had them decorated with
paintings. He also decorated the Sale del Paramenti which formed
a continuation of the Sala Ducale.
Sixtus V. had a great palace built from the designs of Domenico
Fontana. This is the palace in which the pope* reside at the
present day. The loggie, which look out over the court of St.
Damasus, were decorated by Mantovani under Pius IX. (1846-
78). Sixtus V. also cut the Belvedere Court in two by building a
middle wing connecting the two lateral wings. He transferred the
library to this wing, the rooms of which were decorated by Cesarc
Nebbia, Paride Nogari and other artists. Clement VIII. (1592-
1605) completed the great palace which had been begun by Sixtus
V., and commissioned Paul Brill and other painters to decorate
the Clementine Hall and the Hall of the Consistorium. Paul V.
built two other palaces, one adjoining the palace of the Borgia,
and the other on the site of the palace of Innocent VIII., which
was falling into decay. At this period, however, the popes began
to prefer the Quirinal to the Vatican. The Quirinal palace was
begun by Gregory XIII., continued by Sixtus V., and completed
by Paul V. The popes at first used it for a summer residence on
account of its high and healthy situation. They gradually came
to occupy it more continuously until 1848, and they only resided
in the Vatican from time to time when ceremonies were to be
celebrated at St. Peter's or on other specially solemn occasions.
Urban VIII. (1628-44) commissioned Bernini to erect the monu-
mental staircase, known as the Scala Regia, which gives access to
the Vatican palaces. The Scala Regia was recently restored by
order of Pius XL
The 18th and 19th Centuries. — From that period until the
end of the i8th century few additions of any importance have been
made to the Vatican. As there was not sufficient room for the
valuable art collections of the Vatican, Clement XIV. (1769-75)
built a new wing parallel to that of Sixtus V. in the Belvedere
Court to contain the museum of sculpture. Pius VI. (1775-99)
and Pius VII. (1800-23), -notwithstanding the difficult conditions
which prevailed during their rule as a result of the French Revolu-
tion and the reign of Napoleon I., continued and completed the
arrangement of the Vatican museums and galleries with a magni-
ficence which may be compared to that of the period of the Medici.
Even to-day it is difficult to decide whether to admire most the
magnificence of the collections or the beauty of the buildings in
which they are housed. The greatest artists of the day— Cam-
poresi, Simonetti, Stern and the immortal Canova — took part in
this great work. Later Gregory XVI. (1831-46) founded the
VATICAN
PLATE
INTERIORS OF THE VATICAN PALACE
1. View of the Stanza dell' Incendio showing the "Incendio del Borgo"
painted by Raphael (1483-1520) and his pupils in 1517
2. Loggia of Gregory XIII., one of the many galleries in tho palace
3. Interior of the Sistino chapel built for Sixtus IV. by Giovanni di Dole!
(d. 1486) in 1473-81. The ceiling frescoes were executed by Michel-
angelo (1475-1564) In 1508-10
4. The Throne room in the private apartments of His Holiness
5. The Sala Regia, reception room for ambassadors. F?escoes arc by Vasari
(1512-74), Salviati (1510-63) and Zuccari (1529-66)
6. The Torso del Belvedere in the Museo Pio Clementlno, a division of the
famous Vatican Museums organired by Clement XIV. and Pius VI.
The torso was found In the Campo dei Fiori during the pontificate
of Julius II. and bears the signature of the Athenian Appollonlus
7. "The Salon of Raphael" in the Vatican Pinacoteca constructed by PiusXin
1909. It contains the Madonna di Foliqno.The Coronation of the Virgin
and the Theological Virtues and Mysteries, all painted by Raphael
8. Sala Rotunda, a circular room of Greek and Roman sculpture In the
Museo Pio Clementine designed by Simonetti (1840—92) after the
Pantheon. The table in the centre Is of porphyry
VATICAN
Etruscan Museum, and Pius IX. the Egyptian Museum. The
latter pope commissioned Podesti to paint frescoes in the Hall
of the Immaculate Conception next to Raphael's stanze, built the
grand staircase, which gives access to the Court of St. Damasus,
and the other which leads from that court to the papal apart-
ments. Leo XIII. (1878-1903) entrusted Seitz and Torti with
the decoration of the Gallery of the Candelabra. Pius X. moved
the collection of paintings to a new gallery looking over the
Belvedere Court.
The Vatican Gardens.— Adjoining the group of palaces on
the west are the Vatican gardens (Giardini Vatican!) , in which
the popes were accustomed to take their walks following the
decision not to leave the Vatican after the entry of the Italian
troops into Rome in 1870. The gardens are traversed by part of
the old wall of Leo IV., which includes three great towers. The
Vatican Astronomical Observatory (Specola) is installed in these
towers. In 1893 Leo XIII. commissioned Vespignani to build a
small summer palace around the principal tower. He did not,
however, occupy it for long, as it was found not sufficiently cool
and comfortable in hot weather. It was then used as an extension
of the Specola. The Vatican Observatory plays an important part
in the astronomical world. In 1889 it was entrusted with part of
the great work of photographing the heavens, which was divided
between the principal observatories of the world. Splendid literary
and scientific traditions gather round the Vatican gardens. Leo X.
held literary assemblies there; Clement VII. in 1533 was present
at a lecture given by the Austrian Chancellor, John Vidmenstadt,
on the theory of the movement of the earth round the sun. In
token of his satisfaction the pope presented the chancellor with a
Greek Codex, now to be seen in the Munich Library. Innocent
XII. (1691-1700) was present at the experiments made in the
Vatican gardens by the famous doctor and physicist Giorgio
Baglivi on barometric pressure. Pius XI. in 1923 installed the
Papal Academy of Science, known as the "Nuovi Lincei" in
Pius IV.'s casino.
There is little to add to the summary of the artistic history
of the Vatican which has been given above. The basilica of
St. Peter is full of magniiicent works of art. In the centre is
the colossal bronze baldachino designed by Bernini to the order
of Urban VIII. It surmounts the principal altar, below which
is the tomb of St. Peter.
The Tomb of St. Peter — The tomb is the only thing which
was scrupulously respected when the old basilica was demolished
and the new one built. Julius II. firmly refused to agree to
Bramante's scheme that it should be moved in order that the
new edifice might have a different orientation from the old. The
tomb still remains buried beneath the earth as it had always
been throughout the ages, with the golden cross of Constantine
and the bronze slabs with which it had been covered by the popes
in order to protect it against injury by the weather or by human
agency. Even the Saracens who sacked the basilica in 846 were
unable to profane the Apostle's tomb, so well was it protected.
The last observation of the tomb was made about 1895 by
Hartmann Grisar, who was authorized to explore all of the
tomb that remains visible. He was able to see through the only
opening which still remains unblocked, nearly i^ metres below
the level of the crypt, the ancient marble slab which covered the
tomb at a certain distance. The slab is broken in half, but
it is still in its place, and a small heap of debris can be seen at
the bottom of the sort of little well which is beneath it. Every-
thing corresponds to the state in which, according to the records
of the period, the tomb must have been in the middle ages after
the incursions of the Saracens and their attempts to violate it.
This shows that in spite of all the vicissitudes through which the
basilica has passed, St. Peter's tomb has been scrupulously re-
spected and has remained intact.
At the order of Urban VIII. Bernini also constructed at the
far end of the apse the magnificent bronze reliquary containing the
cathedra which, according to tradition, was the seat used by St.
Peter at religious ceremonies. The seat is a simple wooden chair
which was adorned with carved ivory plaques during the Caro-
lingian period. Bernini placed four colossal bronze statues to
support the reliquary. They represent the four great doctors of
the Church, St. Augustine and St. Ambrose for the Roman
Church, St. Athanasius and St. John Chrysostom for the Greek
Church.
There are four colossal statues at the feet of the four great
piers which support the dome; the statue of St. Longinus is by
Bernini, that of St. Andrew by Duquesnoy, that of St. Helena by
Bolzi, and that of St. Veronica by Mochi. There are four bal-
conies or loggie placed halfway up the four columns; they
were designed by Bernini, who adorned them with the eight col-
umns known as vititteae or torsi, which were taken from the prin-
cipal altar of the old Basilica. In niches cut in the other piers
of the Basilica are statues of the founders of the religious orders
of the Catholic Church. The statues are of different periods, and
of various degrees of artistic value.
The pictures over the altars of the basilica are all mosaics, and
are reproductions of the masterpieces in the Vatican or in vari-
ous Roman churches and museums. In the first chapel to the
right on entering the basilica is the famous Pieta, sculptured by
Michelangelo to the order of Cardinal de la Grolaye.
Tombs of the Popes. — All along the walls of the basilica are
placed the tombs of the popes. These are of incalculable artistic
and historical importance; they include the tombs of Paul III.
by Guglielmo della Porta, Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. by
Bernini, Gregory XIII. by Rusconi, Gregory XIV. by Prospero
da Brescia, Leo XL by Algardi, Clement X. by De Rossi; Inno-
cent XL by Maratta and Bonnot, Alexander VIII. by San Mar-
tino, Innocent XII. by Fuga, Benedict XIV. by Bracci, Clement
XIII. and Pius VI. by Canova, Pius VII. by Thorwaldsen, Pius
VIII. by Tenerani. Gregory XVI. by Amid, Pius X. by Astorri,
and Benedict XV. by Canonica. There are also four tombs com-
memorating members of ruling families; that of Countess Ma-
tilde of Canossa by Bernini and his pupils; that of Maria Chris-
thina of Sweden, by Fontana; that of Clementina Sobieski, the
wife of James Stuart (the Pretender) by Bracci, and that of the
three last Stuarts, James (called the Third), and his two sons
Charles (called the Third) and Henry, duke, then the cardinal of
York, by Canova. The Crypt contains a number of sarcophagi
from the old basilica. One is that of Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas
Brcakspeare, the only English pope), on which the Norwegian
Government has recently* placed an inscription commemorating
what he did for Scandinavia. The others include those of Gregory
V., Boniface VIII., Nicholas III., Urban V, Nicholas V., Pius II.,
Paul II., Alexander VI., Pius III., Julius III., Marcel II. and
Innocent IX. The Crypt also contains the great porphyry vessel
which contained the remains of the Emperor Otho II. Two bronze
monuments by the famous sculptor Pollaiuolo also found a place
in the new basilica, that of Innocent VIII. and that of Sixtus IV!
The latter was recently moved to the Museum Petrianum. A
marble slab, which was set up in 1928 in the atrium of the sac-
risty, gives a list of the names of the 142 popes from St. Peter
to Benedict XV., who were temporarily or permanently buried
in the cathedral. Mention should also be made of the bronze
statue of St. Peter which is one of the glories of the basilica.
Scholars are not agreed on its period, but there is some ground
for assigning it to the pontificate of Symmachus (498-514).
On the pavement of the principal nave of the Vatican Basilica
are inscribed in bronze letters the dimensions of the largest
Christian churches, all of which are smaller than St. Peter's.
Reading downwards from St. Peter's tomb, they are as follows:
St. Sophia at Constantinople, Westminster Cathedral, St. Mary-
of-the-Angels at Assisi, St. Justina at Padua, Antwerp Cathedral,
St. John Lateran, St. Paul-Outside-the-Walls at Rome, Seville
Cathedral, St. Petronius at Bologna, Cologne Cathedral, Milan
Cathedral, Reims Cathedral, Florence Cathedral, St. Paul's.
It would be impossible to give here even a brief description
of the works of art contained in the Vatican. The galleries and
museums of the Vatican contain a number of priceless master-
pieces in addition to those which were mentioned above in the
historical survey. It will be sufficient to mention in the gallery
of paintings Raphael's "Transfiguration," and among more recent
pictures the splendid portrait of George IV. by Lawrence, sent
VATICAN
by that king as a gift to Pius VII.; in the galleries of sculpture the
Hercules in gilt bronze from the Theatre of Pompeii, the Laocoon,
the Apollo Belvedere, the Belvedere Torso, which Michelangelo
admired, and the Augustus and Doryphore of the "Braccio
Nuovo"; in the other galleries, the tapestries designed by Ra-
phael and carried out in the workshops of Van Aelot at Brussels.
RELIGIOUS SERVICES
The religious services carried out in the basilica and in the
Vatican palace are of a special character, both by their nature and
by the fact that the pope takes part in them.
The basilica of St. Peter does not occupy the first place
among Catholic churches from the hierarchical point of view.
The first Catholic church is the basilica of St. John Lateran, which
is the cathedral of the popes. At the same time, the basilica of
St. Peter undoubtedly occupies the first place in the minds of
Catholics and in the tradition of Christendom as a whole, both as
an object of veneration and as an artistic monument.
The Vatican basilica is served by a chapter of canons and by
a large body of clergy, at the head of whom is a cardinal with the
title of archpriest. The archpriest has ordinary or episcopal
jurisdiction over the clergy attached to the cathedral. The canons
of the Vatican basilica are, in virtue of their office, supernumerary
apostolic protonotaries, i.e., members of a special category of
the highest college of the prelacy. As a general rule, some of
them are bishops. Seventeen popes have been elected from among
their number: Adrjan I. (772-795); Leo III. (795-816); Pascal
I. (817-824); Leo IV. (847-855); Benedict III. (855-858);
Nicholas I., called the Great (858-867); Stephen VI. (885-891);
Innocent III., of the family of the Counts of Segni (1198-1216);
Gregory IX., of the family of the Counts of Segni (1227-1241);
Nicholas IH.-Orsini (1277-1280); Boniface VHI.-Caetani (1294-
1303); Paul II.-Barbo (1464-1471); Clement IX.-Albani (1700-
1721); Benedict XIV.-Lambertini (1740-1758); Pius VL-Bras-
chi (1775-1799); Leo XII.-Dclla Genga (1823-1829); and the
present Pope Pius XI.-Ratti, elected in 1922.
In addition to the usual services carried out in the cathedral,
certain specially solemn ceremonies, which can only be carried
out by the pope, are sometimes held. These are beatifications,
canonizations, and Holy Years.
Beatifications and Canonizations.— Since the time of Alex-
ander III. beatifications and canonizations have been carried out
exclusively by the pope. The rite of beatification consists in the
reading of a papal brief proclaiming the new Blessed, and the
first act of "cultus" towards his image and relics. The brief is
read in the presence of the cardinal archpriest and the Vatican
chapter, the cardinal prefect and the other cardinals who are
members of the Congregation of Rites. In the afternoon of the
same day the pope goes to the basilica accompanied by his court
and the Sacred College of Cardinals, prays before the statue of
the new Blessed, and receives the Benediction of the Holy Sacra-
ment. The rite of canonization is of a much more solemn char-
acter. The pope himself proclaims the new saint after three
"postulations" made by the "Consistorial Advocates" each of
which is followed by special prayers asking for the help of the
other saints and for light from the Holy Ghost in the solemn
act which the pope is about to carry out. After the proclamation
of the new saint the pope celebrates the pontifical Muss.
Holy Years. — The Holy Years or Jubilees take place every 25
years. The special rite which then takes place is the passage of
the Faithful through a special door called the Holy Door, which
exists in the four great basilicas, St. John Lateran, St. Peter's,
St. Paul's-Outside-the-Walls and St. Mary's Major. These doors
are always walled up except in the Jubilee Year. The Holy
Door of the Vatican basilica is opened at the beginning of the
Holy Year and closed at the end of it by the pope in person.
On the eve of the Festival of St. Peter in each year, the pope
blesses the palliums in St. Peter's. The palliums are white
woollen stoles embroidered with small black crosses which arch-
bishops wear around their necks as a symbol of communion with
the Holy See. When the palliums have been blessed by the pope,
they are preserved in a coffer near St. Peter's tomb, and are only
taken out to be sent to new archbishops on their election.
Relics. — The Vatican basilica also contains certain relics which
are specially venerated by Catholics. The most famous of these
is the Veronica. This is a veil with which, according to a tradition
going back to the first centuries A.D. a pious woman named Veron-
ica wiped the Face of Our Lord as He went up to Calvary carrying
His Cross. The Saviour's Image is believed to have remained im-
printed on the veil. Another equally famous relic is the lance
with which the soldier mentioned in the Gospels pierced the Heart
of Christ on the Cross. The point of the lance is said to have
been preserved by the early Christians and concealed during the
period of the conquest of Palestine by the Mohammedans. It was
discovered at Antioch at the period of the first crusade, and fell
into the hands of the Mohammedans when they reconquered the
Holy Land. The Sultan Bajazet II. presented it to Pope Innocent
VIII. in 1492. It was brought by a special messenger and was
received by the pope with a magnificent ceremony which is de-
scribed with admiration by the chroniclers of the day. These relics
are preserved in one of the four small chapels cut by Bernini in
the great piers supporting the dome. They are shown to the con-
gregation in the basilica from the balcony of this chapel at the
great festivals of the Church. In the case of the Veronica, in par-
ticular, this v'ostension" has taken place from the earliest days.
Dante refers to the ceremony in the 3ist canto of his "Paradiso."
Another ceremony which takes place exclusively in the Vatican
basilica is the washing (lavanda) of the principal altar with wine
and water. This is done on the evening of Holy Thursday after
the singing of the Tenebrae by the cardinal archpriest and the
chapter.
Papal Coronations. — The coronation of new popes also takes
place as a rule in the basilica of St. Peter. One of the most
characteristic of the coronation rites is the thrice repeated burning
of a wisp of tow before the pope by a master of ceremonies who
chants: "Holy Father, thus passes away the glory of the world."
After the papal Mass, the first cardinal deacon places the tiara
with the three crowns (triregnum) on the head of the new pope,
saying "Receive the tiara with the three crowns, and know that
thou art the Father of kings and princes, the Pastor of the uni-
verse, and the Vicar on earth of Our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom
belongs honour and glory, world without end." The coronation of
Leo XITI. (1878) and of Benedict XV. (1914) did not take place
in St. Peter's but in the Sistine Chapel.
It should also be remembered that all Catholic bishops are
obliged to pay periodical visits ad limina Apostolorum, that is to
say to the threshold of the Apostles' tomb. In order to do this
they go to the basilica of St. Peter and obtain from the canon
who is responsible for this duty a certificate attesting that the
visit has been made. European bishops have to make this visit
every five years, and bishops in other parts of the world every ten
years.
Sistine and Pauline Chapels.-— In the interior of the Vatican
palace, services are held in the Sistine chapel, the Pauline chapel
and the pope's private chapels. The Sistine chapel is reserved
exclusively for papal ceremonies, that is to say those carried out
by the pope in person or in his presence. When the Holy See falls
vacant, the funeral service of the deceased pope is held in the
Sistine chapel, and the meetings at which the voting for the
election of the new pope takes place are also held there.
The Pauline chapel is used exclusively as the place of worship
of the inhabitants of the Holy Apostolic palaces, and is for this
reason the seat of a special internal parish existing to provide for
their spiritual needs. This parish is entrusted to the Augustine
friars, and the parish priest, who bears the title of papal sacristan,
is always of episcopal rank. Sometimes the pope himself attends
specially solemn ceremonies in the Pauline chapel, but in such
cases he is not accompanied by his court.
The pope's private chapels are two in number, one in his official
apartments and one in his private apartments. Important per-
sons, sovereigns or diplomats, are sometimes allowed to hear Mass
in the chapel in the pope's official apartments and to receive the
Sacrament from the pope himself. In the same chapel, on the
fourth Sunday in Lent, the pope blesses the "Golden Rose." This
VATICAN
is a spray of roses carved in gold and supported by a vase, also
of gold, which the pope presents to a sovereign or a member of a
reigning family. In the centre of the principal rose is a small phial
in which the pope places a few drops of musk and balsam; he
then blesses the rose with a special ceremonial. In former times
this ceremony took place once a year, but it is now performed
more rarely. Another special ceremony which the pope performs
every five years, or more frequently if necessary, is the blessing
of the Agnus Dei. These are wax medallions made by the Cister-
cian monks of the Basilica of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem; they
are then blessed by the pope with special rites, and are then dis-
tributed to the faithful, who hold them in special veneration as
pledges of Divine protection.
ORGANIZATION
In addition to its historical and artistic signification, the word
"Vatican" has a metaphorical sense in which it stands for the
central authority of the Catholic Church, or in other words the
pope, with the hierarchical power vested in his person, the admin-
istration of the Church, the papal curia, and all the representatives
of the Holy See throughout the world.
The hierarchical power of the Catholic Church, though shared
in different degrees among those to whom it is entrusted (the
lower clergy and bishops), is centralized in the person of the pope
as its source. It is true that the Roman Church includes among its
dogmas the divine institution of the priesthood in two different
degrees (priests and bishops), and recognises the validity of
orders conferred even outside its communion provided that the
transmission of the priestly office has not been interrupted; but it
only admits the transmission as legitimate if it is made by a
bishop subject to the supreme authority of the successor of St.
Peter, the prince of Apostles and the vicar of Our Lord. Thus the
Vatican, as the place which contains St. Peter's tomb and the seat
of his successors, the bishops of Rome, sums up and symbolizes,
in the minds of Catholics, all that is connected with the dignity,
authority and power of their Church.
Cardinals.— The Vatican, being the actual residence of the
pope, is also the legal seat of the Sacred College of Cardinals,
since they are the advisers most closely attached to the pope's
person and form with him a single moral entity. The cardinals
were originally the bishops of the districts immediately surround-
ing Rome, and the priests and deacons of the churches of the city,
who formed as it were the council of the bishop of Rome. Little
by little, as the administrative machinery was developed and
perfected, the highest dignitaries and the most distinguished
ecclesiastics of the Catholic Church, not only of Rome and Italy
but of all nations, were summoned by the pope (who has the sole
right of appointing cardinals) to form part of the Sacred College.
The cardinals meet at the Vatican whenever they are summoned
by the pope to hold a collective council or Consistorium. For-
merly all ecclesiastical affairs of any importance were discussed in
the Consistorium, where each cardinal had to state his opinion on
the subject under consideration. As business accumulated, how-
ever, this system gave rise to a number of difficulties, and in 1587
Sixtus V., doing what Paul III. had done for the Holy Office and
Pius IV. for the application of the rules laid down by the Council
of Trent, classified all business into a certain number of categories
and entrusted each category to a group or committee of cardinals
selected for their special competence.
Congregations. — This was the origin of the Roman Congrega-
tions, which are to this day the usual organs for the administration
and discipline of the Catholic Church. Their number and organiza-
tion have frequently varied. In addition to the Congregations set
up by Sixtus V., Urban VIII. created the Congregation de Propa-
ganda Fide, which deals with missions, and Pius VII. that of
"Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs," which is entrusted with
questions of diplomatic relations with States. The most important
reform in the constitution of the Roman Congregations was that
introduced by Pius X. in 1908. They are now definitely regulated
by the code of canon law promulgated by Benedict XV. in 1917.
Meetings of the cardinals belonging to the different Congregations
are always held at the Vatican, except those of the Congregations
of the Holy Office and of the Propagation of the Faith, which have
their own palaces. The decisions of the Congregations are always
subject to the approval of the sovereign pontiff.
In addition to the Congregations which exercise its administra-
tive power and carry out its decisions, the Vatican has three
tribunals which exercise its judicial power: the Poenitentiaria, a
special court which judges questions of conscience and has no
authority except over the conscience of the individual, the Sacra
Romana Rota and the Signatura Apostolica, which possess external
authority.
The Rota and the Signatura.— The Rota, which has an Ex-
tremely brilliant tradition in the legal world, consists of a College
of Prelates Auditors who, grouped in threes according to seniority,
form a number of judicial commissions which give judgmpnt on
all matters coming under ecclesiastical law.
It is because of its organization in a number of groups that this
tribunal is known as the Rota. Most of the cases with which it
deals are of a matrimonial character, for although the Roman
Church maintains without any exception the indissolubility of a
marriage contracted and consummated, it does not refuse to con-
sider cases in which it can be shown that there existed at the origin
of the marriage a defect or impediment which made it invalid and
null. In such cases the Church, though it cannot declare a marriage
dissolved, can declare it null. The Rota meets at the Vatican
every year for the opening of its discussions. After the Mass of
the Holy Spirit has been celebrated in the Pauline chapel, the Rota
is received by the pope, who makes a speech inaugurating the
juridical year.
The tribunal of the Signatura is composed of cardinals, who
consider appeals lodged against decisions of the Rota. It cannot
decide on the merits of the question, but may consider whether
there has been any error of procedure sufficiently important for
the case to be referred back to the Rota, where it will be consid-
ered by other judges than those who dealt with it the first time.
The Secretariat of State.— Other bodies forming part of the
administrative machinery of the Church are the offices of the
Vatican, the chief of which is the secretariat of State. This office
is directly controlled by the cardinal secretary of State, whose
position in relation to the pope corresponds to that of a prime
minister. The secretariat of State is the most definitely political
organ of the Vatican. With the assistance of the Congregation of
Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, which is specially connected
with it, it deals with all business connected with relations between
the Holy See and the various Governments. The cardinal secretary
of State and his office are responsible for everything having to do
with the concordats, with diplomatic relations, with the nomination
of bishops, and all matters in which some measure of agreement
with the civil authority is necessary, and with the instructions to
be given to the Faithful on questions relating to national political
life. Every day, before dealing with other business, the pope
receives the cardinal secretary of State or one of the prelates
responsible for the various branches of the secretariat of State. It
is for this reason that the only cardinal who resides in the Vatican
is the secretary of State, and the only ecclesiastical administrative
office which has its headquarters at the Vatican is the secretariat
of State. When in everyday speech reference is made to the
attitude or policy of the Vatican, what is meant is generally the
activity of the secretariat of State or the papal diplomacy for
which the secretariat is directly responsible.
Representatives of the Vatican*— The Vatican exercises its
authority not only through its central organs, but also through
permanent or temporary representatives.
The permanent representatives of the Vatican or, more cor-
rectly, of the Holy See, are divided into two main categories,
those of a diplomatic character and those of a purely ecclesiastical
character. The first category includes nuncios and inter-nuncios,
and the second the Apostolic delegations.
Nuncios. — The distinction between nuncios and inter-nuncios
corresponds to that between ambassadors and ministers-pleni-
potentiary of lay Governments. Nuncios are of two degrees — the
first or the second — according to the actual or historical impor-
tance of their post. As a general rule they possess the rank of
8
VATICAN
archbishop. Nuncios of the first class complete their diplomatic
careers by their elevation to the rank of cardinal. According to
the decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815) papal nuncios are
regarded as the doyens of the diplomatic corps to which they be-
long, and therefore have precedence over all other members of
the diplomatic corps.
Since the World War there has been a great increase in the
number of nuncios and inter-nuncios, and reciprocally in the num-
ber of ambassadors and ministers accredited to the Vatican. The
important part played by the Vatican during the World War
will be remembered. It is for this reason that many of the States
which were created or enlarged as a result of the War have shown
anxiety to maintain continuous relations with the Head of the
Catholic Church, and that certain Powers which had broken off
relations have decided to renew them.
At the end of 1928 the Vatican had 27 diplomatic representa-
tives: 21 nuncios (Germany, Argentina, Austria, Bavaria, Bel-
gium, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Spain, France, Hungary,
Peru, Poland, Portugal, Prussia, Rumania, Switzerland, Czecho-
slovakia, Venezuela, Yugoslavia) and 6 inter-nuncios (Central
America [including the republics of Costa Rica, Honduras, Nica-
ragua, Panama and San Salvador], Haiti, Netherlands, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg). Thirty diplomatic representatives are
accredited to the Vatican: 9 ambassadors (Germany, Argentina,
Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Spain, France, Peru, Poland) and 21
ministers (Austria, Bavaria, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Great
Britain, Haiti, Hungary, Latvia, Liberia, Lithuania, Monaco, Nica-
ragua, Portugal, Prussia, Rumania, San Marino, San Salvador,
Czechoslovakia, Venezuela, Yugoslavia).
Apostolic Delegates. — The other category of representatives
to the Vatican consists of the Apostolic delegates. These prelates
have, as a rule, the rank of archbishop, and represent the Holy
See, not with the civil authorities, but with the bishops of the
country to which they are sent.
At the end of 1928 there were 19 apostolic delegations falling
into three categories according to the Roman Congregations
to which they are subordinate: the Consistorial Congregation is
responsible for the delegations to the Antilles, Canada and New-
foundland, to Estonia, United States of America, Mexico and
the Philippines. The Congregation of the Propagation of the
Faith is responsible for the delegations, to South Africa, Albania,
Australia, China, Greece, India, Indo-China and Japan. The
Congregation for the Eastern Church is responsible for the dele-
gations to Constantinople, Egypt and Arabia, Mesopotamia, Kurd-
istan and Armenia, Asia Minor, Persia and Syria.
Other Missions. — The Vatican is sometimes represented in
particular parts of the world by prelates who are sent on tempo-
rary missions. These are known as Apostolic Visitors. On certain
occasions, generally at religious festivals, the Vatican is repre-
sented by cardinals sent by the pope with the title of legates
a latere. Sometimes again cardinal-legates have been sent to dis-
cuss religious affairs of the highest importance with sovereigns or
heads of States. Thus Cardinal Campeggio was sent as legate to
Henry VIII. by Clement VII., Cardinal Pole to Mary Tudor by
Julius III. and Cardinal Caprara to Bonaparte by Pius VII. after
the signature of the concordat of 1801 to settle various questions
connected with the concordat.
THE VATICAN COURT
The papal court, which centres round the person of the pope in
the Vatican, is essentially of an ecclesiastical character. At the
same time, however, it maintains a magnificence of ceremonial
which derives its origin from ancient tradition and from the re-
lations which the papacy has always maintained with the highest
secular powers.
The Vatican court is divided into two main categories; the papal
chapel and the papal household. The first includes the prelates
and dignitaries who take part in the religious ceremonies which
the pope attends; the second consists of those who have other
duties to perform in the pope's entourage. The papal chapel
naturally includes all the cardinals and bishops, while the papal
household consists solely of the cardinals called the "cardinals
palatine'' (the Datary and the secretary of State) and those
bishops who belong to the papal antechamber, such as the privy
almoner and the papal sacristan. The latter is the parish priest of
the Vatican palace. Most of the persons who hold honorary posts
in connection with the Vatican belong to both categories.
When the papal court appears as a whole, in procession before
the pope, at specially solemn religious ceremonies, either in the
Vatican basilica or in the Sistine chapel, it provides a spectacle
of dazzling splendour, notable both for its variety and for the
splendour of the costumes. It includes the cardinals and bishops
wearing their cappae magnae trimmed with ermine or their gold-
embroidered ecclesiastical vestments, as well as Roman princes
with cloaks edged with priceless lace, chamberlains ''of cloak
and sword" in Spanish i6th century costume, prelates in violet
soutanes, knights of Malta in scarlet tunics, officers in armour of
steel damascened with gold, and the Swiss Guards in their blue,
red and yellow uniform which was designed by Michelangelo.
Last in the long procession comes the pope, who is carried on the
sedia %estatoria which is a sort of throne on a portable plat-
form, carried on the shoulders of 12 servants wearing liveries of
crimson damask. One on each side of the throne are two privy
chamberlains carrying flabelli or immense fans adorned with
ostrich feathers. Above the sedia is a canopy of cloth of silver, the
golden supports of which are borne by eight prelates.
All classes and all ecclesiastical, military and civil orders which
have relations with the Vatican are represented in this magnificent
procession. A number of specially chosen bishops assist the jjope
and constitute the College of Bishops Assistant to the Papal
Throne. The Superiors and Procurators of the religious orders
also have their place in the procession. The heads of the two chief
aristocratic Roman families, Prince Colonna and Prince Orsini,
take it in turns to assist the pope, and are therefore known as the
Princes Assistant to the Papal Throne. Other members of the
highest aristocracy of Rome also hold hereditary offices. Prince
Chigi is always Marshal of the Holy Roman Church, and Per-
petual Guardian of the Conclave. Prince Massimo is always
Minister of the Papal Posts (in the old sense of the word posts,
which referred to the journeys of the pope when he travelled by
post), Prince Ruspoli is always Grand Master of Hospitality (that
is to say the person responsible for arranging for hospitality to
sovereigns or princes who are the guests of the pope), Marquis
Sacchetti is always Grand Quartermaster, or superintendent of the
technical services of the Vatican, Marquis Patrizi is always
Vexillifer or Standard-bearer of the Church, Marquis Serlupi is
always Master of the Horse. The protection of the pope's person
is entrusted to the papal guard, which consists of cadets of the
noble families of the former Papal States, and is always com-
manded by a Roman prince. The pope's escort is the Swiss Guard,
a corps instituted by Julius II. and consisting of Swiss citizens
recruited from all cantons of the Swiss Confederation. Originally
they were only recruited from the canton of Lucerne. There is
always a guard of honour recruited from among the citizens of
Rome (Guardia Palatina d'onore). A corps of police known as
the Gendarmeria Pontificia is responsible for maintaining order
in the Vatican palace.
The papal court also includes a number of ecclesiastical posts
which are always entrusted to members of certain religious orders.
The Master of the Sacred Palaces, or Theologian of the Papal
Court, is always a Dominican; the Sacristan, or priest of the
Apostolic Palaces, is always an Augustine Friar; the Apostolic
Preacher who preaches the Advent and Lent sermons in the
presence of the pope and his court is always a Capuchin; the
Confessor to the Papal Household is always a Servite.
Papal ceremonies are always attended by the diplomatic corps
accredited to the Holy See, the Roman patriciate and nobility,
and the Knights of Malta and of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre,
for whom special tribunes are provided.
HOLY SEE VACANCY
Special interest attaches to the procedure which is followed in
the Vatican at times when the Holy See is vacant — Sede vacante,
in the Latin phrase. During such intervals between two pon-
VATICAN
tificates the Sacred College of Cardinals takes over the work
of ecclesiastical administration. Detailed rules are laid down for
what is to be done during vacancies; the procedure has repeatedly
been modified and improved by successive popes. All previous
rules were abrogated by the Constitutions of Leo XIII. (May 24,
1882) and Pius X. (Dec. 25, 1904), which are incorporated in
the code of canon law.
The Conclave.— Under these constitutions the seat of the
cardinals during the vacancy of the Holy Sec and the conclave is
the Vatican palace. The cardinal camerlengo of the Holy Roman
Church, who is the personal representative of the Sacred College
in the ordinary administration, takes up his residence there;
wherever he goes in the palace he is escorted by the Swiss Guards.
Every morning, from the death of the pope to the opening of the
conclave, all the cardinals meet in the hall of the Consistorium to
hold a congregation, that is to say to consult on current business.
Assembled in that hall they receive the condolences of the diplo-
matic corps and of the Order of the Knights of Malta. The
general congregation deals with the most important business, and
in addition a special congregation meets daily to transact affairs
of minor importance; it consists of the three cardinals who are
respectively senior in each of the three hierarchical orders repre-
sented in the College of Cardinals (bishops, priests and deacons)
as well as of the cardinal camerlengo. At the first general con-
gregation the seals of the deceased pope (the Fisherman's Ring
and the leaden seal of the Apostolic Chancellery used for the
sealing of Bulls) arc handed over to the Sacred College and are
at once broken.
On nine consecutive days the obsequies of the pope (called for
this reason novendialia) are celebrated; on the first six days the
services are held in the Vatican basilica and on the last three in
the Sistine chapel. At the last service the deceased pope's funeral
sermon is preached by a prelate. Up till the last conclave, at which
Pius XI. was elected, the cardinals entered into conclave one day
after the novendialia. In order however to give the cardinals
from the most distant parts of the world, such as America and
Australia, time to reach Rome, the present pope has increased
the interval between the death of the pope and the opening of the
conclave to 18 days. On the morning of the day on which they
go into conclave, the cardinals meet in the Pauline chapel to hear
the Mass of the Holy Spirit celebrated by the doyen of the
cardinals, and to listen to a sermon preached by a prelate on the
election of the pope.
During the conclave the Vatican palace is closed, and all con-
tact with the outside world is cut off by the walling up of the
doors giving access to it. The walls are pierced by rotas or turning-
boxes similar to those of enclosed monasteries, through which it is
possible to pass objects without seeing the person to whom they
are passed, and to converse provided that the voice is raised.
The guardianship of the rotas is entrusted to the prelates of the
different colleges, and in particular to the clerks of the Apostolic
Chamber, who carry out minor administrative functions in the
Vatican while the Holy See is vacant. These prelates decide in
what cases persons may be authorized to converse with the
cardinals through the rotas, are present at such conversations, and
inspect all objects which it is desired to introduce into the con-
clave. The conclave is guarded from the outside by the prince
marshal of the Holy Roman Church, an hereditary office vested in
the Chigi family, and the prelate at the head o'f the papal court
(the major-domo or master of the chamber). Within the Vatican
are only the cardinals with their secretaries or "conclavists," the
masters of the ceremonies, certain other ecclesiastics who are
entrusted with definite duties, doctors, and the service staff. All
matters connected with the conclave are directed by the secretary
of the Sacred College and the prefect of papal ceremonies. The
admission of each person who resides within the precincts of the
conclave must be considered and approved in advance by the
general congregation of cardinals. The interior of the Vatican
palace is divided into a number of small apartments (cellae)
corresponding to the number of cardinals; each cardinal is allotted
his apartment by lot.
The Election.— Voting takes place in the Sistine chapel, in
which a number of small thrones, one for each cardinal, have been
placed along the lateral walls for the occasion. Each throne is
surmounted by a canopy which is violet in colour in the case of
those cardinals created by the deceased pope, and green in the
case of those created by previous popes. Immediately after the
election has taken place, all the canopies are removed except
that over the throne of the cardinal who has been elected pope.
In one corner of the chapel there is placed a stove in which the
masters of the ceremonies burn the voting papers immediately
after each vote. The stove has a small iron pipe which passes
out through one of the windows of the chapel. The smoke
(sfumata) which issues from the pipe enables the crowd assembled
on the Piazza of St. Peter to guess how the voting has gone; for
when the election is complete, straw is added to the voting papers
before they are burned so as to make the smoke thicker arid more
visible, and thus to intimate that the new pope has been elected.
As soon as the elected cardinal has accepted the pontificate, the
first cardinal deacon proceeds to the central balcony in the facade
of St. Peter's, and announces to the populace the election of the
pope and the name that he has chosen. Soon afterwards the new
pope himself, wearing the pontifical robes (for before the first
vote took place three sets of robes of different sizes were placed
in readiness in a cabinet adjoining the Sistine chapel) appears at
the same balcony and gives his first benediction to the crowd
assembled on the Piazza. After 1870, on account of the occupa-
tion of Rome by the Italian Government, Popes Leo XIIL, Pius
X. and Benedict XV. gave their benediction from the interior
balcony of the Vatican basilica. Pius XL returned to the older
practice, and gave the benediction from the exterior balcony,
stating that he did so as a token of peace towards the whole world.
On the day that the election has taken place the conclave is opened
and the cardinals return to their homes. The coronation of the
new pope takes place a few days later in the basilica of St. Peter,
the day being fixed by the pope himself. If the new pope does
not possess episcopal rank — the last occasion on which this oc-
curred was the election of Gregory XVI. in 1831 — the privilege
of consecrating him belongs to the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.
(E. Pu.)
THE LATERAN TREATY
The Lateran treaty between the Holy See and Italy, signed
Feb. n, 1929, like all reconciliations that need careful exploration
of the difficulties to be surmounted, demanded powers of negotia-
tion of no mean order. At the outset, the conditions for such nego-
tiations were of a favourable character, as Mussolini (q.v.) and
his Government were also animated with the desire to end the
Roman Question, perhaps being not unmindful of the oft-quoted
words of Crispi, who said that the politician who settled the
Roman Question would go down in history as Italy's greatest
statesman. The treaty was ratified June 7, 1929.
The Negotiators. — While the supreme motive power that
brought about the historic reconciliation came from Pope Pius
XL and Mussolini, no account of the great event would be com-
plete without acknowledging the work of the negotiators of the
treaty for the Vatican: Cardinal Gasparri, papal secretary of
State; Mgr. Joseph Pizzardo, assistant secretary of State; Mgr.
Borgongini Duca, secretary of extraordinary affairs; and Prof.
Francesco Pacelli, legal adviser of the Vatican.
If only because he came into the full blaze of the limelight on
account of being co-signatory with Mussolini of the treaty,
Cardinal Gasparri's name is the one which is best, known to the
general public. But his reputation as a statesman stood very high
before this event. Born in 1857 at Capovailanza di Ussita, he
was ordained in 1877, and subsequently held the position of pro-
fessor of canon law at the Propaganda college. In 1894 he was
created a domestic prelate, and four years later he attained
archiepiscopal rank and became apostolic delegate to Peru and
Bolivia. Made a cardinal in 1907, Pope Benedict XV. appointed
him secretary of State in Oct. 1914. In 1922 Pius XL appointed
him chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church.
Non-Interference.— Those who fear "Vatican interference'*
as a result of the renewal of papal sovereignty will be able to set
IO
VATICAN CITY— VATICAN COUNCIL
their fears at rest if they will take the trouble to examine the
treaty and the declarations that accompanied its signature. The
pertinent clause states': "that the Vatican wishes to remain, and
will remain, extraneous to the temporal competitions between
other States, as well as international congresses convened for this
purpose, unless the parties in conflict appeal unanimously to its
mission of peace, and reserves the right in any case to the exercise
of its moral and spiritual power." In consequence of this, the
Vatican territory will always be considered neutral and inviolable.
On the ratification of the treaty, normal diplomatic relations
were established by accrediting an Italian ambassador to the Holy
See and an apostolic nuncio to Italy — the dean of the Diplomatic
Corps, according to the customary procedure as recognized by
the Congress of Vienna in 1815. (See also PAPACY; Pius XL;
ITALY.)
VATICAN CITY, the title of the newly-created State of
which Pope Pius XL became sovereign on the ratification of the
Lateran treaty, signed Feb. n, and ratified June 7, 1929. (See
THE VATICAN; PAPACY; Pius XL; ITALY.)
VATICAN COUNCIL, THE, of 1869 and 1870, the last
oecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, and the most
important event in her historical development since the Triden-
tine synod. The preliminaries were surrounded by the closest
secrecy. As early as the end of the year 1864, Pius IX. had com-
missioned the cardinals resident in Rome to tender him their
opinions as to the advisability of a council. The majority pro-
nounced in favour of the scheme, dissentient voices being rare.
After March 1865 the convocation of the council was no longer
in doubt. Thirty-six carefully selected bishops of diverse national-
ities were privately interrogated with regard to the tasks which,
in their estimation, should be assigned to the prospective as-
sembly. Some of them proposed, inter alia, that the doctrine of
papal infallibility should be elevated to the rank of a dogma. In
public, however, Pius IX. made no mention of his design till the
26th of June 1867, when Catholic bishops from every country
were congregated round him in Rome on the occasion of the
great centenary of St. Peter. On the 29th of June 1868 the bull
Aeterm Patris convened the council to Rome, the date being
fixed for the 8th of December 1869. And since the Roman
Catholic Church claims that all baptized persons belong to her,
special bulls were issued, with invitations to the bishops of the
Oriental Churches, to the Protestants and to the other non-
Catholics, none of which groups complied with the request.
The object of the Council was long a mystery. The Bull of
Convocation was couched in general terms, and specified no
definite tasks, The first revelation was given, in February
1869, by an article in the Civilta Cattolica, a periodical conducted
under Jesuit auspices. It was there stated, as the view of many
Catholics in France, that the council would be of very brief
duration, since the majority of its members were in agreement.
As a presumptive theme of the deliberations, it mentioned inter
alia the proclamation of papal infallibility. The whole proceeding
was obviously an attempt, from the Jesuit side, to gauge the
prevalent opinion with regard to this favourite doctrine of ultra-
montanism. The repudiation was energetic and unmistakable,
especially in Germany. Certain articles on "The Council and the
Civilta," published by Dollinger in the Allgemeine Zeitung,
worked like a thunderbolt.
In, France also a violent conflict broke out. Here it was prin-
cipally the writings of Bishop Maret of Paris (Du concile gtntral
et de la palx religieiise, 2 vols., 1869), and of Bishop Dupanloup
of Orleans, which gave expression to the prevalent unrest, and
led to those literary controversies in which Archbishop Manning
of Westminster and Dechamps of Mechlin came forward to
champion the opposite cause. In Italy the freethinkers con-
sidered the moment opportune for renewing their agitations on a
larger scale. That the projected dogma had weighty oppo-
nents among the higher clergy of Austria-Hungary, Italy and
North America was demonstrated during the progress of the
council; but before it met all was quiet in these countries.
Organization. — The Roman see exercised a more pronounced
influence on the Vatican Council than upon any previous one. As
early as the year 1865 a committee of cardinals had been formed
as a "special directive congregation for the affairs of the future
general council," a title which was usually abbreviated to that
of "Central Commission." Among the earliest preliminaries, a
number of distinguished theologians and canonists were retained
as consultors to the council. The General Congregations, presided
over by cardinals, were employed in considering the schemata
(drafts) submitted to the synod; and provisory votes — not re-
garded as binding — were there taken. The Sessions witnessed
the definitive voting, the results of which were to be immediately
promulgated as ecclesiastical law by the pope. The form of this
promulgation was, in itself, sufficiently characteristic; for the
pope was represented as the real agent, while the acknowledg-
ment of the share of the council was confined to the phrase
sacro approbante concilia.
On the 8th of December the first session met, and the council
was solemnly opened by Pius IX. From beginning to end it was
dominated by the "Infallibility" problem.
The first transactions of the council gave proof that numerous
bishops held the theory that their convocation implied the duty
of serious and united work, and that they were by no means
inclined to yield a perfunctory assent to the papal propositions,
which — in part at least — stood in urgent need of emendation.
The Opponents of Infallibility. — However, as the Curia
could rely upon a complacent majority, it resolved to proclaim a
new order of procedure, by means of which it would be pos-
sible to end these unwelcome discussions and quicken the pace of
the council. By the papal decree of the 2oth of February the
influence of the committees was increased and the majority was
allowed to cut short a debate by accepting a motion for its
closure.
The main object, however, of this alteration in procedure was
to ensure that if the council could not be induced to accept the
doctrine of infallibility by acclamation, it should at least do so
by resolution. From the first the general interest was almost ex-
clusively concentrated on this question, which divided the mem-
bers of the synod into two hostile camps. The presence of
striking personalities, whose devotion to the Church was beyond
question — Archbishop Scherr of Munich, Melchers of Cologne,
Bishop Ketteler of Mainz, Bishop Hefele of Rottenburg, Cardinal
Schwarzenberg of Prague, Cardinal Rauscher of Vienna, Arch-
bishop Haynald of Kalossa, Bishop Strossmayer of Sirmium,
Archbishop Darboy of Paris, Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans, to
say nothing of the others — assured this group an influence which,
in spite of itself, the opposing faction was bound to feel.
The Supremacy of the Church.— Among the secret proposi-
tions submitted to the council by the Curia was the schema De
Ecclesia Christi, which was distributed to the members on the
2-ist of January, and which enunciated the superiority of Church
to State in the same drastic terms as in the Syllabtis of Pius IX.
(1864) — a declaration of war against the modern political and
social order, which in its day provoked the unanimous condemna-
tion of public opinion. When, in spite of the injunction of
secrecy, the schema became known outside Rome, its genuineness
was at first impugned ; but as soon as the authenticity of the text
was established beyond the possibility of doubt, this attempt to
dogmatize the principles of the notorious Syllabus excited the
most general indignation, even in the strongholds of Catholicism
— France and Austria.
From the 22nd of February to the i8th of March no meetings
of the General Congregations took place, on account of struc-
tural alterations in the aula itself. During this interval all un-
certainty as to whether the question of infallibility would actually
be broached was dispelled. On the 6th of March a supplemen-
tary article to the schema De Ecclesia, dealing with the primacy
of the Roman see, was transmitted to the members, and in it the
much disputed doctrine received formal expression.
The Triumph of Ultramontanism. — Meanwhile* the elabo-
ration of the all-important business of the council had been
quietly proceeding. Influenced by the alarming number of amend-
ments to the schema De Ecclesia, and anxious above all to
ensure an early acceptance for the dogma of infallibility, the
VATICAN STATE— VAUBAN
ii
papal Committee resolved to eliminate everything save the one
question of papal authority.
In the general debate, begun on the i3th of May, Bishop Hefele
of Rottenburg, author of the well-known Konziliengeschickte,
criticized the dogma from the standpoint of history, adducing
the fact that Pope Honorius I. had been condemned by the sixth
oecumenical council as a heretic (680). Others were of opinion
that the doctrine implied a radical change in the constitution of
the Church : one speaker even characterized it as sacrilege. The
contention that the dogma was necessitated by the welfare of the
Church, or justified by contemporary conditions, met with re-
peated and energetic repudiation. The champions of infallibility
were, indeed, confronted with no slight task: — to establish their
theory by Holy Writ and tradition, and to defend it against the
arguments of history. But to them it was no hypothesis waiting
to be verified, but an already existing truth, the possession of
which no extraneous attacks could for a moment affect. On the
3rd of June the general debate was closed.
In the special debate, which dealt with the proposal in detail,
every important declaration with regard to the pope was im-
pugned by one party and upheld by the other; but on the I3th
of July it was found possible to conclude the debate. On that
clay the voting in the Ssth General Congregation, on the whole
schema, showed that, out of 601 members present, 451 had voted
placet, 88 non placet and 62 placet inxta modum. That the num-
ber of prelates who rejected the placet would amount to 150 had
not been expected.
On the 1 8th of July, in the fourth public session, the dogma
was accepted by 535 dignitaries of the Church, and at once pro-
mulgated by the pope; only two members repeated their non
placet, and these submitted in the same session. The council
continued its labours for a few more weeks, but its main achieve-
ment was over, and the remainder of its time was occupied with
affairs of secondary importance. When, coincident with the out-
break of the Franco-German War, the papal state collapsed, the
pope availed himself of the altered situation, and prorogued the
council by the bull Postquam Dei munere (October 20). The
Italian government at once protested against his statement that
the liberties of the council would be prejudiced by the incorpora-
tion of Rome into the kingdom of Italy.
The Pope and the Church. — The resolutions of the Vatican
Council entirely revolutionized the position of the pope within the
Church. He is first accredited with "complete and supreme juris-
dictionary authority over the whole Church, not simply in matters
of faith and morality, but also in matters touching the discipline
and governance of the Church ; and this authority is a regular and
immediate authority, extending over each and every Church and
over each and every pastor and believer" (Sessio iv. cap. 3, fin.;
Mirbt, Quellen, p. 380).
Again, the dogma implies a fundamental change in the position
of oecumenical councils, which, in conjunction with the papacy,
had till then been supposed to constitute the representation of
the Roman Catholic Church.
The Church and Governments. — in the sphere of politics
also the Vaticanum was attended by important results. The
secular governments could not remain indifferent to the prospect
that the proclamation of papal infallibility would invest the dicta
of the mediaeval popes, as to the relationship between Church
and State, with the character of inspired doctrinal decisions, and
confer dogmatic authority on the principles enunciated in the
Syllabus of Pius IX. Nor was the fear of these and similar con-
sequences diminished by the proceedings of the council itself.
The result was that on the 30th of July, 1870, Austria annulled
the Concordat arranged with the Curia in 1855. In Prussia the
so-called Kulturkampf broke out immediately afterwards, and
in France the synod so accentuated the power of ultramontanism,
that, in late years, the republic has taken effectual steps to curb
it by revoking the Concordat of 1801 and completely separating
the Church from the State.
The general position of Roman Catholicism was consolidated
by the Vatican Council in more respects than one; for not only
did it promote the centralization of government in Rome, but the
process of unification soon made further progress, and the at-
tempts to control the intellectual and spiritual life of the Church
have now assumed dimensions which, a fow decades ago, would
have been regarded as anachronistic.
See also article "Vatican Council" in the Catholic Encyclopedia.
The most important collections of the acta are: Collectio Lacensis,
tome vii. (Freiburg, 1890) ; E. Friedberg, Sammlung der Aktenstiicke
zum ersten Vatikanischen Konzil (Tubingen, 1872) ; J. Friedrich,
Documenta ad illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum (Nordllngen, 1871).
For the dogmatic resolutions see also C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte
des Papsttums (ed. 2, Tubingen, 1901), pp. 371-382. For the internal
history of the councils one of the main sources is Quirinus, Romiscke
Brief e vom Konzil (Munich, 1870); also J. Friedrich, Tagebuch
wdhrend des Vatikanischen Konzils (Nordlingcn, 1871); Lord Acton,
Zur Geschichte des Vatikanischen Konziles (Munich, 1871, Eng. in
Hist. Essays, 1907) ; J. Fessler, Das- Vatikanische Concilium (Vienna,
1871) ; Manning, The True Story of the Vatican Council (London,
1877) ; E. Ollivicr, Ufiglise el Vet at an concile du Vatican (2 vols.,
Paris, 1879) > Purcell, Lffe of Cardinal Manning (2 vols., 1896) ; F.
Mourrett, Le Concile du Vatican (1919). (C. Mi.; JC.)
VATICAN STATE, the name created for the territory in
Rome belonging to the Holy See by the Lateran Treaty, signed
by Cardinal Gasparri, on behalf of the Pope, and by the repre-
sentative of the King of Italy, on February TT, 1029.
See ITALY, The Lateran Treaty.
VATSAUK (now LAWKSAWK): see SHAN STATES.
VATTEL, EMERIC (EMER) DE (1714-67) Swiss jurist,
the son of a Protestant minister, was born at Couvct, in the
principality of Neuchatel, on April 25, 1714. He studied at Basel
and Geneva. During his early years his favourite pursuit was
philosophy; and he published in 1741 a defence of Leibnitz's
system against J. P. de Crousaz. In 1746 he obtained from the
elector of Saxony, Augustus III., the title of councillor of embassy,
accompanied with a pension, and was sent to Bern in the capacity
of the elector's minister. Much of his leisure was devoted to
literature and jurisprudence. Vattel's reputation chiefly rests
on his Droit des gens, ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliques d
la condidte et aux affaires des nations et des souverains (Ndu-
chatel, 1758). He died at Neuchatel on Dec. 28, 1767.
VAUBAN, SfcBASTIEN LE PRESTRE DE (1633-
1707), marshal of France, was born at Saint-Leger-Vauban
(Yonne). At the age of ten he was left an orphan in poor cir-
cumstances, and his youth was spent amongst the peasantry of
his native place. At the age of seventeen Vauban joined the regi-
ment of Conde in the war of the Fronde. He was soon offered a
commission which he declined. Conde then employed him in the
fortification of Clermont-en-Argonne. Soon afterwards he was
taken prisoner by the royal troops, and was converted into a
devoted servant of the king. He was employed in the siege of St.
Men6hould and won a lieutenancy, and at Stenay he was twice
wounded. He besieged and took his own first fortress, Clermont;
in May 1655 he became an ingenieur du roi.
After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Vauban improved or rebuilt
various fortresses. Hitherto the characteristic features of his
method of fortification had not been developed, and he followed
the systems of preceding engineers. Colbert and Louvois were
profoundly interested in the work, and it was at the request of
the latter that the engineer drew up in 1669 his Mtmoire ponr
servir d rinstruction dans la condidte des sieges (this, with a
memorandum on the defence of fortresses by another hand was
published at Leiden, 1740). On the renewal of war Vauban con-
ducted the sieges of Rheinbergen and Nijmwegen 1672, Maestricht
and Trier 1673, Besanc,on 1674. He supervised the only defence
in which he ever took part, that of Oudenarde, in 1674.
Vauban's introduction of a systematic approach to strong
places by parallels dates from the siege of Maestricht, and in
principle remains to this day the standard method of attacking
a fortress. After the peace of Nijmwegen more fortresses were
adapted. Vauban became commi$saire-g6ntral des fortifications
on the death of De Clerville, and in 1681 rebuilt the fortress of
Strasbourg. At Saarlouis for the first time appeared Vauban's
"first system" of fortification. He always retained what was of
advantage in the methods of his predecessors. In 1682 his "second
system," which introduced modifications designed to prolong the
resistance of the fortress, began to appear.
12
VAUCLUSE— VAUD
In 1687 Vauban chose Landau as the chief place of arms in
Lower Alsace. But side by side with this development grew up
the far more important scheme of attack. He instituted a company
of miners, and the elaborate experiments carried out under his
supervision resulted in the establishment of all the necessary
formulae for military mining (Traite des mines, Paris, 1740, and
1799; The Hague, 1 744) ; at the siege of Ath in 1697 he employed
ricochet fire for the first time to break down the defence. He
had indeed already used it with effect at Philipsburg in 1688 and
at Namur, but was hindered by the jealousy of the artillery
After the peace of Kyswick Vauban rebuilt or improved other
fortresses, and finally New Breisach, fortified on his ''third sys-
tem"— which he called systeme de Landau perjectionne. His last
siege was that of Old Breisach in 1703, which he reduced in a
fortnight. On Jan. 14, Vauban had been made a marshal of
France, a rank too exalted for the technical direction of sieges, and
his active career came to an end with his promotion. Soon after-
wards appeared his Traitd de I'attaque des places.
But Louis XIV. was now on the defensive, and the war of the
Spanish Succession saw the gradual wane of Vauban's influence,
as his fortresses were taken and retaken. The various captures
of Landau, his chef-d'oeuvre, caused him to be regarded with dis-
favour; he then turned his attention to the defence; but his work
De la defense des places (ed. by General Valaze, Paris, 1829) is
of far less worth than the Attaque, and his ideas on entrenched
camps (Traite des fortifications de campa^nc) were coldly re-
ceived, though they contained the elements of the "detached forts"
system now universal in Europe. He now devoted himself to the
arrangement of the manuscripts (Mes oisivete's) which contained
his reflections on war, administration, finance, agriculture and the
like. In 1689 he made a representation to the king in favour of
the rcpublication of the Edict of Nantes, and in 1698 he wrote
his Projet d'une dix"tc- royale (see Economistes financiers du
XV III* siecle, Paris, 1851), a remarkable work foreshadowing
the principles of the French Revolution.
Vauban was impressed with the deplorable condition of the
peasantry, whose labour he regarded as the main foundation of
all wealth, and protested against unequal taxation and the ex-
emptions of the upper classes. His di#ne* royale, a tax to be im-
partially applied to all classes, was a tenth of all agricultural
produce payable in kind, and a tenth of money chargeable on
manufacturers and merchants. This work was published in 1707,
and instantly suppressed by order of the king. The marshal died
heart-broken at the failure of his efforts a few days after the
publication of the order (March 30, 1707). At the Revolution his
remains were scattered, but in 1808 his heart was found and de-
posited by order of Napoleon in the church of the Invalides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Carnot, £hf>e de Vauban (Paris, 1784) (followed
by a critical Lettre d I'acadtmic, published at La Rochelle, 1785, and
Carnot's reply, Observations sur la lettre, etc., Paris, 1785) ; Goulon,
Mtmoire$ sur I'attaque et defense d'une place (Paris and Hague, 1740;
Amsterdam, 1760; Paris, 1764) ; works by Abbe du Fay (Paris, 1681)
and Chevalier de Cambray (Amsterdam, 1689), from which came
various works in English, French, etc. For an account of these works
and others which appeared subsequently, see Max Jahns, Geich der
Kriegswissenschaften, ii. 1442-47; also Croquez, La citadelle de Lille,
chef-d'oeuvre de Vauban, 1668-70 (1913); Mann, Der Marschall
Vauban und die Volkswirtschaftslehre des Absolutismus (1914).
VAUCLUSE, a department of France, formed in 1793 out
of the countship of Venaissin, the principality of Orange, and a
part af Provence, and bounded by Drome on the north, Basses-
Alpes on the east, Bouches-du-Rhone (from which it is separated
by the Durance) on the south, and Card and Ardeche (from which
it is separated by the Rhone) on the west. It has also an enclave,
the canton of Valreas, in the department of Drome. Pop. (1926)
230,549. Area, 1,381 sq. miles. In the department east to west
chains of the French Alps die down westwards towards the
Rhone; the northernmost includes the Montagne de Lure (5,994
ft.) and Mont Ventoux (6,273 ft.) and is separated from the next,
the Plateau de Saint Christol (4.075 ft.) by the Nesque river; the
river Coulon separates this plateau from the Chaine du Leberon
(3,691 ft.), which in turn, is bounded on the south by the
Durance. The very numerous streams feed irrigation canals. The
climate is that of the Mediterranean region. The valley of the
Rhone suffers from the mistral, a cold and violent wind from
N.N.W.; but the other valleys are sheltered by the mountains,
and produce the oleander, pomegranate, olive, jujube, fig, and
other southern trees and shrubs. The winter average temperature
is about 41° and the summer average temperature 73°.
Wheat and potatoes are the most important crops; sugar-beet,
sorghum, millet, ramie, early vegetables and fruits, notably the
melons of Cavaillon, are cultivated, and also the vine, olive, mul-
berry and tobacco. The truffles of the regions of Apt and Car-
pentras, and the fragrant herbs of the Ventoux range, are re-
nowned. Sheep are the principal live-stock, and mules are also
numerous. Lignite and sulphur are mined; rich deposits of gyp-
sum, fire-clay, ochre, etc., are worked. Beaumes-de-Venise and
Montmirail have mineral springs. The industries include the spin-
ning and weaving of silk, wool and hemp, metal-working, printing
(Avignon), tanning and the making of paper, bricks, tiles, pottery,
glassware and tobacco. The department is served by the P.L.M.
railway, and the Rhone is navigable for 40 m. within it. It is
divided into 3 arrondissements (Avignon, Carpcntras and Ca-
vaillon), 22 cantons and 151 communes. Avignon, the capital, is
the scat of an archbishop. The department belongs to the region
of the XV. army corps and to the acadtmie (educational division)
of Aix, and has its appeal court at Nimes.
The chief towns arc Avignon, Apt, Carpcntras, Cavaillon,
Orange and Vaison (qq.-v.).
VAUD (Gcr. Waadt), a canton of south-western Switzerland,
lying mainly between the Lake of Ncuchatel and the Lake of
Geneva. It is the fourth canton in point of area (see VALAIS),
and occupies 1,238-6 sq.m., of which 85% is reckoned as "pro-
ductive" (forests cover 282-6 sq.m., exceeded only by those of
Berne and the Grisons). Vaud, with 149-8 sq.m. of water surface
of the larger lakes, has over one-quarter of the entire total for
Switzerland; this is largely accounted for by its share of Geneva.
Parts of Neuchatel and Morat contribute to the total, but the
largest lake entirely in Vaud is de Joux (3-6 sq.m.). There are
over 4 sq.m. of glaciers; these and the loftiest summit in the can-
ton (Diablerets, 10,650 ft.) occur in the western Bernese Oberland
(S. Vaud). The canton, of very irregular shape, includes nearly
all of the northern shore of the Lake of Geneva, and stretches
from slightly beyond Bex in the south-east to the Juras on the
north-west. A long, narrow eastern tongue extends past Paycrne
to the Lake of Neuchatel. Just beyond its tip is the Avcnches
region, forming an "enclave" in Fribourg. Parts of Fribourg, in
turn, form "enclaves" within Vaud along the shore of NeuchateL
A strip of the right bank drainage of the Rhone (from just above
Bex to the Lake of Geneva) lies within the canton, but north
and north-east of Lausanne the land is drained by the Broye and
Thiele, of the Aar-Rhine basin.
Vaud, with plains near the lakes, is hilly rather than mountain-
ous, and is well supplied with railways, including a part of the main
Sirnplon line through Bex. Lausanne is an important main-lines
railway centre, and the canton has numerous small-gauge rail-
ways and mountain lines, such as those which connect the north-
:ast shore settlements of the Lake of Geneva with the high lying
resorts of Les Avants, Mont Pelerin and Caux, and those which
link up Bex and Aigle with the Diablerets area. In 1920 the popu-
lation was 317498, of whom 269,606 were French-speaking, 32,049
German-speaking, and 9,524 Italian-speaking, while 264,522 were
Protestants, 46,640 Catholics and 1,803 Jews.
The vineyards (15.4 sq.m.), though showing a considerable
decrease during the 20th century, are still the most extensive in
iwitzerland. White wines predominate; the best come from
Yvorne (near Aigle), while the slopes of La Vaux (east of
Lausanne) produce both red and white wine. Tobacco is grown
n north-east Vaud, particularly near Payerne, and cigars are made
at Grandson. Manufactures, on the whole, are unimportant, but
Ste. Croix, in the Jura, is world-famed for watches, gramophones,
musical boxes and jewellery. The Juras produce limestones and
sandstones, and the canton-owned salt-beds at Bex provide raw
materials for a thriving chemical industry. Vaud is famed for its
health resorts and for its educational establishments; visitors
chiefly frequent Lausanne, Vevey, Montreux and Chateau d'Oex
VAUDEVILLE
in the upper Saane valley. Lausanne academy (founded 1537)
was raised to university rank in 1890, and several t^owns are noted
for important schools; the modernized (i2th century) castle in
Yverdon was the residence and school of Pestalozzi from 1806
to 1825. Lausanne (estimated pop. in 1925, 74>25o) fa the politi-
cal capital and the fifth town in point of size in Switzerland. The
''agglomeration" known as Montreux has 18,250 and Vevey has
12,550. Other important villages or small towns are Yverdon
(8,870), Ste. Croix (5,330), Paycrne (5,300), Nyon (5,300),
Morges (4,675), Saanen (4,550), Aigle (3,840) and Chateau d'Oex
(3,470). Among the interesting historical spots are Avenches (the
largest Roman colony in Helvetia), Grandson (scene of the first
great victory of the Swiss against Charles the Bold in 1476), and
the castle of Chillon (where Bonivard, lay prior of St. Victor, near
Geneva, was imprisoned from 1530 to 1536 for defending the
freedom of Geneva against the duke of Savoy).
The canton is divided into 19 administrative districts and con-
tains 388 communes. The cantonal constitution dates from 1885.
The legislature consists of a Grand Cornell of 203 deputies (one
member to every 450 electors) with an executive conseil d'Jtat of
seven members; both bodies hold office for four years. Six thou-
sand citizens can compel the Government to consider any project,
whether legislative or constitutional; this initiative dates back to
1845. Since iS$$ the referendum has existed in its "facultative"
form (6,000 signatures required) for certain measures, and in its
obligatory form for financial matters. The two members of the
Federal St Under at are named by the Grand Conseil, while the 16
members of the Federal Nationalrat are chosen by a popular vote.
History. — The early history of the main part of the territories
comprised in the present canton is identical with that of south-west
Switzerland generally. The Romans conquered (58 B.C.) the Celtic
Helvetii and so thoroughly colonized the land that it has remained
a Romance-speaking district. It formed part of the empire of
Charlemagne, and of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy (888-
1032), the memory of "good Queen Bertha," wife of King Rudolph
II., being still held in high honour. After the extinction of the
house of Zahringen (1218) the counts of Savoy gradually won the
larger part of it, especially in the days of Peter II., "le petit
Charlemagne" (d. 1268). The bishop of Lausanne (to which place
the see had probably been transferred from Aventicum by Marius
the Chronicler at the end of the 6th century), however, still main-
tained the temporal power given to him by the king of Burgundy,
and in 1125 had become a prince of the empire. (We must be
careful to distinguish between the present canton of Vaud and the
old mediaeval Pays de Vaud: the districts forming the present can-
ton very nearly correspond to the Pays Romand.) In 1536, both
Savoyard Vaud and the bishopric of Lausanne (including Lausanne
and Avenches) were overrun and annexed by Bern. Bern in 1526
sent Guillaume Farel, a preacher from Dauphine, to carry out the
Reformation at Aigle, and after 1536 the new religion was imposed
by force of arms and the bishop's residence moved to Fribourg
(permanently from 1663). Thus the whole land became Protes-
tant, save the district of Echallens. Vaud was ruled very harshly by
bailiffs from Bern. Political feeling was therefore much excited by
the outbreak of the French Revolution, and a Vaudois, F. C. de La-
harpe, an exile and a patriot, persuaded the Directory in Paris to
march on Vaud m virtue of alleged rights conferred by a treaty of
1565. The French troops were received enthusiastically, and the
"Lemanic republic" was proclaimed (Jan. 1798), succeeded by the
short-lived Rhodanic republic, till in March 1798 the canton of
Leman was formed as a district of the Helvetic republic. This cor-
responded precisely with the present canton minus Avenches and
Payerne, which were given to the canton of Vaud (set up in 1803).
The new canton was thus made up of the Bernese conquests of
1475, 1475-76, 1536 and 1555. The constitutions of 1803 and 1814
favoured the towns and wealthy men, so that an agitation went on
for a radical change, which was effected in the constitution of 1831.
Originally acting as a mediator, Vaud finally joined the anti-Jesuit
movement (especially after the Radicals came into power in 1845),
opposed the Sonderbund, and accepted the new federal constitu-
tion of 1848, of which Druey of Vaud was one of the two drafters.
From 1839 to 1846 the canton was distracted by religious strug-
gles, owing to the attempt of the Radicals to turn the Church into
a simple department of State, a struggle which ended in the split-
ting off (1847) of the "free church." In ,1882 the Radicals ob-
tained a great majority, and in 1885 the constitution of 1861 was
revised. (See SWITZERLAND; History.)
VAUDEVILLE, a term that in America is applied to an
entertainment of songs, dances, dramatic sketches, acrobatic
stunts, etc., each of which is announced and presented as a
separate successive performance. In England the nearest corre-
sponding term is "variety theatre'1 (q.v.) ; "vaudeville," rarely
used, is practically synonymous to what in America is generally
known as "musical comedy" or "revue." This article will deal
only with vaudeville as it is known in America.
HISTORY
The American theatrical institution of vaudeville originated in
1883, in Boston, Mass., where a former circus employee, Ben-
jamin Franklin Keith, opened a small museum and show in a
vacant candy store next to the old Adams house in Washington
street. He called his first "theatre" the Gaiety Museum, and its
principal attractions were Baby Alice, a midget weighing ii lb.,
and an ancient (stuffed) "Mermaid." Later among his added
attractions were "The Circassian Beauties," a chicken with a
human face, and a pair of rising young comedians, Weber and
Fields, who performed as a team.
Determined to preserve the general plan of the variety show
and at the same time give it refinement and even distinction,
young Keith went after the best available stage talent, estab-
lished strict rules against all forms of vulgarity on the stage, en-
couraged women and children to patronize his small theatre and
began to advertise and describe his show as "vaudeville." He
put into operation the idea of continuous performances and soon
was able to pay his performers more money than they had been
paid in variety and in this manner began to command the best
talent available. In 1885 Edward F. Albee joined Mr. Keith and
organized the Gaiety Opera Company to present at the lowest
popular price the then new and sensational Gilbert and Sullivan
light operas.
In 1886 the first link in what has become the longest chain of
theatres in the world was added to the parent Boston house, that
of the old museum in Providence ; following this was the purchase
of the old Low's opera house in Providence and the Bijou theatre
in Boston. In Philadelphia Mr. Keith built an up-to-date theatre
which, with the three other flourishing houses at his command,
made possible longer engagements and better salaries to reputable
artists. The four theatres were the nucleus from which was
developed during the next 40 years the great chain including al-
most every city of the United States with a population of 100,000
or more. When B. F. Keith died (1911) vaudeville was already
the most generally patronized American form of stage entertain-
ment. There were in 1928 approximately 1,000 vaudeville
theatres entertaining a daily aggregate of 2,000,000 people with
well-chosen acts, feature motion pictures and news reels in every
State in the United States and every province of Canada.
Early Vaudeville Artists.— Among the early-day geniuses of
variety who became identified with vaudeville were The Four
Cohans, of whom George M. Cohan was one, Montgomery and
Stone, David Warfield and a number of eminent grand opera
stars from Europe. Maurice Barrymore, head of the "Royal
Family" of the American stage was one of the early stars of -tjie
drama to embark in vaudeville. Ethel and Jack Barrymore made
occasional engagements on the big circuits. Mr. and Mrs. Sidney
Drew, Sara Bernhardt, Lenore Ulric, Nazimova, William Favcrs-
ham and hundreds of other great artists of every branch of the
theatre have appeared. Dramatists began to write one-act plays
and dramatic sketches for vaudeville, and there began a general
accession of legitimate actors in short plays.
Growth. — Eastern successes of vaudeville found ready and
able followers elsewhere. Kohl and Middleton started vaude-
ville in Chicago as early as 1886. That same year Gustave
Walters opened the Orpheum theatre in San Francisco and
launched in the Far West a vaudeville circuit which later merged
VAUGELAS— VAUGHAN
with the Keith-Albee organization and which spread and suc-
ceeded with almost equal rapidity in the Middle and Far West.
F. F. Proctor, manager of the famous Twenty-third Street
theatre, New York, changed his policy to continuous vaudeville
in 1893; John J. Murdock opened his Masonic Temple Roof as
a vaudeville theatre in 1898; Oscar Hammerstein made his Vic-
toria theatre, 42nd street and Broadway, New York, a vaudeville
house in 1899; Alex Pantages founded his Northwest Vaudeville
circuit in 1900; F. F. Proctor opened his Fifth Avenue theatre
(formerly Miner's) irt 1900, and Gus Sun started a new Ohio
cifcuit of his own in 1905.
The Keith and Proctor interests joined forces in 1905 to
establish the United Booking Office which became the official
clearing house and engagement bureau for the employment and
booking of vaudeville acts and artists. The great number of minor
circuits, independent owners and as yet divergent interests which
had now entered the vaudeville field, made it necessary to or-
ganize the managers with a view to stabilizing the business,
standardizing contracts, regulating conflicting situations and in-
equalities* as between competing theatres and as between the
employers and employees of vaudeville. In 1916 the National
Vaudeville Artists' Association, Inc., was perfected under the spon-
sorship of leading members of this branch of the profession.
This organization in 1928 listed about 15,000 artists and was
regarded as the model combination of fraternal beneficiary in-
dustrial organizations.
With the increasing interest in motion pictures during the first
three decades of the 20th century, vaudeville houses added pic-
ture features, news-reels, comedies, etc., to their programmes. The
merger of the two major circuits in 1928 — Keith-Albee in the
East and the Orpheum in the West — with the simultaneous ab-
sorption of some of the foremost motion picture producing com-
panies was one of the greatest developments of the institution of
American vaudeville. The miraculous advance of wireless science
as applied to motion pictures, radiography and telephonic and
phonographic recording brought to public attention the possibili-
ties of television (q.v.). Vaudeville was first to envisage the
widening possibilities of this new era of entertainment. The
Pathe-De Mille motion picture producing organization was ab-
sorbed by Keith-Albee; the Film Booking Offices, a motion pic-
ture corporation, was next. With that reinforcement major vaude-
ville added to its resources not only a vast picture producing unit
but also the names and services of a number of pre-eminent
stars of filmdom. The year 1928 witnessed the further expan-
sion of vaudeville with the unification of the Radio-Keith-
Orpheum corporation with the Radio Corporation of America.
Operation. — Vaudeville may be classified as major, minor
or independent circuits — the theatres of the latter being operated
locally in the same manner that local merchants everywhere may
be found operating outside of the great store chain systems of
trade. The major circuit and its affiliated minor circuits co-
operate through the central metropolitan booking offices; also
through the Vaudeville Managers' Protective Association, in
which all classifications of the business are represented. This
association- is also in harmony with the National Vaudeville
Artists' Association, with which it co-operates through a joint
board of arbitration which rules upon contract forms and all
matters of equity as between the employing managers and the
artists employed. The cost of acts is fixed by these contracts and
varies according to the real, or supposed "drawing value" of the
attraction so booked. Celebrity, ability and even notoriety are
considered in estimating the draw-power of vaudeville attraction,
and the higher the cost the more limited must be the engagement
on any circuit. The limitation of the tours of highly expensive
acts is due to the fact that the small towns, poorer neighbour-
hoods and smaller theatres of vaudeville cannot stand the addi-
tional "overhead,"
The arrangement of the programmes in vaudeville theatres is
largely at the discretion of the house manager. The opening act
on the stage is usually a silent (technically called "dumb") act,
as of acrobats, tumblers or one in which the arrival of the audience
will not spoil the effect of the performance. Contrast being
deemed of prime importance, similar acts are not listed next to
one another. Always there is an effort to build the vaudeville
programme towards a climax, so that the most striking and effec-
tive numbers come well down upon the programme.
Every modern vaudeville theatre maintains a complete equip-
ment of stage sets which are at the disposal of visiting artists,
although most important acts carry their own special scenic,
mechanical or decorative necessities, such as athletic apparatus,
trick furniture and those properties essential to the full effect
and success of their own special act. These they carry with them
on tour, and they are handled and placed by the stage crews
which every vaudeville .theatre employs. Touring vaudeville
artists pay their own transportation and maintenance and their
salaries are paid by the local manager of the theatre upon the
conclusion of their immediate engagement in that house.
(E. F. A.) .
VAUGELAS, CLAUDE FAVRE, SEIGNEUR DE, BARON
DE PEROGES (1595-1650), French grammarian and man of letters,
was born at Meximieu (Ain), on Jan. 6, 1595. He became gentlc-
man-in-waiting to Gaston d'Orldans, and continued faithful to
this prince in his disgrace. Vaugelas was among the original
Academicians. In his Remarques sur la langue fran$aise (1647),
he maintained that words and expressions were to be judged by
the current usage of the best society, of which, as an habitue of
the Hotel de Rambouillet, Vaugelas was a competent judge. He
shares with Malherbe the credit of having purified French diction.
His book fixed the current usage, and the classical writers of the
1 7th century regulated their practice by it. Towards the ^nd of
his life Vaugelas became tutor to the sons of Thomas Francis of
Savoy, prince of Carignan. He died in Paris in Feb. 1650.
See Remarques snr la langue franqaise, edited with a key by V.
Conrart, and introductory notes by A. Chassang (Paris, 1880). The
principles of Vaugclas's judgments arc explained in the Etudes critiques
(7C serie) of M. Brunetiere, who regards the name of Vaugelas as a
symbol of all that was done in the first half of the i6th century to
perfect and purify the French language. See also F. Brunot in the
Histoire de la langue et litterature jranfaise of Petit de Julleville.
VAUGHAN, HENRY (1622-1695), called the "Silurist,"
British poet and mystic, was born of an ancient Welsh family
at Newton St. Briget near Scethrog by Usk, Brecknockshire, on
April 17, 1622. From 1632 to 1638 he and his twin brother
Thomas (see next page) were privately educated by Matthew
Herbert, rector of Llangattock. Anthony a Wood says that Henry
was entered at Jesus college, Oxford, in 1638, but the statement
is uncorroborated. He was sent to London to study law, but
turning his attention to medicine, he became a physician, and
settled first at Brecon and later at Scethrog to the practice of his
art. He was regarded, says Wood, as an "ingenious person, but
proud and humorous." It seems likely that he fought on the
king's side in the Welsh campaign of 1645, and was present at
the battle of Rowton Heath.
In 1646 appeared Poems, with the Tenth Satyre of Juvenal
Englished, by Henry Vaughan, Gent. The poems in this volume
are chiefly addressed to "Amorct," and the last is on Priory
Grove, the home of the "matchless Orinda," Mrs. Katharine
Philips. A second volume of secular verse, Olor Iscanus, which
takes its name from the opening verses addressed to the Isca
(Usk), was published by a friend, probably Thomas Vaughan,
without Uie author's consent, in 1651. The preface is dated 1647,
and the reason for Vaughan's reluctance to print the book is to
be sought in the preface to Silex Scintillans: or Sacred Poems and
Pious Ejaculations (1650). There he says: "The first that with
any effectual success attempted a diversion of this foul and over-
flowing stream (of profane poetry) was the blessed man, Mr.
George Herbert, whose holy life and verse gained many pious
converts, of whom I am the least." His other works are The
Mount of Olives: or Solitary Devotions, with a translation, Man
in Glory, from the Latin of Anselm (1652); Flores Solitudinis
(1654), consisting of two prose translations from Nierem-bergius,
one from St. Eucherius and a life of Paulinus, bishop of Nola;
Hermetical Physick, translated from the Naturae Sanctuarium of
Henricus Nollius; Thalia RedMva; The Pass-Times and Diver-
sions of a Country Muse (1678), which includes some of his
VAUGHAN— VAUGHAN WILLIAMS
brother's poems. Henry Vaughan died at Scethrog on April 23,
1695, and was buried in the churchyard of Llansantffraed.
As a poet Vaughan comes latest in the so-called "metaphysical"
school of the iyth century. He is a disciple of Donne, but follows
him mainly as he saw him reflected in George Herbert. He
analyses his experiences, amatory and sacred, with excessive in-
genuity, striking out, every now and then, through his extreme
intensity of feeling and his close observation of nature, lines and
phrases of marvellous felicity. By his mystical outlook on Nature
he no doubt exercised great influence on Wordsworth, who is
known to have possessed a copy of his poems, and it is difficult
to avoid seeing in "The Retreat" the germ of the later poet's
"Ode on Intimations of Immortality." By this poem, with "The
World," mainly because of its magnificent opening stanza, "Be-
yond the Veil," and "Peace," his fame is assured.
The complete works of Henry Vaughan were edited for the Fuller
Worthies Library by Dr. A. B. Grosart in 1871. The Poems of
Henry Vaughan, Silurist, were edited in 1896 (reprint 1905) by
E. K. Chambers, with an introduction by Canon H. C. Becching, for
the Muses' Library; see also an edition by L. C. Martin (Oxford,
1914), and by E. Hulton '(1904); R. Sencourt, Outlying Philosophy.
A literary study of the religious element . . . in the works . . . of
H. Vaughan, etc. (1925); H. W. Wells, The. Tercentenary of Henry
Vaughan (1922).
VAUGHAN, HERBERT (1832-1903), cardinal and arch-
bishop of Westminster, was born at Gloucester on April 15,
1832, the eldest son of lieutenant-colonel John Francis Vaughan,
head of an old Roman Catholic family, the Vaughans of Court-
field, Herefordshire. His mother, a daughter of John Rolls of
The Hendre, Monmouthshire, was intensely religious; and all
the daughters of the family entered convents, while six of the
eight sons took priest's orders, three of them rising to the episco-
pate, Roger becoming archbishop of Sydney, and John bishop of
Sebastopolis. Herbert spent six years at Stonyhurst, and was
then sent to study with the Benedictines at Downside, near Bath,
and subsequently at the Jesuit school of Brugelette, Belgium,
which was afterwards removed to Paris. In 1851 he went to
Rome. After two years of study at the Accademia dei nobili
ecclesiastici, where he became a friend and disciple of Manning,
he took priest's orders at Lucca in 1854. On his return to Eng-
land he became for a period vice-president of St. Edmund's Col-
lege, Ware, at that time the chief seminary for candidates for the
priesthood in the south of England. Since childhood he had been
filled with zeal for foreign missions, and he conceived the determi-
nation to found a great English missionary college to fit young
priests for the work of evangelizing the heathen. With this object
he made a great begging expedition to America in 1863, from
which he returned with £11,000. St. Joseph's Foreign Missionary
College, Mill Hill Park, London, was opened in 1869. Vaughan
also became proprietor of the Tablet, and used its columns vig-
orously for propagandist purposes. In 1872 he was consecrated
bishop of Salford, and in 1892 succeeded Manning as archbishop
of Westminster, receiving the cardinal's hat in 1893.
It was his most cherished ambition to see before he died an
adequate Roman Catholic cathedral in Westminster, and he
laboured untiringly to secure subscriptions, with the result that
its foundation stone was laid in 1895, and that when he died, on
June 19, 1903, the building was so far complete that a Requiem
Mass was said there over his body before it was removed to its
resting-place at Mill Hill Park.
See the Life of Cardinal Vau^hant by J. G. Snead Cox (2 vols.,
London, 1910).
VAUGHAN, THOMAS (1622-1666), English alchemist
and mystic, was the younger twin brother of Henry Vaughan,
the "Silurist." He matriculated from Jesus college, Oxford, in
1638, took his B.A. degree in 1642, and became fellow of his
college. He remained for some years at Oxford, but also held
the living of his native parish of Llansantffraed from 1640 till
1649, when he was ejected, under the Act for the Propagation
o'f the Gospel in Wales, upon charges of drunkenness, immorality
and bearing arms for the king. Subsequently he lived at his
brother's farm of Newton and in various parts of London, and
studied alchemy and kindred subjects. He married in 1651 and
lost his wife in 1658. After the Restoration he found a patron
in Sir Robert Murray, with whom he fled from London to Oxford
during the plague of 1665. He appears to have had some employ-
ment of state, but he continued his favourite studies and actually
died of the "fumes of mercury at the house df Samuel Kern at
Albury on Feb. 27, 1666. Vaughan regarded himself as a philoso-
pher of nature, and although he certainly sought the universal
solvent, his published writings deal rather with magic and
mysticism than with technical alchemy. They also contain much
controversy with Henry More the Platonist. Vaughan was called
a Rosicrucian, but denied the imputation. He wrote or trans-
lated Anthroposophia Theomagica (1650); Anima Magica Ab-
scondita (1650); Lumen de Lumine and Aphorisimi Magici
Eugeniam (1651); The Fame and* Confession of the Fraternity
of R.C. (1652); and others. Most of these pamphlets appeared
under the pseudonym of Eugenius Philalethes.
Vaughan was probably, although it is by no means certain, not
the famous adept known as Eirenaeus Philalethes, who was
alleged to have found the philosopher's stone in America, and
to whom the Introitus A pert us in Occlusum Regis Palatium
(1667) and other writings are ascribed. In 1896 Vaughan was
the subject of an amazing mystification in the Memoires (Tune
ex-Palladiste. These formed part of certain alleged revelations
as to the practice of devil-worship by the initiates of free-
masonry. The author, whose name was given as Diana Vaughan,
claimed to be a descendant of Thomas and to possess family
papers which showed amongst other marvels that he had made a
pact with Lucifer, and had helped to found freemasonry as a
Satanic society. The inventors of the hoax, which took in many
eminent Catholic ecclesiastics, were some Paris journalists.
The Magical Writings of Thomas Vaughan were edited by A. E.
Waite in 1888. His miscellaneous Latin and English verses are included
in vol. ii. of A. B. Grosart 's Fuller Worthies Library edition of the
Works of Henry Vaughan (1871). A manuscript book of his, with
alchemical and autobiographical jottings made between 1658 and 1662,
forms Brit. Mus. Sloane MS. 1741. Biographical data are in E. K.
Chambers's Muses' Library edition of the Poems of Henry Vaughan
(1896), together with an account and criticism of the Memoires d'une
ex-Palladistc. These fabrications were also discussed by A. E. Waite,
Devil-Worship in France (1896), and finally exposed by Gaston Mery,
La Verit6 sur Diana Vaughan.
VAUGHAN, WILLIAM (1577-1641), English author and
colonial pioneer, son of Walter Vaughan £§l. 1598), was born at
Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire, his father's estate, in 1577. He
was descended 'from an ancient prince of Powys. His brother,
John Vaughan (1572-1634), became ist earl of Carbery; and
another brother, General Sir Henry or Harry Vaughan (1587-
1659), was a weiycnown royalist leader. William was educated
at Jesus college, (Sxford, and took the degree of LL.D. at Vienna.
In 1616 he bought a grant of land in the south coast of New-
foundland, to which he sent two batches of settlers. In 1622
he visited the settlement, which he called Cambriol, and returned
to England in 1625. Vaughan apparently paid another visit to
his colony, but his plans for its prosperity were foiled by tho
severe winters. He died at his house of Torcoed, Carmarthen-
shire, in Aug. 1641.
His chief work is The Golden Grove (1600), a general guide to
morals, politics and literature, in which the manners of the time are
severely criticized, plays being denounced as folly and wickedness. The
section in praise of poetry borrows much from earlier writers on the
subject. The Golden Fleece . . . transported from Cambriol Colchis
. . . by Orpheus jttn.t alias Wilt Vaughan, which contains information
about Newfoundland, is the most interesting of his other works. **»
VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (1872- ), British
musical composer, was born at Down Ampney, Glos., Oct. 12,
1872. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became
Mus. Bac. in 1894, and at the Royal College of Music, with Parry
and Stanford. The revival of English folk-song, however, in
which he became absorbed, unlocked his latent creative powers.
The Norfolk Rhapsodies for orchestra (founded on folktunes),
and the symphonic impression In the Fen Country, on original
themes of folk-song character, show his development. Other types
of distinctively national music, notably the Tudor Church com-
posers and Purcell, strengthened his technical resources and helped
to determine his own style in the direction of vigorous melodic
i6
VAULT
outline, the free use of model scales, an unflinching contrapuntal
texture and a high-handed attitude towards harmony. He wrote
(he choral works Toward the Unknown Region (Leeds Festival,
1907), A Sea Symphony (Leeds, 1910), the libretto in both cases
being drawn frorri Walt Whitman, and the orchestra work, A
London Symphony (Queen's Hall, 1914).
His musical work was interrupted by the World War, in which
he served first in the R.A.M.C. and then as a gunner. His
greatest works date from the post war period. The most important
are: A Pastoral Symphony /or Orchestra (Royal Philharmonic
Society, 1922); A Mass in G Minor (Westminster Cathedral,
1923); an oratorio, Sancta Civitas (Oxford, 1926). A stage scene
from The Pilgrim's Progress, called The Shepherd of the Delect-
able Mountains; and the ballad opera, Hugh the Drover (words
by Harold Child), belong to the earlier period when folklore
and folk-songs were the primary inspiration of his work.
VAULT, any covering for an enclosed room, formed of
small pieces of material, generally wedge-shaped and arranged
with the under sides forming a generally curved surface, in such
a way that each separate unit is held in place by its neighbours
on either side; a continuous arch; also, loosely, any curved ceiling
or covering of a room, irrespective of its material. The word is
also used for a room or series of rooms built for storing valuables
and enclosed with heavy walls, doors and ceilings specially con-
structed to withstand the effect of fire or the attacks of burglars,
and entered by a burglar-proof door (see SAFES; STRONG
ROOMS) ; and, by a somewhat similar extension, to a masonry en-
closure in a graveyard, intended either as a permanent tomb or to
receive bodies until a final grave is made.
Structural Implications. — Owing to the action of super-
incumbent weights upon the wedge-shaped pieces that form it, a
vault, like an arch (q.v.), exerts side thrust, and unless its lower
portions are held in place, it will collapse. Even in such nearly
homogeneous structures as the Roman concrete vaults, this tend-
ency is present, and if sufficiently weighted, these vaults, like
vaults made of wedge-shaped voussoirs (q.v.) will fail because
of the pushing apart of their lower edges. The result of this is
the development either of very thick walls, whose weight and
strength are themselves sufficient to withstand the thrust of vaults
placed upon them, or else the balancing of thrusts of adjacent
walls against each other or the reinforcement of supporting walls
by buttresses. Anotner method of diminishing thrusts is to
arrange the vault in such a manner that its haunches, the lower
portions on each side, carry a much greater weight than the
centre, or crown.
Another peculiarity of the vault, which tremendously affected
its design, is the fact that although a vault L rigid when con-
structed, its component parts, or voussoirs, have to be inde-
pendently supported in place in some artificial manner, until the
final topmost voussoir, or keystone (q.v.) is in place. This prob-
lem of supporting the vault during construction has led to many
experiments in the arrangement of the separate stones or bricks
of a masonry vault. Frequently, for instance, the lower portion
of a vault will be built with horizontal layers or courses, and only
the top courses of wedge-shaped blocks. In Roman concrete
vaults a thin layer of brick, light and easy to support, sometimes
acted itself as the centring for the support of the concrete upon
it. The most interesting development of this structural necessity
was the invention of the system of ribbed vaults by the Romans
aijtf its epochal development during the late Romanesque and
early Gothic periods. Essentially, this system broke up a large
vault area into smaller elements separated by independent arches,
whose support and construction was a comparatively easy matter.
When once built, these arches themselves served to support the
centring for the filling in or web of the vault between the arches.
Types.— Vaults are classified according to their shapes and
their construction,
Barrel Vault, sometimes called tunnel vault, one whose cross-
section is always the same; a continuous arch.
Annular Vault, a similar continuous vault whose supporting
walls are concentric circles, like the vault around the apse of some
Romanesque churches.
Groined Vault, one formed by the intersection of two vaults
running in different directions, usually at right angles to each
other, in such a manner that the area covered by the groined
vault has arches on its four sides, thus allowing support to be
discontinuous and broken up into piers. The lines of the inter-
section, generally elliptical, are known as groins. In a single,
square, groined vault the direction of the thrust follows the line
of the groin, and is on a line continuing the diagonals of the
square. Where, however, two such square bays adjoin each other,
the sum of the two diagonal thrusts is at right angles to the long
dimension of the combined two bays. In addition to perfect
groined vaults, in which the two elements at right angles to each
other are at the same height and curvature, there are many uses
of the groined vault over rectangular, instead of square, bays
of which the two intersecting vaults are of different curves and
heights. The geometrical intersection of such vaults is a warped
and twisted line of considerable awkwardness, and various at-
tempts to simplify the form were made either by slanting and
warping the surfaces of the component vaults, or by artificially
altering the geometric intersecting line to make a more pleasant
pattern. The geometric intersection of a small, low vault, with
a large, high one, is called a welsh groin.
Dome (q.v.), a vault of generally spherical curvature, whose
bottom is a circle in plan.
Pendentive (q.v.), a small section of spherical vault used to
fill in the upper corners of a square or polygonal room to form a
circle at the top for the support of a dome.
Cloistered Vault, the inverse of a groined vault, also formed
by the intersection of two vaults at right angles, but so arranged
that from the sides of the square, unbroken sections of vault rise
to a point in the centre, so that the intersections, instead of pro-
jecting like groins, are like valleys. Many so-called square and
octagonal domes are square or octagonal cloistered vaults.
Ribbed Vault, a vault subdivided by independent ribs or arches ;
also loosely used for any vault with projecting ribs on its sur-
face, whether independent and structurally important or not.
Corbelled Vault, the curved covering of a room, formed not by
wedge-shaped pieces of material, in the manner of an arch, but by
building the covering of horizontal courses, each one of which
projects inward slightly over the one below. This form exerts no
thrust and is not strictly a vault, although frequently so called.
HISTORY
Egypt and the Mesopotamian Valley. — The vault seems
to have been independently invented in many parts of the world
in the late Neolithic and early Bronze ages. The earliest impor-
tant evidences of it extant are those of Chaldea and early Egypt,
where it appears as early as the beginning of the 4th millennium
B.C. In Chaldea, not only were drains vaulted, but vaults were
also used to cover tomb chambers and probably halls in temples
and palaces as well. The vault holds a dominant place in Meso-
potamian architecture through all the vicissitudes of Sumerian,
Babylonian and Assyrian cultures. During the Assyrian period
(c. 1000 to 600 B.C.) vaults of unburned brick were the chief
method used for covering the long, tunnel-like halls of the
Assyrian palaces. The drains which were so important a feature
of the palace platforms were roofed with walls of baked brick,
and there is preserved an ingenious example from Nimroud (gth
century B.C.) showing one method of obviating the necessity for
centring. In this case the drain abuts upon a thick wall through
which it passes by an arch. The rings of which the vault is
formed, instead of being placed in successive vertical planes, are
all inclined at 45?, so that each completed ring furnishes a cer-
tain amount of support for the one built after it. In addition to
the barrel vault, the Assyrians were undoubtedly acquainted with
the dome, as many Assyrian reliefs show villages with domed
structures, and in some cases the curve of the dome is too flat
for it to have been constructed as a corbelled vault.
Egyptian vaults were more common in the earlier periods than
in the later and examples in tomb passages at Dendereh un-
doubtedly go back to the earliest dynasties. Under Rameses II.
a granary built behind the Ramesseum at Thebes also had vaulted
VAULT
PLATE I
VAULTS OF THE 1ST CENTURY B.C. TO THE 14TH CENTURY A.D.
1. The great vault at Cteslphon, c. 550. 2. The Roman barrel vault of the
temple of Diana at Mimes, France, built 25 B.C. 3. Vault at Rhlwaser
Rhargivd In Persia. 4. One of the halls of the moique. 5. Dome of the
mosque of Sultan Achmed at Constantinoole. 16O9-14. &. Earlv Trench
Gothic nave vaulting of the cathedral of Notre Dame at Parts, late 12th
century. 7. Perpendicular English Gothic vault, Gloucester cathedral, 1377.
8. Vault of the nave of the Henry VIM. chapel, Westminster Abbey. 9. Fan
vault of Kinn's Cnllnna rhanel HamhrlHn*
PLATE II
VAULT
MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN VAULTS
1. English decorated Gothic vault of the presbytery of Lincoln cathedral,
1255-80. 2, The nave of S. Ambrogio at Milan, perhaps the earliest com-
plete rlbbod, probably dating from the middle of the llth century. It was
the precursor of the Norman vaulting which led eventually to the Gothic
vault. 3. The Danish church at Berlin, 1923, hat a vault of wooden con-
struction. Like a masonry vault, It exerts thrust. Architect, Otto Bart-
nlng. 4. St. Paul's chapel, Columbia University, New York, has a tile
vault, of the type known as Quastavlno. Architect, John Mead Ho wells
VAULT
chambers of which the lower courses were laid horizontal, in
order to reduce the span. The Egyptians, however, apparently
never appreciated the possibility of cut stone vaulting; the near-
est approach to it, in the great period, was the so-called vaulted
chambers in the temple built by Seti I. at Abydos.
The Aegean and Greece.— In the pre-classic Aegean, the
corbelled vault achieved some of its most remarkable expressions,
as in the famous tholoi, or beehive shaped tombs (e.g., tholos of
Atreus, at Mycenae, c. 1200 B.C.), which are probably modelled
on tholos type huts of unburned brick, of which many founda-
tions have been discovered in many sites in Crete and the Grecian
islands. Like the Egyptians, the Greeks knew the principle of
the arch and the vault, and used it occasionally, although they
never gave it an important architectural position, and during the
best periods the post and lintel system of construction entirely
superseded the vault.
In the Hellenistic period, probably due to the close touch with
western Asia that was such a marked feature of post-Alexandrian
culture, the arch and the vault again appear, still, however, in
isolated instances, in some of which Roman influence may be
already present. Thus there is a small hall at Pergamon, Asia
Minor, roofed with a groined vault which two schools of thought
date differently, one claiming that it is pre-Roman and the other
that it is a piece of Roman construction (G. Rivoira, Roman
Architecture, 1925, p. 78). It is incontestable, however, that
barrel vaults, both straight and sloping, were used in Hellenistic
tombs and city gates.
Italy. — It is uncertain when and how the Etruscans first dis-
covered vaults, but as early as the 6th century B.C., a tomb from
Orvieto, now in Florence, had a simple barrel vault, and by the
4th century they were common, as in the so-called grotto of
Pythagoras in Cortona. Moreover, such city gates as those of
Falerii, Volterra and Perugia, which date from the 4th and 3rd
centuries, B.C., reveal not only a definite knowledge of vault con-
struction but an impressive attempt to give it architectural effect.
It remained for the Romans to absorb the Etruscan knowledge
and develop it into the main feature of their architectural con-
struction, and to add to the idea of the cut stone vault, vaults of
brick in which the bricks were flat and the radiation taken up
in the joints, and vaults of rubble or concrete, roughly dumped
upon a wooden centring, whose form it took as it hardened.
Vault types were also increased, the cloistered vault appearing in
the early ist century, B.C., as in the Tabularium at Rome (c. 80
B.C.) ; the cross or groined vault, in small square sections sup-
ported on arches, so that the whole could be carried by piers, as
in the Septa Julia (27 B.C.); independent groined vaults over
rooms, common from the time of Nero on (Golden house of
Nero, c. A.D. 65); and the spherical vault, which appeared first,
tentatively, in niche and apse tops, and reached a climactic
flowering in the Pantheon of Hadrian.
Under the empire, cut stone vaults were common only in the
provinces, like those in Baalbek, Syria or the ribbed vault of
the beautiful so-called temple of Diana at Nimes, France (time,
of Tiberius). The latter shows one of many interesting experi-
ments made in order to localize thrust and weight; the vault
consists of a series of independent stone ribs, on the upper
corners of which sinkages are cut to carry stone slabs covering
the space between them. A similar experimental genius was at
work in the Roman province of Syria, where during the 3rd, 4th
and 5th centuries many cut stone buildings were built, in which
stone arch ribs supported a roof, either of horizontal stone slabs,
as in the so-called basilica at Shakka, or following the curves of
the arches, as in the delicately designed praetorium at Musmiyeh.
In Rome, vaults were usually of brick or concrete, even when
the sub-structure was cut stone, and in the great number of cases,
in a combination of the two materials. Brick ribs were frequently
used in important positions, and were occasionally double, with
the two lines connected by occasional large tiles, forming a light
but exceedingly rigid structure. In some cases the whole vault
centring was covered with tiles laid flat-wise, which acted them-
selves as centring for the concrete, and were keyed to it by
occasional tiles set end-wise. From the time of the Antonines
on, vaults were extremely light, and at times daringly thin,
strengthened, not only by ribs of brick, but by arches of brick,
built in the plane of the vaults between .the ribs. This Roman
structural ingenuity grew continuously till the end of the 4th
century, long after decorative art had begun to decay.
With these ingenious vaults the Romans produced their char-
acteristically large and impressive interiors, and by the use of
cross vaults, as in the great halls of the thermae (see BATHS),
were enabled to flood them with light from clerestorey windows.
Not only were all types of barrel and groined vaults used, as
well as the simple dome, but constant experiments were made,
almost up to the time of the fall of Rome, in new combinations
and novel forms. Many attempts were made to place a dome
over a polygonal or square room, thus approaching the pendentive
(q.v.), and all sorts of scalloped and varied dome types are found,
like the scalloped dome of the vestibule of the Piazza D'Oro and
the niche of the Serapeum, both in the villa of Hadrian, and the
daringly delicate so-called temple of Minerva Medica, at Rome,
a garden building of the time of Valerian.
The earlier vaults were covered with stucco and delicately
panelled in relief, occasionally further decorated with colour, as
in the tcpidarium of the baths of the forum at Pompeii (c. 80
B.C.), and various rooms in the Golden house of Nero, as well
as the remarkably rich subterranean basilica outside the Porta
Maggiori at Rome, which probably dates from the time of Au-
gustus. In the later empire, the custom of coffering, or deco-
rating with deeply sunk geometric panels, like those cut into the
dome of the Pantheon at the time of Septimius Severus, became
common.
The scale of many of these Roman vaults is, even to-day,
astounding. Thus the throne room of the palace of Domitian
had a barrel vault 97 ft. in span, 8 ft. wider than the nave of
S. Peter's; the basilica of Constantine, a groined vault 84 ft. in
span; and the domes of the calidarium, in the baths of Caracalla
and of the Pantheon, are respectively n6 and 140 ft. in diameter.
For a thorough discussion of Roman vaulting see ,G. Rivoira,
Roman Architecture, noted above.
Byzantine. — The great contribution of the Byzantine builders
to vaulting was the final logical development of the pendentive
(q.v.) through the recognition of the fact that all of the Roman
attempts to put a dome on a square plan by means of corbelling
were awkward followings of a wrong method, and the discovery
of the simplest and most efficient method by substituting tri-
angular sections of a spherical vault. In this way, a dome could
be supported on pendentives, which could, in turn, be supported
on four great arches, so that the entire weight was brought down
upon piers at the corners — a method that at once gave enormous
freedom to the planning of a building. The only requirement was
that sufficient buttresses should be furnished to withstand the
thrust of the great arches. There is much discussion as to where
and how the pendentive was finally developed; it is very prob-
ably an eastern invention, and may have originated in the cut
stone work of Roman Syria. Fully developed pendentives occur
during the sth century, e.g., the church of S. Sophia at Salonica,
but it was in the church of S. Sophia at Constantinople (begun
532) that the possibilities of this type of construction were first
taken advantage of. The use of great half domes, with smaller
domed niches opening from them, at each end of the building,
gained a sense of direction — a long axis — while preserving the
dominance of the central dome. The two first domes built on
this church both collapsed soon after construction, arid it is prob-
ably only with the building of the present dome that the circle
of 40 windows around the base was introduced, which not only
lightens the weight of the dome but also furnishes a beautiful
illumination for the interior. These windows are not placed in
a drum, as in later Byzantine work, but pierced through the
curving surface of the dome itself, with buttresses between them
on the exterior, whose upper sides are swept up in a curve to
meet the curve of the dome. Little hood arches are thrown across
between the buttresses, over the windows, and on the exterior
give something of the effect of a drum. There is a similar lack
of drum in S. Mark's at Venice (2nd half of the nth century);
i8
VAULT
and in many Byzantine churches, even where a marked drum
exists on the exterior, there will be little or no drum inside.
Besides using pcndcntives to support a dome, the Byzantine de-
signers discovered that a continuous, spherical vault, ending in
arches at the walls, could be used over any square or rectangular
space. This is known as the pendentive dome. An early example
is in the tomb of Galla Placidia, at Ravenna (c. 440). This type
is used in combination with all sorts of groined and intersecting
vaults in various subsidiary positions. The variety and ingenuity
of the side aisle vaults of S. Sophia at Constantinople is remark-
able, and is matched by the similar variety in the side aisle vaults
of such Italian Byzantine churches as that of S. Vitale, at Ravenna
(547) and S. Lorenzo, at Milan (c. 560).
In the effort to lighten vaults the Byzantine builders carried to
its logical conclusion a method used experimentally by the
Romans — that of incorporating in the masonry of a vault, hollow
jars or tubes. The dome of S. Vitale, at Ravenna, is built almost
entirely of a continuous double spiral of such tubes, shaped so
that one fitted into the neck of the next. For a similar reason, the
dome of S. Sophia at Constantinople was built of a special type
of exceedingly porous and spongy brick.
Mohammedan. — The Mohammedan builders borrowed ex-
tensively from Byzantine precedent. In Persia, there is an addi-
tional legacy from the enormous vaults built by the Sassanians.
Not only did such colossal vaults as those at Firuzabad (459-
485) and Ctesiphon (c. 550, 82 ft. span) vitally inspire the great
vaulted entrances of Persian mosques, but also the wide-spread
use of niche-shaped squinches, instead of pendentives under a
dome, is without doubt due to the same source. But the Moham-
medans developed many characteristic vaulting forms of their
own. Especially noteworthy is the multiplication of niche
squinches until the stalactite form is achieved, and in the Moorish
and Indian styles, the ingenious use of cross ribs, in a square or
polygon, to enable it to be covered with a dome of smaller size.
Examples in Spain are the vaults over the Maksoiira, or enclosed
prayer space^ of the great Mosque at Cordova (nth century),
and the even richer vault of the chapel Villa Viciosa, in the same
mosque. In India the most remarkable example is that of the
vast tomb of Mohammed Sikri at Bijapur (1626-60), in which,
by arranging arched ribs in two intersecting squares, to form an
eight-pointed star, in plan, a hall 135 ft. square is reduced to a
central opening 97 ft. in diameter, above which is a dome 124 ft.
across, so that there is a gallery around the inside of the dome at
its spring. A similar scheme is used in the great mosque of the
same town (c. 1560), in which a square 70 ft. across is reduced
to a circle 57 ft. in diameter.
China. — The Chinese knew the principle of the arch and vault
at an early date, probably having developed it independently.
Thus vaults occur in the two "Wild Goose" pagodas at Sianfu in
the province of Shensi, which are as early as the beginning of the
8th century. The most monumental extant uses of the vault, are
however, chiefly of the Ming dynasty and later, and in the four
northern provinces of Chili, Shantung, Shensi and Shansi. Groined
vaults are not used, but barrel vaults are common in city gates
(Peking, Sianfu and Taiuanfu), temple and palace entrance halls
(imperial palace at Peking, Temple of Heaven, Peking, etc.) and
in many beautifully designed and carefully executed cut-stone
bridges. Barrel vaults are occasionally used over temple halls,
set at right angles to the axis of the temple, and entered by smaller
barreled vaults and arched gateways in the thickness of the wall.
The most remarkable examples of this use occur in the masonry
built temple groups of Kin Tze and Shuang la Sze at Taiuanfu,
both in Shansi and both dating from the later years of the Ming
dynasty. Later examples are the many barrel vaults in the great
monastery, temple and palace group, built in the i8th century
at Jehol.
Romanesque.— Romanesque vaulting represents the slow de-
velopment of untrained builders in vaulting a church structure,
generally of basilican plan. In this development they made use
of Roman precedent, they copied Byzantine technique and they
used^their own native ingenuity. The groined vault appeared early '
in aisles and the annular vault, around apses and for circular j
structures; the dome and the octagonal cloistered vault were
used for the crossing. The difficulty was with naves, for the
buttressing of a nave vault, high in the air, was a troublesome
necessity. Barrel vaults were first tried, either semi-circular or
pointed, the pointed section being used because it exerted less
thrust, and buttressing was largely achieved by means of the tri-
forium gallery vaults, over the side aisles, which were either semi-
! circular or quadrant shaped, as in the church of S. Sernin, at
Toulouse (late nth century). Vaulting was usually of stone, and
varied from extremely rough workmanship, covered with plaster,
as in S. Nectaire, in Auvergne, France (beginning of the i2th
century), to the beautiful cut stone of such domed churches as
that at Cahors, France (1119). The barrel vaulted nave had the
drawback of being dark, as only the smallest clerestorey windows
— if any — were possible, and the centring required for it was un-
duly heavy. The first improvement was the introduction of cross
| ribs, as in Valence cathedral (early i2th century), which strength-
ened the vault over the piers and simplified the question of
centring. The matter of lighting was more difficult; an early, in-
teresting experimental solution is that of S. Philibert, at Tournus,
France, where heavy arches were thrown across the nave at each
pier, and walls carried up upon them. Upon these, little barrel
vaults were built, running across the nave. The result permitted
large clerestorey windows and was statically correct, but the in-
terior effect was unpleasantly discontinuous. Another remarkable
solution was reached in the domed churches of Aquitania, where
Byzantine influence was strong, but the most beautiful of these,
such as Cahors and Angouleme (1132) have no side aisles* and
the difficulty of domed churches with side aisles was just as great
as in those with barrel vaults; this may be readily seen in the
impressive and gloomy interior of Le Puy en Velay (i2th century).
The groined vault, which was the obvious answer to the diffi-
j culty, was hard to construct because the different widths of nave
and aisles, meant that square vaults over the one necessitated
oblong vaults over the other. And the intersections of the oblong
vaults were twisted and ugly. Furthermore, the aisle vaults
around an apse presented difficulties in that the -cross vaults were
cone-shaped and intersected the annular surface of the aisle vault
in unpleasant, twisted lines, with the point where the groins
crossed below the high point. No matter how the surfaces were
warped, the problem of the intersection remained.
The answer to the problem of nave vaulting was first found by
the Lombards in S. Ambrogio, at Milan (begun in the loth, but
probably vaulted about the middle of the nth century). In this
vault, two bays of the aisles are made to equal one of the nave,
so that all the vaulting bays are approximately square. Moreover,
the system of ribs, which had only appeared tentatively before,
was here applied completely; not only were cross ribs built at each
alternate pier across the nave, but in addition, arched ribs were
built on the groin lines. In this way, a framework of arches was
created, easy to construct, and the filling in of the surfaces be-
tween, or webs, could be done in sections. The cross vaults
allowed clerestorey lighting.
The Normans made the next great advance, through the intro-
duction of an additional rib across the nave, on the piers between
those that carried the cross arches, and the treatment of each of
the two halves of the nave vaulting bay, with its own wall arch
and window; the cross vaults thus established, ran obliquely to
the centre. The result is the sexpartite or six-part vault (q.v.).
Along with this came the solution of the buttressing problem by
means of rudimentary flying buttresses. Variations of the six-part
vault appear in the two great abbey churches at Caen (Abbaye
aux Hommes, Abbaye aux Dames, founded by William the Con-
queror and his wife and vaulted in the i2th century). In the
Abbaye aux Dames, the idea is tentative only, and the inter-
mediate rib carries a simple wall up to the ridge of the single
cross vault. Durham cathedral (1128-1133) has a complete sys-
tem of groined, ribbed vaults, in which the vaults are four-part
instead of six-part, although alternate cross ribs are omitted.
French Gothic. — Early French Gothic vaults merely carried
the Norman experiments one step further, by combining with the
idea of ribbed and groined vaults the addition of pointed arches,
VAULT
which still further simplify the construction. The groin ribs were
usually left semi-circular, but the cross ribs, being pointed, and
springing from the same level, could have their ridges at the same
height. Furthermore, the wall arches, by a combination of stilting
and pointing, could also be made sufficiently high, although they
were so much narrower than either cross or diagonal ribs, and
thus, not only was a harmonious wall produced, with ridges nearly
level, but also a still further increase in the size of clerestorey
windows permitted. In the early Gothic churches of France, the
six-part vault was the most popular; e.g., Laon (begun 1160) and
Notre Dame, at Paris (begun 1163). By the end of the century,
however, the four-part vault completely superseded the earlier
type, and with few exceptions in very late work, remained con-
stant throughout the Rayonnant and Flamboyant periods. In
general the development was toward more and more level ridges
and deeper and slimmer ribs. The web filling is characteristic;
formed of slightly arched stone courses, varying in width, in
such a manner as to bring the courses generally parallel to the
ridge. The web was apparently built without extensive centring,
merely using a curved plank under each course, the plank being
arranged in two pieces so as to be adjustable in length. The stone
cutting of the ribs and supports is of the most perfect type and
shows a definite attempt to utilize the material in the most efficient
manner. Characteristic is the fact that all the lower courses of
the ribs are horizontal instead of radiating and where the ribs
come close together they are all cut on one stone, the whole mass
forming what is technically known as a tas de charge.
Other Continental Gothic.— The Gothic vaults of Germany
and Austria were largely based on French forms, until the isth
century, when all sorts of fantastic ribbing came into use. Again
(he English influence was strong, but instead of keeping the ribs in
one plane, as in English work, they were twisted and curved,
until their structural basis was well nigh forgotten. The same
was true to a less extent of Spanish Gothic, where the bold
simplicity of the French type continued in force almost until the
dawn of the Renaissance. Italian Gothic vaults were generally
large in scale, with ribs unmoulded, or moulded in the simplest
possible manner. The cathedral at Florence (nave begun 1357)
shows how with structural ideas identical with those of the north,
an utterly different effect could be produced, in which, despite the
pointed arches the tradition of Roman scale is unmistakably
evident.
English Gothic. — The French basis of English Gothic through
the work of William of Sens at Canterbury (1175), was soon for-
gotten through differences in technique that developed. The first
of these was a different method of web building; English webs
generally consisted of courses of stone, which were equal in width
throughout. Thus, due to the curving of the surfaces, they were
not parallel to the ridge, and created awkward intersections there.
In order to cover this intersection ridge ribs were sometimes intro-
duced. At about the same time intermediate ribs, between cross
and diagonals were introduced, which diminished the amount of
web that had to be built at one time, and made its construction
and support simpler. Thus in the choir of Lincoln cathedral (r.
1280) there are no true diagonals and the groin ribs are arranged
so that .the cross vaults are oblique, with intermediates running
from the intersections of the groin ribs to the pier on the other
side. Such intermediate ribs are called tiercerons, and in addi-
tion to assisting the structural solidity of the vault and its ease
of construction, tiercerons became a great source of decorative
richness. The climax is seen in the crowded spreading ribs of
Exeter cathedral (1292-1367), in which there is one tierceron
between each cross and diagonal rib, and two between each
diagonal and wall rib. The resultant effect, in which each pier
thus carries n separate ribs radiating from it, is inexpressibly
soaring and graceful. Further richness is gained "by the sculptured
bosses with rich leafage, which cover the intersections of the ribs.
Later in the i4th century there is a further decorative develop-
ment through the introduction of small, intermediate ribs, be-
tween tiercerons, cross and diagonal ribs, with which intricate
patterns are formed. These intermediate ribs are called liernes,
and by their use, the spaces between ribs are made so small that
they can be covered by two or three slabs of stone. Remarkable
examples of this type of vaulting exist at Norwich cathedral
(i5th century); Winchester (1394-1486) and Gloucester (c.
In Gloucester occurred the first example of the next develop-
ment — the invention of the fan vault, used in the cloisters (1350-
1410). In fan vaulting, each severy, or the section supported on
each pier, takes a conoidal shape, so that all of the ribs upon it
have approximately the same curvature. Moreover, the ribs are
so multiplied and connected by little arches, that the web dis-
appears, except as panelled areas, and the whole vault becomes a
homogeneous mass of carefully cut stone. A fan vault, accord-
ingly, is strictly not a ribbed vault at all, but merely a vault con-
sisting of a series of conoids of panelled stone-work intersecting
each other. Full advantage was taken of the freedom in line
design that this system offered, and all sorts of -cusps and other
tracery forms were used; there was no limit to the variety of
design except the ingenuity of the stone cutter. Fan vaulting
reached its climax in the two almost contemporary ceilings in the
King's College chapel, Cambridge, and the Henry VII. chapel at
Westminster, both completed by 1515. In the former, the vault
is simple, with strongly marked cross arches to give it rhythm
and definiteness. In the Henry VII. chapel, however, a remarkable
variation is found, for the entire vault is supported upon pendents,
cut on huge stones that are part of a great cross arch, most of
which is concealed. The entire exposed surface is covered with
the richest possible traccried panelling, and the line of the cross
arches heavily cut. The result forms one of the greatest tours de
force of stone cutting in the world.
Renaissance. — The great contribution of the Renaissance
period to vaulting was its development of the dome (q.v.) and
especially of the dome on a drum, and with a lantern. This type
of design usually necessitated a different curve for the exterior
and the interior, and hence the use of domes with two or more
shells. The most remarkable example of this type is the dome of
S. Peter's at Rome, originally designed by Michelangelo, who
completed the drum before his death in 1564, the dome itself
being completed by G. dclla Porta and D. Fontana (1588-90).
A remarkable modern instance is the triple dome of the Panthe'on
in Paris (1764-90) by J. Soufilot, daring in the lightness of its
masonry. The greater number of these domes require chains, built
in around the base to withstand the thrust.
Another purely Renaissance type of vault is the so-called cove
ceiling with penetrations. This consists of a semi-elliptical vault
with small cross vaults penetrating its sides, these cross vaults
being designed to slope up, with a warped, conical surface, so
that their intersections with the main vault, come to a point at
the top and take perfect circular or elliptical curves at the sides.
This was a favourite type in the Italian Renaissance, as it
offered many interesting shapes and surfaces for painted and
modelled decoration. Usually a moulding or painted band was
carried horizontally along the sides of the vault at the level of the
tops of the1 penetrations. The groins were sometimes decorated
with a similar band. One of the most beautiful of such vaults is
that over the loggia of the Villa Farnesina, designed by B. Peruzzi
(1509-11), and decorated by G. Romano and F. Penni from
designs by Raphael (1516-18).
In the Baroque period continuous barrel vaults were the general
covering for important palace rooms, frequently built in plaster
and non-structural. The decoration consisted in the main of maral
paintings surrounded by scrolled and garlanded, curving, modelled
frames, gilded, like the vault of the Galerie cTApollon, in the
Louvre at Paris, designed by C. Le Brim, during the reign of Louis
XIV., the ceiling painting by E. Delacroix (1849).
Modern. — The two new materials which have most influenced
modern vault design are structural terra cotta tile and reinforced
concrete. By the use of a thin terra cotta tile, vaults generally
domical, have been produced over large halls, with exceedingly
slight rise, and with the added advantage of light weight. Similar
tiles are also extensively used for the filling or webs of modern
versions of the Gothic ribbed vault, in which the ribs are either
of cut stone or reinforced concrete. An interesting example of
20
VAULTING— VAUX OF HARROWDEN
a tile vault of this type, with nave and choir vaulted with low,
pendentive domes, and crossing covered by a dome on a drum,
is the chapel of Columbia university, New York.
Concrete' without reinforcement is used in the Roman manner
by J. F. Bentley in the domes of Westminster cathedral, London,
(1895-1903). The introduction of steel reinforcement to take
the tensile stresses gave an enormous new freedom to vault design
as it allowed the construction of large vaults that would exercise
little or no thrust, thus forming a homogeneous arched beam.
This quality has been taken advantage of in much recent work,
especially on the Continent, as in the rianctarium of the Dussel-
dorf exposition (1926), by W. Kreis; the flat vault of the church
of Notre Dame at Raincy (1924) by Ferret Freres; and most
remarkable of all, the great dirigible hangar at Orly, near Paris,
designed by E. Freyssinet (1916). (See ARCH; BYZANTINK AND
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE; DOME; FAN VAULT; GOTHIC
ARCHITECTURE ; MOHAM MEDAN ARCHITECTURE ; RENAISSANCE
ARCHITECTURE; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE; ROOFS; SEXPARTITE
VAULT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonni de V architec-
ture fran^aise, especially articles on "Construction" and "Voute" (1854-
75) ; C. E. Isabella, Let Edifices circulates et les ddmes (1855) ; Viollct-
le-Duc, Entretiens sur V architecture (1863-72) ; F. A. Choisy, L'Art de
batir chez les Romans (1874) J G. Pcrrot and C. Chipicz, Histoire de
I' architecture dans I'antiquite (1882-1025) ; F. A. Choisy, L'art de batir
chez les Byzantines (1883) ; W. J. Anderson and R. P. Spiers, Archi-
tecture of Greece and Rome (1902, new ed. vol. i., "Greece," rev. by
W. B. Dinsmoor, vol. ii., "Rome," rev. by T. Ashby, 1027); C. H.
Moore, Development and Character of Gothic Architecture (1904) ;
F. Bond, Gothic Architecture in England (1905) ; H. Saladin, Manuel
de I'art Muselman, vol. i. (1907) ; A. K. Porter ^Mediaeval Architecture
(1912) ; T. G. Jackson, Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture
(1913), Gothic Architecture (1915) ; C. Enlart, Manuel de I'archeologie
francaise (1919-24) ; G. T. Rivoira, Roman Architecture, Eng. trans.
(1925) ; G. A. Platz, Die Baukunst der Neuesten Zeit (1927).
(T. F. H.)
VAULTING: see POLE VAULTING.
VAUQUELIN, LOUIS NICOLAS (1763-1829), French
chemist, was born at Hcbcrtot in Normandy on May 16, 1763. He
was laboratory boy to an apothecary in Rouen (1777-1779), and
after various vicissitudes he obtained an introduction to A. F.
Fourcroy, in whose laboratory he was an assistant from 1783-
1791. At first his work appeared as that of his master and patron,
then in their joint-names; but in 1790 he began to publish on
his own authority, and between that year and 1833 his name is
associated with 376 papers. Most of these were simple records
of patient and laborious analytical operations, in the course of
which he detected two new elements — beryllium (1798) in beryl
and chromium (1797) in a red lead ore from Siberia. In organic
chemistry he is known as the discoverer of quinic acid, asparagine,
camphoric acid, and other naturally occurring compounds. He
held various offices, and finally succeeded Fourcroy (1809) as
professor of chemistry to the Medical Faculty in Paris. He died
at his birthplace on Nov. 14, 1829.
He published Manuel de V Essay eurt in 1812.
VAUQUELIN DE LA FRESNAYE, JEAN (1536-
1608), French poet, was born at the chateau of La Frcsnayc, near
Falaise, in 1536. He studied the humanities at Paris and law at
Poitiers and Bourges. He fought in the civil wars under Marshal
Matignon and was wounded at the siege of Saint-L6 (1574).
Most of his life was spent at Caen, where he was president, and
he died there in 1608. La Fresnaye was a disciple of Ronsard,
but? 'while praising the reforms of the Pltiade, he laid stress on
the continuity of French literary history. He was a student of the
trouveres and the old chroniclers, and desired to see French poetry
set on a national basis. These views he expounded in an Art
pottique, begun in 1574, but not published until 1605.
His Forest-cries appeared in 155$; his Diverses poesies, including
the Art poitique, the Sat y res fran$oisest addressed to various distin-
guished contemporaries, and the Idyttes, with some epigrams and
sonnets, appeared in 1605. Among his political writings may be noted
Pour la monarchie du royaume contre la division (1569).
The Art poetique was edited by G. Pellissier in 1885. It is summar-
ized for English readers in vol. ii. of George Saintsb'ury'a History of
Criticism. \ notice of the poet by J. Travers is prefixed to an edition
of the Oeuvres diverses (Caen, 1872).
VAUVEN ARGUES, LUC DE CLAPIERS, MARQUIS DE
(1715-1747), French moralist and miscellaneous writer, was born
at Aix in Provence on Aug. 6, 1715. His family was poor though
noble; he was educated at the college of Aix, where he learned
little — neither Latin nor Greek — but by means of a translation
acquired a great admiration for Plutarch. He entered the army
as sub-lieutenant in the king's regiment, and served for more than
ten years, taking part in the Italian campaign of Marshal Villars
in 1733, and in the disastrous expedition to Bohemia in support
of Frederick the Great's designs on Silesia, in which the French
were abandoned by their ally. Vauvcnargues took part in Marshal
Belle-Isle's winter retreat from Prague. On this occasion his legs
were frozen, and though he spent a long time in hospital at Nancy
he never completely recovered. He was present at the battle of
Dettingen, and on his return to France was garrisoned at Arras.
His military career was now at an end. He had long been desired
by the marquis of Mirabeau, author of L'Ami des homines, and
father of the statesman, to turn to literature, but poverty pre-
vented him from going to Paris as his friend wished. He wished
to enter the diplomatic service, and made applications to the
ministers and to the king himself.
These efforts were unsuccessful, but Vauvenargues was on the
point of securing his appointment through the intervention of
Voltaire when an attack of smallpox completed the ruin of his
health and rendered diplomatic employment out of the question.
Voltaire then asked him to submit to him his ideas of the differ-
ence between Racine and Corneille. The acquaintance thus begun
ripened into real and lasting friendship. Vauvcnargues removed to
Paris in 1745, and lived there in the closest retirement, seeing but
few friends, of whom Marmontcl and Voltaire were the chief.
Among his correspondents was the archaeologist Fauris de Saint-
Vincens. Vauvenargues published in 1746 an Introduction a la
connaissancc de I' esprit htimain, with certain Reflexions and Max-
imes appended. He died in Paris on May 28, 1747.
The bulk of Vauvenargues's work is small, but its interest great.
His real strength is in a department which the French have
always cultivated with greater success than any other modern
people — the expression in more or less epigrammatic language of
the results of acute observation of human conduct and motives,
for which he had found ample leisure in his campaigns.
An edition of the Oeuvres of Vauvenargues, slightly enlarged,
appeared in the year of his death. There were some subsequent editions,
superseded by that of M. Gilbert (2 vols., 1857), which contains some
correspondence, some Dialogues of the Dead, "characters" in imitation
of Theophrastus and La Bruyere, and numerous short pieces of
criticism and moralizing. The best comments on Vauvenargues,
besides those contained in Gilbert's edition, are to be found in four
essays by Saintc-Bcuve in Causeries du lundi, vols. iii. and xiv., and in
Villemain's Tableau de la literature fran^aise au XVIlIn)C siecle.
See also M. Pal6ologue, Vauvenargues (1890) ; Selections from
. . . La Bruyere and Vauvenargues, with memoir and notes by Miss
Elizabeth Lee (1903) ; E. Gosse, Three French Moralists (1918).
VAUXHALL, a district on the south bank of the river
Thames, in London, England, included in the metropolitan
borough of Lambeth. The manor was held by Falkes de Breaute
(whence the name, Falkes hall) in the time of John and Henry
III. About 1 66 1 public gardens were laid out here, known as
the New Spring garden, and later as Spring gardens, but more
familiar under the title of Vauxhall gardens. They soon became
the favourite fashionable resort of the metropolis; but as a place
of general entertainment they underwent great development from
1732 under the management of Jonathan Tyers (d. 1767) and
his sons. In 1822, with the approval of George IV., who fre-
quented the gardens before his accession, the epithet Royal was
added to their title. By the middle of the iQth century, however,
Vauxhall had lost its high reputation; in 1859 the gardens were
finally closed, and the site was quickly built over.
VAUX OF HARROWDEN, THOMAS VAUX, 2ND
BARON (1510-1556), English poet, eldest son of Nicholas Vaux,
ist Baron Vaux, was born in 1510. In 1527 he accompanied
Cardinal Wolsey on his embassy to France; he attended Henry
VIII. to Calais and Boulogne in 1532; in 1531 he took his seat
in the House of Lords, and was made Knight of the Bath at the
coronation of Anne Boleyn. He was captain of the Isle of Jersey
VAVASSOR— VECTOR ANALYSIS
21
until 1536. He married Elizabeth Cheney, and died in Oct. 1556.
Sketches of Vaux and his wife by Holbein are at Windsor, and
a finished portrait of Lady Vaux is at Hampton Court. Two
of his poems were included in the Songes and Sonettes of Surrey
(Toad's Miscellany, 1557). They are "The assault of Cupid
upon the fort where the lover's hart lay wounded, and how he
was taken/' and the "Dittye . . . representinge the Image of
Deathe," which the gravcdigger in Shakespeare's Hamlet mis-
quotes. Thirteen pieces in the Paradise of Dainty Devices (1576)
are signed by him. These are reprinted in Dr. A. B. Grosart's
Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library (vol. iv., 1872).
VAVASSOR, in its most general sense a mediate vassal, i.e.,
one holding a fief under a vassal. The word was, however, applied
at various times to the most diverse ranks in the feudal hierarchy,
being used practically as the synonym of vassal. Thus tenants-in-
chief of the Crown are described by the Emperor Conrad as
valvassores ma j ores as distinguished from mediate tenants, val-
vassores minores. Gradually the term without qualification was
found convenient, for describing sub-vassals, tenants-in-chief being
called capitanci or bar ones. Its implication, however, still varied
in different places and times. Bracton ranks the magnates sen
valvassores between barons and knights; for him they arc "men
of great dignity," and in this order they are found in a charter
of Henry II. (1166). But in the regestum of Philip Augustus we
find that five vavassors are reckoned as the equivalent of one
knight. Finally, Du Cange quotes two charters, one of 1187,
another of 1349, in which vavassors are clearly distinguished from
nobles.
The derivation of the word vavassor is very obscure. Some
would derive it from vassi ad valvas (at the folding-doors, valvae),
i.e., servants of the royal antechamber. Du Cange, with more
justice, regards it merely as an obscure variant of vassus.
VAXJO, VEXIO or WEXIO, a town and bishop's see of
Sweden, capital of the district (Ian) of Kronoberg, 1 24 m. north-
east of Malmo by rail. Pop. (1928), 9,626. It is pleasantly sit-
uated among low wooded hills at the north end of Lake Vaxjo,
and near the south end of Lake Hclga. Its appearance is modern,
for it was burnt in 1843. The cathedral of St. Siegfrid dates from
about 1300, but has been restored, the last time in 1898. The
Smaland Museum has antiquarian and numismatic collections. At
Ostrabo, the episcopal residence without the town, the poet Esaias
Tegner died in 1846, and he is buried in the town cemetery.
VAZOFF, IVAN (1850-1921), Bulgarian poet and novelist,
was born at Sopot. In common with the founders of Bulgarian
literature, Rakovsky, Karaveloff and Botev (q.v.), he was first
inspired by the sufferings of his countrymen before the liberation.
His Trials of Bulgaria describes the nation's struggle for freedom.
A bard of the people, Vazoff's style is simple and unaffected; his
Epic Poem to the Forgotten, celebrating the gr^at deeds and
sacrifices of the Bulgarian people, thrilled the nation, as also did
Under the Thunder of Victory (1914), Songs of Macedonia (1916)
and New Echo (1917). Vazoff's most inspired poems and novels
of a descriptive character are those relating to the Bulgarian
countryside and village life. He died at Sofia on Sept. 22, 1921.
His chief novels are: Under the Yoke (Eng. trans. 1894);
Svetoslai) Terter (1907), Hadji A hit and Kazalarskata Tsaritza;
and his dramas include: Borislav (1910) and Towards the Abyss.
VEBLEN, THORSTEIN B. (1857- ), American author
and teacher, was born on July 30, 1857. He graduated at Carleton
college in 1880, and studied at Johns Hopkins, Yale and Cornell
universities. He was appointed reader in political economy at the
University of Chicago in 1893, becoming successively instructor
and assistant professor. He was associate professor of economics
at Stanford university, 1906-09, lecturer in economics at the Uni-
versity of Missouri in 1911-18, and lecturer in the New School for
Social Research, New York city, beginning in 1918. For almost
ten years he was managing editor of The Journal of Political
Economy. He was distinguished by his contributions to the theory
of economics, especially as modified by current business practices.
Among his works are the Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) J The
Theory of Business Enterprise (1904) ; The Instinct of Workman-
ship (1914); Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution
(1915) ; The Vested Interests and the State of the Industrial Arts
(1919); The Engineers and the Price System (1921); Absentee
Ownership and Business Enterprise in Recent Times (1923).
VECTOR ANALYSIS. The mathematician and physicist
deal with quantities which they find it convenient to classify as
either scalar or vector quantities. Familiar examples of scalar
quantities are — time, mass, volume, electric charge; and of vector
quantities— displacement, velocity, force, electric-field intensity.
A scalar quantity is briefly termed a scalar and a vector quantity
a vector, from the Latin "vehere," meaning "to carry."
Vector analysis, of comparatively recent development, was
antedated by Quaternions (q.v.)
originated by Sir William Rowan
Hamilton (q.v.) in 1843 and
Ausdehnungslehre, by Hermann
Gunthcr Grassmann in 1844. Of
the various forms of vector anal-
ysis which have been evolved
several find their origin in these
FIG. i subjects. The vector analysis in
ordinary use to-day, and reviewed below, is due largely to the work
of two mathematical physicists, Josiah Williard Gibbs (q.v.),
1881-84, and Oliver Heaviside, 1891. In common with others
working in the same field, they recognized the desideratum of
developing a system of vector analysis the operational rules of
which should conform as far as possible with the corresponding
rules of scalar algebra. But, furthermore, each was profoundly
interested in producing a system specially adapted to the needs
of the mathematical physicist.
In what follows, vectors in general, as is customary, will be
denoted by letters in Clarendon type and their magnitudes by
the same letters in ordinary type: A, B, C, • • • a, b, c; A, B, C
• • • a, b, c • • • . The notation used is that introduced by Gibbs.
The simplest type of vector is a line from an initial point (.4)
to a terminal point (B) adorned at its terminal point by an arrow-
tip to indicate direction. Such a vector is called a line-vector or
vector-step and is conveniently denoted by AB. Two vectors of
the same kind are considered equal when they are of equal
magnitude and have a common direction, their positions in space
being otherwise immaterial. Any vector may be represented by
a corresponding line-vector with the same direction and a length
equal numerically to the magnitude of the vector.
The Addition of Vectors.— Two line-vectors are added in
accordance with the "Parallelogram Law": — Referring to fig. i,
let OA and OB be two line-vectors drawn from a common origin
O and let a parallelogram be constructed upon them as sides;
then the line-vector, OS from the origin, 0 to the opposite vertex
5 is by definition the sum or resultant of the two line- vectors and
is denoted by OA+OB or by OB+OA. Thus
If the line-vectors OA, OB represent any two vectors a, b of
like kind, then the sum (or resultant) of a and b is by definition
equal in magnitude (numerically) to the line-vector OS and like-
directed. Consequently, if s denote the sum of a and b,
s=a+b=b+a. (i)
The commutative law of addition for two vectors is here ex-
pressed.
If a larger number of vectors arc to be added, the sum of any
two of them may be found as above and added to a third, and
so on until the sum of all the vectors is found, the order in which
the vectors are added being immaterial.
With the parallelogram law of addition the physicist is parti-
cularly pleased for as a matter of experience he knows that when
the vectors with which he deals are added in accordance with
this law, the sum (in most cases) has a definite physical meaning.
For example: The effect upon the motion of a body due to the
22
VECTOR ANALYSIS
action of two forces at some one of its points is the same as would
be produced by their resultant or sum as given by the parallelo-
gram law.
Any vector with a negative sign prefixed represents a vector
of the same magnitude as the original vector but oppositely
directed. It follows that a— b=a+(— b) and hence that the pro-
cess of subtraction of vectors may be reduced to one of addition.
Multiplication of a vector by a number m simply increases the
magnitude of the vector by the factor m with reversal of direction
if m be negative. Furthermore, as is easily proved by elementary
geometry,
w(a+b+ • • • ) = ma+wb+ • • • . (2)
This equation shows that the distributive law of multiplication
is valid in the multiplication of a sum of vectors by a number.
The Scalar Product of Two Vectors. — The scalar product of
two vectors a and b is denoted cquivalently by a • b or b • a.
By definition,
a -b=b • a = a&cos(a,b), (3)
where (a, b) denotes the angle between the directions of a and b.
The definition itself makes valid the commutative law of multi-
plication for the scalar product of two vectors. The distribution
law is also valid; for example,
(a+b) • (c+d)=a - b-fa • c+b - c+b • d. (4)
The scalar product of two vectors comes naturally into evi-
dence whenever the cosine of the angle between two directions is
a matter for discussion.
The Vector Product of Two Vectors. — The vector product
of a vector a into a vector b is denoted by aXb. By definition :
aXb = n<jftsin(a, b), (5)
where n is a unit vector perpendicular to a and b and such that
if a suffer a rotation about n
toward b, the direction of n and
that of the rotation would be
related .as the thrust and twist
of a right-handed screw. Ac-
cordingly,
(6)
and the commutative law of mul-
tiplication is not valid in the
present cfase in virtue of the re-
versal sign. The magnitude of
aXb or bXa is-numerically equal
to the area of a parallelogram
constructed upon line-vectors rep-
resenting a and b. (See fig. 2.)
axb
bxa
FIG. 2
Products involving more than three vectors may be formed
but are rarely required.
The 1, j, k-System of Unit Vectors.— Even after the advent
of vector analysis writers on physics (the world of vectors) not
\ infrequently were accustomed (in effect) to evade the vector
j treatment of vectors with the aid of the familiar Cartesian
system of axes. That they were able to do so was due to the fact
that three Cartesian scalar equations are equivalent to one vector
equation. When used to supplement the vectorial treatment of
vectors, and not to avoid it, Cartesian reference axes have a very
useful place in vector analysis.
Let i, j, k be three line- vectors each of unit length in the
positive directions of the X, F, Z-axes of a rectangular Cartesian
system. Then, in virtue of (3) and (5):
i . i-j j-k -k«i, i •. j = j -k=k • i»0; (10)
In the vector multiplication of sums of vectors the distributive
law is valid, provided that in expansion the order of the vectors
be maintained; for example,
(a-fb)X(c+d)=aXc+aXd~t-bXc-rbxd. (7)
The vector product of two vectors comes naturally into evi-
dence whenever the sine of the angle between two vectors is
under consideration.
The Scalar Triple Product.— An example is furnished by the
scalar quantity denoted by a - bXc. Evidently,
a • bXc = a • nksin'(b, c) = a6r cos(a, n, sin(b, c), (8)
where n is a unit" vector in the direction of aXb. In this product
cyclical interchange of the vectors may be made and dot and
cross may be interchanged without a fleeting its value; any single
non-cyclical interchange of the vectors simply changes the sign
of the product. The magnitude of the product is numerically
equal to the volume of a parallelepipedon constructed upon line-
vectors representing a, b, c.
The Vector Triple Product.— An example is furnished by the
vector quantity denoted by aXfbXc). The following reduction
formula is important :
) = (a-c)b-(a-b)c. (9)
Two vectors, a and b, may be expressed in the forms
(n)
(12)
d3)
where 0-1 i, </2j, ajk and hi, b2j, bjs. are the vector components of
a andb parallel to the A', F, Z-axes and a\, a2, </a and 61, lh, b* are
the scalar values of these components. Then
In like manner the sum of any number of vectors may*be ex-
pressed as a sum of i, j, k-components.
In virtue of (10) and the distributive law for the scalar product
of vectors,
In particular, if b = a,
a • a — a2 = ai2 -f- u^f + (/32 . ( 1 6)
The vector product of a into b, in virtue of (i r) and the dis-
tributive law for vector products, may be expressed as follows:
(tf2^3— 03
Vector Fields. — A region of space with each point of which is
associated a vector is called a vector field. Examples of such
are the gravitational, electric and magnetic fields of the physicist.
In the theory of such fields the behaviour of a vector in the
neighbourhood of any point is a matter for investigation. The
attention being fixed upon a particular point P(x, y, z), let the
vector v associated with the point be expressed in the form:
(18)
where the scalar values of the vector components, ih, v«, Vs, are
now to be regarded as functions of the co-ordinates #, y, z. Let
x+dxt y+dy, z+dz be the co-ordinates of any neighbouring
point where dx, dy, dz represent infinitesimal increments of », y, z.
Then, if dv represent the infinitesimal increment in the vector v
corresponding to the increments of the co-ordinates, where dvi,
Jv = i dvi + jdvz + kf/tyi, (19)
(fi>2, </t?3 represent the infinitesimal increments in v\, % ^3 corres-
ponding to the increments of the co-ordinates, and which may
be expressed (sec CALCULUS) as follows:
dv{ dvi dvi
di\~ — dx + — dy + — dz,
ox dy dz
dv* oV>2 . dv*
r- dx + — dy + -r- dz,
dx
dy
dz
(20)
j3 dx + ~ dy + -- dz,
VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY— VEDDER
where the symbol -^ denotes the rate at which the function v\
dx
would increase with respect to x if x be varied while y and 2 are
held constant; and the other coefficients of the co-ordinate incre-
ments have an analogous significance. In all there are nine coeffi-
cients of this sort and in terms of them the character of the vector
field in the neighbourhood of P can be completely specified.
The Divergence and the Curl of a Vector, — Two quantities
of fundamental importance in the theory of vector fields will now
be defined in terms of these coefficients.
One of these is a scalar called the divergence of v (div v) and
defined by the equation
div v =
.
i
dz
(21)
,
curlv
, ,
(22)
V
dx dy
The other is a vector called the curl of v (curl v) and defined
by the equation:
(d*_*!^k
L«\ 1 / * ' \ 1 *\ / J ' \ 1 17
\dy dz/ \dz dx/ \ox dy/
The values of both these quantities can be shown to be in-
dependent of the particular set of i, j, k-axes used in their defini-
tions.
If v represents the velocity of a moving iluid and p represents its
density at any given point then
pv is its momentum per unity
volume; div pv is a measure of
the rate at which the fluid is leav-
ing the neighbourhood of the
point reckoned per unit volume;
curl v is a measure of the vortical
motion of the fluid. In fig. 3, for
a case of two dimensional flow,
is shown, diagrammatically by
means of arrows representing the
velocity vector, the flow of a F|C- 3
fluid in the vicinity of four points Py F', (), Q'. At the points P
and P' a finite divergence of the velocity is indicated (+ at P
and — at P') ; at Q and Qf a finite value of the curl of the velocity
is indicated (clockwise at Q and counter-clockwise at Q').
If v denotes the magnetic field intensity at any point (the force
which would act upon a positive unit magnetic pole if placed at
the point) in a magnetic field due to a distribution of electric
currents, then curl v is a measure of the electric current density
(current per unit area) at the point.
Scalar and Vector Potential Functions. — If throughout a
given region curlv = o or divv = o, then, as the case may be,
v is said to have a lamellar or solenoidal distribution in the region.
In the case of a lamellar distribution (curl v = o) it is possible
to derive v from a scalar function V of the co-ordinates x, y, z
in accordance with the equation
__.dV ,dV dV
dx dy dz
and v is called the gradient of V, often abbreviated to grad V
or VK. The gradient of V is a vector with a direction determined
by that of the greatest space rate of increase of V and a mag-
nitude equal to this rate of increase,
The function V is called a scalar potential function.
In the case of a solenoidal distribution (divv — o) it is possible
to derive v from a vector function G of the co-ordinates in ac-
cordance with the equation :
v = curlG. (24)
The function G is called a vector potential function.
Linear Vector Functions. — Let two vectors p and q associ-
ated with a point (x, y, z) be expressed in terms of their i, j, k-
components as follows:
(*S)
(26)
and suppose the two vectors, so related that:
FIG. 4
>*, (*7)
where the a-coefficients are constants or, possibly, functions of
the co-ordinates x, .v, s. Then q is called a linear vector function
of p. The theory of such functions constitutes one of the most
important branches of vector
analysis.
By way of example, the vector
p may represent the position
vector of any point P of .a ma-
terial body with respect to an ar-
bitrary point O fixed in the body.
If we now suppose the body to
undergo a strain, the point of the
body originally at P will in
general occupy a new position Q
(see fig. 4) with position vector q relative to O. If the strain is
of the type known as homogeneous then q will be a linear vector
function of P. The scalar coefficients p\y pz, p3 and q\, q^ q$ of
i, j, k in equations (25) and (26) respectively will then be the
rectangular co-ordinates of P and Q respectively on an i, j, k-
system of axes with origin at 0. The precise nature of the homo-
geneous strain will be determined by the values of the nine
0-coeffkients in equations (27). In a homogeneous strain the
coefficients are constants; straight lines remain straight and
parallel lines remain parallel.
Among mathematical subjects having contacts with vector
analysis, the more important are: The various geometries, deter-
minants, multiple algebra and in particular, tensor theory— the
basis of the mathematical exposition of the general theory of
relativity. The easiest approach to tensor theory is probably by
way of vector analysis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For beginners: R. Cans, Einfuhrnng in die
Vektoranalysis (Leipzig, 1905); J. G. Coffin, Vector Analysis (1909);
L. Silberstein, Elements of Vector Algebra (1919) ; C. E. Weatherburn,
Vector Analysis (Elementary) (1921). For advanced students: O.
Heaviside, Electro-Magnetic Theory (1893) chap, iv.; J. W. Gibbs,
Vector Analysis (New Haven, 1901) ; C. Rungc, Vector Analysis (based
upon the viewpoint of H. G. Grassrnann) trans. H. Levy (1923) ;
C. E. Weatherburn, Vector Analysis (Advanced) (1924) ; M. Lazily,
Vektor Rechnung (1928). (A. P. Wi.)
VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY: see INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
VEDDAS or WEDDAS, a primitive people of Ceylon.
During the Dutch occupation (1644-1796) they were found as
far north as Jaffna, but are now confined to the south-eastern
district. They are divided into Veddas, Village Veddas and Coast
Veddas. They speak Sinhalese, greatly modified with a few words
possibly of their original language.
The true Veddas are short (average 60$ in.). They are dark-
skinned and flat-nosed, with small skulls. The brow ridges are
well marked. Their black hair is long, wavy, almost curly. They
live chiefly by hunting; catch fish by poisoning the water, are
skilled in getting wild honey; use bows with iron-pointed arrows
and breed hunting dogs. They dwell in caves or bark huts. They
count on their fingers, and make fire with the fire-drill twirled by
hand. They are divided into matrilineal exogamic clans. They
are monogamous. Their religion is essentially a cult of the dead.
See C. G. and B. Z. Seligmann, The Veddas (1911).
VEDDER, ELIHU (1836-1923), American painter, was
born in New York city, Feb. 26, 1836. He studied under the genre
and historical painter Tompkins H. Matteson (1813-84), at
Sherburne, N.Y., later under Picot, in Paris, and then, in 1857-61,
in Italy. After 1867 he lived in Rome, making occasional visits
to America. He was elected to full membership in the National
Academy of Design, New York, in 1865. He devoted himself to
the painting of genre pictures, which, however, attracted only
modest attention until the publication, in 1884, of his illustrations
to the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ; these immediately gave him
a distinguished place in the art world. Important decorative work
VEERE— VEGA CARPIO
came at a later date, more particularly the painting symbolizing
the art of the city of Rome, in the Walker Art Gallery of
Bowdoin College, Maine, and the five lunettes (in the entrance
hall) symbolical of government, and the mosaic "Minerva" in
the Congressional Library at Washington. He died in Rome,
Jan. 29, 1923. A few days before his death, his book, Doubt and
Other Things, was published.
VEERE. a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the
island of Walcheren 4 m. N.N.E. of Middelburg, with which it
is connected by canal (1867-72). Pop. (1927) 9,089. It con-
tains several interesting architectural remains of the days of its
former prosperity, when it was an important commercial centre.
VEERY (Hylotichla fuscescetis) , also called Wilson's thrush,
a well-known bird of the thrush family (Turdidae) inhabiting
eastern North America, where it breeds from New Jersey and
Illinois north to Newfoundland and Manitoba; a subspecies, the
willow thrush (H. f. salicicola), inhabits the Rocky mountains as
far north as British Columbia, extending east to the Dakotas and
Newfoundland. Both forms winter in Central America, the willow
thrush, however, also going as far south as southern Brazil. About
7i in. long, the vecry is a uniform cinnamon brown above, white
below, with greyish sides and a buff throat and breast faintly
spotted with cinnamon brown. It has a fine song rich in overtones.
The veery lives mainly in woods and feeds largely on insects.
VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA (1503-1536), Spanish sol-
dier and poet, was bom at Toledo. At the age of 17 he was
attached to the bodyguard of Charles V., fought against the insur-
gent communcros, and afterwards gained great distinction by his
bravery at the battle of Pavia (1525). In 1526 he married a lady-
in-waiting to Queen Eleanor. He took part in the repulse of the
Turks from Vienna in 1529, was present at the coronation of the
emperor at Bologna in 1530, and was charged with a secret
mission to Paris in the autumn of the same year. In 1531 he
accompanied the duke of Alva to Vienna, where, for conniving at
the clandestine marriage of his nephew to a maid-of-honour, he
was imprisoned on an island in the Danube. During this captivity
he composed the fine cancion, "Con un manso ruido de agua cor-
riente y clara." Released and restored to favour in June 1532,
he went to Naples on the staff of Don Pedro de Toledo, the newly
appointed viceroy, by whom he was twice sent on public business
of importance to Barcelona, in 1533 and 1534. After having
accompanied the emperor on the expedition to Tunis (1535), he
took part with him in the invasion of Provence and was mortally
wounded while storming a fort at Muy, near Frejus. His poems,
which arc among the finest in their language, include three pas-
torals, which rank among the finest in the Spanish language, 37
sonnets, five canciones, two elegies, and a blank verse epistle, all
influenced by Italian models. An English translation was pub-
lished by J. H. Wiffen in 1823. Garcilaso's delicate charm has
survived ail changes of taste, and by universal consent he ranks
among the most accomplished and artistic of Spanish poets.
See H. Keniston, Garcilaso de la Vega (1922-25).
VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA, called "Inca" (c. 1535-
1616), historian of Peru, was born at Cuzco. His father, Sebas-
tiano Garcilaso (d. 1559), was a cadet of the illustrious family of
La Vega, who had gone to Peru in the suite of Pedro de Alvarado,
and his mother was of the Peruvian blood-royal, a circumstance
of which he was very proud as giving him a right to the title
which he claimed by invariably subscribing himself "Inca." About
1560 he removed to Spain, but failed to win the preferment for
which he hoped. After long service in the army, he turned to
literature, solacing himself in his rather meagre circumstances by
depicting the riches of the new world. He died in Spain in 1616.
He published in 1590 a translation of Dialoghi di Amore of L6on
Hebro, but his fame depends upon La Florida del Ynca (1605)
and his history of Peru (Pt. i, Commentaries Reales que tratandel
origen dc los Yncas, Lisbon, 1608 or 1609; Pt. 2, Cordova, 1617).
This latter work has been translated into English, French, German
and Italian and has been utilized by Robertson, Prescott, Mar-
montel and Sheridan. The former work, a history of the De Soto
expedition, was long regarded primarily as fiction. In spite of its
exaggerations as to the numbers and wealth of the Indians, recent
investigations have shown it to possess more ethnological value
than had been hitherto supposed. Garcilaso de la Vega wrote be-
fore history was regarded as a science; by temperament and cir-
cumstances he was inclined to the romantic; nevertheless his
work possesses permanent intrinsic interest and he will be remem-
bered as the first South American in Spanish literature.
See the monograph by Julia Fitzmaurice-Kelly (1921) in the His-
panic series, and the Lima edition of the Peruvian history (1918-21)
prepared by H. H. Urteaga with an introduction by Don Jose" de la
Riva Agiiero.
VEGA, the bright star in the constellation Lyra (q.v.), hence
its Bayer equivalent, c*Lyrae; its magnitude is 0-14, and it is the
fourth brightest star in the sky and the brightest in the northern
hemisphere.
VEGA CARPIO, LOPE FELIX DE (1562-1635), Span-
ish dramatist and poet, was borri in Madrid. His father and
mother, Felices dc Vega and Francisca Hernandez Flores, origi-
nally came from the valley of Carriedo in Asturias. Lope began
his studies at the Theatine college in Madrid, and afterwards
entered the service of Don Jcronimo Manrique, bishop of Avila,
who sent him to the University of Alcala de Hcnares, perhaps
from 1577-81. He took part in the expedition to the Azores in
1582, and from 1583-87 was secretary to the marque's de las
Navas. In Feb. 1588 he was banished for circulating criminal
libels against his mistress, Elena Osorio, whom he has celebrated
under the name of Filis. He defied the law by returning to Madrid
soon afterwards and eloping with Isabel de Urbina, sister of J^hilip
II. 's herald; he married her by proxy on May 10, 1588, and
joined the Invincible Armada, losing his brother in one of the
encounters in the Channel. He settled for a short while at Valen-
cia, where he made acquaintance with a circle of young poets
who were afterwards to be his ardent supporters in founding the
new comedy. He joined the household of the duke of Alva, with
whom he remained till 1595. Soon afterwards he lost his wife. He
was prosecuted for criminal conversation in 1596, became secre-
tary to the marquis de Malpica (afterwards count of Lemos), and
in 1598 married a second wife, Juana de Guardo, by whom he had
two children (Carlos, who died in 1612, and Feliciana Felix); but
she died, shortly after giving birth to the latter, in 1613. Lope
then sought a refuge in the church. After having been affiliated to
a tertiary order, he took priest's orders.
At this juncture, about 1614, he was in the very zenith of his
glory. A veritable dictator in the Spanish world of letters, he
wielded over all the authors of his nation a power similar to that
which was afterwards exercised in France by Voltaire. At this
distance of time Lope is to us simply a great dramatic poet, the
founder of the Spanish theatre; but to his contemporaries he
was much more. His epics, his pastorals, his odes, his sonnets,
now forgotten, all placed him in the front rank of authorship.
Such was his prestige that he dealt with his noble patrons almost
on a footing of equality. The duke of Sessa in particular, his
Maecenas from 1605 onwards, was also his personal friend, and
the tone of Lope's letters to him is one of frank familiarity, modi-
fied only by some forms of deference. Lope's fame, too, had trav-
elled abroad; foreigners of distinction passing through Madrid
made a point of visiting him ; papal legates brought him the com-
pliments of their master; in 1627 Urban VIII., a Barberini, sent
him the diploma of doctor of theology in the Collegium Sapientiae
and the cross of the order of St. John of Jerusalem (whence the
poet's titles of "Doctor" and "Frey"). His last days were full of
sadness; the death of his son Lope, the elopement of his daughter,
Antonia Clara, wounded him to the soul. Montalban tells us that
every Friday the poet scourged himself, so severely that the walls
of his room were sprinkled with his blood. His death, on Aug.
27, 1635, was followed by national mourning.
For a rapid survey of the works of Lope, it is convenient to
begin with those which the Spaniards include under the name of
Obras Sueltas, the title of the large collection of the poet's non-
dramatic works (1776-79). We shall enumerate the most impor-
tant of these, as far as possible in the order of publication. The
Arcadia (1598), a pastoral romance, inspired by Sannazaro, is
one of the poet's most wearisome productions. La Dragontea
VEGA CARPIO
(1598), is a fantastic history in verse of Sir Francis Drake's last
expedition and death. Isidro (1599), a narrative of the life of
Isidore, patron of Madrid, is called a Castilian poem on account
3f the rhythm in which it is composed — quintillas of octosyllabic
verse. The Hermosura de Angelica (1602), in three books, is a
sort of continuation of the Orlando Furioso, in octaves after the
fashion of the original poem. Finally, the Rimas are a miscellany
of short pieces. In 1604 was published the Peregrino en su Patria,
a romance similar in kind to the Aethiopica of Heliodorus. Hav-
ing imitated Ariosto, he proceeded to imitate Tasso; but his
Jerusalen Conquistada (1609) has preserved nothing of the art
shown in its model and is an insipid performance. Next follows
the Pastores de Belen (1612) a pious pastoral, dedicated to his
son Carlos, which forms a pendant to his secular Arcadia; and
incidental pieces published in connection with the solemnities of
the beatification and canonization of St. Isidore in 1620 and 1622.
It is enough to mention La Filomena (1621), La Circe (1624)
and other poems published about the same date, as also the four
prose novels, Las For tunas de Diana, El Desdichado por la Honra,
La Mas Prudent e Venganza and Guzman el Bravo. The great
success of the Novelas exemplar es (1613) of Cervantes had stimu-
lated Lope, but his novels have none of the grace, naturalness, or
interest which characterize those of his rival. The last important
work which has to be mentioned before we leave the narrative
poetry of Lope is the Laurel de Apolo (1630). This piece describes
the coronation of the poets of Spain on Helicon by Apollo, and
it is more meritorious as a bibliographical manual of Spanish
poetry at that time than as genuine poetry. One other obra suelta,
closely akin to Lope's dramatic works, though not, properly speak-
ing, a drama, is La Dorotea (1632). Lope describes it as an
"action in prose," but it is rather a "romance in dialogue"; for,
although divided into acts, the narrative is dramatic in form only.
Of all Lope's productions Dorotea shows most observation and
study; the style also is unusually simple and easy. Of all this
mass of obras sueltasf filling more than 20 volumes, very little
(leaving Dorotea out of account) holds its own in the judgment
of posterity. The lyrical element alone retains some vitality.
From the Rimas and other collections of detached pieces one
could compile a pleasing anthology of sonnets, epistles, elegies
and romances, to which it would be proper to add the Gatomaquia,
a burlesque poem published along with other metrical pieces in
1634 by Lope under the pseudonym of Tom6 de Burguillos.
It is, however, to his dramatic writings that Lope owes his
eminent place in literary history. It is very curious to notice how
he himself always treats the art of comedy-writing as one of the
humblest of trades (dc pane lucrando), and protests against the
supposition that in writing for the stage his aim is glory and not
money. The reason is not far to seek. The Spanish drama, which,
if not literally the creation of Lope, at least owes to him its defini-
tive form — the three-act comedy — was totally regardless of the
precepts of the school, the pseudo-Aristotelianism of the doctors
of the period. Lope accordingly, who stood in awe of the criticism
of the cientlficos, felt bound to prove that, from the point of
view of literary art, he attached no value to the "rustic fruits
of his humble vega" In his Artc Nuevo de hacer comedias en este
tiempo (1609), Lope begins by showing that he knows as well as
any one the established rules of poetry, and then excuses himself
for his inability to follow them on the ground that the "vulgar"
Spaniard cares nothing about them. "Let us then speak to him in
the language of fools, since it is he who pays us." Another reason
which made it necessary for him to speak deprecatingly of his
dramatic works is the circumstance that the vast majority of
them were written in haste and to order. The poet does not
hestitate to confess that "more than a hundred of my comedies
have taken only 24 hours to pass from my brain to the boards
of the theatre." Nevertheless, Lope did write dramas in which the
plan is more fully matured and the execution more carefully
carried out; still, hurried composition and reckless production are
after all among the distinctive marks of his theatrical works.
Towards the close of his career Lope somewhat modified the
severe and disdainful judgments he had formerly passed upon his
dramatic performances ; he seems to have had a presentiment that
posterity, in spite of the grave defects of his work in that depart-
ment, would nevertheless place it much higher than La Dragontea
and Jerusalen Conquistada, and other works of which he himself
thought so much. We may certainly credit Lope with creative
power, with the instinct which enabled him to reproduce the
facts of history or those supplied by the imagination in a multi-
tude of dramatic situations with an astonishing cleverness and
flexibility of expression; but unfortunately, instead of concen-
trating his talent upon the production of a limited number of
works which he might have brought to perfection, he dissipated it,
so to say, and scattered it to the winds.
The classification of the enormous mass of Lope's plays (about
470 comedias and 50 autos are known to us) is a task of great
difficulty, inasmuch as the terms usually employed, such as
comedy, tragedy, and the like, do not apply here. There is not
cxplicitncss enough in the division current in Spain, which recog-
nizes three categories: — (i) comedias de capa y espadaf the sub-
jects of which are drawn from everyday life and in which the
persons appear as simple caballeros; (2) comedias de ruido or
de teatro, in which kings and princes arc the leading characters
and the action is accompanied with a greater display of dramatic
machinery; (3) comedias dimnas or de santos. Some other ar-
rangement must be attempted. In the first place, Lope's work
belongs essentially to the drama of intrigue; be the subject what
it may, it is always the plot that determines everything else. Lope
in the whole range of his dramatic works has no piece comparable
to La Verdad Sospechosa of Ruiz de Alarcon, the most finished
example in Spanish literature of the comedy of character; and
the comedy of manners is represented only by El Galan Castrucho,
El Anzuelo de Fcnisa and one or two others. It is from history,
and particularly Spanish history, that Lope has borrowed more
than from any other source. But it is to the class of capa y espada
— also called novelcsco, because the subjects are almost always
love intrigues complicated with affairs of honour — that Lope's
most celebrated plays belong. In these he has most fully dis-
played his powers of 'imagination (the subjects being all invented)
and his skill in elaborating a plot. Among the plays of this class
which are those best known in Europe, and most frequently imi-
tated and translated, may be specially mentioned Los Ramilletes
de Madrid, La Doba para los Otros y Discreta para si, El Perro del
Hortclano, La Viuda de Valencia and El Maestro de Danzar. In
some of them Lope has sought to set forth some moral maxim,
and illustrate its abuse by a living example, as in Las Flores de
Don Juan. Such pieces are, however, rare in Lope's repertory; in
common with all other writers of his order in Spain, with the
occasional exception of Ruiz de Alarcon, his sole aim is to amuse
and stir his public; not troubling himself about its instruction.
The strong point of such writers Is and always will be their
management of the plot.
To sum up, Lope found a poorly organized drama, plays being
composed sometimes in four acts, sometimes in three; and, though
they were written in verse, the structure of the versification was
left far too much to the caprice of the individual writer.. The
style of drama then in vogue he adopted, because the Spanish
public liked it. The narrow framework it afforded he enlarged to
an extraordinary degree, introducing everything that could pos-
sibly furnish material for dramatic situations — the Bible, ancient
mythology, the lives of the saints, ancient history, Spanish history,
the legends of the middle ages, the writings of the Italian novel-
ists, current events, Spanish life in the 1 7th century. Bef ofe him
manners and the conditions of persons and characters had been
barely sketched; with fuller observation and more careful descrip-
tion he created real types, and gave to each social order the lan-
guage and drapery appropriate to it. The old comedy was awk-
ward and poor in its versification; he introduced order into the
use of all the forms of national poetry, from the old romance
couplets to the rarest lyrical combinations borrowed from Italy.
Hence he was justified in saying that those who should come
after him had only to go on along the path which he had traced.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Obras, ed. R. Acadcmia Esp. (1890-1913) ; Obras,
ed. E. Cotarelo y Mori (1916-20). See H. A. Rennert, The Life of
Lope de Vega (Glasgow, 1904) ; revised Spanish, cd. by H. A. Rennert
and A. Castro (1919) ; M. Mcn^ndez y Pclayo, Historia de las Ideas
26
VEGETABLE
EsUticas en Espana; A. Morel Fatio, La Comedie espagnole du
Commercial Production of Principal Vegetables, 10.27 — Continued
XVll>™ siecle (188$). (X.; J. F.-K.)
Showing acreage, yield, value and rank of leading States on basis of value
VEGETABLE, a -word used as a general term for plants
%of
(<7.i>.), and specifically, in popular language, for such plants as can
be eaten by man or animals, whether cooked or raw, and whether
Vegetable and State
Acre-
age
Produc-
tion
Unit
Value
total
U.S.
the whole of such plants are edible, or only the leaves or the roots
value
or tubers. Among such edible or culinary plants or portions of
$
plants, a further distinction is made popularly between "fruits"
Cucumbers
and "vegetables," for which see FRUIT.
(pickling)
58,000
2,663,000
Bushels
2,529,850
100-0
For the botany of vegetables see under the specific names, e.g.,
Michigan .
20,360
611,000
»
549,900
21-7
POTATO, TURNIP, etc., and also HORTICULTURE, generally.
Vegetable Culture in the United States.— Vegetables are
Wisconsin .
California .
Indiana
8,500
2,120
7,470
340,000
337,000
284,000
)>
»
,,
367,200
326,890
264,120
i4'5
12-9
10-4
grown in greater or less variety in every State. The chief sources
Eggplant
2,870
746,000
ft
693,480
100-0
of production are home gardens, truck farms and greenhouses in
New Jersey
I,OOO
330,000
264,000
38-0
the vicinity of large cities, farms devoted to raising vegetables for
Florida
1« •
630
202,000
D
254,520
36-7
canning and other manufacture, and also farms in the Southern
States and in California for the production of winter and early
-ouisiana
Lettuce
California
800
123,310
76,410
139,000
17,562,000
9,627,000
Crates
,,
139,000
27,537,120
15,380,270
2O'O
100-0
56*2
spring vegetables for northern and eastern markets.
Arizona
14,800
3,036,000
4,098,600
14-9
The accompanying table, prepared from reports in the U.S.
Colorado .
13,240
1,536,000
»
2,503,680
9'I
Yearbook of Agriculture, gives statistics regarding the more im-
portant vegetables grown for the market. In addition, artichokes,
beets, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, radishes, rhubarb, squashes, tur-
New York.
Muskmclons.
California .
Arizona
6,480
120,280
47,560
10,000
i, 147,000
15,272,000
7,557,000
i ,900,000
>»
,,
))
1,697,450
22,908,000
11,728,000
2,774,000
6-2
100-0
51-1
I2-I
nips and other minor vegetables are grown commercially, but
Maryland
7,100
888,000
,,
1,953,600
8-5
mostly to a much smaller extent in the country as a whole, though
Colorado .
12,100
1,815,000
,,
1,905,750
8-3
some are locally of considerable importance.
Onions .
75,610
22,492,000
Bushels
18,020,140
100-0
Texas
II 220
2,199,000
,,
3,716,310
20-6
Commercial Production of Principal Vegetables, 1927
California
New York
8,730
8,460
3,016,000
3,046,000
3 ,300,0.^0
1,797,14°
1 8-3
9*9
Showing acreage, yield, value and rank of leading States on basis of value
Indiana
8,100
2,738,000
,,
1,615,420
8-9
Ohio
7 OOO
2 , 3 $ 2 ,OOO
1,41 1,200
7'8
% of
Peas, green (fresh)
/,v-/vxw
55,I2°
4,969,000
,,
Hampers
9,838,620
100-0
Vegetable and State
Acre-
age
Produc-
tion
Unit
Value
total
U. S.
California
Now York.
26,810
6,940
2,497,000
923,000
>,
4,221,360
1,716,780
42-9
17-4
value
Colorado .
3,7«o
286,000
812,240
8-3
New Jersey
4,000
360,000
»
766,800
7-8
$
Peas, green
Asparagus (fresh)
41,600
3,441,000
Crates
10,013,310
100-0
(canning)
218,880
215,000
Tons
12,472,150
IOO-O
California
10,080
1,341,000
j.
3,888,900
38-8
Wisconsin
106,120
116,700
,,
6,689,000
53-5
New Jersey
10,500
888,000
»
1,469,600
14-7
New York
34,99°
31,500
,,
1,861,000
14-8
So. Carolina .
6,400
320,000
j,
1,283,200
12-9
Utah .
9,510
12,400
,,
667,616
6'3
Illinois .
3,36o
286,000
,,
429,000
4*3
Michigan .
14,430
11,500
,»
575,ooo
4'6
Asparagus
Peppers, green* .
1 5,330
3,890,000
Bushels
4,940,300
100-0
(canning)
48,500
53,200
Tons
3,738,896
IOO-O
Florida
3,370
1,348,000
,,
2,965,600
60-0
California
48,300
53,ioo
,»
3,716,396
99-4
New Jersey
7,5oo
1,950,000
,,
1,228,500
24-9
New York
200
100
22,500
0-6
Louisiana .
2,860
289,000
,,
398,820
8-r
Beans, snap
North Carolina
630
1 24,000
,
93,000
1-9
(fresh) .
82,900
6,417,000
Hampers
II,2O7,2Po
100-0
Potatoes f (early)
235,i6o
29,031,000
,
44,998,050
JOO-O
Florida . .
19,400
1,364,000
,,
3,682,800
3 1 '4
Virginia .
78,700
14,087,000
>
18,538,320
41-2
New Jersey
11,300
1,469,000
it
2,t3O,O5O
18-0
North Carolina
35>ooo
4,200,000
y
8,022,000
17-8
Louisiana .
I3>49°
728,000
j,
J,069,760
9-1
Florida
28,000
2,940,000
i
5,615,000
I2'5
California
3,120
484,000
,,
997,040
8-4
South Carolina
17,780
2,045,000
,
3,926,400
8-7
Beans, snap
Spinach (fresh)
38,690
13,523,000
>
6,896,730
lOO'O
(canning)
29,320
45,300
Tons
2,838,951
lOO'O
Texas
10,450
6,457,000
3,228,500
46-9
New York
5,53<>
7,700
,»
644,567
22-7
Virginia .
8,130
2,715,000
>
1,056,000
J5'3
Wisconsin
4,200
5,100
,,
382,500
J3'5
California
1,900
1,520,000
,
456,000
6-6
Mississippi
1,780
3,30o
j,
169,389
6-0
Maryland
2,130
1,108,000
387,800
5-6
Maryland
3,300
3,000
,,
164,760
5'8
Spinach (canning)
11,720
56,000
Tons
894,350
TOO'O
Cabbage
138,370
1,162,000
»»
I8,6O3,OOO
100-0
California
10,300
51,500
,,
746,750
83-5
New York
35»98o
447,500
,»
3,207,973
17-2
Maryland
1,420
4,50°
»
147,600
16-5
Louisiana .
13,040
66,900
»»
,455.075
7-8
Sweet corn* .
3*7,3*0
816,000
»
10,795,680
lOO'O
Texas . .
18,530
122,300
>!
,193,648
6-4
(canning)
Wisconsin
13,500
114,800
>»
,020,904
5'5
Illinois
58,280
145,700
»,
2,073,311
IQ-2
Carrots .
26,090
8,002,000
Bushels
4,48l,I20
100-0
Iowa .
50,480
151,400
»
1,357,544
12-6
Louisiana .
1 1, 600
2,448,000
,,
,248,480
28'0
New York
27,420
60,300
,,
1,133,640
10-5
California .
3,050
1,525,000
»
1,098,000
24-5
Maryland
33,850
74,500
,,
1,048,960
Q-7
New York
2,860
1,778,000
»>
822,480
18-3
Sweet potatoes .
931,000
93,928,000
Bushels
77,490,600
100-0
Texas
4,340
998,000
,»
429,140
9-6
Texas
133,000
11,970,000
»
^,977)500
II-6
Cauliflower .
J 7,340
4,299,000
Crates
5,545,000
IOO-O
North Carolina
89,000
10,146,000
,,
8,116,800
10-5
California
8,950
2,452,000
i,
2,452,000
44-2
Georgia
132,000
10,560,000
,,
7,920,000
I0'2
New York
5,o<>o
1,270,000
,,
2,324,100
41-9
Louisiana .
99,000
9,702,000
„
6,791,000
8-8
Oregon
2,100
420,000
,,
495,000
9-0
Alabama .
75,000
7,350,ooo
>,
6,247,000
7'9
Celery .
25,3-0
7,407,000
,,
11,354,000
ioo-o
Mississippi
69,000
7,728,000
,,
6,182,400
8-0
Florida
4,240
1 ,908,000
,t
3,968,640
35*o
Tomatoes (fresh) .
141,250
18,305,000
,,
28,189,700
100-0
California
8,850
1,991,000
>,
2,566,590
26-6
Florida .
29,800
3,606,000
>>
7,284,120
25-8
New York
5,090
1,654,000
,,
1,984,800
17-5
Mississippi
I5.36o
2,765,000
»
5,557,000
19-7
Michigan .
3,700
846,000
i,
1,167,480
10-3
New Jersey
11,400
2,508,000
»»
2,758,000
9'4
Cucumbers (fresh)
42,400
6,040,000
Hampers
7,308,000
100*0
California
22,700
1,692,000
,,
2,107,960
7'5
Florida
7,440
1,004,000
i>
1,927,680
26-4
Maryland
7,050
1,107,000
»>
885,600
3'i
South Carolina
4,300
634,000
,,
871,200
II«9
North Carolina
4,340
764,000
687,000
9'4
*Statistics for 1926.
New York
3,050
585,000
»>
573,300
7'8
tThe total crop of potatoes for 1927 was grown on 3,505.000 ac.,
yielding 402,149,000 bu., valued at $389,603,606.
VEGETABLE COOKERY— VEGETARIANISM
Commercial Production of Principal Vegetables, ip2/ — Continued
Showing acreage, yield, value and rank of leading States on basis of value
Vegetable and State
Acre-
age
Produc-
tion
Unit
Value
%of
total
U.S.
value
Tomatoes
(canning, etc.)
California
New Jersey
Maryland
Indiana
Watermelons
( Georgia
Florida
Texas
California
246,030
28,760
28,000
34,000
42,990
181,910
54,060
29,420
29,660
9,780
1,109,000
1 78,000
145,600
151,400
163,400
S7»22o
i7,5/o
8,826
8,156
.. 5>24i
Tons
>
Carsf
>
$
15,881,880
2,674,500
2,620,800
2,161,992
2,134,004
10,647,920
2,828,770
2,524,236
i,345,74o
660,156
loo-o
16-8
16-5
i3'6
XV4
j 00*0
26-6
23'7
12-6
6-2
JCars of 1,000 melons.
VEGETABLE COOKERY. The term "vegetables" other
than pulses and cereals (qq.v.) covers those plants which have
edible flowers, fruit or seed, stalks, roots or leaves. Green vege-
tables arc valuable in the diet chiefly on account of their potas-
sium salts and vitamines, cellulose, which supplies the body with
bulk or "roughage," thus assisting digestion; and for their water
content (average 90-95%). Roots and tubers are heat- and
energy-giving foods. The cellulose of vegetables is valuable as
roughage in the intestinal tract.
Green Vegetables.— There are three distinct methods of cook-
ing green vegetables. Steaming is one. In the second, only enough
water is used to prevent the vegetables from sticking to the pan
and getting burnt, and the aim is to conserve the natural salts and
flavours of the vegetables. The third and more common method
of cooking ordinary "greens" is to boil the vegetable in a pan of
fast-boiling salted water with the lid off. Soda is frequently added
to soften the water and preserve the colour but it destroys the
vitamines and is not recommended.
All these methods can be used for most green vegetables with
the exception of sorrel and spinach, which have a very high water
content and require very little water in cooking.
To cook cabbage first wash well in salt and water to get rid
of any insects, trim off outside discoloured leaves and put into
a kettle full of boiling water, with at least i teaspoon salt to
each qt. To lessen odor of cooking, do not cover. Whole young
cabbage, 25-30 min., old, 30 min.-i hr. Quartered, 10-15 min.
Leaves, 5-10 min. Drain, add i tablespoon butter for each Ib.
Cabbage may be stuffed with forcemeat (see FORCEMEATS) or
savoury rice (cooked rice and grated cheese, chopped onion and
seasoning) by separating the leaves from a parboiled cabbage
and rolling each leaf round the forcemeat, or the stuffing may be
placed in the centre of the cabbage. If the cabbage is rolled stew
in a thickened gravy.
Brussels sprouts may be dipped in batter and fried. Single leaf
vegetables, e.g., spinach, beet-tops, etc., may be cooked until
tender, drained and passed through a sieve, then mixed with but-
ter, cream, seasoning, and formed into a pur6e which can be
garnished with hard-boiled eggs or served on toast. Green puree
soups are made from green vegetables. For cooking of French
beans, scarlet runner beans, peas, etc., see PULSES. It is impor-
tant to avoid the overcooking of vegetables.
White Vegetables^-To prepare white vegetables for cooking
wash, scrub or scrape. Celery should be cut up in thin strips
lengthwise to facilitate cooking. Have ready a pan of salted boil-
ing water, squeeze into it a little lemon juice to keep the vegetables
a good colour. In cooking certain blanched vegetables, e.g., aspara-
gus, leeks, etc., it is best to tie the vegetables in bundles. Over-
cooking of all white vegetables should be avoided. As a rule,
15-30 minutes (according to the age and type of vegetable being
boiled) is sufficient time to allow.
Jerusalem artichokes, salsify (oyster plant), etc., may be passed
through a sieve and creamed, sprinkled with grated cheese and
sauce and then baked au gratin. They may also be fried in batter
as fritters. Celery can be stewed in milk or brown sauce, or
served au gratin. Seakale and asparagus are usually served with
melted butter but may be served with other sauces, mayonnaise,
etc. All white vegetables may be made into soup by passing
through a sieve, thickening and mixing with milk.
Potatoes. — There are innumerable ways of cooking potatoes
but for most potato dishes they must be first plain boiled. To boil
in their skins, clean thoroughly and place in boiling salted water
Simmer until tender (about 30-40 minutes; but see note in COOK-
ERY on boiling at high altitudes) ; drain off the water and allow
them to steam in the pan for five minutes with the lid on. Remove
the lid, allow the steam to escape for a few seconds and use as
required.
To bake potatoes bake them in their skins or peel and put in a
baking-dish with sufficient fat to keep them from burning and
place under a piece of roasting meat so that the fat from the
meat can drip on to them and so keep them moist while cooking.
Mashed potatoes are plain boiled or steamed, mashed with but-
ter and milk, and then beaten with a wooden spoon until creamy.
Potatoes may be fried either in a frying-pan, or in a pan of deep
fat. Before frying thoroughly dry; then after slicing, cut into
strips or fancy shapes. To cream potatoes for vegetarian dishes
add eggs, cream or sauce to mashed potatoes and bake or steam
as a souffle.
VEGETABLE MARROW, botanically a variety of Cucur-
bita Pepo, the most important of the gourds (</.v.), used as
an esculent, furnishing in good seasons a very large supply
for the table. They are best when eaten quite young and not over-
boiled, the flesh being then tender, and the flavour sweet and nutty
The custard marrows (scallop or patty-pan varieties), bear a
peculiar-looking flattened fruit with scalloped edges, which has a
sweeter and less nutty flavour than the true marrow. The bush
marrows are more bushy in habit and taller and more sturdy in
growth.
! Vegetable marrows require a warm situation and a rich soil free
from stagnant moisture. They do well on a rubbish or old-dung
heap, or in a warm border on little hillocks made up with any
fermenting material, to give them a slight warmth at starting.
The seeds should be sown in a warm pit in April, and forwarded
under glass, but in a very mild heat; the plants must be shifted
into larger pots, and be gradually hardened previous to being
planted out, when the mild weather sets in in May or June. The
seeds may be sown early in May in pots under a hand-glass, or
towards the end of May in the open ground, if heat is not at
command. The shoots may be allowed to run along the surface of
the ground, or they may be trained against a wall or paling, or on
trellises.
The tropical Blighia sapida (Sapindaccae), which is cultivated
for its edible fruits, is also known as vegetable marrow.
VEGETARIANISM, a word which came into use about the
year 1847, as applied to the practice of living upon foods from
which fish, flesh and fowl are excluded. There have from time to
time been various sects or schools of thought that have advocated
narrower views. Some of these have excluded all animal products
— such as milk and eggs and cheese. Some have excluded all
cooked foods, and have preached the virtue* of fruits and nuts
and grains in their natural ripe state. Some have abstained from
all underground-grown roots and tubers, and have claimed special
benefits from using only those fruits and vegetables that are grown
in the sunlignt. Some have given up all grain and pulse foods, and
have declared that old age can be best resisted by living entirely
upon fruits, salads, nuts, soft water and milk products. Some have
added fish to their dietary; but, speaking generally, all who are
called vegetarians will be found to abstain from the use of flesh
and fowl and almost invariably also from fish as food.
The fact, however, must not be overlooked that while vege-
tarian societies claim as "vegetarians" all who abstain from flesh
foods, there is a large and growing number of people who repu-
diate the name of "vegetarian" because of its associations, but
who none the less, for some of the reasons detailed below, abstain
from eating anything that has been killed.
The reasons that are advanced for the practice of f ruitarianism
or vegetarianism are very comprehensive, but the chief are the
VEGETIUS— VEINS
following: —
1. Health. — (a) On the ground that animals are affected by
diseases which are communicable, and are actually communicated,
to man by tlje ingestion of their flesh, e.g., parasites, tuberculosis;
(ft) on the ground that the flesh of artificially fed animals is full
of excretory substances, and that, therefore, under modern condi-
tions, flesh-eating is injurious, and may be the cause of excretory
substance and uric acid deposits or rapid tissue-destroying diseases
in man; e.g., gout, cancer.
2. Economy. — On the ground that the assimilable nutriment
from a given weight of selected fruit and grain and nut and vege-
table foods will cost less than the same nutriment obtained from
flesh foods.
3. Social Economy. — On the ground that an acre of cultivable
land under fruit and vegetable cultivation will produce from two
to twenty times as much food as if the same land were utilized for
feeding cattle.
4. Racial Improvement. — On the ground that the aim of every
prosperous community should be to have a large proportion of
hardy country yeomen, and that horticulture and agriculture de-
mand such a high ratio of labour, as compared with feeding and
breeding cattle, that the country population would be greatly
increased by the substitution of a fruit and vegetable for an
animal dietary.
5. Character Improvement. — On the ground that after the vir-
tues of courage and valour and fearlessness have been taught in
the lower stages of evolution, the virtue of gentle humaneness
and extended sympathy for all that can suffer should be taught in
the higher cycles of the evolutionary spiral. Flesh-eating entailing
necessarily an immense volume of pain upon the sentient animal
creation should be abstained from by the "higher classes" in the
evolutionary scale.
Organizations have been established to advocate this method
of living under the name of "Vegetarian Societies" in many coun-
tries— chiefly the United Kingdom, America, Germany, France,
Austria, Holland and Australia. Propagandism is carried on by
lectures, literature, cookery demonstrations and restaurants.
In England, the oldest and one of the most important societies
is "The Vegetarian Society," of which the headquarters are at Ox-
ford Street, Manchester. An attempt has been made to organize
the various vegetarian societies of the world under the title of
"The Vegetarian Federal Union." The headquarters of the London
societies and of the "Union'' are at Memorial Hall, Farringdon
Street, E.C
In the religious world the Seventh-Day Adventists (who are
connected with many sanatoria and the manufacture of food spe-
cialties) and some Bible Christians, the worshippers of Vishnu and
the Swami Narang and Vishnoi sects, amongst others, preach ab-
stinence from flesh food. The Salvation Army, the Tolstoyans
and the Doukhobors encourage it. A number of orders in the
Roman Catholic church (e.g., the Trappists) and in the Hindu
faith (e.g., the Dadupanthi Sadus) are pledged abstainers.
The general question of food values is discussed in the article
DIETETICS; see also NUTRITION. But there is no doubt that, what-
ever may be the view taken as to the extreme theory of vegetarian-
ism, it has had considerable effect in modifying the excessive meat-
consuming regime of previous days, and in introducing new
varieties of vegetable cooking into the service of the table.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature on the subject is considerable, but the
two classics are perhaps The Ethics of Diet, by Howard Williams, and
The Perfect Way in Diet, by Dr. Anna Kingsfbrd. In former years the
"Vegetarian Society'' was the most active in producing literature, but
since about 1901 the Order of the Golden Age has come to the front
with new and up-to-date books, booklets and leaflets, and the Ideal
Publishing Union has reprinted much of the earlier literature. The
chief periodicals are the Vegetarian (weekly), the Herald of the
Golden Age (monthly), the Vegetarian. Messenger (monthly), the
Vegetarian (American monthly), the Children's Garden (monthly).
(J. O.)
VEGETIUS (FLAVIUS VEGETIUS RENATUS) (4th cent.),
military writer. Nothing is known of his life save that in mss.
he is called vir illustris and also comes. His treatise, Epitoma rei
militaris, sive institutorum rei militaris libri quifiqite, was dedi-
cated to the reigning emperor (? Theodosius the Great). His
sources, according to his own statement, were Cato, Cornelius
Celsus, Frontinus, Patemus and the imperial constitutions of
Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian. The book, a confused and un-
scientific compilation, has to be used with caution, but is im-
portant to the student of the ancient art of war.
In manuscript, Vegetius's work had a great vogue from the first,
and its rules of siegecraft were much studied in the middle ages.
It was translated into English, French and Bulgarian before the
invention of printing. The first printed editions arc assigned to Utrecht
(1473), Cologne (1476), Paris (1478), Rome (in Veteres de re mil.
scriptores, 1487), and Pisa (1488). A German translation by Ludwig
Hohenwang appeared in 1475. The fullest modern edition is by Karl
Lang (1^69). An English version was published by Caxton in 1489.
For a detailed critical estimate of Vegctius's works and influence see
Max Jiihns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenschaften, i. 109-125.
VEII, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, situated about 10 m.
N. by W. of Rome by road. It is mentioned in the earliest history
of Rome as a constant enemy, being the nearest Etruscan city to
Rome, but the site was occupied in the Villanova period, remains
of huts having been found on the acropolis (called Piazza d'Armi)
as well as numerous tombs. The story of the slaughter of the
Fabii, who had encamped in the territory of Veii (perhaps in an
effort to cut the communications of Veii with Ficlenae) and of
whom but one boy escaped, is well known. After constant war-
fare, the last war (the fourteenth, according to the annalists)
broke out in 406 B.C. The Romans laid siege to the city, and,
after a ten years' siege, M. Furius Camillas took it by storm in
396, by means, so we are told, of a tunnel leading into the citadel.
According to the legend, the emissarium of the Alban Lake was
constructed in obedience to the Delphic oracle, which declared
that, until it was drained, Veii could not be taken. After the
defeat of the Romans at the Allia in 390 B.C., a project was
broached for abandoning Rome for Veii, which was successfully
opposed by Camillas. Veii is spoken of by Propertius as almost
deserted, but Augustus founded a municipality there, inscriptions
of which have been found down to the time of Constantius.
Veii was reached by branch roads from the Via Clodia. The
site is characteristic — a plateau, the highest point of which is
407 ft. above sea-level, divided from the surrounding country by
deep ravines, and accessible only on the west, where it was
defended by a wall and fosse. Remains of the city walls, built of
blocks of tufa 2 ft. high, may be traced at various points in the
circuit. The area covered measures about i sq.rn. and it was thus
only second to Rome in size among the cities in her neighbour-
hood. The site of the Forum has been discovered on the west
side of the plateau; a statue of Tiberius, now in the Vatican,
and the twelve Ionic columns now decorating the colonnade on
the W. side of the Piazza Colonna at Rome were found there.
The acropolis was at the eastern extremity of the site, where
the two ravines converge; it is connected with the rest of the
plateau by a narrow neck. An Etruscan house was found on the
north side of the city; while, just outside it on the south a
temple of the 6th cent. B.C. with three cellac has been discovered.
The most famous of the Etruscan tombs is the Grotta Campana.
which contains paintings on the walls with representations of
animals, among the earliest in Etruria. There are also several
prominent tumuli. To a later period belongs a columbarium cut
in the rock, with niches for urns. (T. A.)
VEINS, in anatomy. The veins are blood vessels which re-
turn the blood from the capillaries toward the heart. As they ap-
proach that organ they join together to form larger and larger
trunks. In man and other mammals three venous systems are
recognized: (i) the general venous system; (2) the pulmonary
system; and (3) the hepatic portal system. (See also VASCULAR
SYSTEM.)
General Venous System. — This consists of superficial and
deep veins; the former lie in the superficial fascia and are often
visible through the skin. They are usually accompanied by lym-
phatic vessels though not as a rule by arteries, and, sooner or
later, they empty their blood into the deep veins, often passing
through special openings in the deep fascia to do so. The deep
veins always accompany arteries, and are therefore known as
venae comites. With small and medium-sized arteries there are
two of these venae comites, one on each side, connected by oc-
VEINS
29
casional cross communications, but arteries of a larger calibre have
only one companion vein. In the scalp and face the superficial
veins accompany corresponding arteries more or less closely be-
cause the arteries in this region are very tortuous (see ARTERIES),
while the veins run a comparatively straight course. Frontal,
superficial temporal, posterior auricular and occipital veins are
found in the scalp, their names indicating the areas they drain.
Like all other superficial veins, they anastomose freely and also
at certain places communicate, through foramina in the skull, with
the intracranial blood sinuses ; these communications are known as
emissary veins, and act as safety-valves to the sinuses. The
frontal vein on the forehead passes down on the inner side of the
eyelids, where it is known as the angular, and then becomes the
facial vein, which runs down to an inch in front of the angle of the
jaw, whence it passes into the neck to join the common facial.
In the greater part of its course it lies some distance behind the
facial artery. The superficial temporal vein runs down in front of
the ear, where it joins the internal maxillary vein from the
pterygoid plexus and so forms the temporo-maxillary trunk, which
passes down, embedded in the parotid gland, to about the angle
of the jaw. Here it divides into an anterior branch, which joins
the facial vein to form the common facial, and a posterior, which
receives the posterior auricular vein, forming the external jugular.
The external jugular vein is easily recognized through the skin
on the side of the neck, and eventually pierces the deep fascia
above the middle of the clavicle to join the subclavian vein. The
occipital vein sinks deeply into the back of the neck and so forms
the beginning of the vertebral vein.
The intracranial blood sinuses lie between two layers of the dura
mater and differ from the veins in having fibrous walls which do
not contract or expand. The superior longitudinal sinus runs
along the upper margin of the falx ccrebri (see BRAIN), while the
inferior longitudinal sinus runs along the lower margin; these
drain the surface of the brain, and the blood passes backward in
both. Where the falx meets the tentorium cerebelli, the inferior
longitudinal sinus receives the veins of Galen from the interior of
the brain and then passes backward as the straight sinus to join
the superior longitudinal sinus at the internal occipital protuber-
ance (see SKULL). This meeting-place is known as the torcular
Herophili, and from it the blood passes outward and downward
through the right and left lateral sinuses, which groove the cra-
nium (see SKULL) until they reach the posterior lacerated fora-
mina, through which they pass to form the beginning of the in-
ternal jugular veins. Most of the blood from the base of the brain
passes into the cavernous sinuses which lie in the middle cranial
fossa, one on each side of the pituitary fossa. These receive the
ophthalmic veins from the orbit in front and, after running back-
ward for about an inch, divide into the superior and inferior
petrosal sinuses, the former of which joins the lateral sinus within
the cranium, but the latter runs to the posterior lacerated fora-
men, after passing through which it joins the lateral sinus, which
is now becoming the internal jugular vein. (See fig. 5.)
The internal jugular vein thus formed runs down at first behind
and then to the outer side of the internal and common carotid
arteries and at the root of the neck joins the subclavian vein of
its own side to form the innominate vein. In its course down the
neck it receives the common facial vein and tributaries from the
tongue, pharynx, larynx and thyroid body. The deep veins of the
head and face tend to form plexuses rather than venae comites;
of these, pterygoid, deep temporal, pharyngeal and suboccipital
plexuses are recognized.
Veins of the Upper Extremity.— On the dorsum of the hand
and in front of the wrist superficial venous plexuses are easily
seen through the skin. From these the blood passes up the fore-
arm chiefly on its flexor surface by the radial, median and anterior
and posterior tdnar veins. Just below the bend of the elbow the
median vein communicates with the deep veins and then divides
into two branches like the limbs of ay. Of these the inner is the
median basilic from which patients are usually bled, while the
outer is the median cephalic. After a course of an inch or two the
median basilic is joined by the anterior and posterior ulnar veins
and the median cephalic by the radial. After this iunetinn the
median basilic is continued up the inner side of the arm as the
basilic which pierces the deep fascia about the middle of the arm
and in the axilla joins the venae comites of the brachial artery to
form the axillary vein, which lies on the inner side of its artery.
The median cephalic vein after joining the radial runs up the outer
side of the arm as the cephalic and a little below the clavicle
passes through the costocoracoid membrane to enter the upper
part of the axillary vein. At the outer border of the first rib the
axillary vein becomes the subclavian, which lies in front of and
below its artery and is separated from it by the scalenus anticus
muscle. The arrangement of the superficial veins, especially in
front of the elbow, is liable to great variation.
Veins of the Lower Extremity.— The superficial veins of the
lower extremity begin in a venous arch on the dorsum of the foot.
From the inner extremity of this the internal saphenous vein runs
up, in front of the inner ankle, along the inner side of the leg, and,
passing behind the inner side of the knee, continues up the thigh,
gradually working forward until it reaches the saphenous opening
in the deep fascia of the thigh a little below the spine of the
pubis. Here it pierces the deep fascia (fascia lata) to enter the
common femoral vein. In this long course it has many valves and
receives numerous tributaries, one of which, the saphenous col-
lateral, runs up nearly parallel to it and on its outer side and joins
it just below the saphenous opening. From the inner end of the
dorsal arch of the foot the external saphenous vein runs up be-
hind the outer ankle along the mid line of the calf to pierce the
deep fascia in the popliteal space behind the knee and open into
the popliteal vein. Among the deep veins venae comites are found
until the popliteal artery is reached, while above this superficial,
deep and common femoral veins accompany their respective
arteries. In the groin the common femoral vein lies on the inner
side of its artery.
Veins of the Abdomen.— The common femoral vein, after
passing deep to Poupart's ligament, becomes the external iliac
which runs along the brim of the true pelvis and, after a course
of some three inches, joins the internal iliac which drains the
pelvis and so forms the common iliac vein. In front of the body
of the fifth lumbar vertebra the common iliac veins of the two
sides unite to form the inferior vena cava, a very large trunk
which runs up on the right of the abdominal aorta to an opening
in the diaphragm (q.v.). On its way it receives spermatic or
ovarian veins from the genital glands, renal veins from the kid-
neys, and lumbar veins from the abdominal walls. Before reaching
the diaphragm it lies in a groove in the back of the liver (q.v.) \
and receives the hepatic veins from that organ. The hepatic portal
system which lies in the abdomen will be treated later.
Veins of the Thorax. — The inferior vena cava, after piercing
the diaphragm, has a very short thoracic course and opens into
the lower and back part of the right auricle of the heart (q.v.).
The right and left innominate veins are formed behind the sternal
end of the clavicle by the union of the subclavian and internal
jugulars of their own side. The left vein is much longer than
the right and runs nearly horizontally behind the upper half of
the manubrium sterni to join its fellow on the right side of that
bone just below the first rib. By the junction of these the
superior vena cava is formed, which runs down to the right auricle
of the heart. The chief tributaries of the innominate veins are
the vertebral, the internal mammary and the inferior thyroid.
The intercostal veins open into the azygos veins, which begin in
the abdomen sometimes by a vertical trunk joining 'the lumbar
veins known as the ascending lumbar, sometimes on the right side
by a communication with the inferior vena cava. The right azygos
vein is known as the vena azygos major and passes through the
aortic opening of the diaphragm. Entering the thorax, it runs
up in front of the thoracic vertebrae, to the right of the aorta and
thoracic duct, and receives the intercostal veins of the right side.
At the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra it arches forward to
open into the posterior surface of the superior vena cava.
On the left side, the upper intercostal veins join to form the left
superior intercostal vein, which opens into the left innominate.
Lower down the intercostal veins from the fourth to the seventh
snaces form the superior hcmiazvcos vein, which runs Hown on
VEINS
the left of the spinal column and, crossing it about the level of
the eighth or ninth thoracic vertebra, opens into the vena azygos
major. The lower intercostal veins on the left side join the
inferior hemiazygos vein which runs up and opens either into
the superior hemiazygos or into the azygos major below the
opening of that vein.
Pulmonary Venous System. — The veins emerging from the
lungs bring back the oxygenated blood from those organs to the
left ventricle of the heart and also the greater part, if not all, of
the blood carried by the bronchial arteries to nourish the lungs.
The existence of bronchial veins is asserted, but they are ex-
tremely difficult to demonstrate, and if present are quite incapable
of returning all the blood which the bronchial arteries carry to
the lungs. There arc three pulmonary veins coming out of the
right lung, while on the left there are only two. On the right
side, however, two of the three veins usually unite in the root
of the lung, so that there are, as a rule, two pulmonary veins
entering the left auricle of the heart on each side, but it is not
uncommon to find three on the right side or one on the left. The
pulmonary veins have no valves.
Hepatic Portal System.— -The veins which drain the blood
from the stomach, intestines, spleen and pancreas unite to form
a large vein which begins behind the head of the pancreas and ends
by dividing into right and left branches in the transverse fissure
of the liver. This is the portal vein which lies in front of the in-
ferior vena cava and is about three inches long. Its formative
tributaries are the superior and inferior mesenteric and the
splenic veins. There are two marked characteristics of the portal
system; one is that it has no valves and the other that it begins
and ends in capillaries, since the two terminal branches of the
portal vein branch and rebranch in a manner already described
in the article LIVER. In the lower part of the rectum the veins
run partly into the portal and partly into the general system, and
in this dependent position they are liable to become varicose and
to form haemorrhoids or piles.
The histology of the veins corresponds very closely to that of
the arteries (q.v.)\ their walls are, however, much thinner and
there is less muscular and elastic tissue. At certain places,
especially where tributaries come in, the endothelial lining is
raised to form semilunar pocket-like valves. In most cases there
are two cusps to each valve, but three or one are sometimes found.
The opening of the pocket is arranged so that it shall only be
filled when there is a tendency to regurgitation of the blood.
EMBRYOLOGY
The vitelline or omphalo-mesenteric veins, returning the blood
from the yolk sac, are the first to appear, and later on, with the
formation of the placenta, the umbilical veins develop. Both
these open into the hinder (caudal) part of the heart, which is
already being constricted off as the sinus venosus (see fig. i).
While this is going on the veins from the different body seg-
ments are received into two longitudinal trunks on each side, the
anterior (cephalic) of which is
the primitive jugular or anterior
cardinal and the posterior (cau-
dal), the posterior cardinal or
simply cardinal vein. As the heart
is at first situated in the region
which will later be the neck of
the embryo, the primitive jugular
"^^^ PRIMITIVE JUGULAR
—_-—*— OOCT or CUVIER
— SINUS VENOSUS
SEOMCNTAL VEINS
^ VITCLLINC VEIN
•^1-— '- UMBILICAL VCIH
POSTERIOR CARDINAL
receives very few segmental F|G '.—SCHEME OF FORMATION OF
veins and the cardinal very many. VENOUS SYSTEM' FIRST STAGE
These two trunks join one anot her on each side and open into the
side of the sinus venosus by a transverse communication the duct
of Cuvier. The condition of the venous system at this stage is
shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. i).
As the vitelline veins run from the yolk sac to the heart along
each side of the primitive fore-gut they pick up the mesentcric
veins from the intestines as well as the splenic and pancreatic
veins as soon as these viscera are formed. The liver, however, is
developed right across their path, and both they and the umbili-
cal veins break up into a mass of capillaries in it, leaving that
part of them which lies between the liver and the heart to form
the primitive hepatic veins (fig. 2). While the vitelline veins are
lying on each side of the fore-gut (future duodenum) they are
connected by three transverse channels, the anterior and posterior
of which appear on the ventral side of the gut, the middle on the
dorsal side (see fig. 2). This figure of eight does not persist, how-
ever, because the anterior (cephalic) part of it on the left and the
PRIMITIVE JUGULAR
DUCT OF CUVIER -
SINUS VENOSUS
PRIMITIVE HEP-
PRIMITIVE CARI
LIVER
SUPERIOR MESENTCRIC
INFERIOR MESINTERIC^
SINUS VENOSUS
j ^-PRIMITIVE JUGULAR
A- PRIMITIVE HEPATIC
"PRIMITIVE CARDINAL
-j DUCTUS VENOSUS
"' ""^- LIVER
~ PORTAL
.__ ~~~-- DUODENUM
UMBILICAL
SPLENIC
^SUPERIOR MESENTERIC
RIGHT UMBILICAL
ABDOMINAL
FIGS. 2 ft 3. — SCHEME OF FORMATION OF VENOUS SOT
REGION
posterior (caudal) part on the right become obliterated, and what
is left forms the portal vein (fig. 3). The two umbilical veins unite
at the umbilicus (fig. 3) and soon all the blood from the placenta
passes through the left one, the right becoming rudimentary.
The left umbilical vein on reaching the liver now joins th£ left
branch of the portal vein and establishes a new communication
with the left hepatic vein. This is the ductus venosus (fig. 3),
and, as soon as it is formed, there is no longer any need that all
the blood returning from the placenta should pass through the
liver capillaries. The development of the cardinal veins must
now be returned to. As the heart moves from the neck into the
thorax the primitive jugulars elongate and it. is now recognized
become the internal jugulars in the greater part of their extent.
~~~" SUBCLAVIAN
OBLIQUE CONNECTING
OUCTUS VENOSUS
LIFT SUB CARDINALS
EXTERNAL ILIAC
INTERNAL ILIAC
FIGS. 4 ft 5. — SCHEME OF FORMATION OF VENOUS SYSTEM (SEE TEXT)
When the arms begin to bud out subclavian veins are developed
(fig. 4) and an oblique connecting vein (figs. 4 and 5) is estab-
lished between the point of junction of the left subclavian with
the primitive jugular and the hinder part of the primitive jugular
of the right side. This connection becomes the left innominate
vein, while the hinder part of the primitive jugular persists as the
left superior intercostal vein (fig. 5). On the right side that part of
the primitive jugular between the subclavian and the junction with
the left innominate becomes the right innominate (figs. 4 and 5)
while the hinder (caudal) part of the right primitive jugular and
VEJER DE LA FRONTERA— VELARIUM
the right duct of Cuvier become the superior vena cava (figs. 4 and
5). The external jugular is a later formation. The right and left
posterior cardinal veins receive the intercostal and lumbar segmen-
tal veins and are continued into the lower limbs as the internal iliac
and eventually the sciatic veins, the primitive bloodpath from the
thighs. The veins from the primitive kidneys open into the seg-
mental veins, and when the permanent kidney is formed (see
URINARY SYSTEM) a large renal vein on each side is established.
There are, however, many cross communications (fig. 4) between
the right and left posterior cardinal veins, §pme of which become
very important later on, though most of them are transitory. The
probable origin of the inferior vena cava is to be sought in a pair
of veins called subcardinals which have been found in the rabbit
embryo lying parallel and a little ventral to the posterior cardinals
(fig. 4) and effecting a junction with the renals and transverse
communications as they cross- these. Posteriorly (caudal) they
join the cardinals, but anteriorly the right one establishes a com-
munication with the ductus venosus a little below the point at
which that vessel joins the left hepatic. It is from the right one
of these that the greater part of the inferior vena cava is formed.
It will now be seen that the adult vena cava is formed by con-
tributions from four embryonic veins, most anteriorly the hepatic,
then the ductus venosus, then the right subcardinal and posteriorly
the right posterior cardinal (F. T. Lewis, Am. J. of Anat. vol. i.,
229, 1902). The anterior (cephalic) part of the right posterior
cardinal forms the vena azygos major, and an inspection of fig. 4
will show that in the adult this may rise from the renal, from an
ascending lumbar vein or, by a cross communication above the
renal, from the inferior vena cava. The left posterior cardinal be-
comes obliterated below and its segmental tributaries find their
way by cross communications to the vena cava (fig. 5). Above
(cephalad) the left renal vein the left cardinal forms the hemi-
azygos and, higher still, the hemiazygos acccssoria. These open
into the azygos major by persistent cross communications which
lie dorsal to the heart when that organ reaches its permanent posi-
tion. Some modern authorities doubt whether the azygos veins of
mammals are really persistent cardinals except quite in their an-
terior parts, just before they join the ducts of Cuvier. The left
duct of Cuvier is only represented in the human adult by the
oblique vein of Marshall on the dorsum of the left auricle. The
external iliac veins become fully developed, like their arteries,
when the blood changes its course from the back to the front of
the thigh. After birth the umbilical vein and the ductus venosus
become converted into fibrous cords and the circulation in the
pulmonary veins is established.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
In the Acrania (Amphioxus), although there is no heart, the
blood vessels returning the blood to the subpharyngeal region are
distinctly of a vertebrate type. There is a subintestinal vessel or
vein bringing the blood from the intestine to the liver and break-
ing up into capillaries in that organ just as the portal vein does in
the higher forms. From the liver a hepatic vein carries the blood
forward to the region below the pharynx where the heart is formed
in Vertebrata. There is no renal portal system. In the Cyclo-
stomata (lampreys and hags) the cardinal veins are formed
and the blood from the caudal vein passes directly into the pos-
terior cardinals without any renal portal system. In fishes the
single caudal vein divides into two branches, each of which runs
forward to the outer side of its respective kidney and ends by
giving numerous branches to that viscus. The blood returning
from the kidney passes into the beginning of its own posterior
cardinal vein or sinus, which lies on the inner side of the kidney.
This constitutes a renal portal system. The cardinal veins and
ducts of Cuvier closely resemble the arrangement already detailed
in the human foetus, while the hepatic portal system from the
intestine to the liver is constant in this and all other vertebrates.
In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) a pulmonary vein from the lung-like
swim-bladder is formed and an inferior vena cava or postcaval
vein carries the blood from the kidneys to the heart. This is its
first appearance in the vertebrate phylum. In the lower fishes
there is a vein of the lateral line on each side, but in the Dipnoi
these coalesce and form a median anterior (ventral) abdominal
vein which is constant in the Amphibia. Subclavian and iliac
veins return the blood from the fins and open respectively into
the junction of the anterior and posterior cardinals and into the
caudal vein.
In the tailed Amphibia (Urodela) the postcaval and posterior
cardinal veins are well developed, the former vessel running from
the right cardinal vein a little in front of (cephalad) the kidney
to the hepatic vein, in this way closely foreshadowing man's em-
bryology. In the Anura (frogs and toads) the posterior cardinals
are usually suppressed, but these are very specialized animals.
The anterior abdominal vein in amphibians joins the portal vein
close to the liver.
In the Rcptilia the renal portal circulation persists, but is rudi-
mentary in birds and disappears in mammals. The anterior ab-
dominal or epigastric vein of amphibians and reptiles returns -the
blood from the allantois in the embryo and in higher forms be-
comes the umbilical vein returning the blood from the placenta;
there is, therefore, a continuous line of ascent from the lateral
line veins of the fish to the umbilical vein of man. In reptiles,
birds, monotremes, marsupials and many rodents, insectivores,
bats and ungulates, a left superior vena cava (precaval vein) is
present as well as a right ; it passes ventral to the root of the left
lung and then dorsal to the left auricle of the heart until it reaches
the coronary sinus to open into the right auricle. Its course is indi-
cated in man by the left superior intercostal vein, the vestigial
fold of Marshall (see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES) and the
oblique vein of Marshall. It can be readily reconstructed from
figs. 4 and 5 if the transverse communication (L.I.) is obliterated.
In some mammals the postcaval vein is double, especially in its
hinder (caudad) part, and this sometimes occurs as a human ab-
normality (see F. W. McClure, Am. Journ. of Anat. vol. 2, 1903,
and vol. 5, 1906, also Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. 29, 1906).
Except in Cetacca, one or both azygos veins are always present
in mammals. When there is only one it is usually the right,
though a few forms among the marsupials, rodents and ungulates
have only the left (F. E. Beddard, P.Z.S., 1907, p. 181). In many
of the lower mammals the external jugular vein is much larger
than the internal and returns most of the blood from the brain
through an opening called the postglenoid foramen. For this
reason it was formerly regarded as the representative of the
primitive jugular. It is now, however, thought that the internal
jugular is that representative, and that the arrangement of man, in
which the internal jugular drains the interior of the cranium, is
the more generalized and primitive. (F. G. P.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— F. Hochstetter, Entwickelungeschichte des Gefass-
systems (1891), Beit-rage zur Anat omit und Entwwkelungeschichte des
Blutgefass-Systemes der Krokodile, (1906) ; D. J. Cunningham, Text-
Book of Anatomy (1902, 1922) ; A. M. Buchanan, Manual of Anatomy
(1906, 1925) ; A. V. Mcigs, Study of the Human Blood-Vessels (1907) ;
R. Quain, Elements of Anatomy (nth ed., 1908-23); C. C. Guthrie,
Blood-Vessel Surgery (1912) ; J. S. Horslcy, Surgery of the Blood-
Vessels (1915) ; J. P. MacMurrich, Development of the Human Body
(7th ed., 1923) ; W. M. Bayliss, The Vaso-Motor System (1923) ; H.
Gray, Anatomy (23rd cd., 1926). Win. Harvey, An Anatomical Dis-
quisition on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, ed. E. A.
Parkyn (1906) ; A, Krogh, The Anatomy and Physiology of Capillaries
(1922) ; R. H. Babcock, Diseases of the Heart and Arterial System
(1909); L. M. Warficld, Arteriosclerosis and Hypertension (1908,
1920).
For an account of mineral veins see ORE DEPOSITS.
VEJER DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain,
in the province of Cadiz, on the right bank of the river Barbate
and on the Cadiz-Tarifa railway. Pop. (1920) 14,995. Vejer
de la Frontera occupies a low hill overlooking the Straits of
Gibraltar and surrounded by orchards and orange groves. The
architecture of many of its houses recalls the period of Moorish
rule, which lasted from 711 until the town was captured by St.
Ferdinand of Castile in 1248.
VELA, one of the three southern constellations into which
the large Ptolemaic constellation Argo (q.v.) was subdivided.
VELARIUM, the curtain or awning extended above the audi-
torium of the Roman theatres and amphitheatres to protect
the spectators from sun and rain.
VELAZQUEZ
VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA Y
(1599-1660), the head of the Spanish school of painting and one
of the greatest painters the world has known, was born in Seville
and was baptized on June 6, 1599. His European fame is of com-
paratively recent origin, dating from the first quarter of the i9th
century.
Early Life. — He was the son of Rodriguez de Silva, a lawyer
in Seville, descended from a noble Portuguese family. Following a
common Spanish usage, the artist is known by his mother's name
Velazquez. He was known to his contemporaries as Diego de Silva
Velazquez, and signed his name thus. He was intended for a
learned profession, for which he received a good training in lan-
guages and philosophy. But the bent of the boy was towards art,
and he was placed under the elder Hcrrera. Herrera was a bold
and effective painter; but he was at the same time a man of
unruly temper, and his pupils could seldom stay long with him.
Velazquez soon left Herrera's studio and betook himself to the
learned and pedantic Pacheco, in whose school he remained for
five years, seeing all that was best in the literary and artistic
circles of Seville. Here he fell in love with his master's daughter
Juana de Miranda, whom he married on April 23, 1618. The
young painter set himself to copy the commonest things about
him— earthenware jars of the country people, birds, fish, fruit and
.flowers of the market-place. Carrying out this idea still further,
Velazquez felt that to master the subtlety of the human face
he must make this a* special study, and he accordingly engaged
a peasant lad to be his servant and model, making innumerable
studies in charcoal and chalk, and catching his every expression.
We see this model, probably, in the laughing boy of the Hermitage
"Breakfast," or in the youngest of the "Musicians," acquired for
the Berlin Museum in 1906. The position and fame of Velazquez
were now assured at Seville. There his wife bore him two daugh-
ters— all his family so far as is known. The younger died in
infancy, while the elder, Francisca, in due time married Bautista
del Mazo, a painter, whose large family is that which is represented
in the important picture in Vienna which was at one time called
the "Family of Velazquez." This picture is now by common con-
sent given to Mazo. Of his early Seville manner we have an
excellent example in "El Aguador" (the Water-Carrier) at Apsley
House (London). The brushwork is bold and broad, and the out-
lines firmly marked. As is usual with Velazquez at this time, the
harmony of colours is red, brown and yellow, reminding one of
Ribera. For sacred subjects we may turn to the "Adoration of the
Magi" at Madrid, dated 1619, and the "Christ and the Pilgrims
of Emmaus" in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Life in Madrid. — But Velazquez was now eager to see more
of the world. Madrid, with its fine Titians, held out strong in-
ducements. Accordingly, in 1622, fortified with letters of intro-
duction to Fonscca, who held a good position at court, he spent
some months there. Here he painted the portrait of the poet
Gongora, a commission from Pacheco (in the gallery at Madrid).
In the following year he was summoned to return by Olivares,
the all-powerful minister of Philip IV., fifty ducats being allowed
to defray his expenses. On this occasion he was accompanied by
his father-in-law. Next year (1624) he received from the king
three hundred ducats to pay the cost of the removal of his family
to Madrid, which became his home for the remainder of his life.
King Philip remained for a period of thirty-six years the faithful
and attached friend of Velazquez. By his equestrian portrait of
the 'king, painted in 1623, Velazquez secured admission to the
royal service with a salary of twenty ducats per month, besides
medical attendance, lodgings and payment for the pictures he
might paint. The portrait was exhibited on the steps of San
Felipe, and was received with enthusiasm, being vaunted by poets,
among them Pacheco. It has unfortunately disappeared. The
Prado, however, has two portraits of the king in which the
harshness of the Seville period has disappeared.
In 1628 Rubens visited Madrid on a diplomatic mission for nine
months, and Velazquez was appointed by the king to be his guide
among the art treasures of Spain. In 1627 the king had given for
competition among the painters of Spain the subject of the Ex-
pulsion of the Moors. Velazquez bore off the palm for a picture
no longer extant, and was appointed gentleman usher. To this
was shortly afterwards added a daily allowance of twelve reals,
and ninety ducats a year for dress. As an extra payment he re-
ceived (though it was not paid for five years) one hundred
ducats for the picture of Bacchus, painted in 1629 (Madrid
gallery). The spirit and aim of this work are better understood
from its Spanish name, "Los Borrachos" (the Topers), who are
paying mock homage to a half-naked ivy-crowned young man
seated on a wine barrel.
Visit to Italy. — Jn 1629 Philip gave Velazquez permission to
visit Italy, without loss of salary, making him besides a present
of four hundred ducats, to which Olivares added two hundred.
He sailed from Barcelona in August in the company of the
marquis de Spinola, the conqueror of Breda, then on his way to
take command of the Spanish troops at Milan. It was during this
voyage that Velazquez must have* heard the details of the sur-
render of Breda from the lips of the victor, and he must have
sketched his fine head, known to us also by the portrait by Van
Dyck. But the great picture was not painted till later. In Venice
Velazquez made copies of the "Crucifixion" and the "Last Supper"
of Tintoretto, which he sent to the king, and in Rome he copied
Michelangelo and Raphael, lodging in the Villa Medici till fever
compelled him to remove into the city. Here 1 e painted the
"Forge of Vulcan" (Madrid gallery), in which Apollo narrates
to the astonished Vulcan, a village blacksmith, the news of the
loves of Venus, while four Cyclops listen to the scandal. The other
work painted at the same time, "Joseph's Coat," now hangs in
the Escorial. At Rome he also painted the two beautifuPland-
scapes of the gardens of the Villa Medici, now in the Madrid
museum, full of light, sparkle and charm. After a visit to
Naples in 1631, where he worked with his countryman Ribera,
and painted a charming portrait of the Infanta Maria Queen of
Hungary and sister of Philip, Velazquez returned to Madrid.
Court Painter. — He then painted the first of many portraits
of the young prince, Don Baltasar Carlos, the heir to the throne,
dignified and lordly even in his childhood, caracoling in the dress
of a field-marshal on his prancing steed. The Duke of Olivares,
the king's powerful minister, was the early and constant patron of
the painter. His impassive, saturnine face is familiar to us from
the many portraits painted by Velazquez. Two arc of surpassing
excellence — the full-length in the collection of the Hispanic Soci-
ety, New York, stately and dignified, in which he wears the green
cross of Alcantara ; the other the great equestrian portrait of the
Madrid gallery. In these portraits Velazquczjias well repaid the
debt of gratitude which he owed to his first patron, whom he stood
by in his fall, thus exposing himself to the risk of incurring the
anger of the jealous Philip. The king, however, showed no sign of
malice towards his favoured painter, whom he visited daily in his
studio in the palace, and to whom he sat in many attitudes and
costumes, as a huntsman with his dogs, as a warrior in command
of his troops. His pale face and lack-lustre eye, his fair flowing hair
and moustaches curled up to his eyes, and his heavy projecting
Hapsburg under-lip are known in many a portrait and nowhere
more supremely than in the wonderful canvas of the London
National Gallery where he seems to live and breathe. Here the
consummate handling of Velazquez is seen at its best, for it is in
his late and most perfect manner. From one of the equestrian
portraits of the king, painted in 1638, the sculptor Montanes
modelled a statue which was cast in bronze by the Florentine
sculptor Tacca, and which now stands in the Plaza del Oriente at
Madrid. This portrait exists no more; but there is no lack of
others, for Velazquez was in constant attendance on Philip, accom-
panying him in his journeys to Aragon in 1642 and 1644, and was
doubtless present with him when he entered Lerida as a conqueror.
It was then that he painted the great equestrian portrait (Madrid
gallery) in which the king is represented as a great commander
leading his troops. It hangs as a pendant to the great Olivares por-
trait— fit rivals of the neighbouring Charles V. by Titian. At
Fraga in Aragon in 1644 he painted a portrait of the king in
country costume the original of which seems to be in the Frick
collection, New York, while the Dulwich Gallery has a copy.
But, besides the portraits of the king, we have portraits of other
VELAZQUEZ
33
members of the royal family, of Philip's first wife, Isabella of
Bourbon, and her children, especially of her eldest son, Don
Baltasar Carlos, of whom, besides the equestrian portrait already
mentioned, there is a full-length at the Vienna Museum, one in
hunting dress at the Prado, and one at the Boston Museum with a
dwarf. The Admiral Pulido Pareja at the National Gallery, is said
to have been taken by Philip for the living man ; nevertheless, A.
de Beruete is emphatic in denying Velazquez's authorship of this
picture, which he attributes to Mazo. The Duke of Modena on a
visit to Madrid was painted by the artist (Modena Gallery) and
of the same period are two male portraits at Dresden "The Count
of Benevent," "The Sculptor Martinez Montanez" in the Madrid
gallery, and "The Unknown Man" at Aspley House. One won-
ders who "the lady with the fan" can be that adorns the Wallace
collection, the splendid brunette so unlike the usual fair-haired
female sitters to Velazquez. She belongs to this period of his work,
to the ripeness of his middle period. The touch is firm but free,
showing the easy strength of the great master. But, if we have
few ladies of the court of Philip, we have in great plenty his
buffoons and dwarfs. Even these deformed or half-witted crea-
tures attract our sympathy as we look at their portraits by Velaz-
quez, who, true to his nature, treats them gently and kindly, as in
UE1 Primo" (the Favourite), whose intelligent face and huge folio
with ink-bottle and pen by his side show him to be a wiser and
better-educated man than many of the gallants of the court. We
now turn to one of the greatest of historical works, the "Surrender
of Breda/' often known as "Las Lanzas," from the serried rank of
lances breaking the sky, which is believed to have been painted
between 1638 and 1644. It represents the moment when the van-
quished Justin of Nassau in front of his Dutch troops is sub-
missively bending as he offers to his conqueror Spinola the keys of
the town, which, with courteous grace, the victor refuses to accept.
The greatest of the religious paintings by Velazquez belongs also
to this middle period, the "Christ on the Cross" (Madrid gallery).
Palomino says it was painted in 1638 for the convent of San
Placido. The Saviour's head hangs on his breast and a mass of
dark tangled hair conceals part of the face. The beautiful form is
projected against a black and hopeless sky. The figure stands ab-
solutely alone, without any accessory. To the same period belongs
the great "Boar Hunt" at the National Gallery, a magnificent
work in spite of some restorations.
Second Visit to Italy.— Velazquez's son-in-law Mazo had suc-
ceeded him as usher in 1634, and he himself had received steady
promotion in the royal household, receiving a pension of 500
ducats in 1640, increased to 700 in 1648, for portraits painted and
to be painted, and being appointed inspector of works in the palace
in 1647. Philip now entrusted him with the founding of an acad-
emy of art in Spain. Rich in pictures, Spain was weak in statuary,
and Velazquez was commissioned to proceed to Italy to make
purchases. Accompanied by his faithful slave Pareja, whom he
taught to be a good painter, he sailed from Malaga in 1649, land-
ing at Genoa, and proceeding thence by Milan to Venice, buying
Titians, Tintorettos and Veronescs. A noble example of the paint-
er's third manner is the great portrait of Innocent X. in the Doria
palace at Rome, where he was received with marked favour by
the pope, who presented him with a medal and gold chain. Of this
portrait, thought by Sir Joshua Reynolds to be the finest picture
in Rome, Palomino says that Velazquez took a copy to Spain.
There exist several in different galleries. The handling is rapid
but unerring. Velazquez had now reached the manera abreviada,
as the Spaniards call this bolder style. His early and laborious
studies and his close observation of nature had given to him in due
time, as to all great painters, the power of representing what he
saw by simpler means. At Rome he painted also a portrait of his
servant Pareja, probably the picture of Lord Radnor's collection
which procured his election int6 the academy of St. Luke. Mean-
while Philip was wearying for his return; accordingly Velazquez
embarked in Genoa for Barcelona in 1651, taking with him many
pictures and 300 pieces of statuary, which he afterwards arranged
and catalogued for the king.
Late Life. — Isabella of Bourbon had died in 1644, and the
king had married Mariana of Austria, whom Velazquez now painted
in many attitudes. He was specially chosen by the king to fill the
high office of "aposentador major," which imposed on him the
duty of looking after the quarters occupied by the court whether
at home or in their journeys. His works of this period are amongst
the highest examples of his style. The dwarfs "El Bobo de Coria,"
"El Nino de Vallecas" and "Don Antonio el Ingles" (the English-
man) with his dog, "Aesop," and "Menippus," all in the Madrid
gallery, show his surest and freest manner. To these may be added
the charming children's portraits of the Infanta Margarita in
Vienna, among the choicest of his works. It is Margarita, the
eldest daughter of the new queen, that is the subject of the well-
known picture "Las Meninas" (the Maids of Honour), in the
Madrid gallery, painted in 1656, where the little lady holds court,
surrounded by her ladies-in-waiting, her dwarfs and her mastiff,
while VeLzquez is seen standing at his easel. This is the finest
portrait we have of the great painter. It is a face of much dig-
nity, power and sweetness — like his life. The story is told Ibat
the king painted the red cross of Santiago on the breast of the
painter, as it appears to-day on the canvas. Velazquez did not,
however, receive the honour till 1659, three years after the execu-
tion of this work. Even the powerful king of Spain could not
make his favourite a belted knight without a commission to in-
quire into the purity of his lineage on both sides of the house. The
records of this commission have tteen found among the archives
of the order of Santiago by M. Villaamil. Fortunately the pedi-
gree could bear scrutiny, as for generations the family was found
free from all taint of heresy, from all trace of Jewish or Moorish
blood and from contamination by trade or commerce. The diffi-
culty connected with the fact that he was a painter was got over
by his being painter to the king and by the declaration that he did
not sell his pictures. But for this royal appointment, which enabled
him to escape the censorship of the Inquisition, we should never
have had his splendid "Venus and Cupid," bought by the National
Art Collections Fund for £45,000 for the National Gallery in 1905.
On occasions Philip gave commissions for religious pictures to
Velazquez— among others, the "Coronation of the Virgin" (Ma-
drid gallery), splendid in colour — a harmony of red, blue and grey.
It was painted for the oratory of the queen, in the palace at
Madrid. Another royal commission for the hermitage of Buen
Retire was the "St. Anthony the Abbot and St. Paul the Hermit,"
painted in 1659 (Madrid gallery). The last of his works which
we shall name is "Las Hilandcras" or the Spinners (Madrid),
painted about 1656, representing the royal tapestry works.
In 1660 a treaty of peace between France and Spain was to be
consummated by the marriage of the infanta Maria Theresa with
Louis XIV., and the ceremony was to take place in the Island
of Pheasants, in the Bidassoa. Velazquez was charged with the
decoration of the Spanish pavilion and with the whole scenic dis-
play. In the midst of the grandees of the first two courts in
Christendom Velazquez attracted much attention by the nobility
of his bearing and the splendour of his costume. On June 26 he
returned to Madrid, and on July 31 he was stricken with fever.
Feeling his end approaching, he signed his will, appointing as his
sole executors his wife and his firm friend Fuensalida, keeper of
the royal records. He died on Aug. 6, 1660. He was buried in the
Fuensalida vault of the church of San Juan, and within eight days
his wife Juana was laid beside him. This church was destroyed by
the French in 1811, so that his place of interment is now unknown.
Velazquez can hardly be said to have formed a school of
painting. Yet his influence on those immediately connected 'with
him was considerable. In 1642 he befriended young Murillo on
his arrival in Madrid, received him into his house, and directed
his studies for three years. He helped to lay the foundations of
modern painting; and when centuries later the Impressionists
made it their aim to study the effect of light and atmosphere
Velazquez $as hailed as their precursor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In addition to the standard works by Palomino
(1724). Cean Bermudez (1800) and Pacheco (1649); C. B. Curtis,
Velazquez and Murillo (1883) ; Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Annals of
the Artists of Spain (1891); The Life of Velazquez, by Sir
Walter Armstrong (1896) ; Velazquez, by R. A. M. Stevenson (1899) ;
The Life and Works of Don Diego Velazquez, by Don Jacinto Octayio
Picon (Madrid, 1899) ; Days with Velazquez, by C. Lewis Hind
34
VELEIA— VELOCITY OF LIGHT
(London, 1906) ; Don A. de Bcruete's standard work on the subject,
Velazquez (London, 1906) ; Calvert and Hartley, Velazquez (1908) ;
Cru/ada Villamil, Analcs de la vida de Casobras de Diego Siha
Velazquez (1886); Pedro dc Madrazo, Catalogue dfs tableaux du
Muste du Prado (1913) ; Randall Davies, Velazquez (1914) ; A. Br£al,
Velazquez (1919) ; C. Justi, Velazquez und sein Jahrhundert (ard ed.
2 vols., Bonn, 1922-23). (J. F. W.; X.)
VELEIA, an ancient town of Acmilia, Italy, situated about
20 m. S. of Placentia, mentioned by Pliny. Its inhabitants were in
the census of Vespasian found to be remarkable for their longe-
vity. Nothing further was known of it until 1747, when some
ploughmen found the famous Tabula aliment-aria. This, the largest
inscribed bronze tablet of antiquity (4 ft. 6 in. by 9 ft. 6 in.)
contains the list of estates in the territories of Veleia, Libarna,
Placentia, Parma and Luca, in which Trajan had assigned (before
A.D. 102), 72,000 sesterces (£720) and then 1,044,000 sesterces
(£10,440), on a mortgage bond to forty-six estates, the total
value of which was reckoned at over 13,000,000 sesterces (£130,-
ooo), the interest on which at 5% was to serve for the support of
266 boys and 36 girls, the former receiving 16, the latter 12 ses-
terces a month. Excavations were begun in 1760, and the forum
and basilica, the thermae and the amphitheatre, private houses,
etc., with many statues and inscriptions (from 49 B.C. to A.D. 276)
were discovered. Most of the objects found are in the museum at
Parma. Oil has been extracted in the neighbourhood since 1890.
See G. Antolini, Le Ravine di Veleia (Milan, 1831).
VELEZ DE GUEVARA, LUIS (1579-1644), Spanish
dramatist and novelist, was the author of over 400 plays, of which
the best known are Relnar de spues de morir and Mds pesa el rey
que la sangre. He won considerable fame as the author of El
Diablo cojuelo (1641), a fantastic novel which suggested to Le
Sage the idea of his Diablc boiteux.
VELEZ-MALAGA, a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Malaga, finely situated in a fertile valley at the
southern base of the lofty Sierra de Alhama, and on the left bank
of the small river Velez, i m. from its mouth and 27 m. by road
E.N.E. of Malaga. Pop. (1920), 24,893. Velez-Malaga was taken
from the Moors in 1487 by Ferdinand of Castile. Under Moorish
rule the citadel was built and the town became an important
trading station and fortress.
VELIA, an ancient town of Lucania (Gr. TtXrj, later 'EXea),
Italy, on the hill now crowned by the mediaeval castle of Cas-
tellammare della Bruca, 440 ft. above sea-level, on the south-west
coast, i £ m. N.W. of the modern railway station of Ascca, 25m.
S.E. of Paestum. Remains of the city walls, with traces of one
gate and several towers, of a total length of over 3 m., still exist.
It is celebrated for the philosophers who bore its name. (See
ELEATIC SCHOOL.) About 530 B.C. the Phocaeans, driven from
Corsica, seized it from the Oenotrians. Its coins were widely dif-
fused in S. Italy, and it kept its independence till 78 B.C.
VELIKA KIKINDA,,a town in the Voivodina, Yugoslavia,
Pop. (1921) 25,809; about 60% being Serbs. It is one of the
centres of production of the famous wheat of the Banat.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, MARCUS (c. 19 B.C.-C.
A.D. 31), Roman historian. Although his praenornen is given as
Marcus by Priscian, some modern scholars identify him with
Gaius Velleius Paterculus, whose name occurs in an inscription on
a north African milestone (C.I.L. viii. 10, 311). He belonged to
a distinguished Campanian family, and early entered the army.
He sprved as military tribune in Thrace, Macedonia, Greece and
the East, and in A.D. 2 was present at the interview on the
Euphrates between Gaius Caesar, grandson of Augustus, and the
Parthian king. Afterwards, as praefect of cavalry and legatus,
he served for eight years (from A.D. 4) in Germany and Pannonia
under Tiberius. He was quaestor in A.D. 7, praetor in 15, and was
still alive in 30. He may have been put to death in 31 as a friend
of Seianus. He wrote a compendium of Roman history from
the dispersion of the Greeks after the siege of Troy down to the
death of Livia (A.D. 29). The period from the death of Caesar to
that of Augustus is treated most fully, and the disproportion is
accentuated by the loss of a great deal of the early history. Most
of the work is professedly a compendium; where he allows him-
self scope his style shows distinct traces of the Silver Age: antith-
esis, epigram, the breakdown of the periodic sentence.
Editio princcps, Basle, 1520; early editions by Justus Lipsius, J,
Grutcr, N. Heinsius, P. Burmann; modern editions, Ruhnken and
Frotscher (1830-39), J. C. Orelli (1835), F. Kritz (1840, ed. min.
1848), F. Haase (1858), C. Halm (1876), R. Ellis (1898). Eng. trans,
by J. S. Watson in Bonn's Classical Library. See also J. Wight Duff,
Literary History of Rome in the Silver Age (1927).
VELLETRI (anc. Velitrae), a town and episcopal see of the
province of Rome, Italy, at the south-cast foot of the outer ring
wall of the Alban crater, 26 m. S.E. of Rome by rail and 24 by
electric tramway, 1,155 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 19,660
(town), 25,781 (commune). It is the seat of the bishop of Ostia.
Good wine is made in the vineyards and there is a government ex-
perimental station for viticulture. Velletri is the junction of the
Terradna line and a branch to Segni, on the main line to Naples.
At the highest point is the municipal palace. The internal facade
of the Palazzo Ginetti is finely decorated with stucco, and has a
curious detached baroque staircase by Martino Lunghi the
younger. The lofty campanile of S. Maria del Trivio, erected in
J353> is in the style of contemporary brick campanili in Rome, but.
built mainly of black selce (lava), with white marble columns at
the windows. The cathedral, reconstructed in 1660, contains traces
of the 1 3th century structure.
The ancient city of Velitrae was Volscian in Republican times,
and it is the only Volscian town of which an inscription in that
language is preserved (4th century B.C.). It mentions the two
principal magistrates as medix. Velitrae was important as com-
manding the approach to the valley between the Alban and* Vol-
scian mountains. Interesting terra cotta reliefs from a Volscian
temple have been found (esp. 5th cent. B.C.) belonging to the
period when it had regained its freedom after its first capture by
Rome. It was only reduced in 338 and was punished by the
destruction of its walls and the banishment of its town councillors
to Etruria, while their lands were handed over to Roman col-
onists. It was the home of the %ens Octavia, to which the
Emperor Augustus belonged. (T. A.)
VELLORE, a town of British India, headquarters of the
North Arcot district of Madras, on the river Palar and 5 m. from
a station on the South Indian railway, 87 m. W. of Madras city.
Pop. (1921) 50,210. It has a strongly built fortress, which was
famous in the wars of the Carnatic. Dating traditionally from the
1 3th century, but. more probably only from the i7th, it is a fine
example of Indian military architecture, and contains a finely
sculptured temple. In 1780 it withstood a siege for two years
by Hyder AH. After the fall of Seringapatam (7799) Vcllore was
selected as the residence of the sons of Tippoo Sahib, and to
them have been attributed the mutiny of the sepoys here in 1806.
VELLUM: see PARCHMENT.
VELOCITY OP LIGHT. The fact that light is propagated
with a definite speed was first brought out by Ole Roemer at Paris,
in 1676, through observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites
made in different relative positions of the Earth and Jupiter in
their respective orbits. It is possible in this way to determine
the time required for light to pass across the orbit of the earth.
The dimensions of this orbit, or the distance of the sun, being
taken as known, the actual speed of light could be computed. (See
also PARALLAX.) Since this computation requires a knowledge of
the sun's distance, which has not yet been acquired with certainty,
the actual speed is now determined by experiments made on the
earth's surface. Were it possible by any system of signals to
compare with absolute precision the times at two different sta-
tions, the speed could be determined by finding how long was
required for light to pass from one station to another at the
greatest visible distance. But this is impracticable, because no
natural agent is under our control by which a signal could be com-
municated with a greater velocity than that of light. It is there-
fore necessary to reflect a ray back' to the point of observation and
to determine the time which the light requires to go and come.
Two systems have been devised for this purpose. One is that of
Fizeau, in which the vital appliance is a rapidly revolving toothed
Wheel; the other is that of Foucault, in which the corresponding
appliance is a mirror revolving on an axis in its own plane.
Fizeau, 1849.— The principle underlying Fizeau's method is
VELOCITY OF LIGHT
35
shown in the accompanying figs, i and 2. Fig. i shows the course
of a ray of light which, emanating from a luminous point Lt strikes
the plane surface of a plate of glass M at an angle of about 45°.
A fraction of the light is reflected from the two surfaces of the
glass to a distant reflector R, the plane of which is at right angles
to the course of the ray. The latter is thus reflected back on its
own course and, passing through the glass M on its return, reaches
FIG. 1. — FIZEAU'S METHOD OF MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT
BY MEANS OF A TOOTHED WHEEL
a point E behind the glass. An observer with his eye at E looking
through the glass sees the return ray as a distant luminous point
in the reflector R, after the light has passed over the course in
both directions.
In actual practice it is necessary to interpose the object glass
of a telescope at a point O, at a distance from M nearly equal to
its focal length. The function of this appliance is to render the
diverging rays, shown by the dotted lines, nearly parallel, in order
that more light may reach R and be thrown back again.
Conceiving the apparatus arranged in such a way that the ob-
server sees the light reflected from the distant mirror R, a fine
toothed wheel WX is placed immediately in front of the glass M,
with its plane perpendicular to the course of the ray, in such a
way that the ray goes out and returns through an opening between
two adjacent teeth. This wheel is represented in section by WX in
fig. i, and a part of its circumference, with the teeth as viewed by
the observer, is shown in fig. 2. We conceive that the observer sees
the luminous point between two of the teeth at K, Now, conceive
that the wheel is set in revolution. The ray is then interrupted as
every tooth passes, so that what is sent out is a succession of
flashes. Conceive that the speed of the wheel is such that while
the flash is going to the distant mirror and returning again, each
tooth of the wheel takes the place of an opening between the
teeth. Then each flash sent out will, on its return, be intercepted
by the adjacent tooth, and will therefore become invisible. If the
speed be now doubled, so that the teeth pass at intervals equal to
the time required for the light to go and come, each flash sent
through an opening will return through the adjacent opening, and
will therefore be seen with full brightness. If the speed be con-
tinuously increased the result will be suc-
cessive disappearances and reappearances
of the light, according as a tooth is or is
not interposed when the ray reaches the
apparatus on its return. The computation
of the time of passage and return is then
very simple. The speed of the wheel being
known, the number of teeth passing in. one FIG. 2.— F i z E A u
second can be computed. METHOD OF MEASURING
Foucault, 1862.-The Foucault system THE VELOC1TY OF LICHT
is much more precise, because it rests upon the measurement of
an angle, which can be made with great precision.
The vital appliance is a rapidly revolving mirror. Let AB (fig.
3) be a section of this mirror, which we shall first suppose at rest.
A ray of light LM emanating from a source at L, is reflected in the
direction MQR to a distant mirror R, from which it is perpendicu-
larly reflected back upon its original course. This mirror R should
be slightly concave, with the centre of curvature near M, so that
the ray shall always be reflected back to M on whatever point of
R it may fall. Conceiving the revolving mirror M as at rest, the
return ray will after three reflections, at M, R and M again, be
returned along its original course to the point L from which it
emanated. An important point is that the return ray will always
follow the fixed line ML no matter what the position of the mov-
able mirror M, provided there is a distant reflector to send the
ray back. Now, suppose that, while the ray is going and coming,
the mirror M, being set in revolution, has turned from the position
in which the ray was reflected to that shown by the dotted line.
If a be the angle through which the surface has turned, the course
of the return ray, after reflection, will then deviate from ML by
the angle 2 or, and so be thrown to a point E, such that the angle
LME = 2a. If the mirror is in rapid rotation the ray reflected from
it will strike the distant mirror as a scries of flashes, each formed
by the light reflected when the
mirror was in the position AB. If
the speed of rotation is uniform,
the reflected rays from the suc-
cessive flashes while the mirror is
in the dotted position will thus
FIG. 3.— PRINCIPLE OFFOUCAULT-S all follow the same direction ME
METHOD OF DETERMINING THE VE- after thdr second reflCCtion from
LOCITY OF LIGHT ,1 • •»/• ,T . . . e
the mirror. If the motion is suf-
ficiently rapid an eye observing the reflected ray will see the
flashes as an invariable point of light so long as the speed of
revolution remains constant. The time required for the light to
go and come is then equal to that required by the mirror to turn
through half the angle LME, which is therefore to be measured
In practice it is necessary on this system, as well as on that of
Fizeau, to condense the light by means of a lens, Q, so placed that
L and R shall be at conjugate foci. The position of the lens may
be either between the luminous point L and the mirror M, or
between M and R, the latter being the only one shown in the
figure. A diflkulty associated with the Foucault system in the
form in which its originator used it is that if the axis of the mirror
is at right angles to the course of the ray, the light from the
source L will be flashed directly into the eye of the observer, on
every passage of the revolving mirror through the position in
which its normal bisects the two courses of the ray. This may be
avoided by inclining the axis of the mirror.
In Foucaulfs determination the measures were not made upon
a luminous point, but upon a reticule, the image of which could not
be seen unless the reflector was quite near the revolving mirror.
Indeed the whole apparatus was contained in his laboratory. The
effective distance was increased by using several reflectors; but
the entire course of the ray measured only 20 metres. The result
reached by Foucault was 298,000 kilometres per second.
Cornu, 1874. — The most elaborate determination yet made by
Fizeau's method was that of Cornu. The station of observation
was at the Paris Observatory. The distant reflector, a telescope
with a reflector at its focus, was at Montlhcry, distant 22,910
metres from the toothed wheel. Of the wheels most used one had
150 teeth, and was 35 millimetres in diameter; the other had 200
teeth, with a diameter of 45 mm. The highest speed attained was
about 900 revolutions per second. At this speed, 135,000 (or
180,000) teeth would pass per second, and about 20 (or 28) would
pass while the light was going and coming. But the actual speed
attained was generally less than this. The definitive result derived
by Cornu from the entire series of experiments was 300,400 km.
per second. Further details of this work need not be set forth
because the method is in several ways deficient in precision. The
eclipses and subsequent reappearances of the light taking place
gradually, it is impossible to fix with entire precision upon the
moment of complete eclipse. The outcome of the inherent
difficulties of the method is that, although Cornu's discussion of
his experiments is a model in the care taken to determine so far
as practicable every source of error, his definitive result is shown
by other determinations to have been too great by about
part of its whole amount.
Michelson, 1878-79-82, and Newcomb, 1881-82.— The
first marked advance on Foucault's determination was made by
Albert A. Michelson, then a young officer on duty at the U.S.
Naval academy, Annapolis. The improvement consisted in using
the image of a slit through which the rays of the sun passed after
reflection from a heliostat. In this way it was found possible to
VELOCITY OF LIGHT
sec the image of the slit reflected from the distant mirror when
the latter was nearly 600 metres from the station of observa-
tion. The essentials of the arrangement are those we have used in
fig. 3, L being the slit. It will be seen that the revolving mirror
is here interposed between the lens and its focus. It was driven
by an air turbine, the blast of which was under the control of
the observer, so that it could be kept at any required speed. The
speed was determined by the vibrations of two tuning forks. One
of these was an electric fork, making about 120 vibrations per
second, with which the mirror was kept in unison by a system of
rays reflected from it and the fork. The speed of this fork was
determined by comparison with a freely vibrating fork from time
to time. The speed of the revolving mirror was generally about
275 turns per second, and the deflection of the image of the slit
about 112-5 mm. The mean result of nearly 100 fairly accordant
determinations was:
jyo.,828 km. per sec.
"4-82
Velocity of light in air
Reduction to a vacuum
Velocity of light in a vacuum .
Simon Newcomb about this time obtained the official support
necessary to make a determination on a yet larger scale. The
most important modifications made in the Foucault-Michelson
system were the following:
1. Placing the reflector at a distance of several kilometres.
2. In order that the disturbances of the return image due to the
passage of the ray through more than 7 km. of air might be re-
duced to a minimum, an ordinary telescope of the "broken back"
form was used to send the ray to the revolving mirror.
3. The speed of the mirror was, as in Michelson's experiments,
completely under control of the observer, so that by drawing one
or the other of two cords held in the hand the return image could
be kept in any required position. In making each measure the
receiving telescope hereafter described was placed in a fixed posi-
tion and during the "run" the image was kept as nearly as prac-
ticable upon a vertical thread passing through its focus. A "run"
generally lasted about two minutes, during which time the mir-
ror commonly made between 25,000 and 30,000 revolutions. The
speed per second was found by dividing the entire number of
revolutions by the number of seconds in the "run." The extreme
deviations between the times of transmission of the light, as
derived from any two runs, never approached to the thousandth
part of its entire amount. The average deviation from the mean
was indeed less than -g^Vs Part °f ^ne whole.
To avoid the injurious effect of the directly reflected flash, as
well as to render unnecessary a comparison between the directions
of the outgoing and the return ray, a second telescope, turning
horizontally on an axis coincident with that of the revolving mir-
ror, was used to receive the return ray after reflection. This re-
quired the use of an elongated mirror of which the upper half
of the surface reflected the outgoing ray, and the lower other half
received and reflected the ray on its return. On this system it was
not necessary to incline the mirror in order to avoid the direct
reflection of the return ray. The
greatest advantage of this sys-
tem was that the revolving mirror
could be turned in either direc-
tion without break of continuity,
so that the angular measures
were'made between the directions FIG. 4. — MICHELSON'S EARLIER
of the return ray after reflection APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING THE
when the mirror moved in oppo- VELOCITY OF LIGHT
site directions. In this way the speed of the mirror was as good
as doubled, and the possible constant errors inherent in the refer-
ence to a fixed direction for the sending telescope were eliminated.
The essentials of the apparatus are shown in fig. 4. The revolving
mirror was a rectangular prism M of steel, 3 in. high and ii in. on
a side in cross section, which was driven by a blast of air acting on
two fan-wheels, not shown in the fig., one at the top, the other at
the bottom of the mirror. NPO is the object-end of the fixed send-
ing telescope the rays passing through it being reflected to the
mirror by a prism P. The receiving telescope ABO is straight, and
has its objective under O. It was attached to a frame which could
turn around the same axis as the mirror. The angle through which
it moved was measured by a divided arc immediately below its
eye-piece, which is not shown in the figure. The position AB is
that for receiving the ray during an anti-clockwise rotation of the
mirror; the position A'B' that for a clockwise rotation.
In these measures the observing station was at Fort Myer, on a
hill above the west bank of the Potomac river. The distant re-
flector was first placed in the grounds of the Naval observatory,
at a distance of 2,551 metres. But the definitive measures were
made with the reflector at the base of the Washington monu-
ment, 3,721 metres distant. The revolving mirror was of nickel-
plated steel, polished on all four vertical sides. Thus four reflec-
tions of the ray were received during each turn of the mirror,
which would be coincident were the form of the mirror invariable.
During the preliminary series of measures it was found that two
images of the return ray were sometimes formed, which would
result in two different conclusions as to the velocity of light, ac-
cording as one or the other was observed. The only explanation
of this defect which presented itself was a tortional vibration of
the revolving mirror, coinciding in period with that of revolution.
In the summer of 1881 the distant reflector was removed from
the Observatory to the Monument station. Six measures made in
August and September showed a systematic deviation of -f 67
km. per second from the result of the Observatory series. This
difference led to measures for eliminating the defect from which
it was supposed to arise. The pivots of the mirror were reground,
and a change made in the arrangement, which would permit of the
effect of the vibration being determined and eliminated. This
consisted in making the relative position of the sending and re-
ceiving telescopes interchangeable. In this way, if the measured
deflection was too great in one position of the telescopes, it would
be too small by an equal amount in the reverse position. As a
matter of fact, when the definitive measures were made, it was
found that with the improved pivots the mean result was the
same in the two positions. But the new result differed systemat-
ically from both the former ones. Thirteen measures were made
from the Monument in the summer of 1882. The mean results
for the three series were:
Observatory, 1880-1.
Monument, 1881
Monument, 1882
V in air — 299,627
V in air = 299,694
V in air = 299, 7 78
The last result being the only one from which the effect of dis-
tortion was completely eliminated, has been adopted as definitive.
For reduction to a vacuum it requires a correction of +82 km.
Thus the final result was concluded to be
Velocity of light in vaeuo=* 299,860 km. per second.
This result being less by 50 km. than that of Michelson, the lat-
ter made another determination with improved apparatus and
arrangements at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleve-
land. The result was
Velocity in vacua = 299,853 km. per second.
So far as could be determined from the discordance of the sepa-
rate measures, the mean error of Newcomb's result would be less
than itio km. But making allowance for the various sources of
systematic error the actual probable error was estimated at
nt30 km.
The angle <x in Foucault's experiments cannot be measured with
the required accuracy by any of the preceding methods, but, as
was pointed out by Newcomb, this difficulty is avoided by giving
the revolving mirror a prismatic form, and making the distance
between the two stations so great that the return light is reflected
at the same angle by the next following face of the prism.
Michelson, 1924-26, arranged for an attempt to realise such a
project between stations on Mt. Wilson and Mt. San Antonio,
near Pasadena, about 22 m. apart. For this distance, given a
speed of rotation of 1,060 turns per second, the angular displace-
ment of the mirror, during the double journey, will be 90°, or,
if the speed were half as great, an angle of 45° would suffice.
Accordingly, the revolving mirror may have the form of an octa-
gon. It is, of course, very important that the angles of the octagon
VELOCITY OF LIGHT
37
should be equal, at least to the order of accuracy desired. It has
been found possible, by special methods, to produce an octagon
on which the average error is of the order of one-millionth, that
is, about one-tenth to one-twentieth of a second.
Difficulties arise from the direct reflection and the scattered
light from the revolving mirror. The former may be eliminated,
as already mentioned, by slightly inclining the revolving mirror,
FIG. 5.— MICHELSON'S LATER APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING THE VE-
LOCITY OF LIGHT; THE UPPER FIGURE SHOWING THE COMPLETE DISPOSI-
TION, AND THE LOWER FIGURE, THE APPARATUS AT THE MOUNT WILSON
END IN MORE DETAIL
but to avoid scattered light, it is essential that the return ray be
received on a different surface from the outgoing. Again, in
order to avoid difficulty in maintaining the distant mirror per-
pendicular to the incident light, the return of the ray to the home
station may be accomplished exactly as in Fizeau's experiment,
the only precaution required being the very accurate focussing of
the beam on a small plane (or better, concave) mirror at the
focus at the distant collimator. Fig. 5 shows the arrangement of
apparatus which fulfilled these requirements.
In Michelson's experiments the speed of rotation (529 rev.
per second; of the revolving mirror was determined by an electric
tuning fork. The fork was compared, before, and after every set
of observations, with a free pendulum, whose rate was found by
comparison with an invar pendulum furnished and rated by the
Coast and Geodetic Survey. The 1924 results, gave, for the veloc-
ity of light in air 299,735 km. per second; the 1925 results —
using the same fork and pendulum — 299,690 km. per second; and
a third scries, in which the electric fork was replaced by a free
fork maintained by an audion circuit, gave 299,704 km. per sec-
ond. Applying the correction of 67 km. for reduction to vacuo
gives, finally, 299,771 km. per second.
Observations with the same lay-out were resumed in the summer
of 1926, with an assortment of revolving mirrors. The first of
these was the small octagonal glass mirror used in the preceding
work; the result obtained this year was 299,813 km. per second.
The other mirrors were a steel octagon, a glass 1 2-sided, a steel
i2-sided, and a glass i6-sided. The final results are summarized
in Table A.
TABLE A
Mirror
Number of
observations
Velocity of light
in vacuo in kms.
per sec.
Glass octagon .
Steel octagon
Glass i2-sided .
Steel 1 2 -sided .
Glass 1 6-sided .
576
195
270
->i8
504
299,797
299,705
299,796
299,796
290,796
Weighted mean: 299,796+ 1 km. per second.
VELOCITY AND WAVE-LENGTH
The experimental measures thus far cited have been primarily
those of the velocity of light in air, the reduction to a vacuum
being derived from theory alone. The fundamental constant at
the basis of the whole theory is the speed of light in a vacuum,
such as the celestial spaces. The question of the relation between
the velocity in vacuo, and in a transparent medium of any sort,
belongs to the domain of physical optics (see LIGHT). We shall
in the present part of the article confine ourselves to the experi-
mental results. With the theory of the effect of a transparent
medium is associated that of the possible differences in the speed
of light of different colours.
The question whether the speed of light in vacuo varies with
its wave-length seems to be settled with entire certainty by
observations of variable stars. These are situated at different
distances, some being so far that light must be several centuries
in reaching us from them. Were there any difference in the speed
of light of various colours it would be shown by a change in the
colour of the star as its light waxed and waned. The light of
greatest speed preceding that of lesser speed would, when ema-
nated during the rising phase, impress its own colour on that which
it overtook. The slower light would predominate during the fall-
ing phase. If there were a difference of 10 minutes in the time
at which light from the two ends of the visible spectrum arrived,
it would be shown by this test. As not the slightest effect of the
kind has ever been seen, it seems certain that the difference, if
any, cannot approximate to f^J^ part of the entire speed. The
case is different when light passes through a refracting me-
dium. It is a theoretical result of the undulatory theory of light
that its velocity in such a medium is inversely proportional
to the refractive index of the medium. This being different for
different colours, we must expect a like difference in the velocity.
Foucault and Michelson have tested these results of the un-
dulatory theory by comparing the time required for a ray of light
to pass through a tube filled with a refracting medium, and
through air. Foucault thus found, in a general way, that there
actually was a retardation; but his observations took account only
of the mean retardation of light of all the wave-lengths, which he
found to correspond with the undulatory theory. Michelson went
further by determining the retardation of light of various wave-
lengths in carbon bisulphide. He made two series of experiments,
one with light near the brightest part of the spectrum; the other
with red and blue light. Putting Vo for the speed in a vacuum
and Vi for that in the medium, his result was:
Yellow light . \VVi = 1-758
Refractive index for yellow 1-64
I) ilTcrence from theory -f-o*i2.
The estimated uncertainty was only 0-02, or £ of the difference
between observation and theory.
The comparison of red and blue light was made differentially.
The colours selected were of wave-length about 0-62 for red and
0-49 for blue. Putting Vr and V& for the speeds of red and blue
light respectively in bisulphide of carbon, the mean result com-
pares with theory as follows:
Observed value of the ratio Vr, Vt 1*0245
Theoretical value (Vcrdet) 1-025.
This agreement may be regarded as perfect. It shows that the
divergence of the speed of yellow light in the medium from theory,
as found above, holds through the entire spectrum.
Lord Rayleigh found the following explanation of the discrep-
ancy. In the method of the
toothed wheel the disturbances
are propagated in the form of
isolated groups of wave-trains.
Let fig. 6 represent such a group
of wave-trains. The wave-ve-
FlG. 6. — DIAGRAM INDICATING THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WAVE-VE-
LOCITY AND GROUP-VELOCITY
locity is that required to carry a wave crest A to the position of
the crest B in the wave period (T). But when a flash of light like
that measured passes through a refracting medium, the front
waves of the flash are continually dying away, as shown at the
end of the figure, and the place of each is taken by the wave
following. A familiar case of this sort is seen when a stone is
thrown into a pond. The front waves die out one at a time, to
be followed by others, each of which goes further than its prede-
cessor, while new waves are formed in the rear. Hence the group,
as represented in the figure by the larger waves in the middle,
moves as a whole more slowly than do the individual waves. The
VELOUR— VELVET
simplest way of considering such a group analytically is to add
two simple harmonic wave-trains of slightly different frequency.
When the speed of light is measured the result is not the wave-
velocity as above defined, hut something less, because the result
depends on the time of the group passing through the medium.
It can be shown that this applies to measurements made with the
revolving mirror method as well as the toothed wheel method.
This lower speed is called the group-velocity of light. The rela-
tionship of the group velocity to the wave velocity is shown in
the equation:
where V ~ group velocity, V — wave velocity, and A = wave
length. In a vacuum there is no dying out of the waves, so that
the group-speed and the wave-speed are identical. The value of
(T -) ----- — ) for carbon disulphide for the mean wave-length of
V n \/
the visible spectrum is 0-93. Hence
\ d\'\ 1-64
which agrees with the experimental order quoted above.
BlHMOGKAPHY. — A good general account of the experimental deter-
mination of the velocity of light is given in Preston, The Theory of
Li^ht, ch. xix. (5th ed., 1928), See. also A. A. Michelson, Studies in
Optics (1027), For a detailed account of Michelson's Mt. Wilson
experiments see Astro physical Journal, vol. Ixv., p. j (1927). For a
discussion of the various determinations sec M. K. J. Ghcury de Bray,
Nature, vol. cxx. (1927). (A. A. M.)
VELOUR. The term velour (French for velvet) refers in par-
ticular to a large variety of woollen textures, and in general to
several varieties both of woollen and cotton textures, and also
to union fabrics, that are formed with a short furry nap or fur
on either one bide only or on both sides of the fabric, and de-
veloped, subsequent to weaving, by operations of milling and
raising. Velour fabrics are characterized by a soft and full "handle"
or "feel" and used as dress and costume fabrics, suitings, coatings
and dressing gowns according to the texture. Velour is also ap-
plied as a general description of many other varieties of fabrics
produced from a mixture both of wool and cotton, and to some
varieties of all-cotton fabrics on which there is developed the
characteristic "velour finish," after weaving.
The nap or pile surface of a velour fabric, produced by milling
and raising, is not analogous to the velvet or plush pile of true
velvet or plush, nor of velveteen (cotton velvet) in which the
pile is produced by a series of tufts, that stand erect from a
foundation texture, and are developed by severing the pile warp
threads, in velvet and plush fabrics (q.v.), and the pile picks of
weft in velveteen or cotton velvet.
VELSEN, a town of Holland, in the province of North Hol-
land, close to Ymuiden, with which it forms a single municipal
administration. Pop. (1927), 35,103. Velscn is situated on the
North sea canal, and forms the port of entrance for Amsterdam.
VELVET. The term "velvet." applies strictly 1o the true type
of the plain silk velvet of the lighter textures, constructed with a
short "velvet" or plush pile surface, which is developed during
weaving by severing certain warp threads of silk, thereby causing
the severed threads to stand erect in the form of short tufts from
a substantial foundation texture of silk, cotton or other textile
material. Velvet has been greatly in the popular favour for many
centuries as a dress material, also for garments for use en such
occasions as state, social and religious ceremonies and an infinite
variety of uses such as curtain drapery, hangings and furniture up-
holstery and many other purposes. The richest velvet fabrics are
those of Dutch (Utrecht) and Genoese manufacture, and that
variety known as "collar velvet" for use specially in making the
collars of men's overcoats. The velvet pile warp consists of pure
silk yarn, though the foundation texture may be woven from a
silk warp and cotton weft, or all cotton for both warp and weft.
One of the oldest examples of velvet is that forming part of a
1 4th century embroidered cape in the college of Mount St. Mary,
Chesterfield. In the earliest of the inventories relating to church
vestments, there is a reference, in St. Paul's, London, A.D. 1295,
to the use of "velvet" with its kindred web "fustian," for "chas-
ubles": while in that of Exeter cathedral, in 1327, velvet, for the
first time is mentioned as being "in two pieces not made up, of
which some yards had been then sold for vestment making."
Velvet Weaving. — Velvet fabrics of the lighter textures are
woven in hand-looms and produced from two distinct series of
warp threads and one series of weft threads, viz., "ground" threads
to form the foundation texture, and "pile" threads to form the
pile, arranged in the fabric in the order of two ground threads and
one pile thread, uniformly. Also, each system of warp threads is
contained on a separate warp beam or roller in order to permit of
the tension and rate of delivery of each system being adjusted
and controlled independently. This provision is essential by rea-
son of the two warps contracting at different rates during weav-
ing; that of the pile warp being considerably greater than that of
the ground warp, and in the ratio of about 6 or 8 to one, respec-
tively, according to the length or depth of the pile.
During weaving, the pile is developed by raising all the pile
warp threads whilst the ground threads remain down, and then
inserting through the warp shed thus formed, a long, thin steel
wire, having a narrow groove formed in the upper edge, and ex-
tending for its entire length. This wire, termed a "pile wire" is
then beaten-up by the reed right up to the "fell" of the cloth, just
as an ordinary pick of weft, after which (in one velvet structure),
three picks of weft are inserted in succession. These interweave
with the ground warp threads on the plain calico principle to pro-
duce a firm foundation texture for the tufts of pile. Also, for the
first and third of these picks, all pile warp threads are left down,
but are raised on the second or intermediate pick, thereby inter-
weaving these threads on the principle known as "fast" or "lashed"
pile which binds them very securely to the foundation texture,
with less risk of their accidental withdrawal, when the fabric is in
use. After these three picks of weft, are inserted, another pile
wire is inserted in the warp shed, formed, as before, by raising
all pile war]) threads only and leaving down all ground threads.
Then follow the next three ground picks in succession, and so on,
in the same regular sequence, uniformly.
Producing the Pile. — From this brief description, it will be
apparent that all the pile warp threads simply bend over the
grooved pile wires and thus form a horizontal row of loops extend-
ing across the entire width of the fabric, between the two sel-
vedges, while those wires virtually constitute thick picks of weft
which, along with the three fine picks, are all beaten-up close
together, by the reed, in the usual manner. After the second pile
wire has been inserted, and followed by the three ground picks,
the weaver now releases the first wire by severing, writh a knife
specially adapted for that purpose, all the pile threads that pass
over it. This wire is then removed and inserted in the next pile
warp shed to be followed by three more ground picks, after which
the second wire is also released, and removed to be again inserted
in the next following pile warp shed, and so on, continuously. The
severing of the loops formed by the pile warp threads causes these
to stand erect as short tufts and thus produce the pile surface.
The instrument employed by a velvet weaver, for cutting the
pile warp threads, consists of a special form of knife blade, bent
at an angle and fixed adjustably in a frame described as a "tre-
vette." This frame serves both as a handle and guide for the
blade, of which the thin and sharp edge is inserted by the weaver
into the narrow groove of the pile wires, and drawn quickly, by
the right hand, from the left selvedge to the right, with the rear
side of the "trevette" bearing against the pile wire last inserted,
to serve as a guide, whilst the knife edge passes along the groove of
the pile wire nearest the weaver.
Types of Velvet. — Velvet fabrics also comprise many other
varieties ranging from the light, plain textures employed for per-
sonal adornment, to the heavier and stronger figured textures for
furniture upholstery, curtain drapery, mats, rugs, and similar
articles of a more durable character. These comprise such types as
Utrecht velvet, "frieze" velvet, "moquette" velvet, and others
of a similar kind. Many of these varieties of figured velvets, with
the pile produced from mohair and wool, are woven in power-looms
VELVETEEN— VEND
39
furnished with special mechanism adapted to insert the "pile
wires" into the warp sheds, and afterwards withdraw them from
the cloth, automatically.
Figured velvet fabrics are also sometimes embellished with both
a cut or "velvet" pile and an uncut (i.e., looped or "terry")
pile, with very pleasing effect owing to the lighter and darker
tones of colour resulting from the difference in the reflection of
light from the "velvet" and "terry" pile surfaces, which appear
to be of darker and lighter tones, respectively, although produced
from warp threads of exactly the same material, colour and counts
of yarn. Very beautiful varieties of figured, plush pile fabrics are
those described as "embossed plush pile fabrics" which are de-
scribed under "ARTIFICIAL SILK FABRICS" (q.v.). (H. N.)
VELVETEEN. One of the most important varieties of the
type of fabrics comprised under the general description of "fus-
tians" (q.v.). Such fabrics are virtually "cotton velvets" con-
structed with a short weft pile surface and bear a very close re-
semblance to the true velvets (q.v.) constructed with a warp
pile of silk. Although "velveteen" and "velvet" have a similar
general appearance, they are each constructed on distinctly differ-
ent principles of fabric structure.
Before being submitted to the operation of fustian cutting, all
velveteen fabrics have a smooth and even weft surface very
similar to that of ordinary cotton weft-face satin textures known
as "sateen" (q.v.), and may be made to assume, during that
operation, either a plain pile surface uniformly, or else a ribbed
or corded surface with the ribs extending lengthwise of the fabric,
i.e., in the direction of the warp threads. Although they com-
prise several different modifications in respect of their structural
details, they all embody the same essential features in their con-
struction. This consists of the development of a series of short
tufts of weft, pile on a foundation of the plain calico, a simple
twill, or other elementary weave structure of a suitable character.
They consist essentially of one series of warp threads and two
series of weft threads, viz., "face" or pile picks and "back" picks,
respectively, of the same kind of weft from a single shuttle. The
warp threads and "back'' picks are interwoven on some elemen-
tary principle to constitute the foundation texture, while the
"face" or pile picks are allowed to "float" somewhat freely on
the face, as in a sateen fabric, to be afterwards severed by the
fustian knife, in order to develop the tufts of pile. Face and
back [ricks may be employed in any suitable ratio ranging from
two to as many as nine pile picks for each ground pick, and with
the face picks floating loosely over from three to eleven warp
threads chiefly according to the character of texture as regards
the length (or depth) and density of the pile and the weight and
quality of the fabric and its particular use.
Forming the Pile.— During the operation of fustian cutting,
all the floating pile weft is severed by the fustian knife, thereby
causing that weft to stand erect, and thus form the short tufts of
pile which lie in close formation and thus develop the charac-
teristic velvet or plush pile over the entire surface of the fabric.
The picks are cut by the fustian knife. This knife-blade
is formed with a very fine and sharp cutting edge at the extreme
end of a long, square, steel shank inserted in a wooden haft to
be held by the fustian cutter. After the velveteen fabric has been
prepared in a suitable manner for cutting and stretched taut in
a frame for that purpose, the fustian cutter, commencing at one
selvedge, proceeds to cut that stretch of cloth one "race" or
''run" at a time, taking each "race" in succession.
Varieties of Velveteen. — The different varieties of velveteen
are distinguished chiefly by the particular weave structure on
which the foundation texture is based. Hence, they are described
as "plain," or "tabby-back"; "jean" or "jeanettc-back"; and
"Genoa-back" velveteens. The "tabby-back" variety signifies a
foundation texture based on the plain calico weave; while "jean-
back" signifies those based on the three-end (— ) regular twill
weave, as indicated in the design fig. 3 ; and "Genoa-back" those
based on the four-end two-and-two (~~) regular twill weave;
while there are many other weaves employed in their construction.
In addition to these variations, some velveteens are also con-
structed as "fast" or "lashed" pile velveteen, from the method of
interweaving the picks of pile weft with the warp threads in
such a manner that the tufts of pile are thereby interlocked
or "lashed" more securely in the foundation texture. Thus, in-
stead of each tuft of pile being looped underneath only one warp
thread by the usual method, each tuft in a "lashed-pile" velveteen
intersects with three warp threads in succession.
See H. Nisbet. Grammar of Textile Design (1927). (H. N.)
VELVET- WEED (A bnti-
lon Theopkrasti) , an annual vel-
vety-hairy plant of the mallow
family (Malvaceae, q.v.), known
also as Indian mallow, native to
southern Asia and widely natur-
alized in the warmer parts .of the
United States, often becoming a
pestiferous weed. It grows from
3 ft. to 6 ft. high, with large,
heart -shaped leaves, yellow flow-
ers, and a close head of beaked
seed-pods.
VENAFRUM, an ancient
town of Campania, Italy, close to
the boundaries of both Latium
Adjectum and Samnium. Its site
is occupied by the modern Vena-
suRVEYU"ItJI "r '"' "J"~ *""•'"'"-'"• fr(^ a village with 4,353 inhabi-
VELVET WEED OR INDIAN MALLOW, tants (1921), on the railway from
(ABuriLON THEOPHRASTD, SHOW- Jsernia to Caiancllo, 15 m. S.VV.
ING FLOWERS AND SEED-PODS of ^ formcr> ^ R .^^ ^
level. Ancient authors tell us but little about it, except that it
was one of those towns governed by a prefect sent yearly from
Rome, and that in the Social War it was taken by the allies by
treachery. Augustus founded a colony there and provided for the
construction of an aqueduct (cf. the long decree relating to it in
Corp. /user. Lat. x. No. 4842). It seems to have been a place of
some importance. Its olive oil was the best in Italy, and Cato
mentions its brickworks and iron manufactures. The original line
of the Via Latina probably ran through Venafrum, making a
detour, which the later road seems to have avoided (cf. LATINA,
VIA). Rufrac was probably dependent, on it. Roads also ran from
Venafrum to Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae. Of ancient
remains hardly anything is left — some traces of an amphitheatre
and fragments of polygonal walls only. (T. As.)
VENAISSIN, formerly a province of France, bounded on
the north and north-east by Dauphine, on the south by the
Durance, on the east by Provence, and on the west by the Rhone.
It comprises the present department of Vaucluse. Its capital is
Carpentras (q.v.).
Vcnaissin is a picturesque territory, varying in scenery between
the foothills of the Alps arid magnificent plains, which are irrigated
by canals supplied by the Rhone, the Durance and the Sorgue.
The Comtat-Venaissin (Comitatus V eiuissinns) , the territory
of the Gallic people the Cavares, belonged first to the counts
of Provence, and then to the counts of Toulouse. Ceded to the
pope in 1218 by Raymond VII. count of Toulouse, and again
in 1274 by Philip the Bold, it was only united to France in
1791. The town of Avignon (q.v.), anciently distinct from the
Comtat-Venaissin, was incorporated in it by Pope Clement VI.
at the beginning of the i4th century. Avignon, a bishopric since
the ist century, became an archbishopric in 1475. Carpentras was
a bishopric from 483 till 1805.
For history see L. Loubet, Carpentras el le Comtat-Venaissin avant,
et apres I'annexion (1891).
VENANTIUS: see FORTUNATUS, VEXANTIVS HONORIUS
CLEMENTIANUS.
VEND, LIMITATION OF THE, the name of the oper-
ations of a combination of north of England colliery owners,
which existed between 1771 and 1844, formed for the purpose of
limiting the supplies of coal to consumers to raise prices.
The system of price control by coal owners using the ports of
the Tyne, the Wear and the Tees, began as early as 1665 and be-
came systematic in 1771. The owners established a control office at
VENDACE— VENDEE
Newcastle-on-Tyne with what is described by Porter in his Pro-
gress of the Nation as "a very costly establishment of clerks and
agents." The governing committee held regular meetings at
which the quantities to be sold by each colliery were determined
and the prices to the consumer fixed. By this means, during a
period of nearly three-quarters of a century, every British coal
consumer using seaborne coal was heavily taxed. Moreover, as the
limitation of the vend only applied to coal shipments to London,
which was then the great market for seaborne coal, and not to
shipments made to foreign countries, the system taxed British
consumers while cheapening coal prices to foreign consumers.
The limitation of the vend became the subject of a number of
parliamentary enquiries. It was examined by parliamentary com-
mittees in 1800, 1829, 1830 and 1836 and finally expired in 1844.
VENDACE (Coregomis vandesius) , a small fish of the salmon
family, from the lakes of Lochmaben, in Dumfriesshire, Scot-
land; the name is also given to an allied form (C. gracilior), from
Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These differ from other British
species in having the lower jaw prominent; the scales are larger
than in related species from the Arctic ocean and the countries
round the Baltic. (See WHITEFISII, SALMON AND SALMONIDAE.)
VENDEE, a maritime department of western France, formed
in 1790 out of Bas-Poitou, and taking its name from an unim-
portant tributary of the Sevrc Niortaisc. It is bounded by Loirc-
Inf6rieurc and Maine-et-Loire on the north, by Deux-Sevres on
the east, by Charente-Inferieure on the south and by the Atlantic
ocean on the west for 93 m. Pop. (1926) 395,602. Area, 2,690
square miles. The islands of Yeu (area, 84 sq.m.) and Noirmou-
tier are included. The department stretches from the Hau-
teurs de la Gatine (748 ft.) in the north-east down the
wooded slopes of the Bocage Vendccn to the plain bordered
towards the sea by the Marais, largely salt-marshes reclaimed
during the last four centuries. The Gatine is a south-east to
north-west axial line of the Armorican system, and the Bocage
on its flank is formed mainly of Palaeozoic rocks, but the plain
on the edge of the Marais is of Jurassic limestone. The three
chief rivers are the Sevre Nantaise, draining the Gatine longi-
tudinally, the Lay, and, in the south, the Scvre Niortaise. The
climate is that of the Girondine region, mild and damp, the
temperature rarely rising above 77° or falling below 18° F; 120
to 150 days of rain give an average annual rainfall of 25 in. The
woodland is colder than the plain, and the marsh is unhealthy.
Vend6c is served by the Ouest-£tat railway and has 81 m. of
navigable rivers and canals. The department forms the diocese
of Luc,on, has its court of appeal and educational centre at Poitiers,
and is in the district of the XI. Army Corps (Nantes). There
are three arrondisscments (La Roche-sur-Yon, Fontenay-le-
Comte and Sables-d'Olonne), 30 cantons, and 306 communes.
The chief towns are La Roche-sur-Yon, the capital, Les Sables-
d'Olonne, Fontenay-le-Comte and Luc.on (q.v.). Foussais, Nieul-
sur-l'Autise and Vouvant have Romanesque churches: Pouzaugcs
has a stronghold of the I3th century; Maillezais has the ruins of
a T2th century cathedral; Talmont and Tiffauges possess ruined
castles; and Le Bernard and Noirmoutier have dolmens.
VENDEE, WARS OF THE, a counter-revolutionary insur-
rection which took place during the French Revolution (q.v.)<
not only in Vend6e proper but also in Lower Poitou, Anjou,
Lower Maine and Brittany. The district was mainly inhabited
by peasants; it contained few important towns, and the bourgeois
were but a feeble minority. The ideas of the Revolution were
slow in penetrating to this ignorant peasant population, which had
always been less civilized than the majority of Frenchmen, and
in 1789 the events which roused enthusiasm throughout the rest
of France left the Vend6ans indifferent. Presently, too, signs of
discontent appeared. The priests who had refused to submit to
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy perambulated these retired
districts, and stigmatized the revolutionists as heretics. In 1791
two "representatives on mission" informed the Convention of the
disquieting condition of Vend6e, and this news was quickly fol-
lowed by the exposure of a royalist plot organized by the mar-
quis de La Roueric.
The signal for a widespread rising was the introduction of
conscription acts for the recruiting of the depleted armies on
the eastern frontiers. In February 1793 the Convention decreed
a levy on the whole of France, and on the eve of the ballot the
Vende*e, rather than comply with this requisition, broke out in
insurrection. In the month of March 1793 the officer com-
manding at Cholet was killed, and republicans were massacred at
Machecoul and St. Florcnt. Giving rein to their ancient antip-
athy, the revolted peasantry attacked the towns, which were
liberal in ideas and republican in sympathies.
These first successes of the Vendeans coincided with grave
republican reverses on the frontier — war with England, Holland
and Spain, the defeat of Neerwinden and the defection of
Dumouriez. The bmigris then began to throw in their lot with the
Vendeans. Royalist nobles like the marquis de Bonchamp, Char-
ette dc la Contrie, Gigot d'Elbee, Henri de la Rochejaquelein and
the marquis de Lescure placed themselves at the head of the peas-
ants. Although several of these leaders were Voltairians, they held
up Louis XVI., who had been executed in Jan. 1793, as a martyr
to Catholicism, and the Vendeans, who had hitherto styled them-
selves the Christian Army, now adopted the name of the Catholic
and Royal Army.
The Convention took measures against the emigres and the
refractory priests. By a decree of March 19, 1793, every person
accused of taking part in the counter-revolutionary revolts, or of
wearing the white cockade (the royalist emblem), was declared
an outlaw. The prisoners were to be tried by military commissions,
and the sole penalty was death with confiscation of property. The
Convention also sent representatives on mission into Vendee to
effect the purging of the municipalities, the reorganization of the
national guards in the republican towns and the active prosecu-
tion of the revolutionary propaganda. These measures proving in-
sufficient, a decree was promulgated on April 30, 1793, for the
despatch of regular troops; but, in spite of their failure to capture
Nantes, the successes of the Vendeans continued.
At the end of Aug. 1793, the republicans had three armies in the
Vendee — the army of Rochclle, the army of Brest and the Mayen-
(ai$] but their generals were either ciphers, like Ronsin, or divided
among themselves, like Rossignol and Canclaux. They were un-
certain whether to cut off the Vendeans from the sea or to drive
them westwards; and moreover, their men were undisciplined.
Although the peasants had to leave their chiefs and work on the
land, the Vendeans still remained formidable opponents. They
were equipped partly with arms supplied by England, and partly
with fowling-pieces, which at that period were superior to the
small-arms used by the regular troops, and their intimate knowl-
edge of the country gave them an immense advantage.
The dissensions of the republican leaders and the demoralizing
tactics of the Vendeans resulted in republican defeats at Chan-
tonnay, Torfou, Coron, St. Lambert, Montaigu and St. Fulgent.
The Convention resolved to bring the war to an end before Octo-
ber, and placed the troops under the undivided command, first
of Jean Lechelle and then of Louis Turreau, who had as subor-
dinates such men as Marceau, Kleber and Westermann. On Oct.
7 the various divisions concentrated at Bressuire, took Chatillon
after two bloody engagements, and defeated the Vend6ans at
Cholet, Beaupreau and La Tremblaye. After this repulse, the
royalists, under Stoffiet and La Rochejaquelein, attempted to
rouse the Cotentin and crossed the Loire. Beaten back at Gran-
ville, they tried to re-enter the Vende*e, but were repulsed at
Angers. They re-formed at Le Mans, where they were defeated
by Westermann, and the same officer annihilated the main body of
the insurgents at Savenay (Dec. 1793).
Regular warfare was now at an end, although Turreau and his
"infernal columns'' still continued to scour the disaffected districts.
After the 9th Thermidor attempts were made to pacify the coun-
try. The Convention issued conciliatory proclamations allowing
the Vendeans liberty of worship and guaranteeing their property.
Gen. Hoche applied these measures with great success. He re-
stored their cattle to the peasants who submitted, "let the priests
have a few crowns," and on July 20, 1795, annihilated an imigri
expedition which had been equipped in England and had seized
Fort Penthievre and Quiberon. Treaties were concluded at La
VEND^MIAIRE— VENER
Jaunaie (Feb. 15, 1795) and at La Mabillaic, and were fairly well
observed by the Vend6ans; and nothing remained but to cope with
the feeble and scattered remnant of the Vendeans still under
arms, and with the Chouans (q.v.). On July 30, 1796, the state of
siege was raised in the western departments.
During the Hundred Days there was a revival of the Vend£an
war, the suppression of which occupied a large corps of Napoleon's
army, and in a measure weakened him in the northern theatre
of war. (Sec WATERLOO CAMPAIGN.)
In 1832 again an abortive insurrection broke out in support of
the Bourbons, at the instigation of the duchess of Berry; the Ven-
dean hero on this occasion was the baron de Charette.
There are numerous articles on the Vcnddan insurrection of 1793
in the Revue du Bas-Poitou, Revue historique de I'Anjou, Revue de
Rretagne, de Vendee et d'Anjou, Revue historique de I'Oucst, Revue
historique et archeologique du Maine, and La Vendee historique. See
also R. Bittard dcs Fortes, "Bibliographic historique et critique des
guerres de Vendee et de la Chouannerie" in the Revue du Bas-Poitou
(1903 scq.) ; C. L. Chassin, Atudes sur la Vendte et la Chouannerie
(La Preparation de la guerre — La Vendte patriote — Les Pacifications
de I'Ouest) (Paris, 1892 seq.), n vols. (the best general work on the
.subject); C. Port, Les Origines de la Vendee (Paris, 1888); C.
Leroux-Cesbron, "Correspondance des repr£sentants en mission
ca l'arm£e de 1'ouest (1794-95)" in the Nouvelle Revue retrospective
(1898) ; Blachez, Bonchamps et P insurrection vendtenne (Paris,
1902); P. Mautouchct, Le Conventional Philippeaux (Paris, 1901).
On 1815 a modern work is Les Cent Jours en Vendte; le general
Lamarque, by B. Lasserre (Paris, 1907) ; on 1832 see La Vendte, by
Vicomtc A. dc Courson (1909). (R. AN.)
VEND^MIAIRE, the name given during the French Revo-
lution to the first month of the year in the Republican calendar
(from Lat. viudemia, vintage). Vendemiaire began on Sept.
22, 23 or 24, and ended on Oct. 22, 23 or 24, according to the
year, and was the season of the vintage in the wine districts of
northern France. See CALENDAR.
VENDETTA, the custom of the family feud, by which the
nearest kinsman of a murdered man was obliged to take up the
quarrel and avenge his death. (Ital. from Lat. vindicta, revenge.)
From being an obligation upon the nearest, it grew to be an
obligation on all the relatives, involving families in bitter private
wars. In primitive communities, the injury done was held to be
more than personal, a wrong done to the whole gens. The term
originated in Corsica, where the vendetta long played an im-
portant part in the social life. If the murderer could not? be
found, his family were liable to fall victims to the vendetta.
VEND6ME, LOUIS JOSEPH, Due DE (1654-1712),
marshal of France, was the son of Louis, 2nd duke of Vendome,
and the great-grandson of Henry IV. and Gabrielle d'Estrees.
Entering the army he distinguished himself in the Dutch wars,
and by 1688 had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general. In the
war of the Grand Alliance he rendered conspicuous service and
in 1695, in command of the army operating in Catalonia, he took
Barcelona. Soon afterwards he received the marshalate. In 1702,
after the first unsuccessful campaign of Catinat and Villeroi, he
was placed in command of the Franco-Spanish army in Italy.
(See SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR.) During three campaigns in
that country he proved a worthy antagonist to Prince Eugene,
whom at last he defeated at Cassano. Next year he was sent to
Flanders to repair the disaster of Ramillies with the result that
his successors Marsin and Philip of Orleans were totally de-
feated, while in the new sphere Vendome was merely the mentor
of the pious and unenterprising duke of Burgundy, and was un-
able to prevent the defeat of Oudenarde. He retired in disgust to
his estates, but was soon summoned to take command of the
army of Philip in Spain. There he won his last victories, crown-
ing his work with the battle of Villaviciosa. Before the end of
the war he died suddenly at Vinaros on June n, 1712.
VEND6ME, a town of north-central France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 22m. N.W. of
Blois by rail. Pop. (1926) 7,383. Vendome (Vindocinum) ap-
pears originally to have been a Gallic oppidum, replaced later by
a feudal castle, around which the modern town arose. Christianity
was introduced by St. Bienheure" in the sth century, and the im-
portant abbey of the Trinity was founded about 1030. When the
reign of the Capetian dynasty began, Vendome was the chief town
of a countship belonging to Bouchard, called "the Venerable."
The succession passed by various marriages to the houses of Ne-
vers, Preuilly and Montoire. Bouchard VII., count of Vendome
and Castres (d. c. 1374), left as his heiress his sister Catherine,
the wife of John of Bourbon, count of la Marche. The countship
of Vendome was raised to the rank of a duchy and a peerage of
France for Charles of Bourbon (1515); his son Anthony of Bour-
bon, king of Navarre, was the father of Henry IV., who gave the
duchy of Vendome in 1598 to his natural son Caesar (1594-1665).
Caesar, duke of Vendome, had as his sons Louis, duke of Vendome
(1612-69), who married a niece of Mazarin, and Francis, duke
of Beaufort. The last of the family in the male line (1654-1712)
was Louis XIV.'s famous general, Louis Joseph, duke of Ven-
dome (q.v.).
Vendome stands on the Loir, which here divides and intersects
the town. To the south stands a hill on which are ruins of the
1*1 th century castle of the counts of Vendome. The abbey-church
of the Trinity (i2th to I5th century) has a fine facade in the
florid Gothic style and a transitional i2th century belfry, with a
stone steeple, stands isolated in front of the church. Abbey build-
ings of various periods lie round the church. The church of La
Madeleine (isth century) is surmounted by a stone spire, an in-
different imitation of that of the abbey. Of the church of St.
Martin (i6th century) only the tower remains. The town hall
occupies the old gate of St. George, with two large crenelated
and machicolated towers, connected by a pavilion. The i5th cen-
tury chapel of the ancient hospital of St. Jacques, in the most
florid Gothic style, is preserved.
VENEER, a thin sheet of superior wood, covering the sur-
face of inferior wood. Veneers may be sliced with a knife (knife-
cut) or cut with a saw (saw-cut) from a section of a tree (flitch).
The art of producing and using veneers dates back to the
earliest days of civilization, and it may be looked upon even as a
standard of human development, since efficient veneering has
always followed the wake of human progress. (See Wilkinson's
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, Perrot and
Chipiez' History of Art in Chaldca and Assyria, etc.) Intarsia
and marquetry work are closely allied to and inter-dependent
upon the art of veneering.
In the usual process of manufacture, the flitches are steamed
before being cut, and the sheet of veneer thus obtained is care-
fully dried. Veneers may be cut along the grain, through the log,
or from cross-sections of the log; the figure and design of the
veneer obtained from the different methods employed vary
widely and the art of veneering consists as much in the most
effective utilization of the log as in the careful and suitable appli-
cation and matching of the veneers afterwards. Veneers are also
produced by means of the rotary cutting process as a raw material
for plywood. A part of a log is inserted lengthwise between two
pins on a rotating lathe, and a knife, pressed against it, peels off
an endless ribbon of vcnccr. (See PLYWOOD.)
See Sidney J. Duly, Timber and Timber Products (1024) ; E. Vernon
Knight and Mcinrad Vulpi, Veneers and Plywood (N.Y., 1927) ; E.
Brocard, L'Art de decouper le bois eomprcnunt tgalement la Mar-
queterie et la Sculpture Simple (Paris, 1873). (A. MOR.)
VENER, the largest lake in Sweden and the third largest in
Europe; area 2,149 sq.m.; maximum length 87 m.; maximum
breadth 44 m. ; maximum depth 292 ft. The surface of the lake is
normally 144 ft. above the sea but may rise 10 ft. or more higher,
for the lake receives numerous streams, the largest being the Klar,
which drains the forests of Vermland and Kopparberg to the
north. It is drained by the Gota river to the Cattegat. It is
divided into two basins by two peninsulas and a group of islands,
the western half being Lake Dalbo. The northern shores are
high, rocky and in part wooded, the southern open and low, though
isolated hills occur, such as the Kinnekulle (1,007 ft-)-
By means of the Dalsland Canal from Kopmannabro, midway
on the west shore of Dalbo, the lake, which is busy in the traffic in
timber, iron and agricultural produce, has communication with
Fredrikshald in Norway; and it is traversed from Venersborg on
the south to Sjotorp on the east by the Gota (q.v.) Canal route.
VENERABLE— VENEREAL DISEASES
The principal lake-ports arc — on the north shore Carlstad and
Crist inehamn, with iron-works and tobacco factory; on the east
Mariestad, chief town of the district of Skaraborg; on the south
Lidkoping, and Vcnersborg with its iron foundries, tanneries and
match and paper factories.
VENERABLE, worthy of honour, respect and reverence,
especially a term applied to dignified or honourable age [Lat.
venerabilis, worthy of reverence]. It is specifically used as a title
of address given to archdeacons in the Anglican Church. It was
naturally a term of respectful address from early times; thus
St. Augustine (Epist. 76, 88, 139) cites it of bishops, and Philip
I. of France was styled venerabilis and venerandus (sec Du Cange,
Gloss, s.v. Vcnerabilitas). In the Roman Church the granting of
the title "venerable"' is the first step in the long process of the
canonization of saints (see CANONIZATION).
VENEREAL DISEASES, a general term for the diseases
resulting from impure sexual intercourse. Three distinct affections
arc included under this term — gonorrhoea, local contagious ulcers,
known as soft chancres, and syphilis. They are three distinct
diseases, due to different causes. Broadly speaking, gonorrhoea
attacks the mucous membranes, especially that of the urethra, the
vagina, uterus and Fallopian tubes; soft chancres attack the
mucous membranes and the skin; syphilis, after a short local
manifestation, affects the whole body.
Though these three affections generally result from impure
sexual intercourse, there are other methods of contagion, as when
the accoucheur is poisoned whilst delivering a syphilitic woman,
the surgeon when operating on a syphilitic patient, the wet-nurse
who is suckling a syphilitic infant, and so on. An individual may
be attacked by any one or any two of the three, or by all at the
same time, as the result of one and the same connection. But they
do not show themselves at the same time; they have different
stages of incubation. In gonorrhoea and soft chancre the first
symptoms appear as a rule three or four days after inoculation;
in syphilis, the period of incubation is twenty-eight days, though
it may be much longer.
GONORRHOEA
Gonorrhoea is a s[x?cific intlnrnmntion of the mucous membrane
of the urethra and other passages caused by M. gonorrhoea, a
diplococcus discovered by Neisscr and often called the gono-
coccus.
The germs find entrance during coitus and multiply at enormous
rate, spreading to all the glands and crevices of the membrane,
and setting free in their development a toxin which causes great
irritation of the passage with inflammation and swelling. They
remain quietly incubating for three or four days, or even longer;
then acute inflammation comes on, with profuse discharge of thick
yellow matter, with much scalding during micturition, and there
may be so much local pain that it is difficult for the person to move
about. Microscopic examination of the discharge shows abundant
pus corpuscles and epithelial cells from the membrane, together
with swarms of intra- and extra-cellular diplococci (gonococci).
The inflammatory process may extend backwards and give rise
to acute prdstatitis (sec BLADDER AND PROSTATE, DISEASES OF),
with retention of urine; to the duct of the tcstes and give rise
to acute epididymitis (swollen testicle) ; and to the bladder, caus-
ing acute cystitis. It may also cause local abscesses, or, by irrita-
tion, set up crops of warts.
In ten days or a fortnight the inflammation gradually subsides,
a thin watery discharge remaining which is known as f>lcct. But
inasmuch as this discharge contains gonococci it may, though
scarcely noticeable, set up acute specific inflammation in the
opposite sex.
In the case of the female the inflammation is apt to extend to
the uterus and along the Fallopian tubes, perhaps to give rise to
an abscess in the tube (pyosalpinx) which, bursting, may cause
fatal peritonitis.
A lingering gleet may be due to the presence of a definite ulcera-
tion in the urethra, and this, being chronic, is accompanied by
the formation of much fibrous tissue which contracts and causes
narrowing of the urethra, or stricture. Thus gleet and stricture
are often associated, and the occasional passage of a large bougie
may suffice to cure both. Often, however, a stricture of the
urethra proves rebellious in the extreme, and leads to diseases
of the bladder and kidneys which may prove fatal.
One of the most important points in the management of a case
of gonorrhoea is to prevent risk of the septic discharge coming
into contact with the eye. If this happens, prompt and energetic
measures must be taken to save the eye. If at the time of delivery
a woman be the subject of gonorrhoea, there is great probability
of the eyes of the infant being affected. The symptoms appear
on the third day after birth, and the disease may end in complete
blindness. The name of the disease is ophthalmia neonatorum,
(Sec BLINDNESS.)
By the term gonorrhoeal rheumatism it is implied that the gono-
cocci have been carried by the blood stream to one or more joints
in which an acute inflammation has been set up. It is apt to occur
in the third week -of the disease, and may end in permanent stiff-
ness of the joints or in abscess.
In rare cases the germs find their way to the cardiac valves,
pleura or pericardium, setting up an inflammation which may end
fatally.
For a man to marry whilst there is the slightest risk of his still
being the subject of gonorrhoea is to subject his wife to the prob-
ability of infection, ending with chronic inflammation of the
womb or of septic peritonitis. Yet it is often extremely difficult
to say when a man is cured. That there is no longer any discharge
does not suffice to show that he has ceased to be infective. Noth-
ing less than repeated examinations of the urethral mucus by the
microscope, ending in a negative result, should be accepted as*
evidence of the cure being complete. And these examinations
should be made after he has returned to his former ways of eating,
drinking and working.
LOCAL CONTAGIOUS ULCERS
Chancroid, Soft Chancre or Soft Sore is so named in con-
tradistinction to the Ilunterian sore of syphilitic infection, the
great characteristic of which is its hardness. The soft chancre
is a contagious ulcer of the genitals, due to the inoculation of the
bacillus of Ducrey; and, provided that the specific germ of
syphilis is not inoculated at the same time, the chancre is not
followed by constitutional affection. In other words, the disease
is purely local, and if some of the discharge of one of these ulcers
is inoculated on another part of the body of the individual a sore
of an exactly similar nature appears. This reproduction of the
sore can be done over and over again on the same individual,
always with the same result. But in the case of the Hunterian sore,
inoculation of the individual from the primary sore gives no
result, because the constitutional disease has rendered the individ-
ual proof against further infection. The soft sore is often mul-
tiple. It appears about three days after the exposure, and as it
increases in size free suppuration takes place. Its base remains
soft. In individuals broken down in health, the ulceration is apt
to extend with great rapidity, and is then spoken of as phagedaenic.
Just as an individual may contract syphilis and gonorrhoea at
the same connection, so also he may be inoculated simultaneously
with the bacilli of the soft chancre and the spirochacte of syphilis.
In this case the soft chancres appear, as usual, within the first
three or four days, but though passing through the customary
stages they may refuse quite to heal, or, having healed, they may
become indurated in the second month, constitutional symptoms
following in due course.
Bubo. — The bacilli from the soft sore may pass by the lym-
phatic vessels to the glands in the groin, when they set up inflam-
mation.
SYPHILIS
The cause of syphilis, whether inherited or acquired, which
can be demonstrated in the primary and various secondary lesions,
and in the internal organs, is Spirocftaeta or Treponema pallida,
a motile protozoon of spiral form, from 4 to 20 /x in length and J p.
in diameter, with a flagellum at either extremity. Inoculations of
the spirochnetc in monkeys have produced the characteristic
primary (Hunterian) sores, which have proved infective to other
monkeys. And in the reproduced primary sores, as also in the
VENEREAL DISEASES
43
secondary lesions following them, the same specific micro-organ-
ism has been demonstrated. The organism can also be inoculated
successfully into the testicles of rabbits.
The syphilitic virus is introduced at the seat of an abrasion
either on the genital organs or on some other part of the surface
of the body. It has been conveyed during a fight by abrasion of
the skin covering the knuckle against the tooth of an adversary
with secondary syphilis. The poison lies quiescent for an average
period of four weeks. A cartilaginous, button-like hardness ap-
pears at the seat of inoculation. If this is irritated ulccration
takes place; but ulceration is an accident, not an essential. The
infection becomes systemic long before the chancre develops.
The so-called period of quiescence does not exist. From the
primary seat the system becomes infected. The virus, passing
along the lymphatic vessels, attacks the nearest chain of lymphatic
glands. If the original sore is in the genital organs, the glands in
the groin are first attacked; if in the hand, the glands of the elbow
or armpit; if on the lip, the glands below the jaw. The affected
glands are indurated and painless; they may become acutely in-
flamed, just as the primary lesion may, but this, too, is an acci-
dent, not an essential. In due course the poison may affect the
whole glandular system. Skin eruptions, often symmetrical, break
out. Irritation of any mucous membrane is followed by papular
eruptions with superficial ulccration, and in the later stages of the
disease skin-eruptions, scaly, pimply, pustular or nodular in type,
appear. These eruptions do not itch. The individual is as a general
rule protected against a second attack of syphilis. In weakly peo-
ple, in severe cases, or in cases that have not been properly treated,
syphilitic deposits termed gummata are formed, which are very
apt to break down and give rise to deep ulcerations.
Gummata. — The most characteristic form of the generalized
syphilitic infection, which may not manifest itself for several
years after the reception of the virus, is a nodular inflammatory
formation in various organs — the liver, tcstes or brain, the
muscles (tongue and jaw-muscles especially), the periosteum, the
skin and the lungs. The deposits are called gummata from the
tenacious appearance of the fresh-cut surface and of the discharge
oozing from it. The structure consists of granulation-tissue in
which necrosis occurs at various central points. One remarkable
feature of the process is the overgrowth of cells in the inner coat
of the arteries (see ARTERIKS, DISEASES OF), within the affected
area, which obliterate the vessel and are the chief cause of the
central degeneration of the gumma. Gummata, and the ulcers left
by them, constitute the tertiary manifestations of syphilis.
In a large proportion of cases only the secondary symptoms
occur, and not the tertiary, the virus having presumably exhausted
itself or been destroyed by treatment in the earlier manifestations.
Inherited Syphilis.-— -In the syphilis of the offspring it is nec-
essary to distinguish two classes of effects — there are the effects of
general intra-utcrinc mal-nutrition, due to the placental syphilis
of the mother; and there arc the true specific effects acquired by
inheritance from either parent and conveyed in the sperm-ele-
ments or in the ovum. These two classes of effects are commingled
in such a way as not to be readily distinguished; but it is prob-
able that the ill-organized growth of bone, at the cpiphysial line
in the long bones (sometimes amounting to suppuration), and on
the surfaces of the membrane-bones of the skull (Parrot's nodes)
is a result of general placental mal-nutrition, like the correspond-
ing errors of growth in rickets. The rashes and fissures of the skin,
the snuffles and such-like well-known symptoms in the offspring
are characteristic effects of the specific taint; so also the peculiar
overgrowth in the liver, the interstitial pneumonia alba of the
lungs and the like. It is in many cases some months after birth
before the congenital syphilitic effects show themselves, while
other effects come to light during childhood and youth.
The moist eruptions and ulcerations about the mouth and anus
of the infant, as well as the skin affections generally, are charged
with the spirochaetes and are highly contagious.
From the second to the sixth year there is commonly a rest in
the symptoms that are regarded as characteristic, but the tibiae
may become thickened from periostitis, or a joint may become
swollen and painful.
The characteristic physiognomy gradually manifests itself if the
child is not treated — the flattened nose, the square forehead, the
radiating lines from the mouth, the stuntecl figure and pallid face.
During the second dentition, the three signs, as pointed out by
Jonathan Hutchinson, may be looked for — the notched incisor
teeth of the upper jaw, interstitial corneitis and syphilitic deaf-
ness. Perforation of the soft or hard palate may occur, and
ulcerations of the skin and cellular tissue. Destruction of the
nasal bones, caries of the forehead and skull, of the long bones,
may also take place.
Colics' Law. — A woman giving birth to a syphilitic infant can-
not be inoculated with syphilis by the infant when she is suckling
it; in other words, though the mother may have shown no definite
signs of syphilis, she is immune; whereas the syphilitic infant put
to the breast of a healthy woman may inoculate her nipple and
convey syphilis to her. This is known as Colics' Law, and it is
explained by the theory that, the mother's blood being already
infected, her skin is proof against a local cultivation of germs in
the form of a Hunterian sore.
General Remarks. — It by no means follows that because the
infecting sore is small, unimportant or quickly healed, the attack,
of which the sore is the first, (primary) symptom, will be mild.
Indeed, it not infrequently happens that the most serious forms of
secondary or tertiary symptoms succeed a sore which was re-
garded as of such trivial nature that the individual declined to
submit himself to treatment, or quickly withdrew himself from it
to enter a fool's paradise. The advisability of ceasing from treat-
ment should always be determined by the surgeon, never by the
patient; treatment must be continued long after the disappearance
of the secondary eruptions. It is the disease which the surgeon
has to cure, not the symptoms. The patient is apt to think only of
the symptoms.
"Is the disease curable?" The answer is: "Yes; beyond doubt."
But the individual must be made to understand the necessity of
his submitting himself to a prolonged course of treatment. A
second question is whether, in the course of the disease, his hair
will fall out, his body will be covered with sores and his face with
blotches, and if his bones will be attacked. Here, again, the
answer is that prompt submission to treatment will render all
such calamities extremely improbable. Another question often put
is whether the disease is contagious or infectious. During the
primary and secondary stages he is infectious as far as his lesions
are concerned. Obviously, if a man has a primary sore or a sec-
ondary eruption he should use his own pipe, razor, glass, cup or
spoon, should refrain from kissing any one, and desist from sexual
intercourse. If clue care thus be taken no danger is likely to ensue.
Syphilis and Marriage.—Thc question as to how soon it
would be safe for a person with secondary syphilis to marry is of
extreme importance, and the disregard of it. may cause lasting
mental distress to the parent and permanent physical injury to the
offspring. A man who finds himself to be the subject of secondary
syphilis when he is engaged to be married would do well honour-
ably to free himself from responsibility. But should a person who
has been under regular and continuous treatment desire to marry,
consent may be given when he has, seen no symptoms of his
disease for two full years. But even then no actual promise can
be made that his troubles are at an end.
The transmission of syphilis to the third generation is quite pos-
sible, but it is difficult of absolute proof because of the chance of
there having been intercurrent infection of the offspring of "the
second generation. (E. 0.; X.)
GENERAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES
The period since 1910 has been marked by the commencement
of. a campaign which has developed mto a world-war against
venereal diseases. In this work Great Britain has taken a prom-
inent part.
In 1913 a royal commission was set up to inquire into "the
prevalence of venereal diseases in the United Kingdom, their
effects on the health of the community, and the means by which
those effects can be alleviated or prevented." The royal commis-
sion reported in 1916, and their recommendations were imme-
VENEREAL DISEASES
diately acted upon by the Local Government Board of England
and Wales (now the Ministry of Health), and the public meas-
ures for combating venereal diseases in England and Wales are
now as mentioned below, while in Scotland and Ireland the cam-
paign is being conducted on the same principles.
Legislative Action. — r. By an Act of Parliament passed in
1917 the treatment of patients for venereal disease by others than
registered medical practitioners and the sale without the pre-
scription of a registered medical practitioner or the advertisement
to the lay public of remedies for the treatment or prevention of
venereal diseases are forbidden.
2. There are 193 centres chiefly in voluntary hospitals for the
treatment, free of charge, of persons suffering from venereal
disease.
3. Fourteen hostels exist for the care and treatment of females
who are infected, and would, unless helped by shelter, become
professional prostitutes.
4. Seven institutions are specially for the care of pregnant fe-
males who are infected.
5. Treatment of venereal disease is also provided in poor law
institutions.
6. Arscnobenzol (salvarsan) compounds are given free of charge
to medical practitioners qualified to administer these remedies.
7. Specimens from persons suspected to be suffering from
venereal disease can be examined free of charge in 73 laboratories
which have been approved for the purpose.
8. The work of educating the public in the dangers of venereal
diseases and the importance of early and continued treatment is
carried out by the British Social Hygiene Council (formerly the
National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases), which re-
ceives from the Government a grant in aid of its expenses. Propa-
gandist work is also undertaken by the county councils and county
borough councils, cither directly or in conjunction with the British
Social Hygiene Council.
The arrangements for establishment of free treatment facilities
for distribution of arsenobcnzol compounds and for laboratory
examinations are under the control of county councils and county
borough councils, which receive from the Government 75% of
their approved expenditure on this account.
Results Obtained. — Some idea of the results obtained may be
gathered by comparing the returns of cases seen for the first time
in 1920, when the numbers were highest, with those seen for the
first time in 1924, as presented hereunder: —
Year
Syphilis
Soft
Chancre
Gonor-
rhoea
Non-ven.
Total
IQ20
1924
42,805
22,010
2,442
1,098
40,284
31,272
i Q/> 54
18,842
105,185
73,222
The table discloses a substantial reduction in the number of
cases of syphilis, and the figures indicate that the incidence of
syphilis in the community has declined considerably. Similar
results have been reported by other countries which have set up
venereal-disease schemes on the principle of treating the infected.
The attendance at the centres in 1920 was 1,488,514 and in 1924
had increased to 1,645,415.
Gonorrhoea. — No outstanding remedy has been discovered
analogous to that of arsenobenzol in syphilis, but, particularly
since 1914, improvements in detail have made the diagnosis and
cure of gonorrhoea more certain. In diagnosis, improvements in
methods of cultivating the gonococcus on artificial media have
placed the surgeon on firmer ground when determining the ques-
tion of cure. In treatment the practice of administering vaccines
to raise the patient's resistance has become much more common.
- In complications of gonorrhoea, such as gonorrhoeal rheumatism
and iritis, what is known as protein-shock therapy has proved
useful.
The remedies employed in this form of treatment are quite
varied; for example, colloidal silver or anti-typhoid vaccine in-
jected into a vein; milk or turpentine injected into the muscles.
They have the immediate effect of raising the patient's tempera-
ture and by the next day there is usually a definite improvement
in the symptoms.
Another form of treatment which has been in use by a few for
a number of years but is only now becoming more general is
diathermy. (Sec ELECTRO-THERAPY.) The principle of its use in
gonorrhoea and its complications is that the gonococcus is very
sensitive to heat, being killed at temperatures which are supported
with comparative ease by human tissues.
Good results have been obtained in gonorrhoea of females by
this method, but undoubtedly its best effects are in epididymitis
and in gonorrhoeal rheumatism in men. In gonorrhoeal rheuma-
tism and iritis the reservoir from which the joints and eyes are
continually being infected is commonly in the prostate and the
seminal vesicles, both situated at the base of the bladder. The
current is applied by means of an electrode placed in the rectum
and is increased in strength until the patient feels the part becom-
ing uncomfortably hot.
Soft Chancre or Chancroid.— The figures showing the new
cases which have been seen at treatment centres indicate that
chancroid is not now very prevalent in Great Britain. The treat-
ment is now more conservative than formerly. The chancroid is
viewed as possibly harbouring also the germs of syphilis, and
with the object of avoiding any action which may prejudice the
microscopical search for the more severe disease, the surgeon with-
holds for as long as possible the application of antiseptics.
When a bubo forms in the groin, a comparatively rare event"
under modern practice, it is more usual now to attempt to secure
resolution by protein-shock therapy (see GONORRHOEA) and by
aspiration of the abscess followed by injection into the abscess"
cavity of some drug which will lead to the destruction of the
germs.
Detection of Syphilis. — Improvements irrmethods of detect-
ing the germ, Spirochaeta pallida, under the microscope, viz., by
dark-ground illumination, have made it possible to diagnose the
disease very rapidly on the day it makes its first appearance. For
the Wassermann and allied tests of blood and cerebro-spinal fluid
for the presence of syphilis the article WASSERMANN REACTION
should be consulted.
Great strides have been made in treatment since 1910 when
Ehrlich introduced dioxy-diamino-arsenobenzol clihydrochloride,
commonly known as "606" or salvarsan (q.v.), as a remedy for
syphilis. The effect of a single dose of this remedy is usually to
cause the spirochaetes to disappear from the discharge of syphilitic-
sores in 24 hours and syphilitic lesions heal with a rapidity which
was a source of great wonder to those who had toiled in the
treatment of syphilis with the help of only mercury and prep-
arations of iodine.
The original preparation has largely been supplanted by a com-
pound introduced by Ehrlich in 1912 under the name of neosal-
varsan or "914," which is much more convenient to use and less
disturbing to the patient than was the original preparation. These
advantages are somewhat offset by a lower therapeutic activity of
the newer preparation. Combinations of arsenobenzol with silver
and with zinc are also used. The manufacture of arsenobenzol
preparations spread during the War into the hands of a number
of firms each of which has attached to the same chemical com-
pounds trade names of their own to an extent which may be some-
what bewildering to the uninitiated.
Every arsenobenzol compound is made in batches each of which
receives a distinctive mark and must pass a certain test of toxicity
and of therapeutic activity before it can be issued to the public.
The testing in Great Britain is carried out by the Medical Research
Council. Experience has shown that, although the arsenobenzol
preparations act very promptly, a number of injections in succes-
sive courses must be administered to secure eradication of syphilis
and that it is advisable to supplement them by administering
another metallic compound.
Arsenobenzol will not penetrate into the nerve tissue of the
brain, and this limitation has led to the introduction of an arsen-
ical preparation of another order, viz. : tryparsamide or n-phenyl
glydne-amido-p-arsonic acid into the therapy of locomotor ataxy
and general paresis. The results show generally that tryparsamide
is valuable for this purpose.
VENEREAL DISEASES
45
In 1920 Sazerac and Levaditi showed that tartro-bismuthate
of potassium and sodium is more powerful than mercury in de-
stroying the spirothaetes of syphilis, and a large number of
bismuth preparations have been placed on the market since it was
found that it is the metal rather than the compound which matters
in the therapeutic action. Generally it can be said that bismuth
injections effect more towards the cure of syphilis than do mer-
curial and that preparations of bismuth can be used which cause
less discomfort than do any mercurial.
Bismuth is useless for the cure of syphilis if given by the mouth
and its injection into veins is practised very little on account of its
greater toxicity when administered by this route. Bismuth is gen-
erally considered to be an adjuvant rather than a substitute for
arscnobenzol treatment. It is retained in the tissues for long after
a series of injections has been given, and it thus prolongs the anti-
syphilitic effect after all the arsenobenzol has been excreted.
The powerful effect of the arsenobenzol and bismuth com-
pounds on the germ of syphilis has led to a number of experiments
to determine whether or not they prevent the development of
syphilis after inoculation.
There is strong evidence to the effect that a few arsenobenzol
injections given after contamination with syphilitic virus does
protect against the disease. Kolle has produced experimental evi-
dence tending to show that the injection cf bismuth carbonate
protects against infection resulting from inoculation with syphilitic
virus so long as the compound remains in the muscles. Rabbits
treated thus proved resistant to inoculation with syphilitic mate-
rial for as long as 109 clays after injection of the bismuth.
The disadvantage of injections as a method of preventing syph-
ilis after venereal risk led Levaditi to try an arsenical compound
called stovarsol or acctyl-oxyamino-phenyl arsenic acid, which is
administered by the mouth. There is good evidence that the
ingestion of stovarsol in suitable doses prevents infection, but
considerably more work on the subject will be necessary before
stovarsol can safely be given to the public as a prophylactic against
syphilis.
General Paralysis of the Insane. — A great advance has been
made in the treatment of a form of syphilis which is acknowledged
lo be the most incurable of all, namely general paralysis of the
insane. This disease is one which has almost always ended fatally,
defying the most intensive treatment by anti-syphilitic remedies.
Its course is marked by remissions of varying length, during
which the patient may appear to have recovered. It has been
known for a century or more that an intcrcurrent infection ac-
companied by fever often results in a long remission, and this
knowledge has led Wagner von Jauregg and his colleagues in
Vienna since 1887 to inoculate patients with a variety of sub-
stances designed to make their temperatures rise. The best of all
the agents has proved to be the parasite of benign tertian malaria
and since its introduction in 1919 the method has been tested all
over the world. The results have been very encouraging. The
inoculation is by injection of malarial blood or by the bites of
infected mosquitoes, and eight to twelve attacks of fever are
allowed before quinine is given.
BrBLTOGRAPirv.— L. W. Harrison, "The Public Control of Venereal
Diseases," St. Thomas' Hospital Gazette, vol. 29, Nos. 7 and 8 (1913) ;
L. W. Harrison, The Modern Diagnosis and Treatment of Syphilis,
Chancroid and Gonorrhoea (1924) ; W. Kolle and K. Zieler, Handbuch
der Salvarsantherapie, Bd. i and 2 (1924 and 1925) ; Royal Commission
on Venereal Diseases, Final Report, Cd. 8189 dqi6) ; Ministry of
Health Reports on Public Health and Medical subjects, No. i. The
Complement Fixation Test in Syphilis, Commonly Known as the
Wassermann Test, H.M.S.O. (1920) ; Ministry of Health, Annual
Reports (Stationery Office, London) ; Medical Research Council,
Special Report on laboratory diagnosis of gonococcal infections, No.
19; on laboratory tests of syphilis, Nos. 14, 19, 21, 25, 45, 47, 55 and 78;
on salvarsan, Nos. 44 and 66 (Stationery Office, London) ; D'Arcy
Power and J. Keogh Murphy, A System of Syphilis, 6 vols. (1008-10) ;
C. H. Browning and I. Mackenzie, Recent Advances in the Diagnosis
and Treatment of Syphilis (2nd cd. 1024, bibl.) ; G. Luvs, A Text-
Book on Gonorrhea (^rd ed. 1922) ; L. W. Harrison, The Diagnosis
and Treatment of Venereal Diseases in General Practice (j*rd ed.
JQ26) ; J. E. R. McDonagh, Venereal Diseases, their Clinical Aspect
and Treatment (1920) ; N. P. L. Lumb, Gonococcal Infection in the
Male (1920) ; E. Sergent, TraiU de Pathologie Mtdicale, "Syphilis,"
vol. 19 (1921) ; C. F. Marshall and E. G. Ffrcnch, Syphilis and Venereal
Diseases (1921), which is the 4th ed. of Sy philology and Venereal
Disease (1906); E. R. T. Clarkson, The Venereal Clinic (1022);
A. R. Fraser, A Monograph on Gonorrhea (1923) ; D. Thomson,
of Gonococcal Injection by Diathermy (1925). (L. W. H.; X.)
CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES
The plan which has been developed in the United States for
combating the venereal diseases is the result of many years of
scientific study. As early as 1912, there were organizations dealing
with the venereal diseases and with prostitution; but in 1914, it
,was recognized that any plan for combating venereal diseases must
combine the social and legal with the medical and public health
aspects and a national organization, the American Social Hygiene
Association, which combined in its programme all phases of the
problem of combating venereal diseases was established. The entry
of the United States into the World War made it necessary for all
medical and public health agencies of the country to consider what
special measures could be taken to protect the armed forces of the
United States from disability due to the venereal diseases. Meas-
ures were instituted, therefore, in which the medical services of
the army and navy, the U.S. Public Health Service and other
Federal Government agencies co-operated with the health depart-
ments of the States and cities, and with voluntary agencies such
as the American Social Hygiene Association, in combating venereal
diseases. This plan of control has been continued, with various
modifications, and provides for the prevention and treatment of
venereal diseases through three main groups of measures; viz.,
medical, legal and protective, and educational.
Medical Measures. — It is an essential of the plan of control of
the venereal diseases that facilities which are adequate, easily
available and free when necessary, be provided for diagnosis and
treatment. Responsibility for providing such facilities rests pri-
marily upon the official health authorities of the various States and
cities, and these are aided by national agencies, such as the U.S.
Public Health Service (official), and the American Social Hygiene
Association (voluntary). In addition, many agencies, both public
and private, are engaged in activities aiming through scientific
research and better training of physicians and nurses to improve
diagnostic and therapeutic materials and procedures. Early
diagnosis and thorough treatment of nil infected persons is en-
couraged, and an organized effort is made to discover infected
persons among the families and other associates of patients. In
many States, reporting, or notification, of cases of syphilis or
gonorrhea is required and the law gives the health authorities the
power to isolate persons who are known to be infectious and who
cannot be controlled by any other means. The number of cases
of syphilis notified each year approximates 200,000 and of gonor-
rhea 160,000. Syphilis often stands first in the total number of
cases of infectious diseases notified, outranking even measles;
gonococcal infections stand fourth. Studies as to the prevalence
of syphilis and gonorrhea have been made in certain cities and
States and these seem to show that a larger proportion of patients
suffering from syphilis than of gonococcal infection place them-
selves under medical care. There are now in the United States
approximately 650 clinics and dispensaries, where syphilis and
gonorrhea are treated gratuitously or at nominal cost to the
patients. In these clinics alone more than one million patients
have been treated during the past eight years, and during the past
year nearly 900,000 scrological tests for syphilis were made by
State laboratories, and 800,000 doses of arsenical preparations
were dispensed by State health departments. But various studies
indicate that of the patients under treatment the majority are
under the care of private physicians. Thus, in New York State,
private physicians were treating 61% of the cases of syphilis and
89% of the cases of gonorrhea.
Educational Measures. — Instruction of the general public in
regard to venereal diseases is, like other phases of public health
instruction, a duty of official health agencies, but such agencies as
the American Social Hygiene Association, and its affiliated socie-
ties, co-operate in demonstrating to educational, social and relig-
ious institutions and associations in the United States the means
by which scientific sex instruction can be incorporated in the
VENETI— VENETIA
activities of schools, colleges, churches, parent-teacher associa-
tions, girls' and women's clubs, and numerous other organizations.
In general, it is the aim of educational measures to promote among
the general public a sound knowledge of sex problems and to inte-
grate sex education with all forms of instruction which have for
their object the development of sound moral standards as well as
a knowledge of the elements of personal hygiene. Specifically, in
regard to the venereal diseases, the educational programme aims
to make it impossible that any persons should be infected with
syphilis or gonorrhea through ignorance of the seriousness of these
diseases and the means of their spread, and by making the socially
sound uses of sex more appealing through right understanding of
their enriching personal bearings. The methods and materials used
in this educational work include lectures, motion pictures, exhibits
and printed matter, and particularly the inclusion of the appro-
priate sex teaching in such subjects as physiology, hygiene, biology,
sociology and psychology, in the schools and colleges.
Legal and Protective Measures. — These aim to reduce com-
mercialized prostitution and other forms of promiscuous conduct
by either sex, because such conduct is antisocial and such persons
tend to become carriers and disseminators of venereal diseases.
By providing opportunities for the wholesome use of leisure time,
and through child guidance clinics, vocational adjustment bureaux,
visiting teacher associations, voluntary protective agencies and
women police, protective measures aim to prevent young people
from forming habits and associations which may lead to promis-
cuity and prostitution. Legal measures involve the passage and
enforcement of laws which penalize the recruitment, the exploita-
tion and the traffic in women or girls for prostitution. They aim
also to repress the activities of prostitutes and of their male
customers. In addition to the passage of the necessary laws, legal
measures include: the adequate training of the police, both men
and women.
The responsibility for legal and protective measures rests upon
the law enforcement and correctional officials and institutions of
the cities, counties and States, and the Federal Government. In
addition, numerous voluntary organizations, such as the American
Social Hygiene Association, International Association of Police-
women, The Travellers Aid Society, and various local committees
scattered about the country, aid and support the Government au-
thorities. The duty of supervision and improvement of facilities
for recreation and amusements belong to various official agencies,
but many voluntary organizations, particularly the Playground and
Recreation Association, are engaged in demonstrating that much
can be done for the health and morals of the public, and especially
of young people, by means of supervised playgrounds, community
centers and through the activities of such organizations as the
Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, the Young Men's and Young Women's
Christian Associations, the Knights of Columbus, Young Men's
Hebrew Association, National W.C.T.U. and the National Con-
gress of Parents and Teachers.
The U.S. army and navy have continued plans of control of the
venereal diseases, similar to those of the World War period.
Conclusions as to Results.— It is too early yet to estimate the
results of the public efforts which have been made to reduce and
control the venereal diseases, but there arc certain indications of
what may reasonably be expected in the future. The death rate
from syphilis, locomotor ataxia and general paralysis of the insane
combined has declined 20% between the peak in 1917-25 (from
19-8 per 100,000 to 15-8 per 100,000), despite constantly increas-
ing ability to recognize syphilis in all its manifestations. Figures
from the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company show an even more
marked downward trend in the death rate from syphilis. The
death rate from syphilis of infants under one year of age decreased
about one-third during the same period (from 105 per 100,000
years of life to 71). Both army and navy incidence rates show a
large net decrease over a period of 20 years or more. It is reason-
able to suppose that the combined medical, educational, legal and
protective measures will in the course of one or two decades give
substantial results.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— W. F. Snow, Venereal Diseases— Medical. Nursing
and Community Aspects (1924) ; W. M. Brunei, Notes Regarding
Venereal Diseases in the Industries (1926) ; W. M..Brunet and M. S.
Edwards, A Survey of Venereal Disease Prevalence in Detroit (1927) ;
T. Parran, Jr., the United States Public Health Service, W. C.
Smith and S. D. Collins, Venereal Disease Prevalence in 14 Com-
munities (1928) ; the New York State Department of Health acting in
co-operation with the United States Public Health Service, Pre-
liminary Report of a One-Day Survey of Syphilis and Gonorrhea
Prevalence in Up-state New York (1927) ; W. Healy and A. F. Bron-
ncr, Delinquents and Criminals (1926) ; B. Johnson, Law Enforcement
in Social Hygiene (1924) ; Special Body of Experts on, "Traffic in
Women and Children," Report Pt. i and 2, League of Nations (1927) ;
C. Owings, Women Police (1925) ; G. E. Worthington and R. Topping,
Specialized Courts Dealing with Sex Delinquency (1925) ; T. M. Bal-
liet, Introduction of Sex Education in Public Schools (New York,
1927) ; M. A. Bigelow, The Established Points in Social Hygiene Edu-
cation (1905-24) ; M. A. Bigelow, Adolescence (1924) ; T. W. Gallo-
way, Sex and Social Health (1924) ; T. W. Galloway, Parenthood and
Character Training of Children (1927) ; B. C. Gruenberg, Parents and
Sex Education (1923) ; H. B. Torrey, Biology in the Elementary
Schools and Its Contribution to Sex Education (1927) ; U.S. Public
Health Service, Sex Education: a Symposium for Educators (1927) ;
C.-E. A. Winslow and P. Williamson, Sex Hygiene for Parents and
Teachers (1927). " (W. F. SN.)
VENETI (wen'e-te), name of two ancient European tribes,
(i) A Celtic people in the north-west of Gallia Celtica. They
were the most powerful maritime people on the Atlantic and
carried on a considerable trade with Britain. Their name still re-
mains in the town of Vannes. In the winter of 57 B.C., with some
of their neighbours, they took up arms against the Romans, and
in 56 were decisively defeated in a naval engagement. (Caesar,
B.C., iii.)
(2) The inhabitants of a district in the north of Italy called"
'E^rot by the Greeks. It was at first included in Cisalpine Gaul,
but under Augustus was the tenth region of Italy (Venetia and
Histria) bounded on the west by the Athesis (Adige), or, ac-
cording to others, by the Addua (Adda) ; on the north by the
Carnic Alps; on the east by the Timavus (Timavo) or the
Formio (Risano); on the south by the Adriatic Gulf. The Vcneti
were a peaceful people, chiefly engaged in commercial pursuits.
They carried on a trade in amber, which reached them overland
from the shores of the Baltic. They were famous for their skill in
the training and breeding of horses. Homer (//. ii. 85) speaks
of the Paphlagonian Henetoi as breeders of "wild mules."
The first historical mention of the Veneti occurs in connection
with the capture of Rome by the Gauls, whose retreat is said to
have been caused by an irruption of the Veneti into their terri-
tory (Polybius ii. 18). At the request of the Romans they ren-
dered them assistance in their wars against the Gauls north and
south of the Po, and remained their loyal allies. Some time
during the Second Punic War they passed under Roman rule.
At first, they possessed complete autonomy in internal adminis-
tration; in 89 B.C. Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo bestowed upon them
the ins Latinum; they probably obtained the full franchise from
Caesar at the same time as the Transpadane Gauls (49). Under
the Empire Venetia and Istria were included in the tenth region
of Italy, with capital Aquileia. Down to the time of the An-
tonines the country enjoyed great prosperity, which was inter-
rupted by the invasion of the Quadi and Marcomanni and a
destructive plague. It was devastated at intervals by the bar-
barians— by the Alamanni in A.D. 286; by the Goths under Alaric;
and by the Huns under Attila (452). Under Theodoric the Great
the land had rest, and in A.D. 568 was occupied by the Lombards.
The most important river of Venetia was the Athesis (Adige);
its chief towns were Patavium (see PADUA) and Aquileia (q.v.).
We have nearly 100 inscriptions which record the language
spoken by the tribe in pre-Roman days. The full Venetic alpha-
bet is preserved for us on several interesting dedicatory objects
found at Este, which were offered to the goddess of the place
called Rehtia, a name obviously equivalent to Latin Rcctia, some
of whose prerogatives, to judge from the long nails which were
offered to her, would seem to have been those of the goddess
whom Horace calls Necessitas (Odes, i. 35, 17).
VENETIA (Venezia), formerly a territorial division of Italy,
lying between the Alps and the Adriatic, and stretching from the
frontier of Carinthia and Istria (Austria) in the north-east to
the lower Po and Lombardy in the south-west. The World War
VENETIA
47
led to the addition to Italy of a considerable territory which,
though geographically Italian, had been Austrian since the fall
of Napoleon; and Venetia has now been divided into three
regions, which will be dealt with separately.
(i) VENETIA PROPER corresponds to the older division, with
certain additions amounting to 465 sq.m. in the north, comprises
the provinces of Belluno, Padua, Rovigno, Treviso, Udine, Venice,
Verona and Vicenza, and has an area of 9,941 sq. miles. Pop.
(1881), 2,814,173; (1901) 3,192,897; (1921) 3,999,027. Marble
is quarried, especially near Verona. The chief industries are the
manufacture of woollens, especially in the province of Vicenza,
textiles, cottons, silks, glass, laces, tobacco, straw-plait,
paper, beet sugar and hemp, the breeding of silkworms, iron-
founding and working, timber-cutting and shipbuilding. At Mira
is a large candle factory. Irrigation is widely spread, and large
pumping stations have made extensive schemes of land reclama-
tion possible. A large hydroelectric plant utilizes the upper waters
of the Piave, and there are other plants on other rivers. The
cotton plants were wrecked by the war, but now employ about
17,000. The extensive cattle breeding industry also suffered.
The territory differs much in character; the Po and other
smaller rivers, notably the torrential Tagliamento, which fall
into the Adriatic, terminate in a huge and continually advancing
delta which extends right along the coast, and is liable to inunda-
tion. The shore lagoons are, however, rendered healthy by the
ebb and flow of the tide, which is much more considerable than
elsewhere in the Mediterranean. To the north of the Po, at the
foot of the mountains, is a fertile territory, while the mountains
themselves are not productive. A portion of the Dolomites (q.v.),
notably the Val d'Ampezzo, with the tourist centre of Cortina
d'Ampezzo, falls into the province of Belluno. To the east come
the Carnic and Julian Alps, with extensive and fertile foothills,
while the isolated Eugancan hills near Padua are of volcanic
origin. The density of population varies very considerably, that
of the province of Padua being very high; while in 1911 only
53% lived in the towns, no less than 47% were spread over
the countryside. There is a main railway line from Milan to
Mestre (the junction for Venice) and thence to Trieste by a
line near the coast, or by Treviso, Udine and Tarvisio into Aus-
tria. Another route into Austria, the Brenner, leaves the Milan-
Venice line at Verona, which is connected with Bologna (and
so with central and southern Italy) by a railway through Nogara,
while another line runs from Verona via Mantua to Moclena. A
main line runs from Bologna to Ferrara, Rovigno and Padua, join-
ing the Milan- Venice line at the last-named place.
The first inhabitants of the region found shelter in the caves of
the Carso (q.v ), in which, as well as on various sites in the
Trentino, Neolithic remains have been found ; while in the Bronze
age positions of natural strength were preferred, commanded by
the so-called castellieri — stone enceintes which, to some extent,
recall the early citadels of Italy and the nuraghi of Sardinia —
many of which were occupied by Roman forts or mediaeval castles.
Under the Roman republic the district was inhabited by a va-
riety of tribes — Celts, Veneti, Racti, etc. Under Augustus, Venetia
and Histria formed the tenth region of Augustus, the latter in-
cluding the Istrian peninsula as far as the river Arsia, i.e., with
the exclusion of the strip along the east coast (Liburnia). It was
thus far the largest of the regions of Italy, but possessed com-
paratively few towns; though such as there were, with their large
territories, acquired considerable power and influence. The easi-
ness of the Brenner pass and the abundance of communication
with the sea led to the rise of such towns as Verona, Padua and
Aquileia, and Milan only became more important than any of
these when the German attacks on Italy were felt farther west.
When the Roman empire fell the towns were, many of them,
destroyed by Attila. For the gradual growth of Venetian su-
premacy over the whole territory, and for its subsequent history,
see VENICE, and for the eastern portion see FRIULI. Among the
architectural features may be specially noticed the beautiful
country houses of the Venetian nobility. (See G. K. Loukomski,
Palladia et les villas des Doges de Venise.)
The following are the principal agricultural products for 1927:
Acres
Tons
Wheat . .
744,5°°
467,100
Oats .
38,250
25,290
Rice ...
9,900
13,040
Maixc ...
781,250
555,3°°
Beans ...
439,5°°
Sugar beet .
777,040
Hemp ...
14,000
5,55°
Garden produce
i5,*5°
75,54°
Potatoes
5^250
258,000
Silk (cocoons) .
15,122
Tobacco .
12,975
5.914
Hay ...
3,044,600
f
367,200 Grapes
Vines
1,555,°°°
46,508,000 Wine
Chestnuts ....
I
7,800
(2) VENETIA TRIDENTINA, consisting of the provinces of Bol-
zano and Trento, area 5,435 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 641,747. The
greater part is mountainous. To the north-west arc the Ortler
(q.v.)t and the Stelvio pass, traversed by an important road from
Bormio to the Val Venosta, the upper valley of the Adige, at the
head of which is the Resia (Reschen) pass, leading into the lower
Engadine. (See SWITZERLAND.) The Wildspitz group of moun-
tains separates this pass from the Brenner (q.v.), to the east of
which the present frontier reaches the Vetta d'ltalia and the
Pizzo dei Tre Signori, and then turns sharply southwards, only
beginning to run eastwards after crossing the railway from
Dobbiaco to Lienz. Between it and the Brenner are the Dolo-
mites (q.v.). There are important marble quarries, as yet im-
perfectly developed, and lead and zinc mines, notably that of
Monteneve. A large amount of electric power is derived from
hydroelectric plants on the Noce and the Adige.
About one-half of the total area is under forest, while three-
fifths of the remainder is under cultivation, much use being made
of irrigation for pastures, and also for maize. Vegetables and
fruit are grown in the sheltered districts of Merano and Bolzano.
The production of silkworms is less important than about the
middle of the igth century, and the spinncries have also de-
creased. The only main railway line is the Brenner, which at
Trento has a branch for Bassano, at Bolzano for Merano and
Malles, at Pontc all' Isarco for Selva, and at Fortezza (formerly
Franzensfeste) for Dobbiaco and S. Candido (the Italian frontier
point) and thence to Lienz and Villach.
The following are the principal agricultural products for 1927:
Acres
Tons
Rye
34o°°
17,900
Barley ....
17,250
8,140
Oats
15,750
7,060
Garden pnxluce
6,550
38,820
Potatoes ....
26,500
137,800
Hay
852,600
Vines
84,75° {
63,000 G rapes
9,856,000 Wine (gal.)
Fruit (various) .
48,605
(3) VENETIA JULIA (VENEZIA GIULIA), a territorial division
of northern Italy, consisting of the provinces of Gorizia, Pola
and Trieste (to which the detached provinces of Fiume and Zara
are also aggregated). Pop. (1921) 930,108; area 3,389 sq. miles.
The coast line to the east of the Tagliamento is fringed, by
alluvial deposits and lagoons, mostly of very modem formation,
for as late as the 5th century Aquileia was a great seaport. The
harbour of Grado is unimportant, but to the east is the ship-
building yard of Monfalcone, and beybnd that the great port of
Trieste; while the Istrian peninsula has several small harbours:
Capodistria, Parenzo and Rovigno, besides Pola, formerly the
chief naval port of Austria. Fiume, at the head of the gulf of
that name, is another fine harbour. The province of Gorizia, ex-
cept towards the south-west, where it unites with the lowlands of
Friuli (q.v.), is surrounded by mountains, and most of its area
is occupied by mountains and hills. From the Julian Alps, which
traverse the province in the north, the country descends in sue-
VENETIC LANGUAGE
cessive terraces towards the sea. The principal peaks in the
Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8,469 ft.), the Monte Nero
(7,367 ft.), the Matajur (5,386 ft.), and the highest peak in the
whole range, the Tricorno or Triglav (9,394 ft.). The southern
part of the province and that of Trieste belong to the Carso
(q.v.), in which the caves of Poslumia and San Canziano are
situated. The principal river of the district is the Isonzo, which
rises in the Tricorno, and pursues a strange zigzag course for a
Jistance of 78 m. before it reaches the Adriatic. It is navigable
>nly in its lowest section, where it takes the name of the
sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, the Vipacco and the
Torre, with its tributary the Judrio. Of special interest is the
Fimavus or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very
ihort course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. To the east is the
lesolate limestone plateau of the Carso (q.v.). For the province
>f Pola, see ISTRIA.
Agriculture, and especially viticulture, is the principal occupa-
:ion of the population, and the vine is here planted not only in
•egular vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through the
>rdinary fields and carried up the hills in terraces locally called
•one hi. The rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the lowlands,
instituted another great source gf revenue, but the quantity
•aised in 1927 was very small.
Gorizia (Gorz) first appears distinctly in history about the
:lose of the loth century, as part of a district bestowed by the
jmperor Otto III. on John, patriarch of Aquilcia. In the nth
:entury it became the seat of the Eppenstein family, who fre-
quently bore the title of counts of Gorizia; and in the beginning
)f the 1 2th century the countship passed from them to the
Lurngau family, which continued to exist till the year 1500, and
icquired possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria. On the
leath of Count Leonhard (April 12, 1500) the fief reverted to
.he house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united
vith it in 1754. The province was occupied by the French in
[809, but reverted again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district
)f the administrative province of Trieste until 1861, when it
Decame a separate crownland. In 1918 it passed to Italy.
The following are the principal agricultural products for
[927:—
Acres
Tons
Barley ...
Garden produce.
Potatoes ....
Silk (cocoons) .
Hay
16,250
10,325
37,5°°
7,850
25,200
5°i5<*>
98
313,200
Fruit, various .
Vines
79,000 |
'5i565
61,000 Grapes
8,228,000 Wine (gals.)
The railway system is well developed, mainly centring on
Trieste and Gorizia. Besides the line from Trieste by Monfalcone
:o Trcviso, which is the main line of communication with the
rest of Italy, there is a line from Monfalcone to Gorizia and
ihence up the Isonzo valley to the frontier at Piedicolle (thence
to Villach and Klagenfurt), and a line direct from Trieste to
Gorizia. Trieste also has lines to Postumia, the frontier station,
and thence to Lubiana (with branches to Pola and Fiume, both
running through the interior of Istria) and along the coast to
Capodistria, Pirano and Parenzo. Shipbuilding is carried on at
Trieste, Pqla and Monfalcone: Trieste (q.v.) is also a great port
ind centre of industry, with many factories, notably oil mills and
refineries, jute factories, rice mills, etc., while at Monfalcone
soda and other chemicals arc made; at Cervignano, starch, at
Capodistria, Pirano and Rovigno, preserved foods; tobacco at
Rovigno, liqueurs at Rovigno and Parenzo; at Pirano and Capo-
distria there are large salt works. Friuli produced, in 1926, 2,367
tons of lead and 36,248 of zinc. The district of Trieste produced
186,980 tons of coal of an inferior quality. Istria produced 85,000
tons of bauxite, which were treated at Mestre for the extraction
of aluminium. The mercury mines of Idria produced 600 tons
of cinnabar (x,ooo workmen) in 1924. The fishing industry of
Istria is important, and much of the canning is done at Trieste.
See A. Tamaro, La Vtnltie Julienne et la Dalmatic (3 vols., 1919).
(T. A.)
VENETIC LANGUAGE. We have nearly 100 inscriptions
which record the language spoken by the Veneti (q.v.) in pre-
Roman days. Others have also come to light at Verona and
Padua, and at different points along the great north and south
route of the Brenner Pass, especially at Bolzano; and there are
a few more scanty and scattered monuments in the Carinthian
Alps now preserved chiefly in the museums at Klagenfurt and
Vienna. The alphabet of the inscriptions, in all its varieties, is
probably either derived from or at least influenced by some form
of the Etruscan alphabet, since it not merely coincides with that
alphabet in several characteristic signs, such as the use of the
compound symbol vh (^~|) with the value of /, but lacks the
symbols for the mediae BDG. These, or the sounds which had
descended from them in Venetic, were represented by using sym-
bols which in the Western Greek alphabets denoted kindred
sounds; %z where we should expect d (zoto, "he gave"), <t><£
where we should expect b (frohuos, "Boius"),^ (i.e., x) where
we should expect g (-c-xo, "ego"). But though we find the sym-
bols in positions where they correspond to the mediae in kindred
languages, it is uncertain what was the precise variety of sound
which they denoted. Thus, for example, Venetic -€-xo is certainly
equivalent to the Latin ego, but we cannot be certain that the
sound of the two words was precisely the same. The symbol for
0 is not used to denote d (since that is represented by z).
In the inscriptions of Padua and Verona the sign is O and
seems there to denote some variety of sound closely akin to J,s
the word which at Padua and Verona is written • fkupeBari'S*,
probably meaning "charioteer," appears as ecupetaris in Latin
alphabet in an inscription published by Elia Lattes ("Iscrizioni
Incdite Venete cd Etrusche," Rcndiconti del R. ist Lomb. di
Sc. e Lett., Serie II. vol. xxxiv., 1901). The full Venetic alpha-
bet at its best period is preserved for us on several dedicatory
objects found at Este, which were offered to the goddess of
the place called Re/ilia, a name obviously equivalent to Latin
Rectia. The offerings in question are thin bronze plates of
whose surface the greater part is covered by alphabetic signs,
with an inscription stating that the worshipper makes an offering
of the plate to the Goddess. These plates provide enough ma-
terial to place the alphabet of Este beyond all doubt. It is
written from right to left, and the alternate lines curl round so
that the letters proceed in the opposite direction and stand with
their feet turned towards those in the preceding line. This char-
acteristic, technically known as "serpentine boustrophedon," with
the sign for /*(|||), points to some connection with the alphabets
of the East Italic ("Sabellic") inscriptions (see SABELLIC).
The alphabet shows some marked differences from the western
Greek alphabet used in Elis. The language belongs to the Indo-
European group, but the forms with which the inscriptions of
Este supply us are somewhat limited in number. The typical be-
ginning for a dedication is mexo . . . zona- s- to sahnateh rehti-
iahy i.e., "me dedit Rectiae Sanatrici," "so and so gave me to the
Healing Goddess Rectia"; and sometimes the form of the verb
is simply z-o-to. The correspondence of these two forms with
the Greek middle aorist of the verb (£-6oro), and with the Latin
donare is obvious. One inscription of special linguistic interest
is the artist's inscription of a vase of the 6th century B.C. found
at Padua —
voBo kluBeari'S' vhax'S'to,
where the first name appears to be identical with the Latin Ortho
and also seems to explain its aspirate, and the last word of
the inscription appears to be the Venetic equivalent of the
Latin fecit, but to be in the middle voice without any argument.
If this interpretation be correct — and the use of lirolijat by Greek
artists commends it strongly — the form illustrates the character
of the language as intermediate between Greek and Latin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— %S*£ Carl Pauli (Altital. Studien vol. 3, "Die
Veneter," Leipzig, 1891) ; T. Mommsen, Die Inschriften Norditalischen
Alphabets (Zurich, 1853) ; and Notizie degli Scavi by Ghirardini in
the volumes for 1880 and 1888, and by Prosdocimi in that for 1890;
the Preliminary Report presented to the British Academy published
VENETTE— VENEZUELA
49
in the Athenaeum, Aug. 8, 1908; A. Meillet and M. Cohen, Les Langues
du Monde (1924).
VENETTE. JEAN DE (c. 1307-*. 1370), French chron-
icler, born at Venette, near Compiegne, became prior of the
Carmelite convent in the Place Maubert, Paris, in 1339, and
was provincial of France from 1341 to 1366. In 1368 he was
still living, but probably died within a year or two of that date.
His Latin Chronicle, covering the years 1340 to 1368, was pub-
lished by Achery (Spicilegium, vol. iii.) Jean de Venette was
a child of the people, and his sympathies were entirely with the
peasants. His point of view is thus directly opposed to that of
Froissart. Jean de Venette also wrote a long French poem,
La Vie des trois Maries, about 1347.
See Lacurne de Sainte-Palayc in Memoires de I' Academic, vols. viii.
and xiii.; G£raud and D^prez in Melanges de Vecole de Rome (1899),
vol. xix.; and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France (1904),
tome iv.
VENEZUELA, a republic of South America, on the coast
of the Caribbean, lying between Brazil and British Guiana on
the east and south, and Colombia on the west. The name means
"little Venice," and is a modification of the name of Venecia
(Venice), originally bestowed by Alonzo de Ojeda in 1499 on
an Indian village, composed of pile dwellings on the shores of
the Gulf of Maracaibo, which was called by him the Gulf of
Venecia. Its area is 398,594 square miles. Pop. (1926) 3,026,878.
The population of Caracas, the capital, in 1920 was 92,212; in
1926 it was 135,253. That of Maracaibo, the next largest city, in
1920 was 46,706, and in 1926 it was 60,000 (estimated by some to
be as high as 100,000, due to the influx of many oil workers).
That of Valencia was 29,466 in 1920, and 45,523 in 1926.
Topography. — The surface of Venezuela is broken into three
irregular divisions by its mountain systems: (i) the mountainous
area of the north-west and north; (2) the Orinoco basin with
the llanos on its northern border and great forested areas in the
south and south-west; and (3) the Guiana highlands. A branch of
the eastern chain of the Andes enters Venezuela in the west
about 7° N. lat., and under the name of the Sierra Nevada de
Me*rida proceeds north-eastwards towards Trieste Gulf. This
branch is of parallel chains enclosing elevated valleys, in one of
which lies the town of Merida (5,410 ft.), overlooked by the
highest summit of the chain (Picacho de la Sierra, 15,420 ft.).
The sierra contains the water-parting between the basin of the
Orinoco and those of the small rivers on the north-west. Hence
it may be considered to terminate where the Rio. Cojedes, which
drains the elevated valley in which Barquisimeto stands, after
rising on its western slopes, flows eastwards into the basin of the
Orinoco. Beyond the Cojedes begin two parallel ranges, the Mari-
time Andes of Venezuela, which stretch east and west along the
coast. The valley between these two ranges is the most densely
peopled part of Venezuela. Behind the bay between Cape Codera
and Cumana there is an interruption in the Maritime Andes, the
llanos fronting on the coast for over 100 m.; but both ranges
reappear between Cumana and the Gulf of Paria. West of the
Maritime Andes low ranges (3,500-5,000 ft.) trend northwards
from the end of the Sierra de Merida towards the coast on the
east side of the lake of Maracaibo, while the region on the west
of that lake consists of lagoon-studded lowlands. East and south
of the Sierra de Merida and the Maritime Andes the region con-
sists of two portions — a vast mountainous area, densely wooded,
in the south-east and south, and level plains in the north-west
between the Orinoco and the Apure and the mountains. The
latter is known as the llanos of the Orinoco, a vast grass-covered
plain with scattered islands of wood. Along the Brazilian fron-
tier and about the sources of the Orinoco tributaries on the east-
ern slopes of the Andes there are extensive forests, sometimes
broken with grassy campos. The general elevation of the llanos
varies from about 375 to 400 ft., rising to 600-800 ft. around its
immediate margins. So uniform is the level over a great part that
in the rainy season hundreds of square miles are submerged,
and the country is covered with connecting channels. North of
the middle Orinoco, however, a series of low gravel capped mesas
break the monotony and form the divide between the water of
the Orinoco and the streams that flow northward into the Carib-
bean. The lower basin of the Orinoco is contracted between the
Guiana highlands and the northern uplands, and its tributaries
come in more nearly at right angles, showing that the margins of
the actual valley are nearer and higher. About 62° 30' W. long,
the river reaches what may be thought sea-level; from this point
numerous channels cross the silted-up delta-plain to the sea. This
region, together with that of the Guiana frontier, is heavily
forested. In the extreme south (territory of Amazonas) and
south-east the surface again rises into mountain ranges, which
include the Parima and Pacaraima sierras on and adjacent to the
Brazilian frontier, with short spurs reaching northward toward
the Orinoco, such as the Mapichi, Maraguaca, Maigualida, Matos,
Rincote and Usupamo. This region belongs to the drainage basin
of the Orinoco, and rivers of large volume flow between these
spurs. Some of the culminating points in these ranges are the
Cerros Yaparana (7,175 ft.) and Duida (8,120 ft.) in the Parima
sierras near the upper Orinoco, the Sierra de Maraguaca (8,228
ft.), and the flat-topped Mt. Roraima (8,530 ft.) in the Pacara-
ima sierras on the boundary line with Brazil and British Guiana.
Near the Orinoco the general elevation drops to about 1,500 feet.
This region is densely forested, and is inhabited only by Indians.
Probably not less than four-fifths of the territory of Venezuela
belong to the drainage basin of the Orinoco (q.v.). The Orinoco
is supposed to have 436 tributaries, of which, among the largest,
the Caroni-Paragua, Aro, Caura, Cuchivero, Suapure, Sipapo and
Ventuari have their sources in the Guiana highlands; the Suata,
Manapere and Guaritico in the northern sierras; and the Apure,
Uricana, Arauca, Capanaparo, Meta, Vichada and Guaviare (the
last three being Colombian rivers) in the llanos and Andes. The
Apure receives two large tributaries from the northern sierras —
the Guarico and Portuguesa. Apart from these, the rivers of
Venezuela are small and, except those of the Maracaibo basin,
are rarely navigable. The larger are the Guanipa and Guarapiche,
which flow eastwards to the Gulf of Paria; the Aragua, Unare
and Tuy, which flow to the Caribbean coast east of Caracas; the
Yaracui, Aroa and Tocuyo to the same coast west of Caracas; and
the Motatan, Chama, Escalante, Catatumbo, Apoan and Palmar,
which discharge into Lake Maracaibo. The hydrography of the
region last mentioned, where the lowlands are flat and the rain-
fall heavy, is extremely complicated owing to the great number
of small rivers and of lakes on or near the lower river courses.
The deep lower courses of these streams and the lakes were
once part of the great lake itself, which is being slowly filled by
silt. The lakes of Venezuela are said to number 204. The largest
are the Maracaibo (q.v.)\ the Zulia, with an area of 290 sq.m., a
short distance south of Maracaibo among a large number of
lakes, lagoons and swamps; Valencia, near the city of that name,
in the Maritime Andes, about 1,350 ft. above sea-level, with an
area of 216 sq.m.; Laguneta, in the State of Zulia; and Tacarigua,
a coastal lagoon in the State of Miranda.
The coast outline of Venezuela is indented. The larger inden-
tations are the Gulf of Maracaibo, or Venezuela, which extends
inland through the Lake of Maracaibo, with which it is con-
nected by a comparatively narrow and shallow channel, and is
formed by the peninsulas of Goajira and Paraguana; the Gulf
of Paria, between the peninsula of that name and the island of
Trinidad; the Gulf of Coro, opening into the Gulf of Mara-
caibo; the Gulf of Cariaco, between the peninsula of Araya and
the mainland; the Golfo Triste, on the east coast of the State of
Lara; and the small Gulf of Santa F6, on the northern coast of
the State of Sucre. Besides these there are small sheltered an-
chorages formed by islands and reefs like that of Puerto Cabello,
and estuaries and open roadsteads, like those of La Guaira and
Carupano, which serve important ports. There are 71 islands, with
an aggregate area of 14,633 sq.m., according to official calcula-
tions. The largest of these is the island of Margarita, north of the
peninsula of Araya near which is the island of Tortuga and
several groups of islets, generally uninhabited. (A. J. L.)
Geology. — Venezuela may be divided into three principal
physiographic regions: (i) The Venezuela or Guiana highlands
which lie south of the Orinoco and consist of a great mass of
Archaean granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks and over-
VENEZUELA
[FAUNA
lying beds of sandstone and shale; (2) the llanos, almost tree-
less plains between the Orinoco and the Andes, which are in large
part covered with Tertiary and Quaternary deposits of gravel,
sand and clay loam; (3) the mountain ranges — the Cordillera
of Mcrida and the Coast or Caribbean range — which consist of
cores of granite and schist flanked by sedimentary beds folded
in anticlinal structure. Minor physiographic units are the delta re-
GNARLED CACTI ON THE GREAT PLAINS SURROUNDING BARQUISIMETO
gion on the cast coast, at the mouths of the Orinoco and other
rivers; and the basin of Lake Maracaibo, a large structural
depression. The oldest rocks in northern South America form
the basement complex of the Guiana highlands. In Venezuela
these rocks consist chiefly of the granites and gneisses of the
southern massif and the crystalline schists which form the axis of
the Cordillera and the Caribbean chain. Upon this basement
lie beds of sandstone and shale, most of them of early Cre-
taceous age and locally much altered, which at some places are
overlain by Pleistocene or Recent deposits and into which are
intruded dikes and masses of basalt and other igneous rocks.
The range of the Andes that enters Venezuela from Colombia
continues to the N.E. with gradually diminishing elevation and
merges into the Coast range. In Venezuela these mountains reach
their greatest heights in the snow-capped peaks of La Columna
(16,410 ft.), Monte Humboldt (16,212 ft.) and La Concha (16,-
146 ft). The granitic core of the Venezuelan Andes is cut by
many intrusive bodies of pegmatite, basalt and quartz, and the
sedimentary beds of the range, most of which are of Cretaceous
and Tertiary age, are intricately folded. Cretaceous rocks crop
out in places along each side of the Andes in Venezuela and along
the south side of the Coast range.
Around Lake Maracaibo, which lies in a basin that is to some
extent outlined by faults, there is a surface deposit of Quaternary
alluvium, which is underlain by folded Tertiary beds. Petroleum
seeps from springs around the lake and is obtained in large
quantity from wells sunk to Cretaceous and Tertiary beds. Re-
cent terrestrial deposits consisting of unconsolidated sand, gravel,
clay and alluvium cover a large part of the lower regions in
Venezuela. In the delta region at the mouths of the Orinoco these
deposits are thick and are accumulating rapidly. Gold has been
mined in the eastern part of the Guiana highlands near Callao.
Most of it occurs in quartz veins near basaltic intrusive rock.
Iron" ore is mined in the Sierra Imataca south of the Orinoco,
Copper is mined near Aroa and San Felipe, in the State of
Yaracuy. Coal is found in Tertiary beds in the region north of
the Orinoco, but it can be mined profitably at only a few places.
The output of petroleum is shown in the following table:
Barrels
Barrels
1917 . .
119,692
1923 • . 4,003,662
1918 .
317,467
1924 .
. 9,041,999
1919 .
424,735
1925 •
. 19,687,406
1920 .
457»oio
1926 .
. 37,226,019
1921 .
• • 1,433,656
1927
63,391,764
1922 .
2,201,114
1928 (est.)
.100,000,000
Venezuela
ranked third (see p.
52) among the petroleum pro-
ducing countries of the world in 1927 and second in 1928 (see
p. 52). (G. McL. Wo.)
Climate. — The climate of Venezuela is everywhere tropical
except where modified by altitude. In the Maritime Andes at
and above the altitude of Caracas it is semi-tropical, and in the
still higher regions of western Venezuela it approaches the mild
temperate. On the coast and the northern slopes of the Mari-
time Andes the tropical heat is greatly modified by tire trade-
winds. At La Guaira the mean temperature for the year is 81°
F, at Caracas (3,025 ft.) it is 70°, at Cumani it is 83°, at
Valencia 76°, Coro 82°, Barquisimeto 78°, Yaritagua 80-6°,
Merida 61°, Trujillo 72° and Maracaibo 81°. South of the sierras,
the climate is much drier and hotter. The low night temperatures
in these regions lower the mean annual temperatures. At Cala-
bozo, for instance, the mean is about 88°, though the maximum
in summer is not far from ioo°.t The lowest temperatures re-
corded are those of Mucuchies, in the Sta!e of Merida, where the
maximum is 68°, the minimum 43° and the mean 56°. The year
is divided into two seasons, the dry and wet, the latter occurring
from April to October, when the temperature is also the highest.
On the llanos the dry season destroys the pasturage, dries up
streams and compels animals of semi-aquatic habits to aestivate.
At Caracas the annual rainfall ranged from 602 to 863 mm. be-
tween 1894 and 1902. In general the climate of Venezuela is
healthful. The sanitary condition is generally bad, and many
forms of disease prevail that are not due to the climate.
Fauna. — The fauna and flora of Venezuela are similar to those
of the neighbouring regions of Guiana, Brazil and Colombia, the
open llanos of the Orinoco being something of a neutral district
between the great forested regions on the east, south and west.
Among the animals indigenous to the country are seven species
of the cat family, including the puma, the jaguar and the ocelot;
the wild dog (Canis azarae); representatives of the marten fam-
ily, including two species of Galictis, two of the otter (Lutra
brasiliensis and L. pteronura) and one of the skunk; two species
of bear (Ursus ornatus and U. nasutus) ; and the "kinkajou."
There are six species of monkey corresponding to those of Guiana
and the Amazon valley, the sloth and ant-eater, 12 known genera
of rodents, including many species of Mures, the cavy, the capy-
bara, the paca, the nutria, the agouti, the tree porcupine, Lon-
cheres cristata, Echimys cayen and the Brazilian hare. Among
the pachyderms the tapir is found in the forests of the Orinoco.
There are two species of the peccary, Dicotyles torquatus and
D. labiatus. There are also two species of deer, Cervus rufus
and C. simplicornis. There are three species of opossum. On the
coast and in the Orinoco there may be found the manatee and the
dolphin. The Reptilia include 1 1 species of the crocodile, alligator
and lizard, including the savage
jacar£ of the Amazon, several
species of the turtle, four spe-
cies of batrachians, and 29 species
of serpents, including the striped
rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus),
Lachesis mutus, and a rather rare
species of Cophias. Among the
non-venomous species, the com-
monest are the boa-constrictor,
the anaconda (Eunectesmuriniis)
and the Coluber variabilis. Bird
life is represented chiefly by mi-
TAPPING A RUBBER TREE IN VENE. gratory species, particularly of
ZUELA genera that inhabit the shores of
streams and lagoons. In the garzeros of Venezuela are to be found
nearly every kind of heron, crane, stork and ibis, together with
an incredible number of Grallatores. Ducks are also numerous,
including a small bird called the guiriri, in imitation of its cry.
Birds of prey are numerous. One species, the guacharo (Steator-
nis caripensis), or oil-bird, is commonly said to occur only in
Venezuela, though it is found in Colombia and Ecuador also,
They live in caves, especially in Caripe, and are caught for the
oil extracted from them. The bell-bird (Chasmorhynchus carun-
culatus) is common in the forests of the Orinoco. In the 14 orders
VENEZUELA
PLATE I
SCENES IN THE TOWNS AND COUNTRY OF NORTHERN VENEZUELA
1. A wayside inn of Barquisimcto, in Andean state of Lara, market for
cattle and agricultural produce
2. Typical landscape in uplands of Andean state of Tachira. Although the
southern part of Tachira is well-populated and thriving the north is
unexplored territory
3. Street scene in city of Merida, situated among the snow-capped Andes
4. A village of tho Goajira Indians built near the shore of Lake Maracaibo.
The houses are built on piles in shallow water
5. House of Goajira Indian. These people, aborigines of Venezuela, have
preserved their habits and customs and live as an independent nation
6. House of a Qoajira Indian, showing the sides and roof made of curtains
of palm leaves, braced with palm planks
7. Entrance to library of University of Caracal, capital of Venezuela.
The university was founded by Philip V. of Spain in 1721
8. Main street of the port of Maracaibo, on the lake of the sarrYe* Tiame.
showing the spire of the Church of the Immaculate Conception in
background
9. Old Spanish street in Caracas, which was founded by Spaniards in the
early sixteenth century
10. Street in Ciudad Bolivar, on right bank of Orinoco, port of entry for
eastern gold mining region, and connected with outside world
through Port of Spain, Trinidad
11. A hotel of the Llanos (plains) of the Orinoco; vast areas of unexplored
grass plains, interrupted occasionally by rivers with groups of palms
and small trees
12. The University of Caracas, founded in the 18th century. This is the
centre of higher education for the republic
XXIII 50
PLATE TI
VENEZUELA
'm
INDUSTRIAL
1. VAqbftros rounding up a herd of cattle. The broad, grassy plains furnish
excellent grazing for stock
2. Primitive method of ploughing in Venezuela. This farm is high up in the
Andes mountains
3 An Andino taking his produce to market
4. Unloading freight at Maracalbo. A large part of the goods consumed
in eastern Colombia goes through this port
5. A coconut harvest awaiting shipment
6. Waterfront at Maracalbo showing shipping activity
7. A milkman of Caracas, capital of Venezuela, delivering milk
GENES IN VENEZUELA
8.
Water carriers of the Llanos. The scarcity of water has made its sale
an established trade
9. Burro train in Merida. In this mountainous region much of the freight
is carried on burros
10. A street vendor selling shoes in the old quarters of Caracas
'J.1. Market for the sale of fruit and flowers In San Jaclnto. The house of
Simon Bolivar, the liberator of South America, may be seen in the
background
12. Water carriers near Barquisimcto carrying bladders of water strapped
to the sides of their burros to «ell on the arid plains south of the city
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE]
VENEZUELA
51
of insects there are no fewer than 98 families. There are eight
families of Coleoptera, six of Orthoptera, 23 of Hymenoptera,
14 of Lepidoptera and seven of Diptera. Locusts are numerous
in the interior. Molluscs, including the pearl oyster, are common
on the coasts and in the fresh-water streams and lakes.
Flora,— The flora covers a wide range because of the vertical
climatic zones. The coastal zone and lower slopes of all the moun-
tains, including the lower Orinoco region and the Maracaibo basin,
are clothed with a typical tropical vegetation. There is no seasonal
interruption in vegetation. The tropical vegetation extends to an
altitude of about 1,300 ft., above which it may be classed as semi-
tropical up to about 3,500 ft., and temperate up to 7,200 ft., above
which the vegetation is Alpine. Palms grow everywhere; among
them the coco-nut palm (Cocos nucifera) is the most prominent.
There are some exotics in this zone, like the mango, which thrive
so well that they are thought to be indigenous. The cacao is
at its best in the humid forests and is cultivated in the rich alluvial
valleys, and the banana thrives everywhere, as well as the exotic
orange and lemon. On the mountain slopes orchids grow in pro-
fusion. Sugar-cane is cultivated in the alluvial valleys and coffee
on their slopes up to a height of about 7,000 feet. Among the
many tropical fruits to be found in this region are guavas, man-
goes, cashews, bread-fruit, aguacates, papayas, zapotes and
granadillas. In the next zone are grown many cereals (includ-
ing rice), beans, tobacco, sugar-cane, peaches, apricots, quinces
and strawberries. The llanos have some distinguishing character-
istics. They are extensive grassy plains, the lowest being the bed
of an ancient inland lake about which is a broad terrace (mesa),
the talus perhaps of the ancient encircling highlands. The lower
level has extensive lagoons and swampy areas and suffers less from
the long periodical drought. Its wild grasses are luxuriant and
a shrubby growth is found along its streams. The decline in stock-
breeding has resulted in a considerable growth of trees and chapar-
ral over the greater part of the plain.
One of the most remarkable palms is the "moriche" (Mauritia
flexuosa). The fruit is edible and its juice is made into beer; the
sap of the tree is made into wine, and its pith into bread; the
leaves furnish an excellent thatch, and the fibre extracted from
their midribs is used for fish lines, cordage, hammocks, nets, etc.,
and the wood is hard and makes good building material. The fruit
of the Gidlielma is also widely used for food among the natives.
Among other forest trees of economic importance are the silk-
cotton tree (Bombax ceiba), the palo de vaca, or cow-tree (Brosi-
mum galactodendron) , whose sap resembles milk and is used for
that purpose, the Inga saman, the Hevea guayanensis, celebrated
in the production of rubber, and the Atialea spedosa, distinguished
for the length of its leaves.
The principal economic plants of the country are cacao, coffee,
cassava (manioc), called "mandioca" in Brazil, Indian corn,
beans, sweet-potatoes, taro, sugar-cane, cotton and tobacco. Of
these coffee and sugar-cane were introduced by Europeans.
Population. — The population of Venezuela consists of a small
percentage of whites of European descent, chiefly Spaniards, a
few tribes and settlements of Indians, largely of the Arawak and
Carib families, and a large percentage of mestizos, or mixed
bloods. There is a considerable admixture of African blood.
Territorial Divisional-Venezuela's constitution of 1925 de-
clared that the republic was composed of 20 States, two terri-
tories, a Federal district and certain islands in the sea of the
Antilles. It provided that the Federal District was to be organ-
ized by a special law and should be composed of the city of
Caracas with the neighbouring parishes.
The States and territories, with their capitals, are now as
follows: Federal District (Caracas); Anzoategui (Barcelona);
Apure (San Fernando de Apure); Aragua (Maracay); Bolfvar
(Ciudad Bolivar) ; Carabobo (Valencia) ; Cojedes (San Carlos) ;
Falc6n (Coro); Guarico (Calabozo); Lara (Barquisimeto) ;
Me*rida (Merida); Miranda (Ocumare); Monagas (Maturin);
Nueva Esparta (La Asunci6n); Portuguesa (Guanare); Sucre
(Cumana); Tachira (San Crist6bal) ; Trujillo (Trujillo) ; Yaracuy
(San Felipe); Zamora (Barinas); Zulia (Maracaibo), with the
following territories: Amazonas (San Fernando de Atabapo);
Delta-Amacuro (Tucupita).
Communications and Commerce.— There has been no great
development of railway construction in Venezuela, partly on
account of political insecurity and partly because of the back-
ward industrial state of the country. In 1924 tjiere were 13
railway lines with a mileage of about 660 m., including the short
lines. The best known, of the Venezuelan railways is the short
line from La Guaira to Caracas
(22$ m.), which scales the steep
sides of the mountain behind La
Guaira and reaches 3,135 ft. be-
fore arriving at Caracas. It is
now electrically operated. It is
a British enterprise, and is one of
the few railways in Venezuela
that pay a dividend. The Puerto
Cabello and Valencia line (34
m.) is another British under-
taking and carries a good traffic.
Wireless communication with the
outside world is maintained
through the stations at Caracas,
Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello and
several other places.
LOADING LLANOS CATTLE INTO A , The V**™*™*' is devoting
RIVER BOAT AT CIUDAD BOLJVAR, larSe SUmS t0 the Construction of
BY MEANS OF A CHUTE WHICH motor roads. According to latest
LEADS TO THE LOWER DECK OF THE reports SOttie 3,700 m. haVC been
BOAT opened. The greatest of these is
the transandine highway from Caracas to Tachira on the Colom-
bian frontier, 804 miles.
In domestic steamship lines it has relatively little to show.
A regular service is maintained on Lake Maracaibo, one on
Lake Valencia, and another on the Orinoco, Apure and Por-
tuguesa rivers, starting from Ciudad Bolivar. That on Lake
Maracaibo has assumed new importance since the development
of the oil fields about the lake.
The coast of Venezuela has an aggregate length of 1,876 m.,
and there arc 32 ports, large and small, not including those of
Lakes Maracaibo and Tacarigua and the Orinoco. The majority
have only a limited commerce. The first-class ports are La
Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Ciudad Bolivar, Maracaibo and Car-
upano, and the second-class are Sucre, Juan Griego, Guiria, Cano
Colorado, Guanta, Tucacas, La Vela and Porlamar. The imports
include hardware and building materials, earthenware, glassware,
furniture, drugs and medicines, wines, foodstuffs and coal. The
coasting trade is largely made up of products destined for
exportation, or imports trans-shipped from the first-class ports
to the smaller ones which have no direct relations with foreign
countries. The Orinoco trade is carried on largely through Port
of Spain, Trinidad, where merchandise and produce is trans-
ferred between river boats and foreign ocean-going steamers.
Industry and Commerce. — The principal industries are agri-
cultural and pastoral. Both have suffered heavily from military
operations and disturbed political conditions, but peace has now
been consolidated for many years and both have progressed. Much
the greater part of the Republic is fertile and adapted to cultiva-
tion. Irrigation, which has not been much used, is needed in
some parts of the country and is being provided for. In other
parts, as in the valleys and on the northern slopes of thf -Mari-
time Andes, the rainfall is sufficiently well distributed to meet
most requirements. The long dry season of the llanos and sur-
rounding slopes, which have not as yet been devoted to cultiva-
tion, will require a different system of agriculture with systematic
irrigation. In colonial times the llanos were covered with immense
herds of cattle and horses and were inhabited by a race of expert
horsemen, the llaneros. Both sides in the War of Independence
drew upon these herds, and the llaneros were among the bravest
in both armies. The end of the war found the llanos almost
deserted. Successive civil wars prevented their recovery, and
these plains, which ought to be one of the chief sources of meat
supply for the country, are comparatively destitute of stock, and
VENEZUELA
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE]
A BRICKYARD OF VENEZUELA
the only source of revenue from this industry is the small number
of animals shipped to the West Indies. The breeding of goats
and swine is an irnportant industry in some regions. Other
industries of the colonial period were the cultivation of indigo
and tobacco. The former has nearly disappeared, but the latter is
still an important product. The best known tobacco-producing
localities are Capadare, Yaritagua, Merida, Cumanacoa, Guanape,
Guaribe and Barinas. No effort
is made to improve the Vene-
zuelan product, a part of which is
exported to Cuba for cigar-mak-
ing. The principal agricultural
products are coffee, cacao, sugar,
Indian corn and beans. Coffee
was introduced from Martinique
in 1 784 and its exportation began
five years later. A recent estimate
(1926) gives the number of cof-
fee trees in Venezuela as 250,-
000,000 belonging to 25,000
estates, occupying some 200,000
ac.; the average annual yield is
from 8s million to 100 million
pounds. Cacao (Theobroma ca-
cao} is an indigenous product and
is extensively cultivated on the
Caribbean slopes. It requires a high temperature (about 80° F),
freedom from strong winds, rich soil and a high degree of humidity
for the best development of the tree. The tree has an average
height of 12-13 ft>, begins bearing five years after planting, the
yield being from 490 to 600 Ib. per ac. of 100 trees. There are two
grades of Venezuelan cacao — the criollo or native, and the
trinitario, or Trinidad, the first being superior in quality. The
best cacao comes from Caracas and is marketed under that name.
The average production in Venezuela is about 50 million pounds
per year, most of which is exported, the larger part going to
the United States and France. Sugar-cane is not indigenous, but
it is cultivated with success in the lowlands of Zuiia, and on the
coast. Its principal product is "pape!6n," or brown sugar, which
is put on the market in the shape of small cylindrical and cubical
masses of i j- to 3i Ib. weight. This quality is the only one which
is consumed in the country, with the exception of a compara-
tively small quantity of refined sugar. The annual output is
about 60,000 tons. Cotton was produced in several places
in colonial times, but the output has now declined to a few
thousand pounds. The plant is indigenous and grows well, but,
unlike cacao, it requires much manual labour in its cultivation
and picking and does not seem to be favoured by the planters.
Indian corn is widely grown and provides the staple food of the
people. Beans also are a common food, and are universally
produced. Wheat was introduced by the Spaniards immediately
after their occupation of Venezuela, and is grown in the elevated
districts of Aragua and the western states, but the production
does not exceed home consumption. Rice is a common article of
food, but not enough is grown to supply the local demand. Other
agricultural products are sweet-potatoes, cassava (manioc), yuca,
yams, white potatoes, maguey, okra, peanuts, peas, all the vege-
tables of the hot and temperate climates, oranges, lemons, limes,
bananas, plantains, figs, grapes, coco-nuts, pine-apples, straw-
berries, °plums, guavas, breadfruit, mangoes and many others.
There are also many wild fruits like those of the cactus and
various palms, and these are largely consumed. The forest prod-
ucts, whose collection and preparation form regular industries,
are rubber (called caucho or goma), tonka beans, vanilla, copaiba,
sarsaparilla, divi-divi, dye-woods, cabinet-woods and fibres. The
rubber forests are on the Orinoco and its tributaries.
Mining. — The principal minerals are petroleum, gold, copper,
iron, sulphur, coal and asphalt. Oil seepages were known in
Venezuela before the discovery of America, particularly in the
Maracaibo Basin and in the delta of the Orinoco. Deposits of
asphalt, associated with these seepages, were exploited for many
years, the great asphalt lake of Bermudez, like that on the ad-
jacent British island of Trinidad, yielding large quantities for
shipment. About 1912 attention was attracted to the country as
a possible source of oil, and several large companies began the
drilling of wells. Disturbed political conditions in Mexico prob-
ably hastened activities in Venezuela. Starting in earnest in
1920, the development came rapidly, centring on the shores of
Lake Maracaibo, where, by 1924, some 5,600,000 barrels of oil
were being produced. Unusually large returns were secured from
some wells, resulting in a veritable oil boom, and by 1927
Venezuela had taken third place among the nations of the world
in the production of petroleum. In that year there were 20 com-
panies operating, with a total of 200 wells and a production of
64,436,926 barrels. In 1928, Venezuela surpassed Russia in its
output and ranked second only to the United States. Almost all
the actual development is confine4 to the Maracaibo Basin, about
whose margin numerous pools have been located. The most im-
portant fields which are situated here are the Mene, Mene
Grande, La Rosa, and Ambrosio; the La Paz, the Rio Palmar
and the Concepci6n; the Rio de Oro and the Tarra fields;
and the newer Falcon field. In eastern Venezuela is located the
Guanoco field less developed than those about Lake Maracaibo.
Petroleum is produced in Venezuela under serious handicaps.
Tropical heat and humidity, poorly drained lands, rank growth of
vegetation, a scarcity of .labour, and difficulty of transportation
combine to render the task arduous. The entrance to Lake
Maracaibo from the sea is so shallow that no vessels of over
ii ft. draught can enter. Consequently most of the oil must
be sent out in light-draught barges or tankers to be reloaded
onto ocean-going vessels. A few deep-water stations have been
established on the Paraguana peninsula, but the larger part of
the oil is shipped first to the islands of Curazao or Aruba, where
there are great refineries. As these islands belong to Holland there
is less danger of political disorder than on Venezuelan territory.
Gold is found chiefly in the Yuruari region, about 100 m. S.W.
of the principal mouth of the Orinoco and near the borders of
British Guiana, where the famous El Callao mines are situated.
These mines have produced as much as 181,040-2 Spanish oz. in
one year (1886) and a total of 1,320,929-09 oz. from 1871 to 1890,
while another report gives an output valued at $23,000,000 U.S.
gold in the 15 years from 1884 to
1899. Some 10 or 12 mines are
still being worked and yield about
one million dollars per year.
There are 14 copper mines, those
at Aroa, 70 m. W. of Puerto
Cabello and in railway communi-
cation with Tucacas (89 m.),
being the most productive. The
principal coal deposits developed
are at Naricual, near Barcelona,
and a railway has been con-
structed to bring the output to
the port of Guanta. Deposits
are being worked also, on a small
scale, near Coro in the State of
Falc6n, and in several places
about Lake Maracaibo. Asphalt
is taken from several deposits —
from Maracaibo, Cumana, Peder-
i • th Orinoco dplta and
f*,"1 "* ^nnOCO delta' *n«
the famous Bermudez asphalt
lake in the eastern part of the country. Sulphur is mined near
Carupano, and salt in Zulia and on the peninsula of Araya. The
latter is a government monopoly, and the high prices at which it
is sold constitute a serious prejudice to the people and to indus-
tries like that of meat packing.
Pearl Fisheries.— One of the oldest of Venezuelan industries,
the Margarita pearl fisheries, dates from the first exploration of
this coast and was probably carried on before that by the natives.
The fisheries are established about the islands of Margarita,
Coche and Cubagua, the best producing beds being at El Tirano
MILLIONS OF BARRELS
OF 42 U. S. GALLONS
—
60
50
40
30
20
to
r-H~
£22 8 s 8 3
5 2 * 2 2 2 2
3
K> » r-
M *J ««
222
GRAPH SHOWING PRODUCTION OF
CRUDE PETROLEUM IN VENEZUELA
FINANCE]
VENEZUELA
53
and Macanao, the first north-east and the other north-west of
Margarita.
Manufactures. — There are few manufacturing industries, and
these are usually of the parasitic type, created by official favour
and protected by high tariffs on imports in competition. The
manufactures of this class include aerated waters, beer, candles,
chocolate, cigarettes, cotton fabrics, hats, ice, matches, boots
and shoes, drugs and medicines. There are a number of electric
plants, several of which use water-power, one at El Encantado,
10 m. from Caracas, one at M£rida, and another at San Crist6bal,
Tachira. There are plants using steam for motive power at
Caracas, Maracaibo, Valencia and Puerto Cabello.
The total foreign trade of Venezuela in 1923 amounted to
309,396,512 bolivares (i bolivar = $.19295). The imports aggre-
gated 152,692,315 while the exports came to 156,704,197 boli-
vares. The countries furnishing the largest amounts of the
imports were, in order: United States, Great Britain, Germany,
France, the Netherlands, Spain and Italy, while the countries
taking the largest amounts of exports were the Netherlands,
United States, Spain, France, Great Britain and Germany. In
1923 the chief exports were valued as follows in bolivares: coffee,
68,945,726; petroleum, 27,321,920; cacao, 23,817,102; sugar,
5,359,128; balata, 4,084,588; hides, 3,515.55°; cattle, 1,901,455;
gold, 1,300,000; asphalt, 1,332,940; heron plumes, 1,017,735; and
pearls, 740,880. Since 1923, petroleum has become the largest
item of export.
Government.— The Government of Venezuela is that of a
Federal republic of nominally independent, self-governing States.
According to the provisions of the constitution adopted in 1925,
the legislative power is vested in a national Congress of two
houses — the Senate and Chamber of Deputies — which meets at
Caracas every year. The Senate consists of two members from
each State, or 40 members, who are elected by the State legis-
latures for a period of seven years. The Chamber consists of
popular representatives, elected by direct vote, in the proportion
of one deputy for each 35,000 of population, each State being
entitled to at least one deputy, the Federal district and terri-
tories being entitled to representatives on the same terms.
The executive power is vested by the constitution in a presi-
dent, two vice-presidents and a cabinet of ministers. The president
and vice-presidents, who must be Venezuelans by birth and more
than 30 years old, are elected by the national Congress. The
presidential term is seven years, and the president cannot succeed
himself. The president is assisted by a cabinet of seven ministers
and the governor of the Federal district,- their respective depart-
ments being interior, foreign relations, finance and public credit,
war and navy, fomento (promotion), public works and public
instruction.
The judicial power is vested in a supreme Federal court, called
the Corte Federal y de Casacion, and such subordinate tribunals
as may be created by law. The Federal court consists of seven
members, representing as many judicial districts of the republic,
who are elected by Congress for periods of seven years, and are
eligible for re-election. It is the supreme tribunal of the republic,
and is also a court of appeal (Casacidn) in certain cases, as de-
fined by law. The judicial organization of the States includes
in each a supreme court of three members, a superior court,
courts of first instance, district courts and municipal courts. The
judicial terms in the States are for three years. In the territories
there are civil and criminal courts of first instance, and municipal
courts. The laws of Venezuela are well codified both as to law and
procedure, in civil, criminal and commercial cases.
The State Governments are autonomous and consist of legis-
lative assemblies composed of deputies elected by ballot for a
period of three years, and for each a president and two vice-
nresidents chosen by the legislative assembly for a term of
three years. The States are divided into districts and these into
municipios, the executive head of which is a jefe civil. There is
a municipal council of seven members in each district, elected by
the municipios, and in each municipio a communal junta ap-
pointed by the municipal council. The governors of the Federal
territories are appointees of the president of the republic, and
the jefe civil of each territorial municipio is an appointee of the
governor. The Federal District is the seat of Federal authority,
and consists of a small territory surrounding Caracas and La
Guaira, known in the territorial division of 1904 as the West
district, and the island of Margarita and some neighbouring
islands, known as the East district.
There are two classes of citizens in Venezuela — native-born
and naturalized. The first includes the children of Venezuelan
parents born in foreign countries; the latter comprises four
classes: natives of Spanish-American republics, foreign-born per-
sons, foreigners naturalized through special laws and foreign
women married to Venezuelans. The power of granting citizen-
ship to foreigners is vested in the president of the republic, who
is also empowered to refuse admission to the country to unde-
sirable foreigners, or to expel those who have violated the special
law (April n, 1903) relating to their conduct in Venezuelan
territory. The right of suffrage is exercised by Venezuelan males
over 21 years of age, and all electors are eligible to public office
except where the constitution declares otherwise. Foreign com-
panies are permitted to transact business in Venezuela, subject
to the laws relating to non-residents and also to the laws of the
country governing national companies.
Defence. — In 1925 the Venezuelan Navy consisted of three gun-
boats and a training ship with a personnel of a few hundred men.
The standing army was composed of some 9,000 infantry, artillery
and cavalry. In addition there was a reserve estimated to con-
sist of about 100,000 men. In 1919 military service was made
compulsory for all adult male citizens with certain exceptions.
Service in the army or navy for two years in peace-time and
during war at the president's pleasure was made compulsory
with relegation to the reserve until the age of 45. A decree of
April 17, 1920, provided for a military aviation school at Maracay.
Education. — In popular education Venezuela has done almost
nothing worthy of record. The ruling classes and the Church
have taken little interest in the education of the Indians and
mestizos. According to the law of 1921 primary education is
free and compulsory between seven and 14 years. Secondary
education comprises two courses; one of general study occupy-
ing four years, and one of professional study occupying two
years. Normal training is furnished by two institutions at
Caracas. Among the special schools are schools of commerce
and modern languages at the capital and other important cities,
besides two schools of industrial arts and trades. Higher educa-
tion is afforded by the Central University of Venezuela at Caracas.
Physical education is compulsory in all schools up to the age of
21. Expenditure on education for 1924-25 was 4,648,345
bolivares. further educational facilities are provided by a national
library with 50,000 volumes, a national museum, with a valuable
historical collection, the Cajigal Observatory, devoted to astro-
nomical and meteorological work, and the Venezuelan Academy
and National Academy of History — the first devoted to the
national language and literature, and the second to its history.
Religion.— The Roman Catholic is the religion of the State,
but freedom of worship is nominally guaranteed by law. The
president, however, is empowered to deny admission into the
country of foreigners engaged in special religious work not meet-
ing his approval. Practically no other form of worship exists than
that of the Roman Catholic Church. There is one archbishop
(Caracas) and four suffragan bishops (Merida, Guaiana, Bar-
quisimeto and Guarico). ' ~ '"""
Finance. — The financial situation in Venezuela was for a long
time extremely complicated and discreditable, owing to defaults
in the payment of public debts, complications arising from the
guarantee of interest on railways and other public works, respon-
sibility for damages to private property during civil wars and bad
administration. To meet increasing obligations, taxation has been
heavily increased. The public revenues are derived from customs
charges on imports and exports, transit taxes, cattle taxes, profits
on coinage, receipts from State monopolies, receipts from various
public services such as the post office, telegraph, Caracas water-
works, etc., and sundry taxes, fines and other sources.
The public debt of Venezuela dates back to the Revolutionary
54
VENEZUELA
War, when loans were raised in Europe for account of the united
colonies of Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela. The separation of
the Colombian republic into its three original parts took place
in 1830, and in 1834 the foreign debt contracted was divided
among the three, Venezuela being charged with 28j%, or £2,794,-
826, of which £906,430 were arrears of interest. Other items
were afterwards added to liquidate other obligations than those
included in the above, chiefly on account of the internal debt.
Several conversions and compositions followed, interest being
paid irregularly. Jn 1 880-81 there was a consolidation and con-
version of the republic's foreign indebtedness through a new loan
of £2,750,000 at 3%, and in 1896 a new loan of 50,000,000
bolivares (£1,980,198) for railway guarantees and other domestic
obligations. In Aug. 1904 these loans and arrears of interest
brought the foreign debt up to £5,618,725, which in 1905 was
converted into a "diplomatic" debt of £5,229,700 (3%). During
these years Venezuela had been pursuing the dangerous policy
of granting interest guarantees on the construction of railways
by foreign corporations, which not only brought the Government
into conflict with them on account of defaulted payments, but
also through disputed interpretations of contracts and alleged
arbitrary acts on the part of Government officials. In the civil
wars the Government was also held responsible for damages to
these properties and for the maltreatment of foreigners residing
in the country. Some of these claims brought Venezuela into
conflict with the Governments of Great Britain, Germany and
Italy in 1903. Venezuelan ports were blockaded and there was
an enforced settlement of the claims (about £104,417), which were
to be paid from 30% of the revenues of the La Guaira and Puerto
Cabello custom-houses. This settlement was followed by an ad-
justment of all other claims, payment to be effected through the
same channels. In 1908 (July 31) the total debt of Venezuela
(according to official returns) consisted of the following items: —
Bolivares
Consolidated internal debt
Diplomatic debt (Spanish, French and Dutch)
„ „ (French, IQOJ-O^) ....
» M °f TQ05 • ...
63,171,818
7,014,569
5,733,490
132 O J.O O "> C
Unconsolidated debt in circulation .
4c6l 7x2
Total
or, at 25! bolivares per £
21^,531,544
£8,417,091
Since 1909 the financial condition of Venezuela has steadily
improved. The new law concerning public credit which came into
force on June 15, 1923, introduced reforms in the administration
of Venezuela's finances. Among other provisions it stipulated that
certificates of the internal national consolidated debt which were
received by the Treasury should be burned. The following details
of the public debt of Venezuela in bolivares as outstanding on Dec.
31, 1923, are taken from the report of the Minister of Finance
for 1924: —
External debt :
National three per cent, diplomatic debt . . 9,169,490-26
Three per cent diplomatic debt of 1905 . . 5 8,948, 145-0x5
Total 68,117,635-26
Internal debt:
National internal three per cent consolidated debt 42,647,277-93
Three per cent inscribed debt 2,098,652-50
Total 44,745,930-43
The total indebtedness of the Venezuelan Government on Dec. 31,
1923 thus amounted to 112,863,565-69. The budget for 1924-25
estimated expenditure at 63,354,500 bolivares. Over one-fourth
of this amount was allotted to the Ministry of Finance and Public
Credit, one-fifth was assigned to the Ministry of War and the
Navy, while more than one-sixth was given to the Ministry of
the interior. In the budget the receipts of that year were estimated
at 66,167,000 bolivares, an increase of 3,322,000 over those for
1923-24. In his message to Congress on April 25, 1925 President
G6mez stated that the total national debt had been reduced to
99.445, 7*3 bolivares by Jan. i, 1925, and that on Dec. 31, 1924
there was in the treasury a surplus of 64,692,080-46 bolivares.
On Dec. 31, 1926 the debt had been reduced still further to 85,-
108,452 bolivares and was being cancelled at the rate of about
8,000,000 bolivares per year. The bolivar was relatively stable
during the World War. On Dec. 31, 1923 there were in circula-
tion in Venezuela 35,129,695 bolivares of bank-notes, while the
gold reserve aggregated 55,149,749. Of the paper currency 25,-
293,340 bolivares was supplied by the Banco de Venezuela. A
shortage of silver in the circulating media has been met under the
provisions of a law of 1918 by the minting of new silver coins.
The currency of Venezuela is on a gold basis, the coinage of
silver and nickel is restricted, and the State issues no paper notes.
Foreign coins were formerly legal tender but this has been changed
by the exclusion of foreign silver coins and the acceptance of
foreign gold coins as a commodity at a fixed value. Under the
currency law of March 31, 1879, <thc thousandth part of a kilo-
gramme of gold was made the monetary unit and was called a
bolivar , in honour of the Venezuelan liberator. The denominations
provided for are : —
Gold: TOO, 20, bolivares.
Silver: 5, 2, 2.50, 2, i bolivares; 50, 20 ctntimos.
Nickel: 12 V and 5 cMimos.
The silver $-bollvar piece is usually known as a "dollar," and
is equivalent to 4$i pence, or 96^ cents U.S. gold. The old "peso"
is no longer used except in accounts, and is reckoned at 4 boli-
vares, being sometimes described as a "soft" dollar. Silver and
nickel arc legal tender for 50 and 20 bolivares respectively. Papery
currency is issued by the banks of Venezuela, Caracas and Mara-
caibo under the provisions of a general banking law, and their
notes are accepted at their face value.
The metric weights and measures have been officially adopted
by Venezuela, but the old Spanish units are still popularly used
throughout the country. (G. M. McB.)
History. — The coast of Venezuela was the first part of the
American mainland sighted by Columbus, who, during his third
voyage in 1498, entered the Gulf of Paria and sailed along the
coast of the delta of the Orinoco. In the following year a much
greater extent of coast was traced out by Alonzo de Ojeda, who
was accompanied by the more celebrated Amerigo Vespucci. In
1550 the territory was erected into the captain-generalcy of
Caracas, and it remained under Spanish rule till the early part
of the 1 9th century.
In 1 8 10 Venezuela rose against the Spanish and on July 14,
1811 the independence of the territory was proclaimed. A war
ensued which lasted for upwards of ten years, the principal events
of which are described under BOLIVAR (q.v.), a native of Caracas
and the leading spirit of the revolt. It was not till March 30,
1845 that the independence of the republic was recognized by
Spain in the Treaty of Madrid. Shortly after the battle of Cara-
bobo (June 24, 1821), by which the power of Spain in this part
of the world was broken, Venezuela was united with thfi Federal
State of Colombia, which embraced Colombia and Ecuador; but
the Venezuelans were averse to the Confederation, and an agita-
tion in 1829 resulted in the issue of a decree (Dec. 8) by Gen.
Paez dissolving the union, and declaring Venezuela a sovereign
and independent State. The following years were marked by re-
curring attempts at revolution, but on the whole Venezuela, during
the period 1830-46, was less disturbed than the neighbouring
republic owing to the dominating influence of Gen. Paez, who
during the whole of that time exercised practically dictatorial
power. In 1849 a successful revolution broke out and Paez was
driven out of the country. The author of his expulsion, Gen. Jose
Tadeo Monagas, had in 1847 been nominated, like so many of
his predecessors, to the presidency by Paez, but he was able to
win the support of the army and assert his independence of his
patron. For a period of ten years, amidst continual civil war,
Monagas was supreme. In 1854 slavery was abolished by presi*
dential decree. After some years of civil war and confusion,
Gen. Juan Cris6stomo Falcon established himself at the head of
affairs where he remained from 1863 to 1868. In 1864 he divided
Venezuela into 20 States and formed them into a Federal Republic.
The two parties whose struggles had caused so much strife and
VENEZUELA
55
bloodshed were the Unionists, who desired a centralized govern-
ment, and the Federalists, who preferred a federation of semi-
autonomous provinces. The latter now triumphed. A revolt headed
by Monagas broke out in 1868 and Falc6n left the country and
resigned the Presidency. In the following year Antonio Guzman
Blanco succeeded in making himself dictator, after a long series
of battles in which he was victorious over the Unionists.
For two decades after the close of these revolutionary troubles
in 1870 the supreme power in Venezuela was, for all practical
purposes, in the hands of Guzman Blanco. He evaded the clause
in the constitution prohibiting the election of a president for
successive terms of office by invariably arranging for the nomina-
tion of some adherent of his own as chief of the executive, and
then pulling the strings behind this figurehead. The tenure of the
presidential office was for two years, and at every alternate
election Guzman Blanco was* declared to be duly and legally
chosen to fill the post of chief magistrate of the republic. In
1889 there was an open revolt against the dictatorial system so
long in vogue and Guzman Blanco was overthrown. An election
was held and Gen. Andueza Palacios was chosen president. A
movement was set on foot for the reform of the constitution, the
principal objects of this agitation being to prolong the presidential
term to four years, to give Congress the right to choose the presi-
dent of the republic, and to amend certain sections concerning
the rights of persons taking part in armed insurrection arising
out of political issues. All might have gone well for President
Andueza had he not supposed that this extension of the presi-
dential period might be made to apply to himself. His attempt to
force this question produced violent opposition in 1891, and
ended in a rising headed by Gen. Joaquin Crespo. This revolt,
which was accompanied by severe fighting, ended in 1892 in the
triumph of the insurgents, Andueza and his followers being forced
to leave the country to save their lives. General Crespo became
all-powerful; but he did not immediately accept the position of
president. The reform of the constitution was agreed to, and in
1894 Gen. Crespo was duly declared elected to the presidency by
Congress for a period of four years.
In April 1895 the long-standing dispute as to the boundary
between British Guiana and Venezuela was brought to a crisis
by the action of the Venezuelan authorities in arresting Inspectors
Barnes and Baker, of the British Guiana police, with a few of
their subordinates, on the Cuytini river, the charge being that, they
were illegally exercising the functions of British officials in Vene-
zuelan territory. Messrs. Barnes and Baker were subsequently
released, and in due course made their report on the occurrence.
The question began now to assume an acute stage, the Venezuelan
minister in Washington having persuaded President Cleveland to
take up the cause of Venezuela in vindication of the principles
of the Monroe doctrine. On Dec. 18, 1895 a message was sent
to the United States Congress by President Cleveland practically
stating that any attempt on the part of the British Government
to enforce its claims upon Venezuela as regards the boundary
between that country and Guiana without resort to arbitration
would be considered as a casus belli by his Government. The
news of this message caused violent agitation in Caracas and other
towns. A league was formed binding merchants not to deal in
goods of British origin; patriotic associations were established
for the purpose of defending Venezuela against British aggression,
and the militia were embodied. The question was subsequently
arranged in 1899 by arbitration, and by the payment of a moderate
indemnity to the British officers and men who had been captured.
Diplomatic relations between the two countries, which had been
broken off in consequence of the dispute, were resumed in 1897.
In 1898 Gen. Crespo was succeeded as president by Sefior
Ignacio Andradc. Towards the end of the year a revolutionary
movement took place with the object of ousting Andrade from
power. The insurrection was crushed, but in one of the final
skirmishes a chance bullet struck Gen. Crespo, who was in com-
mand of the Government troops, and he died from the effects
of the wound. A subsequent revolt overthrew President Andrade
in 1900. Gen. Cipriano Castro then became president. During
1901 and 1902 the internal condition of the country remained
disturbed, and fighting went on between the Government troops
and the revolutionists. President Castro was for eight years
a dictator, ruling by corrupt and revolutionary methods, and in
defiance of obligations to the foreign creditors of the country.
The wrongs inflicted by him on companies and individuals of
various nationalities, who had invested capital in industrial enter-
prises in Venezuela, led to a blockade of the Venezuelan ports in
1903 by English, German and Italian warships. Finding that di-
plomacy was of no avail to obtain the reparation from Castro
that was demanded by their subjects, the three powers unwillingly
had recourse to coercion. The president, however, sheltered him-
self behind the Monroe doctrine and appealed to the Government
of the United States to intervene. The dispute was finally referred
by mutual consent to The Hague Court of Arbitration. The Wash-
ington. Government had indeed no cause to be well disposed to
Castro, for he treated the interests of Americans in Venezuela
with the same high-handed contempt for honesty and justice as
those of Europeans. The demand of the United States for a re-
vision of what is known as the Olcott Award in connection with
the Orinoco Steamship Company was in 1905 met by a refusal
to reopen the case. Meanwhile the country, which up to the
blockade of 1903 had been seething with revolutions, now became
much quieter. In 1906, the President refused to allow M. Taigny,
the French minister, to land, on the ground that he had broken
the quarantine regulations. In consequence, France broke off
diplomatic relations. In the following year, by the decision of The
Hague Tribunal, the Venezuelan Government had to pay the
British, German and Italian claims, amounting to £691,160; but
there was still £840,000 due to other nationalities, which remained
to be settled. The year 1907 was marked by the repudiation of
the debt to Belgium, and fresh difficulties with the United States.
Finally, in 1908 a dispute arose with Holland on the ground of
the harbouring of refugees in Curaqoa. The Dutch minister was
expelled, and Holland replied by the despatch of gunboats, which
destroyed the Venezuelan tleet and blockaded the ports. In Dec.
Gen. Castro left upon a visit to Europe. In his absence a rising
against the dictator took place at Caracas, and his adherents
were seized and imprisoned. Juan Vicente Gomez, the vice-presi-
dent, now placed himself at the head of affairs.
Under the constitution of 1909, on Aug. 27, 1910 Congress
elected Gomez constitutional President for four years. In June
and July, 1911 Venezuela observed the centenary of her declara-
tion of independence. During the rule of Gomez diplomatic rela-
tions with foreign nations that had been ruptured were resumed,
and Venezuela undertook to pay those obligations to foreign
nations upon which payments had lapsed.
According to the constitution the term of office of President
Gomez ended on April 19, 1914. Upon that day a Congress of
Deputies from the Venezuelan States adopted a provisional con-
stitutional statute for the Union, which declared that all laws
not inconsistent therewith should remain in force. It further
provided that this Congress should elect, a commander-in-chief
of the national army at the same time that it elected a pro-
visional president of the republic. Congress was also to frame a
new pact of union for Venezuela, which should be submitted to
the assemblies of the States for approval. The period of pro-
visional rule should last until the new constitution had been
ratified by the States and until the constitutional functionaries
had taken their posts. On the same day Congress elected Vic-
torino Marqucz Bustillos, who had been Minister of \Var arid the
Navy, provisional President, and by a decree of the same day
Bustillos appointed his ministers of State. Congress elected
General Gomez commander-in-chief of the national army.
On May 3, 1915 the Congress chosen under the constitution
of 1914 unanimously elected Gen. G6mez President of the Re-
public for the term ending April 19, 1922, but the president-elect
did not assume the presidency. The provisional president con-
tinued to exercise authority while Gen. Gomez remained com-
mander-in-chief of the army with the title president-elect of the
republic. In May, 1922 Gen. Gomez was unanimously re-elected
to the office of President of Venezuela. On June 19, a new
constitution was promulgated which made some slight but im-
VENICE
portant changes in the constitution of 1914. Articles 137 and 138
of that fundamental law, which stipulated that the provisional
president and the vice-presidents of the republic should hold their
offices until the new magistrates were inaugurated and that the
commander of the national army should exercise his functions
until the inauguration of the constitutional president, were
omitted from the constitution of 1922. This constitution further
provided that in case the president should be permanently dis-
abled, he should be succeeded by the ranking vice-president. On
June 24 following, Gen. Gomez relieved Marquez Bustillos of
the nominal authority which the latter had exercised since 1914,
and assumed the powers of president for the term ending in
1929. Venezuela became a member of the League of Nations in
1920. On July 24, 1925 a new constitution was adopted, making
some slight changes in that of 1922.
Boundary Disputes.— The boundary dispute between Colom-
bia and Venezuela, which had been submitted to the arbitration
of the Swiss Federal Council, was decided in March, 1922 in
favour of the Colombian contention; namely, that she was
entitled to take possession of such portions of the territory in
dispute as had been adjudged to her in accordance with the
decision of the king of Spain in 1891.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— C. E. Akers, History of South America (New York,
1906) ; E. Andre, A Naturalist in the Guianas (London, 1904) ;
A. F. Bandclier, The Gilded Man (New York, 1893) ; W. Barry,
Venezuela (London, 1886) ; M. B. and C. W. Beebe, Our Search for
a Wilderness (New York, 1910) ; P. L. Bell, Venezuela, a commercial
and industrial handbook, U.S. Dept. Com. Sp. Ag. series No. 212
(Wash., 1922) ; A. Codazzi, Resumen de la Geografia de Venezuela
(Paris, 1841) ; L. V. Dalton, Venezuela (London, 1912) ; R. H. Davis,
Three Gringos in Venezuela and Central America (London, 1896) ; J. C.
Dawson, The South American Republics, vol. ii. (New York, 1905) ;
Dr. A. Ernst, Les Produits de Venezuela (Bremen, 1874) ; A. von Hum-
boldt and Aim6 Bonpland, Personal Narrative of Travel to the Equi-
noctial Regions of America (London, 1900) ; M. Landaeta Resales,
Gran Recopilacidn Geogrdfica, Estadistica e Histdrica de Venezuela
(1889) ; P. E. Martin, Through Five Republics of South America (Lon-
don, 1905) ; Bartolome Mitre (condensed translation by William
Pilling), The Emancipation of South America (London, 1893) ; G. Orsi
de Mombello, Venezuela y sus riquezas (Caracas, 1890) ; H. J. Mozans,
Up the Orinoco and down the Magdalena (New York, 1910) ; F.
Pimentel y Roth, Resumen cronologico de las leyes y decrrtos del crid-
ito publico de Venezuela, desde el ano de iSid'hasta tl de 1872-1873;
W. L. Scruggs, The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics (2nd ed.,
Boston, 1905) ; W. L. Scruggs and J. J. Storrow, The Brief for Vene-
zuela [Boundary dispute] (London, 1896) ; J. M. Spence, The Land of
Bolivar: Adventures in Venezuela (2 voJs., London, 1878) ; J. Strick-
land, Documents and Maps of the Boundary Question between
Venezuela and British Guiana (London, 1896) ; S. P. Triana, Down
the Orinoco in a Canoe (London, 1902) ; N. Veloz Goiticoa, Venezuela:
Esbozo Geogrdfico, Caracas, 1904 (Venezuela: Geographical Sketch,
Natural Resources, Laws, etc.) I Bur. of American Republics] (Wash-
ington, 1904) ; Gen. J. A. Paez, Memorias (Madrid, 1916) ; C. Parra-
Perez, Hist, de la Colombie et du Venezuela (1921); M. J. Gomes
Macpherson, Venezuela (Geneva, 1921) ; 0. Burger, Venezuela, Fuhrer
dutch das Land und seine Wirtschaft (Leipsic, 1922) ; W. S. Robert-
son, Hist, of the Latin- American Nations (N.Y., 1922) ; N. V. Gorti-
coa, Venezuela: Geographic Sketch (Caracas, 1924); Cunningham,
/. A. Paez (1929). (W. S. Ro.)
VENICE (Vencsia), a city and seaport of Italy, occupying
one of the most remarkable sites in the world. At the head of the
Adriatic, between the mountains and the sea, lies that part of
the Lombard plain known as the Veneto. The whole of this plain
has been formed by the ddbris swept down from the Alps by the
rivers Po, Ticino, Oglio, Adda, Mincio, Adige, Brenta, Piave,
Livenzd, lagliamento and Isonzo. The substratum of the plain
is a bed of boulders, covered during the lapse of ages by a deposit
of rich alluvial soil. The rivers when they debouch from the
mountains assume an eastern trend in their effort to reach the
sea. The result is that the plain is being gradually extended in
an easterly direction, and cities like Ravenna, Adria and Aquileia,
which were once seaports, lie now many miles inland. The en-
croachment of land on sea has been calculated at the rate of about
three miles in a thousand years. A strong current sets round the
head of the Adriatic from east to west. This current catches the
silt brought down by the rivers and projects it in long banks, or
lidi, parallel with the shore. In process of time some of these
banks, as in the case of Venice, raised themselves above the level
of the water and became the true shore-line, while behind them
lay large lagoons, formed partly by the fresh water brought down
by the rivers, partly by the salt-water tide which found its way in
by the channels of the river mouths. On a group of these mud
banks about the middle of the lagoon of Venice stands the city
of Venice. The soil is an oozy mud which can only be made
capable of carrying buildings by the artificial means of pile-
driving; there is no land fit for
agriculture or the rearing of
cattle; the sole food supply is
fish from the lagoon, arid there
is no drinking-water save such as
could be stored from the rain-
fall.
The whole site of Venice is
dominated by the existence of
one great main canal, the Grand
Canal, which, winding through
the town in the shape of the let-
ter S, divides it into two equal
parts. This great canal was prob-
ably at one time the bed of a
river flowing into the lagoons
^^ near Mestre. The smaller canals
VENICE, SHOWING THE" BRIDGE OF a11 serve as arteries to the Grand
SIGHS. JOINING THE DUCAL PALACE Canal and their windings follow
TO THE STATE PRISON, BUILT BY the lines Of Construction OHgi-
CONTINO IN THE 16TH CENTURY nauy determined by the channels
which traversed the islands of the lagoon. One other broad canal,
once the bed of the Brenta, divides the island of the Giudccca from
the rest of the city and takes its name from that island. The
alleys or calli number 2,327, with a total length of 89^ m.; the
canals number 177 and measure 28 m. The ordinary Venetian
house was built round a courtyard, and was one storey high; on
the roof was an open loggia for drying clothes; in front, between
the house and the water, ran the fondamenta or quay. The earliest
churches were built with cemeteries for the dead; and thus we
find the nucleus of the city of Venice, little isolated groups of
dwellings each on its separate islet, scattered, as Cassiodorus,
secretary to Theodoric the Great, says, in a letter dated A.D. 523,
like sea-birds' nests over the face of the waters. Some of the islets
were then still uninhabited, overrun with a dense low growth
which served as cover for game and even for wolves.
Gondolas. — The characteristic conveyances on the canals of
Venice are the gondolas, flat-bottomed boats, some 30 ft. long
by 4 or 5 ft. wide, curving out of the water at the ends, with
ornamental bow and stern pieces and an iron beak (ferro), re-
sembling a halberd, which is the highest part of the boat. The
gondolier stands on a poppa at the stern with his face towards
the bow, and propels the gondola with a single oar. There is a
low cabin (felze) for passengers; the ordinary gondolas can take
four or six persons, and larger ones (barca or battello} take eight.
Gondolas are mentioned as far back as 1094, and, prior to a
sumptuary edict passed by the great council in 1562 making black
their compulsory colour, they were very different in appearance
from now. Instead of the present boat, with its heavy black
cabin and absence of colouring, the older forms had an awning of
rich stuffs or gold embroideries, supported on a light arched
framework open at both ends; this is the gondola still seen in
Carpaccio's and Gentile Bellini's pictures (c. 1500). There are
also frequent steamer services along the Grand Canal to the Lido
and the other islands of the lagoon.
Byzantine Architecture.— We can trace the continuous
growth of Venice through the successive styles of Byzantine,
Gothic, early Renaissance and late Renaissance architecture. (See
Ruskin's Stones of Venice.) The two most striking buildings in
Venice, St. Mark's and the Doge's Palace, at once give us an
example of the two earlier styles, the Byzantine and the Gothic,
at least in their general design, though both are so capricious in
development and in decoration that they may more justly be
considered as unique specimens rather than as typical examples
of their respective styles. In truth, owing to its isolated position
VENICE
57
on the very verge of Italy, and to its close connection with the
East, Venetian architecture was a distinctly independent develop-
ment.*
St. Mark's. — The church of St. Mark's, originally the private
chapel of the doge, is unique in respect of its richness of material
and decoration. It was adorned with the spoils of countless other
buildings, both in the East and on the Italian mainland. A law
of the republic required every merchant trading to the East to
bring back some material for the adornment of the fane. Indeed,
the building is a museum of sculpture of the most varied kind,
nearly every century from the 4th down to the latest Renaissance
being represented. The present church is the third on this site.
Soon after the concentration at Rialto (see History below), a
small wooden church was erected about the year 828 for the re-
ception of the relics of St. Mark, brought from Alexandria. St.
Mark then became the patron saint of Venice in place of St.
Theodore. This church was burned in 976 along with the ducal
palace in the insurrection against the Doge Candiano IV. Pietro
Orseolo and his successors rebuilt it on a larger scale. About 1063
the Doge Contarini began to remodel St. Mark's, Byzantine archi-
tects having a large share in the work: but Lombards were also
employed, giving birth to a new style, peculiar to the district.
In plan (see the article ARCHITECTURE) St. Mark's is a Greek
cross of equal arms, covered by a dome in the centre, 42 ft. in
diameter, and by a dome over each of the arms. The plan is
derived from the Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople,
now covered by the mosque of Mahommed II., and bears a strong
resemblance to the plan of St. Front at Perigueux in France
(1120). The addition of a narthex before the main front and a
vestibule on the northern side brings the whole western arm of
the cross to a square on plan. In elevation the fagade seems to
have connection with the five-bayed fagade of the Kahriyeh Jame,
or mosaic mosque, at Constantinople. The exterior facade is en-
riched with marble columns brought from Alexandria and other
cities of the East. Mosaics are employed to decorate the span-
drils of the arches. Only one of the original mosaics now exists.
It represents the translation of the body of St. Mark, and gives
us a view of the west facade of the church as it was at the be-
ginning of the 1 3th century before the addition of the ogee gables.
The top of the narthex forms a wide gallery, communicating with
the interior at the triforium level. In the centre of this gallery
stand the four colossal bronze horses which belonged to some
Graeco-Roman triumphal quadriga, and were brought to Venice
by the Doge Enrico Dandolo in 1 204. The south facade was recon-
structed in 1865-78.
Mosaic is the essential decoration of the church, and the archi-
tectural details are subordinated to the colour scheme. The old-
est remaining belong to the i2th century, and many of them, for
example those of the domes of the atrium, are among the finest
of their kind; but the greater part have been restored in the
i6th-i9th centuries. Below the mosaics the walls and arches
are covered with rare marbles, porphyries and alabaster from
ancient columns sawn into slices and so arranged in broad bands
as to produce a rich gamut of colour.
The eastern crypt, or confessio, extends under the whole of the
choir and has three apses, like the upper church. Below the nave
is another crypt. The floors of both crypts have sunk consider-
ably and are often under water; this settlement accounts for the
inequalities of the pavement. The original part of the magnificent
mosaic pavement probably dates from the same period as the
pavement at Murano, exactly similar in style, material and work-
manship, which bears the date 1140. The pavement consists
partly of opus Alexandrinum of red and green porphyry mixed
with marbles, partly of tessellated work of glass and marble.
The choir stands about 4 ft. above the nave and is separated
from it by a marble rood-screen, on the architrave of which stand
fourteen figures, the signed work of Jacobello and Pietro Paolo
delle Masegne, 1394.
The Pala d'oro, or retable of the high altar (within which
rests the body of St. Mark), is one of the chief glories of St.
Mark's. It is one of the most magnificent specimens of gold-
smiths' and jewellers' work in existence. It was ordered in 976
at Constantinople by the Doge Pietro I. Orseolo, and was en-
larged and enriched with gems and modified in form, first by a
Greek artificer in 1105, and then by Venetians between 1209 and
1345. It is composed of figures of Christ, angels, prophets and
saints, in Byzantine enamel run into gold plates. The treasury
of St. Mark's contains magnificent church plate and jewels.
Byzantine Palaces; — Fine examples of Venetian Byzantine
palaces — at least of the facades — are still to be seen on the
Grand Canal and in some of the small canals. The interiors have
been modified past recognition of their original disposition. The
Byzantine palace seems to have had twin angle-towers — such as
those of the Ca' Molin on the Riva degli Schiavoni, where Pe-
trarch lived. The Fondaco dei Turchi (i3th century), now the
Natural History Museum, also has two angle-towers. The fa-
gades presented continuous colonnades on each floor with semi-
circular high stilted arches, leaving a very small amount of wall
space. The buildings were usually battlemented in fantastic
form. A good specimen may be seen in Lazzaro Sebastiani's pic-
ture of the piazzetta, in the Museo Civico. There on the right we
see the handsome building of the old bakery, occupying the site
of the present library; it has two arcades of Saracenic arches and
a fine row of battlements. Other specimens still in existence are
Palazzo Loredan and Palazzo Farsetti (now the municipal build-
ings), and the splendid Palazzo *Da Mosto, all on the Grand
Canal. The richest ornamentation was applied to the arches and
string courses while plaques of sculpture, roundels and coats of
arms adorned the facades. The remains of a Byzantine facade
now almost entirely built into a wall in the Rio di Ca' Foscari
offer us excellent illustration of this elaborate style of decorative
work.
Gothic Architecture. — Venetian Gothic, both ecclesiastical
and domestic, shares most of the characteristics of north Italian
Gothic generally. The material, brick and terra-cotta, is the
determining cause of the characteristics of north Italian Gothic.
The Ducal Palace.— Soon after the concentration at Rialto
the doge Angelo Particiaco began an official residence for the head
of the state, a small, strongly fortified castle; one of its massive
angle-towers is now incorporated in St. Mark's and serves as the
treasury. It was burnt in 976 and again in 1106. Sebastian Ziani
(1173-1179) restored and enlarged the palace. Of his work some
traces still remain in the richly sculptured bands built in at inter-
vals along the 14th-century facade on the Rio, and part of the
handsome larch-wood beams which formed the loggia of the
piazzetta facade, still visible on the inner wall of the present
loggia. The palace was begun by Pietro Gradenigo in 1309.
TYPICAL CANAL SCENE IN VENICE. THE "QUEEN OF THE ADRIATIC," A
CITY OF CANALS AND BRIDGES. THERE ARE 177 CANALS. SPANNED BY
MORE THAN 4OO BRIDGES. AND GONDOLAS TAKE THE PLACE OF CARRIAGES
AND MOTORS
Towards the end of the i4th century, this facade, with its lower
colonnade, upper loggia with handsome Gothic tracery, and the
vast impending upper storey, which give to the whole building
its striking appearance and audacious design, had been carried as
far as the tenth column on the piazzetta side. In 1424 the building
was resumed and carried as far as the north-west angle, near St.
Mark's, thus completing the sea and piazzetta fagades of two
storeys with open colonnades, forming a long loggia on the ground
VENICE
and first floors, with seventeen arches on the sea front and eighteen
on the other faqade. Above this is a lofty third storey, pierced
with a few large windows, with pointed arches once filled with
tracery, which is how lost. The whole surface of the ponderous
upper storey is covered with a diaper pattern in slabs of creamy
white Istrian stone and red Verona marble, giving a delicate rosy-
orange hue to the building. Very beautiful sculpture, executed
with an ivory-like minuteness of finish, is used to decorate the
whole building with wonderful profusion. The great gateway, the
Porta della Carta, was added in 1439-43 from designs by Gio-
vanni Buon and his son Bartolomeo. The block of buildings
in the interior, connecting the Porta della Carta with the Rio wing,
was added about 1462. Later a tire consumed the earlier build-
ings along the Rio, which were replaced by the present structure.
The great internal court is surrounded with a reading. From the
interior of the court access is given to the upper loggia by a very
beautiful early Renaissance staircase, built in 1484-1501 by
Antonio Rizzo. Two colossal statues of Neptune and Mars at
the top of these stairs were executed by Jacopo Sansovino in 1554
— hence the name "giants' staircase." Owing to the fire of 1574,
the fine series of early Paduan and Venetian frescoes in the chief
rooms was lost. At present the magnificent council chambers for
the different legislative bodies of the Venetian republic and the
state apartments of the doges are highly decorated with gilt carv-
ing and panelling in the style of the later Renaissance. On the
walls of the chief council chambers are a magnificent series of
oil-paintings by Tintoretto and others — among them his master-
piece, "Bacchus and Ariadne," and his enormous picture of Para-
disc, the largest oil-painting in the world.
Gothic Churches and Palaces. — Among the many Gothic
churches of Venice the largest arc the Franciscan church of Santa
Maria Gloriosa dei Frari (begun in 1338), and the Dominican
church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo (1246-1430). The Frari is re-
markable for its splendid works of art, including Titian's famous
Assumption of the Virgin, and its fine choir-stalls and for the
series of six eastern chapels which from outside give a very good
example of Gothic brickwork, comparable with the even finer
apse of the now desecrated church of San Gregorio. The church
of SS. Giovanni e Paolo was the usual burying-place of the doges,
and contains many noble mausoleums of various dates. Besides
these two churches we may mention Santo Stefano, an interesting
building of central Gothic, "the best ecclesiastical example of it
in Venice." The west entrance is later than the rest of the edifice
and is of the richest Renaissance Gothic, a little earlier than the
Porta della Carta.
But it is in the domestic architecture of Venice that we find the
most striking and characteristic examples of Gothic. The intro-
duction of that style coincided with the consolidation of the
Venetian constitution and the development of Venetian com-
merce both in the Levant and with England and Flanders.
The finest example of the ogival style is undoubtedly the Ca'
d'Oro, so-called from the profusion of gold employed on its facade.
It was built for Marino Contarini in 1422-40, a comparatively
late date. With a fine collection of pictures and furniture, it was
given to the State by Baron Franchetti in 1916.
Contarini was to some extent his own architect. He had the
assistance of Marco d' Amadeo, a master-builder, and of Matteo
Reverti, a Milanese sculptor, who were joined later on by Giovanni
Buon and his son Bartolomeo. By the year 1431 the facade was
nearly completed, and Contarini made a bargain with Martino and
Giovanni Benzon for the marbles to cover what was yet unfinished.
But Contarini was not content to leave the marbles as they were.
He desired to have the facade of his house in colour. The con-
tract for this work, signed with Master Zuan de Franza, conjures
up a vision of the Ca' d' Oro ablaze with colour and gleaming with
the gold ornamentation from which it took its name.
Other notable examples are the Palazzo Ariani at San Raffaelle,
with its handsome window in a design of intersecting circles; the
beautiful window with the symbols of the four Evangelists in the
spandrils, in the facade of a house at San Stae; the row of three
Giustinian palaces at S, Barnaba; the Palazzo Priuli at San
Severo, with a remarkably graceful angle-window, where the
columnar mullion carries down the angle of the wall; the flam-
boyant balconies of the Palazzo Contarini Fasan; the Palazzo
Bernardo on a side canal near S. Polo, a late central Gothic build-
ing (1380-1400).
Early Renaissance. — Towards the close of the isth century
Venetian architecture began to feel the influence of the classical
revival; but, lying far from Rome and retaining still her connec-
tion with the East, Venice 'did not fall under the sway of the
classical ideals either so quickly or so completely as most Italian
cities. Indeed, in this as in the earlier styles, Venice struck out
a line for herself and developed a style of her own, known as
Lombardesque, after the family of the Lombardi (Solan) who
came from Carona on the Lake of Lugano. The essential point
about the style is that it is intermediary between Venetian Gothic
and full Renaissance. We find it retaining some traces of Byzan-
tine influence in the decorated surfaces of applied marbles, and
in the roundels of porphyry and verde antico, while it also retained
certain characteristics of Gothic, as, for instance, in the pointed
arches of the Renaissance facade in the courtyard of the ducal
palace designed by Antonio Rizzo (1499).
Churches. — The most perfect example of this style in eccle-
siastical architecture is the little church of S. Maria dei Miracoli
begun by Pietro Lombardo in 1481. The church is without aisles,
and has a semicircular roof, and the choir is raised twelve steps
above the floor of the nave. The walls, both internally and ex-
ternally, are encrusted with marbles. The facade has the char-
acteristic circular pediment with a large west window surrounded^
by three smaller windows separated by two ornamental roundels
in coloured marble and of geometric design. Below the pediment
comes an arcade with flat pilasters, which runs all round the ex-
terior of the church. Two of the bays contain round-headed
windows; the other three are filled in with white marble adorned
by crosses and roundels in coloured marble.
Similar results are obtained in the magnificent facade of the
Scuola di San Marco, at SS. Giovanni e Paolo, which has six semi-
circular pediments of varying size crowning the six bays, in the
upper order of which are four noble Romanesque windows. The
lower order contains the handsome portal with a semicircular
pediment, while four of the remaining bays are filled with quaint
scenes in surprisingly skilful perspective. The facade of San
Zaccaria (1458-1515), the stately design of Anton Marco Gam-
bello and Mauro Coducci, offers some slight modifications in the
use of the semicircular pediment, the line of the aisle roof being
indicated by quarter-circle pediments abutting on the faqade of
the nave. San Salvatore, the work of Tullio Lombardo (1530), is
severer and less highly ornamented than the preceding examples,
but its plan is singularly impressive, giving the effect of great
space in a comparatively small area. In this connection we must
mention the Scuola of S. Giovanni Evangelista at the Frari, with
its fore-court and screen adorned by pilasters delicately decorated
with foliage in low relief, and its noble staircase whose double
flights unite on a landing under a shallow cupola. This also was
the work of Pietro Lombardo and his son Tullio.
Early Renaissance palaces occur frequently in Venice and form
a pleasing contrast with those in the Gothic style. The Palazzo
Dario with its dedication, Urbis genio, and the Vendramin-
Calergi or Non nobis palace, whose fagade is characterized by its
round-headed windows of grouped twin lights between columns,
are among the more important; though beautiful specimens, such
as the Palazzo Trevisan on the Rio della Paglia, and the Palazzo
Corner Reali at the Fava, are to be found all over the city.
Later Renaissance. — In this period architecture in Venice
lacks any peculiarly individual imprint. It is still characterized
by great splendour; indeed, the library of San Marco, begun by
Jacopo Sansovino in 1536, is justly considered the most sump-
tuous example of Renaissance architecture in the world. It is
rich, ornate, yet hardly florid, distinguished by splendid effects
of light and shade, obtained by a far bolder use of projections
than had hitherto been found in the somewhat flat design of
Venetian facades.
The old Procuratie were built by Bartolomeo Buon about 1514,
the new by Scamozzi in 1580, yet it is clear that each belongs
VENICE
59
to an entirely different world of artistic ideas. The Procuratie
Vecchie is perhaps the longest arcaded fagade in the world and
certainly shows the least amount of wall space; the whole design
is simple, the moulding and ornamentation severe. The Procuratie
Nuove, which after all is merely ScamozzFs continuation of San-
sovino's library, displays all the richness of that ornate building.
It contains the museum of ancient sculpture, founded by Cardinal
Domenico Grimani in 1523.
Among the churches of this period those of San Giorgio Mag-
giore and of the Redentore are both by Palladio. In 1631 Baldas-
sare Longhena began the tine church of Santa Maria della Salute.
With a large and handsome dome, a secondary cupola over the
altar, and a striking portal and flight of steps, it occupies one of
the most conspicuous sites in Venice on the point of land that
separates the mouth of the Guidccca from the Grand Canal. In
plan it is an octagon with chapels projecting one on each side.
The fagades of San Moise and of Santa Maria del Giglio are good
specimens of the baroque style.
Among the palaces of the later Renaissance the more remark-
able are Sansovino's Palazzo Corner della Ca' Grande, Long-
hena's massive and imposing Palazzo Pesaro, the Palazzo Rez-
zonico, from designs by Longhena with the third storey added by
Massari, Sammicheli's Palazzo Corner Mocenigo at San Polo, and
Massari's well-proportioned and dignified Palazzo Grassi at San
Samuele, built in 1705-45.
Modern Buildings. — In recent times the general prosperity
of the city has brought about a revival of domestic and civic
architecture both in the Venetian Gothic and the Renaissance
Lombardesque style.
Among the most remarkable buildings in Venice are the scuole,
or gild halls, of the various confraternities. The six scuole grandi,
San Teodoro, S. Maria della Carita, S. Giovanni Evangelista, San
Marco, della Misericordia and San Rocco, built themselves mag-
nificent gild halls. The Scuola di San Marco is now a part of the
town hospital, and besides its facade, it is remarkable for the
handsome carved ceiling in the main hall (1463). Other beautiful
ceilings are to be found in the great hall and the hall of the
Albergo in the Scuola della Carita, now the Accademia containing
the famous picture gallery, with a number of works returned by
Austria in 1919 by Marco Cozzi of Vicenza. But the most mag-
nificent of these gild halls is the Scuola di San Rocco, designed
by Bartolomeo Buon in 1517 and carried out by Scarpagnino and
Sante Lombardo. The facade on the Campo is large and pure in
conception. The great staircase and the lower and upper halls
contain an unrivalled series of paintings by Tintoretto.
Campanili. — Among the more striking features, of Venice we
must reckon the campanili or bell-towers. (See CAMPANILE.)
These were at one time more numerous, earthquakes and sub-
sidence of foundations have brought many of them down, the
latest to fall being the great tower of San Marco itself, which col-
lapsed on July 14, 1902. Its reconstruction was at once under-
taken, and completed in 1912, together with that of Sansovino's
beautiful Loggetta, on its east side. In a few other cases, for
example at San Giorgio Maggiore, the fallen campanili were
restored; but for the most part they were not replaced. The
Venetian campanile usually stands detached from the church. It
is almost invariably square. The campanile is usually a plain
brick shaft with shallow pilasters running up the faces. It has
small angle-windows to light the interior inclined plane or stair-
case, and is hot broken into storeys with grouped windows as
in the case of the Lombard bell-towers. Above the shaft comes
the arcaded bell-chamber, frequently built of Istrian stone; and
above that again the attic, either round or square or octagonal,
carrying either a cone or a pyramid or a cupola. Among the exist-
ing campanili the oldest are San Geremia, dating from the nth
century, San Samuele from the i2th, San Barnaba and San Zac-
caria from the i3th.
Public Monuments. — Venetian sculpture is for the most part
ancillary to architecture; for example, Antonio Rizzo's "Adam"
and "Eve" (1464), which face the giants'-staircase in the ducal
palace, are parts of the decorative scheme; Sansovino's splendid
monument to Tomaso Rangone is an essential feature of the
facade of San Giuliano. The most successful Venetian sculpture
is to be found in the many noble sepulchral private 'monuments.
The jealousy of the Venetian republic forbade the erection of
monuments to her great men. The sole exception is the superb
equestrian statue in honour of the General Bartolomeo Colleoni,
standing on the Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo. It is by the Flo-
rentine Verrocchio, and was cast by Alessandro Leopardi, who
was responsible for the graceful pedestal. Leopardi was also
the creator (1505) of the three handsome bronze sockets in
front of St. Mark's which held the flagstaffs of the banners of
Cyprus, Morea and Crete, when the republic ruled them.
By the side of the sea in the piazzetta, on to which the west
facade of the ducal palace faces, stand two ancient columns of
Egyptian granite, brought as trophies to Venice by Doge Dome-
nico Michieli in 1 126. In 1 180 they were set up with their present
fine capitals and bases. The grey column is surmounted by a fine
bronze lion of Byzantine style, cast in Venice for Doge Ziani
about 1178 and in 1329 a marble statue of St. Theodore, standing
upon a crocodile, was placed on the other column.
PAINTING
Painting developed relatively late in Venice, as is shown by
the dates of the activity of Giacomo Bellini (1424-1470) and his
sons Gentile (1429-1507) and Giovanni (1459-1516) of the
Vivarini family of Murano (1440-1505) and of Vittore Car-
paccio (1482-^. 1527). The greatest artists of the Venetian school
are Titian (i477?-i576) and Tintoretto (1518-94): but Palma
Vecchio (c. 1480-1528), Bonifacio, Paris Bordone, and Paolo
Veronese are also important. Of later masters we may name
Tiepolo, Canaletto and Guardi (qq.v.).
Institutions. — The arsenal was founded about the year 1104
by the doge Ordelap Falier. In 1304, on the design of Andrea
Pisano, new building sheds and the rope walk were erected.
Pisano's building sheds, nine in a row, with peculiarly shaped
roofs, were still standing intact — until recently, but have been
modified. In 1325 the second addition, the arsenale nuovo, was
made, and a third, the arsenale nuovissimo, in 1473; a fourth, the
Riparto ddle Galeazze, about 1539; and in 1564 the fifth enlarge-
ment, the Canal delle Galeazze e Vasca, took place. The entire
circuit of the arsenal, about two miles in extent, is protected by
a lofty wall with turrets. The main door of the arsenal is the first
example in Venice of the purely classical style. It is a noble portal,
erected in 1460, from designs by Fra Giocondo, with the lion of
St. Mark in the attic. The statuary, with S. Giustina on the sum-
mit of the tympanum, was added in 1571 and 1578. The whole
design was modified in 1688 so as to represent a triumphal arch
in honour of Morosini Peloponnesiaco, who brought from Athens
to Venice the four lions in Pentelic marble which now stand
before the gate. (On the largest of these lions is cut a runic in-
scription recording an attack on the Piraeus in the nth century by
Norse warriors of the Varangian guard, under Harold Hardrada,
afterwards — 1047 — king of Norway.) The arsenal suffered fre-
quently and severely from fires, the worst being those of 1509
and 1569; yet such was the wealth of Venice that her fleet crushed
the Turks at Lepanto in 1571.
The Lido, which lies about 2 m. S.E. of Venice and divides the
lagoon from the sea, has become a fashionable bathing-place. The
point of San Nicolo del Lido is strongly fortified to protect the
new entrance to the port. Inside the fortress lies the old
Protestant burying-ground.
Libraries. — The library of San Marco contains upwards of
400,000 printed volumes and about 13,000 manuscripts. We may
date the true foundation of the library to the donation of Cardinal
Bessarion. The principal treasures of the collection, including
splendid Byzantine book-covers, the priceless codices of Homer,
the Grimani Breviary, an early Dante, etc., are exhibited under
cases in the Sala Bessarione in the Zecca or mint where the
library has been installed. Another library was left to the public
by the munificence of Count Quirini-Stampalia, who bequeathed
his collections and his house at Santa Maria Formosa to be held
in trust for students. The state archives are housed in the Fran-
ciscan monastery at the Frari.
6o
VENICE
Harbour. — Under the republic commercial shipping used to
enter Venice by the port of San Nicolo del Lido and lie along the
quay called the Riva degli Schiavoni, in the basin of San Marco,
and up the broad Giudecca Canal. But the mouth of the Lido
entrance gradually silted up and, when trade expanded, the Italian
Government resolved to reopen it. Two moles were run out in
a south-westerly direction; the westerly is about 2 m., the easterly
about 3 m. in length. The natural scour thus created has given
a depth of 26 ft. of water through the sand-bank. The mean rise
and fall of the tide is about 2 ft., but under certain conditions of
wind the variation amounts to 5 ft. and over. Docks were con-
structed near the railway station, but in 1917 plans were made
for a new port for Venice on the mainland, at Marghcra, south of
the railway line to Padua; in 1922 the canal of approach was
opened by King Victor Emmanuel, and named in his honour, and
in 1924 the construction of the main works was begun. The port,
when finished, will cover twice the area of Venice itself, and will
consist of parallel moles 3,000 ft. long with docks of 600 to 800 ft.
between. Two moles will be built at lirst, with isolated jetties on
the canal for oil ships. With the existing docks in Venice this will
give the port a capacity of 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 tons a year.
It is hoped that the industrial area, which is being built behind
the docks, will create a considerable volume of trade. Behind
the industrial area again a garden suburb to house 30,000 is being
brought into existence by the municipality. Special customs facili-
ties have been granted for the encouragement of trade in the new
port. In 1926 6,722 ships of a total tonnage of 5,785,424 entered
and cleared the port, disembarking 1,676,750 tons of merchandise,
and embarking 232,652, and dealing with 76,199 passengers.
The ancient glass-bead industry (conterie), has regained its
position through the union of the different factories. Venetian
beads are now sent in large quantities to the various colonies in
Africa, and to India, Sumatra and Borneo. Similarly, the glass
industry has revived. New amalgams and methods of colouring
have been discovered, and fresh forms have been diligently studied.
Special progress has been made in the production of mirrors,
electric lamps, candelabra and mosaics. New industries are those
of tapestry, brocades, imitation of ancient stuffs, cloth of silver
and gold, and Venetian laces for the manufacture of which there
is a government school, with 500 girl pupils. (See LACE.)
Population and Administration. — In 1548 the population
of Venice numbered 158,069; in 1607-29, 142,804; in 1706, 140,-
256; in 1785, 139,095; in 1881, 132,826; in 1921 171,615. The
city is extremely healthy, and the climate naturally mild.
Under the republic, and until modern times, the water supply
of Venice was furnished by the storage of rain-water supple-
mented by water brought from the Brenta in boats. The
famous Venetian pozzi, or wells for storing rain-water from the
roofs and streets, consisted of a closed basin with a water-tight
stratum of clay at the bottom, upon which a slab of stone was
laid; a brick shaft of radiating bricks laid in a permeable jointing
material of clay and sand was then built. On the ground-level
perforated stones set at the four corners of the basin admitted the
rain-water, which was discharged from the roofs by lead pipes;
this water filtered through the sand and percolated into the shaft
of the well, whence it was drawn in copper buckets. The present
water supply comes from S. Ambrogio near Padova, 20 m. away.
Of the 19,000 houses in Venice only 6,000 have drains and
sinks, all the others discharge sewage through pipes directly or
indirectly. into the canals. With the rise and fall of the tide the
discharge pipes are flushed at the bottom. An important investi-
gation undertaken by the Bacterioscopicai Laboratory, with regard
to the pollution of the Venetian canals by the city sewage, led
to the discovery that the water of the lagoons possesses auto-
purifying power, not only in the large canals but even in the
smallest ramifications of the waterways.
The church is ruled by the patriarch of Venice, who is usually
raised to the purple. The patriarchate dates from 1451, when on
the death of Domenico Michiel, patriarch of Grado, its seat of
that honour was transferred to the cathedral church of Castello in
Venice, and Michiel's successor, Lorenzo Giustinian, assumed the
title of patriarch of Venice. On the fall of the republic St. Mark's
became the cathedral church of the patriarch. There are thirty
parishes in the city of Venice and fifteen in the lagoon islands and
on the littoral. (X.)
HISTORY
It is usually affirmed that the State of Venice owes its origin
to the barbarian invasions of north Italy; that it was founded by
refugees from the mainland cities who sought refuge from the
Huns in the impregnable shallows and mud banks of the lagoons.
Venice, like Rome and other famous cities, was an asylum city.
But it is nearly certain that long before Attila and his Huns
swept down upon the Venetian plain in the middle of the fifth
century, the little islands of the lagoon already had a population
of poor but hardy fisherfolk living in quasi-independence, thanks
to their poverty and their inaccessible site. This population was
augmented from time to time by refugees from the mainland
cities of Aquileia, Concordia, Opitergium, Altinum and Patavium.
But these did not mingle readily with the indigenous population ;
as each wave of barbarian invasion fell back, these refugees re-
turned to their mainland homes, and it required the pressure of
many successive incursions to induce them finally to abandon the
mainland for the lagoon, a decision which was not reached till the
Lombard invasion of 568. On each occasion, no doubt, some of the
refugees remained behind in the islands, and gradually built and
peopled the 12 lagoon townships, which formed the germ of the
State of Venice and were subsequently concentrated at Rialto or in
the city we now know as Venice. These 12 townships were Grado,
Bibione, Caorle, Jesolo, Heraclea, Torcello, Murano, Rialto, Ma-
lamocco, Poveglia, Chioggia and Sottomarina. The effect of the
final Lombard invasion is shown by the resolve to quit the main-
land and the rapid building of churches which is recorded by the
Cronaca altinate. The people who finally abandoned the main-
land and took their priests with them are the people who made
the Venetian republic. But they were not as yet homogeneous.
Independence. — There is little doubt that the original lagoon
population depended for its administration, as far as it had any,
upon the larger cities of the mainland. There is a tradition that
Venice was founded by "consuls from Padua"; and Padua claimed
complete control of the course of the Brenta down to its mouth
at Malamocco. The destruction of the mainland cities, and the
flight of their leading inhabitants to the lagoons, encouraged the
lagoon population to assert a growing independence, and led
them to advance the doctrine that they were "born independent."
Their development as a maritime people, engaged in small trading
and intimately acquainted with their home waters, led Belisarius
to seek their help in his task of recovering Italy from the Goths.
He was successful; and the lagoons became, theoretically at least,
a part of the Eastern empire. But the empire was vast and weak,
and its capital lay far away; in practice, no doubt, the lagoon
population enjoyed virtual independence.
. It was from Byzantium that the Venetian people received the
first recognition of their existence as a separate community.
Their maritime importance compelled Narses, the imperial com-
mander, to seek their aid in transporting his army from Grado;
and when the Paduans appealed to the Eunuch to restore their
rights over the Brenta, the Venetians replied by declaring that
islands of the lagoon and the river mouths that fell into the
estuary were the property of those who had rendered them habit-
able and serviceable. Narses declined to intervene, Padua was
powerless to enforce its claims and Venice established a virtual
independence of the mainland. Nor was it long before Venice
made a similar assertion to the imperial representative, Longinus,
who invited the Venetians to give him an escort to Constantinople
(which they did) and also to acknowledge themselves subjects
of the empire. By dint of promising large concessions and trading
privileges, he induced the Venetians to make an act of submission
— though not upon oath. The terms of this pact resulted in the
first diploma conferred on Venice as a separate community (584).
But it was inevitable that, when the barbarians, Lombard or
Frank, were once established on the mainland of Italy, Venice
should be brought first into trading and then into political rela-
tions with its near neighbours, who as masters of Italy also put
forward a claim to sovereignty in the lagoons. It is between the
VENICE
61
two claims of east and west that Venice struggled for and
achieved recognized independence.
Internal Fusion and Consolidation. — In 466, 14 years after
the fall of Aquileia, the population of the 12 lagoon townships
met at Grado for the election of one tribune from each island for
the better government of the separate communities, and above
all to put an end to rivalries which had already begun to play
a disintegrating part. But when the lagoon population was largely
augmented in 568 as the result of Alboin's invasion, these jealous-
ies were accentuated, and in 584 it was found expedient to appoint
12 other tribunes, known as the Tribuni Maiores, who formed a
kind of central committee to deal with all matters affecting the
general weal of the lagoon communities. But the Tribuni Maiores
were equally powerless to allay the jealousies of the growing town-
ships which formed the lagoon community. Rivalry in fishing and
in trading, coupled with ancient antipathies inherited from the
various mainland cities of origin, were no doubt the cause of these \
internecine feuds. A crisis was reached when Christopher, patri- i
arch of Grado, convened the people of the lagoon at Heraclea,
and urged them to suppress the 1 2 tribunes and to choose a single
head of the State. To this they agreed, and in 697 Venice elected
her first doge, Paulo Lucio Anafesto.
The growing importance of the lagoon townships, owing to their
maritime skill, their expanding trade, created by their position
between east and west, their monopoly of salt and salted fish,
which gave them a strong position in the mainland markets, ren-
dered it inevitable that a clash must come over the question of
independence, when either east or west should claim that Venice
belonged to them; and inside the lagoons of growing prosperity,
coupled with the external threat to their liberties, concentrated the
population into two well-defined parties — what may be called the
aristocratic party, because it leaned towards imperial Byzantium
and also displayed a tendency to make the dogeship hereditary,
and the democratic party, connected with the original population
of the lagoons, aspiring to free institutions, and consequently lean-
ing more towards the Church and the Prankish kingdom which
protected the Church. The aristocratic party was captained by
the township of Heraclea, which had given the first doge, Anafesto,
to the newly formed community. The democratic party was cham-
pioned first by Jesolo and then by Malamocco.
The Franks. — The advent of the Franks determined the final
solution. The Emperor Leo, the Isaurian, came to open rupture
with Pope Gregory II. over the question of images. The pope
appealed to Liutprand, the powerful king of the Lombards, to at-
tack the imperial possessions in Ravenna. He did so, and expelled
the exarch Paul, who took refuge in Venice and was restored to
his post by the doge of the Heradean or Byzantine party, Orso,
who in return for this assistance received the imperial title of
hypatos, and trading rights in Ravenna. The pope, however, soon
had cause for alarm at the spread of the Lombard power which he
had encouraged. Liutprand proceeded to occupy territory in the
Ducato Romano. The pope, looking about for a saviour, cast his
eyes on Charles Martel, whose victory at Tours had riveted the
attention of the world. Charles's son, Pippin, was crowned king
of Italy, entered the peninsula at the head of the Franks, defeated
the Lombards, took Ravenna and presented it to the pope, while
retaining a feudal superiority. Desiderius, the last Lombard king,
endeavoured to recover Ravenna. Charlemagne, Pippin's son, de-
scended upon Italy, broke up the Lombard kingdom (774), con-
firmed his father's donation to the pope, and in reprisals for Vene-
tian assistance to the exarch, ordered the pope to expel the Vene-
tians from the Pentapolis. Venice was now brought face to face
with the Franks under their powerful sovereign, who soon showed
that he intended to claim the lagoons as part of his new king-
dom. In Venice the result of this menace was a decided reaction
towards Byzantium, In opposition to the Frankish claim, Venice
resolved to affirm her dependence on the Eastern empire. But
the democratic party, the Frankish party in Venice, was powerful.
Feeling ran high. A crisis was rapidly approaching. The Byzan-
tine Doge Giovanni Galbaio attacked Grado, the see of the Fran-
cophil Patriarch Giovanni, captured it, and flung the bishop from
the tower of his palace. But the murdered patriarch was suc-
ceeded by his no less Francophil nephew Fortunatus, a strong
partisan, a restless and indomitable man, who along with Obelerio
of Malamocco now assumed the lead of the democratic party
He and his followers plotted the murder of the doge, were dis-
covered, and sought safety at the court of Charlemagne, where
Fortunatus strongly urged the Franks to attack the lagoons.
Meantime the internal politics of Venice had been steadily
preparing the way for the approaching fusion at Rialto. The
period from the election of the first doge to the appearance
of the Franks was characterized by fierce struggles between
Heraclea and Jesolo. At length the whole population agreed
to fix their capital at Malamocco, a compromise between the
two incompatible parties, marking an important step towards
final fusion at Rialto.
That central event of early Venetian history was reached
when Pippin resolved to make good his title as king of Italy.
He turned his attention to the lagoon of Venice, which had
been steadily growing in commercial and maritime importance,
and had, on the whole, shown a sympathy for Byzantium rather
than for the Franks. Pippin determined to subdue the lagoons.
He gathered a fleet at Ravenna, captured Chioggia, and pushed
on up the Lido towards the capital of the lagoons at Malamocco.
But the Venetians, in face of the danger, once more moved their
capital, this time to Rialto, that group of islands we now call
Venice, lying in mid-lagoon between the lidi and the mainland.
This step was fatal to Pippin's designs. The intricate water-ways
and the stubborn Venetian defence baffled all his attempts to
reach Rialto; the summer heats came on; the Lido was unhealthy.
Pippin was forced to retire. A treaty between Charlemagne and
Nicephorus (810) recognized the Venetians as subjects of the
Eastern empire, while preserving to them the trading rights on the
mainland of Italy which they had acquired under Liutprand.
The concentration at Rialto marks the beginning of the history
of Venice as a full-grown State. The external menace to their
independence had welded together the place and the people;
the same pressure had brought about the fusion of the conflicting
parties in the lagoon townships into one homogeneous whole.
There was for the future one Venice and one Venetian people
dwelling at Rialto, the city of compromise between the dangers
from the mainland, exemplified by Attila and Alboin, and the
perils from the sea, illustrated by Pippin's attack. The position
of Venice was now assured.
The first doge elected in Rialto was Angelo Particiaco, a
Heradean noble, and his reign was signalized by the building of
the first church of San Marco, and by the removal of the saint's
body from Alexandria, as though to affirm and to symbolize the
creation of united Venice.
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC
The history of Venice during the next 200 years is marked
externally by the growth of the city, thanks to her increasing
trade. In the mainland Venice gradually acquired trading rights,
partly by imperial diploma, partly by the establishment and the
supply of markets on the mainland rivers, the Sile and the Brenta.
Internally this period is characterized by the attempt of three
powerful families, the Particiachi, the Candiani and the Orseoli,
to create an hereditary dogeship, and the violent resistance offered
by the people. We find seven of the Particiachi, five Candiani and
three Orseoli reigning in almost unbroken succession, until, with
the ostracism of the whole Orseolo family in 1032, the dynastic
tendency was crushed for ever.
The growing wealth of Venice soon attracted the cupidity
of her piratical neighbours on the coast of Dalmatia. The swift
Liburnian vessels began to raid the Lido, compelling the Venetians
to arm their own vessels and thus to form the nucleus of their
famous fleet, the importance of which was recognized by the
Golden Bull of the Emperor Basil, which conferred on Venetian
merchants privileges far more extensive than any they had hitherto
enjoyed, on condition that the Venetian fleet was to be at
the disposition of the emperor. But the Dalmatian raids con-
tinued to harass Venetian trade, till, in 1000, the great doge
Pietro Orseolo II. attacked and captured Curzola and stormed
VENICE
the piratical stronghold of Lagosta, crushing the freebooters in
their citadel. The doge assumed the title of duke of Dalmatia,
and a great step was taken towards the supremacy of Venice in
the Adriatic, which was essential to the free development of her
commerce and also enabled her to reap the pecuniary advantages
to be derived from the Crusades. She now commanded the route
to the Holy Land and could supply the necessary transport, and
from the Crusades her growing aristocracy reaped large profits.
Orseolo's victory was commemorated and its significance affirmed
by the magnificent symbolical ceremony of the "wedding of the
sea" (Sposalizio del Mar), celebrated henceforward every Ascen-
sion day. The result of the first three crusades was that Venice
acquired trading rights, a Venetian quarter, church, market,
bakery, etc., in many of the Levant cities, e.g., in Sidon (1102)
and in Tyre (1123). The fall of Tyre marks a great advance
in development of Venetian trade; the republic had now passed
beyond the Adriatic, and had taken an important step towards
complete command of the Levant.
Rise of the Aristocracy. — This expansion of the trade of
Venice resulted in the rapid development of the wealthier classes,
with a growing tendency to draw together for the purpose of secur-
ing to themselves the entire direction of Venetian politics in order
to dominate Venetian commerce. To achieve their object, a double
line of conduct was imposed upon them: they had to absorb the
powers of the doge, and also to deprive the people of the voice
they possessed in the management of State affairs by their pres-
ence in the condone or general assembly of the whole community,
which was still the fountain of all authority. The first step
towards curtailing the power of the doge was taken in 1032,
when the family of the Orseoli was finally expelled from Venice
and the doge Domenico Flabianico was called to the throne. A
law was then passed forbidding for the future the election of a
doge-consort, a device by which the Particiachi, the Candiani
and the Orseoli had each of them nearly succeeded in carrying
out their dynastic ambitions. Further, two ducal councillors
were appointed to assist the doge, and he was compelled, not
merely permitted, to seek the advice of the more prominent citizens
at moments of crisis. By this reform two important offices in
the Venetian constitution — the privy council (consiglieri ducali)
and the senate (the pregadi or invited) — came into being. Both
were gradually developed on the lines desired by the aristocracy,
till we reach the year 1171.
The growth of Venetian trade and wealth in the Levant roused
the jealousy of Genoa and hostility of the imperial court at Con-
stantinople, where the Venetians are said to have numbered
200,000 and to have held a large quarter of the city in terror by
their brawls. The Emperor Manuel I., urged on by the Genoese
and other rivals of Venice, seized the pretext. The Venetians were
arrested and their goods confiscated. Popular feeling at Venice
ran so high that the State was rashly swept into war with the
empire. The doge Vitale Michicl II. led the expedition in person.
It proved a disastrous failure, and on the return of the shattered
remnants (1171) a great constitutional reform seemed necessary.
The Venetians resolved to create a deliberative assembly, which
should act with greater caution than the condone, which had
just landed the state in a ruinous campaign, Forty members
were elected in each of the six divisions of the city, giving a
body of 480 members, who served for one year and on retiring
named two deputies for each sesticre to nominate the council
for the succeeding year. This was the germ of the great council,
the Maggior Consiglio, which was rendered strictly oligarchic in
1296. As the duties of this council were to appoint all officers
of State, including the doge, it is clear that by its creation the
aristocracy had considerably curtailed the powers of the people,
who had hitherto elected the doge in general assembly; and at
the creation of Michiel's successor, Sebastiano Ziani (1172), the
new doge was presented to the people merely for confirmation.
The assembly protested, but was appeased by the empty for-
mula, "This is your doge an it please you." Moreover, still further
to limit the power of the doge, the number of ducal councillors
was raised from two to six. In 1198, on the election of Enrico
Dandolo, the aristocracy carried their policy one step farther,
and by the promissione ducale, or coronation oath, which every
doge was required to swear, they acquired a powerful weapon
for the suppression of all that remained of ancient ducal author-
ity. The promissione ducale was binding^ on the doge and his
family, and could be, and frequently was, altered at each new
election, a commission, Inquisitori sopra il doge defunto, being
appointed to scrutinize the actions of the deceased doge and to
add to the new oath whatever provisions they thought necessary
to reduce the dogeship to the position of a mere figurehead.
The 4th Crusade. — In spite of the check to their trade re-
ceived from the Emperor Manuel in 1171, Venetian commerce
continued to flourish, the Venetian fleet to grow and the Venetians
to amass wealth. When the fourth crusade was proclaimed at
Soissons, it was to Venice that the leaders applied for transport,
and she agreed to furnish transport for 4,500 horses, 9,000 knights,
20,000 foot, and provisions for one year: the price was 85,000
silver marks of Cologne and half of all conquests. But Zara and
Dalmatia had revolted from Venice in 1166 and were as yet un-
subdued. Venetian supremacy in the Adriatic had been tempo-
rarily shaken. The 85,000 marks, the price of transport, were not
forthcoming, and the Venetians declined to sail till they were
paid. The doge Dandolo now saw an opportunity to benefit
Venice. He offered to postpone the receipt of the money if the
crusaders would reduce Zara and Dalmatia for the republic.
These terms were accepted. Zara was recovered, and while still
at Zara the leaders of the crusade, supported by Dandolo, resolved
for their own private purposes to attack Constantinople, instead
of making for the Holy Land. Constantinople fell (1204), thanks*
chiefly to the ability of the Venetians under Dandolo. The city
was sacked, and a Latin empire, with Baldwin of Flanders as
emperor, was established at Constantinople. (See ROMAN EM-
PIRE, LATER.)
In the partition of the spoils Venice claimed and received, in
her own phrase, "a half and a quarter of the Roman empire."
To her fell the Cyclades, the Sporades, the islands and the east-
ern shores of the Adriatic, the shores of the Propontis and the
Euxine, and the littoral of Thcssaly, and she bought Crete from
the marquis of Monferrat. The accession of territory was of the
highest importance to Venetian commerce. She now commanded
the Adriatic, the Ionian islands, the archipelago, the Sea of
Marmora and the Black sea, the trade route between Constanti-
nople and western Europe, and she had already established her-
self in the seaports of Syria, and thus held the trade route be-
tween Asia Minor and Europe. She was raised at once to the
position of a European power. In order to hold these possessions,
she borrowed from the Franks the feudal system, and granted
fiefs in the Greek islands tcr her more powerful families, on con-
dition that they held the trade route open for her. The expan-
sion of commerce which resulted from the fourth crusade soon
made itself evident in the city by a rapid development in its
architecture and by a decided strengthening of the commercial
aristocracy, which eventually led to the great constitutional re-
form— the closing of the Maggior Consiglio in 1296, whereby
Venice became a rigid oligarchy. Externally this rapid success
awoke the implacable hatred of Genoa, and led to the long and
exhausting Genoese wars which ended at Chioggia in 1380.
The Venetian Constitution.— The closing of the great coun-
cil was, no doubt, mainly due to the slowly formed resolution on
the part of the great commercial families to secure a monopoly
in the Levant trade which the fourth crusade had placed definitely
in their hands. The theory of the Government, a theory ex-
pressed throughout the whole commercial career of the republic,
the theory which made Venice a rigidly protective state, was that
the Levant trade belonged solely to Venice and her citizens. No
one but a Venetian citizen was permitted to share in the profits
of that trade. But the population of Venice was growing rapidly,
and citizenship was as yet undefined. To secure for themselves
the command of trade the leading commercial families resolved
to erect themselves into a close gild, which should have in its
hands the sole direction of the business concern, the exploitation
of the East. This policy took definite shape in 1297, when the
Doge Pietro Gradenigo proposed and carried the following meas-
VENICE
ure: the supreme court, the Quarantia, was called upon to ballot,
one by one, the names of all who for the last four years had held
a seat in the great council created in 1171. Those who received
twelve favourable votes became members of the great council.
A commission of three was appointed to submit further names for
ballot. The three commissioners at once laid down a rule that
only those who could prove that a paternal ancestor had sat in
the great council should be eligible for election.
This measure divided the community into three great cate-
gories: (i) those who had never sat in the council themselves
and whose ancestors had never sat; these were of course the vast
majority of the population, and they were excluded for ever from
the great council; (2) those whose paternal ancestors had sat in
the council; these were eligible and were gradually admitted to
a seat, their sons becoming eligible on majority: (3) those who
were of the council at the passing of this act or had sat during
the four preceding years; their sons likewise became eligible on
attaining majority. As all offices were filled by the great council,
exclusion meant political disfranchisemcnt. A' close caste was
created which very seldom and very reluctantly admitted new
members to its body. The Heralds' college, the awogadori di
comun, in order to ensure purity of blood, were ordered to open
a register of all marriages and births among members of the
newly created caste, and these registers formed the basis of the
famous Libra d'oro.
The closing of the great council and the creation of the patrician
caste brought about a revolution among those who suffered
disfranchisement. In the year 1300 the people, led by Marin
Bocconio, attempted to force their way into the great council
and to reclaim their rights. The doors were opened, the ring-
leaders were admitted and immediately seized and hanged. Ten
years later a more serious revolution, the only revolution that
seriously shook the State, broke out and was also crushed. This
conspiracy was championed by Bajamonte Tiepolo, and seems to
have been an expression of patrician protest against the serrata,
just as Bocconio's revolt had represented popular indignation.
Tiepolo, followed by members of the Quirini family and many
nobles with their followers, attempted to seize the Piazza on
June 15, 1310. They were met by the Doge Pietro Gradenigo
and crushed. Quirini was killed, and Tiepolo fled.
The chief importance of the Tiepoline conspiracy lies in the
fact that it resulted in the establishment of the Council of Ten.
Erected first as a temporary committee of public safety to hunt
down the remnant of the conspirators and to keep a vigilant
watch on Tiepolo's movements, it was finally made permanent in
1335. The secrecy of its deliberations and the rapidity with which
it could act made it a useful adjunct to the constitution, and it
gradually absorbed many important functions of the State.
With the creation of the Council of Ten the main lines of
the Venetian constitution were completed. At the basis of the
pyramid we get the great council, the elective body composed
of all who enjoyed the suffrage, i.e,, of the patrician caste.
Above the great council came the senate, the deliberative and
legislative body par excellence. To the senate belonged all ques-
tions relating to foreign affairs, finance, commerce, peace and
war. Parallel with the senate, but extraneous to the main lines
of the constitution, came the Council of Ten. As a committee
of public safety it dealt with all cases of conspiracy; for example,
it tried the Doge Marino Falier and the General Carmagnola; on
the same ground all cases affecting public morals came within its
extensive criminal jurisdiction. In the region of foreign affairs
it was in communication with envoys abroad, and its orders would
override those of the senate. It also had its own departments of
finance and war. Above the senate and the Ten came the Collegia
or cabinet, the administrative branch of the constitution. All
affairs of State passed through its hands. It was the initiatory
body; and it lay with the Collegia to send matters for deliberation
either before the senate or before the Ten. At the apex of the
pyramid came the doge and his council.
The Genoese Wars. — To t urn now to the external events which
followed on the fourth crusade. These events are chiefly concerned
with the long struggle with Genoa over the possession of the
Levant and Black sea trade. By the establishment of the Latin
empire Venice had gained a preponderance. But it was impossible
that the rival Venetian and Genoese merchants, dwelling at close
quarters in the Levant cities, should not come to blows. They
fell out at Acre in 1253. The first Genoese war began and ended
in 1258 by the complete defeat of Genoa. But in 1261 the Greeks,
supported by the Genoese, took advantage of the absence of the
Venetian fleet from Constantinople to seize the city and to restore
the Greek empire in the person of Michael VIII. Palaeologus. The
balance turned against Venice again. The Genoese were established
in the spacious quarter of Galata and threatened to absorb the
trade of the Levant. To recover her position Venice went to war
again, and in 1264 destroyed the Genoese fleet off Trepani, in
Sicilian waters. This victory was decisive at Constantinople, where
the emperor abandoned the defeated Genoese and restored Venice
to her former position. The appearance of the Ottoman Turk and
the final collapse of the Latin empire in Syria brought about the
next campaign between the rival martime powers. Tripoli (1289)
and Acre (1291) fell to the Mohammedan, and the Venetian title
to her trading privileges.
To the scandal of Christendom, Venice at once entered into
treaty with the new masters of Syria and obtained a confirmation
of her ancient trading rights. Genoa replied by attempting to close
the Dardanelles. Venice made this action a casus belli. The
Genoese won a victory in the gulf of Alexandretta (1294) ; but on
the other hand the Venetians under Ruggiero Morosini forced the
Dardanelles and sacked the Genoese quarter of Galata. The de-
cisive engagement, however, of this campaign was fought at Cur-
zola (1299) in the Adriatic, when Venice suffered a crushing de-
feat. A peace, honourable to both parties, was brought about by
Matteo Visconti, lord of Milan, in that same year. But the quarrel
between the republics, both fighting for trade supremacy — that is
to say, for their lives — could not come to an end till one or other
was thoroughly crushed. The fur trade of the Black sea furnished
the pretext for the. next war (1353-54), which ended in the crush-
ing defeat of Venice at Sapienza, and the loss of her entire fleet.
But though Venice herself seemed to lie open to the Genoese, they
took no advantage of their victory; they were probably too
exhausted. The lord of Milan again arranged a peace (1355).
We have now reached the last phase of the struggle for mari-
time supremacy. Under pressure from Venice the emperor John
V. Palaeologus granted possession of the island of Tencdos to the
republic. The island commanded the entrance to the Dardanelles.
Genoa determined to oppose the concession, and war broke out.
The Genoese Admiral Luciano Doria sailed into the Adriatic,
attacked and defeated Vettor Pisani at Pola in Istria, and again
Venice and the lagoons lay at the mercy of the enemy. Doria re-
solved to blockade and starve Venice to surrender. The situation
was extremely critical for Venice, but she rose to the occasion.
Vettor Pisani was placed in command, and by a stroke of naval
genius he grasped the weakness of Doria's position. Sailing to
Chioggia he blocked the channel leading from the lagoons to the
sea, and Doria was caught in a trap. Finally, in June 1380 the
flower of the Genoese fleet surrendered at discretion. Genoa never
recovered from the blow, and Venice remained undisputed mistress
of the Mediterranean and the Levant trade.
Expansion to the Mainland.— But as the city became the
recognized mart for exchange of goods between east and west, the
freedom of the western outlet assumed the aspect of a paramount
question. It was useless for Venice to accumulate 'eastern mer-
chandise if she could not freely pass it on to the west. If the
various states on the immediate mainland could levy taxes on
Venetian goods in transit, the Venetian merchant would inevitably
suffer in profits. The geographical position of Venice and her
commercial policy alike compelled her to attempt to secure the
command of the rivers and roads of the mainland, at least up
to the mountains, that is to say, of the north-western outlet, just
as she had obtained command of the south-eastern inlet. She
was compelled to turn her attention, though reluctantly, to the
mainland of Italy. Another consideration drove her in the same
direction. During the long wars with Genoa the Venetians real-
ized that, as they owned no meat or corn-producing territory, a
64 vumuu
crushing defeat at sea and a blockade on the mainland exposed
them to the prave danger of being starved into surrender. Both
these pressing necessities, for a free outlet for merchandise and
for a food-supplying area, drove Venice on to the mainland, and
compelled her to initiate a policy which eventually landed her
in the disastrous wars of Cambrai. The period with which we are
now dealing is the epoch of the despots, the signori, and in pur-
suit of expansion on the mainland Venice was brought into collision
first with the Scaligcri of Verona, then with the Carraresi of
Padua, and finally with the Visconti of Milan. Hitherto Venice
had enjoyed the advantages of isolation; the lagoons were vir-
tually impregnable; she had no land frontier to defend. But when
she touched the mainland she at once became possessed of a
frontier which could be attacked, and found herself compelled
cither to expand or to lose the territory she had acquired.
Venice had already established a tentative hold on the imme-
diate mainland as early as 1339. She was forced into war by
Mastino della Scala, lord of Padua, Vicenza, Treviso, Feltre and
Belluno, as well as of Verona, who imposed a duty on the trans-
port of Venetian goods. A league against the Scala domination was
formed, and the result was the fall of the family, Venice took
possession of Padua, but in the terms of the league she at once
conferred the lordship on the Carraresi, retaining Treviso and
Bassano for herself. But it is not till we come to the opening
of the next century that Venice definitely acquired land possessions
and found herself committed to all the difficulties and intricacies
of Italian mainland politics. On the death of Gian Caleazzo Vis-
conti in 1402, his large possessions broke up. His neighbours and
his generals seized what was nearest to hand. Francesco II. Car-
rara, lord of Paduat attempted to seize Vicenza and Verona. But
Venice had been made to suffer at the hands of Carrara, who had
levied heavy dues on transit, and moreover during the Chioggkin
War had helped the Genoese and cut off the food supply from the
mainland. She was therefore forced in self-defence to crush the
family of Carrara and to make herself permanently mistress of the
immediate mainland. Accordingly when Gian Galeazzo's widow
applied to the republic for help against Carrara it was readily
granted, and after some years of fighting, the possessions of the
Carrarcsi, Padua, Treviso, Bassano, commanding the Val Sugana
route, as well as Vicenza and Verona, passed definitely under Ven-
etian rule. This expansion of mainland territory was followed in
1420 by the acquisition of Friuli after a successful war with the
Emperor Sigismund, thus bringing the possessions of the republic
up to the Carnic and Julian Alps, their natural frontier.
Isolation of Venice. — Venice was soon made to feel the conse-
quences of having become a mainland power, the difficulties en-
tailed by holding possessions which others coveted, and the weak-
ness of a land frontier. To the west the new duke of Milan,
Filippo Maria Visconti, was steadily piecing together tlie frag-
ments of his father's shattered duchy. He was determined to
recover Verona and Vicenza from Venice, and intended, as his
father had done, to make himself master of all north Italy. The
conflict between Venice and Milan led to three wars in 1426, 1427
and 1429. Venice was successful on the whole, She established her
hold permanently on Verona and Vicenza , and acquired besides
both Brescia and Bergamo; and later she occupied Crema. The
war of Ferrara and the peace of Bagnolo (1484) gave her Rovigo
and the Polesine. This, with the exception of a brief tenure of
Cremona (1499-1512), formed her permanent territory down to
the fall of the republic. Her frontiers now ran from the seacoast
near Monfalconc, following the line of the Carnic and Julian and
Raelian Alps to the Adda, down the course of that river till it
joins the Po, and thence along the line of the Po back to the sea.
But long and exhausting wars were entailed upon her for the main-
tenance of her hold. The rapid formation of this land empire, and
the obvious intention to expand, called the attention not only of
Italy but of Europe to this power which seemed destined to be-
come supreme in north Italy, and eventually led to the league of
Cambrai for the dismemberment of Venice.
In 1453 Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, and although
Venice entered at once into treaty with the new power and de-
sired to trade with it, not to fight with it, yet it was impossible
that her possessions in the Levant and the archipelago should not
eventually bring her into collision with the expanding energy of
Mohammedan, Europe persistently refused to assist the republic
to preserve a trade in which she had established a rigid monopoly,
and Venice was left to fight the Turk single-handed. The first
Turkish war lasted from 1464 to 1479, and ended in the loss of
Negropont and several places in the Morea, and the payment by
Venice of an annual tribute for trading rights. She was consoled,
however, by the acquisition of Cyprus, which came into her pos-
session (1488) on the extinction of the dynasty of Lusignan with
the death of James II. and his son Jarnes III. , Caterina Cornaro,
James II.'s widow, ceding the kingdom of Cyprus to Venice, since
she could not hope to maintain it unaided against the Turks. The
acquisition of Cyprus marks the extreme limit of Venetian ex-
pansion in the Levant; from this date onward there is little to
record save the gradual loss of her maritime possessions.
DECLINE
Exhausting as the Turkish wars were to the Venetian treasury,
her trade was still so flourishing that she might have survived
the strain had not the discovery of the Cape route to the Indies
cut the tap-root of her commercial prosperity by diverting the
stream of traffic from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. When
Diaz rounded the Cape in 1486 a fatal blow was struck at Venetian
commercial supremacy. The discovery of the Cape route saved
the breaking of bulk between India and Europe, and saved the
dues exacted by the masters of Syria and Egypt. Trade passed
into the hands of the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English,
Venice lost her monopoly of oriental traffic.
League of Cambrai. — To complete her misfortunes, the Euro-
pean Powers, the church and the small states of Italy, partly from
jealous greed of her possessions, partly on the plea of her treason
to Christendom in making terms with Islam, partly from fear of
her expansion in north Italy, coalesced at Cambrai in 1508 for the
partition of Venetian possessions. The war proved disastrous for
Venice. The victory of Agnadello (1510) gave the allies the com-
plete command of Venetian territory down to the shores of the
lagoon. But the mutual jealousy of the allies saved her. The
pope, having recovered the Romagna and secured the objects for
which he had joined the league, was unwilling to see all north Italy
in the hands of foreigners, and quitted the union. The Emperor
Maximilian failed to make good his hold on Padua, and was
jealous of the French. The league broke up, and the mainland
cities of the Veneto returned of their own accord to their allegi-
ance to St. Mark. But the republic never recovered from the blow,
coming as it did on the top of the Turkish wars and the loss
of her trade by the discovery of the Cape route. She ceased to
be a great power, and was henceforth entirely concerned in the
effort to preserve lier remaining possessions and her very inde-
pendence. The settlement of the peninsula by Charles VVs
coronation at Bologna in 1530 secured the preponderance to
Spain, and the combination of Spain and the church dominated the
politics of Italy. Dread of the Turks and dread of Spain were the
two terrors which haunted Venice till the republic fell.
Turkish Wars. — But the decline was a slow process. Venice
still possessed considerable wealth and extensive possessions. Be-
tween 1499 and 1716 she went to war four times with the Turks,
emerging from each campaign with some further loss of maritime
territory. The fourth Turkish war (1570-73) was signalized by the
glorious victory of Lepanto (1571), due chiefly to the prowess
of the Venetians under their doge Sebastian Venier. But her
allies failed to support her. They reaped no fruits from the vic-
tory, and Cyprus was taken from her after the heroic defence of
Famagusta by Bragadino, who was flayed alive, and his skin,
stuffed with straw, borne in triumph to Constantinople. The fifth
Turkish war (1645-68) entailed the loss of Crete; and though
Morosini reconquered the Morea for a brief space in 1685, that
province was finally lost to Venice in 1716,
So far as European politics are concerned, the latter years of the
republic are made memorable by one important event: the resis-
tance which Venice, under the guidance of Fra Paolo Sarpi, offered
to the growing claims of the Curia Romana, advanced by Pope
VENICE
Paul V. Venice was placed under interdict (1606), but she asserted
the rights of temporal sovereigns with a courage which was suc-
cessful and won for her the esteem and approval of most European
sovereigns.
But the chief glory of her declining years was undoubtedly her
splendid art. Giorgione, Titian, Sansovino, Tintoretto, Paolo
Veronese and Palladio all lived and worked after the disastrous
wars of the league of Cambrai. During these years Venice be-
came the great pleasure-city of Europe.
United Italy. — The end of the republic came when the French
Revolution burst over Europe. Napoleon was determined to de-
stroy the oligarchical Government, and seized the pretext that
Venice was hostile to him and a menace to his line of retreat while
engaged in his Austrian campaign of 1797. The peace of Leoben
left Venice without an ally. The Government resolved to offer no
resistance to the conqueror, and the doge Lodovico Manin abdi-
cated on May 12, 1797. On Oct. 17, Napoleon handed Venice over
to Austria by the peace of Campo Formio, and between 1 798 and
1814 she passed from France to Austria and Austria to France
till the coalition of that latter year assigned her definitely to Aus-
tria. In 1848 a revolution broke out and a provisional republi-
can Government under Daniele Manin (<7.i>.) maintained itself
for a brief space. In 1866 the defeat of Austria by the Prussians
led to the incorporation of Venice in United Italy. (H. F. BR.)
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The New Port of Marghera. — By the beginning of the igth
century Venice had felt the need of a bigger port for her increas-
ing trade and the necessity of some outlet for her growing popula-
tion. It was everything not to shackle her progress and, at the
same time, not to disfigure one of the most beautiful cities in the
world. Many makeshift works which proved inadequate were
carried out before the World War, such as the building of the
auxiliary port of Bottenighi on the mainland. At last, in 1917,
a great scheme for a big port, with modern conveniences and an
adjacent industrial area, was laid before the Orlando Government,
approved, and the work begun at once. But the disaster of
Caporetto brought it to a standstill. It was only in 1923, under
the Government of Mussolini, that the work could be resumed,
and, within the space of six years, carried forward to a remark-
able extent owing, in great part, to the invaluable collaboration
of the chancellor of the exchequer (1926-28), Conte Volpi di
Misurata, a Venetian, who had been one of the original pro-
moters of the scheme. This new port of Marghera is on the main-
land and, when finished, it is estimated that it will cover an
urea three times as large as that of Genoa. Moreover, it is
the first in Italy where railway trucks can be loaded and
unloaded on the quays, which are in direct communication with
Mestre station. It has a yearly potentiality in loading and unload-
ing of at least 1,000 tons of merchandise to every 3 ft. of port
frontage. The three industrial zones lying to the north, west and
south of the commercial port have nearly all been secured by
business firms, and some 40 factories are ready for use (1928),
while as many again are being built. Each zone has exit to the sea
by means of canals ; for example, the northern zone communicates
with the sea by the Canale Industrials Nord. In the vicinity lies
the Porticciolo del Petrolii, the first example in Italy of a port
built exclusively for inflammable merchandise.
A garden-city is being built on the Mestre-Padua road, to be
linked up with the industrial area and will accommodate some
50,000 inhabitants. In short, Venice is determined not to live
only on the glory of her past ; and she still looks upon the Adriatic
as mare nostrum.
Population. — The necessity of a well-planned outlet on the
mainland for Venice can be gauged by the following statistics.
Directly after the war the population of Venice stood at 147,000;
by Jan, 1928 it had risen to 207,400. The average density of popu-
lation in Italy is 126 inhabitants to a square kilometre; whereas
that of Venice is 204 to the same area. Venetian families are
patriarchal: nearly 11% are composed of ten or more members;
32% of six to nine members. The birth-rate of Venice, calculated
at 33 per 1,000, is double that of the rest of Italy. Her death-rate
is 17-7 per 1,000, while the average rate in Italy is 19 per 1,000.
Industries. — The Venetians depend for their livelihood on boat
traffic and home industries. Flat-bottomed boats, filled with vege-
tables and fruit, coming across the lagoons from the mainland,
are among the many picturesque sights of Venice, and have been
graphically described by D'Annunzio in Fnoco. The gondoliers
still ply their trade, and can never be entirely replaced by the
small motor-launches, but they feel the rough edge of competi-
tion in a mechanical age, even in the city of the lagoons.
The glass industries, both of household goods and artistic pro-
ductions, employ a number of artisans, who can earn up to 40
lire a day for^the more skilled work. The various Murano fac-
tories have joined in a syndicate, and their work has greatly
improved since more care is taken in the use of good models.
The manufacture of coloured glass beads and mosaic work is
also characteristic of Venice. Even more important are the worked
iron and copper industries, and much carved furniture is made.
The Venetian filigree jewellery, and long, fine gold chains are also
attractive and beautifully made. The lace industry is carried on
in Venice to a certain extent, but more especially in the lagoon
towns of Burano and Torcello. A great deal has been done since
the World War to revive home industries and introduce once more
the fine old patterns.
Festivals. — Venice is still famous for her festivals. The chief
events in her history have always been celebrated either by civic
or religious functions. The nth centenary of the "pious theft"
of St. Mark's body from Alexandria was celebrated in the spring
of 1 028 with a procession round the Piazzetta and the Piazza of
S. Marco, in which 50 bishops of Venetia and mitred Canons of
San Marco, as well as other dignitaries of the Church, took part,
robed in gorgeous vestments and recalling the pictures of Bellini
and Carpaccio. The most characteristic feasts are the following:
on Holy Thursday the Venetians used to celebrate their victory
over Urico, the patriarch of Aquileia. He was forced to pay
tribute of a bull and 12 pigs which were meant to represent the
primate and the canons of the Chapter. Art and literature have
immortalized the celebration of Ascension Day when the doge
used to be rowed out to the lagoon by the Lido in his gala gondola,
il Butintoro, to perform the symbolic rite of throwing a ring
into the waters, and espousing the Adriatic with these words:
Ti sposiamo, a mare nostro, in segno di vcro e perpettuo dominio.
The ceremony originated from Ascension Day of the year A.D.
1000, when Pietro Orseolo II. set sail from Venice to conquer
Istria and Dalmatia.
Two eminently popular festivals of votive origin are still kept:
the Feast of the Madonna della Salute and that of // Redentore
(The Redeemer), to whose patronage the Venetians believed they
owed their deliverance from the plague in 1576 and in 1630, and
in whose honour they built the Churches of the Salute and the
Redentore. On the Feast of the Salute (Nov. i) the Venetians
take votive offerings to the church, and end the day with private
banquets for which it is customary to procure Dalmatian mutton
as the chief dish. The Feast of the Redentore is celebrated on
the third Sunday of July with a characteristic vigil kept by the
people singing as they row about in boats of every size and shape
which are festooned with lights. At dawn they row out to the
Lido in great numbers for the sunrise.
Museums, Galleries and Libraries. — Although Venice suf-
fered from enemy aircraft during the World War, none of her
works of art were damaged. The following is a list -of her mu-
seums, galleries and public libraries: —
The Doge's Palace, adjoining the Basilica of San Marco, with
frescoed walls and ceilings, as well as easel-pictures by Titian,
Tintoretto, Paul Veronese, etc. The names of the various halls:
Sala del Collegio, del Senato, del Consiglio dei Dieci, del Maggior-
Consiglio, etc., recall the days of the proud Republic.
// Museo Archeologico occupies that part of the doge's palace
where the doge used to have his apartment.
// Museo Civico Correr, in the royal apartments, Piazza S.
Marco, has valuable collections of pictures, armour, coins, maps,
costumes of state, etc,
// Museo Storico Navale, in the arsenal, has models of ancient
66
VENIZELOS
ships and of the Bucentauro.
L'Accadcmia dcllc Belle Arti, on the Grand canal, contains a
unique collection of masterpieces of the Venetian school.
La Galleria di Artc Moderna, inaugurated in 1902, has an im-
portant collection of international works of art which have been
purchased in greater part from the Biennial International Exhi-
bition of Modern Art. This was instituted in 1895 in honour of
the silver wedding of King Humbert and Queen Margherita, and
is held in the public gardens. Since the Fascist Government has
made it a State institution, its importance has increased.
La Pinacoteca Comunale, in Palazzo Querini, once the residence
of the patriarch of Venice, has a notable collection of pictures
and prints.
The State Archives arc kept in the Franciscan monastery ad-
joining the Frari. It contains the so-called Golden Book of the
patricians and documents dating from the time of Charlemagne.
La Bibliotcca Nazionalc Marciana, in the old quarters of St.
Mark's library, was started on Sept. 4, 1362, with the collection
of books given by Petrarch to the Republic. It now contains
400,000 volumes, 13,000 rare manuscripts, 1,000 editions of the
Aldine press, and over 3,000 in cuneiform character.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — V. Sandi, Storia civile della Republica di Venezia
(Venice, 1755) ; G. Piliasi, Me^morie storiche dc' Veneti primi e secitndi
(Venice, 1706) ; C. A. Marin, Storia civile e politic a del Commerzio de'
Veneziani (Venice 1798); P. Daru, Storia della Republica di Venezia
(1837); S. Romanin, Storia documentata di Venezia (Venice, 1853);
G. L. Tafel and E. M. Thomas, Urkunden zur dlteren llandcls und
Staats xeschichtc dc Republik Vcnedtg (Vienna, 1856) ; A. Gfiorer,
Ge.schichtc Vcnedizs bis sum Jahr 1048 (Gratz, 1872) ; C. Hopf,
Chroniques Greco- Romaines (Berlin, 1873) ; C. Yriorte, Venise (Paris,
1875) ; W. Heycl, Geschichte des Levant fhandeh im Mittelalter (Stutt-
gart, 1879) ; M. Samedo, Diarii (Venice, 1879-1903) ; H. F. Brown,
Venice, an Historical Sketch of the Republic (1895) ; W. C. Hazlitt,
The Venetian Republic (1900) ; F. G. Hodgson, The Early History of
Venice (1901) ; H. Kretschner, Getchichte von Venrdig (Gotha, 1905) ;
W. R. Thaycr, A Short History of Venice (1905) ; P. G. Molmenti, La
Storia di Venezia nella vita privata (Bergamo, 1906), trans. H. P.
Brown, Venice (6 vols., 1906-08) ; V. Mene^helli, // Qwiranotto a
Venezia (Viccnza, 1908) ; V. Marchcsi, Storia documentata ddla rivo-
luzione e della difesa di Venezia (Venice, 1917) ; G. M. Trevelyan,
Afanin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848 (192.0 ; G. Maranini, La
Costituzione di Venezia ddle origini alia scrrata del Maggior Consiglio
(Venice, 1928). (L. WA.)
VENIZELOS, ELEUTHERIOS (1864- ), Greek
statesman, was born in Crete Aug. 23, 1864 of a family which
had emigrated from Greece in 1770. Having been educated in the
schools of Syra and Athens and having taken a degree in the
University of Athens at the age of 23, he practised law in Crete,
but soon became a politician, and in the insurrection of 1889 was
compelled to rice from the island. After his return and the re-
establishment of tranquillity, Venizelos was elected a member of
the Cretan Assembly, and in 1897 came into prominence as one
of the leaders of the Cretan uprising; it was he who received the
British, French and Italian admirals when they came to negotiate
a settlement between the insurgents and the Turks early in Feb.
of that year.
In Dec. 1898 Prince George of Greece landed in Crete as the
High Commissioner of the Great Powers, and a few months
later Venizelos became head of the Island Executive. But he
soon found himself at variance with the Prince's autocracy, and
in 1904 a complete rupture occurred. Subsequently the Veni-
zelists were defeated at the polls, but the Cretan leader organized
a revolt, which greatly increased the unpopularity of the High
Commissioner who was accused of misruling the people. In Sept.
1906 the Prince left the island, his place being taken by M. Alex
Zaimis, who was appointed not by the Powers, but by the King
of Greece. From that time until 1909 Venizelos was sometimes
Chief of the Cretan Government and sometimes Leader of the
Opposition. But whilst the Cretans often came into sharp conflict
with the Protecting Powers, Venizelos' wisdom and moderation
were responsible for the generally friendly relations which existed,
and his far-sightedness, particularly after the departure of M.
Zaimis in Oct. 1908, and during the crisis of 1909, facilitated the
union of Crete with Greece, which ultimately took place as a
result of the first Balkan War.
In 1909 the military league headed a bloodless revolution against
political corruption and court favouritism in Greece and invited
Venizelos to come to Athens. He persuaded King George and the
League that the best way out of a dangerous situation would be the
revision of the Constitution by a National Assembly. Elections
were held in Aug. 1910, and Venizelos, who had remained techni-
cally a Greek citizen during his Cretan political life, took his seat
at Athens for the first time. The Chamber having been opened in
September, a month later Venizelos became Prime Minister.
He was in a position to enforce practically any situation, in-
cluding a republic, which he wished; but decided to work loyally
with the King and his successors. The Constitution was success-
fully revised in 1911, reforms in the public services were intro-
duced, and the reorganization of the army and of the navy were
respectively placed in the hands of French and British Missions.
In the spring of 1912 Venizelos was returned to power as the
leader of an overwhelming majority in an ordinary Chamber
which then replaced the Revisionary Assembly. By that time,
too, the Prime Minister was busily occupied with the formation
of the Balkan League, and on May 29, 1912, the Greco-Bulgarian
Treaty was signed.
Whilst the Balkan Wars and Venizelos' diplomacy led to an un-
expected Hellenic expansion, the assassination of King George at
Salonika on March 18, 1913, removed a man who had always been
in favour of moderation, and placed upon the throne his son
Constantine, who had not forgiven, and who never really forgave,
Venizelos for his attitude towards Prince George in Crete. When
the World \Var broke out, therefore, the position of Greece was
greatly complicated by the facts that she was bound to Serbia
by a Treaty signed in the summer of 1913; that from the first
Venizelos was an ardent supporter of the Allied cause; and that
the King was in sympathy with the Central Powers. Before the
entry of Turkey into the War, Venizelos openly favoured Hellenic
assistance for the Entente in case of that entry, and early in 1915
the Prime Minister advocated concessions to Bulgaria, Greek sup-
port for Serbia, and Greek co-operation at the Dardanelles in ex-
change for the promise of important future compensations in
Western Asia Minor. But though he appears originally to have ap-
proved of the idea, the King vetoed Venizelos' decision to accept
this offer, and he was forced to resign, though he possessed a strong
majority in the Chamber. In the election which followed in
June the Venizelist party secured the return of 190 deputies out
of a total of 316, of which the Chamber was then composed.
In spite of this, and with the excuse of the King's illness, Veni-
zelos was not recalled to power until after the meeting of the
Chamber in Aug. and by that time the situation had become
seriously modified. The mobilization of Bulgaria on Sept. 29,
1915 brought into operation in equity if not in law, the Greco-
Serbian Treaty of 1913 and bound Greece to help Serbia. A few
days later, Venizelos extorted from the King reluctant consent to
a Greek mobilization and to a Greek request that the Allies should
furnish an army of 150,000 men to take the place of the contin-
gent Serbia should have supplied under the Treaty.
Immediately after the original Allied landing at Salonika on
Oct. i Venizelos secured a vote of confidence during an historic
and stormy meeting of the Chamber, when he declared that if in
aiding Serbia Greece was brought into contact with Germany
she would act as her honour demanded. In spite of a formal pro-
test against the Allied passage through Hellenic territory, this
speech led to the second dismissal of Venizelos and to the open and
final rupture between that statesman and the King, who, it would
seem, always intended to withdraw his consent to an Hellenic
entry into the War. Zaimis, the new Prime Minister, maintained
his position for a month as a result of the patriotism of Venizelos,
his friend from Cretan times, but, with the accession of Skouloudis
to power, on Nov. 6 the Chamber was dissolved and a new elec-
tion ordered for Dec. 19. Venizelos' party abstained from the
polls in protest, M. Gounaris securing an overwhelming majority
for his policy of neutrality.
Venizelos spent that winter and spring (1915-16) in endeavour-
ing to compel the King to change his point of view. But the sur-
render of Eastern Macedonia to the Bulgarians in the summer
of 1916 and the delay in the success of the Allied Campaign at
VENLO— VENOSA
67
Salonika had strengthened the position of Constantine, and on
Sept. 25, 1916, Venizelos, together with his principal supporters,
sailed for Crete, whence he sent out proclamations calling- upon
all true patriots to flock to the standard of the Entente. Pro-
ceeding thence to Salonika, early in Oct. he founded a Provisional
Government, which was recognized about two months later by
Great Britain and France, though not by Italy. A call for volun-
teers was answered generously by the inhabitants of those parts of
Greece not in Constantinist hands, but the Royalist Government
countered this and other developments by causing a solemn ana-
thema to be pronounced against Venizelos by the Archbishop of
Athens,
After the dethronement and enforced departure of King Con-
stantine, Venizelos returned to Athens on June 26, 1917, and took
over the Government of the whole country. The June 15 Chamber
was convoked, general mobilization was ordered, and Greece for-
mally opened up hostilities upon the Allied side. But the removal
of the King, the successes of the Central Powers, particularly in
the Balkans, and an increased Greek desire for neutrality, backed
up by German propaganda, were responsible for a great diminution
of the Prime Minister's popularity, and the officers and function-
aries retired on account of their political views formed a dangerous
element in an opposition which became ever more active.
Between the Armistice of Nov. 1918 and his fall two years later,
Venizelos and his colleagues, who represented Greece at the Peace j
Conference, were almost continuously absent in Paris and London i
and, during this period, they seemed to be reaping for Greece har-
vests beyond her dreams. About the end of April 1919 the Greeks
were permitted, or encouraged, to land at Smyrna; a year later
the Conference of San Remo promised large areas to Greece, and j
the Treaty of Sevres (Aug. TO, 1920) coupled with the earlier |
Treaty of Neuilly (Nov. 27, 1919) gave Greece extraordinary j
advantages. During this period, too, the Hellenic representative
won such admiration and played so brilliant a part that he became
a leading figure in the counsels of the Allies. Nevertheless, at a
moment when his triumph appeared to be complete, an attempt
was made upon his life at a Paris station (Aug. 1920), and three
months later (Nov. 14) he received a crushing defeat at the hands
of the Greek electorate.
Many factors were present in this : the unpopularity of the war
in Asia Minor and the continued mobilization, the maintenance of
martial law, the bad administration of Venizclos' subordinates
and injustices practised by the Corps de la Surete. Further,
there was Venizelos' own continued absence; recollection of the
foreign support on which he had called so largely, and Con-
stantine's own increasing popularity. After the unexpected death
of the young king Alexander, immediately before the election, the
dynastic question, open mention of which had previously been
prohibited, was brought into the forefront of the political struggle
and, in what then became the direct issue between Constantine
and Venizelos, the King won an overwhelming victory.
From the arrival of the King in Athens on Dec. 20, 1920, until
his final abdication and second departure on Sept. 30, 1922, Veni-
zelos took no official part in Greek affairs, though he continued
to use his international influence to endeavour to mitigate the
results of the Asiatic disaster, the seeds of which he had sown by
his own policy. After the revolution (Sept. 1922), however, Veni-
zelos for a time represented Greece in Western Europe, inter alia
at the Conference of Lausanne which culminated in the peace
signed with Turkey on July 24, 1923. In the following December,
when the publication of that document and various other events
had aggravated the existing internal dissension and when the elec-
tion (Dec. 1 6) had again given his party a majority, Venizelos
was persuaded to return to Athens, where he arrived on Jan. 4,
1924. King George was already then on leave of absence, Venizelos
was Prime Minister from Jan. n till Feb. 4, when he resigned on
the advice of his physician. He left Athens on March 10, just
before the country adopted his policy of a republic. He now
spent several years of leisure, living mostly in France. In 1928,
however, he began to prepare a return to politics. M. Kaptrandair
resigned from the leadership of his section of the Liberals, and
Venizelos took his place, declaring this to be the best guarantee
against a dictatorship. He brought about the fall of the Govern-
ment, formed a new government with himself as premier on July
4, and secured a large majority in the election held on Aug. 19.
During the autumn he visited Rome, Paris, London and Belgrade
on diplomatic missions. In Rome he negotiated with Mussolini a
treaty of friendship and arbitration which was signed in October.
A treaty of commerce with Yugoslavia was signed in November
and followed by a treaty of friendship in March, 1929. He also
carried on negotiations for treaties with Bulgaria and Turkey.
These activities greatly improved the diplomatic position of
Greece and Venizclos turned his attention again toward internal
problems.
Venizelos was left a widower with two sons (Kyriakos b. 1893
and Sophocles b. 1895) in 1895. On Sept. 15, 1921, he married
Miss Helena Schilizzi, heiress of a. Greek Chiot family established
in England.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. Kerorilas, Eleftherios Venizelos, his Life and
Work (Enp. tr., 1915) ; S. B. Chester, Life of Venizelos (1921) ; H. A.
Gibbons, Venizclos (1921); W. H. 0. Price, Venizelos and the War
(1917) ; V. J. Sdiftman, The Victory of Venizelos (1920) ; W. Miller,
A History of the Greek People, iSzi-ro^j (1922); Books by Veni-
zclos or containing his speeches are Greece in her True Light (1916) ;
L. Maccns, Ainsi parla Venizclos (1916) ; The. Vindication of Greek
National Policy, speeches delivered in the Greek Chamber Autf 23-26,
1917 (Eng. tr. London, 1918) ; "The Internal Situation in Greece and
the Amnesty of Political Offenders" (speech in Greek Chamber April
23-May 6, 1917) ; Greece before the Peace Congress of njiy: A Mem-
orandum dealing with the rights of Greece (1919) ; Greek Bureau of
Foreign Information, London (Kn^. tr., 1920).
VENLO, a frontier town in the province of Limburg, Holland,
on the right bank of the Maas, and a junction station 43 m.
N.N.E. of Maastricht by rail. Pop. (1927), 22,422. Venlo, with
narrow streets irregularly built, is not of the ordinary Dutch
type in architectural style. The picturesque town hall (1595) con-
tains some interesting paintings by Hubert Goltzius (1526-1583).
The church dates from 1304. The leading industries are distilling,
brewing, tanning, spinning, neccllemaking and tobacco manufac-
ture. There, is also a considerable trade by river with Rotterdam.
Venlo is joined by a bridge over the Maas with the opposite village
of Blerik.
VENN, HENRY (1725-1797), English evangelical divine,
was born at Barnes, Surrey, and educated at Cambridge. He took
orders in 1747, and was elected fellow of Queens' College, Cam-
bridge, in 1749. After holding a curacy at Barton, Cambridge-
shire, he became curate of St. Matthew, Friday Street, London,
and of West Horsley, Surrey, in 1750, and then of Clapham in
1754. In the preceding year he was chosen lecturer of St. Swithin's,
London Stone. He was vicar of Huddersfield from 1759 to 1771,
when he exchanged to the living of Veiling, Huntingdonshire.
Besides being a leader of the evangelical revival, he was well
known as the author of The Compleat Duty of Man (London,
1763), a work in which he intended to supplement the teaching
embodied in the anonymous Whole Duty of Man. His son, John
Venn (1759-1813), was one of the founders of the Church Mis-
sionary Society, and his grandson, Henry Venn (1796-1873), was
honorary secretary of that society from 1841 to 1873.
VENNOR, GEORGE HENRY (1840-1884), Canadian
geologist and meteorologist, was born at Montreal on Dec. 30,
1840. He graduated at McGill University in 1860 and, after a
number of private scientific expeditions, was in 1866 placed on
the staff of the Canadian geological survey. His studies and re-
vised classification of the great Laurentian system ot rocks
brought him a wide reputation and election to the Royal Geo-
graphical Society. He traced the Licvre, Rouge and Gatineau
rivers to their sources and called attention to the phosphate
deposits of Ottawa county. Over a period of many years he
studied the characters and courses of storms deducing a number
of general principles. From 1877 to his death he published Yen-
nor's Almanac. He was the author of Our Birds of Prey; or the
Eagles, Hawks and Owls oj Canada (1876), and contributed fre-
quently to the Canadian Naturalist and the British American
Magazine.
VENOSA (anc. Venusia, q.v.), a town and bishop's see of the
Basilicata in the province of Potenza, Italy, on the eastern side
68
VENTENAT— VENTILATION
of Mount Vulture, 52 m. by rail S.S.E. of Foggia, 1,345 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1921) 8,993, The castle, built in 1470, contains
four stables each for 50 horses. Many fragments of Roman work-
manship are built into the isth century cathedral. The abbey
church of SS. Trinita is historically interesting; it was consecrated
in 1059 by Pope Nicholas 11. and passed into the hands of the
Knights of St. John in 1297. In the central aisle is the tomb of
Alberada, the first wife of Robert Guiscard and mother of
Bohemund. An inscription on the wall commemorates the great
Norman brothers William Iron Arm (d. 1046), Brogo (murdered
at Venosa in 1051), Humfrey (d. 1057) and Robert Guiscard (d.
at Corfu in 1085). The bones of these brothers rest together in a
simple stone sarcophagus opposite the tomb of Alberada. The
church also contains some 14th-century frescoes. Behind it is a
larger church, which was begun for the Benedictines about 1150.
See O. dc Lorenzo, Venosa e la Rcgione del Vulture (Bergamo, 1906).
VENTENAT, ETIENNE-PIERRE (1757-1808), French
botanist, was born in Limoges in 1757. He entered the congrega-
tion of St. Genevieve and had charge of their library, but at the
time of the Revolution abandoned his religious connections in
order to follow his taste for botany. His writings caused him to
be named professor in the Republican lyceum of Paris and made
a member of the Institute. His principal works are Principes de
botanique (1794); Tableau du regne vegetal (1794); Le botaniste
voyageur anx environs dc Paris (1803) ; Le jardin de la malmaison
(1803); Choix de pi antes (1803-1808). These were noted above
all for the beauty of the plates executed under the author's direc-
tion by Redoute, Sallier, Plee, etc. Among a number of memoirs
dealing with the problems of his science the Dissertation sur les
parties des mousses qui out ete regardtes comme jleurs males et
comme fleurs femelles and Sur les meilleurs moyens de distinguer
Ic calici de la corolle are notable.
VENTIDIUS, BASSUS, Roman general, was born at Ascu-
lum. He took part in the Social War and was made prisoner by
Pompey the Elder. As a contractor for military transport he
aided Caesar in raising an army for the conquest of Gaul and was
later given a command under Caesar. In 46 A.D. he became a
senator and tribune. After Caesar's death he supported Antony
and rendered important aid in the war against D. Brutus by taking
three legions, which he raised himself, in a spectacular march over
the Apennines to join in the battle. He became Antony's chief
lieutenant and for a brief period was consul of Rome. He was
afterwards sent to the East where he carried on the wars against
the Parthians with brilliant success.
VENTILATION, the process and practice of keeping an
enclosed place supplied with proper air for breathing; and so, by
analogy, a term used for exposing any subject to the winds of pub-
lic criticism; (Lat. vcntilare, from ventus, wind). The air which
we breathe consists chiefly of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, with
certain small proportions of other gases, such as carbon dioxide,
ozone and argon. Oxygen, which is the active and important con-
stituent, and on which life and combustion depend, forms about
one-fifth of the whole, while nitrogen, which is inert and acts as
a diluent, forms nearly four-fifths. Of this mixture each adult
person breathes some 2,600 gallons of 425 cu.ft. in 24 hours. In
air that has passed through the lungs the proportion of oxygen is
reduced and that of carbon dioxide increased. Of the various im-
purities that are found in the air of inhabited rooms, carbon
dioxide forms the best practical index of the efficiency of the
ventilation. The open air of London and other large inland towns
contains about four parts by volume of the gas in 10,000 of air.
In the country, and in towns near the sea, two to three and a half
parts in 10,000 is a more usual proportion. Authorities on ventila-
tion usually take four parts in 10,000 as the standard for pure air,
and use the excess over that quantity in estimating the adequacy
of the air supply. They differ however as to the excess quantity of
carbon dioxide permissible under a good system of ventilation. It
is generally admitted that the air in which people dwell and sleep
should not in any circumstances be allowed to contain more than
ten parts in 10.000. This has been accepted as the permissible pro-
portion by Carnelley, Haldane and Anderson, after an extensive
examination of the air of middle and lower-class dwellings.
Air supplied per adult
per hour
Carbon dioxide
(Parts by volume in 10,000)
Cubic feet
Excess due to
respiration
Total
quantity
1,000
1,200
2,OOO
3,000
6
5
4
3
2
10
9
8
7
6
Human Consumption of Air. — The rate at which an adult
expires carbon dioxide varies widely with his condition of repose,
being least in sleep, greater in waking rest, and very much greater
in violent exercise. As a basis on which to calculate the air neces-
sary for proper ventilation, we may take the production of carbon
dioxide by an adult as 0-6 cu.ft, per hour. Hence he will produce
per hour, in 6,000 cu.ft. of air, a pollution amounting to one part
of carbon dioxide in 10,000 of air. If the excess of carbon dioxide
were to be kept down to this figure (i in 10,000), it would be
necessary to supply 6,000 cu.ft. of fresh air per hour; if the per-
missible excess be two parts in 10,000 half this supply of fresh air
will suffice; and so on. We therefore have the following relation
between (i) the quantity of air supplied per person per hour,
(2) the excess of carbon dioxide which results, and (3) the total
quantity of carbon dioxide present, on the assumption that the
fresh air that is admitted contains four parts (by volume) in
10,000: —
Some investigators have maintained that, in addition to an in-
creased proportion of carbon dioxide, air which has passed through
the lungs contains a special poison. This view, however, is not
accepted by others; J. 8. Haldane and Lorrain Smith, for instance,
conclude "that the immediate dangers from breathing air highly
vitiated by respiration arise entirely from the excess of carbonic
acid and deficiency of oxygen" (Journ. Path, and Bact. 1892).
Carbon dioxide, however, is not the only agent that has to be
reckoned with in badly ventilated rooms, for the unpleasant effects
they produce may also be due to increase of moisture and tempera-
ture and to the odours that arise from lack of cleanliness. Again,
though there may be no unduly large proportion of carbon dioxide
present, the air of an apartment may be exceedingly impure when
the criterion is the number of micro-organisms it contains. This
also may be greatly reduced by efficient ventilation. Comparisons
carried out by Carnelley, Haldane and Anderson (Phil. Trans.
1887, B) between schools known to be well ventilated (by mechan-
ical means) and schools ventilated at haphazard or not ventilated
at all showed that the average number of micro-organisms was
17 per litre in the former, and in the others ,152. Results of great
interest were obtained by the experiment of stopping the mechani-
cal ventilators for a few hours or days. Tested by the proportion
of carbon dioxide, the air of course became very bad; tested by
the number of micro-organisms, it remained comparatively pure,
the number being, in fact, scarcely greater than when ventilation
was going on, and far less than the average in naturally ventilated
schools. This proves the advantage of systematic ventilation.
Ventilation of Buildings.— Here four main points have to be
considered: (i) the area of floor to be provided for each person;
(2) the cubic capacity of the room required for each occupant;
(3) the allowance to be made for the vitiation of the air by gas
or oil burners; and (4) the quantity of fresh air which must be
brought in and of vitiated air that must be extracted for each indi-
vidual. The first will depend upon the objects to which the room
is devoted, whether a ward of a hospital or a school or a place of
public assembly. The purity of the air of a room depends to a
^ Mi extent on the proportion of its cubic capacity to the number
oi-'imates. The influence of capacity is, however, often overrated.
Even when the allowance of space is very liberal, if no fresh air
be supplied, the atmosphere of a room quickly falls below the
standard of purity specified above; on the other hand, the space
per inmate may be almost indefinitely reduced if sufficient means
are provided for systematic ventilation. Large rooms are good,
chiefly because of their action as reservoirs of air in those cases
VENTILATION
69
(too common in practice) where no sufficient provision is made for
continuous ventilation, and where the air is changed mainly by
intermittent ventilation, such as occurs when doors or windows
are opened. With regard to the third point, in buildings lighted by
gas or oil the calculations for the supply of fresh and the extrac-
tion of foul air must include an allowance for the vitiation of air
by the products of combustion. The rate at which this takes place
may be roughly estimated in the case of gas by treating each cubic
foot of gas burned per hour as equal to one person. Thus an ordi-
nary burner giving a light of about 20 candles and burning 4 cu.f t.
of gas per hour vitiates the air as much as four persons, and an
incandescent burner as much as one and a half persons. A small
reading-lamp burning oil uses the air of four men; a large central
table lamp uses as much air as seven men. As to the fourth point
there is great diversity of opinion. To preserve the lowest standard
of purity tolerated by sanitarians, ventilation must go on at the
rate per person of 1,000 cu.ft. per hour, and 3,000 cu.ft. per hour
are required to preserve the higher standard on which some au-
thorities insist. E. A. Parkes advised a supply of 2,000 cu.ft. of
air per hour for persons in health and 3,000 or 4,000 cu.ft. for sick
persons. In the case of a public assembly hall no great harm will
occur to an audience occupying the room for a comparatively short
time if 30 cu.ft. of air per minute are provided for each person.
The United States book on school architecture gives a practical
application to its remarks on this subject as follows: —
The amount of fresh air which is allowed to hospital patients is
about 2,500 cu.ft. each per hour. Criminals in French prisons have
to content themselves with 1,500 cu.ft. per hour. Assuming that
we care two-thirds as much for the health of our children as we
do for that of our thieves and murderers, we will make them an
allowance of 1,000 cu.ft. each per hour, or about 16 cu.ft. per
minute. Forty-eight children will then need an hourly supply of
48,000 cu.ft. Definite provision must therefore be made for with-
drawing this quantity of foul air. No matter how many inlets there
may be, the fresh air will only enter as fast as the foul escapes,
and this can only find an outlet through ducts intended for that
purpose, porous walls and crevices serving in cool weather only
for inward flow. What, then, must be the size of the shaft to ex-
haust 48,000 cu.ft. per hour? In a shaft 20 ft. high, vertical and
smooth inside, with a difference in temperature of 20°, the velocity
will be about 2\ ft. per sec., or 9,000 ft. per hour; that is, it will
carry off 9,000 cu.ft. of air per hour for every sq.ft. of its sectional
area. To convey 48,000 cu.ft., it must have a sectional area of 5^
sq.ft.
A general idea of the floor area, cubic space and fresh air supply
per inmate allowed by law or by custom in certain cases is given
in the table below : —
Cubic feet of
Class of building
Floor area
in feet per
Cubic
capacity in
feet per
fresh air
supplied and
foul air
person
person*
extracted per
person
Schools ....
9 to io
200
i, 800
Barracks ...
7°
720
j .Soo
Prisons ....
90
800
1, 800
Concert halls and theatres
9
108
2,000 |
Billiards and smokerooms
2,000 j
Hospitals '.
1 20
1,440
:,ooo to 3,000
Public libraries .
20
2,400
2,500
Turkish baths .
70
800
5,000
Workshops
1JO
1,440
5,000
Cowsheds, per cow .
90
I,IOO
10,000
Stables, per horse .
120
1, 600
12,000
*In calculating the cubic capacity per person the height should not
be measured beyond 1 2 ft. above the floor.
The supply of fresh air indicated in the table should not be re-
garded as entirely satisfactory, for the standard of purity suggested
is low, and ought to be exceeded, but it might deter many from
moving in the matter if a proper and higher standard were to be
laid down at first. One of the most important points is the proper
warming of the fresh air introduced into buildings, for unless that
be done, when a cold day occurs all the ventilating arrangements
will probably be closed. The fact should not be lost sight of that
the air in a room may on the one hand be quite cold and yet very
foul, and on the other, warm and yet perfectly fresh. To avoid
draught the air should enter through a large number of small
orifices, so that the currents may be thoroughly diffused. This is
done by gratings. The friction of their bars, however, seriously
diminishes their capacity for passing air, and careful experiments
show conclusively that very ample grating area is required to de-
liver large volumes. The same remark applies to extracting-flues.
Owing to the small size and the roughness of the surface the
velocity of the upward current is small, and the quantity of air
that passes out is often much less than is requisite.
Means of Ventilation.— That the atmosphere of a room
should be changed by means of air currents, thereby securing
proper ventilation, three things are necessary ; ( i ) an inlet or in-
lets for the fresh air, (2) an outlet or outlets for the vitiated air,
and (3) a motive force to produce and maintain the current. In
systems which are distinguished by the general name of mechani-
cal or artificial ventilation special provision is made for driving
the air by fans, or by furnaces, or by other contrivances described
elsewhere under HEATING AND VENTILATING. In what is called
natural ventilation no special appliance is used to give motive
force, but the forces are made use of which are supplied by (i)
the wind, (2) the elevated temperature of the room's atmosphere,
and (3) the draught of fires used for heating.
The chief agent in domestic ventilation in Great Britain is the
chimney, the majority of houses being fitted with open grates;
and when a bright fire is burning in an open grate, it rarely hap-
pens that any other outlet for foul air from a room need be pro-
vided. The column of hot air and burnt gases in the chimney is
less heavy, because of its high temperature, than an equal column
of air outside; the pressure at the base is therefore less than the
pressure at the same level outside. This supplies a motive force
compelling air to enter at the bottom through the grate and
through the opening over the grate, and causing a current tc
ascend. The motive force which the chimney supplies has not
only to do work on the column of air within the chimney in set-
ting it in motion and in overcoming frictional resistance to its
flow; it has also to set the air entering the room in motion and
to overcome frictional resistance at the inlets. From want oi
proper inlets air has to be dragged in at a high velocity and against
much resistance, under the doors, between the window sashes
and through many other chinks and crevices. Under these con-
ditions the air enters in small streams or narrow sheets, ill-dis-
tributed and moving so fast as to form disagreeable draughts, the
pressure in the room is kept so low that an opened door or window
lets in a deluge of cold air, and the current up the chimney is mucfc
reduced. If the attempt is made to stop draughts by applying
sandbags and listing to the crevices at which air streams in
matters only become worse in other respects; the true remedy ol
course lies in providing proper inlets. The discharge of air by ar
ordinary open fire and chimney varies widely, depending on the
rate of combustion, the height and section and form of the chim
ney, and the freedom with which air is entering the room. Aboul
10,000 cu.ft. per hour is probably a fair average, about enough tc
keep the air fresh for half a dozen persons. Even when no fire is
burning the chimney plays an important part in ventilation; th(
air within an inhabited room being generally warmer than the aii
outside, it is only necessary that an up-current should be slartec
in order that the chimney should maintain it, and it will usuall)
be found that a current is passing up. When a room is occupiec
for any considerable length of time by more than about half c
dozen persons, the chimney outlet should be supplemented b)
others, which usually take the form of gratings in the ceiling 01
cornices in communication with flues leading to the open air. Thes<
openings should be protected from down-draught by light flaj
valves of oiled silk or sheet mica.
With regard to inlets, a first care must be to avoid such cur
rents of cold air as will give the disagreeable and dangerous sensa
tion of draught. At ordinary temperatures a current of outer ai
to which the body is exposed will be felt as a draught if it:
7°
VENTIMIGLIA
velocity exceeds 3 ft. or even 2 ft. per second. The current entering
a room may, however, be allowed to move with a speed much
greater than this without causing discomfort, provided its direc-
tion keeps it from striking directly on the persons of the inmates.
To secure this, it should enter, not horizontally nor through
gratings on the iloor, but vertically through openings high enough
to carry the entering stream into the upper atmosphere of the
room, where it will mix as com-
pletely as possible with warm air
before its presence can be felt.
A favourite form of inlet is the
Shcringham (fig. i). When
opened it forms a wedge-shaped
projection into the room and F|Q , __SHER1NGHAM AIR INLET
admits air in an upward stream
through the open top. It should be placed at a height of 5 ft. or
6 ft. above the level of the tloor. Other inlets are made by using
hollow perforated blocks of earthenware, called airbricks, built
into the wall; these are often shaped on the inner side like an in-
verted louvre-board or Venetian blind, with slots that slope so as
to give an upward inclination to the entering stream.
In another and most valuable form of ventilator, the Tobin
tube, the fresh air enters vertically upwards. The usual arrange-
ment of Tobin tube (shown in front elevation and section in fig.
2) is a short vertical shaft of metal plate or wood which leads up
the wall from the floor level to a height of 5 ft. or 6 ft.. Its lower
end communicates with the outer air through an air-grating in the
wall; from its upper end, which is freely open, the current of fresh
air rises in a smooth stream. Various forms of section may be given
to the tube: if placed in a corner it will be triangular or segmental;
against a flat wall a shallow rectangular form is most usual, or it
may be placed in a channel so as to be flush with the face of the
wall; a lining of wfood forming a dado may even be made to serve
as a Tobin tube by setting it out a little way from the wall. The
tube is often furnished with a regulating valve, and contrivances
may be added for cleansing the entering air. A muslin or canvas
bag hung in the tube, or a screen stretched diagonally across it,
may be used to filter out dust; the same object is served in some
degree by forcing the air, as it enters the tube at the bottom, to
pass in close contact with the surface of water in a tray, by means
of a deflecting plate. These complications have a double draw-
back: they require frequent attention to keep them in order,
and by putting resistance in the
way of the stream they are apt to
reduce the efficiency of the ven-
tilation. The air entering by a
Tobin tube may be warmed by a
coil of hot pipes within the tube
or by a small gas-stove (pro-
vided, of course, with a flue to
discharge outside the products of
combustion), or the tube may
draw its supply, not directly from
the outer atmosphere, but from
a hot-air flue. The opening should
always be about the level of a
man's head, but the tube need
not extend down to the floor: all
that is essential is that it should
have sufficient length to let the
air issue in a smooth vertical
current without eddies (fig. 3). FIG. 2. — THE TOBIN TUBE
These inlets are at once so simple and effective that no hesitation
need be felt in introducing them freely in the rooms of dwelling,
houses. When no special provision is made for them in the walls,
the advantage of a current entering vertically may still be in some
degree secured by help of certain makeshift contrivances. One of
.these, suggested by Dr. Hinkcs Bird, is to open one sash of the
window a few inches and fill up the opening by a board; air then
enters in a zig-zag course through the space between the meeting
rails of the sashes. Still another plan is to have a light frame of
wood or metal or glass made to fit in front of the lower sash when
ft
FIG. 3.— THE
TOBIN TUBE
SHORT
the window is opened, thus forming virtually a Tobin tube.
As an example of the systematic ventilation of dwelling-rooms
on a large scale, the following particulars may be quoted of ar-
rangements that have been successfully used in English barracks.
One or more outlet shafts of wood fitted with flap valves to
prevent down-draught are carried from the highest part of the
room discharging some feet above the roof under a louvre. The
number and size of these shafts are such as to give about 12 sq.in.
of sectional area per head, and the chimney
gives about 6 sq.in. more per head. About
half the air enters cold through air-bricks
or Shcringham valves at a height of about
9 ft. from the floor, and the other half is
warmed by passing through flues behind
the grate. The inlets taken together give
an area of about n sq.in. per head. A
fairly regular circulation of some 1,200 cu.
ft. per head per hour is found to take
place, and the proportion of carbon dioxide
ranges from 7 to 10 parts in 10,000. In
the natural ventilation of churches, halls
and other large rooms we often find air
admitted by gratings in the floor or near
it; or the inlets may consist, like Tobin tubes, of upright flues
rising to a height of about 6 ft. above the floor, from which
the air proceeds in vertical streams. Tf the air is to be warmed
before it enters, the supply may be drawn from a chamber warmed
by hot-water or steam-pipes or by a stove, and the temperature
of the room may be regulated by allowing part of the air to ?ome
from a hot chamber and part from outside, the two currents mix-
ing in the shaft from which the inlets to the room draw their sup-
ply. Outlets usually consist of gratings or plain openings at or
near the ceiling, preferably at a considerable distance from points
vertically above the inlet tubes.
One of the chief difficulties in natural ventilation is to guard
against down-draught, through the action of the wind. Numberless
forms of cowl have been devised with this object, with the further
intention of turning the wind to useful account by making it assist,
the up-current of foul air. Some of these exhaust cowls are of
the revolving class, made to various designs and dimensions and
put in rotation by the force of the wind. Revolving cowls are liable
to fail by sticking, and generally speaking, fixed cowls are to
be preferred. The two things that supply motive force in auto-
matic or natural ventilation by means of exhaust cowls and similar
appliances (the difference of temperature between inner and
outer air, and the wind) are so variable that even the best arrange-
ments of inlets and outlets give a somewhat uncertain result. As
an example, it is evident, that on a hot day with little movement
in the air this mode of ventilation would be practically ineffectual.
Under other conditions these automatic air extractors not infre-
quently become inlets, thus reversing the whole system and pour-
ing cold air on the heads of the inmates of the apartment or hall.
To secure a strictly uniform delivery of air, unaffected by changes
of season or of weather, it is necessary that the influence of these
irregular motive forces be as far as possible minimized, and re-
course must consequently be had to some mechanical force as a
means of driving the air and securing adequate ventilation of the
building. For an account of artificial ventilation see the article
HEATING AND VENTILATING, to which a bibliography is appended.
VENTIMIGLIA (Fr. Vintimille, anc. Album Intimilinm or
Albintimilitim), a frontier fortress, seaport and episcopal see of
Liguria, Italy, in the province of Impcria, 94 m. W. by S. of
Genoa by rail, and 4 m. from the Franco-Italian frontier, 45 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 14,125 (town), 15,805 (commune).
The railway to Cuneo over the Col di Tenda (65 m.) has now
been completed. The new town is important as a frontier
station and for its flower market. The present Gothic cathedral
is built on the ruins of an earlier Lombard church, and with the
octagonal baptistery, the seminary, etc., forms a picturesque
group of buildings. S. Michele is another interesting old church.
Both lie in the old town, on a hill above the new. The ruins of
the ancient town are situated in the plain of Nervia, 3 m. E. of the
VENTNOR— VENUS
modern. It was a rnunicipium with an extensive territory, and of
some importance under the Empire, but was plundered by the
partisans of Otho in A.D. 69. Remains of a theatre are visible,
and remains of many other buildings have been discovered, among
them traces of the ancient city walls, a fine mosaic pavement and
a number of tombs to the west of the theatre. The caves of the
Balzi Rossi near the village of Grimaldi have proved rich in
•palaeolithic remains of the 'Quaternary period, while round Monte
Bcgo above S. Dalmazzo di Tenda, north of Ventimiglia are
numerous engravings (over 12,000) assignable to the Bronze
Age. (See ITALY, Prehistoric Period.)
See P. Barocelli in Monumenti dei Lincei xxix. (1923-25) for a
register of all discoveries; cf. also Bollettino d'Ante, p. 471 (1924).
VENTNOR, watering place, urban district, Isle of Wight,
England, 12^ m. S. of Ryde. Pop. (1921) 6,059. It is finely
situated in the Undercliff district, at the foot of St. Boniface
down, which reaches a height of 787 ft. The town, built on a
succession of terraces, is regarded as one of the best resorts in
England for consumptives and contains several hospitals and con-
valescent homes. In the early iQth century it was a small fishing
hamlet, but now it extends along the shore for 2 m. It has
assembly rooms, a literary and scientific institution, an esplanade,
a pier and extensive recreation grounds.
VENTRILOQUISM, the art of producing the voice in such
a manner that it shall appear to proceed from some place alto-
gether distant from the speaker (Lat. venter, belly, and loqtd, to
speak). The art of ventriloquism was formerly supposed to re-
sult from a peculiar use of the stomach (whence the name) during
the process of inhalation. As a matter of fact, the words are
formed in the normal manner, but the breath is allowed to escape
very slowly, the tones being muffled by narrowing the glottis
and the mouth opened as little as possible, while the tongue is
retracted and only its tip moves. Gestures and facial expression
are employed at the same time to assist in the deception by stim-
ulating the imagination of the listeners and to distract their at-
tention from the speaker.
Ventriloquism, which is still a recognized form of conjuring en-
tertainment, is of ancient origin. Traces of the art are found
in Egyptian and Hebrew archaeology. Eurydes of Athens was
the most celebrated of Greek ventriloquists, who were called after
him Eurycleides, and also Engastrimanteis (belly-prophets). It
is not impossible that the priests of ancient times were masters
of this art, and that to it may be ascribed such miracles as the
speaking statues of the Egyptians, the Greek oracles, and the
stone in the river Pactolus, the sound of which put robbers to
flight. Many uncivilized races of modern times are adepts in ven-
triloquism, as the Zulus, the Maoris and the Eskimos. It is well
known also in Hindustan and China.
See De la Chapelle, Le Vcntriloque, ou Vengast rimy the (1772); E.
Schultz, Die Kunst des Bauchrcdens (Erfurt, 1895) ; Russel, Ventrilo-
quism (1898) ; A. Prince, The, Whole Art of Ventriloquism (1921).
VENTSPILS, formerly Windau, a seaport and sea-bathing
resort of Latvia, at the mouth of a river of the same name, on the
Baltic Sea, in 57° 24' N., 21° 32" E. Its harbour is protected by
two long breakwaters, and has ample quay space with a depth of
23 to 30 ft. There is a 45 ton electric crane and the port is ice-
free all the year round. The harbour is being deepened in order
to make it accessible for large ocean steamers. There is a grow-
ing transit trade with Soviet Russia. Its imports are coal and
transit goods of various description and its exports timber, pit-
props, butter, flax, hemp and grain. The castle dates from 1290,
and the town itself from 1343.
VENTURA, a city of southern California, U.S.A., on the
Pacific ocean, 2 m. from the mouth of the Santa Clara river; the
county seat of Ventura county. It is served by the Southern
Pacific railway and by freight steamers to San Francisco and Los
Angeles. Pop. (1920) 4,342; (1928 local estimate) 18,000. It is a
trading centre and shipping point for a rich agricultural region and
for the neighbouring oilfields, and is the seat of the State school
for girls. The city, founded in 1782, was incorporated in 1866.
VENUE, in criminal law, the proper area of jurisdiction for
the trial of a crime by indictment (from the Lat. venire). Every
criminal court has its jurisdiction limited to some part of Eng-
land, and unless empowered by statute, cannot try any crimes
other than those committed within its jurisdiction. For certain
crimes, however, the venue may be laid in any part of England.
The King's Bench Division has power to change the venue. In
civil matters, that is to say, in actions commenced in the High
Court, there is now no local venue for the trial of actions, but
the place of trial is fixed (pursuant to Or. 36 r. i of the Rules
of the Supreme Court) on a summons for direction, which is
taken out shortly after the commencement of proceedings. As
a general rule the court directs that the trial shall take place at
the place which is most convenient, having regard to all the cir-
cumstances, e.g., the residences of the parties and their witnesses,
and the dates when assizes are held, and to the fact that jurors
ought not to be asked to try cases which do not arise in their own
district. (See further, CRIMINAL LAW; PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE;
COUNTY COURTS.) (W. V. B.)
In American law jurisdiction to try crimes and civil cases must
be distinguished from venue or the place where the trial may be
had. Jurisdiction as between the various States is governed by
common law principles of the conflict of laws. The right to en-
force the judgment of one State in another State depends upon
whether the former had jurisdiction of the subject matter and
the parties, a fact which is always open to question by the courts
of the latter State. But there being jurisdiction, the determina-
tion of the courts of the State in which the action is brought is
conclusive upon' the question whether the venue was properly
laid. Constitutional or statutory provisions commonly govern the
venue of different causes of action as between particular counties
and the Federal jurlicial districts. Actions such as trespass to land
are ordinarily triable only in the State where the cause of action
arose. Most actions may be tried in any State that has jurisdiction
of the parties.
VENUS (?) is the second of the planets in order of distance
from the sun. It revolves in an orbit which has the smallest eccen-
tricity (0-007) in the planetary system, and an inclination to the
ecliptic of 3° 24'. Its mean distance from the sun is 67,200,000
miles; but, whereas at inferior conjunction it is less than 26,-
000,000 miles from the earth, at superior conjunction it is 160,-
000,000 miles. The time it takes Venus to complete a revolution
in its orbit is 225 days, but its synodic period, or the period of its
phases, is 584 days. At its maximum elongations it recedes about
47° or 48° from the sun, so that in middle latitudes it can set or
rise over 3 hours after or before the sun. When seen in the
western sky in the evenings, t.t\, at its eastern elongations, it was
called by the Ancients "E<77T€pos (Hesperus), and when visible in
the mornings, i.e., at its western elongations ^cotfc^opos (Phos-
phorus). In volume and mass Venus is slightly smaller than the
earth, its diameter being about 7,700 miles and its mass (deduced
from its action on the earth and Mercury) 0-8 1 that of the earth.
At superior conjunction its angular diameter is about 10", but at
inferior conjunction it exceeds 60".
Like the earth Venus is enveloped in an atmosphere. This is
shown by the fact that, near inferior conjunction, the extremely
thin crescent of the visible portion of the illuminated hemisphere
has often been observed to exceed iSo°, while at the time of actual
entry on the sun's disc during the transit of 1882, as soon as about
i of the planet's body was in front of the sun, the remaining por-
tion was completely outlined by a narrow border of light. This
atmosphere of Venus is apparently heavily cloud-laden, -and, as the
intensity of the solar radiation is almost exactly twice what it is at
the earth's distance, the planet shines with a dazzling lustre, its
stellar magnitude varying from -3.3 to -4-4. Its greatest bright-
ness is attained at about 36 days on either side of inferior con-
junction, its elongation from the sun then being 39°, and its phase
similar to that of a 5 days old moon. When suitably situated the
planet is easily visible at noonday with the naked eye, and after
dark it readily casts a shadow.
As a telescopic object Venus is disappointing, since apart from
the beauty of its phases it presents but few features of a definite
nature. Its surface appears permanently screened from view
by its cloud-laden atmosphere, and many observers have failed to
72
VENUS— VENUS'S FLY-TRAP
detect any markings at all upon it beyond the general fading of
light near the terminator and a brightness at the cusps or other
features which appear to be merely phase effects. Occasionally
diffuse faint markings of a dusky character or bright areas are
seen, but these are probably nothing more than inequalities in the
cloudy stratum. On Feb. 13, 1913, a very definite indentation
in the terminator, or line bounding the illuminated part of the
disc, was observed simultaneously by McEwen of Glasgow, and
Sargent at the Durham university observatory, and similar irregu-
larities have been recorded by previous observers.
The Planet's Rotation. — In view of what has been said as
to the elusive nature of the surface features, it is not surprising
that the planet has been able to preserve the character of its
rotation a secret to the present day. It was concluded by some of
the earlier telescopic observers such as G. D. Cassini, Bianchini
and Schroeter that its period is in the neighbourhood of 24 hours;
but Schiaparelli (1890), after a careful study of the available
material including his own observations, formed the conviction
that the rotation is very slow and that it probably takes the same
time as the planet's orbital revolution. This last conclusion was
also arrived at by Lowell at Flagstaff. Flammarion in his review
of the recorded observations considered that no reliable deduction
could be drawn from them. A slow rotation would seem to be
indicated by the absence of any observable elliptidty of the planet
during its transits of the sun, as well as by the failure of certain
spectroscopic observations to show any definite differential radial
velocity at opposite sides of the visible disc. On the other hand
the radiometric observations at the Mt. Wilson and Flagstaff ob-
servatories in 1922, showing a considerable amount of heat to be
emitted by the dark part of the planet's disc, favour a quick rota-
tion, as also do photographs taken in ultra-violet light by Ross at
the Mt. Wilson observatory on which dusky belts are shown
perpendicular to the terminator and varying from night to night.
It is, however, typical of the mystery enveloping this planet (hat
on June 26, 1927, a dark marking was photographed at Mt. Wilson
which apparently remained stationary for an hour.
It may be that the harmonizing of many of the discordances
referred to will ultimately be found in the theory of Professor
W. H. Pickering. Observing in Jamaica in 1921, he reported
observations of dusky markings indicating a rotation in approxi-
mately 68 hours about an axis which is nearly in the plane of the
orbit and in line with the radius vector in heliocentric longitude
46° 7'. This result has received general support from McEwen,
and it has been pointed out that the failure of the Flagstaff spec-
troscopic observations in 1903 to indicate rotation is explained by
the fact that, on Pickering's hypothesis, the planet's pole was at
that time directed towards the Earth, and that the rotation of the
surface markings was accordingly almost in the plane of vision.
It is to be noted that the earlier spectroscopic observations of
Belopolsky at Pulkowa made under different conditions had given
distinct evidence of rotation.
Habitability. — There is a point which is of considerable im-
portance as regards the question whether Venus is fitted to be the
abode of animate life. If oxygen and water vapour exist in any
large quantity, we might expect their presence to be revealed by
absorption lines in the spectrum of the sunlight reflected by the
planet's surface. St. John, however, has found no evidence of
such lines, and has concluded that the amount of oxygen above the
visible surface is less than one thousandth part of the quantity
in the atmosphere of the earth. It must, however, be remembered
that the visible surface of Venus is apparently only that of the
upper layer of a stratum of cloud, and that, although the quantities
of oxygen and water vapour above this layer are apparently small,
there may be considerable amounts below it. In the absence of any
certain knowledge as to the planet's rotation and other important
data it is not possible to form conclusions concerning its habit-
ability, but the resemblance of Venus to the earth in size and
mass, coupled with its possession of a dense atmosphere, would
suggest the probability that it supports life of some kind.
Supposed Satellite. — It was at one time thought that Venus
possessed a satellite, several observers in the i7th and i8th
centuries reporting that they had seen it, though others searched
the neighbourhood of the planet for it in vain. Observations with
more perfect instruments, however, eventually demonstrated the
non-existence of any such object, and it is evident that what was
seen must have been the appearance of a "ghost," caused by some
fault in the construction or adjustment of the instruments used.
Transits of Venus-— As is the case with Mercury, Venus,
revolving round the sun inside the earth's orbit, sometimes transits
the sun's face, and is seen projected on it as a small black disc.
Were the planet's orbit plane coincident with that of the earth,
these transits would, of course, occur at each inferior conjunction,
but owing to its inclination a transit can only happen when the two
planets pass near one of the nodes of Venus at about the same
time, which is possible only at present in June and December.
Actually a transit happens but four times in 243 years, and the
intervals between transits are successively 8, 121^, 8, 105^, 8,
i2ii years et seq, as illustrated in the following table of dates of
these phenomena :
1518, June 2,
1526, June i,
1631, Dec. 7,
1639, Dec. 4,
1761, June 6,
1769, June 3,
1874, Dec. 9,
1882, Dec. 6,
2004, June 8,
2012, June 6.
The first transit to be actually observed was that of 1639, the
occurrence of the event having been calculated by Jeremiah
Horrox, a young clergyman who was curate of Hoole near Preston
in Lancashire. Dec. 4 in that year happened to be a Sunday, and
Horrox missed seeing the beginning of the transit through having
to take a service in church that afternoon, but on returning home
he found to his great delight the black body of the planet ctearly
projected on the sun's disc.
Following on the suggestions of Edmund Halley a century later,
transits of Venus were utilized for the determination of the solar
parallax which gives the distance of the sun — a quantity of funda-
mental importance to the astronomer. Practical difficulties, how-
ever, in the observations, arising from the effect of irradiation in
introducing uncertainties as to the precise moments of the internal
contacts between the limbs of the sun and planet, rendered the
method unsatisfactory, and far more effective ways of attacking
the problem are now available for the purpose. (T. E. R. P.)
VENUS, Roman and Latin goddess, apparently representing
beauty and growth in nature, and especially in gardens, where the
Roman practical sense would most naturally see these. She had
two temples in Rome, one in the grove of Libitina, with whom
she was wrongly identified, and the other near the Circus Max-
irnus, both of which had as their dedication day Aug. 19, the
festival of the Vinalia rustica, a fact which also points in the di-
rection of skilled cultivation as the human work of which she was
protectress. But this old Latin deity was in historical times
entirely absorbed by the Greek Aphrodite, and assumed the char-
acteristics of a cult of human love, which in her original form, she
had never possessed. See APHRODITE.
VENUSIA (mod. Venosa, q.v.), an ancient city of Apulia,
Italy, on the Via Appia, about 6 m. S. of the river Aufidus
(Ofanto), and near the boundary of Lucania. It was taken by
the Romans after the Samnite war of 291 B.C., and became a
colony at once, no fewer than 20,000 men being sent there, owing
to its military importance. The site is a specially strong one,
being almost isolated by two deep ravines. Throughout the Han-
nibalic wars it remained faithful to Rome, and had a further con-
tingent of colonists sent in 200 B.C. to replace its losses in war.
It took part in the Social War, and was recaptured by Quintus
Metellus Pius; in 43 B.C. its territory was assigned to the veterans
of the triumvirs. Horace was born here, the son of a freedman,
in 65 B.C. It remained an important place under the Empire as a
station on the Via Appia. Jewish catacombs with inscriptions in
Hebrew, Greek and Latin show the importance of the Jewish
population here in the 4th and sth centuries A.D.
VENUS'S FLY-TRAP, a remarkable insectivorous plant
(Dionaea itiuscipula) of the family Droseraceae, a native of North
and South Carolina, first described in 1768 by the American
botanist Ellis, in a letter to Linnaeus, in which he gave a sub-
stantially correct account of the structure and functions of its
VENUS'S LOOKING GLASS— VERATRINE
73
leaves, and even suggested the probability of their insectivorous
habit, Linnaeus declared it the most wonderful of plants (miracu-
lum naturae), yet only admitted that it showed an extreme case of
sensitiveness, supposing that the insects were only accidentally
captured and subsequently allowed to escape. The insectivorous
habit of the plant was subsequently fully investigated and de-
scribed by Charles Darwin in his book on insectivorous plants.
The plant is a small herb with a rosette of radical leaves with
broad leaf-like footstalks. Each leaf has two lobes, standing at
rather less than a right angle to each other, their edges being
produced into spike-like processes. The upper surface of each
lobe is covered with minute circular sessile glands. It bears also
three fine-pointed sensitive bristles. These contain no fibro-vascu-
lar bundles, but show a constriction near their bases, which enables
them to bend parallel to the surface of the leaf when the lobes
close. When the bristles are touched by an insect the lobes — after
a latent period of less than a second under suitable temperature
conditions — close upon the hinge-like midrib, the spikes interlock,
and the insect is imprisoned.
The leaf then forms itself into what may be called a temporary
stomach, and the glands, hitherto dry, are stimulated by the
presence of chemical substances passing out of the insect to pour
out an acid secretion containing an enzyme (Q.V.), similar to that
excreted by the leaves of the sundew, which rapidly dissolves the
soft parts of the insect. This is produced in such abundance that,
when Danvin made a small opening at the base of one lobe of a
leaf which had closed over a large crushed fly, the secretion con-
tinued to run down the footstalk during the whole time — nine
days — during which the plant was kept under observation. The
closing of the leaf is due to alterations in the cell-structure of the
leaf and is later fixed by growth. The closing is accompanied by
electrical changes which have been compared with those occurring
in stimulated muscle.
Though the bristles are exquisitely sensitive to the slightest
contact with solid bodies, yet they are far less sensitive than those
of the sundew (Drosera) to prolonged stimulation, a singular
relation of the habits of the two plants. Like the leaves of Drosera,
however, those of Dionaea are completely indifferent to wind and
rain. The surface of the blade is very slightly sensitive; it may be
roughly handled or scratched without causing movement, but
closes when its surface or midrib is deeply pricked or cut. After
the absorption of the products of digestion of the insect the leaf
opens again by a process of growth and is ready for another meal.
Dionaea and Mimosa show the two most striking cases of move-
ment in the plant kingdom.
For further details see C. Darwin, Insectivorous Plants (1875) ;
M. Shene, Biology of Flowering Plants (1924).
VENUS'S LOOKING GLASS, a popular garden name for
Specularia Speculum (or Campanula Speculum), from the old
Latin name for the plant, Speculum Veneris. It is a common
cornfield plant in the south of Europe, and is grown in gardens
on account of its brilliant purple flowers. In North America four
native species occur, of which the American Venus's looking-
glass or clasping bell-flower (5. perfoliata) and the small Venus 's
looking glass (5. biflora) are found across the continent, the latter
extending to South America.
VERACRUZ (officially VERACRUZ LLAVE), a Gulf Coast
State of Mexico, bounded north by Tamaulipas, west by San Luis
Potosi, Hidalgo, Puebla and Oaxaca, and south-east by Chiapas
and Tabasco. Pop. (1900) 981,030; (1910) 1,132,459. It is about
$om. wide, extending along the coast north-west to south-east, for
a distance of 435m., with an area of 29,201 square miles. It was
the seat of an ancient Indian civilization antedating the Aztecs
and is filled with remarkable and interesting ruins; it is now one
of the richest States of the republic. It consists of a low, sandy
coastal zone, much broken with tidewater streams and lagoons,
behind which the land rises gradually to the base of the sierras
and then in rich valleys and wooded slopes to their summits on
the eastern margin of the great Mexican plateau, from which rise
the majestic summits of Orizaba and Cofre de Perote. The climate
is hot, humid and malarial, except on the higher elevations; the
rainfall is heavy, and the tropical vegetation is so dense that it
is practically impossible to clear it away. At Coatzacoalcos the
annual precipitation ranges from 125 to i4oin., but it steadily de-
creases towards the north. On the higher slopes of the sierras pre-
historic terraces are found, evidently constructed to prevent the
washing away of the soil by these heavy rains. More than 40
rivers cross the State from the sierras to the coast. There are
several ports on the coast — Coatzacoalcos, Alvarado, Veracruz,
Nautla, Tecolutla and Tuxpam. The products of the State are
chiefly agricultural — cotton, sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cacao,
vanilla, maize, beans and fruit. Cattle-raising is followed in some
districts, cattle and hides being among the exports. Among the
forest products are rubber, cabinet woods, dye-woods, broom-root,
chicle, jalap and orchids. Veracruz is one of the largest pro-
ducers of sugar and rum in Mexico. There are a number of cotton
factories (one of the largest in Mexico being at Orizaba), chiefly
devoted to the making of coarse cloth for the lower classes. To-
bacco factories are also numerous. Other manufactures include
paper, chocolate, soap and matches. There are four lines of rail-
way converging at Veracruz, two of which cross the State by dif-
ferent routes to converge again at Mexico City. Another, the
Tehuantepec National railway, crosses in the south, and is con-
nected with Veracruz (city) by the Veracruz and Pacific line,
which traverses the State in a south-easterly direction. The cap-
ital is Jalapa, and the principal towns are Veracruz, Orizaba, Cor-
dova and Coatzacoalcos.
VERACRUZ, a city and seaport of Mexico, in the State of
Veracruz, on a slight indentation of the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico, in 19° n' 50" N., 96° 20' W., slightly sheltered by some
small islands and reefs. Pop. (1910) 53,115. Veracruz is the
most important port of the republic. It is 263 m. by rail E. of
the city of Mexico, with which it is connected by two lines of
railway. It is built on a flat, sandy, barren beach, only a few
feet above sea-level. The harbour is confined to a compara-
tively narrow channel inside a line of reefs and small islands,
which is exposed to the full force of northern storms. New port
works were completed towards the end of the i9th century,
which, by means of breakwaters, afford complete protection. In
1905 the four railway companies having terminal stations in
Veracruz united in the organization of a joint terminal asso-
ciation, with union station, tracks, warehouses, quays, cranes,
etc.
Veracruz dates from 1520, soon after the first landing there
of Cortes. This settlement was called Villa Rica de Veracruz,
but was soon after moved to the harbour of Bernal, in 1525 to
a point now called Old Veracruz, and in 1599 to its present
site. It was pillaged by privateers in 1653 and 1712, and this
led to the erection of the celebrated fort of San Juan de Ulua, or
Ulloa, on one of the reefs in front of the city. In 1838 it was
captured by the French, on March 29, 1847 by an American
army under Gen. Winneld Scott, who made Veracruz a base
for his march upon the City of Mexico, and in 1861 by the
French. Felix Diaz, nephew of President Diaz, captured Vera-
cruz on Oct. 15, 1912, in a revolt against the Madero Govern-
ment. Surprised by Federal troops, he was taken prisoner on
Oct. 22, and interned in Ulua fort.
Naval forces of the United States landed in Veracruz on
April 21, 1914, seized the port and thereby brought about the
resignation of President Huerta. They held the city until Nov.
23, I9M.
VERATRINE (Cevadine), the most important and the
most toxic of a series of alkaloids (q.v.) obtained from sabadilla
seeds (Merck, 1855). The name veratrine has been applied so
variously that the synonym cevadine was introduced by Wright
and Luff (1878) to distinguish the pure alkaloid (crystallized
veratrine) which crystallizes from warm diluted alcohol in
colourless rhombic prisms, melts at 205° C, and has a specific
rotation [a]o4~I2'5°« Cevadine, CMHtt>OoN, forms a series of
well-crystallized salts and behaves as an ester, being hydrolyzed
to tiglic acid and the basic alcohol cevine, CntLsOsN, which is
much less toxic than the parent alkaloid. In physiological action
veratrine has affinities with the even more poisonous alkaloid
aconitine.
74
VERATRUM— VERDI
VERATRUM. The Greek physicians were acquainted with a
poisonous herb which they called white hellebore, and which has
been supposed to represent the Veratrum album of modern bot-
anists. In modern times the name has been applied to a genus of
herbaceous plants belonging to the family Liliaceae. Veratrum is a
tall-growing herb, having a fibrous root-stock, an erect stem, with
numerous broad, plicated leaves placed alternately, and terminal,
much-branched clusters of greenish or purplish polygamous flow-
ers. Each perfect flower consists of six regular petals, as many sta-
mens, whose anthers open outwardly, and a three-celled superior
ovary which ripens into a three-ceiled, many-seeded capsule. The
genus comprises 10 species, natives of the temperate regions of
the northern hemisphere, generally growing in pastures or woods.
V. album and the North American species V. viride are commonly
grown in gardens as ornamental perennials, but their poisonous
qualities should be kept in mind, particularly as they bear a con-
siderable resemblance in foliage to the harmless Gentiana lutea.
Both contain the potent alkaloid veratrine. (See also HELLEBORE.)
VERBENA. The genus Verbena (vervain) in botany gives
its name to the family (Verbenaceae), of which it is a member.
The species are herbaceous or somewhat shrubby, with opposite
or whorled leaves, generally deeply cut. The sessile flowers are
aggregated into close spikes. Each flower has a tubular, ribbed
calyx, a more or less irregular tubular two-lipped corolla, with
four (didynamous) stamens springing from the interior of the
corolla-tube. The anthers are two-celled. The ovary is entire or
four-lobed, and always four-celled, with a single ovule in each
cell. The fruit consists of four hard nutlets within the persistent
calyx. There are about 100 species, mostly natives of tropical
and subtropical America, some 20 being native to the United
States, a very few species occurring also in the Old World. The
garden verbenas are mostly derivatives from a few South Ameri-
can species, such as V. teucrioides, of southern Brazil, and V.
chaniacdri folia from Argentina and southern Brazil. Various
cultivated forms have been derived also from the North American
V. canadensis. The range of colours extends from pure white to
rose-coloured, carmine, violet and purple. Striped forms also
are cultivated. The lemon-scented verbena of gardens, much
valued for the fragrance of its leaves is now referred to the genus
Lippia as L. citriodora; it differs from Verbena in having two,
not. four, nutlets in the fruit.
The garden verbenas are easily raised from seeds sown in
heat in February or March, but choice varieties can only be kept
true when raised from cuttings. These are best secured from old
plants cut down in the autumn and started into growth in gentle
heat and moisture the following spring. They root readily in a
compost of sandy loam. (See VERBENACEAE; VERVAIN.)
VERBENACEAE, a family of dicotyledonous plants, com-
prising about 70 genera and some 750 species of herbs, shrubs
and trees, nearly all tropical and subtropical. Vervain (q.v.)
is British. Lippia and Cymbopogon yield verbena oil and several
species, as teak (Tectona grandis), supply useful timber. Many
are liancs. Some species bear thorns; others are xerophytic.
Numerous species are cultivated for ornament, as the verbena
(q.v.), chaste-tree (Vitex Agnus-castus), glory -bower (Cleroden-
drwn), purple wreath (Petraea volubilis), golden dewdrop (Du-
rantia re pens), bluebeard (Caryopteris incana) and French mul-
berry (Callicarpa americana).
" VERBOECKHOVEN, EUGENE JOSEPH (1798-1881),
Belgian painter, was born at Warneton in West Flanders on June
9, 1798, and received instruction in drawing and modelling from
his father, the sculptor Barthelcmy Verboeckhoven. His paintings
of sheep, of horses and of cattle in landscape, somewhat after the
manner of Potter, brought him universal fame, and were eagerly
sought for by collectors. Precise and careful finish is the chief
quality of his art, which is entirely objective and lacking in inspira-
tion. Verboeckhoven visited England in 1826, Germany in 1828,
and France and Italy in 1841. He died in Brussels on Jan. 19,
1 88 1. Examples of his art are to be found in nearly all the impor-
tant galleries of Europe and the United States, notably in Brus-
sels, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Berlin, Munich, New York,
Boston and Washington. In addition to his painted work he exe-
cuted some 50 etched plates of similar subjects.
VERCELLI (anc. Vercellae), a provincial capital and archi-
episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara, 13 m.
S.W. of that town by rail. Pop. (1921): 29,009, town; 32,769,
commune. It is situated 430 ft. above sea-level on the river
Sesia, at its junction with the Canterana. Vercelli is a point at
which railways diverge for Novara, Mortara, Casale Monferrato
and Santhia (for Turin). The Piazza Cavour has a statue of
Cavour. The cathedral library contains many ancient mss.,
especially the Codex Vercellensis (see VERCELLI BOOK). The
church of S. Andrea is a Romanesque Gothic building of 1219-24,
with lofty towers and an interior in the French Gothic style and
a museum of Roman antiquities in the adjacent cloister. S. Paolo,
S. Francesco and S. Cristoforo possess valuable examples of the
work of Gaudenzio Ferrari (1471-1546) and of his follower
Lanini. The castle of the Visconti is now a prison. Vercelli was
the birth 'place of the painter Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, called
Sodoma (1477-1549). Vercelli is one of the principal Italian
centres of the exportation of cereals and especially of rice.
Vercellae, originally the chief city of the Libici (a Ligurian
tribe), was at the junction of Roman roads to Eporcdia, Novaria
and Mediolanum, Laumellum (for Ticinum) and perhaps Hasta.
Remains of the theatre and amphitheatre were seen in the i6th
century, and ancient streets have been traced during drainage
operations. In the neighbourhood (near Rot to on the Scsia) are
the Raudii Campi where Hannibal won his first victory on Italian
soil (218 B.C.), and where in 101 B.C. Marius and Catulus routed
the Cimbri. From about 1228 till 1372 Vercelli was the seat of a
university. (T. A.)
VERCELLI BOOK (CODEX VERCELLENSIS), anO.E.ms. con-
taining, besides homilies, Andreas, Fates of the Apostles, Address
of the Soul to the Body, Falseness of Men, Dream of the Rood,
Elene and a prose Life of Gut lilac f found in the cathedral library
of Vercelli, by Blume in 1822, and described in his Her Italic-urn
(Berlin and Stettin, 1824-36). The hand-writing dates from the
beginning of the nth century. According to Wiilker the ms.
probably belonged to the hospice for English pilgrims, founded
by Cardinal Guala (d. 1227), a native of Vercelli and bishop of
the city, in 1219, on his return from England, where he had been
papal legate. The cardinal possessed a large library, which he
left to the monastery; and the Vercelli codex may well have been
included in it.
Its contents were partially printed (by Thorpe from Blumc's trans-
script) in Appendix B to Cooper's Report of Rymeri Foedera for
1836; by Kemble, Poetry of the Codex Vercellensis (Aclfric Soc., 1843-
56), 'and in a text based directly on the ms. by Wiilker in his edition
of Grein's Bibliothck der AS. Poesie (Leipzig, 1894). Codex Vercellen-
sis, by Wlilker (Leipzig, 1894), is a facsimile.
For the description and history of the ms. see also R. Wulkcr,
Grundriss der AS. Littcratnr (1885), pp. 237-42, and A. Napier in
Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Altertum (1889, vol. 21, new series; old series,
vol. 33, p. 66). See also CYNEWULF.
VERCINGETORIX (ob. 45 B.C.), Gaulish chieftain, waged
war with ability against Caesar in 52 B.C. For the history of the
campaign see CAESAR. He fell into Caesar's hands at the capture
of Alesia, was exhibited at Caesar's triumph in 45 and was then
put to death.
See Caesar, B.C. VII.
VERDEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, on
the navigable Aller, 3 m. above its confluence with the Weser,
22m. S.E. of Bremen by the railway to Hanover. Pop. (1925)
10,048. Verden was the seat of a bishopric founded in the first
quarter of the 9th century, or earlier, and secularized in 1648.
The duchy of Verden was then ceded to Sweden, passed in 1719
to Hanover and was, with Hanover, annexed by Prussia in 1866.
The most noticeable edifice is the Gothic cathedral. Its
industries embrace the manufacture of furniture, soap and ma-
chinery, cigar-making, brewing and distilling.
VERDI, GIUSEPPE FORTUNING FRANCESCO
(1813-1901), Italian composer, was born on Oct. 10, 1813, at Le
Roncole, near Busseto. His parents kept a little inn, combined
with a kind of village shop. Verdi's musical education really
began with his entrance into the house of business of Antonio
Barezzi, a merchant of Busseto, who was a thorough musician.
VERDIGRIS— VERDUN
75
He studied under Provesi, maestro di cappella of the cathedral and
conductor of the municipal orchestra, for which Verdi wrote many
marches. and other instrumental pieces. His first symphony was
written at the age of fifteen and performed in 1828. In 1832
Verdi went to Milan to complete his studies. He was rejected
by the authorities of the Conservatorio, but remained in Milan
as a pupil of Vincenzo Lavigna, with whom he worked until
the death of Provesi in 1833 recalled him to Busseto. A clerical
intrigue prevented him from succeeding his old master as cathe-
dral organist, but he was appointed conductor of the municipal
orchestra, and organist of the church of San Bartolomeo. After
Verdi's return to Milan, his first opera, Oberto, Conte di San
Bonifacio, was produced in 1839. H*s next work, a comic opera,
known variously as Un Giorno di Regno and // Finto Stanislao,
and composed in peculiarly distressing circumstances (the young
composer had just lost his wife and two children) was a complete
failure, and Verdi, stung by disappointment, determined to
write no more for the stage. But a year later Mcrelli, the im-
presario of La Scala, persuaded him to write Nabucodonosor
(1842), which placed him in the front rank of living Italian com-
posers. / Lombardi (1843) and Ernani (1844) followed. With
Ernani Verdi became the most popular composer in Europe, and
the incessant demands made, upon him reacted upon his style.
Macbeth (1847), Luisa Miller (1849) an^ / Masnadieri,
produced at Her Majesty's Theatre in 1847, did not enhance his
reputation, but in Ri^olMo (1851), // Trovatore (1853) and
La Traviata (1853) Verdi reached the culminating point of what
may be called his second manner. Lcs Vepres Sicilicnnes (1855),
written for the Paris Opera contains some fine music, but suffers
from the composer's perhaps unconscious attempt to adopt the
grandiose manner of French opera. Of the works written during
the next ten years only Un Ballo in Maschera (Rome, Feb. 17,
1859) has maintained a fitful hold upon public attention. La
Forza del Destino (Nov. 10, 1862, St. Petersburg) and Don Carlos
(March ir, 1867, Paris) are transitional works.
At this point in his career Verdi was preparing to emancipate
himself from his cnrly conventions, and was struggling towards
a freer method of expression. In A'ida (Dec. 1871, Cairo) an
opera upon an Egyptian subject, written in response to an invita-
tion from Ismail Pasha, Verdi entered upon the third period of
his career. In this work he broke definitely with the operatic
tradition inherited from Donizetti, in favour of a method of
utterance, which, though perhaps affected in some degree by the
influence of Wagner, still retains the main characteristics of
Italian music. In A'ida the treatment, of the orchestra shows a
richness of resource which those who knew only Verdi's earlier
works scarcely suspected him of possessing; while its wealth of
melody, massive ensembles, picturesque local colour, and other
attractive qualities have long since established the work among
the most successful and popular operas ever written. In the
Requiem, written in 1874 to commemorate the death of Man-
zoni, Verdi applied his newly found system to sacred music. His
Requiem was bitterly assailed by pedants and purists, partly on
the ground of its defiance of obsolete rules of musical grammar
and partly because of its theatrical treatment of sacred subjects,
but by saner and more sympathetic critics, of whom Brahms was
not the least enthusiastic, it has been accepted as a work of genius.
In 1 88 1 a thoroughly revised version of Simon Boccanegra was
successfully produced at Milan.
In 1887 (Feb. 5) Otdlo was produced at Milan when Verdi
was nearly seventy. The libretto, from Shakespeare's Othello,
was the work of Boito. Otdlo recalls Aida in the general outlines
of its structure, but voices and orchestra are treated with greater
freedom than in the earlier work, and there arc no set arias.
Otello is, musically and dramatically, an immense advance upon
anything Verdi had previously written; and no less applies to
Falstaff, which was produced at Milan on Feb. 9, 1893, when the
composer was in his eightieth year, and which contains, besides
the dramatic power and musical skill of Otello, a fund of delicate
and fanciful humour which recalls the gayest mood of Mozart.
Falstaff was Verdi's last work for the stage but in 1898 he pro-
duced four beautiful sacred pieces, settings of the Ave Maria,
Landi alia Virgine (words from Dante's Paradiso), the Stabat
Mater and the Te Deum, the first two for voices alone, the last
two for voices and orchestra. Of his other minor and non-dra-
matic works, very few in number, may be mentioned a string
quartet, composed in 1873, a hymn written for the opening of the
International Exhibition of 1862, two sets of songs, a Paternoster
for five-part chorus, and an Ave Maria for soprano solo, with
string accompaniment. He died at Milan on Jan. 27, 1901.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.~C. Bellaiquc, Verdi: biografia critica (Milan) ; A.
Bonaventura, G. Ve*di (Livorno) ; Brazaguolo e Betrazzi, La vita di G.
Verdi (Milan) ; Roncaglia, G. Verdi (Naples) ; A. Weissmann, Verdi
(Stuttgart, 1922).
VERDIGRIS is a basic copper acetate of varying composi-
tion. Dissolved in pine balsam, it formed one of the permanent
greens of the Middle Ages. Owing to its behaviour as an oil
colour (turning from dark green to black) and as a water colour
(fading), it is replaced as a pigment by the more permanent
chromium and cobalt greens and is now used mainly in anti-
fouling compositions and wood preservatives. It is an irritant
poison; the best antidote is white of egg and milk. See PAINTS,
CHEMISTRY OF.
VERDUN, a garrison town of north-eastern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Meuse, on the main
line of the Eastern railway between Paris and Mctz, 42 m. N.N.E.
of Bar-le-Duc. Pop. (1926) 12,651.
Verdun (Vcrodunum), an important town at the time of the
Roman conquest, was made a part of Belgica Prima. The bishop-
ric, held by St. Vanne (498-525), dates from the 3rd century.
Verdun was destroyed during the period of the barbarian inva-
sions, and recovered only at the end of the 5th century. Clovis
seized the town in 502, and it afterwards belonged to the kingdom
of Austrasia. In 843 the famous treaty was signed here by the
sons of Louis the Pious. (See GERMANY: History.) In the icth
century Verdun was conquered by Germany and put under the
temporal authority of its bishops. Together with Toul and Metz,
the town and its domain formed the territory of the Trois-
£vechcs. In the nth century the burghers began a struggle with
their bishops, which ended in their obtaining certain rights in the
1 2th century. In 1552 Henry II. of France took possession of the
Trois-£veches, which finally became French by the Treaty of
Westphalia. In 1792, the citizens opened their gates to the Prus-
sians. In 1870 the Prussians invested and bombarded it three
times, till it capitulated in the beginning of November. (For the
part played by Verdun in the World War of 1914-18 see WORLD
WAR.) It was the greatest centre of resistance to the German in-
vasion and advances of 1914-18, and was reduced to ruins as a
result. (See VERDUN, BATTLES OF.)
Verdun stands on the Meuse, here canalized, and was a great
fortress. The chief quarter of the town lay on the slope of the
left bank of the river and was dominated by the citadel which oc-
cupied the site of the old abbey of St. Vanne founded in the loth
century. The whole town was surrounded by a bastioned enceinte,
pierced by four gates; that to the north-east, the Porte Chaussce,
i5th-J7th century, with two crenelated towers, was little dam-
aged in the war of 1914-18. The cathedral of Notre-Dame in
process of restoration, stands on the site of two previous churches
of the Romanesque period, the first of which was burnt down in
1047. There are double transepts and, till the iSth century when
the western apse was replaced by a facade, there was an apse at
each extremity. To the south-west of the cathedral is -a fine i$th
century cloister. The hotel-de-viUe (i7th century) has been
restored.
VERDUN, BATTLES OF. The invader of France coming
from the cast is confronted by a series of ridges between the
Moselle and Paris. The second of these ridges is formed by the
historic escarpment 400 metres in height, above the Meuse and
called the Heights of the Meuse. Here is placed the fortress of
Verdun, one of the main barriers on the road to Paris. It was the
primary objective of the German campaign of 1916, and the
failure to secure it had a far-reaching influence on the course of
the World War. .
History of the Fortress — After the war of 1870 Gen. Se>e de
76
VERDUN
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BATTLE OF
VERDUN
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Riviere, who was entrusted with the task of organising the fron-
tier defences, constructed a protective curtain stretching from
Verdun on the north to Toul on the south. Fortresses guarded
the routes between these two places. On this rampart of the
Heights of the Meuse Verdun formed the northern muzzle, op-
posite the fortified camp at Metz some 40 m. away. The fortress
was planned so that the principal line of resistance faced north.
Inside the two lines of forts was an old fortified enclosure of
Vauban's time and a citadel dating back to Henry II. Galleries
hewn out of the rocky foundation of the citadel, with workshops,
bakeries, stores of food, water pumps and barracks formed a
subterranean city safe against bombardment.
Verdun in 1914.— At the beginning of the War the fortress
was an independent command. After the battle of the Frontiers
the III. Army in retreat pivotted its right upon it as a break-
water against the German tide of advance, which turned on Sept.
13, 1914, by reason of the defeat of the German armies before
Paris. (See MARNE, FIRST BATTLE OF.) The French lines were
then established 10 km. north of Verdun and the sector was quiet
for nearly 18 months. South-east of Verdun a stiff but indecisive
fight took place in the spring of 1915 for the observatory of Les
Eparges, and further south, in the area of St. Mihiel, by a sur-
prise attack on Sept. 20, 1914 the Bavarians drove in a wedge
and gained a foothold on the left bank of the Meuse. This wedge
rcmafned in the French front, a potential menace, until the Ameri-
can attack of Sept. 12, 1918. (See ST. MIHIEL, BATTLE OF.) West
of Verdun the Crown Prince attempted to reach the Argonne
in the direction of Varennes and forced the French lines back
to the edge of Boureuilles and Vauquois.
The autonomy of the great fortresses was cancelled on Aug.
5, 1915 in order to make their garrisons and equipment available
for the armies in the field. Dunkirk, Verdun and Belfort, the three
great fortresses on the area of battle, became fortified regions
linked up with the armies. The fortified region of Verdun
(R.F.V.) was placed under Gen. Herr, who ranked as an army
commander. The R.F.V. was on Feb. i, 1916 attached to the
group of Armies of the Centre— then commanded by Gen.
Langlc de Gary. On Feb. 10, 1916 Gen. Herr had available seven
divisions with one in reserve, and two territorial brigades.
Germany Selects Verdun for Attack. — About Christmas
1915 Gen. von Falkenhayn submitted to the German Emperor a
report setting forth the views of the German Staff as to the
campaign of 1916. The report urged that France had reached
the limits of exhaustion. Russia was powerless, Serbia destroyed,
Italy deceived, though all were sustained by the will of Britain
who was fighting against Germany as she had fought against
Napoleon. Unfortunately it was not easy to reach Britain effec-
tively either in her distant possessions by operations which could
never be decisive, or on her own soil, or on the Continent. It
was impossible to attack Britain directly. But she would be de-
feated if the Allied armies on the Continent were broken.
Where, then, was this to be done? Defeat of Italy would have
little effect on England. Operations against Russia could not
begin till April and then only towards the Ukraine where com-
munications were lacking and a flank would be exposed to Ru-
mania. The only possible line of attack was against France.
It was not necessary to attack or break through in force. Behind,
but close to, the French front were positions of such importance
that they would have to be held to the last man. This reasoning
led to the battle of Verdun. The German Command sought to
force the French to accept battle under conditions of forced
defence — conditions which are fatal to the defender.
The two objectives which realised Falkenhayn's conditions
were Belfort and Verdun. The capture of Belfort involved the
evacuation by the French of Upper Alsace. Verdun, however,
was important for three reasons. From Verdun the French could
launch an attack, similar to that contemplated by the Germans,
upon the German communications. "Verdun," said Falkenhayn's
report, "is the strongest starting point for any attempt by the
enemy to, threaten the whole German front in France and Bel-
gium with relatively small forces." The French lines were but
12 m. from the German communications. Throughout the War
German headquarters dreaded an Allied attack starting from
Verdun.
VERDtJN
77
An attack on Verdun had been foreseen by some on the French
side. Col. Driant, Deputy for Nancy, who commanded a group
of chasseurs in the fortified region of Verdun, wrote to the Min-
ister for War that the decisive blow would be struck on the line
Verdun-Nancy. The defensive organization of Verdun was in-
complete. Gen. Herr, by the instructions of Aug. 9, 1915, had to
link up the III. Army in Argonne with the I. Army in the Woevre.
That involved the revision of the defensive system of the fortress
from a circular scheme to one of a series of parallel and succes-
sive lines. But the Commander-in-Chief, disturbed by the thrust
of the Germans in the Argonne, also ordered Gen. Herr to prepare
a defensive position on the left bank in case Verdun had to be
abandoned. Gen. Herr could not manage this double programme
with his resources and of four positions suggested on the right
bank, only the first existed at the end of Jan. 1916.
On Dec. 3 Col. Driant was, in Paris and communicated his
views to his colleagues on the Commission of the Army. Gen.
Pedoya, President of the Commission, passed the warning to
Gen. Gallieni, the Minister for War, who wrote on Dec. 16 to
Marshal Joffre inquiring whether all along the front a defensive
system of at least two lines had been planned and carried out with
such constructional features as were necessary in support. On the
i8th Joffre replied somewhat confusedly and stated that the
improvement of the double line system already existing along the
whole front had been ordered on Oct. 22, that the organization of
the fortified areas in the rear of the armies had also been ordered,
and that this combination of defensive measures was in process
of completion and at a number of points had been completed.
Gallieni replied on the 2 2nd that the Government hoped that
the works still to be completed would be carried out with all
speed and care and that the Government had full confidence in
the Commander-in-Chief. In order to conceal its plans about
Verdun the German Supreme Command arranged to carry out
preliminary measures at several points on the front. The French
Staff was for long in doubt whether the attack would come in
Artois or in Champagne. But from Jan. 1916 French airmen
reported enemy preparations on the Verdun front. On Jan. 16
Gen. Herr collected all this information in a formal report and
asked for a division to reinforce him. This was sent to him.
I. THE GERMAN OFFENSIVE
On Feb. 8, 1916 it was discovered that the Germans had brought
a mass of manoeuvre to the neighbourhood of Verdun. A deserter
disclosed the presence of two corps. On the nth an intelligence
officer reported a concentration of troops on the east bank of
the Meuse. The French Command at once took precautions. On
Feb. 13 three divisions of the VII. Corps (i4th, 37th and 48th)
were moved to Souilly, a march south of Verdun, followed on the
1 6th by two divisions of the XX. Corps. On the 2Oth the Com-
mander-in-Chief , who had inspected this front on the igth, ordered
the I. Army to place the i6th Div. at Gen. Herr's disposition,
thus completing the XX. Corps.
French Supply Problems.— Transport questions arose. Ordi-
narily two standard gauge railways serve Verdun. The southern
line had been cut by the enemy. The western line would be, and
was, cut as soon as operations started. A departmental railway,
the Meusien line, and a road from Bar-le-Duc still remained. To
maintain supplies for an engagement in which 15 or 20 divisions
are engaged, the daily requirements are 2,000 tons of munitions,
100 tons of supplies and material for each division, say 2,000
tons, and from 15,000 to 20,000 men. The Meusien Railway at
best carried 800 tons daily. On the I9th Capt. Doumenc, com-
manding the M.T. service, undertook to carry 2,000 tons and
12,000 men daily in lorries provided that the M.T. service had
sole control over the roads. Motor traffic was organized on the
aoth on railway lines. From the 29th, 3,000, later 3,500, lorries
passed in an endless stream along this little road only seven yards
wide; 6,000 vehicles passed a given point in 24 hours, an
average frequency of one vehicle every 14 seconds. At times
the traffic rose to one vehicle every five seconds. In the lan-
guage of the War this road was known as the "Sacred Way."
German Disposition*. — Verdun was confronted by the Ger-
man V. Army — part of the command of the Crown Prince, who
directed the offensive. The Germans had 26 divisions available
on the Western Front. A third of these were kept as a general
reserve; 17 to 18 divisions were therefore available for the Ver-
dun attack. The German Command allotted nine divisions to the
first attack, which started from the east bank. East of the Meuse
was the VII. Res. Corps (one division in line, one in support) ;
then the XVIII. Corps and the III. Corps in echelon of divisions.
Farther east the XV. Corps was held in the plain of the Woevre,
ready on the breach of the French front to hurl itself on the
French flank. The U3th Div., completing the assault troops, was
in support. This mass of manoeuvre had been embodied in the
Crown Prince's Army command and to make way for it, room
was made between the V. Res. Corps and the VI. Res. Corps.
The duty of the latter, on the west bank of the Meuse, was to
attack the French when broken on the east bank and to bar their
retreat. Thus it was engaged only on March 6.
On Feb. 21, 1916, at 7.15 A.M. the Germans commenced bom-
bardment on a front of ,25 m. from the Bois d'Avocourt to fitain.
It was of unheard of intensity. Heavy shell were used in vast
quantities. The woods were full of guns which fired ceaselessly
with measured regularity. Observers from the air ceased to mark
batteries on the map. The woods to them were masses of clouds
pierced by flashes of lightning. Soon the French squadrons were
chased from the sky.
The Attack Opens. — About 4.15 P.M. the first infantry attack
was launched. Commandant Vouvard remarks that "It is prob-
able that there were strong reconnoitring parties to test the
efficacy of the artillery preparations and to seize trenches which
had been destroyed. Beyond doubt that first day the Germans
sought to put their infantry in an advantageous position and to
get into line for the battle of the next day, by making it pass
even the unequal intervals separating the lines." As a fact, the
Germans, to effect a surprise, had not dug parallels from which
to issue and moved from their lines at distances from the French
lines which varied from 600 to 1,100 metres. Gimlet describes
their new tactics thus: "Each troop had a specific task, with an
objective of limited breadth and depth. Before taking hold of
it, a wave of scouts was sent forward to test the destruction by
the artillery fire. If the destruction were not thorough the scouts
retired and further artillery preparation was organised. The at-
tack took place in waves about 80 metres apart. First came a
line of pioneers and men with bombs. Then came the main body
in single file. Then followed a reserve section carrying up ammu-
nition, tools, sandbags, and filling up gaps in the first wave. A
second line followed in the same order, passing through the first
line, supporting it if checked and renewing the assault on their
own initiative. The attack should now proceed by encircling move-
ments, utilising cover and passing along ravines. Thus the centres
of resistance would fall one by one. Shell fire would support the
advance continually. On no account should troops attempt to
overcome resistance which has not been broken by artillery fire.
Units when held up must wait for fresh artillery action."
Early German Successes.— The French line rested on the
village of Brabant, then on the Bois de Consenvoye, Bois d'Hau-
mont, Bois de Caures, Bois de Ville and on Herbebois. A little
in the rear the Bois de La Wavrille (southeast of the Bois de
Ville) and the village of Beaumont had been strengthened with
redoubts. On the extreme right the line rested on the village of
Ornes. Before the German attack, what remained of the French
trenches was filled with defenders. At Herbebois the Germans
captured the first lines but were stopped in front of the support-
ing trenches. The Bois de Caures was lost but its northern part
was retaken during the night. The loss of the Bois d'Haumont
was a serious matter. A French counter-attack on the 22nd at
6 A.M. failed. The line had been pierced.
The Germans made good use, on the 22nd, of the advantage
gained at the Bois d'Haumont. The village of Haumont was de-
stroyed by shell fire and at 5.00 P.M. was attacked by three col-
umns. The main redoubt, built of concrete, collapsed and buried
80 men. The remaining defenders were hunted from the cellars
by bombs and liquid fire but rallied at Samogneux. Bois de Ville
VERDUN
was lost. Bois de Caures was then enveloped on the right and left
and Col. Driant decided to withdraw his chasseurs to Beaumont.
He was the last to leave the wood and was then killed. On the
23rd the village of Samogneux was overwhelmed by shells and
set on tire but the garrison held on till night fell. On the extreme
left the village of Brabant outflanked by the German advance
became untenable and was evacuated. On the right Wavrille and
Herbebois were lost and the front passed along the northern
edges of Bois des Fosses and La Chaume.
In three days the Germans had captured the first of the French
positions. Each side was reinforced on the 24th. A fresh regi-
ment from the V. Res. Corps was sent to each of the German
corps. The corps on the right which, having gained the greatest
success, thereby became as it were a pivotal wing, also received
a battalion of Jagers. On the French side the two divisions in
line from the 2ist were relieved, on the left by a division of the
VII. Corps, on the right by two brigades from the XX. Corps.
These troops, thrown at night into doubtful positions in the open
country, were immediately destroyed. The 24th was the most
critical day of the whole battle. On their right, where the Ger-
mans sought to move out from Samogneux, they were nailed
down by the French artillery on the left bank. But they started
a fresh attack immediately eastwards and captured all the line
Beaumont, Bois des Fosses, Bois des Caurieres. Further they
penetrated towards Douaumont along the ravine of the Vauchc.
The second French position was lost in on« day. In the eve-
ning the situation was so grave that Gen, Langle de Cary, com-
manding the Centre group of Armies, ordered the II. Corps,
then closely engaged in the Woevre, to fall back on the Heights
of the Meuse. This movement was carried out during the night.
That same evening (24th) Gen. Joffre handed over the opera-
tions before Verdun to a fresh army, the II., commanded by Gen.
Petain, who after the Battle of Champagne had been resting at
Noailles. The X. Army, on relief by the British Army, was
placed in the general reserve.
New French Dispositions.— The initial task of the army
under instructions of Feb. 25 at 9.00 A.M. was to concentrate
the troops of the Verdun area on the west bank and to prevent
the Germans from crossing the Meuse. But on the 24th at mid-
night Gen. Castelnau set out for Verdun armed with full powers
from the commander-in-chief. He halted at Avize, headquarters
of Gen. Langle de Cary, whence at 5.45 A.M. on the 25th he
telephoned to Gen. Herr to order him to hold at all costs the
line on the east bank facing north between the Meuse and Douau-
mont and, facing east, on the Heights of the Meuse. Gen.
Petain went on the morning of the 25th to Chantilly and thence
to take charge of the battle, from the 25th at midnight.
During the 25th, on the French left, the Germans advanced
1,500 metres south of Samogneux up to the mill of Cotelettes.
Further ca$t they captured Beaonvaux. A party of Branden-
burgers crept up to the fort of Douaumont, found it empty and
took possession of it Gen. do Bonneval, commanding the 37th
Div. on the French left on the Talon and the Poivre Hills was
afraid of being surrounded and ordered retreat on the Belleville
Hills. This order was only partially carried out The Zouaves
held their position on the west of the Poivre. On the other hand
while the 37th Div, retreated, the 39th Div. of the XX. Corps,
going up into the line, passed it and covered the line Bras-
Haudiomont.
On the 26th Gen. Petain, at his headquarters at Souilly, re-
organized the battle plan. He drew a sharp line — Bras-Douau-
raont— which he entrusted to the XX. Corps. He divided the
area into four sections: (i) under Duchesne in the Woevre,
(2) under Balfourier from the Woevre to Douaumont, (3) under
Guillaurnat astride the Meuse, and (4) under Bazelaire on the
left bank. The artillery as it arrived was divided between these
four commands. On Feb. ai it consisted of 388 field guns and
244 heavy guns. In a few weeks there were 1,100 field guns, 225
guns of calibres from So to 105 mm. and 500 heavy guns. The
French regained the mastery of the air. The 59th Div. was set
to build two defensive positions chosen on the 27th and redoubled
on March 2 by two intermediate lines. Three thousand territorials
repaired and widened the Sacred Way.
Reinforcements arrived. The I. Corps was at Souilly on the
25th and the XIII. Corps at Revigny. The XXI. Corps followed
it two days later. The XIV. Corps detrained on the 2Oth and
the III. Corps on the 29th. Between the 26th and the 29th the
Germans hurled violent attacks against Douaumont. On the
east they reached the position of Hardauraont and attacked Bois
de la Caillette. They stopped, exhausted, on the 29th.
The Second Phase.— The Germans failed to gain an immediate
decision at Verdun. They soon realised that the British Army
was about to attack them on the Sornme. For four months they
kept the battle of Verdun going with furious tenacity in order
to disorganize the attack prepared by the Allies in Picardy. For
the French Staff the problem was to hold on at Verdun without
ceasing to prepare for the Somme. On March 6, as Gen. PStain
had expected and feared from the beginning, the Germans ex-
tended the action to the west bank. The attack was made by two
corps, the VI, Res. and the X. Res., the latter taken from the
General Reserve. On the 6th they captured the Hill de 1'Oie
and on the loth Bois de Cumieres. They were thus enabled to
attack one of the pillars of the main line of defence, the Mort
Homme. On the i4th they captured the lower crest of that
double hill. The higher crest, Peak '295, could be held by neither
side and was No Man's Land.
The second pillar of the French line, further to the west, and
known as Hill 304, was attacked on March 20 by the nth Bava-
rian Div. which took the Bois d'Avocourt but could not issue
thence.
The Germans brought up fresh troops and the bnttl* began
again on March 28 on the west bank. It ended on April 8 by the
French losing all that remained of their former front line. The
new front passed thereafter by the redoubt at Avocourt, the first
slopes of Hill 304, the southern reverse of the Mort Homme and
the north of Cumieres. On the right bank on March 31 the
Germans captured the village of Vaux, which had held out till
then, and on April 2 took the lake behind the village. Then on
April 9 the Crown Prince attacked on both banks on a scale not
known since the first attacks in February. The results were in-
significant. On the morrow Gen. Petain wrote in his orders of the
day "the Qth April was a glorious day for our Armies . . .
Courage. Nous les anrons."
On April 20 the French counter-attacked on the east bank in
order to clear the Mort Homme. But on May 3 the Germans
renewed the offensive by an attack on Hill 304. On the 8th they
captured Bois Camard, west of the Hill. On the I3th and i6th
they attempted without success to advance from this position.
They then organized a new attack on the i8th with a fresh corps,
the XVIII. Res. Corps and two divisions of the XVIII. and added
on the 22nd the 2 2nd. Res. Division. This violent battle ended
on the 24th with the capture of Cumieres. As the Germans had no
reserves available the tired units could not be relieved and on the
26th they lost a portion of the trenches they had won.
There had been changes in the command. On April 2 the east
bank sector had been placed under the orders of Gen. Nivelle,
the west bank under Gen. Berthelot. At the end of April Petain
was called to command the Armies of the Centre and handed the
II. Army over to Nivelle. The Germans, too, from March had
divided the field of battle into two sections, Gen. von Mudra
commanding on the right bank, Gen. von Gallwitz on the left
bank. In April Mudra was replaced by Lochow. In July Francois
relieved Gallwitz. The Allies* preparations on the Somme took
definite shape. Before all things the Germans had to prevent the
French from taking part in these operations. For this a new
success in the Meuse was necessary.
The main French line of defence on the east bank was the C6te
de Froide Terre — Fleury — Fort de Souville. On the right this
position was covered by the fort of Vaux, on the left by the crest
of Thiaumont. It was first necessary to capture Vaux and Thiau*
mont On June r these two positions were attacked. Vaux was
taken on the 9tb. Thiaumont farm, taken by the Germans on the
ist, was recaptured by the French on the and, who lost it again
on the pth. German attacks on the Thiaumont outworks behind
VERE— VEREINIGTE GLANZSTOFF-FABRIKEN A.G.
79
the farm failed completely. They succeeded in establishing them-
selves on the west and opposite side in the ravine of La-Dame.
At the same time battle was resumed on the west bank. Between
May 29 and 31 the Germans took Cumieres but tried vainly to
move out of Bois Camard against Hill 304.
Time pressed more and more. On June 4 Gen. Brusilov started
a wide offensive in VoJhynia. In these conditions the Germans
delivered a large scale attack on the line Froide Terre-Souville on
June 21, On the west the Bavarian Corps took the fortified post
of Thiaumont but was checked in front of the fort at Froide
Terre. In the centre the Alpine Corps captured Fleury. On the
west the io3rd Div. took the first line of trenches in front of
Souville but failed before the second line. So serious was the
situation for the French that on June 23 Petain warned Gen.
Joffre and suggested moving to the west bank if the enemy
reached the counterscarps. Joffre's answer on the 2 7th was a per-
emptory order to hold on to the east bank.
Meanwhile the preliminaries of the great Franco-British offen-
sive on the Sommc started on June 24 and the actual battle began
on July i. On July n the Germans made yet another attack on
Verdun — from Vaux to Souville. It crumpled up on the slopes
of Souville, the principal objective. On Aug. 3 the French retook
Thiaumont and Fleury on Aug. 4. The Germans regained Thiau-
mont on the 8th. Throughout the whole month there was local
fighting. The last German attack on Sept. 3 also failed. The battle
of Verdun, properly called, had come to an end. From Feb. 21 to
June 15 the Army at Verdun had seen 66 divisions on its front.
Up to July i the Germans had used up 43^ divisions. It is true
that they maintained them on the ground by depots situated a
march behind the front and left them fighting till worn out. The
French artillery fired 10,300,000 rounds with the field artillery,
1,200,000 rounds of medium and 600,000 rounds of large calibre.
II. THE FRENCH COUNTER-OFFENSIVE
On Sept. 13 M. Poincare handed to Verdun the cross of the
Legion of Honour and Allied decorations. The ceremony took
place in the casemates of the citadel. From that moment began
a new phase, that of the liberation of Verdun. To a large extent
the glory of this feat belongs to Gen. Mangin. Called from the
battlefield of Verdun on June 22 he was placed in command of
Group D, which then stretched from the Meuse to Fleury and
was progressively enlarged right up to the cliffs of the Meuse.
On Sept. 1 7 in a report to Nivelle he set forth reasons for aban-
doning operations in detail and for seeking to free Verdun by a
plan on broad lines.
The first scheme, approved by Nivelle on Sept. 21, dealt only
with an advance up to 300 metres north of the farm of Thiau-
mont. The scheme of the 24th went further and included the fort
of Douaumont as far as possible. A third scheme, that of Oct. 9,
Covered the capture of the fort of Douaumont and perhaps that
of the fort of Vaux. A formidable artillery preparation with 650
guns started on Oct. 21. The assault was delivered on Oct. 24 at
11.40 A.M. by three divisions, the 38th on the left, I33rd in the
centre, and 74th on the right. The first waves marched under a
creeping barrage which progressed according to a set time-table,
so that the infantry were as it seemed fastened to a wall of steel.
By night Douaumont was taken with 6,000 prisoners. The divi-
sion on the right had not reached the fort of Vaux which was
evacuated by the Germans on Nov. 2, the day before the date
fixed for attack by the 63rd Division.
In order to develop this success to the full Gen. Mangin was
obliged to restore his ammunition reserves by continued economy.
He intended to attack again on Dec. 5 over a front of ro m. in
order to retake at one blow the whole of the former second French
line which had been lost on Feb. 24. Artillery preparation started
on Nov. 29 with 750 guns. Bad weather intervened. The Ger-
mans had been warned and the value of a surprise was lost. In
order to upset the plans of the French the Germans made a vio-
lent attack on Dec. 6 and captured Hill 304. Fine weather re»
turned on the gth and Nivelle recommenced the artillery
preparation. On the i$th at ro A.M. the attack was made. The
German barraee started two minutes too late. The attack had
started, four divisions being in line. By night they had retaken
the whole of Poivre HilL The line ran in front of Hill 378, stopped
20 metres south of the farm at Chambrettes, then turned south
across Bois d'Hardaumont and la Vauche up to the outwork at
Bezonvaux. The French captured 115 guns and 9,000 prisoners.
This, known as the battle of Louvemont, was completed on the
1 8th by the recapture of Chambrettes. The spring passed in
organising the area conquered and preparing for the final battle.
The Final Battle.— In the summer of 1917 Petain formulated
plans for a series of limited offensives for the purposes of raising
the spirit of the army and decided on an operation on the northern
front of Verdun on both banks having as objectives Mort Homme
on the left and Samogneux and Beaumont on the right. The
attack planned by Petain was delivered on Aug. 20 after six days*
heavy artillery preparation. The XIII. and XVI. Army Corps
attacked on the left bank, the XV. and XXII. on the right bank,
1 6 divisions in all being engaged. Mort Homme was captured on
the 2oth, Hill 304 on the 24th. On the right bank Hill 344 was
taken on the 20th, Samogneux on the 2ist. More than 10,000
prisoners were taken. Beaumont alone remained in German hands.
This was the final battle of Verdun.
Dugard, La Vicioire de Verdun, Feb. i9i6~Nov. 1917, Paris 1918.
Falkenhayn, General Headqwrters, 1914-1916,. London, 1919. Thorn-
asson, Lea PrtUminoires de Verdun> Paris, 1921. Moser, Kurzer strate-
tfscher Vberblick tiber den WeUkricK, Berlin, 1921. Corda, La Guerre
Mondiale, Paris, 1922. Palat, La Rut* sur Verdun, Aug. iQij-June
1916, Paris, 1925. Moser, Ernsthafte Ptaudereim \ibtr den Wcltkrieg,
Stuttgart, 1925. Reichsarchiv, Die Tragvdic von Verdun rpiti, Olden-
burp, 1926. Moser, Das milHarisch und potitisch Wichligste vom
WeltkrieKe, Stuttgart, ioa6. Grasset, Verdun, Paris, 1927. See also
WORLD WAR: Bibliography.
VERE, SIR FRANCIS (1560-1609), English soldier,
nephew of the i6th earl of Oxford, served under Leicester in the
Low Countries from 1585, distinguishing himself at Sluys; he was
given the chief command of the English troops there from 1589,
and by a series of brilliant campaigns secured the independence
of the country. He served in the Cadiz expedition of 1596, ne-
gotiated a treaty between England and Holland, and was ap-
pointed governor of Brill in 1598. On July 2, 1600, he and
Prince Maurice completely defeated the Spaniards under the
archduke Albert at Nieuwport, and defended Ostend successfully
from July 1601 to March 1602. Vere retired from the Dutch
service in 1604 and died in 1609. His Commentaries oj the
Divers Pieces of Service wherein he had Command (1657), was
reprinted in Arber's English Garner (1883).
His younger brother, SIR HORACE VERE, BARON VERE OF TIL-
BURY (1565-1635), served under his brother in Holland from
1590 to 1594, took part in the Cadbs expedition and held a com-
mand at Nieuwport and Ostend On his brother's retirement be
assumed command of the English troops until 1607. From 1609
to 1616 he was governor of Brill, and in 1610 was present at the
siege of Julich. He commanded the futile expedition to the
Rhine and the Main» in aid of the elector palatine (1620); aiter
the fall of Mannheim in 1622 he returned to England. After a
brilliant attempt to relieve Breda (1624), which was foiled by
Spinola, Vere was made Baron Vere of Tilbury. He retired from
active service soon after serving at the sieges of Bois-le-duc and
Maestricht, and died in 1635.
&e Ckments C. Markham, The Fighting Veres
VEREINIGTE GLANZSTOFF-FABRIKEN A.G., a
German Company, was established at Elberfeld in the year 1899.
The object of the Company is activity in the chemical and textile
industry territory, and it deals chiefly with the manufacture of
artificial silk. The Company used, at the beginning, for the
manufacture of its artificial silk the copper-oxide-ammonia proc-
ess. In later times, however, it has transferred the greater part
of the work to the viscose process. The Company owns valuable
patents concerning the manufacture of artificial silk, and its
processes also find application in numerous similar undertakings
which the Company has established in various countries, and in
which it has obtained an influence by the purchase of blocks of
shares. The Company's capital, which amounted at foundation to
M.2.OOO.OOO. has now increased to M.76.<oo.ooo. of which
8o
VEREINIGTE INDUSTRIE A.G .— VERGNIAUD
M. 75,000,000 represent ordinary shares and M. 1,500,000, 6%
preference shares. The Company's artificial silk production,
which has developed in the last 30 years from small beginnings,
amounts in the German works belonging to the Company, employ-
ing 15,000 workers, to about 9,000,000 kilos yearly. (F. BL.)
VEREINIGTE INDUSTRIE-UNTERNEHMUNGEN
AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT (United Industrial Corporation),
or VIAG as it is commonly known, was formed in 1923 and is the
holding company for various enterprises, controlled by the German
Government. The business of this group includes the wholesale
production of electric power, the manufacture of aluminium,
nitrates, steel and miscellaneous products, the mining of lignite
coal and banking.
The hydro-electric plants of the Viag system have an aggregate
installed capacity of over 100,000 kw. The steam power plants
of the system have an aggregate installed capacity of nearly 800,-
ooo kw. During 1928 the combined output of the power plants
controlled by Viag was in excess of 3,000,000,000 kw.
Through its subsidiaries engaged in the production of aluminium
Viag is the dominant factor in the German aluminium industry.
The aggregate production by these subsidiaries now exceeds
25,000 tons per annum. One of the Viag subsidiaries ranks among
the leading companies in the German nitrate industry with an
aggregate annual production of approximately 40,000 tons. Other
subsidiaries of the Viag, domiciled in various parts of Germany,
are engaged in the production of smelting and foundry products,
motor-cycles, agricultural machinery, typewriters, textile ma-
chines, magnet armatures and precision-tools.
The banking subsidiary, Reichs-Kredit-Gesellschaft A.G., is
an important factor in the economic life of Germany. It has
capital, reserves and surplus of over £3,000,000.
In addition to the subsidiaries which it controls through the
ownership of all or a majority of their capital stocks, Viag has
large interests in other German enterprises. (G. KR.)
VERESHCHAGIN, VASSILI VASSILIEVICH (1842-
1904), Russian artist and traveller, was born at Tcherepovets, in
the government of Novgorod, on Oct. 26, 1842. His father was a
Russian landowner of noble birth, and from his mother he inher-
ited Tatar blood. When he was eight years old he was sent to
Tsarskoe Selo to enter the Alexander cadet corps, and three years
later he entered the naval school at St. Petersburg, making his first
voyage in 1858. He graduated first in the list from the naval
school, but left the service immediately to begin the study of
drawing in earnest. He studied at St. Petersburg and then at Paris
under Geromc. In the Salon of 1866 he exhibited a drawing of
"Doukhobors chanting their Psalms/' and in the next year he ac-
companied General Kauffmann's expedition to Turkestan, his mili-
tary service at the siege of Samarkand procuring for him the cross
of St. George. He was an indefatigable traveller — in Turkestan in
1869, the Himalayas, India and Tibet in 1873, and again in India
in 1884. After a period of hard work in Paris and Munich he ex-
hibited some of his Turkestan pictures in St. Petersburg in 1874,
among them two which were suppressed for the time on the repre-
sentations of Russian soldiers — %'The Apotheosis of War," a pyra-
mid of skulls dedicated "to all conquerors, past, present and to
come," now in the Tretiakov Gallery, Moscow, and "Left Behind/'
the picture of a dying soldier deserted by his fellows. Veresh-
chagin was with the Russian army during the Turkish campaign of
1877; he was present at the crossing of the Shipka Pass and at the
siege, of Plevna, where his brother was killed; and he was dan-
gerously wounded during the preparations for the crossing of the
Danube near Rustchuk. At the conclusion of the war he acted
as secretary to General Skobelev at San Stefano.
After the war Vereshchagin settled at Munich, where he pro-
duced his war pictures, which had a didactic aim, so rapidly that he
was freely accused of employing assistants. He aroused much con-
troversy by his series of three pictures of a Roman execution (the
Crucifixion), of sepoys blown from the guns in India, and of the
execution of Nihilists in St. Petersburg. A journey in Syria and
Palestine in 1884 furnished him with an equally discussed set of
subjects from the New Testament. The "1812" series on Na-
poleon's Russian campaign, on which he also wrote a book, seem
to have been inspired by Tolstoi's War and Peace, and were
painted in 1893 at Moscow, where the artist eventually settled.
Vereshchagin was in the Far East during the Chino-Japanese War,
with the American troops in the Philippines, and with the Russian
troops in Manchuria. He perished in the sinking of the flagship,
"Petropavlovsk," on the i3th of April, 1904.
VERGA, GIOVANNI (1840-1922), Italian novelist, was
born at Catania, Sicily. In 1865 he published Storia di una pec-
catrice and / Carbonari della montagna, but his literary reputation
was established by his Eva and Storia di una capinera (1869).
Other novels followed, Malavoglia (1881) and Maestro Don Gesu-
aldo (1889 Eng. trans. 1923). His finest work, however, is seen
in his short stories and sketches of Sicilian peasantry, Medda
(1874) and Vita del campi (1880); and his Cavalleria Rusticana
(Eng. trans, of this and other stories 1928) acquired new popu-
larity from its dramatization and from Mascagni's opera on this
subject. Verga and Fogazzaro between them may be said to have
faithfully chronicled the inner and popular life of southern and
northern Italy. I). H. Lawrence translated many of Verga's
works into English. Verga died in Rome on Jan. 27, 1922.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Laura Gropallo, Autori italiani d'oggi — Giovanni
Verga, etc. (1903) ; L. Russo, Giovanni Verga (1920) ; C. A. Levi,
Autori drammatici italiani, G. Verga, etc. (1922) ; N. Scalia, Giovanni
Verga (1922).
VERGENNES, CHARLES GRAVIER, COMTE DE
(1717-1787), French statesman, was born at Dijon on Dec. 20,
1717. He entered the diplomatic service under his uncle M. de
Chavigny, at Lisbon. He became ambassador at Constantinople
and then in Sweden, where he assisted Gustavus III. in the
revolution of 1772.
With the accession of Louis XVI. Vergennes became foreign
minister. His general policy was one of friendly relations with
Austria, combined wilh the limitation of Joseph II. \s ambitious
designs; the protection of Turkey; and opposition at all points to
England. His hatred of England led to his support of the Ameri-
can States in the War of Independence. Vergennes sought to
secure the armed neutrality of the Northern Powers eventually
carried out by Catherine II.; he ceded to the demands of Beau-
marchais that France should secretly provide the Americans with
arms and volunteers. In 1777 he informed the American com-
missioners that France was willing to form an offensive and de-
fensive alliance with the new Republic. In 1781 he became chief
of the council of finance. Vergennes died on Feb. 13, 1787.
See P. Fauchcllc, La Diplomatic fran^aise et la Ligue des neulres
de 1780 (1776-83) (1893); John Jay, The, Peace Negotiations of
1782-83 as illustrated by the Confidential Papers of Shelburne and
Vergennes (New York, 1888) ; L. Bonneville de Marsangy, Le
Chevalier de Vergennes, son ambassade a Constantinople (1894) ; G.
Grosjean, La politique rhenanc de Vergennes (1925).
VERGNIAUD, PIERRE VICTURNIEN (1753-1793),
French orator and revolutionist, was born on May 31, 1753 at
Limoges. The son of a merchant of that town, he attracted
the notice of Turgot, who was then intendant of Limousin. Turgot
secured his admission to the college of Plessis in Paris, where he
received a solid classical education. On leaving college he became
secretary to Duputy, president of the parlement of Bordeaux.
Vergniaud was thereafter called to the bar (1782). In 1789
Vergniaud was elected a member of the general council of
the department of the Gironde. He was chosen a representative
of the Gironde to the National Legislative Assembly in August
1791.
The extremists used the passions which his oratory awakened
for objects he did not foresee. This happened even with his first
Assembly speech, on the tmigrfo. His proposal was mainly that
a treble annual contribution should be levied on their property;
but the Assembly confiscated their goods and decreed their deaths.
Step by step he was led on to palliate violence and crime, to the
excesses of which his eyes were only opened by the massacres of
September, and which ultimately overwhelmed the party of
Girondists which he led. It has always been held against him
that on March 19, 1792, when the perpetrators of the massacre
of Avignon had been introduced to the Assembly by Collot
d'Herbois, Vergniaud spoke indulgently of their deeds and lent
VERHAEREN— VERLAINE
81
the authority of his voice to their amnesty. In language some-
times turgid, but nearly always of pure and powerful eloquen.ce,
he worked at the theme of the tmigres, as it developed into that
of the counter-revolution; and the project of an address to the
French people which he presented to the Assembly on Dec. 27,
1791, shook the heart of France; and, especially by his call to
arms on Jan. 18, he shaped the policy which culminated in the
declaration of war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary on
April 20. This policy in foreign affairs, which he pursued through
the winter and spring of 1791-92, he combined with another —
that of fanning the suspicions of the people against the monarchy,
which he identified with the counter-revolution, and of forcing
on a change of ministry. On March 10, Vergniaud delivered a
powerful oration in which he denounced the intrigues of the court
and uttered his famous apostrophe to the Tuileries: "In ancient
times fear and terror have of ten* issued from that famous palace;
let them re-enter it to-day in the name of the law!" The speech
overthrew De Lessart, whose accusation was decreed; and Roland,
the nominee of the Girondists, entered the ministry. The Moun-
tain used Vergniaud, whose lofty and serene ideas they applauded
and travestied in action. Then came the riot of June 20, and the
invasion of the Tuileries. He rushed among the crowd, but was
powerless to quell the tumult. But his speeches breathe the very
spirit of the storm, and they were perhaps the greatest single
factor in the development of the events of the time. On Aug. 10,
the Tuileries was stormed, and the royal family took refuge in
the Assembly. Vergniaud presided. To the request of the king
for protection he replied in dignified and respectful language.
On Dec. 31, 1792, Vergniaud delivered one of his greatest ora-
tions. He pictured the consequences of that temper of vengeance
which animated the Parisian mob and was fatally controlling the
policy of the Convention, and the prostration which would ensue to
France after even a successful struggle with a European coalition,
which would spring up after the murder of the king. On
Jan. 1 6, 1793, the vote began to be taken in the Convention upon
the punishment of the king. Vergniaud voted early, and voted
for death. The action of the great Girondist was and will always
remain inscrutable, but it was followed by a similar verdict from
nearly the whole party which he led. On the i7th Vergniaud pre-
sided at the Convention, and it fell to him to announce the fatal
result of the voting. Then for many weeks he was silent.
When the institution of a revolutionary tribunal was proposed,
Vergniaud vehemently opposed the project, denouncing the
tribunal as a more awful inquisition than that of Venice, and
avowing that his party would all die rather than consent to it.
On April 10 Robespierre himself laid his accusation before the
Convention. Vergniaud made a brilliant extemporaneous reply,
and this attack failed. The Girondists continued their re-
sistance to the dominant faction, till on June 2, 1793 things came
to a head. The Convention was surrounded with an armed mob,
who clamoured for the "twenty-two." The decree of accusation
was voted, and the Girondists were proscribed.
Vergniaud was offered a safe retreat. He accepted it only for
a day, and then returned to his own dwelling. He was kept under
surveillance there for nearly a month, and in the early days of
July was imprisoned in La Force. The Girondists appeared before
the Revolutionary tribunal on Oct. 27. Early on the morning of
Oct. 31, 1793 they went to the scaffold. Vergniaud was executed
last. He died unconfessed, a philosopher and a patriot.
See Gay de Vernon, Vergniaud (Limoges, 1858) ; and L. de Verdiere,
Biographic de Vergniaud (Paris, 1866) ; E. Lentilhac, Vergniaud, Le
drame des Girondins (1920). (Sn.; X.)
VERHAEREN, &MILE (1855-1916), Belgian poet,
born at St. Amand, near Antwerp, on May 21, 1855, studied
at Ghent and at the university of Louvain, and was admitted to
the bar at Brussels in 1851. But he soon devoted his whole
energies to literature, and especially to the organs of "young
Belgium," La Jeune Belgique and UArt moderne, making himself
especially the champion of the impressionist painters. Verhaeren
learnt his art of poetry from the great Flemish artists, and in his
early works, Les Flamandes (1883), and Les Moines (1886) dis-
plays similar qualities of strength, sometimes degenerating into
violence and even into coarseness. A period of despair and dis-
illusionment is reflected in his Les Soirs (1887), Les Debacles
(1888), Les Flambeaux noirs (1889) and Les Apparus dans mes
chemins (1891). Wandering over Europe from 1887 to 1892,
Verhaeren found a new interest in social problems, and his
Campagnes hallucintes (1893) and Les Villes tentaculaires (1895)
both deal with the growth of industrialism and its evils.
A genuine optimism based on an appreciation of the greatness
of human life and progress appears in Les Visages de la vie
(1899), Les Forces tumultueuses (1902) and La Multiple Splen-
deur (1906), and a delight in natural beauty runs through his
chief work Toute la Flandre, a collection of lyrics in 5 vols.
(1904-11), the first volume dealing with the memories of his
boyhood, Les tendresses premieres, being the best. The others
describe: the Flemish coast, La Guirlande des duties; various epi-
sodes of Flemish history, Les Mros; life in the small towns, Les
villes a Pignons; and the Flemish countryside, Les plaincs and Les
bits mouvants. In 1911 Verhaeren published Les heures du soir,
a series of intimate poems dedicated to his wife, completing two
previous series Les heures de Vapres-midi (1905) and Les heures
claires (1896). During the World War, the poet wrote Les ailes
rouges de la guerre (1916) which contains an ode to Rupert
Brooke, and two short volumes of prose, La Belgique sanglante
(1915, Eng. trs. 1915), and Parmi les cendres (1916). He died
on Nov. 27, 1916, a victim of a railway accident in Rouen station.
Among Verhaercn's subsidiary activities may be mentioned his
critical studies, some of which have been published as Impressions
(Paris, 1927), and his plays, Les Aubes (1898), Le Cloitre (1900,
Eng. trs. 1915), Philippe II. (1901) and Hclene de Sparte (1912),
translated in 1916.
A selection of his poems has been translated by M. Strettell (2nd
ed. 1915) and his Love Poems by F. S. Flint (1916). See also L. Bazal-
gette, E. Verhaeren (1907) ; S. Zweig, £. Verhaeren (Eng. trs. 1914) ;
A. Mockel, Vn Poete de Vinergie, £. Verhaeren (1917) ; J. de Smet,
£. Verhaeren, 2 vols. (1909-20); L. Charles-Baudouin, Li Symbole
chez Verhaeren (4th cd. 1924), and P. Manscll Jones, £. Verhaeren
(Cardiff, 1926, bibliography).
VERKHNE-UDINSK, a town of Asiatic Russia in the
Buriat-Mongol A.S.S.R., of which it is the administrative centre.
It is on the Uda river, at its confluence with the Selenga, and has
steamer communication with Lake Baikal, and southwards with
Mongolia. It is also on the Siberian railway, and has grown
markedly since the railway was constructed in 1905. The climate
is extreme, average July temperature 66-2°, Jan. —17-3° F. The
water supply to the railway in winter is a difficulty, since the
ground is frozen and water pipes cannot be buried below frost
level. Pop. (1926) 27,571. The town was on the i8th century
military Siberian road and was formerly a great centre for the
tea trade from Mongolia via Kiakhta. (See TROITSKOSAVSK.)
VERLAINE, PAUL (1844-1896), French lyric poet, was
born at Metz on March 30, 1844. He was the son of one of
Napoleon's soldiers, who had become a captain of engineers. Paul
Verlaine was educated in Paris, and became clerk in an insurance
company. He was a member of the Parnassian circle, with Catulle
Mendes, Sully Prudhomme, Francois Coppee and the rest. His
first volume of poems, the Poemes saturniens (1866), was written
under Parnassian influences, from which the Fetes galantes
(1869), as -of a Watteau of poetry, began a delicate escape; and
in La Bonne Chanson (1870) the defection was still more marked.
He married in 1870 Mile. Mautet. During the Commune he was
involved with the authorities for having sheltered his friends,' and
was obliged to leave France. In 1871 the strange young poet
Jean Arthur Rijnbaud came somewhat troublingly .into his life,
into which drink had already brought a lasting disturbance.
With Rimbaud Verlaine wandered over France, Belgium, Eng-
land, until a pistol-shot, fortunately ill-aimed, against his com-
panion brought upon him two years of imprisonment at Mons.
Solitude, confinement and thought converted a pagan into a Catho-
lic, without, however, rooting out what was most human in the
pagan; and after many years' silence he published Sagesse (1881),
a collection of religious poems, which, for humble and passionate
conviction, as well as originality of poetic beauty, must be ranked
with the finest religious poems ever written. Romances sans
82
VERMEER— VERMILION
paroles, composed during the intervals of wandering, appeared in
1874, and shows us Verlaine at his most perfect moment of artistic
self-possession, before he has quite found what is deepest in him-
self. He returned to France in 1875. His wife had obtained a
divorce from him, and Verlaine made another short stay in Eng-
land, acting as a teacher of French. After about two years' ab-
sence Verlaine was again in France. He acted as teacher in more
than one school and even tried fanning. The death of his mother,
to whom he was tenderly attached, dissolved the ties that bound
him to "respectable" society. During the rest of his life he lived
in poverty, often in hospital, but always with the heedless and un-
conquerable cheerfulness of a child. After a long obscurity,
famous only in the Latin Quarter, among the cafes where he spent
so much of his days and nights, he enjoyed at last a European
celebrity. In 1894 he paid another visit to England, this time as a
distinguished poet. He died in Paris on Jan. 8, 1896.
His 1 8 volumes of verse (among which may be further men-
tioned Jadis et nagnere, 1884; Amour, 1888; Parallelemcnt, 1889;
Bonheur, 1891) vary greatly in quality. (A. SY.)
His Ocuvrcs computes were published in 1899 and in later editions,
and his Oeuvres posthumcs in 1903. His Poetes m audits (1888) and
Confessions (1895) throw light on his own life. A bibliography of
Verlaine, with an account of the existing portraits of him, is included
in the Poctes d'aujottrd'hiti (nth ed., 1905) of A. van Bever and
P. L6autaud. See monographs by C. Morice (1888), M. Dullaert
(Ghent, 1896), B. E. Delahaye (1919), and H. Nicolson (1921); E.
Lepelleticr, Paul Verlaine, sa vie, son ocuvrc (1907, Eng. trans. 1909) I
F. A. Cazals and G. Le Rouge, Les Dernier s Jours de P. Verlaine
(1923) ; L. Eckhoff, P. Verlaine og Symbolismen (Oslo, 1923).
VERMEER, JAN VAN DELFT or JAN VAN DER MEER
(1632-1675), Dutch artist, was bom in Delft on Oct. 31, 1632,
and was a pupil of Carel Fabritius, whose junior he was by only
eight years. In 1653 he married Catherine Bolens, and entered the
gild of St. Luke of Delft, becoming one of the heads of the gild
in 1662 and again in 1670. He died at Delft on Dec. 15, 1675,
leaving a widow and eight children. At his death he left 26
pictures undisposed of, and his widow had to apply to the court
of insolvency to be placed under a curator, who was Leeuwenhoek,
the naturalist. For more than two centuries Vermeer was almost
completely forgotten, and his pictures were sold under the names
of the more popular De Hooch, Metsu, Ter Borch, and even of
Rembrandt. Attention was recalled to this most original painter
by Thor£ (pseudonym, W. Bu'rgcr), an exiled Frenchman, who
described his works in Mus&es de la Hollande (1858-60).
Vermeer's pictures are rarely dated, but one of the most im-
portant, in the Dresden gallery, bears the date 1656, and thus
gives us a key to his styles. With the exception of the "Christ
with Martha and Mary" in the National Gallery of Scotland,
Edinburgh, it is perhaps the only one, hitherto recognized, that
has figures of life size. The Dresden picture of a "Woman
and Soldier," with two other figures, is painted with remarkable
power and boldness; for strength and colour it more than holds
its own beside the neighbouring Rembrandts. To this early period
of his career belong, from internal evidence, the "Reading Girl"
of the same gallery, the luminous and masterly "View of Delft"
in the museum of The Hague, the "Milk-Woman" and the small
street view, both identified with the Six collection at Amsterdam,
and now in the Rijksmuseum; the magnificent "The Letter"
also at Amsterdam, "Diana and the Nymphs" at -The Hague
gallery and others. In all these we find the same brilliant style
and vigorous work, a solid impasto, and a crisp, sparkling touch.
His' first manner seems to have been influenced by the pleiad of
painters circling round Rembrandt, a school which lost favour
in Holland in the last quarter of the century. J)uring the final
ten or 12 years of his life Vermeer adopted a second manner. We
now find his painting smooth and thin, and his colours paler and
softer. Instead of masculine vigour we have refined delicacy
and subtlety, but in both styles beauty of tone and perfect
harmony are conspicuous. Through all his work may be traced his
love of lemon-yellow and of blue of all shades. Of his second
style typical examples are to be seen in "The Coquette" of
the Brunswick gallery, in the "Woman Reading" in the Van der
Hoop collection now at the Rijksmuseum at Amsterdam, in the
"Lady at a Casement" in the Metropolitan Museum of Art at
New York, and in the "Music Master and Pupil" belonging to the
King (exhibited at the Royal Academy, 1876).
Vermeer's authentic pictures in public and private collections
amount to 37. There is but one in the Louvre, the "Lace Maker";
Berlin has three, all acquired in the Suermondt collection, and the
Czernin gallery of Vienna possesses a fine picture, believed to
represent the artist in his studio. In the Arenberg gallery at Mep-
pen and in The Hague Museum there are two remarkable heads
of girls, half life size.
See Thore, a monograph in Gazette des Beaux Arts (1866) ; Harvard,
Van der Meer (1888) ; Hofstede de Groot, Jm Vermeer von Delft
(Leipzig, 1909) ; G. Vansype, Jan Vermeer de Delft (1921).
VERMIGLI, PIETRO MARTIRE, generally known as
PETER MARTYR (1500-1562), born at Florence on May 8, 1500,
was son of Stefano Vermigli, a follower of Savonarola, by his
first wife, Maria Fumantina. Educated in the Augustinian cloister
at Fiesole, he was transferred in 1519 to the convent of St. John
of Verdara near Padua, where he graduated D.D. about 1527
and made the acquaintance of the future Cardinal Pole. In 1 530
he was elected abbot of the Augustinian monastery at Spoleto, and
in 1533 prior of the convent of St. Peter ad Aram at Naples.
About this time he read Bucer's commentaries on the Gospels
and the Psalms and also Zwingli's De vera et falsa religione; and
his Biblical studies began to affect his views. He was accused of
erroneous doctrine, and the Spanish viceroy of Naples prohibited
his preaching. The prohibition was removed on appeal to Rome,
but in 1541 Vermigli was transferred to Lucca, where he again fell
under suspicion. Summoned to appear before a chapter of his
order at Genoa, he fled in 1542 to Pisa and thence to another
Italian reformer, Bernardino Ochino, at Florence. Ochino escaped
to Geneva, and Vermigli to Zurich, thence to Basel, and finally
to Strasbourg, where, with Bucer's support, he was appointed
professor of theology and married his first wife, Catherine
Dammartin of Metz.
Vermigli and Ochino were both invited to England by Cranmer
in 1547, and given a pension of forty marks by the government.
In 1548 Vermigli was appointed regius professor of divinity at
Oxford. In 1549 he took part in a great disputation on the
Eucharist. He had abandoned Luther's doctrine of consub-
stantiation and adopted the doctrine of a Real Presence con-
ditioned by the faith of the recipient. This was similar to the
view now held by Cranmer and Ridley, but it is difficult to prove
that Vermigli had any great influence in the modifications of the
Book of Common Prayer made in 1552. He was consulted on the
question, but his recommendations seem hardly distinguishable
from those of Bucer, the effect of which is itself disputable. He
was also appointed one of the commissioners for the reform of
the canon law. On Mary's accession Vermigli returned to
Strasbourg, where he was reappointed professor of theology, but
his increased alienation from Lutheranism drove him to Switzer-
land. He was professor of Hebrew at Zurich, where he died on
Nov. 12, 1562.
Josias Simler's Oratio, published in 1563 and translated into English
in 1583, is the basis of subsequent accounts of Vermigli. The best
lives are by F. C. Schlosser (1809) and C. Schmidt (1858). See also
Parker Soc. Publ. (General Index), especially the Zurich Letters,
Strype's Works; Foxe's Acts and Monuments; Burnet's Hist., ed.
Pocock (1865) ; Dixon's History (6 vols., 1878-1902) ; and Diet, of
Nat. Biogr. Iviii. 253-256.
VERMILION, a city of South Dakota, U.S.A., and the seat
of the State university. Pop. (1925 State census) 3,410. A trading
post was established here soon after the first steamboat came up
the Missouri river in 1832, and numerous settlers came before the
public land was thrown open in 1859. The city was incorporated
in 1877. A monument marks the site of the first school building
erected in the State. The university was established (and located
in Vermilion) by the first Territorial Legislature of Dakota in
1862, but was not opened until 1882. The enrolment in 1926-27
was 1,375-
VERMILION, a scarlet pigment, which occurs naturally as
the crystalline mineral cinnabar. It is the red form of mercuric
sulphide, HgS, and is prepared artificially to-day by subtim-
ing an intimate mixture of mercury and sulphur, or by grinding
VERMONT
such a mixture for some hours, digesting it in a solution of caustic
potash, and warming at or below 45° C to convert the black
mercuric sulphide to the scarlet-red modification; Chinese ver-
milion is said to be made by the latter process, Vermilion blackens
in oil on exposure to sunlight and its cost has caused it to be
largely superseded by the cheaper and more permanent aniline
lakes. See PAINTS, CHEMISTRY OF.
VERMONT, the Green Mountain State, so named from the
evergreen forests of its mountains, is a North Atlantic State of
the United States of America, and the most north-westerly of the
so-called New England group. It is situated between 42° 44' and
45° o' 43" N. lat. and 71° 28' and 73° 26' W. longitude. It is
bounded north by the Canadian province of Quebec, east by New
Hampshire, from which it is separated by the Connecticut river,
south by Massachusetts, and west by New York, from which it
is separated for about two-thirc}s the distance by Lake Champlain.
In length, north and south, the State measures 157-6 m.; its
approximate width at the northern border is 90 m., at the southern
border 40 miles. Its total area is 9,564 sq.m., and of this 440
sq.m. is water surface.
Physical Features. — The mean elevation of the State above
the sea is approximately 1,000 ft., extremes varying from 95 ft.,
the surface of Lake Champlain, to 4,393 ft. at the summit of
Mt. Mansfield, 25 m. E. of that lake. The general surface is much
broken by mountain ranges. The most prominent feature is the
Green mountains, which extend nearly north and south through
the State a little west of the middle. Farther north, the Green
mountains are cut deep by the Winooski and Lamoille rivers which
rise to the east and break through it to flow into Lake Champlain.
The Missisquoi river also rises east of the range but flows just
north of the Canadian boundary, and then back into Vermont and
west to Lake Champlain. The crest line of the Green mountains
is generally more than 2,000 ft. high, with the following summits:
Mt. Mansfield, 4,393 ft.; Killington Peak, 4,241 ft.; Mt. Ellen,
4,135 ft.; Camel's Hump, 4,083 ft.; and Mt. Abraham, 4,052 ft.
Distributed along the eastern border of the state are conical
shaped mountain masses. Mt. Ascutney rises abruptly from the
floor of the Connecticut valley to a height of 3,320 feet. Other
prominent peaks are Jay Peak,
Burke and Belvidere mountains.
In the southern half of Vermont
and near the western border are
the Taconic mountains, a range
nearly parallel with the Green
mountains and extending north-
ward toward the centre of the
State. To the northward of the
Taconic ranges extends a series
of broken uplifts known as the
Red Sandrock mountains. These
are near Lake Champlain, and,
standing in a low country, are un-
usually conspicuous. The least
broken section of Vermont is on
the somewhat gentle slope of the
Green mountains in the north-
west and on Grand isle, North
Hero island and Isle La Motte in
Lake Champlain. The forms of
Vermont's mountains, even to the
highest summits, were to a great
extent rounded by glaciation, but
as the rocks vary much in texture and are often steeply inclined,
stream erosion has cut valleys deep and narrow, often mere
gorges. The Green Mountain club, since 1910, has been building
a well marked "Long Trail" reaching from Massachusetts to
Canada which follows the Green mountain range.
Lake Champlain lies in a beautiful valley between the Green
and Adirondack mountains, and a little more than half its area is
in Vermont. The lake is about 118 m. long, and in its northern
portion are numerous islands which are attractive resorts during
the summer season. These islands are large enough to constitute
VERMONT
MAP SHOWING THE MAIN ROADS IN
VERMONT
an entire county in themselves, and are connected with each
other and with the mainland by bridges. On the north border of
the State is Lake Memphremagog with islands, a rugged promi-
nence known as Owl's Head on its west border, Jay Peak farther
back, and a beautiful farming country to the eastward. The lake
is 30 m. long and from i to 4 m. wide but two-thirds of its area
lies in Canada. The Vermont tributaries to Memphrernagog are
the Barton and -the Black rivers from the south and the Clyde
river from the east. There are many other lakes and ponds in the
State, the section in which they are most numerous being the
north-eastern part. Here Willoughby lake is one of the largest
and one of the most beautiful, lying as it does in a narrow valley
between Mt. Pisgah and Mt. Hor. Lakes Morey and Fairlee, in
the Connecticut river valley, are popular resorts. Lake Dunmore
in Salisbury and Leicester, Lake Bomoseen in Castleton, and
Hubbardton, Lake St. Catherine in Wells and Poultney and Lake
Hortonia in Sudbury, west of the Green mountains, are noted for
the charm of their scenery.
Most important of the Vermont tributaries of the Connecticut
river are the Nulhegan, Passumpsic, Wells, Waits, Ompompa-
noosuc, White, Ottauquechee, Black, Williams, Saxtons, West
and Deerfield, the last-named emptying into the Connecticut in
Massachusetts. The south-western part of the State is drained
to the Hudson river by the Battenkill and Hoosac rivers, while
Otter creek flows north and slightly west to Lake Champlain.
The streams are usually swift-flowing and in comparatively narrow
and beautiful valleys. On the headwaters of the Deerfield are
great power developments. In the valleys are soils of great fer-
tility, while the low rolling hills and uplands make excellent
pasture, On the lower slopes of the mountains are white pine
and hemlock; on the higher slopes spruce and fir are common.
Among deciduous trees the State is especially noted for its sugar
maples. Birch and beech are to be expected on the hills and in
the lower areas oak, elm, hickory, ash, poplar, basswood, willow
and butternut are to be found. Among indigenous fruit-bearing
trees, shrubs, vines and plants are the plum, cherry, grape, black-
berry, raspberry, cranberry and strawberry. There were in 1928,
18 State forests with an aggregate area of 33,725 acres. These were
patrolled regularly by the State forest service which since its
establishment in 1909 had planted about 13,000,000 trees.
The temperature, the amount of moisture and the winds are
favourable to the health of the people and to the productiveness
of the soil. The mean annual temperature varies from 40° to 47*
F, the eastern part of the State being generally colder than the
western part, and the mountainous part of the centre coldest of
all. The average annual precipitation over a long period of years is
approximately 37-5 inches. Snow often appears in November in
the higher altitudes but does not come to stay before December.
It remains until the latter part of March. The average fall
throughout the State is about 90 in. annually, but there is less
snow near Lake Champlain and in the south-western part than in
central and eastern Vermont, Also spring conies earliest in these
sections and in the lower portion of the Connecticut valley.
Population. — The population of Vermont in 1900 was 343,-
641; in 1910, 355,956; in 1920, 352,428. Its rank among the 48
States in 1920 was 44th. It was one of only three in the United
States, and the only one of the New England group, in which the
population decreased between 1910 and 1920. The density in
1920 was 38*6 per square mile.
Of the 1920 population, 351,817, or 99-8% were whites, a per-
centage not exceeded in any other State. Of the whites, 44,526
or 12-7%, were foreign-born. Of the native-born 228,325 were
of native parentage, 36,866 of mixed parentage, and 44,526 of
foreign parentage. Chief among the foreign-born were the 24,868
Canadians, 14,181 of them of French blood.
In 1920 more than two-thirds the population (68-8%) were
rural inhabitants. The percentage of urban population increased,
however, from 22-1% in 1900 to 27-8% in 1910 and 31-2% in
1920. The largest cities with their estimated population in 1925
were: Burlington, 24,089; Rutland, 15,752; Barre, 10,008. The
population of Montpelier, the capital, was 7,125 in 1920.
Government^— The State is governed under a Constitution
84
VERMONT
adopted in 1777, but since amended in important respects. An
amendment in 1870 provided that every ten years the senate, by a
two-thirds vote, is authorized to propose amendments, which pro-
posals, if concurred in by the majority of the members of the
house of representatives, are published in the principal news-
papers of the State. If they are again approved by a majority
of each house in the next succeeding general assembly, they are
submitted to a direct popular vote, a majority of the votes cast
being decisive. The amendment sessions are those in years ending
with the figure one, such as 1921, 1931, etc. In the 1921 session
21 proposals were submitted to the senate of which four ulti-
mately became part of the Constitution. The right of suffrage
is possessed by all citizens above 21 years of age who have lived
in the State for one year, and who are "of a quiet and peaceable
behaviour" and will take the freeman's oath.
The legislative department consists of a senate of 30 mem-
bers, apportioned among the counties according to population,
but with the proviso that each county must have at least one
senator, and a house of representatives of 248 members, one from
each township. The members of both houses are elected bien-
nially. Sessions are also held biennially beginning on the first
Wednesday after the first Monday of January in odd-numbered
years. The governor has power to call special sessions when he
deems it necessary.
The most important executive officers of the State are the
governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of State, treasurer, audi-
tor of accounts and attorney -general, all elected by the people for
terms of two years. In 1923 there were created seven administra-
tive departments: agriculture, education, finance, highways, pub-
lic health, public service and public welfare, each presided over
by a commissioner or seqretary. In 1927 the department of motor
vehicles was created with a commissioner in charge.
The supreme court consists of one chief justice and four
associate justices. Annually five general terms are held at Mont-
pelier and special sessions at St. Johnsbury, Rutland and Brattle-
boro. The supreme court justices are elected biennially by the
senate and house of representatives in joint session. At the same
session, in like manner, six superior judges are elected for two
year terms to preside over the county courts to which they are
assigned. A superior judge has two assistant judges in each
county who are elected by the freemen of that county, and
these three compose the county court, two sessions of which are
held annually in each county.
Finance. — The wealth of Vermont, as estimated by the bureau
of the census, increased from $505,000,000 in 1912 to $842,000,-
ooo in 1922. The per caput increase was from $1,407 to $2,389,
the latter figure being still below the average per caput wealth
of $2,918 for the entire United States in 1922.
The gross receipts of the State treasury for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1928, amounted to $14,723,920.50. Disburse-
ments for the same period were $11,199,998.90. The balance in
the treasury at the end of the fiscal year was $5,228,438.70. Of
the receipts $10,447,905.89 was provided from miscellaneous
sources and $4,276,014.61 from taxes. The chief items of mis-
cellaneous revenue were State flood bonds, $5,000,000; motor
vehicle fees, $2,034,333.50; proceeds from temporary loans,
$1,050,000; and aid for Federal highway projects, $944,060.84.
Of the tax receipts, $2,290,929.56 was from corporation taxes,
$362,511.24 from inheritance taxes, $223,069.76 from a direct
State.tax, $142,496.63 from a State tax for highways, $971,983.40
from a gasolene sales tax and $285,024.02 from a school tax.
The State debt on June 30, 1928, was $6,621,531.90. Of the
total debt $5,000,000 represented flood bonds issued to repair the
flood losses of Nov. 1927, and $970,000, war bonds. The debt of
the local governments within the State totalled $9,882,000 in 1922.
There were on June 30, 1928, 105 banking institutions in the
State, 46 of them national banks (statistics of national banks as
of Oct. 10, 1927) with total resources and liabilities of $275,548,-
ooo. Their capital, surplus and undivided profits totalled $29,-
673,000 and deposits were $224,104,000. Of the deposits
$166,393,000 were in savings accounts. Vermont ranked third
among the States in per caput deposits in savings banks.
Education.— The public school system is directed by the
board of education, and administered by the commissioner of
education, assisted by superintendents in each district. Attend-
ance is compulsory for all children between 8 and 16 years of
age. In 1925 there were 75,772 children between 6 and 18 years
of age and during the 1927-28 school term 64,529 were enrolled
in the public schools. In addition there were approximately 7,500
pupils in private and parochial schools. The number of public
schools totalled 2,205, of which 95 were high schools. There were
2,291 elementary school teachers and 557 high school teachers.
High school enrolment was 11,018. There were also 18 private
high schools and academies with 2,407 pupils. All expenditures
for the public school system totalled $5,174,945.08 for the year
1927-28, of which $953,332.77 was used for the maintenance oi
the high schools. Public school property was valued at $10,-
538,684. The average expenditure per school child was $80.20
in 1927-28 as compared with an average of $65.51 for the entire
United States.
There are two-year normal school courses given at the Uni-
versity of Vermont, and in normal schools at Castleton, Johnson
and Lyndon. One-year teachers' training courses were given in
six high schools in 1927-28. In 1922 high school graduation was
made a requirement for entering either the one-year or two-year
normal courses.
The University of Vermont, chartered by the State in 1791,
occupies a 75 ac. campus on a hill overlooking the city of
Burlington and the Champlain valley. It is composed of an
undergraduate college, college of engineering, college of medicine
and college of agriculture. Its library, containing about 125,000
volumes and 45,000 pamphlets in 1928, is the largest in the State.
Middlebury college, at Middlebury, chartered in 1800, is a liberal
arts college of high standing, doing excellent work. Norwich
university at Northfield is the State military college at which
engineering courses and military training are emphasized. St.
Michael's Roman Catholic college is at Burlington.
Charities and Corrections—The department of public wel-
fare is charged with the scientific treatment and care of the
State's unfortunates. It also has charge of the administration
of the State charitable and penal institutions, which are as fol-
lows: School for Feeble-minded Children, at Brandon; Indus-
trial School for Delinquent Boys and Girls, at Vergennes; State
Prison and House of Correction for Men at Windsor; State
Prison and House of Correction for Women at Rutland; Hos-
pital for the Insane at Waterbury; the Vermont Sanatorium for
Incipient Tuberculosis at Plttsford. The State makes other pro-
vision for insane by paying for them at the Brattleboro Retreat, a
private hospital not operated for profit. The Washington County
hospital at Barre for the treatment of tuberculosis and the Caverly
preventorium at Pittsford for undernourished or tuberculous chil-
dren are private institutions at which patients are cared for at
State expense. The department maintains Kinstead Receiving
home for dependent and neglected children at Montpelier.
Agriculture and Lire Stock,— Of the total land area of the
State — approximately 5,839,000 ac. — 67-2% or 3,926,000 ac. was
in farm land in 1925, and of this 1,692,000 ac. represented im-
proved land. This was divided among 27,786 farms, as compared
with 29,075 farms in 1920 and 32,709 farms in 1910. The average
size per farm was 141-3 acres. Of the farm land 1,150,000 ac. was
crop land, 2,176,000 ac. was in pasture, of which 1,031,000 ac.
was wooded, and 518,000 ac. was in woodland not used for pas-
ture. Farm population in 1925 was 114,188, or 32-4% of the
total population. In 1920 it had been 125,263, in 1910, 142,372.
The value of all farm property was estimated at $145,400,000 in
1910, $222,737,000 in 1920 and $180,912,000 in 1925. Between
1920 and 1925 land decreased $19,000,000, buildings decreased
$3,000,000, implements and machinery decreased $3,000,000 and
live stock decreased $17,000,000 in value. The average value per
farm was: in 1920, $7,661, in 1925, $6,511 and the average value
of farm land per acre was respectively $19.58 and $16.27. ^n
I925 9-3% of the farms were operated by tenants. The number
of mortgaged farms was 10,850 and the mortgaged debt approxi-
mated $25,000,000,
VERMONT
389.274
350,000
300,000
2BO.OOO
1
192.428
01
2OO.OOO
fs
M
i
o
•190.000
100.000
- 50.000
FAIM POP-
ULATIOM
114.188
POP- CATTLK
ULATION ON
FAMMf
NUMBER OF CATTLE COMPARED
WITH THE TOTAL POPULATION AND
FARM POPULATION (1925)
between 1925 and Jan. i, 1928, the value of cattle, horses,
swine and sheep rapidly increased, totalling $13,829,000, most
of which came in the year 1927. With an increase also in the
value of dairy and other live stock products, live stock raising re-
turned practically to the level of prosperity it enjoyed before the
depression following the World War. There were in 1928, 404,000
cattle of all kinds, valued at $32,158,400, as compared with 403,-
ooo valued at $18,538,000 in
1925. Of the number in 1928,
284,000 were milch cows valued
at $28,116,000. The great acre-
age of excellent grass land to be
found on the upland pastures of
Vermont, together with the abun-
dant hay crop, makes dairying
the chief industry of Vermont
farmers. The ratio of dairy cows
per caput was the highest of any
State. Butter made in 1926 to-
talled 8,305,000 Ib. and cheese
amounted to 1,114,000 pounds.
The value of all crops totalled
$42,200,000 in 1925 and $42,-
500,000 in 1926. Chief of these
was hay, which alone amounted
in value in 1926 to $21,184,000,
or slightly more than all other
crops together. Another industry, carried on largely by the farm-
ers, is the maple sugar industry for which Vermont particularly
among the States is famous. In 1926 there were 5,544,000 trees
tapped, far more than in any other State. Of the sap there were
made 1,602,000 Ib. of maple sugar, and 980,000 gal. of maple
syrup. The value amounts annually to about $1,500,000.
Mines and Quarries. — The mineral wealth except for talc
mines comes entirely from quarries. The leading products in
1926, in order of their value, were stone, slate, talc and lime. The
total value was $14,176,617 in 1926.
In 1926, 117,200 tons of granite valued at $3,908,917
were quarried. Though several States quarried a far higher ton-
nage, only in Massachusetts was the output as valuable. The
reason is that 95% of the Vermont granite is used for monu-
mental and ornamental purposes. The chief quarrying centre is at
Barre. Of the 1,161,684 cu.ft. quarried in this district 232,336
cu.ft. were shipped out rough and 929,348 cu.ft. were cut and pol-
ished in the district.
In 1925 and 1926 Vermont produced almost double the amount
of marble quarried in any other State. The output was 147,720
and 172,750 short tons, respectively, valued at $5,104,067 and
$5,116,290. This was more than one-fourth the total output of
the United States in quantity and more than one-third in value.
The quarries lie in the eastern part of Rutland county.
The main slate belt is also in Rutland county along the western
border, the area running into New York State. In Vermont a
large variety of colours is found, various greens, purples, varie-
gated, mottled and freak colours, all of which command high
prices. In 1926 the value of the slate output was $4,267,041, and
in 1927, $4,108,911. Vermont produced 34-5% of the total
slate output of the United States in 1926 and 36% in 1927.
Vermont produces talc and soapstone, being second only to New
York in 1926, but the output is not of as high grade as in some
other States. The production in 1926 was 53,510 short tons,
valued at $514,527. Both crude and ground talc was sold.
Manufacturing. — From 1900 to 1914 manufacturing increased
but slowly, the value of products in the latter year being $76,-
990,974. But during the years of the World War expansion was
rapid, and in 1919 products amounted in value to $168,108,000,
the industry employing 33,491 wage-earners. After the war there
was a sudden period of depression and in 1921 but 25,767 wage-
earners were retained and the value of their products had dropped
to $113,904,000. In 1925 there were 951 manufacturing estab-
lishments, 150 less than in 1921, employing 27,563 wage-earners,
to whom $32,326,000 was pdid in wages, and producing goods
valued at $138,326,000, of which $67,878,000 was added by the
manufacturing processes. The leading industries in 1925 follow:
Industry
Estab-
lishments
Wage-
earners
Value of
products
Marble, slate and stone work .
211
» 4,65 1
$18,396,000
Woollen goods ....
16
2,933
14,327,000
Paper and wood pulp .
17
i,387
9,744,000
Flour, feed and other grain mill
products
45
192
8,368,000
Butter, cheese, condensed and
evaporated milk
84
306
8,074,000
Metal- working machinery .
Lumber and timber products .
6
151
i,i59
2,214
6,673,000
6,140,000
Knitted goods ....
8
i,257
5,638,000
Burlington, Barre, Rutland, Bennington, Brattleboro, St. Johns-
bury, Springfield, Proctor, Winooski, St. Albans and Bellows Falls
are the chief manufacturing centres.
Transportation. — There has been no railway building since
1910, in which year the mileage was r,ioo. In 1925 the mileage
was 1,057. The chief railways are two main lines which run north
and south along the western and eastern borders, and four lines
which cross the State in a general east and west direction. To
cross from west to east at other places is impossible by rail, and
there is some difficulty in getting from the south-west cor-
ner to points along the Connecticut river toward the north-east.
The lack of railway facilities has been overcome to an agreeable
extent since 1923 by the establishment of motor-bus lines on many
of the main highways, and to villages not on the railway lines.
There were 4,462 m. of road in the State highway system in 1927,
of which 3,139 m. was surfaced. Expenditures on the State high-
way in 1925, including Federal aid, amounted to $3,618,000.
A canal connects the head of Lake Champlain with the Hudson
river so that through Lake Champlain and its outlet, the Richelieu
river, there is an uninterrupted waterway from the St. Lawrence
river to New York city harbour, a waterway that is open for navi-
gation at. least seven months each year. The Chambly canal
around the Chambly rapids of the Richelieu river permits the
passage of boats. On Lake Champlain there are both passenger
and freight lines which regularly serve the chief towns of the lake.
History. — The first white man to visit the region now known
as Vermont, so far as the records show, was Samuel Champlain,
"Father of New France." Joining an Algonquin war party, on a
foray into the Iroquois country, July 4, 1609, he entered the lake
which he named Lake Champlain. For well nigh a century and a
half the Champlain valley was French territory. The increase of
the Iroquois compelled the French in Canada to erect a chain of
forts to command the approach by way of Lake Champlain and
its outlet, the Richelieu river, the great trunk line highway
from the valley of the St. Lawrence river to southern New
England and the Hudson valley. As the English settlements
in Massachusetts and adjacent colonies grew stronger, the Indians
gradually withdrew into Canada, and, sullen and revengeful, were
ready to join the French in raids upon the English settlements.
The first permanent English settlement was a blockhouse
erected in 1724, in the town of Brattleboro, and known as Ft.
Dummer. Later in the same year a group of Dutch squatters
settled in the town of Pownal, in the south-western corner of
Vermont. But not until the British captured Canada, in 1760,
did the tide of emigration flow into the State. Benning Went-
worth, royal governor of New Hampshire, assuming that
the rather vague limits of his province, like those of Connecti-
cut and Massachusetts, extended westward to a line 20 m. east of
the Hudson river, proceeded to make grants of land between the
Connecticut river and Lake Champlain. From 1749 to 1764 he
granted 131 townships and the region was commonly known as the
New Hampshire Grants. Lieutenant Governor Colden of New
York challenged the right of the New Hampshire executive to
grant these lands. For 14 years the ownership of the disputed
region was debated and on July 20, 1764, an order of the king in
council gave a decision in favour of New York. Thereupon the
New York governors proceeded to grant lands in what is now the
86
VERMOREL— VERNE
State of Vermont,
Following the close of the French and Indian War and prior to
the outbreak of the American Revolution, several thousand per-
sons, largely from Connecticut and Massachusetts, had purchased
lands in the New Hampshire Grants, had cleared farms, built
houses and planted crops. In 1770 a test case was brought in the
New York courts, in an ejectment suit, concerning property in the
town of Shaftsbury, and the court refused to consider the New
Hampshire charter as evidence. Ethan Allen, in charge of the
defence, returned to Bennington, where the town voted to protect
Us rights by force if necessary. A military organization was
formed, which came to be known as the Green Mountain Boys,
Ethan Allen being its commander. In eastern Vermont New York
authority was recognized, and no attempt was made to dispossess
settlers, but in western Vermont New York authority was success-
fully defied. New Hampshire titles were defended.
With the Revolution the Green Mountain Boys, commanded
by Ethan Allen, with some aid from Connecticut and
Massachusetts, on May 10, 1775, captured the fortress of Ticon-
deroga, on Lake Champlain. The capture was the first aggressive
act on the part of the Americans in the Revolutionary War. Ver-
monters participated in the invasion of Canada in the autumn
of 1775, and Ethan Allen was captured by the British in an unsuc-
cessful attempt to take Montreal.
A rudimentary form of government was maintained through
committees of safety. Conventions were held in 1776 looking
toward statehood, Ira Allen being active in behalf of a separate
government. On Jan. 16, 1777, a declaration of independence was
adopted and the name New Connecticut was given the new State.
This name was soon abandoned, as it had been used elsewhere, and
the name Vermont was substituted, In July 1777, a State Consti-
tution was drafted in a convention held at Windsor. This was the
first Constitution adopted by an American State to forbid slavery
and to establish manhood suffrage. The new State government was
set up in March 1778, with Thomas Chittenden as governor.
The British under Gen. Burgoyne captured the Lake Champlain
forts in July 1777, and the rear guard of the American army,
retreating from Ticonderoga, was defeated at Hubbardton, Vt.,
July 7, 1777. In an attempt to capture Amerir-n stores at Ben-
nington, British detachments under Cols. Baum and Breymann
were defeated by an American force, consisting of Vermont, New
Hampshire and Massachusetts troops commanded by Gen. John
Stark, on Aug. 16, 1777. This was the beginning of Burgoyne's
reverses which ended in his surrender to Gen. Gates.
The new State of Vermont continued to function, although
opposed by foes at home and abroad. In 1790 New York, under
the leadership of Alexander Hamilton, recognized the independence
of Vermont conditioned upon the payment of $30,000, and on
Mar. 4, 1791, the Green Mountain Commonwealth was the first
State admitted to the Union after the original 13.
Settlement was rapid during the latter years of the Revolution-
ary War. A rough census showed about 7,000 people in the State in
,1771. In 1791 the number rose to 85,525. After her declaration
of independence the State granted her own lands. In 1779 the
legislature planned that they were to be in townships 6 m. square
with 70 rights or divisions in each. Five divisions in each were
reserved, one for the support of a college, one for a county gram-
mar school, one for an English school, one for the support of
preaching and one for the first sottled minister. The legislature
convened in several of the larger towns of the State until 1808,
when the capital was permanently situated at Montpelier.
Many little iron mines were opened, and small forges put in
operation with charcoal as fuel. This was an industry which is no
longer found. The iron and other businesses were stimulated by
the War of 1812. In this war Vermont troops took part in the
battles of Chippewa, Lundy's Lane, Lake Erie and Pittsburgh, but
the only engagement In the State itself was the defence of Ft.
Cassin at the mouth of Otter creek in 1813.
Steady expansion followed. Farm produce and cattle were sold
South to older markets. The lumber business began to be devel-
oped in the Connecticut valley and along the shores of Lake Cham-
plain where water transportation was available, the demand at
first being principally for ship timber. During the winter the lines
of sledges took the produce of the Cbamplain region to Montreal,
just as that from the south-western part was taken to Albany, and
that from the Connecticut valley to Portsmouth or Boston. The
opening of the Champlain canal in 1823, connecting Lake Cham-
plain and the Hudson river, largely increased commerce with New
York and diverted trade from Canada. Stage lines began to carry
the mail and passengers throughout the State. Many towns to
which they went had a larger population in 1820 than in 1920. The
decade between 1820 and 1830 was the last one in which there was
a marked increase of population in the State. After that many
Vermontcrs were seized with the desire to go west and so they
helped to build many of the northern States of the Mississippi
valley. Many also went south to the rising industrial centres of
Massachusetts and Connecticut. Despite these great losses the
population continued to increase, aided in later years by an influx
of French Canadians from Canada.
During the Civil War a small band of Confederates crossed the
frontier from Canada and raided the town of St. Albans. In 1870
St. Albans was the headquarters of an attempted Fenian invasion
of Canada. Sheep raising was an important farm industry before
and after the Civil War, but after 1880 declined rapidly because
of competition from the Western States and Australia. The Ver-
mont Central, between Windsor and Burlington, and the Rutland
from Bellows Falls to Burlington, were completed in 1849. In
presidential campaigns the State was Federalist, 1792-1800;
Democratic-Republican, 1804-20; Adams-Republican, 1824-28;
Anti-Masonic, 1832; Whig, 1836-52; and Republican since 1856.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — M. D. Oilman, Bibliography of Vermont (1897)
approaches completeness for the period before the date of its publica-
tion. For physical description, geology and minerals the many papers
in the annual Reports of the State Geologist are most valuable. For
education see G. G. Bush, History of Education in Vermont (1900)
and Vermont Educational Commission Report (1914).
Of the older histories the more famous are: I. Allen, Natural and
Political History of the State of Vermont (1798, reprinted in Vermont
Historical Collections, 1870) ; S. Williams, Natural and Civil History
of Vermont (2nd ed., 1809) ; Z. Thompson, History of Vermont,
Natural, Civil and Statistical (1848) ; B. H. Hall, History of Eastern
Vermont to the Close of the Eighteenth Century (2nd ed., 1865) ;
H. Hall, History of Vermont from its Discovery to its Admission into
the Union in 1701 (1868) ; A. M. Ilemenway (ed.), Vermont Histor-
ical Gazetteer (5 vol., 1867-91). R. E. Robinson, Vermont (1892), in
the "American Commonwealths" series is based largely on the above
works but is more readable and more easily secured. History of
Vermont in 5 volumes, by Walter H. Crockett was published 1921-23.
An excellent high school text is E. D. Collins, History of Vermont
(rev. ed., 1916). See. also W. Nutting, Vermont Beautiful (1922);
Vermont Bureau of Publicity, Vermont the Land of Green Mountains
(1913) ; H. Hall, Ethan Allen (1892) ; J. B. Wilbur, Ira Allen, Founder
of Vermont (2 vol., 1928) ; F. Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict
(1892) and Montcalm and Wolfe (1884) » Champlain Society, Works
of Samuel de Champlain (3 vol., 1922-25) ; Vermont Historical Society,
Collections (1870-71) and Proceedings (various dates between 1860
and 1925) ; The Vermonter (1897 seq.). (W. H. CR.)
VERMOREL, AUGUSTS JEAN MARIE (1841-1871),
French journalist, was born at Denied, France, on June 20, 1841.
A radical and socialist, he was attached to the staff of the Presse
(1864) and the Libertd (1866); in 1866 he became editor of the
Courrier Franqais and in 1869 of La R6 forme, being twice im-
prisoned. He took an active part in the Commune, and was
dangerously wounded while fighting at the barricades. He died a
prisoner at Versailles, on June 20, 1871.
VERMOUTH. An alcoholic beverage, the basis of which
consists of white wine. The wine is fortified with spirit up to a
strength of about 15% of alcohol, and is then stored in casks
exposed to the sun's rays for a year or two. Another portion of
the wine is fortified up to a strength of about 50% of alcohol, and
in this various aromatic and tonic materials are macerated in
casks which are exposed to the sun in the same way as the bulk
of the wine. The two liquids are then mixed in such proportions
as to make the strength of the ultimate product about 17% of
alcohol by volume. Italian vermouth is sweet in taste and darker
than the dry French vermouth.
VERN& JULES (1828-1905), French author, was born at
Nantes on Feb. 8, 1828, After completing his studies at the
VERNET— VERNIS MARTIN
Nantes lyc£e, he went to Paris to study law. About 1848, in con-
junction with Michel Carr£, he wrote librettos for two operettas,
and in 1850 his verse comedy, Les Failles rompues, in which
Alexandre Dumas fils had some share, was produced at the
Gymnase. For some years his interests alternated between the
theatre and the bourse, but some travellers' stories which he wrote
for the Uusie des Families revealed to him the true direction of
his talent — the delineation, viz., of delightfully extravagant voy-
ages and adventures, in which he foresaw, with marvellous vision,
the achievements of scientific and mechanical invention of the
generation of 1900. "For the last twenty years," said Marshal
Lyautey, "the advance of the peoples is merely living the novels
of Jules Verne." Verne was a real pioneer in the wide literary
genre of voyages -imaginaires. His first success was obtained with
Cinq semaines en ballon, which he wrote for Hetzel's Magazin
d' Education in 1862, and thenceforward, for a quarter of a cen-
tury, scarcely a year passed in which Hetzel did not publish one or
more of his amazing stories. The most successful include : Voyage
au centre de la terre (1864) ; DC la terre a la lune (1865) ; Vingt
mille lieues sous les niers (1869); Les Anglais au pole nord
(1870); and Voyage autour dn monde en quatre-vingts jours,
which first appeared in Le Temps in 1872. The adaptation of this
last (produced with immense success at the Porte St. Martin
theatre on Nov. 8, 1874) and of another excellent tale, Michael
Strogofi (at the Chatelet, 1880), both written in conjunction with
Adolphe cTEnnery, proved the most acceptable of Verne's dramas.
His novels delight by reason of their sparkling style, their pic-
turesque verve — inherited from Dumas — their good-natured na-
tional caricatures, and the ingenuity with which the love element
is subordinated. He was a member of the Legion of Honour,
and several of his romances were crowned by the French Academy,
but he was never enrolled among its members. He died at Amiens
on March 24, 1905. The novels of Jules Verne are dreams come
true, dreams of submarines, aeroplanes, television; they look for-
ward, not backward. Therefore they are still the books of youth.
See C. Lemirc, Jules Verne., 1828-1025 (1908) ; M. Allotte de la
Fuye, Jules Verne, sa vie et son oeuvre (1928).
VERNET, the name of three eminent French painters.
I. CLAUDE JOSEPH VERNET (1714-1789), who was born at
Avignon on Aug. 14, 1714, when only fourteen years of age
aided his father, a skilful decorative painter. The sight of
the sea at Marseilles and his voyage thence to Civita Vecchia
made a deep impression on him, and immediately after his arrival
he entered the studio of a marine painter, Bernardino Fergioni.
For twenty years Vernet lived on in Rome, producing views of
seaports, storms, calms, moonlights, etc., when he was recalled
(i753) to Paris, and executed, by royal command, the remarkable
series of the seaports of France (Louvre) by which he is best |
known. He died Dec. 3, 1789. I
II. ANTOINE CHARLES HORACE VERNET (1758-1835), com-
monly called CARLE, the youngest child of the above, was born
at Bordeaux in 1758. His first important work, was his "Triumph
of Paulus Aemilius"; in this picture he broke with reigning tra-
ditions in classical subjects, and drew the horse with the forms
he had learnt from nature in stables and riding-schools. The
Revolution, and his sister's death on the scaffold, stopped his
artistic career. When he again began to produce, it was as the
man of another era: his drawings of the Italian campaign brought
him fresh laurels; his vast canvas, the "Battle of Marengo,"
obtained great success; and for his "Morning of Austerlitz"
Napoleon bestowed on him the Legion of Honour. His hunting-
pieces, races, landscapes, and work as a lithographer (chiefly
under the Restoration) had a great vogue. In 1827 he ac-
companied his son Horace (see below) to Rome, and died in
Paris on his return, on Nov. 17, 1835.
III. HORACE VERNET (1789-1863), born in Paris on June 30,
1789, was one of the most characteristic of the military painters
of France. He was just twenty when he exhibited the "Taking
of an Entrenched Camp'* — a work which showed no depth of
observation, but was distinguished by a good deal of character.
His picture of his own studio (the rendezvous of. the Liberals
under the Restoration), in which he represented himself paint-
ing tranquilly, whilst boxing, fencing, drum- and horn-playing,
etc., were going on, in the midst of a medley of visitors, horses,
dogs and models, is one of his best works, and, together with
his "Defence of the Barrier at Clichy" (Louvre), won for him
an immense popularity. He was appointed director of the school
of France at Rome, from 1828 to 1835, and thither he carried
the atmosphere of racket in which he habitually lived. After his
return the whole of the Constantine room at Versailles was
decorated by him in the short space of three years. He died at
Paris on Jan. 17, 1863.
See Lagrange, Joseph Vernet et la peinture au XVlll* stick (1861) ;
C. Blanc, Les Vernet (1845) ; A. Dayot, Les Vernet (1898).
VERNEUIL, a town of north-western France. Pop. (1926)
3,551- Verneuil stands on the left bank of the Avre. The church
of La Madeleine (nth to 17th century) has the facade flanked
by a square tower of the first half of the i6th century. The
church contains old stained glass, an ironwork pulpit and other
works of art. The church of Notre Dame (i2th and i6th cen-
turies) possesses Romanesque stone carvings. The Tour Grise
is a cylindrical keep built in 1120 by Henry I.
VERNIER, PIERRE (c. 1580-1637), inventor of the instru-
ment which bears his name, was born at Ornans (near Besangon)
in Burgundy about 1580. He was for a considerable time com-
mandant of the castle in his native town. In 1631 he published at
Brussels a treatise entitled Construction, usage et proprtetes du
Quadrant nouveau de mathematiques, in which the instrument
associated with his name is described. He died at Ornans in 1637.
VERNIER INSTRUMENT, a measuring device which
enables either linear or angular magnitudes to be read with a degree
of accuracy many times greater than is possible with a scale as
ordinarily divided and subdivided. The principle of the vernier is
readily understood from the following figure and illustration.
14 13 11 11 1O
ill I \
T ?
1 1 t
1 1 [
Let AB (see fig.) be the normal scale, i.e. a scale graduated accord-
ing to a standard of length, CD, a scale (placed in contact with AB
for convenience) graduated so that 10 divisions equal n divisions of
the scale AB, and EF a scale placed similarly and graduated so that
10 divisions equal 9 divisions of the scale AB. Consider the combina-
tion AB and CD. Obviously each division of CD is ,lftth greater than
the normal scale division. Let a represent a length to be measured,
placed so that one end is at the zero of the normal scale, and the other
end in contact with the end of the vernier CD marked 10. It is noted
that graduation 4 of the vernier coincides with a division of the stan-
dard, and the determination of the excess of a over 3 scale divisions
reduces to the difference of 7 divisions of the normal scale and 6 di-
visions of the vernier. This is -4, since each vernier division equals i-i
scale divisions. Hence the scale reading of the vernier which coincides
with a graduation of the normal scale gives the decimal to be added
to the normal scale reading. Now consider the scales AB and EF,
and let ft be the length to be measured; the scale EF being placed so
that the zero end is in contact with an end of ft. Obviously each di-
vision of EF is -iVh less than that of the normal scale. It is seen that
division 6 of the vernier coincides with a normal scale division, and
obviously the excess of ft over two normal scale divisions equals
the difference between 6 normal scale divisions and 6 vernier divisions,
i.e. 0-6. Thus a&ain in this case the vernier reading which coincides
with a scale reading gives the decimal to be added to the normal kale.
The second type of vernier is that more commonly adopted, and its
application to special appliances is quite simple.
VERNIS MARTIN, a generic name, derived from a distin-
guished family of French artist-artificers of the i8th century,
given to a brilliant translucent lacquer extensively used in the
decoration of furniture, carriages, sedan chairs and a multitude of
small articles such as snuff-boxes and fans. There were four
brothers of the Martin family: Guillaume (d. 1749), Simon
£tienne, Julien and Robert (1706-1765), the two first named
!>eing the, elder. They were the children of fetienne Martin, a
tailor, and began life as coach-painters. They neither invented,
nor claimed to have invented, the varnish which bears their
VERNON— VERONA
name, but they enormously improved, and eventually brought
to perfection, compositions and methods of applying them which
were already more or less familiar. Oriental lacquer speedily
acquired high favour in France, and many attempts were made
to imitate it. Some of these attempts were passably successful,
and we can hardly doubt that many of the examples in the pos-
session of Louis XIV. at his death were of European manufac-
ture. Chinese lacquer was, however, imported in large quantities,
and sometimes panels were made in China from designs prepared
in Paris, just as English coats of arms were placed upon Chinese
porcelain in its place of origin. At the height of their fame the
brothers directed at least three factories in Paris, and in 1748
they were all classed together as a "Manufacture nationale."
One of them was still in existence in 1785. The literature of their
day had much to say of the frercs Martin. In Voltaire's comedy
of Nadine, produced in 1749, mention is made of a berline "bonne
et brillante, tous les panneaux par Martin sont vernis"; also in
his Premier discours snr I'iiwgalite des conditions he speaks of
"des lambris dore*s et vernis par Martin." The marquis de Mira-
beau in L'Ami des homines refers to the enamelled snuff-boxes
and varnished carriages which came from the Martins' factory.
At its best Vernis Martin has a splendour of sheen, a perfection
of polish, a beauty of translucence which compel the admiration
due to a consummate specimen of handiwork. Every variety
of the lacquer of the Far East was imitated and often improved
upon by the Martins — the black with raised gold ornaments, the
red, and finally in the wonderful green ground, powdered with
gold, they reached the high-water mark of their delightful art.
Of the larger specimens from the Martins' factories a vast quan-
tity has disappeared, or been cut up into decorative panels. It
would appear that none of the work they placed in the famous
hotels of old Paris is now in situ, and it is to museums that we
must go for really fine examples — to the Musee de Cluny for an
exquisite children's sedan chair and the coach used by the French
ambassador to Venice under Louis XV. ; to the Wallace collection
for the tables with richly chased mounts that have been attributed
to Dubois; to Fontainebleau for a famous commode. It has been
generally accepted that of the four brothers Robert Martin ac-
complished the most original and the most completely artistic
work. He left a son, Jean Alexandre, who described himself in
1767 as "Vernisseur du Roi de Prusse." He was employed at Sans
Souci, but failed to continue the great traditions of his father
and his uncles. The Revolution finally extinguished a taste which
had lasted for a large part of the i8th century. Since then the
production of lacquer has, on the whole, been an industry rather
than an art. (J. P.-B.)
VERNON, EDWARD (1684-1757), English admiral, was
born in Westminster on Nov. 12, 1684, the second son of James
Vernon, secretary of State in 1697-1700. Edward Vernon entered
the navy in 1707, and saw much active service in various seas.
During the long peace under Walpole he sat in the House of
Commons (1722-34); he clamoured for war with Spain, and in
1739 declared he would capture Portobello with a squadron of
six ships. He got the command and the ships and captured
Portobello on Nov. 22, with a loss of only seven men. In 1740,
with a large squadron, he attacked Cartagena without success,
and had to retire to Jamaica (this episode is described in Roderick
Random, chap, xiii., etc.). Vernon suffered another reverse at
Santiago de Cuba in 1741, and returned home in 1743. He had
been Elected M.P. for Ipswich in 1741, and continued to sit for
that borough. He was in command in the Downs in 1745, but in
annoyance at intervention from Whitehall he published some of
his instructions, and was struck off the flag list. He died on Oct.
30, 1757, at Nacton, Suffolk.
VERNON, a town of north-western France. Pop. (1926)
7,887. Vernon in 1196 was ceded by its count to Philip Augustus,
Richard I. resigning his suzerainty. The first Estates of Nor-
mandy were held at Vernon in 1452. Vernon stands on the left
bank of the Seine. The church of Notre-Dame is an interest-
ing building dating from the i2th to the i5th centuries, and there
is a cylindrical keep built by Henry I. of England.
VERNON, a city of northern Texas, U.S.A., on the Pease
river, the county seat of Wilbarger county. The population was
5,142 in 1920 (95% native white) and was estimated at 15,000 in
1928. It is the shipping point for a wide region (producing
cotton, wheat, alfalfa and cattle), and for oil-wells with a daily
production (1928) of 35,000 barrels. Vernon was settled about
1880, incorporated in 1901, and chartered as a city in 1914.
VEROLI, an episcopal see of the province of Rome, Italy,
1,870 ft. above sea-level. Pop (1921) 4,676 (town) ; 15,096 (com-
mune). The town is situated on the site of the Hernican town of
Verulae. It retains remains of its ancient polygonal enceinte, espe-
cially near the summit of the hill, later occupied by a mediaeval
castle. The cathedral treasury contains the breviary of S. Louis of
Toulouse.
VERONA, a city and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, the capi-
tal of the province of Verona, situated 194 ft. above sea-level in
a loop of the Adige (anc. Athesis). Pop. (1921) 87,342 (town),
92,536 (commune). It is the point of departure to the Brenner.
Churches. — The Romanesque basilica of S. Zeno (the first
bishop of Verona and its patron saint), outside the ancient city,
was remodelled in 1117-38, including the richly sculptured west
front and the open confessio or crypt, raising the choir high above
the nave. The nave (nth century) has frescoes of the nth-
i4th centuries.
The cathedral, consecrated in 1187, stands at the northern end
of the ancient city, by the bank of the Adige; it is smaller than
S. Zeno, but has a fine west front, rich with Romanesque sculp-
'ture (1135) ; the upper part was added during 1565-1606. It has a
noble Romanesque cloister, with two storeys of arcading. The
campanile by Sammicheli is unfinished. Its baptistery, rebuilt
early in the i2th century, is a quite separate building, with nave
and apse, forming a church dedicated to S. Giovanni in Fonte.
Pope Lucius III. (d. 1185) is buried in the cathedral. The very
fine Gothic Dominican church of S. Anastasia (1290-1481), con-
sists of a nave in six bays, aisles, transepts, each with two eastern
chapels, and an apse, all vaulted with simple quadripartite brick
groining. It is specially remarkable for its very beautiful and com-
plete scheme of coloured decoration. The vaults are gracefully
painted with floreated bands along the ribs and central patterns in
each "cell," in rich soft colours on a white plastered ground.
There are many fine frescoes in the interior including Pisanello's
beautiful painting of St. George. This church also contains fine
sculptured tombs of the i4th and i5th centuries. S. Fermo Mag-
giore was rebuilt in 1313 at a higher level than the earlier church
(1065-1138). The roof is magnificent. Delicate patterns cover all
the framework of the panelling and fill the panels themselves.
Rows of half-figures of saints are painted on blue or gold grounds,
forming a scheme of indescribably splendid decoration. A simpler
roof of the same class exists at S. Zeno; it is trefoil-shaped in
section, with a tie-beam joining the cusps. The church of S. Maria
in Organo (1481), with a facade of 1592 from Sammichelfs de-
signs, contains paintings by various Veronese masters, and some
fine choir-stalls of 1499 by Fra Giocondo. Though not built till
after his death, the church of S. Giorgio di Braida, on the other
side of the river, was also designed by Sammicheli, and possesses
many good pictures of the Veronese school. The Romanesque
churches of S. Lorenzo and S. Stefano are fine. That dedicated
to Thomas Becket was rebuilt in the i5th century.
The strongly fortified castle (Castel Vecchio) built by, Can-
grande II. della Scala (1354) stands on the line of the wall of
Theodoric, close by the river. It contains the municipal museum
and picture gallery. There are five bridges across the Adige: one.
the graceful Ponte di Pietra, rests upon ancient foundations, while
the two arches nearest to the left bank are Roman; but it has
been frequently restored. Remains of another ancient bridge were
found in the river itself behind S. Anastasia. The 16th-century
lines of fortification enclose a very much larger area than the
Roman city. On a steep elevation stands the castle of St. Peter,
originally founded by Theodoric, on the site, perhaps, of the
earliest citadel, mostly rebuilt by Gian Galeazzo Visconti in 1393,
and dismantle 1 by the French in 1801. The episcopal palace con-
tains the ancient and valuable chapter library, of about 12,000
volumes and over 500 mss. (See GAIUS.) The Piazza delle Erbe
VERONA
89
(fruit and vegetable market) on the site of the ancient Forum and
the Piazza dei Signori, adjoining one another in the oldest part of
the city, are very picturesque and beautiful, being surrounded by
many fine mediaeval buildings, notably the Palazzo del Comune,
with a tower 273 ft. high, while in the north-east corner of the
latter Piazza is the fine early Renaissance Loggia del Consiglio
(1476-1493), most likely designed by Fra Giocondo. The Piazza
Vittorio Emanuele II. (also called Bra, from the Latin pratum, a
meadow) to the south-west of the amphitheatre, is the tramway,
centre and the site of the cattle market. On it fronts the Gran
Guardia, a large palace of 1610, now the Bourse.
Roman Remains. — The Roman remains of Verona surpass
those of any other city of northern Italy. The most conspicuous
of them is the great amphitheatre, a building of the end of the
ist century A.p., which closely resembled the Flavian amphitheatre
(Colosseum) in Rome. Its axes measured 505 and 404 ft. Almost
the whole of its external arcades, with three tiers of arches, have
now disappeared; it was partly thrown down by an earthquake
in 1183, and subsequently used to supply building materials. The
interior, with seats for about 25,000 people, has been restored.
There are also remains of a well-preserved Roman theatre, close
to the left bank of the river adjacent to which is the archaeological
museum. The Museo Lapidario contains a fine collection of
Roman and Etruscan inscriptions and sculpture, begun by Scipi-
one Maffei in 1714.
Veronese Art, Painting and Sculpture. — Painting in Ve-
rona may be divided into four periods, (i.) The first is char-
acterized by wall paintings of purely native style, e.g., in SS.
Nazaro e Celso (996). (ii.) The Byzantine period lasted during
the 1 2th and i3th centuries. (See S. Zeno for examples.) (Hi.)
The Giottesque period begins contemporaneously with Altichieri
and Giacomo d'Avanzo (second half of the i4th century). These
two painters, among the ablest of Giotto's followers, adorned
Verona and Padua with very beautiful frescoes, rich in composi-
tion, delicate in colour, and remarkable for their highly finished
modelling and detail, (iv.) To the fourth period belong several
important painters. Pisanello or Vittore Pisano, a charming
painter and the greatest medallist of Italy, probably a pupil of
Altichieri, has left a beautiful fresco in the church of S. Anas-
tasia, representing St. George and the Princess after the con-
quest of the Dragon. His only other existing fresco is an Annun-
ciation in S. Fcrmo Maggiore. (See PAINTING.) His pupils in-
clude Liberale da Verona, Domenico and Francesco Morone,
Girolamo dai Libri (1474-1556), etc. Domenico del Riccio,
usually nicknamed Brusasorci (1494-1567), was a prolific painter
whose works are very numerous in Verona* Paolo Cagliari or
Paul Veronese, and Bonifacio, though natives of Verona, belong
rather to the Venetian school.
Verona is specially rich in early examples of decorative sculp-
ture, (i.) The first period is that of northern influence, exempli-
fied in the reliefs which cover the western f agades of the church of
S. Zeno and the cathedral, dating from the I2th century, and
representing both sacred subjects and scenes of war and hunting,
mixed with grotesque monsters. Part of the western doors of S.
Zeno are early examples of caste bronze reliefs, (ii.) In the i3th
century the sculpture lost its vigour, without acquiring grace or
refinement, e.g., the font in the cathedral baptistery. (Hi.) The
next period is that of Florentine influence, exemplified in the mag-
nificently sculptured tombs of the Delia Scala lords, those of Can-
grande I. (d. 1329), Mastino II. (d. 1351) and (the most elaborate
of all) of the fratricide Can Signorio, adorned with statuettes of
the virtues, executed during his lifetime (c. 1370), by the sculptor
Bonino da Campione. (iv.) In the isth century Florence influ-
enced Verona by way of Venice.
Architecture.— -The architecture of Verona, like its sculpture,
passed through Lombard, Florentine and Venetian stages. The
early Renaissance developed into very exceptional beauty,
mainly through the genius of Fra Giocondo (1435-1514), a na-
tive of Verona, who was at first a friar in the monastery of
S. Maria in Organo. He rose to great celebrity as an architect,
and designed many graceful and richly sculptured buildings in
Venke, Rome and even in France; ho used classical forms with
great taste and skill, and with much of the freedom of the older
mediaeval architects, and was specially remarkable for his rich
and delicate sculptured decorations. Another of the leading archi-
tects of the next stage of the Renaissance was the Veronese
Michele Sammicheli (1484-1559), a great military engineer, and
designer of an immense number of magnificent palaces in Verona,
among which the most outstanding are the Bevilacqua, Canossa
and Pompei palaces.
History. — The ancient Verona was a town of the Cenomani,
a Gaulish tribe, whose chief town was Brixia. It became a Latin
colony in 89 B.C. Inscriptions testify to its importance, indicating
that it was the headquarters of the collectors of the 5% inheri-
fance tax under the Empire in Italy beyond the Po. Its territory
stretched as far as Hostilia on the Padus (Po), 30 m. .to the
south. It lay on the road between Mediolanum and Aquileia, while
here diverged to the north the roads over the Brenner. It was the
birthplace of the poet Catullus. In A.D. 69 it became the head-
quarters of the legions which were siding with Vespasian. It was
defended by a river along two-thirds of its circumference. The
existing remains of walls and gates date from the period between
the 3rd of April and the 4th of December of the year 265. A very
handsome triumphal arch, now called the Porta de' Borsari, was
restored in this year by Gallienus and became one of the city gates.
The same was the case with the Porta dei Leoni, on the east of the
city, and with a third arch, the Arco dei Gavi, demolished in 1805.
The emperor Constantine, while advancing towards Rome from
Gaul, besieged and took Verona (312); it was here, too, that
Odoacer was defeated (499) by Theodoric the Goth, Dietrich von
Bern — i.e., Verona — of German legends, who built a castle at
Verona and frequently resided there. He enlarged the fortified
area by constructing a wall and ditch (now called Adigetto), to
the SAV. of the amphitheatre, and also built thermae and restored
the aqueducts, which had long been out of use.
In the middle ages Verona gradually grew in size and impor-
tance. Alboin, the Lombard king, captured it in 568, and it was
one of the chief residences of the Lombard, and later of the
Frankish, monarchs; and though, like other cities of northern
Italy, it suffered much during the Guelph and Ghibelline struggles,
it rose to a foremost position both from the political and the
artistic point of view under its various rulers of the Scaliger or
Delia Scala family. The first prominent member of this family
and founder of his dynasty was Mastino I. della Scala, who ruled
over the city from 1260 till his death in 1277. Verona had pre-
viously fallen under Ezzelino da Romano (1227-1259). Alberto
della Scala (d. 1301) was succeeded by his eldest son Bartolo-
meo, who was confirmed as ruler of Verona by the popular vote,
and died in 1304. It was in his time that Romeo and Juliet are
said to have lived. Alboino, the second son, succeeded his brother,
and died in 1311, when the youngest son of Alberto, Can Grande,
who since 1308 had been joint-lord of Verona with his brother,
succeeded to the undivided power. Can Grande (Francesco della
Scala, d. 1329) was the best and most illustrious of his line, and
is specially famous as the hospitable patron of Dante (q.v.).
Other princes of this dynasty, which lasted for rather more than
a century, were Giovanni (d. 1350), Mastino II. (d. 1351), Can
Grande II. (d. 1359) and Can Signorio (d. 1375). In 1387 Gian
Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan, became by conquest lord of
Verona. Soon after his death the city fell by treacherous means
into the hands of Francesco II. di Carrara, lord of Padua. In
1404-1405 Verona, together with Padua, was finally conquered by
Venice, and remained subject to the Venetians till the overthrow
of the republic by Napoleon in 1797, who in the same year, after
the treaty of Campo Formio, ceded it to the Austrians with the
rest of Venetia. They fortified it strongly in 1814, and with
Peschiera, Mantua and Legnago it formed part of the famous
quadrilateral which until 1866 was the chief support of their
rule in Italy. The town was greatly damaged by a flood in 1882.
See the various works by Sciplonc Maffei (Verona Ittustrata, 1728;
Museum Verontnsc, 1749) ; A. Wiel, The Story of Verona (London,
1902) ; R. Peyre, Padoue et Virone (1907) ; E. Giani, UAntko teatro
di Verona (Verona, 1908) ; A. M. Allen, History of Verona (1910) ;
E. R. Williams, Plain Towns (1912); M. Ludwig, Auf Verona*
Dachern (1919). (J- H. ML; T. A.)
VERONA— VERRES
VERONA, CONGRESS OP, the last of the series of inter-
national conferences or congresses based on the principle enunci-
ated in Art. 6 of the treaty of Paris of Nov. 20, 1815 (see
EUROPE, History). It met at Verona on Oct. 20, 1822. The
emperor Alexander I. of Russia was present in person. There
were also present Count Nesselrode, the Russian minister of
foreign affairs; Prince Metternich, representing Austria; Prince
Hardenberg and Count Bernstorff, representing Prussia; MM.
de Montmorency and Chateaubriand, representing France; and
the duke of Wellington, representing Great Britain
The immediate problems arising out of the Turkish Question
had been settled between the emperor Alexander and Metternich,
at the preliminary conferences held at Vienna in September, and
at Verona the only question raised was that of the proposed
French intervention in Spain. The discussion was opened by
three questions formally propounded by Montmorency: (i)
Would the Allies withdraw their ministers from Madrid in the
event of France being compelled to do so? (2) In case of war,
under what form and by what acts would the powers give France
their moral support, so as to give to her action the force of the
Alliance, and inspire a salutary fear in the revolutionaries of all
countries? (3) What material aid would the powers give, if
asked by France to intervene, under restrictions which she would
declare and they would recognize?
The reply of Alexander, who expressed his surprise at the desire
of France to keep the question "wholly French," was to offer
to march 150,000 Russians through Germany to Piedmont, where
they could be held ready to act against the Jacobins whether in
Spain or France. Wellington, who had been instructed to express
the uncompromising opposition of Great Britain to the whole
principle of intervention, refused to have anything to do with the
suggestion, made by Metternich, that the powers should address
a common note to the Spanish Government in support of the
action of France. Finally, Metternich proposed that the Allies
should "hold a common language, but in separate notes, though
uniform in their principles, and objects/' This solution was
adopted by the continental powers ; and Wellington, in accordance
with his instructions, took no part in the conferences that fol-
lowed. On Oct. 30 the powers handed in their formal replies to
the French memorandum. Russia, Austria and Prussia would act
as France should in respect of their ministers in Spain, and would
give to France every countenance and assistance she might
require, the details "being reserved to be specified in a treaty."
Wellington, on the other hand, replied on behalf of Great Britain
that "having no knowledge of the cause of dispute, and not being
able to form a judgment upon a hypothetical case, he could give
no answer to any of the questions."
Thus was proclaimed the open breach of Great Britain with
the principles and policy of the Great Alliance, which is what
gives to the congress its main historical interest. (W. A. P.)
VERONAL, a crystalline substance extensively used in
medicine as a hypnotic. Chemically, veronal is diethylmalonyl
urea or diethyl-barbituric acid (C2HR)8C[CO NH]8CO. It is pre-
pared by condensing diethylmalonic ester with urea in the
presence of sodium ethylate, or by acting with ethyl iodide on
the silver salt of malonyl urea; it forms a white crystalline
powder, which is odourless, and has a slightly bitter taste. Its
introduction followed the investigations of Emil Fischer and J.
v. Merling on the pharmacological properties of certain open and
closed ureides. Led thereto by the impression that hypnotic
action appears to be largely dependent on the presence of ethyl
groups, they prepared diethylacetyl urea, diethylmalonyl urea,
and dipropylmalonyl urea. All three were found to be hypnotics:
the first was about equal in power to sulphonal, whilst the third
was four times as powerful, but its use was attended by prolonged
after-effects. Veronal was found to be midway. It is best given
in cachets (TO to 15 grains). As it does not affect the circulatory
or respiratory systems, or temperature, it can be employed in
many diseased conditions of the heart and lungs as well as in
mental disturbances, acute alcoholism, morphinomania and kidney
disease. If taken during a prolonged period it seems to lose its
effect. A soluble salt of veronal has been introduced under the
name of medinal. Although the toxicity of veronal is low, the
unreasonable consumption by persons suffering from insomnia
has led to many deaths. (See BARBITURIC ACID.)
VERONICA, ST. According to legend, Veronica was a pious
woman of Jerusalem, who gave Jesus her kerchief to wipe the
drops of agony from His brow. After using the napkin He handed
it back with the image of His face miraculously impressed upon
it. Other legends identify her with the woman who had an issue
of blood. Eusebius tells in his Historia Ecclesiastica (vii. 18)
how outside this woman's house, at Caesarea Philippi, there stood
two figures, one a supplicating woman, the other that of a man
representing Christ. It was said that the group had been set up
in recognition of the miraculous cure. In the West this woman
was identified with Martha of Bethany; in the East she was called
Berenike, or Beronike. Towards the 6th century the legend of
the woman with the issue of blood became merged in the legend
of Pilate, as is shown in the writings known in the middle ages as
Cur a sanitatis Tiberii and V indict a Salvatoris. According to the
former of these accounts Veronica caused a portrait of the Saviour
to be painted. The emperor Tiberius, when sick, commanded the .
woman to bring the portrait to him, worshipped Christ and was
cured. The legend continued to gather accretions, and a miracu*
lous origin came to be assigned to the image. According to the
legends in France, Veronica was married to Zaccheus, who bad
been converted by Christ, and went with him to Quiercy, where
he became a hermit. She then joined Martial in his apostolic
preaching. In the Bordeaux district Veronica is said to have
brought relics of the Virgin to Sonlac, where she died and was
buried. In the 1 2th century the image began to be identified with
one at Rome, and in the popular speech the image, too, was called
Veronica. It is interesting to note that the fanciful derivation of
the same Veronica from the words Vera icon (tlK&v) "true image"
— dates back to the Otia Imperialia (iii. 25) of Gervase of Til-
bury (fl. 121 1 ), who says: "Est ergo Veronica pictura Domini
vera."
See Acta Sanctorum, February, i. 449-457; L. F. C. Tischendorf,
Evangclia apocrypha (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877), p. 239; E. von Dob*
schiitz, ChristusbUder (Leipzig, 1899) ; H. Thurston, The Stations of
the Cross (London, 1906).
VERRALL, ARTHUR WOOLLGAR (1851-1912), Brit-
ish scholar, was born at Brighton on Feb. 5, 1851. Educated at
Wellington college and Trinity college, Cambridge, he graduated in
1873, becoming fellow and tutor of his college. He wrote im-
portant studies on Horace, Martial, Statius, and a specially valu-
able one on Propertius. He published editions of many classical
Choephoroe (1893). In 1895 appeared Euripides the Rationalist,
followed by Essays on Four Plays of Euripides (1905) and on
plays, especially the Medea (1881), Agamemnon (1899) and an
edition of the Bacchae (1910). He was an original critic, and a
frequent contributor to The Classical Review and other journals.
In Feb. 1911 he was appointed to fill the new King Edward VII.
professorship of literature at Cambridge. He died at Cambridge
on June 18, 1912.
VERRES, GAIUS (c. 120-43 B.C.), Roman magistrate,
notorious for his misgovernment of Sicily. It is not known to
what gens he belonged. He at first supported Marius, but soon
went over to Sulla who gave him land at Beneventum, and secured
him against punishment for embezzlement. In 80, Verres was
quaestor in Asia on the staff of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella, governor
of Cilicia. The governor and his subordinate plundered in concert,
till in 78 Dolabella had to stand his trial at Rome, and was con-
victed, mainly on the evidence of Verres, who thus secured a
pardon for himself. He was praetor in 74, and was then sent as
governor to Sicily, the richest of the Roman provinces. The people
were for the most part prosperous and contented, but under Verres
the island experienced more misery and desolation than during the
time of the first Punic or the recent servile wars. The corn-growers
and the revenue collectors were ruined by taxation and the can-
celling of contracts; temples and private houses were robbed of
their works of art; and the rights of Roman citisens were dis-
regarded. Verres returned to Rome hi 70, and in the same year,
at the request of the Sicilians, Cicero prosecuted him. Verne
VERRIO— VERSAILLES
91
was defended by the mopt eminent of Roman advocates, Q. Hor-
tensius. The court was composed exclusively of senators, some of
whom might have been his personal friends. But the presiding
judge, M'. Acilius Glabrio, was not corruptible. Verres tried to get
the trial postponed till 69 when his friend Metellus would be the
presiding judge, but in August Cicero opened the case. The effect
of the first brief speech was so overwhelming that Hortensius
refused to reply, and recommended his client to leave the country.
He went to Massilia and lived there till 43, when he was proscribed
by Antony, the reason alleged being his refusal to surrender some
of his art treasures which Antony coveted.
VERRIO, ANTONIO (1639-1707), Italian painter, was
born at Lecce, in the Neapolitan province of Terra cli Otranto.
In 1660 at Naples he executed a large fresco work "Christ Healing
the Sick," for the Jesuit College. He subsequently went to France
where at Toulouse he painted an altarpiece for the Carmelites. He
was invited to England by Charles II. and employed in the deco-
rating of Windsor Castle. Little of his work is now extant. He
was a rapid painter, fertile in invention, and best at covering large
surfaces in decorative frescoes. Charles II. named him "master
gardener," gave him a lodge in Hyde Park and paid him lavishly.
He was employed by James II. on Cardinal Wolsey's Tombhouse.
He painted James and several of his courtiers in the hospital at
Christ Church, London, and also executed a number of decorative
frescoes at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. He was later employed by
Lord Exeter at Burleigh and painted the large staircase at Hamp-
ton Court for King William. He was very successful but his work
was often severely criticized by his contemporaries for gaudy col-
ours, bad drawing and senseless composition. He died at Hampton
Court on June 17, 1707.
VERRIUS FLACCUS, MARCUS (c. 10 B.C.), Roman
grammarian and teacher, flourished under Augustus and Tiberius.
He was a freedman, and his manumitter has been identified with
Verrius Flaccus, an authority on pontifical law; but for chrono-
logical reasons the name of Veranius Flaccus, a writer on augury,
has been suggested (Teuffel-Sthwabe, Hist, of Roman Lit. 199, 4).
He was summoned to court to bring up Gaius and Lucius, the
grandsons of Augustus. He removed there with his whole school,
and his salary was greatly increased on the condition that he
took no fresh pupils. He died at an advanced age during the
reign of Tiberius (Suetonius, De Grammaticis, 17), and a statue
in his honour was erected at Praeneste, in a marble recess, with
inscriptions from his Fasti. Flaccus was also a distinguished
philologist and antiquarian investigator. For his most important
work (De Verborum Significant) see FESTUS, SEXTUS. Of the
calendar of Roman festivals (Fasti Praenestim) engraved on
marble and set up in the forum at Praeneste, some fragments
were discovered (1771) at some distance from the town itself in
a Christian building of later date, and some consular fasti in the
forum itself (1778). Two new fragments were subsequently added.
Other lost works of Flaccus were: De Orthographia: De Obscuris
Catonis, an elucidation of obscurities in the writings of the elder
Cato; Saturnus, dealing with questions of Roman ritual; Rerum
memoria dignarwn libri, an encyclopaedic work much used by Pliny
the elder ; Res Etruscae, probably on augury.
VERROCCHIO, ANDREA DEL (1435-1488), Italian
goldsmith, sculptor and painter, was born at Florence. He was
the son of Michele di Francesco de' Cioni, and took his name
from his master, the goldsmith Giuliano Verrocchi. As a teacher
he occupies an important position from the fact that Leonardo
da Vinci and Lorenzo di Credi worked for many years in his
bott6ga as pupils and assistants. Only one existing painting can
be attributed by Vasari to Verrocchio, the celebrated "Baptism
of Christ," originally painted for the monks of Vallombrosa, and
now in the Uffizi Florence. The figures of Christ and the Baptist
are executed with great vigour, but are rather hard and angular in
style. The two angels are of a much more graceful cast; the
face of one is of especial beauty, and Vasari asserts that this head
was painted by the young Leonardo. Other pictures from Ver-
rocchio's bottlga probably exist, as, for example, two in the Na-
tional Gallery of London formerly attributed to Ant. Pollaiuolo—
"Tobias and the Angel" (No. 781) and the very lovely "Madonna
and Angels" (No. 296), both very brilliant and jewel-like in
colour. This exquisite painting may possibly have been painted
from Verrocchio's design by Lorenzo di Credi while he was under
the immediate influence of his wonderful fellow-pupil, Da Vinci.
In examining Verrocchio's work as a sculptor we are on surer
ground. One of Verrocchio's earliest sculptures is the bronze
"David" in the Bargello, Florence (1469). In 1472 he completed
the fine tomb of Giovanni and Piero de' Medici, in the first
sacristy of San Lorenzo at Florence. This consists of a great
porphyry sarcophagus enriched with magnificent acanthus foliage
in bronze. Above it is a graceful open bronze grill, made like a
network of cordage. The charming bronze putto with dolphin
now in the court of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence was intended
for the villa Medici at Careggi. In 1474 Verrocchio began the
monument to Cardinal Forteguerra in the cathedral of Pistoia.
The kneeling figure of the cardinal was never completed, and now
lies in a room of La Sapienza, but the whole design is shown in
what is probably Verrocchio's original clay sketch now in the
South Kensington. The actual execution of this work as designed
by Verrocchio was entrusted to an assistant, the Florentine
Lorenzetto. Somewhere between 1475 and 1480 is the terra-
cotta relief of the Madonna and Child from S. Maria Nuova,
now in the Bargello, a genuine standard work. In 1480 Verroc-
chio completed one of the reliefs of the magnificent silver altar-
frontal of the Florentine baptistery, that representing the "Be-
heading of St. John." Verrocchio's other works in the precious
metals are now lost, but Vasari records that he made many elab-
orate pieces of plate and jewelry, such as morses for copes, as
well as a series of silver statues of the Apostles for the pope's
chapel in the Vatican. Between 1478 and 1480 he was occupied
in making the bronze group of the "Unbelief of St. Thomas,"
which still stands in one of the external niches of Or San Michele
(Florence). He received 800 florins for these two figures, which
are more remarkable for the excellence of their technique than
for their sculpturesque beauty. The attitudes are rather rigid and
the faces hard in expression. Verrocchio's most imposing work
was the colossal bronze equestrian statue of the Venetian general
Bartolommeo Colleoni, which stands in the piazza of SS. Giovanni
e Paolo at Venice. Verrocchio received the order for this statue in
1485 but had only completed the model when he died in 1488. In
spite of his request that the casting should be entrusted to his
pupil Lorenzo di Credi, the work was given to AJessandro Leopard]
who signed his name on the saddle girth. The statue was gilt and
unveiled in I4961. This is one of the noblest equestrian statues
in the world. The horse is designed with wonderful nobility and
spirit, and the pose of the great general is a marvel of sculptur-
esque ability. Most remarkable skill is shown by the way in which
Verrocchio has exaggerated the strongly marked features of the
general, so that nothing of its powerful effect is lost by the lofty
position of the head. According to Vasari, Verrocchio was one of
the first sculptors who made a practical use of casts from living
and dead subjects. He is said also to have produced plastic works
in terra-cotta, wood and in wax decorated with colour. As a
sculptor his chief pupil was Francesco di Simone. Another pupil
was Agnolo di Polo (Paolo), who worked chiefly in terra-cotta.
Verrocchio died in Venice in 1488, and was buried in the
church of St. Ambrogio in Florence.
See also Hans Mackowsky, "Verrocchio" (1901), Kunsttr Mono-
graphien, No. 52; M. Cruttwell, Verrocchio (1904); M. Reymond,
Verrocchio (1906).
VERSAILLES, a town of northern France, capital of the
department of Seine-et-Oise, 12 m. by road W.S.W. of Paris, with
which it is connected by rail and tram. Pop. (1926) 68,575. Ver-
sailles owes its existence to the palace built by Louis XIV. It
stands 460 ft. above the sea, and its fresh healthy air and nearness
to the capital attract many residents. The three avenues of St.
Cloud, Paris and Sceaux converge in the Place d'Armea. Between
them stand the former stables of the palace, now occupied by the
artillery and engineers. To the south lies the quarter of Satory,
the oldest part of Versailles, with the cathedral of St. Louis, and
to the north the new quarter, with the church of Not re-Dame.
The Palace*— To the west of the Place d'Armes a gilded iron
lSec Gaye, Cart. hied, i., p. 367.
VERSAILLES
gate and a stone balustrade mark off the great court of the palace.
In this court stand statues of Richelieu, Conde*, Du Guesclin and
other famous Frenchmen. At the highest point there is an eques-
trian statue in bronze of Louis XIV. To the right and left of
this stretch the long wings of the palace, while behind ex-
tend the Cour Royale and beyond it the smaller Cour de
Marbre, to the north, south and west of which rise the central
buildings. To the north the Chapel Court and to the south the
Princes Court, with vaulted passages leading to the gardens,
separate the side from the central buildings. The palace chapel
(1696-1710), the roof of which can be seen from afar rising above
the rest of the building, was the last important work of J. Har-
douin-Mansart.
The north wing contains galleries and halls of historical pic-
tures and sculptures, and other great apartments, the most famous
of which historically is the theatre built under Louis XV. where
was held the banquet to the Gardes du Corps, the toasts at
which provoked riots that drove Louis XVI. from Versailles.
Here the National Assembly met from the loth of March 1871
till the proclamation of the constitution in 1875, and the Senate
from the 8th of March 1876 till the return of the two chambers
to Paris in 1879. The central buildings include the former
dauphin's apartments and many others on the ground floor and
fine state-rooms on the first floor with the great "Galerie des
Glaces" (1678) overlooking the park. The hall of Hercules was
till 1710 the upper half of the old chapel famed for its associations
with Bossuet, Massillon and Bourdaloue. The queen's apart-
ments and the rooms of Louis XIV. are on this floor. The Oeil
de Boeuf, named from its oval window, was the anteroom where
the courtiers waited till the king rose. It leads to the bedroom in
which Louis XIV. died, after using it from 1701, and which Louis
XV. occupied from 1722 to 1738. In the south wing of the palace,
on the ground-floor, is the Gallery of the Republic and the First
Empire. In the south wing is also the room where the Chamber
of Deputies met from 1876 till 1879, and where the Congress has
since sat to revise the constitution voted at Versailles in 1875 and
to elect the president of the republic. The first floor is almost
entirely occupied by the Battle Gallery. In the window openings
are the names of soldiers killed while fighting for France, with
the names of the battles in which they fell, and there are more
than eighty busts of princes, admirals, constables, marshals and
celebrated warriors who met a similar death. Another room is
given up to exhibits connected with the events of 1830 and the
accession of Louis Philippe.
The Gardens. — The gardens of Versailles were planned by
Andre Le Notre. The ground falls away on every side from a
terrace adorned with ornamental basins, statues and bronze groups.
Westwards from the palace extends a broad avenue, planted with
large trees, and having along its centre the grass of the "Tapis
Vert"; it is continued by the Grand Canal, 200 ft. wide and i m.
long. On the south of the terrace two splendid staircases lead past
the Orangery to the Swiss Lake, beyond which is the wood of
Satory. On the north an avenue, with twenty- two groups of three
children, each group holding a marble basin from which a jet of
water rises, slopes gently down to the Basin of Neptune, remark-
able for its fine sculptures and abundant water. The Orangery
(built in 1685 by Mansart) is the finest piece of architecture at
Versailles; the central gallery is 508 ft. long and 42 wide, and
each of the side galleries is 375 ft. long. There are 1,200 orange
trees; one of which is said to date from 1421, and 300 other kinds
of trees.
The alleys of the parks are ornamented with statues, vases and
regularly cut yews, and bordered by hedges surrounding the
shrubberies. The Grand Canal under Louis XIV. was covered
with Venetian gondolas and other boats. Around the Tapis Vert
are numerous groves, the most remarkable being the Ballroom or
Rockery, with a waterfall; the Queen's Shrubbery, the scene of
the intrigue of the diamond necklace; that of the Colonnade, the
King's Shrubbery, the Grove of Apollo, and the basin of Enceladus.
Among the chief attractions of Versailles are the fountains and
waterworks made by Louis XIV. in imitation of those he had
seen at Fouquet's chateau of Vaux Owing to the scarcity of
water at Versailles, the works at Marlyrle-Roi were constructed
in order to bring water from the Seine; but part of the supply
thus obtained was diverted to the newly erected chateau of Marly.
Vast sums of money were spent and many lives lost in an attempt
to bring water from the Eure, but the work was stopped by the
war of 1688. At last the waters of the plateau between Versailles
and Rambouillet were collected and led by channels (total length
98 m.) to the gardens, the soil of which covers innumerable
pipes, vaults and aqueducts.
The Trianons. — Beyond the present park, but within that of
Louis XIV., are the two Trianons, The Grand Trianon was origi-
nally erected as a retreat for Louis XIV. in 1670, but in 1687
Mansart built a new palace on its site. Louis XV., after estab-
lishing a botanic garden, made Gabriel build in 1766 the small
pavilion of the Petit Trianon. It was a favourite residence of
Marie Antoinette, who had a garden laid out in the English style,
with rustic villas in which the ladies of the court led a mimic
peasant-life. The Grand Trianon contains a museum of state
carriages, old harness, etc.
The Town. — The church of Not re-Dame, built by Mansart, and
the cathedral of St. Louis, built by his grandson, arc uninteresting.
The celebrated tennis-court (Jeu de Paume) is now used as a
museum. The palace of the prefecture, built during the Second
Empire, was a residence of the president of the republic from 1871
to 1879. The military hospital formerly accommodated 2,000
people in the service of the palace. A school of horticulture was
founded in 1874, attached to an excellent garden, near the Swiss
Lake.
Versailles is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of
assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch
of the Bank of France, and, among its educational establishments,
lyce*es and training colleges for both sexes and a technical school.
It is an important garrison town and has a school of military
engineering and artillery. Distilling, boot and shoe making, and
market-gardening are carried on.
History. — Louis XIII. often hunted in the woods of Versailles,
and built a small pavilion at the corner of what is now the rue de
la Pompe and the avenue of St. Cloud. In 1627 he entrusted
Jacques Lemercier with the plan of a chateau. In 1661 Louis
Levau made some additions which were further developed by
him in 1668. In 1678 Mansart took over the work, the Galerie
des Glaces, the chapel and the two wings being due to him. In
1682 Louis XIV. took up his residence in the chateau. Till his
time the town was represented by a few houses to the south of the
present Place d'Armes; but land was given to the lords of the
court and new houses sprang up, chiefly in the north quarter.
Under Louis XV. the parish of St. Louis was formed to the south
for the increasing population, and new streets were built to the
north on the meadows of Clagny. Under Louis XVI. the town
extended to the east and received a municipality ; in 1802 it gave
its name to a bishopric. In 1783 the armistice preliminary to the
treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States was
signed at Versailles. The states-general met here on the 5th of
May 1789, and on the 2oth of June took the solemn oath in the
Tennis Court by which they bound themselves not to separate till
they had given France a constitution. Napoleon neglected, and
Louis XVIII. and Charles X. merely kept up, Versailles, but
Louis Philippe made great alterations, some of which are being
altered back to the original designs in a restoration recently under-
taken, partly with the help of a large gift from the United States
of America. In 1870 and 1871 the town was the headquarters of
the German army besieging Paris, and in the Galerie des Glaces
William I. of Prussia was crowned German emperor in 1871.
After the peace Versailles was the seat of the French National
Assembly while the commune was triumphant in Paris, and of the
two chambers till 1879, being declared the official capital of
France. After the World War the treaty between the Allied
Powers and Germany was signed in the Galerie des Glaces.
See A. P. Gille, Versailles ct les deux Trianons, with illustrations by
M. Lambert (Tours, 1899, 1900) ; P. de Nolhac, La Creation de Ver-
sailles (Versailles, 1901) ; J. E. Farmer, Versailles and the Court under
Louis XIV. (New York, 1905).
VERSAILLES, TREATY OF
93
VERSAILLES, TREATY OF* the treaty of peace that
marked the close of the World War, signed by the representatives
of the Allied Powers and of Germany on June 28, 1919, and
brought into force by exchange of ratifications on Jan. 10, 1920.
It was intended originally that it should be only one part of a gen-
eral and inclusive treaty, comprising settlement with Austrians,
Hungarians, Bulgars and Turks, as well as Germans. In such case
it would have been strictly comparable to the Treaty of Vienna in
1815, which was, in fact, an "omnibus treaty." But the delays in
dealing with these peoples, particularly Hungarians and Turks, not
only separated the German treaty from the others, but caused it
to be the first to be signed and the first to come into force, just as
it was the first in importance.
I. NEGOTIATIONS BEFORE THE ARMISTICE
It is important, therefore, at the outset to understand the im-
plications of the correspondence conducted between the German
Government and President Wilson during Oct. and Nov. 1918,
when the former was asking for peace. The governing document
of the series is the reply of President Wilson to the German Gov-
ernment of Nov. 5, which embodied the result of the decisions of
the principal Allied and Associated Governments as a whole (i.e.,
France, Great Britain, Italy and the United States).
In that document they offered to make peace on the basis of
President Wilson's speech on Jan. 8, 1918, which embodied the
"Fourteen Points" (q.v.; excluding only point 2 relating to the
freedom of the seas). In addition, they promised to make peace
by "the principles of. settlement embodied in his subsequent
addresses," i.e., speeches up to Nov. 5, 1918.
So we may say that the Allies offered to make peace on the
general basis of President Wilson's speeches in 1918, minus his
point about "freedom of the seas," and plus a definition of loss and
damage. The Germans sent no reply to this offer in writing, but
in fact accepted it by communicating with Marshal Foch and
asking for an armistice. The course of the negotiations is related
in the article PARIS, CONFERENCE OF, and all that can be done
here is to indicate the character of the treaty itself and its ap-
parent meaning as deduced from its clauses. It is at once the
largest and the most complicated of modern treaties, and the best
way to analyse it would seem to be to take its 1 5 parts separately.
II. ANALYSIS OF THE TREATY
Part I. The Covenant.— Part I. deals with the Covenant of
the League of Nations (see COVENANT). It may be here remarked
that the Covenant unites all its members in a league guaranteeing
their territorial independence and integrity. The entrance of Ger-
many into the League was deprecated at the time by some of the
Allies and only became a certainty after the signature of the agree-
ments of Locarno on Dec. i, 1925, and their ratification in 1926.
The most important powers granted to the League are the super-
vision of mandated territories (art. 22), whereby the future gov-
ernment of the German colonies, after having been assigned to
various mandatory Powers, is subject to supervision by the Per-
manent Mandates' Commission. This is appointed by the League,
and it inspects the annual reports of the mandatory Powers on the
territory committed to their charge.
Similarly, the racial and religious Minorities7 Treaties have been
placed under the guardianship of the League, but their supervision
here, though real, is not so effective as over territories under the
mandates. Ultimately the supervision of disarmament, as pro-
vided in the German treaty, is to fall into the hands of the League,
and this has finally been accomplished by the dissolution of the
inter-Allied naval and military commissions and their supersession
by the League at the end of 1925. The international control of
health and disease is provided for in article 25 and has been actu-
ally much extended since. Article 23 provides for international
co-operation in labour questions (see below, Part XIII.).
The most binding obligation of the League is found in articles
1 2-1 6, by which members bind themselves not to go to war in
disregard of its covenants until three months of arbitration or in-
quiry by the council have elapsed. It is provided under article 8
that the League shall formulate plans for reduction of national
armaments, and it took the lead in the disarmament conference
opened in 1926.
The actual machinery, through which the League functions,
consists at the outset of a council of nine, of whom five must be
France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and the United States. As the
latter declined to accede, five out of the original nine seats were
left to be filled by smaller states, whose representatives are elected
by the Assembly of the League. Germany has, since 1926, entered
the League and occupied a permanent seat on the Council. The
Assembly consists of representatives of all member states, and is
an annual international Parliament. Two institutions connected
with, but actually separated from the League are the Permanent
Court of International Justice (provided for under art. 14 and
actually functioning since 1921), and the International Labour
Office and annual conference (art. 23-4). The League also, as will
be described below, is the governor of two important pieces of ter-
ritory, the Saar basin and the free city of Danzig.
Parts II. and III. Territorial Dispositions.— (a) Western
Frontiers. — Germany lost territory in the south, north and east as
a result of the War, whilst other arrangements tended to weaken
her influence beyond her own borders. Belgium, for example,
ceased by article 31 to be a neutralised state, and has since entered
into a military alliance with France. She has also acquired by
cession from Germany the frontier districts of Moresnet, Eupen
and Malmedy (art. 32-4); Luxembourg similarly ceases to be a
neutralised state (art. 40-1), and has since entered into an eco-
nomic union with Belgium. By articles 42-4 the whole left bank
of the Rhine and the right bank to the west of a line drawn sokm.
to the east of the Rhine, has been demilitarised forever. Fortifica-
tions are to be dismantled there, and no permanent works for
manoeuvre or mobilisation arc to be permitted.
By articles 45-50 the Saar basin forms an area under the con-
trol of an international commission and of the League, and its
coal-mines are ceded to France. At the end of 15 years a plebi-
scite will be taken, whereby the inhabitants will vote as to their
preference (a) for the existing international regime, (b) for union
with France, (c) for union with Germany. Finally, and most im-
portant of all, by articles 51-79, Alsace and Lorraine are ceded
by Germany to France. The latter thus gains nearly 2,000,000
inhabitants, great strategic advantages and over three-fourths of
the German-produced iron with other valuable minerals.
(b) Northern Frontier. — Toward the north Germany consented
(art. 115) to demolish the fortifications of Heligoland and to de-
militarise it, but she retains its territorial sovereignty. She has
lost the northern part of Schleswig to Denmark. By articles
109-14 it was provided that there should be a plebiscite in two
zones. Of these, the northern voted for incorporation with Den-
mark and the southern, or Flensburg, zone elected for Germany.
Denmark thus received that plebiscite which Bismarck had prom-
ised her but which he never gave (Art. III., Treaty of Nikolsburg,
July 26, 1866).
(c) Eastern Frontier. — By articles 87-93 it was provided that
there should be a plebiscite in Upper Silesia. This has resulted
(1921) in a decision in which the southern half of the area —
including valuable mines — passed to Poland, the upper half return-
ing to Germany. Two other such plebiscites were provided for in
East Prussia in the Allenstein and Marienwerder districts respec-
tively, both of which went in favour of Germany. By the bound-
aries as drawn, a large part of the Posen and Bromberg area
goes to the New Polish Republic. In addition, a Polish corridor is
run to the sea between East Prussia and Brandenburg ending in
the free city of Danzig. The latter is administered by the League
but its foreign relations are controlled by Poland. Finally, the
city and hinterland of Memel, ceded to the Principal Allies in the
treaty, was handed over to Lithuania in 1924. About 3,500,000
former inhabitants of Germany are ceded to Poland or Lithuania
in the east, of which rather less than one-third are German. Alto-
gether, the total number of inhabitants ceded to the various
Powers under the German Treaty falls not far short of 6,000,000.
And this loss is probably a good deal less serious than the econom-
ic injury suffered by Germany in the loss of most of her iron and
other minerals.
VERSAILLES, TREATY OF
Part IV. German Rights and Interests Outside Germany.
— By articles 119-27, Germany ceded all her oversea colonies to
the Principal Allied Powers. She thus lost in Africa the Cameroons
(divided between France and the British empire as mandatories) ;
Togoland (to Great Britain as mandatory) ; Southwest Africa (to
the Union of South Africa as mandatory); East Africa (to Great
Britain and to Belgium as mandatories). These territories in-
cluded some 18,000 Germans and between 12,000,000 and 13,-
000,000 natives. In the Pacific she lost the Marshall Isles (ceded
to Japan as mandatory) ; Samoa (to New Zealand as manda-
tory); New Guinea (to Australia as mandatory); Nauru Island
(to the British empire as mandatory). She also renounced out-
right to Japan (art. 156-8) the peninsula of Shantung, a province
Japan returned to China in 1921. In addition to all these cessions
of territory, Germany lost all her state property, movable and
immovable, in her colonies. She was further obliged to cancel all
her valuable treaty rights, capitulations and concessions with coun-
tries like China, Liberia, Siam, Egypt and Morocco. An absolutely
clean sweep was made of her transmarine possessions, properties,
powers and rights. By article 438 even the property and stations
of German missionaries are to be handed over to trustees, and the
individual missionaries controlled or expelled from the mandated
territories, at the will of the mandatory. The course of time will
show how far the general disabilities inflicted on German oversea
undertakings will cripple the transmarine state enterprise of Ger-
many in future, and hamper her private traders and steamship
lines, as well as her missionaries.
Part V. Military, Naval and Air Clauses.—- The aim of
these clauses was similar in all cases, to destroy the existing Ger-
man fortifications and the materiel of war, and to maintain Ger-
many permanently in an absolutely weak and crippled condition,
so far as armaments went. The maximum of the German army in
future was to be 100,000 men, with stores of ammunition, guns,
etc., in strict proportion. Beyond this figure all existing munitions,
etc., were to be surrendered and destroyed and munition manu-
facture henceforth restricted. Germany consented to abolish con-
scription and to adopt a system of long-period voluntary enlist-
ment of at least 12 years for the men, and of 25 for the officers.
Military training outside the army was forbidden and the existence
of a large general staff prohibited.
The naval clauses were almost equally drastic, and the German
fleet was henceforth restricted to six battleships of the "Deutsch-
land" type, six light cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats (art.
181), in short, to a flotilla for coast defence, with the important
proviso that submarines were absolutely forbidden. No new ships
above 10,000 tons are to be built for replacement purposes. A
voluntary long-period recruitment for the navy, on the lines of
that of the army, was provided. A complete demolition of naval
works and fortifications within 5okm. of the coast was insisted on.
The air clauses (art. 198-202) were the most drastic of all, for
they absolutely prohibited naval or military air forces, and
arranged for the total destruction of all military or naval air
matMel. Inter- Allied commissions of control were provided for
all these arms of the service, and their work was finally concluded
in 1925. But the German armaments are still subject to super-
vision and inspection by the League.
Part VI. Prisoners of War and Graves. — This section is
common to all the treaties and provides for the return of prisoners
of war and for the upkeep and maintenance of graves. It calls
for no special remark.
Part VII. Penalties. — This is the most disputable of all parts
of the German treaty, as it is the only one that has remained
wholly a dead letter. It provides (art. 227) for the trial of
William II., "formerly German Emperor, for a supreme offence
against international morality and the sanctity of treaties." An
international tribunal of five, with one member nominated by each
of the Principal Allies, was to try this high-placed offender. The
statement of the procedure to be adopted, and of the punishment
to be inflicted, was judiciously vague. The project never came
to anything because the Netherlands Government, in whose terri-
tory the ex-Kaiser had taken refuge, refused to surrender him in
accordance with the Allied request.
Articles 228-30 provided for the punishment before military
tribunals of the allies of Germans "accused of having committed
acts in violation of the laws and customs of war." Eventually
a list of over 100 such criminals was drawn up, and their extra-
dition demanded from Germany. Finally, about a dozen of them
were tried in Germany itself by Germans and, though only a few
were convicted, the Allied Governments decided to drop the
matter, for extradition was impossible without fighting. In 1925
Field-Marshal Hindenburg, himself a "war criminal," was elected
President of the Republic without any formal Allied protest.
Part VIII. Reparation.— This is among the most celebrated
and important of the sections of the treaty, and it was affected
more than any other by outside and popular influences. The pay-
ments demanded were called "reparation" rather than indemnity.
Article 232 defined (in connection with an annex) the categories
of loss and damage under which. Germany was liable. Among
these was included pensions to civilians. This seems clearly con-
trary to the definition given in the memo, of Nov. 5, 1918, which
has been quoted above. It would appear from the doubtful manner
in which this question is handled in the covering letter and reply
of June 1 6 that the Allies themselves were uneasy upon this point.
The remainder of Part VIII. is concerned with the ways and
means of paying reparation, and a body, known as the Reparation
Commission, was set up with very extensive powers. It appears
that D. Lloyd George intended these powers to be used for the pur-
pose of greatly reducing the ultimate liabilities of Germany, but
the absence of the United States from the commission and the
French influence upon it, together with English popular opinion,
defeated this idea. The later course of reparation cannot detain
us here, but the original proposals were greatly modified in execu-
tion. Mr. Keynes estimated at the time that about £2,000,000,000
was all that could be got out of Germany, and it is pretty certain
that £3,000,000,000, or at most £4,000,000,000, represented the
utmost they could have paid. The institution of the Dawes
Scheme in 1924 put an end to the original reparation clauses.
The payments in kind provided for in article 236, and in various
annexes, were based on sounder ground. They included, among
other things, "the ton for ton, and class for class" replacement of
Allied merchant shipping by German vessels. Great Britain ob-
tained most under this head ; France most by deliveries of coal and
coal derivatives ; Belgium by livestock.
Part IX. The Financial Clauses. — This section is largely
technical, dealing with order of priority, with the meeting of spe-
cial debts from special assets, currency questions, etc. It is closely
connected with the "Reparation Chapter."
Part X. Economic Clauses.— The first section of this consists
of articles 264-75, which deals with commercial relations, shipping
and unfair competition, commercial treaties, etc. Much was at-
tempted at the conference in the way of promoting international-
isation of rivers and canals and transport. It was even proposed to
make raw materials free of tariffs throughout the world. But in
the end the only practical gain was that the Allied Powers secured
a "most favoured nation treatment" from Germany for five years,
and adjusted various commercial treaties for this purpose.
Sections III.-VIII. (articles 296-311) provide for the regula-
tion of enemy property, debts, contracts, etc. In the liquidation
of German property in foreign countries the principle was adopted
of giving the Allies power to confiscate the private property of
German individuals in an allied country, and of crediting the sums
obtained to the amount paid as reparation by the German National
Government. In other words, the private property of German
individuals held anywhere abroad was as liable to confiscation for
reparation purposes, as if it had been German state property con-
fiscated in a ceded colony. The German Observations to the Allies
seem to admit that German private property held abroad could
not be expected to escape altogether.
The Allies, in their Reply of June 16, pointed out that they had
had, as a result of the War, to take over foreign investments from
their nationals, thus infringing on their private rights. They
added: "the time has arrived when Germany must do what she
has forced her opponents to do." It is quite true that, though
private property was invariably respected in former wars, the ad-
VERSAILLES, TREATY OF
95
vance of socialistic ideas and the conditions of modern warfare
cause difficulty in applying strictly the doctrines of total immunity
of private property.
Part XI. Aerial Navigation.— This merely arranges for full
liberty of passage and facilities for Allied airships flying over
Germany up till Jan. i, 1923.
Part XII. Ports, Waterways and Railways.— This is an im-
portant section, though a highly technical one. The aim was to
secure international control over rivers which flowed through more
than one country. This was a very extraordinary development
from the doctrine laid down as to international rivers at Vienna
in 1815. It was, however, affected by the desire to provide access
to the sea for countries like Switzerland and Czechoslovakia.
These were land-locked, though they are the source of rivers which
end in the sea. International commissions were set up to control
the Rhine, Oder, Elbe, Niemeu and Danube. The result is that
Germany is in a minority in the control of three rivers regarded
as typically German, the Rhine, Oder and Elbe. The Kiel canal is
in effect internationalised to give freedom of access to all vessels
of whatever country in peace and in war but, subject to this condi-
tion, is under German administration. Access to the sea is secured
by providing free zones for Czechoslovakia in the harbours of
Hamburg and Stettin. As regards international transport by rail,
the clauses were mostly of a temporary nature; and were subse-
quently more defined by an international transport conference
held at Barcelona in 1921 under the auspices of the League.
Part XIII. Labour, — This section marks the beginning of an
attempt to build up an elaborate fabric of international Labour
machinery, to provide for periodic international discussion, and to
arrange for the representation both of employers and of working
men. Three Labour representatives took part in its construction,
Samuel Gompcrs of the United States, George N. Barnes of Great
Britain, and Albert Thomas of France, the last-named becoming
the permanent head of the International Labour Office. This is
established at Geneva side by side, but not identical, with the
League Secretariat. It is, in fact, the instrument set up to carry
out article 230, of the Covenant by which the members undertook
"to endeavour to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions
for men, women and children, both in their own countries and in
all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations
extend." Though an integral part of the League, its character and
organs are autonomous, which is not the case with the machinery
set up to deal with health and transit questions. In the allocation
of its finance the League has control, but not over the organs, of
international Labour. The Labour Office is controlled by the
governing body of 24 persons, of whom 12 represent Govern-
ments; six are elected by employers' delegates to the conference
and six by workers' delegates to the conference.
The general conference, or Lalx>ur parliament, which has to
meet once every year, consists of over 200 members, and is con-
stituted as follows: Every member of the League is entitled to
four representatives, of whom the state government nominates
two, while a third is elected by the employers and a fourth by the
workers of the state concerned. The conference has met annually,
but has met with grave difficulties in the application of universal
rules and standards. (See INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZA-
TION.)
Part XIV. Guarantees. — Provision was made in the military
clauses (sec above) for the demilitarisation of the left bank of
the Rhine. But a military occupation of Allied troops is also pro-
vided for. By article 428 the whole of this area, together with
bridgeheads across the Rhine, is to be occupied for 15 years from
the coming into force of the treaty (Jan. 10, 1920). But it is pro-
vided in article 429 that there shall be a successive Allied evacua-
tion of the three zones and bridgeheads into which the area is di-
vided. That of Cologne was to be evacuated in five years, that of
Coblenz in 10 and of Mainz in 15. Those evacuations are not, how-
ever, to take place unless Germany faithfully carries out the pro-
visions of the treaty as a whole. The Cologne evacuation was
delayed from Jan. to Dec. 1925 on this account.
But the meanings of articles 429 and 430 appears to be that
the Allies are only permitted to continue occupation if German
conduct proves unsatisfactory. There does not seem any justi-
fication under the treaty for the action taken by the Allies as a
whole, including Great Britain, in 1921, when areas in Germany
beyond the bridgeheads were occupied. Still less would there ap-
pear to be any justification for the occupation of the German dis-
trict of the Ruhr by the French and Belgians in Jan. 1923. This
was not approved of at the time by the British Government, and
was subsequently declared by them to be in their opinion illegal
in a note to the French Government (Aug. 1923). As a guarantee
for the settlement of the eastern frontier of Germany, as fixed at
the peace, article 433 abrogates the Brest-Litovsk treaties (q.v.)
between Germany and Soviet Russia and binds all German troops
to evacuate territory beyond their new frontier.
Part XV. Miscellaneous Provisions. — This consists of a num-
ber of miscellaneous and technical matters which were accidentally
omitted elsewhere. In so far as they are of any importance they
are mentioned in connection with their appropriate subject above.
HI. SUMMARY
The German treaty appears, when its various items are assem-
bled together, to have been crushing and severe to a high degree.
This result was partly due to the fact that the separate parts of
the treaty were worked out by the different committees, and its
cumulative effect not recognized when they were assembled to-
gether. It is due, however, more particularly to the fact that
popular pressure was very great both on President Wilson, Lloyd
George and Clemenceau not to make a lenient peace.
At the beginning of June Lloyd George again showed a tendency
to moderation, but now Wilson had made up his mind and all
efforts were useless. Clemenceau was considered by some French
organs not to have sufficiently supported the interests of France,
and he could hardly have been more moderate, even had he so
desired. The representatives of the British dominions were gen-
erally in favour of severity, with the conspicuous exceptions of
Generals Botha and Smuts, who strongly urged moderation. The
chief defects of the peace, the procedure against the Kaiser and
the War criminals and the inclusion of pensions to civilians in
reparation, must be considered concessions to popular feeling
rather than due to the deliberate judgment of the peace negoti-
ators. The first two have been abandoned and the last greatly
modified. The territorial concessions were carefully considered
and may, with some effort, be brought within the bounds of "the
Fourteen Points" and of the Wilsonian principles. As regards
permanent maintenance of the new frontiers, the British Govern-
ment has guaranteed these in the west by the Locarno Treaty,
but they are evidently not prepared to give any special guaran-
tees for the existing eastern frontiers of Germany, though France
has promised to support Poland and Czechoslovakia against
Germany, if need arise.
The "guarantees" section of the Peace treaty was carried out
by the evacuation of the Cologne area and by the tacit abandon-
ment of policies like the invasion and occupation of the Ruhr.
The Property section of the treaty has been, in great part, modi-
fied or abandoned. No great diplomatic instrument has ever been
so speedily modified, revised or altered, whether by tacit consent
or by deliberate design. Two parts of the treaty alone have ex-
panded and developed, the institutions set up by the international
Labour organization and by the League. (H. W. V. T.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— J. M. Keynes, Economic Consequences of the
Peace (1919) '. H. W. V. Temperley, ed. History of Peace Conference,
6 vol. (1920-24); A. Tardieu, The Truth about the Treaty (1920);
B. M. Baruch, The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections
of the Treaty, New York (1920) ; R. Lansing, The Peace Negotiations
(1921) ; Col. E. M. House and C. Seymour, What Really Happened
at Paris, New York (1921) ; R. S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson and World
Settlement (1923) ; E. J. Von Dillon, The Peace Conference (1919) ;
F. Schlegelberger, Die Ausfiihrungsgesetze zitm Friedensvertrag vom
31 August, loio (1919) ; H. Jsay, Die prhaten Rechte und Interessen
im Friedensvertrag (1921); F. Coppola, La Pace democratic* (Bo-
logna, 1921) ; C. Hauschild, Versailles (Vienna, 1924) ; C. A. Willc,
Der VersaiUer Vertrag und die Sanktionen (1925) ; A. Ebray, La Pa&
Turbia VersaUes (1926) ; C. F. Nowak, Versailles (Eng. trans., 1928) ;
H. Stegemann, The Mirage of Versailles (1928).
Texts. The Treaty of Peace, ed. with notes by H. W. V. Temperley,
with Introduction by Lord R. Cecil (1920).
VERSE
VERSE, the name given to an assemblage of words so placed
together as to produce a metrical effect. The art of making, and
the science of analysing, such verses is known as versification.
According to Max Muller, there is an analogy between verstis and
the Sanskrit term, vritta, which is the name given by the ancient
grammarians of India to the rule determining the value of the
quantity in Vedic poetry. A verse is a series of rhythmical
syllables, divided by pauses, and destined to occupy a single
line.
Greek Metre. — The chief principle in ancient verse was
quantity, i.e., the amount of time involved in expressing a syllable.
Accordingly, the two basal types which lie at the foundation of
classical metre are "longs" and "shorts." The convention was
that a long syllable was equal to two short ones: accordingly
there was a real truth in calling the succession of such "feet"
metre, for the length, or weight, of the syllables forming them
could be, and was, measured. In Greek verse, there might be an
ictus (stress), which fell upon the long syllabic, but it could only
be a regulating element, and accent was always a secondary ele-
ment in the construction of Greek metre. There are naturally
only two movements, the quick and the slow. Thus we have the
anapest (**-) and the dactyl (-**), which are equal, and
differ only as regards the position of their parts. After these follow
two feet which must be considered as in their essence non-
metrical as it is only in combination with others that they can be-
come metrical. These are the spondee ( — ) and the pyrrhic (^).
Of more essential character are the iambic (v_~) and the trochee
(- ^) . Besides these definite types, the ingenuity of formalists
has invented an almost infinite number of other "feet." It is,
perhaps, necessary to mention some of the principal of these,
although they are, in the majority of cases, purely arbitrary.
In the rapid measures we find the tribrach (~^), the molossus
( )? the amphibrach (^-^), the amphimacer (-^~), the
bacchius ( w~¥-) and the antibacchius (-~^). There is a foot of
four syllables, the choriamb (- ^ ^ -) and one of five, the
dochmiac (w^-w-).
Of the metres of the ancients, by far the most often employed,
and no doubt the oldest, was the dactylic hexameter, a com-
bination of six feet, five successive dactyls interchangeable except
in the fifth foot with spondees and a spondee or trochee: —
This was known to the ancients as "epic" verse, in contrast to
the various lyrical measures. The poetry of Homer is the typical
example of the use of the epic hexameter, and the character of the
Homeric saga led to the fashion by which the dactylic hexameter,
whatever its subject, was styled "heroic metre." The earliest
epics, doubtless, were chanted to the accompaniment of a stringed
instrument, marking the pulsation of the verse 'kirrj.
We pass, by a natural transition, to the pentameter, which
was used with the hexameter, to produce the effect which was
early called elegiac, and its form shows the appropriateness of
this custom: —
"Cynthia | prima fu- | it, || Cynthia 1 finis c- | rit."
A hexameter, full of energy and exaltation, followed by a descend-
ing and melancholy pentameter, had an immediate tendency to
take a complete form, and this is the origin of the stanza.
Such a distich was called an elegy, £Ae7etoj>, as specially suit-
able to an ^Xc-yos or lamentation. It is difficult to say with cer-
tainty whether the distich so composed was essential as an
accompaniment to flute-music in the earliest times, or how soon
there came to be written purely literary elegies towards which
the melody stood in a secondary or ornamental relation.
Iambic metre was, next to the dactylic hexameter, the form
of verse most frequently employed by the poets of Greek
antiquity. It was not far removed from prose; it gave a writer
opportunity for expressing popular thoughts in a manner which
simple men could appreciate, being close to their own' unsophisti-
cated speech. In particular, it presented itself as a heaven-made
instrument for the talent of Euripides.
It was not, however, until the invention of the lyric proper,
whether individual to the poet, or choral, that the full richness
of possible rhythms became obvious to the Greeks. The lyric
inspiration came originally from the island of Lesbos, and it
passed down through the Asiatic archipelago before it reached
the mainland of Greece. The Lesbians cultivated an ode-poetry,
the enchanting beauty of which can still be realized in measure
from what remains to us of the writings of Sappho and Alcaeus.
There is a stanza known as the Sapphic and another known as
the Alcaic.
The name of Stesichorus of I-Jimera points to the belief of
antiquity that he was the earliest poet who gave form to the
choral song; he must have been called the "choir-setter" because
he arranged and wrote for choirs semi-epic verse of a new kind,
"made up of halves of the epic hexameter, interspersed with
short variations — epitrites, anapaests or mere syncopae — just
enough to break the dactylic swkig, to make the verse lyrical"
(Gilbert Murray). But it appears to be to Arion that the artistic
form of the dithyramb is due. Pindar gathered the various in-
ventions together, and exercised his genius upon them all.
After the happy event of the Persian War, Athens became the
centre of literary activity in Greece, and here the great school
of drama developed itself, using for its vehicle, in dialogue,
monologue and chorus, nearly all the metres which earlier ages
and distant provinces had invented. The verse-form which the
dramatists preferred to use was almost exclusively the iambic tri-
meter, a form which adapted itself equally well to tragedy and
to comedy. Aeschylus employed for his choruses a great number
of lyric measures, which Sophocles and Euripides reduced and
regulated. With the age of the dramatists the creative power of
the Greeks in versification came to an end, and the revival of
poetic enthusiasm in the Alexandrian age brought with it no
talent for fresh metrical inventions.
Latin Metre. — Very little is known about the verse-forms
of the original inhabitants of Italy, before the introduction of
Greek influences. The earliest use of poetry as a national art in
Italy is to be judged by inscriptions in what is called the
'Saturnian metre. The introduction of Greek dramatic metre
marks the start of regular poetry among the Latins, which was
due, not to men of Roman birth, but to poets of Greek extraction
or inhabiting the Greek-speaking provinces of Italy. These writers,
bearing the stamp of a widely recognized cultivation, threw the
old national verse back into oblivion. Latin verse, then, began
in a free but loyal modification of the principles of Greek verse.
Plautus was particularly ambitious and skilful in this work, and,
aided by a native genius for metre, 'he laid down the basis of
Latin dramatic versification. Terence was a feebler and at the
same time a more timid metrist. In satire, the iambic and trochaic
measures were carefully adapted by Ennius and Lucilius. The
dactylic hexameter followed, and Ennius, in all matters of verse
a daring innovator, directly imitated in his Annales the epic
measure of the Greeks. To him also is attributed the introduction
of the elegiac distich. The dactylic hexameter was forthwith
adopted as the leading metre of the Roman poets, and the basis
upon which all future versification was to be erected was firmly
laid down before the death of Ennius in 169 B.C. Lucilius fol-
lowed, but perhaps with some tendency to retrogression, for the
Latin critics seem to have looked upon his metre as wanting both
in melody and elasticity. Lucretius, on the other hand, made a
further advance on the labours of Ennius, in his study of the
hexameter. Lest, however, this great form of verse should take
too exclusive a place in the imagination of the Romans, a younger
generation began to imitate the lyrical measures of the Greeks
with remarkable success. These poets left the rigid school of
Ennius, and sought to emulate the Alexandrians of their own age :
we see the result in the lyric measures used so gracefully and with
such brilliant ease by Catullus. The versification of the Romans
reached its highest point of polish in the Augustan age, in the
writings of Tibullus, Propertius, Virgil and Ovid. Horace in his
odes and epodes was not content with the soft Alexandrian
models, but aimed at achieving more vigorous effects by an
imitation of the older Greek models.
Modern Versification. — The main distinction between
VERSE
97
classical and modern versification consists in the substitution of
stress for quantity on the basis of metre, corresponding to a
change of enunciation which set in in the late classical period.
A syllable, in modern verse, is heavy or light, according as it is
stressed or unstressed.
The prosodies of Provence, France, Italy and Spain were de-
rived from popular accentual Latin verse by a slow and intangible
transition. Versification, deprived of all the regulated principles
of rhythmical art, received in return the ornament of rhyme,
without which the weak rhythm itself would practically have dis-
appeared. A new species of rhythm, depending on the varieties of
mood, was introduced, and stanzaic forms of great elaboration and
beauty were invented. The normal line is of ten or eight syllables :
the alexandrine of 12 appears later. In Provencal and early
French the position of the caesura in each line was fixed by strict
rules; in Italian these were relaxed. Dante, in the De Vulgari
Eloquently gives very minute, although somewhat obscure, ac-
counts of the essence and invention of stanzaic form (cobla in
Provencal), in which the Romance poetries excelled from the
first. The stanza was a group of lines formed on a regular and
recurrent arrangement of rhymes. It was natural that the poets of
Provence should carry to an extreme the invention of stanzaic
forms, for their language was extravagantly rich in rhymes. They
invented complicated poetic structures of stanza within stanza,
and the eanzo as written by the great troubadours is a marvel of
ingenuity such as could scarcely be repeated in any other language.
In French poetry, successive masters corrected the national
versification and drew closer round it the network of rules and
principles. Immutable rules were laid down by Malherbe, and by
Boileau in his Art Poetique (1674), and for more than a century
they were implicitly followed by all writers of verse. It was the
genius of Victor Hugo which first enfranchised the prosody of
France, not by rebelling against the rules, but by widening their
scope in all directions, and by asserting that, in spite of its
limitations, French verse was a living thing.
In very early times the inhabitants of the Germanic countries
developed a prosodical system which owed nothing whatever to
classical sources. The finest examples of this Teutonic verse are
found in Icelandic and in Anglo-Saxon. The line consisted of two
sections, each containing two strongly stressed syllables, and of
these four syllables three (or at least two) were alliterated. In all
ancient Teutonic verse three severe and consistent rules can be ob-
served, viz., that the section, the strong accentuation, and above
all the alliteration must be preserved. We find this to be the case
in High and Low German, Icelandic, Anglo-Saxon, and in the re-
vived alliterative English poetry of the i4th century, such as
"Piers Plowman."
English Metre* — The first writer in whom there has been dis-
covered a distinct rebellion against the methods of Anglo-Saxon
versification is St. Godric, who died in 1170. Only three brief
fragments of his poetry have been preserved, but there is no doubt
that they show, for the first time, a regular composition in feet.
A quotation will show the value of St. Godric *s invention: —
"Sainte | Nicholacs, | Codes | druth,
Tymbre us | faire | sconC | hus,
At thy | burth, | at thy | bare,
SaintS | Nicholacs, | bring uswel thare."
From this difficult stanza down to the metres of modern English
the transition seems gradual and direct, while the tradition of
Anglo-Saxon alliterative prosody is abruptly broken. There is still
more definition of feet in the Poenta Morale (c. 1200). The
Ormulum, which belongs to the early part of the i$th century,
is monotonously regular. A further advance was made about 50
years later in Genesis and Exodus, of which Saintsbury has said
that "it contains more of the kernel of English prosody, properly
so called, than any [other] single poem before Spenser." The
phenomenon which we meet with in all these earliest attempts at
purely English verse is the unconscious determination of writers,
who had no views about prosody, to work the varying stresses of
English with the kind of regularity which they heard in French
and Latin.
Between 1210 and 1340 not one English poem of importance
is known to have been written in the old alliterative measure of the
Anglo-Saxons. But at the latter date there set in a singular reac-
tion in favour of alliteration, a movement which culminated, after
producing some beautiful romances, in the satires of Langland.
Those writers, and they were many, who preserved foot-scansion
and rhyme, during this alliterative reaction, became ever closer
students of contemporary French verse, and in the favourite octo-
syllabic metre "the uncompromising adoption of the French, or
syllabically uniform, system is the first thing noticeable" (Saints-
bury). This tendency of Middle English metre culminates in the
work of John Gower, which is singularly polished in its rhyming
octosyllabics, although unquestionably nerveless still, and inelastic.
It is, however, to Chaucer that we turn for far greater con-
tributions to English verse. He it was who first, with full conscious-
ness of power as an artist, adopted the use of elaborate stanzas,
always in following of the French; he it was who first gained free-
dom of sound by a variation of pause, and by an alternation of
trochaic and iambic movement. It is the lack of these arts which
keeps Gower and his predecessors so stiff. In particular Chaucer,
in his first period, invented rime-royal, a stanzaic form (in seven
decasyllabic lines, rhymed a b a b b c c), peculiarly English in
character, which was dominant in our literature for more than
200 years; it was used in the long romance of Troilus and
Creseide, where English metre for the first time displays its beauty
to the full. It seems to have been originally called riding-rhyme,
the name by which Gascoigne describes it (1575).
Throughout the isth and early i6th centuries there began to
arise the popular ballads. The introduction of the loose, elastic
ballad-quatrain, with its melodious tendency to refrain, was a mat-
ter of great importance in the metamorphosis of British verse. The
degenerate forms employed by the English 15th-century poets in
attempting more regular prosody were in some measure corrected
by the greater exactitude of the Scotch writers, particularly of
D unbar, who was by far the most accomplished mctrist between
Chaucer and Spenser. But Wyatt (1503-42) was the great
pioneer. He introduced, from France and Italy, the prosodical
principles of the Renaissance— order and coherency, concentration
and definition of sound — and that although his own powers in
metre were far from being highly developed. He and his more
gifted disciple Surrey introduced into English verse the sonnet
(not of the pure Italian type, but as a quatorzain with a final
couplet) as well as other short lyric forms. To Surrey, moreover,
we owe the introduction from Italian of blank verse.
With the heroic couplet, with blank verse, and with a variety
of short lyric stanzaic measures, the equipment of British verse
might now be said to be complete. For the moment, however,
towards the middle of the i6th century, all these excellent metres
seemed to be abandoned in favour of an awkward couplet of 14
feet. It was to break up this nerveless measure that the remark-
able reforms of the close of the century were made, and the dis-
coveries of Wyatt and Surrey were brought, long after their deaths,
into general practice. In drama, the doggerel of an earlier age re-
tired before a blank verse, which was at first entirely pedestrian
and mechanical, but struck out variety and music in the hands of
Marlowe and Shakespeare. But the central magician was Spenser,
in whom there arose a master of pure verse whose range and skill
were greater than those of any previous writer of English, and
before whom Chaucer himself must withdraw. His great work was
that of solidification and emancipation, but he also created a noble
form which bears his name, that Spenserian stanza of nine lines
closing with an alexandrine, which lends itself in the hands of
great poets, and great poets only, to magnificent narrative effects.
It was at this moment that a final attempt was made to dises-
tablish the whole scheme of English metre, and to substitute
for it unrhymed classic measures. In the year 1579 this heresy
was powerful at Cambridge, and a vigorous attempt was made
to include Spenser himself among its votaries. It failed, and with
this failure it may be said that all the essential questions connected
with English poetry were settled. (E. G.; X.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the nature of verse see E. A. Sonnenschein,
What is Rhythm? (1925). For classical verse; W. Christ, Metrik der
98
VERTEBRATA— VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY
Griechen und Romer (2nd ed. 1879) ; W. R. Hardic, Res Mctrica
(1920); U. von Wilamowitz-Moellcndorff, Griechische Verskunst
(1921) ; W. M. Lindsay, Early Latin Verse (1922). For old Teutonic
verse: E. Sievers, Altgermanische Metrik (1905) ; for the transition to
modern prosody: H. G. Atkins, History of German Versification
(1923). For English verse: J. Schipper, Engtische Metrik (1881) ; J. B.
Mayor, Chapters on English Metre (2nd ed. 1901) ; T. S. Omond, A
Study of Metre (iqo.O ; G. Saintsbury, History of English Prosody (3
vols., 1906-09). For French: Theodor de Banville, Petit Traite de
prosodie fran^aise (2nd ed. 1872) ; L. E. Kastner, History of French
Versification (1003) ; H. P. Thieme, Essai sur I'histoire du Vers Fran-
cais (1916) ; A. Dorchain, L'art des Vers (new ed. 1917). For Italian:
T. Casini, Le forme metriche italiane (1900); F. d'Ovidio, Versifica-
zione Italiana (IQIO). For Spanish: E. Benot, Prosodia Castellana y
Versificacion (3 vols., 1902).
VERTEBRATA, one of the main subdivisions or phyla of
the animal kingdom, including such familiar animal types as
mammals (including man), birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, along
with such less familiar types as lampreys and hagfish (Cyclosto*
mata, q.v.). The name is not precisely equivalent to Chordata:
the latter name is used to include in addition to typical verte-
brates, the Tunicata (q.v.), which are universally accepted as
degenerate relations of the vertebrates, and also certain other
types such as Balanoglossus (q.v.) and Pterobranchia (q.v.)
whose genetic affinity with the Vertebrata is more doubtful.
The phylum is marked off from all others by a plan of bodily
structure peculiar to itself, including (i) an axial supporting
skeleton traversing the body longitudinally in the mesial plane,
(2) a muscular system consisting primarily of longitudinal muscle-
fibres situated to right and left of the axial skeleton, and (3) the
concentration of the central nervous system and the main blood-
vessels in longitudinal trunks in the region of the mesial plane,
the nervous system dorsal to, and the great vessels, as well as the
other main organs of the body, ventral to the axial skeleton.
The axial skeleton in its primitive condition, as seen in one of
the lower types or as a temporary phase in the embryos of the
higher, consists of a stiff rod, the notochord, cellular in nature,
its stiffness due to the distension of its constituent cells by fluid
secreted in their interior. In the more typical vertebrates this
continuous notochord gives place to a jointed chain of rigid
vertebrae, giving increased flexibility combined with more effi-
cient support.
The muscular system shows the peculiarity that the longitud-
inal fibres composing it are limited in length to that of a single
mesoderm segment, so that the system consists of a series of
paired blocks or myotomes, each composed of a mass of longi-
tudinal fibres. The physiological significance of this arrangement
is that contraction of the myotomes in turn from the head end
backwards produces waves of lateral flexure which, driven back
along the body and acting against the resistance of the external
medium, bring about forward movement of the body as a whole.
The construction of the body for such eel-like movement is per-
haps the most fundamental feature of vertebrates and it is in
accordance with it that the important longitudinal conducting
organs of the body, such as central nervous system and main
blood vessels, whose functions would be seriously interfered with
by compression, are situated mesially.
The adaptation of the vertebrate to forward movement in a
definite direction carries with it correlated modifications in struc-
ture of the terminal portions of the body. In front, special paired
sense-organs are developed for the reception of impressions fro*n
the outer world — chemical (olfactory organs), or optical (eyes;
peculiar in that they are myclonic, i,e.t developed out of the Bide
of the tubular nerve cord) or mechanical (otocyst). There fol-
lows in the neighbourhood of these sense-organs a concentration
of the special nerve-centres, accommodated by expansion of the
central nervous system to form the brain. The mouth too is
situated near the anterior end, and the alimentary canal (pharynx)
immediately behind the buccal cavity shows characteristic per-
foration of its side-walls by a series of visceral clefts whose
vascular walls form respiratory organs (gills). In compensation
for the resulting weakening of the pharyngeal wall, the mass of
tissue between adjacent clefts ("visceral arch") develops in its
interior a skeletal hoop of cartilage or bone. These skeletal
arches become modified in detail in various ways and, in the case
of the anterior one, these modifications form the jaws that sup-
port the margins of the mouth-opening. The mouth-opening of
the primitive vertebrate appears to have been situated on the
ventral side of the head under a forwardly projecting, over-
hanging lobe, a position which it still retains in the shark-like
fishes to-day. The anal opening similarly was possibly situated
close to the hinder end of the body, but there is a characteristic
tendency for it to become displaced forwards along the ventral
side of the body, reaching its maximum in some of the teleostean
fishes, where the anus is jugular.
The Vertebrata in general possess two pairs of appendages or
limbs — pectoral and pelvic — both liable to great modifications in
adaptation to particular habits. The earliest known vertebrates
(early ostracoderms) possessed no true limbs, and this limbless-
ness is shared by the cyclostomes. These facts have led many
authorities to believe that the vertebrates were originally without
limbs. But it must be remembered that with the development of
a specially elongated form of body, the limbs tend to disappear
(many reptiles such as serpents and certain lizards: and the Apoda
amongst Amphibia) and this disappearance may be so complete
as to leave no vestige even in the embryo.
The advancement of knowledge entails greater caution in
accepting dogmatic conclusions as to the evolutionary history of
the Vertebrata than was customary a few years ago. It is clear
that the normal jawed vertebrates (Gnathostomata) of to-day
fall naturally into two distinct sets: (i) Fish, constructed for
swimming and (2) Tetrapods adapted for movement upon a solid
substratum.
The former fall into a number of subsidiary groups: Elasmo-
branchii with Holocephali; Crossopterygii ; Actinopterygii, in-
cluding a few more archaic types (sturgeons, gar-pike, bowfins)
together with the vast assemblage of modern bony fishes or
Teleostei; and the Dipnoi or lungfish. Each of these groups
represents a terminal twig of the evolutionary tree.
Existing tetrapods also fall into well-marked groups — amphib-
ians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Here again evolutionary con-
clusions must be limited to broad general principles. On the
whole the amphibians are the most archaic while the birds are
the most highly evolved. The mammals hold their dominating
position not in virtue of high organization in general but rather
in virtue of their special development of brain.
In earlier days it was also customary to debate the claims
of various groups of invertebrates to represent the ancestral type
from which the vertebrates originated. Here again the advance
of knowledge has indicated the need for greater caution.
In the opinion of the writer of this article our present-day
knowledge of the facts of vertebrate morphology forbids our
going farther than to suggest that amongst the post-coelenterate
phases of vertebrate evolution was a stage having "features in
common" with annelids. It should be mentioned however that
at the present time many zoologists are inclined to regard the
echinoderms, and still more Balanoglossus and its allies, as being
related to the ancestral stock of the vertebrates. (See FISHES,
SELACHIANS, AMPHIBIA, REPTILES, BIRD, ORNITHOLOGY, MAM-
MALIA, etc.) (J. G. K.)
VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY. The science of embry-
ology (q.v.) had its first beginnings in the study of the Verte-
brata (q.v.), the group that includes those forms of life whose
eggs and breeding habits naturally first attracted attention, and
even to-day the mass of known embryological detail relating to
vertebrates far exceeds that relating to any other phylum. Fur-
ther there is no phylum of the animal kingdom which shows in so
varying degrees the modifying influence of such factors as amount
of yolk in the egg, external environmental conditions, etc.
The Zygote. — The vertebrate, like most animals, begins its
existence as a single cell, the zygote or fertilized egg, formed by
the fusion of two gametes, derived one from each parent. The
zygote possesses in itself all the specific peculiarities of the com-
plete individual of its species. To human observation, however,
the zygotes of different animals do not exhibit any of the peculiari-
ties differentiating the adults. Such peculiarities as they do pre-
GASTRULATION]
VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY
99
sent are in such comparatively trivial characters as size, shape,
colour. Otherwise each zygote is to all appearance simply a
typical cell with cytoplasm and nucleus. The superficial differ-
ences have to do mainly with adaptive features enabling the
young individual to remain for a more or less prolonged period
within the shelter of an egg-shell. This is rendered possible in
the first instance by the zygote possessing in its cytoplasm a store
of yolk — highly concentrated food-material — which provides it
with subsistence. The greater the amount of this yolk-capital
stored away in the zygote, the greater its size: there is a rough
proportion between size of egg and quantity of yolk. Thus in
Amphioxus the zygote has a very minute trace of yolk in its
cytoplasm and its diameter is about o-i mm.: in the extinct bird
Aepyornis of Madagascar, judging from the size of the shell, the
zygote may have been as much as 160 mm. in diameter.
In the Mammalia of the most ancient type (Monotremata,
g.v.), which still lay their eggs, these are large and richly yolked
(Echidna 3-5 mm., Ornithorhynchus 2-5 mm.), and the young
pass through the early development within the egg-shell.
In the ordinary modern mammal, on the other hand, the egg
is not laid in the ordinary sense. The zygote is retained within
the uterus and there proceeds with its development, absorbing
such nourishment as it requires from the mother. The store of
yolk, no longer necessary, has disappeared and the zygote has
reverted to the small size of from o-i mm. to 0-3 mm. in diameter.
Peculiarities of colour are often due to the yolk, e.g., orange-
yellow in the case of birds, salmon-pink in Lepidosiren, green in
Amid. Yolk is not however the only cause of coloration of the
vertebrate zygote. Particularly among the Amphibia, where the
egg develops under conditions of exposure to the harmful influ-
ence of daylight, the superficial layer of protoplasm shows the
peculiar "upset" of its metabolism which results in dark brown
or black melanin pigment, thus producing a protective, light-
proof shelter over the deeper protoplasm. This is well seen in
the black eggs of the ordinary frogs and toads.
It will be borne in mind that the technical term zygote ex-
presses the unicellular stage arising from the fusion of the two
gametes. As the male gamete or spermatozoon is of quite insig-
nificant bulk as compared with the macrogamete (unfertilized egg),
the obvious features described for the zygote — such as size and
colour — have been taken over by it from the macrogamete. The
provision of a supply of capital in the form of yolk upon which
the individual can subsist during its early stages is correlated
with the fact that during these early stages it lives within the
shelter of more or less elaborate protective envelopes. Such are
seen in simple form in an ordinary frog, where the egg during its
passage down the oviduct is coated with a thin layer of secretion
possessing the quality of swelling enormously in bulk when placed
in contact with water, the result being the familiar frog-spawn,
where each egg lies in the centre of a sphere of clear jelly com-
posed of the greatly swollen layer of oviducal secretion.
The zygote is moored in the centre of the albumen by the
axial strand of albumen of a denser, tougher consistency — the
"chalaza." If the egg-shell is rolled over, the chalaza, while keep-
ing the zygote at its proper distance from the poles of the shell,
allows it to rotate about the long axis of the shell, itself twisting
in the process. Consequently the apical pole of the zygote, with its
germinal disc less heavily weighted by yolk, always keeps upper-
most next the warm body of the incubating hen even when the
shell is turned over.
Segmentation. — The first visible phase in development is the
segmentation or cleavage, by which the unicellular zygote resolves
itself into the mass of cells constituting the embryo. As in other
cases (see EMBRYOLOGY), the character of the segmentation is
greatly influenced by the relative amount of the yolk and still
more by its distribution within the zygote. Thus in the ordinary
mammal, where there is practically no yolk, the zygote simply
divides into two equal blast omeres, each of these again into two
equal daughter-c^ells and so on.
Gastrulation.— In the Vertebrata, as in so many other cases,
the process of segmentation, resulting in a blastula or hollow
sphere of cells, is succeeded by gastrulation, resulting in the forma-
tion of a more or less cup-shaped gastrula, composed of two layers
of cells — ectoderm and endoderm — surrounding a cavity, the
archenteron, with a wide opening to the exterior the primitive
mouth or protostoma.
Gastrulation is seen amongst vertebrates in its most primitive
form in Amphioxus whejre the abapical hemisphere of the blastula,
marked by its larger cells, becomes first flattened and then in-
voluted (invaginated) into the interior of the apical hemisphere.
The widely open protostoma becomes gradually narrowed through
one lip of the gastrula, shown by later development to be the
anterior lip, growing actively backwards so as gradually to cover
in the cavity or archenteron, except at its hind-end where the
persisting part of the protostoma remains as a small pore — the
blastopore. The study of subsequent stages shows that the por-
tion of the embryo formed by this process of backgrowth, i.e.,
the roof of the archenteron, becomes the dorsal side of the em-
bryo. It should be noted that there are two distinct processes
at work: (i) the process of involution or invagination in which
one wall of the blastula becomes inverted into the other, and (2)
the process of overgrowth by which the archenteron becomes
roofed in.
The modifications in gastrulation accompanying increase in the
amount of yolk are well seen in amphibians or dipnoans, where
trie relative amount of yolk is intermediate between that of Amphi-
oxus and that in meroblastic eggs. Here again segmentation re-
sults in the formation of a blastula but, owing to the far greater
amount of yolk stored in the abapical cells, the abapical wall of
the blastula is so thick that by no possibility could it be invo-
luted into the interior, as it was in Amphioxus. The result is that,
to arrive at the stage corresponding to the end of gastrulation in
Amphioxus, a somewhat different route is followed. Involution
begins but makes little headway: overgrowth however takes place
actively, the anterior lip of the gastrula growing backwards and
roofing in the archenteron just as in Amphioxus. A new process
however now makes its appearance, for the layer of small-celled
ectoderm spreads gradually over the surface of the egg by a
process of delamination or splitting off from the large underlying
cells. In this way the whole of the large-celled yolky cells come
to be completely covered in and the stage corresponding to that
of Amphioxus with the small blastopore is reached.
In the Amniota below mammals the egg is of similar large di-
mensions. In the reptiles, it is still possible to recognize distinctly
the processes of involution and overgrowth, but they arc clearly
diminishing in importance and the archenteron to which they give
rise is of little moment in the later development. In various rep-
tiles the blastopore has been seen to take on eventually the form
of a longitudinal slit, the side lips of which eventually undergo
fusion over the greater part of its extent, and the line of fusion
remaining marked by a kind of seam or scar along which the outer
layer of cells or ectoderm is continuous with the underlying cells.
This line along which such continuity exists is termed the prim-
itive streak. In the birds, all obvious involution and overgrowth
have disappeared, but there still appears as a conspicuous struc-
ture during early stages the primitive streak which reptilian
embryology shows to be a last vestige of a blastopore.
In the ordinary Mammalia the early stages of development are,
as has already been indicated, greatly modified. The modification
is associated with two main causative factors: (i) the loss of the
yolk, which is present in the more archaic vertebrates and (2) the
development of the egg in a strictly confined space, owing to the
presence of the shell-like tightly-fitting zona pellucida, followed, in
some mammals, by being imbedded in the substance of the uterine
wall. In the relatively primitive Indian tree-shrew Tupaia, this
confinement of the blastula leads the apical part of its wall,
where growth is most active, to dip down for a time into the
cavity, and it would appear that this temporary involution of the
apical pole in Tupaia gives the clue to one of the most puzzling
peculiarities in the early development of the typical Mammalia.
In such mammals segmentation results in a solid sphere of cells,
into the interior of which fluid is secreted by the activity of the
outer layer to produce a thin-walled blastocyst, distended with
fluid and carrying at its apical pole, projecting into the cavity, an
IOO
VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY
[NERVOUS SYSTEM
'Inner mass" of cells, which later on flattens out and constitutes
the most important formative portion of the blastocyst wall. The
appearances in Tupaia clearly suggest that the inner mass of the
ordinary mammal simply represents the actively growing apical
portion of the blastocyst wall which had to find space for itself
by bulging into the interior of the blastocyst, owing to the blasto-
cyst being unable to expand as a whole.
Mesoderm. — Gastrulation leads to the establishment of the two
primary cell-layers, ectoderm and endoderm, but in the verte-
brate as in other coelomate animals, these constitute but a small
fraction of the total mass of the body : by far the greater part is
raesodermal in nature. In Amphioxus the mesoderm is repre-
sented for a time by a series of coelenteric pouches of endoderm
down each side of the body. Each of these becomes isolated, so
that they form a series of closed compartments on each side. These
are the .primitive mesoderm segments, and their cavities are the
coelomic compartments. At this stage the mesoderm of Am-
phioxus is comparable in certain ways with that of an annelid
worm, but in its further development a striking and highly char-
acteristic difference makes its appearance. In an annelid the
coelomic compartments becoming distended with coelomic fluid
form the wide body-cavity: their outer and inner walls provide
the muscular layer of body-wall and enteric wall respectively:
their headward and tailward walls applied to those of their neigh-
bours form the coelomic septa : the portions of their mesial walls,
where not separated by interposed alimentary canal, form the
dorsal and ventral mesenteries.
The difference seen in Amphioxus and in other vertebrates is
that each mesoderm segment becomes divided into a dorsal and
a ventral portion, which differ markedly in their further devel-
opment. The dorsal, separated from the corresponding structures
of the other side of the body by the interposed spinal cord and
notochord, becomes a muscle segment or myotome: its portion
of coelome, the myocoele, becomes obliterated by the apposition
of inner and outer walls. The ventral portion of the mesoderm
segment occupies the space between the endoderm and the body-
wall: its portion of coelome forms the splanchnocoele or body-
cavity. This ventral portion of the mesoderm — the so-called
lateral mesoderm of typical vertebrates — develops two striking
differences from the dorsal portion: it loses entirely its original
segmentation, the splanchnocoele becoming continuous from end
to end, and its outer wall no longer produces muscle. Thus while
in the annelid the whole extent of the lateral wall of the body is
provided directly with a lining of muscle, in Amphioxus this ap-
plies only to the dorsal portion. With further development how-
ever the myotome extends in a ventral direction, insinuating itself
between the splanchnocoele and the ectoderm, and in this way the
ventral portion of the body- wall in Amphioxus, and other verte-
brates, becomes secondarily muscularized.
In the Amniota where, in correlation with the thinness of the
blastoderm, the mesoderm segment is flattened out into a sheet
of cells, this mesial or paraxial source of mesoderm becomes ap-
parently the chief one, and the mesoderm presents the appearance
of growing out from the primitive streak region.
Commonly included with the typical mesoderm is the mesen-
chyme. This is a collective term to embrace cells which, assum-
ing an amoeboid character, creep away from their point of origin
in the embryo, wandering through its body, multiplying by fission
and behaving as if they were independent organisms. Some of
these retain their amoeboid wandering character and constitute
the leucocytes: others become erythrocytes or red blood-cor-
puscles: others become chromatophores : others settle down and
form the packing tissue or connective tissue which forms the
general framework of the body.
The Skin.— The skin of vertebrates is formed by the ectoderm,
with a backing of tough connective tissue traversed in all direc-
tions by fine fibres and constituting the dermis. In all members
of the group above Amphioxus the epidermis, by cell-multiplica-
tion, loses its original condition of being only one cell thick. In
fish numerous epidermal cells become glandular and secrete slime,
From the lungfish upwards, local aggregations of these cells form
definite flask-shaped glands, opening by minute pores on the body-
surface. These epidermal glands undergo specialization in various
directions — salivary glands, poison glands, sweat glands, milk
glands, etc. In terrestrial vertebrates the superficial ectoderm cells
become converted into keratin, forming a horny layer which
obstructs evaporation, and these horny cells are shed from time
to time as loose scurf, as coherent flakes, or as a continuous
slough (e.g., snakes). In reptiles they form a hard layer, covering
underlying bony plates in tortoise-shell or the surface of the head
in reptiles generally, or forming, with a dense backing' of connec-
tive tissue, the scales of ordinary reptiles. Innumerable special
developments of the horny layer occur, some of which will be
found described in other articles: such are claws, feathers, hair,
hoofs, rhinoceros horn, whalebone, etc.
The Nervous System, concerned with the relations of the
individual to the outer world, develops, as might be expected,
from the ectoderm. Normally its. first rudiment in the embryo
consists of a thickening of the ectoderm along the dorsal surface —
the medullary plate. As development proceeds the edges of this
curl upwards as the neural folds and these arching in towards
one another, convert the originally flat plate first into a groove and
later, by fusion of its edges in the mesial plane, into a closed
neural tube. Of this, the portion in the head region becomes
greatly enlarged to form the brain, while the remainder gives
rise to the spinal cord. The brain was formerly described as
differentiating in the form of three dilatations of the neural tube
one behind the other, the so-called primary brain vesicles, giving
rise to fore-, mid-, and hind-brain. Modern advances in compara-
tive embryology show that this is not accurate. In most of the
more primitive holoblastic vertebrates the brain first becomes
differentiated into an anterior cerebrum and a posterior rhom-
bencephalon, demarcated from one another by an upward fold of
the brain floor. Of these the former becomes later differentiated
into the thalamencephalon in front and the mesencephalon be-
hind. The cerebral hemispheres, which in the higher mammals
assume great importance, seem to arise primitively as paired
outward bulgings of the side-wall of the brain towards its front
end — related to the sense of smell. The main part of the thala-
mencephalon undergoes thickening of its side-walls (optic thala-
mus) while its roof becomes for the most part degenerate, form-
ing a thin membrane in intimate contact with a network of blood-
vessels (choroid plexus) lying immediately outside it. At its hind
end an outgrowth — the pineal body — develops which may remain
a simple club-shaped or tubular structure, but in several cases
becomes differentiated into two portions, the anterior of which
(parapineal) develops into an eye (Sphenodon, various lizards).
In front of the fold of the brain-floor already alluded -to, the
floor of the thalamencephalon dips down as the infundibulum, and
this becomes in the course of development closely associated with
an independent structure—the pituitary body. In the more typi-
cal vertebrates the two become inextricably involved with one
another and it is customary to speak of the nervous part of the
pituitary body. The pituitary ingrowth of the ectoderm is typi-
cally a hollow pocket and in the surviving crossopterygians it re-
tains this form through life, forming a gland which opens into
the buccal cavity. In those vertebrates in which yolk is present
at the site of its formation, the pituitary ingrowth is, as in other
such cases, solid, developing its cavity secondarily.
The organs of special seme arise as localized developments of
the ectoderm. In the case of the olfactory organ and the audi-
tory organ, the rudiment shows first as a localized thickening of
the ectoderm, which then, through extension in area, becomes in-
voluted below the surface of the skin as a saucer-like depression.
Finally, the opening to the exterior becoming gradually con-
stricted, the organ assumes the form of a more or less completely
closed vesicle. In the case of the olfactory organ the closure is
never complete, the function, that of chemical testing of the
surrounding medium, necessitating free communication between
its cavity, in the lining of which the sensory cells develop, and
the outside. In the majority of vertebrates however partial closure
takes place, to divide the opening into two— one at each end of
the organ — and so render possible the drawing in of a current of
the external medium through the organ. The first vertebrates that
ALIMENTARY CANALJ
VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY
101
have this power of "sniffing" are the lungnshes and the origin
of the arrangement which makes this possible is well seen in'
Protopterus, where the opening of the olfactory organ narrows,
except at its two ends, so as to form a slit. The edges of the slit
then undergo fusion and the original single opening is now repre-
sented by two separate openings a considerable distance apart.
As the anterior boundary of the buccal cavity becomes delimited,
one, the anterior or external naris, is left outside and the other,
posterior or internal naris, is enclosed within the buccal cavity,
perforating its roof. In terrestrial vertebrates in general the
olfactory organ becomes similarly provided with external and
internal nares, though the process of development shows various
modifications in detail.
The early stages of development of the otocyst or rudiment of
the auditory organ, are similar to those of the olfactory organ,
but the reduction of the external opening goes further: in fact in
all vertebrates except elasmobranchs, it becomes completely
closed. The peculiar feature which distinguishes the vertebrate
is that the usually pyriform otocyst of early stages undergoes a
complicated process of modelling, whereby its wall comes to pro-
ject into three hollow ridges situated in planes perpendicular to
one another. The basal or attached portion of each of these be-
coming obliterated except at its two ends, the ridge is converted
into an arched tube — the semicircular canal — opening at each end
into the cavity of the otocyst and filled, like the rest of the oto-
cyst, with watery endolymph. In all except the most archaic
vertebrates, the otocyst undergoes a still further process of
modelling whereby its lower portion (saccule), which develops
a special pocket-like outgrowth devoted to the sense of hearing,
becomes more or less completely constricted off from the upper
portion or utricle, carrying the semicircular canals.
The vertebrate eye differs from the other sense-organs in that
its main portion — that containing the actual sensory cells — is
developed, not from the external ectoderm, but from the involuted
portion of the ectoderm which forms the brain. In a typical case,
as in a bird embryo, the optic rudiment consists in its earliest stage
simply of the lateral portion of the wall of the thalamencephalon,
which here extends outwards on each side so as to give the brain
a T-shape. As development proceeds the optic rudiment becomes
narrowed at its base to form the optic stalk, which later will
become the optic nerve. The distal dilated portion gives rise
to the retina, while the region of external ectoderm in contact with
its outer end gives rise to the lens. In a typical case, e.g., a bird,
the lens is at first simply a slight thickening of the ectoderm, but
this soon sinks inwards to form a saucer-shaped depression of the
surface, which, by a gradual narrowing of its opening, becomes
converted into a closed vesicle. The deep wall of this becomes
greatly thickened, its individual cells becoming tall and columnar,
and gradually takes on the form of a biconvex lens, the outer
wall forming a thin layer of epithelium covering its outer surface.
As development goes on the cells of the lens become keratinized
and transparent
Meanwhile the original optic rudiment is undergoing differentia-
tion. Its distal portion next the lens becomes involuted within the
proximal portion, so that the whole rudiment now takes the
form of a double-walled optic cup the mouth of which is blocked
by the lens. The inner wall of the cup increases much in thick-
ness and gradually assumes the immense complexity character-
istic of the functional retina, of which the most striking peculiarity
is that the visual cells are situated on its deep face, the sensory
rods facing not towards the lens but away from it — so that rays
of light have to traverse the whole thickness of the retina, which
is therefore necessarily transparent. On the other hand, the nerve-
fibres which pass from the retina to the brain emerge from the
retina on its face next the lens, instead of from its deep face as
one would expect. This extraordinary reversal of the vertebral
retina is at once explained by the method of its development, the
deep surface carrying the rods having been originally, before the
involution of the brain-rudiment took place, part of the outer
surface of the head.
The outer layer of the optic cup undergoes none of the com-
plicated histogenesis seen in the retina. It persists as a single layer
of polygonal cells which show their sensitiveness to light by the
deposition of granules of dark melanin pigment in their cytoplasm,
and in the fully developed condition by characteristic reactions to
light stimulus. They constitute what is termed the pigment-layer
of the retina.
The ectodermal lens and retina, which constitute the essential
optical part of the eye, become ensheathed during development by
a thick coating of connective tissue or mesenchyme. This, in its
outer layers, becomes condensed into the tough protective wall of
the eyeball, the part between the lens and the surface of the head
becoming clear and transparent (cornea) while the remainder
becomes white and opaque (sclerotic). Between the sclerotic and
the pigment layer of the retina there is a rich development of
blood-spaces and of dark melanin, which gives its characteristic ap-
pearance to the choroid.
The peripheral nerves, i.e., the bundles of nerve fibres which
serve as pathways for the nerve impulses, have provided one of
the most contentious chapters in vertebrate embryology. A com-
mon observation in studying sections of early embryos is that
of nerve-trunks springing from the central nervous system and
apparently terminating in a free end. Such appearances naturally
suggest the view — associated especially with the name of the
German anatomist His — that the nerve-fibre actually develops
in the embryo as an outgrowth from a nerve-cell, at first ending
freely and growing gradually through the intervening connective
tissue till it establishes secondarily continuity with its end-organ.
This outgrowth view of the mode of development of nerve fibres
has in its favour by far the greater volume of observations, in-
cluding, in recent years, very interesting observations by Har-
rison and others of an experimental kind. (See NERVOUS SYSTEM.)
Alimentary CanaJL-— The alimentary canal of the vertebrate
is seen in its simplest form in the archentcron of the Amphioxus
embryo. Its wall consists of endoderm, and it possesses a single
opening to the exterior — the blastopore. With further develop-
ment there comes to exist the tubular alimentary canal, in which
the layer of endoderm cells forms merely a lining ensheathed by
a much thicker mesoderm coat. The wall of the alimentary canal
in this more complex definitive state is spoken of as the splanch-
nopleure or gut-wall, in contradistinction to the somatopleure or
external wall of the body. The common error should be avoided
of restricting these terms to the mesodermal constituent of the
gut and body-wall. The alimentary canal of the vertebrate is in
its early stages closed anteriorly, the mouth being a secondary
perforation. As in many other animals, the portion of external
surface in the region of the mouth becomes involuted to form the
lining of the buccal cavity, so that the protective and glandular
functions of the skin extend inwards into the first portion of
the alimentary canal. The buccal cavity of the vertebrate is
therefore morphologically a stomodaeum. For a time, in many
vertebrate embryos, the stomodaeal involution remains isolated
from the rest of the alimentary canal by a thin partition, covered
on its buccal face by ectoderm, on its enteric face by endoderm.
This partition eventually ruptures and disappears, although in
Amphioxus it remains distinctly visible as the velum, perforated
in its centre by a circular opening.
The most important features to note in the buccal cavity of the
vertebrate are the organs in its lining which have been brought
in from their original position on the outer surface of the head.
Amongst these are glands which become of special importance in
terrestrial vertebrates, where their watery secretion serves to keep
moist the buccal lining and in certain cases play a preliminary
part in the digestive process, as the salivary glands. Still more
conspicuous however are the placoid scales, which, in the primi-
tive elasmobranch scattered all over the outer surface of the
body, are also recognizable in the buccal lining. Around the mar-
gin of the jaw a series of these placoid scales become specially
enlarged, forming the teeth of the adult. The embryology of the
elasmobranch then demonstrates that the teeth of vertebrates are
vestiges of the placoid scales on the surface of the body.
The buccal cavity is continued into the pharynx, characterized
in all vertebrates by the development of (i) the gill-clefts and
(2) the thyroid. The gill-clefts, normally six in number, arise as
T02
VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY
ICOELOMIC ORGANS
pocket-like extensions of the pharyngeal wall (visceral pouches),
which at their tips undergo fusion with the external ectoderm
and open to the exterior, the original visceral pouch becoming
thus converted into a visceral cleft, lined with endoderm except
towards its outer end, where the lining is ectodermal. The cleft-
lining, in view of its respiratory function, undergoes increase of
area by growing out into folds (respiratory lamellae) and develops
a rich blood-supply.
Comparative embryology shows interesting differences in the
details of development of the gill-clefts, and in their ultimate fate.
A common variation is that the individual cleft is at first solid
and only secondarily becomes hollow: this is the case where the
pharynx is in its early stages solid and yolk-laden (teleostean, fish,
lungfish, amphibians).
Visceral cleft I. develops in all gnathostomes characteristic
differences from the others. In elasmobranchs its respiratory
lamellae are reduced to the vestigial pseudobranch on its anterior
wall, its function being, as in crossopterygians and sturgeons,
that of a mere passage for the water of respiration. In Dipnoi
its outer ectodermal end forms a sensory organ (organ of Pinkus)
embedded in the side of the head. In these and in all terrestrial
vertebrates, it has lost its communication with the exterior. In
anurous amphibians and in all amniotes it expands towards its
outer end into a wide tympanic cavity lying immediately under
the skin so as to allow a wide flat area of the latter to vibrate
freely (tympanic membrane or ear-drum). The pharyngeal por-
tion of the cleft remains as the narrow Eustachian tube, provid-
ing a means of keeping the air-pressure equal on the two sides
of the ear-drum.
While the presence of pharyngeal visceral clefts constitutes
one of the most striking vertebrate characteristics, the evidence of
comparative anatomy clearly indicates that the series of clefts
is undergoing a gradual process of reduction. This is shown by
the diminishing number of clefts present in the series Amphioxus —
cyclostomes (up to 14 in Bdellostoma) — Gnathostomata. Em-
bryology shows us this process of reduction actually at work. In
various elasmobranch embryos vestigial pouches appear behind
those which actually develop into clefts. In teleosts the vestigial
spiracular rudiment flattens out while its pseudobranch remains
visible on the inner surface of the operculum, thus appearing in
the adult as if it belonged to visceral cleft II. The operculum of
fishes above elasmobranchs is simply the exaggerated valvular
flap formed by the outer edge of visceral arch II. (hyoid) which
grows back to cover the visceral clefts further back in the series.
The thyroid, an equally characteristic development of the
vertebrate pharynx, arises as a mid-ventral downgrowth of the
pharyngeal floor about the level of the hyoid arch. This rudiment,
arising either as a hollow pouch or as a solid structure which
develops a cavity secondarily, soon becomes isolated from the
pharynx as a closed vesicle, and this in turn becomes subdivided
up into a multitude of little spherical sacs of endoderm sepa-
rated by mcsenchyme, in which there arises a rich network of
blood-spaces. The endodermal epithelium is glandular, producing
a clear colloid secretion which distends the numerous rounded
vesicles. In its later development the thyroid differs in different
vertebrates. It may, as in teleostean fishes, become diffuse and
no longer recognizable as a compact organ, while in tetrapods
it retains its compact form but becomes more or less completely
separated into a right and left lobe.
The clue to the evolutionary history of the thyroid is given
by the embryology of the lamprey (Petromyzon) , in the larva
of which it is recognizable as an endostyle, an organ known also
in Amphioxus and Tunicates.
The Lung, a characteristic feature in the main groups of
Vertebrata above the elasmobranchs, arises normally from a
rudiment very similar to that of the thyroid, only situated further
back, about the hinder limit of the pharynx. Normally unpaired
at first, the rudiment soon divides into right and left branches.
In simple urodeles each lung remains a thin-walled membranous
sac, but in other tetrapods increase in area of the endodermal
respiratory lining is brought about by its bulging out into more
and more complicated recesses, culminating in large reptiles and
in mammals in a spongy texture. In birds, the endoderm-Hned
cavities of the lung become converted into fine tubular channels
(air-capillaries) interwoven with the blood-capillaries and con-
stituting the most highly evolved respiratory organ known. To
enable it to function, a bellows-like arrangement is formed by
pocket-like outgrowths of the lung-wall which become greatly
dilated and constitute the air-sacs. Portions of these grow out
into the substance of the bones, replacing the bone-marrow, while
others extending in among the muscles of flight provide a
mechanism whereby air is automatically passed in and out
through the air-capillaries during flight. In Polypterus, the most
archaic teleostome, the left lung lags behind in development,
while the right grows actively and in its posterior portion takes
up a medio-dorsal position. This is related to the hydrostatic
function of the air-filled lung and is of great interest as indicating,
when taken in conjunction with the development of the lung of
Dipnoi, that the air-bladder of the modern teleostean fish is
simply the persistent right lung, the left having completely dis-
appeared.
The post-pharyngeal portion of the alimentary canal forms the
digestive tube and in different vertebrates undergoes varying
degrees of differentiation into distinct parts. The more archaic
gnathostomes — elasmobranchs, crossopterygians, Dipnoi — are
characterized by having a veiy short straight intestine provided
with a spiral valve, and embryology shows that this is preceded
by a stage in which the eridodermal tube is relatively elongated
and coiled into a tight corkscrew spiral, the turns of the spiral
being later cemented together and hidden in an enveloping sheath
of connective tissue.
The great glands of the intestine arise in the embryo as pocket-
like diverticula of its wall. The pancreas is peculiar in that it
arises normally from three distinct diverticula — a pair situated
ventrally in the neighbourhood of the bile-duct, and the third
dorsal. The pancreas of the adult is formed by the fusion of these
three rudiments and it may retain (birds) all three openings to
the intestine, i.e., three distinct, pancreatic ducts.
Coelomic Organs. — The dorsal portions of the mesoderm seg-
ments or myotomes form the primitive muscular equipment of the
vertebrate. In Lepidosiren both lateral and mesial walls of the
myotome undoubtedly become converted into myoblasts or muscle
cells, but in most vertebrates the phenomena are obscure and
many hold that only the mesial wall gives rise to muscle, the outer
breaking up into mesenchyme. In Lepidosiren the early myoblast
has the form of a typical myo-epithelial cell continued into the
central nervous system by a protoplasmic tail and it is seen that
the so-called end-plate of the motor nerve is simply a portion of
the muscle fibre which retains its original protoplasmic condition.
The Myotomes form the foundation of the whole system of
voluntary muscles. In fish they remain conspicuous through life.
In elasmobranch embryos it is possible to observe the musculature
of the limbs sprouting out from the lower ends of certain myo-
tomes. In the higher vertebrates the myotomes are conspicuous
in the embryo, but in the adult they are no longer recognizable.
The Splanchnocoele or body-cavity becomes normally sub-
divided into a smaller pericardiac and a larger peritoneal cavity.
In some of the more archaic vertebrates, e.g., elasmobranchs, the
two cavities remain continuous through a narrow pericardio-
peritoneal canal.
The loss of the primitive coelomic segmentation has brought
with it characteristic modifications in the development of the
archinephros or series of nephridial tubes.
Incidentally it should be noted that confusion is apt to arise
owing to the term nephridium having come to be used in two
different senses. The term was invented by E. Ray Lankester
(1877) as the equivalent of renal or kidney tubule. It is in this
original sense that it is used here. Many wnters however, follow-
ing E. S. Goodrich, separate off renal tubules possessing an open
funnel (coelomostome) at their inner end under the separate
name coelomoduct.
It is a normal characteristic of the embryo of metamerically
segmented animals that the head end, with its special nerve
centres and sense-organs, develops first, the process of develop-
VASCULAR SYSTEM]
VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY
103
mcnt spreading slowly tailwards, and this principle applies to the
nephridial tubes as to other organs. The disappearance of the
coelomk septa in the Vertebrata has however eliminated the neces-
sity of each segment having its independent pair of drainage
tubes. There has accordingly come about a loss of the serial
regularity in the development of the nephridial tubes and these
tend to develop in three successive batches, known as pronephros,
mesonephros and metanephros. Of these the pronephros is the
functional kidney in the early stages of those vertebrates in which
these stages are free-living (larval). Where, on the other hand,
early development is embryonic, it no longer becomes a functional
organ, the excretory products presumably passing away by diffu-
sion from the extensive network of blood-vessels on the surface
of the yolk. The pronephros is purely larval: eventually it
atrophies, a pair of its nephrostomes however persisting in greatly
enlarged form as the ostia or internal openings of the oviducts.
The excretory function is now carried out by the series of tubules
extending back to the region of the cloaca and termed the opis-
thonephros. In the fishes and amphibians, this constitutes the
kidney of the adult, though already in many of these, e.g., elasmo-
branchs and urodeles, there is seen a tendency for the excretory
function to become concentrated in the hind portion of the opis-
thonephros, its front portion remaining small and serving for
the transmission of the spermatozoa. This condition foreshadows
that of the Amniota in which the opisthonephros has become
completely divided into mesonephros and metanephros. The
former, representing the greater part of the opisthonephros, acts
as the functional kidney during embryonic life but later becomes
purely reproductive, forming the epididymis attached to the
testis. The metanephros — the extreme hind end of the opisthone-
phros, in whieh the tubules become greatly increased in size and
number — alone forms the kidney of the adult amniote.
The renal organs of vertebrates present many other features
of embryological interest. In various of the more archaic types
the rudiments of the first pronephric tubules, in the form of little
outgrowths of the somatic cndoderm, bend backwards at their
outer ends and become joined together, forming in this way the
rudiment of a longitudinal duct (archinephric duct) which gradu-
ally extends back, receiving the successive tubules which undergo
fusion with it, and eventually opens into the cloaca. This opening
of the tubules into a longitudinal duct instead of directly to the
exterior constitutes one of the striking differences between the
Vertebrata and the Annelida.
In elasmobranch fishes the archinephric duct becomes split
longitudinally into two — a Mullerian duct, into which opens the
persistent pronephric nephrostome, and a Wolffian duct, into
which open the tubules of the opisthonephros. Functionally, the
former becomes the oviduct. In the Amniota the functional
tubules of the metanephros open into a third duct — the ureter —
while the Wolffian duct now functions exclusively as a vas deferens
or male genital duct.
As regards the evolutionary history of these ducts, the known
facts of embryology support the view that (i) the archinephric
duct came into existence through the external opening of each
tubule becoming shifted back so as to open into its successor,
(2) the Mullerian and Wolffian ducts became separated by a
process of splitting, and (3) the ureter arose from the collecting
tube or trunk portion of the large tree-like mass of tubules con-
stituting the metanephros and formed by the enlargement and
branching of the last tubule of the opisthonephros.
Finally a noteworthy feature of the renal organs of vertebrates
is that the portion of coelome in proximity to the nephrostome
tends to become isolated as a small spherical chamber, the Mal-
pighian body: a small portion of the lining of this, in which the
power of secreting watery coelomic fluid has become specially
concentrated, bulges into the cavity of the Malpighian body as
the spherical glomerulus containing an arterial network supplied
from the dorsal aorta. The separation of Malpighian body from
the main splanchnocoele becomes more and more pronounced as
the evolution of the renal organs proceeds.
The Gonad— ovary or testis — is, as in other groups, a develop-
ment of the coelomic epithelium. Situated just ventral to the
segmented portion of the mesoderm, it shows in a few cases dis-
tinct traces of segmentation in early stages of its development.
In the female, the reproductive cells (eggs or macrogametes) are
still shed into the splanchnocoele, finding an exit through the
Mullerian ducts. In the male, however, the fertile portion of
coelomic epithelium (testis) becomes shut off as an isolated
chamber into the cavity of which the reproductive cells (sperma-
tozoa or microgametes) are shed. They eventually reach the vas
deferens by way of fine tubular channels (vasa efferent ia), which
arise in the embryo as outgrowths from the wall of certain of the
Malpighian bodies.
The mesenchyme cells, distributing themselves through the body
of the embryo, settle down into spongy connective tissue which
forms a support and backing to the various developments of
ectoderm and endoderm. As development proceeds, special tracts
take on special characters — fatty tissue, tendon, ligament and so
on — but there are two developments of the mesenchyme which are
of special importance. One of these is characterized by its strands
becoming hollow vessels in which fluid circulates, the other by its
strands becoming rigid and constituting a skeletal or supporting
framework to the body.
The Vascular System may be regarded as a development of
the intercellular chinks containing the watery "internal medium"
or lymph which bathes the surface of all the living cells of the
body. The precise mode of origin of the individual vessel appears
to differ in different cases. In a particularly clear case, that of the
dorsal aorta of Poly pier us, the lumen of the vessel makes its
appearance within a multinucleate protoplasmic strand as fluid
vacuoles, which gradually coalesce and form a continuous cavity
filled with clear watery fluid. In some cases the main vessels are
laid down and circulation begins while the contents are still solely
fluid, but soon the fluid becomes peopled by cells which become
gradually differentiated, some as erythrocytes, others as leucocytes
of various kinds. The origin of these corpuscles varies: in some
cases they may be seen to be budded off by the wall of the vessel :
in other cases the vascular rudiment at a particular point forms
a solid mass of cells (blood-island), the inner of which become
separated by fluid to form corpuscles while those on the surface
remain in continuity to form the endothelial wall of the vessel.
The detailed study of the later development of the blood-
system shows that it provides one of the most interesting chapters
in vertebrate embryology. The fundamental plan is seen to be that
of two main longitudinal blood vessels, one ventral to the ali-
mentary canal, in which the blood runs forwards, and one dorsal
(dorsal aorta), in which the blood streams in a tailward direction,
these two longitudinal vessels being connected by a series of hoop-
like aortic arches, situated between the gill-clefts, in which the
blood passes from the ventral vessel to the dorsal. The vertebrate
heart consists of the portion of the ventral vessel immediately
behind the pharynx, in which contraction of the vessel wall, else-
where comparatively inconspicuous, becomes greatly exaggerated
and occurs rhythmically throughout life.
The heart or cardiac tube is that part of the ventral vessel
which is contained within the pericardiac chamber. At first
straight, its rapid increase in length, combined with the fact that
it is fixed at each end where it traverses the pericardiac wall,
causes it to assume a characteristic S-shaped curvature. As may
be well seen in the embryo of a fowl during the third day of
incubation, waves of contraction pass forwards along the cardiac
tube, propelling the blood in its interior forwards towards the
aortic arches. As development proceeds the originally uniform
cardiac tube becomes at intervals relatively enlarged to form a
series of four dilatations, demarcated from one another by rela-
tively less dilated portions. These four dilatations become the
sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle and conus arteriosus. With this
morphological change in diameter comes a physiological change in
that the originally uniform wave of contraction becomes replaced
by serial contractions of each chamber in turn. As development
proceeds further, the four chambers become compacted together
and the original tubular shape of the heart is completely lost.
The pumping activity of the heart becoming more and more con-
centrated in the ventricle, the muscular wall of this part becomes
104
VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY
[SKELETAL SYSTEM
much more highly developed than that of the others.
To secure that the blood stream flows in the proper direction
a valvular apparatus becomes developed in the interior of the heart
and this, in its earliest stages, takes the form of longitudinal
ridge-like thickenings of the inner layer of the heart-wall. These
are best seen in the conus arteriosus, where they are normally
four in number and where they are jammed together when the
conus contracts, obliterating its cavity and so preventing any
backward suction when the ventricle dilates. These endocardiac
ridges, dependent for their efficiency upon physiological activity,
become in such relatively archaic vertebrates as elasmobranchs
and ganoids converted into a purely mechanical apparatus which
works automatically, each ridge becoming segmented into a row
of valves shaped like watch-pockets, with their openings directed
towards the head. These flatten against the wall when the blood
streams forwards, but open out and occlude the cavity by their
edges coming in contact the moment the blood tends to re-
gurgitate. In the air-breathing vertebrates from lungfish upwards,
the conus with its valvular apparatus undergoes an extraordinarily
interesting series of evolutionary changes. In the lungfish the
conus is relatively long and is bent into a characteristic Z-form.
Along its interior run the four endocardiac ridges. Two of these,
the right and the left, project as thin blade-like structures more
than halfway across the lumen, their free edges overlapping so
that they subdivide the cavity into two portions, one dorsal and
one ventral. The two cavities are continued forwards into the
ventral aorta by a horizontal partition which extends as far for-
wards as the level of aortic arch V. where it merges into the roof
of the ventral aorta. Aortic arches V. and VI. take origin from
the dorsal or pulmonary cavity, while the remaining aortic arches
spring from the continuation forwards of the ventral cavity. The
atrio-ventricular portion of the heart also has its cavity divided,
in this case by a vertical septum projecting forwards from its
posterior wall. This septum is incomplete, not extending com-
pletely across the atrio-ventricular cavity except when the wall
of this part of the heart is » contracted. Owing to the peculiar
flexure of the conus, its incomplete septum — horizontal at its
front end — becomes at its ventricular end vertical and in line with
the atrio-ventricular septum. The result is that, in the contracted
condition of the ventricle, the right half of its cavity is continu-
ous with the right half of the cavity of the conus and this cavity,
owing to the peculiar flexure, ends off at its headward end by
being dorsal, i.e. continuous with the pulmonary cavity of the
ventral aorta. Correspondingly the left ventricular cavity is con-
tinued through the conus to the ventral or systemic cavity of the
ventral aorta.
In the tetrapods the conus develops similar endocardiac ridges
to those seen in lungfish, but the conus has now greatly shrunken
in length, with the result, owing to its ends being fixed, that the
Z-flexure is drawn out and replaced by a spiral twist. Further,
in the Amniota, the two prominent ridges, which in the lungfish
merely overlap, undergo complete fusion, so that the cavity of the
conus, as of the ventral aorta, becomes divided completely into
pulmonary and systemic cavities, continuous respectively with
the right and left ventricles, which also become completely sepa-
rated during development. In the higher Amniota the septum so
formed in the conus becomes itself split, so that the conus comes
to be represented by two separate vessels, pulmonary and sys-
temic, spirally twisted round one another.
Of all features in the development of the blood system of
vertebrates, perhaps the most interesting is that the great arteries
of the higher amniotes repeat in the course of their development
the series of aortic arches between the visceral clefts. Although
the bird or human being will never use its gill-clefts for breathing,
yet it shows for a time the typical piscine arrangement of aortic
arches. As development proceeds, large tracts of this primitive
scheme disappear while others persist and become straightened
out into the great arteries of -the adult.
The venous system of the vertebrate shows also many features
of interest in its embryology. Perhaps the most important of
these is that the venous system of the higher vertebrates shows
for a time in the embryo the same main trunks— duct of Cuvier,
anterior and posterior cardinal veins — as those of an adult fish.
The main new development in the venous system of tetrapods,
the inferior or posterior vena cava, presents the striking pecu-
liarity that it has a double origin in the embryo, its anterior por-
tion being associated with the liver and its posterior portion with
the posterior cardinal veins. This points to the posterior vena
cava having originated in evolution from an arrangement similar
to that of modern dipnoans, where the anterior end of the
opisthonephros is fused with the tip of the liver, thus rendering
possible the direct passage of blood from kidneys to heart through
the liver substance.
The Skeletal System of the vertebrate is shown by embry-
ology to present three evolutionary phases: (i) notochordal, (2)
cartilaginous, (3) bony. The notochord arises as a rod of cells
split off from the endoderm along the mid-dorsal line. The
notochordal cells, except the superficial layer, become greatly
vacuolated and their turgidity gives stiffness to the notochord as
a whole. The superficial layer of cells (notochordal epithelium)
produces a cuticular primary sheath and later, internal to this, a
thicker secondary sheath. In craniate vertebrates a further step in
skeletal development is the modification of patches of connective
tissue to form cartilage. In the trunk region these appear first as
the paired rudiments of neural and haemal arches, two pairs of
each in the lower types within the length of a single muscle seg-
ment. In two of the more archaic groups, Elasmobranchii and
Dipnoi, cartilage cells from the arch-rudiment burrow through the
primary sheath and colonize the secondary sheath of the
notochord. The notochord thus becomes enclosed in a cylinder of
cartilage, which in the elasmobranch becomes segmented into
vertebral centra, each carrying two pairs of neural and of haemal
arches. In other vertebrates this invasion of the secondary sheath
by cartilage cells docs not take place, and the centra arise outside
the primary sheath by expansion of the bases of the arches. In
the head region traces of cartilaginous vertebrae can be traced
in various archaic vertebrates as far forwards as the tip of the
infundibulum, the hinder region of the cranium representing a
part of the axial skeleton in which the vertebral segmentation has
disappeared and the neural canal become greatly enlarged in
correlation with the expansion of the central nervous system to
form the brain. As regards the pre-chordal or trabecular portion
of the cranium, embryology does not provide any definite evidence
as to its relation to the trunk skeleton. The olfactory organ and
the otocyst each becomes enclosed in a capsule of cartilage and
these become incorporated in the complete cranium. Apart from
the axial skeleton cartilaginous elements make their appearance
in relation to the visceral arches (see VKRTEBRATA) and to the
limbs, each showing in their development many details of interest.
The bony skeleton makes its first appearance in the isolated
placoid scales of elasmobranchs, some of which, it will be remem-
bered, are carried into the buccal cavity, either remaining of small
size or becoming enlarged to form the teeth. In various of the
lower vertebrates, especially urodele amphibians, embryology dem-
onstrates that the bones which underly the base of the cartilagi-
nous cranium and reinforce it are formed of originally separate
placoid denticles, which become united into a continuous plate by
the spreading out and fusion of their basal portions. In some
cases only part of .the bone may show this dental origin, the den-
ticles having disappeared from the rest. In other cases bones
which in Urodeles have this dental origin develop in Anura with-
out showing denticles. Such and many similar facts of embry-
ology have suggested the working hypothesis that the bony skele-
ton had its evolutionary origin in the primitive dermal equipment
of placoid scales.
Adaptations to Environment.— An interesting chapter of
vertebrate embryology deals with the environmental conditions
amid which the various types of vertebrate pass through their
early stages and the ways in which the young vertebrate is adapted
to these conditions. In certain cases the environment and the
young individual's relations to it present no special peculiarities.
The young crossopterygian or lungfish or urodele leads a normal
kind of aquatic existence and the strikingly uniform type of larva
in these three relatively archaic vertebrates suggests strongly that
VERTICAL— VESICA PISCIS
105
it repeats an early stage of vertebrate evolution. In most verte-
brates however, development is either embryonic or secondarily
larval. In elasmobranchs, in teleosts and in reptiles and birds, the
early stages are passed within the shelter of egg-envelopes and
this involves the modifications associated with the storing up of a
supply of yolk— modifications which still persist in cases such as
the majority of teleosts, where a larval mode of development is
re-acquired. Embryonic development is seen in its highest expres-
sion in the terrestrial vertebrates and these, in addition to the
immense exaggeration of the ventral part of the endoderm to store
up yolk (yolk-sac), show two other striking peculiarities: (i) the
body of the embryo becomes enclosed in a water-jacket (amnion)
in which it floats suspended and is thus protected from the sudden
jars incidental to a terrestrial existence, and (2) the allantois — the
pouch-like outgrowth from the hinder part of the alimentary canal
which in the amphibian functions as a urinary bladder — becomes
precociously enlarged and, spreading round the inner surface of
the egg-shell, constitutes the breathing organ during a large part
of embryonic life. The highest degree of adaptation to the terres-
trial existence is reached by the ordinary mammals, in which the
egg, instead of being laid at an early stage of development, is
retained within the mother's uterus for a prolonged period during
which the embryo passes through all the earlier helpless stages of
its development. The yolk-sac, amnion and allantois are still pres-
ent as in the reptiles. But the allantois has developed a new func-
tion, that of absorbing nourishment from the uterine wall, and in
correlation with this, the supply of yolk, which in the reptilian
egg was so conspicuous, has now disappeared practically entirely.
The yolk-sac still retains its old features but it now contains
merely lymph. And, correlated with this in turn, the mammalian
macrogamete or zygote has shrunk to a size comparable with that
of Amphioxus. Whereas the unsegmented egg of an ostrich meas-
ures as much as 85 mm. in diameter that of man has reverted to
as little as 0-25 mm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. Graham Kerr, A Text-book of Embryology, vol.
ii.: "Vcrtcbrata with the exception of Mammalia" (London, 1919) ; this
book gives an account of the general principles of Vertebrate Embry-
ology based on the study of the lower vertebrates and includes the
results of modern investigations upon the embryology of some of the
more primitive types. Includes a guide to the bibliography of the sub-
ject and to its practical technique; A. Brachet, Traite d'Embryologie
des Vertebres (Paris, 1921), a good modern text-book on Embryology
of Vertebrates, including the Mammalia; contains bibliography.
(J. G. K.)
VERTICAL, the direction of true line of action of gravity, as
determined by the plumb-line. The angle of the vertical is the
angle between the direction of the plumb-line and the direction
towards the earth's centre (see EARTH, FIGURE OF THE).
VERTIGO: see MENIERE'S DISEASE; SEASICKNESS.
VERTUE, GEORGE (1684-1756), English engraver and
antiquary, was born in St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, in
1684. At the age of 13 he was apprenticed to an heraldic engraver,
a Frenchman, who failed in three or four years. Vertue then
studied drawing at home, and afterwards worked for seven years as
an engraver under Michael Vandergucht. His plate of Archbishop
Tillotson, after Kneller, commissioned by Lord Somers, estab-
lished his reputation as an engraver ; and he was soon in an excel-
lent practice, engraving portraits after Dahl, Richardson, Jervas
and Gibson. In portraiture alone he executed over 500 plates. In
1 71 7 he was made engraver to the Society of Antiquaries. He died
on July 24, 1756, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Vertue's forty volumes of memoranda on the history of British art
were purchased by Horace Walpole, and form the basis of that author's
Anecdotes of Painting in England, including an account of Vertue's
life and a catalogue of his engravings.
VERTUMNUS, in Roman cult, the god of the changing year
(Lat vortumnus, changing) with its seasons, its flowers and its
fruits, probably of Italian origin. In legend, he has the power of
assuming any shape he pleases, which enables him to win the love
of Pomona (q.v.). His shrine and statue (see the description in
Propertius iv. 2) were in the Vicus Tuscus, and from his con-
nexion with this busy street he was regarded as having a special
interest in trade and barter. At another sanctuary on the slope of
the Aventine, sacrifice was offered to him every year on Aug. 13.
VERULAMIUM, a Romano-British town situated in the
territory of the Catuvellauni, close to the modern St. Albans
(Hertfordshire). Before the Roman conquest it was the capital
of Tasciovanus, Prince of the Catuvellauni, who issued coins
inscribed with the name of the place, and of his son, Cunobelin;
afterwards it received the dignity of a municipium (implying
municipal status and Roman citizenship). Tacitus tells us that
the town was burnt by Boadicea (q.v.), in A.D. 60 or 61, but it
again rose to prosperity. The visit of Germanus to the tomb of
S. Alban shows that it was still inhabited in 429. Its site is still
easily recognizable. Its walls of flint rubble survive in stately
fragments, and enclose an area of 200 acres. Of the internal
buildings little is known. A theatre was excavated in 1847, and
parts of the forum were opened by Mr. William Page in 1898;
both indicate a civilized and cultivated town. The complete un-
covering of the site was planned in 1910 but abandoned. (Royal
Comm. oil Hist. Monuments, Inventory of Herts. [1910], pp. 3,
190; Victoria County Hist. Herts. IV. [1914].)
VERVAIN (Verbena officinalis), a plant of the family Ver-
benaceae (q.v.), native to Europe
and Asia, common in the south
of England, and naturalized
across the continent of North
America. It is a smooth slender
annual, i to 3 ft. high, with oppo-
site, deeply incised leaves and
numerous very slender spikes of
purplish or white flowers. To the
vervain, which was held in super-
stitious veneration by the an-
cient peoples of Great Britain,
were ascribed remarkable medici-
nal virtues, which, however, are
op >\w ^r now wholly discredited. In the
j \A\^ op ««^ United States the name vervain
BY couimsv or THE WILD FLOWER PRESE*.
VATIGN SOCIETY
is applied to several native spe-
cies of Verbena, as the white
vervain (V. nrtici folia), the blue
BLUE VERVAIN (VERBENA HASTATA) vervain (V . hastato) , the hoary
vervain (V. stricta), the bracted vervain (V. bracteosa), and the
spreading vervain (V. pro strata)! Most of these inter-hybridize.
VERVET, a Central and South African monkey, Cercopithe-
cus pygerythrus. It is allied to the grivet (q.v.), but distin-
guished by the presence of a rusty patch at the root of the tail
and by the black chin, hands, and feet.
VERVIERS, a town, province of Liege, Belgium, on the
main line from Liege to Aix-la-Chapellc and Cologne. Pop. (1925)
41,663. It. is on the Vesdre, which flows into the Ourthe a few
miles before its junction with the Meuse; and the water of
that river is supposed to be especially good for dyeing purposes.
VERWEY, ALBERT (1865- ), Dutch man of letters,
was one of the leading figures of the revival of Dutch literature,
called "The movement of 1880." He helped to found and from
1884-89 was one of the editors of the Nieuwe Gids; from 1894-
1904 of the Tweeniaandelijksch Tijdschrift and De XXe Eeuw,
and from 1905-19 of De Beweging. In 1924 Verwey was ap
pointed professor of Dutch literature in the University of Leyden.
His anthology with commentaries of Nederlandsche Dichters bc-
halve Vondel (1893, etc.) and his essay on Potgieter and his
circle, Het Testament van Potgieter (1908) are works of lasting
value. Verwey, who held an honorary doctor's degree from the
University of Groningen, translated into Dutch Shelley's A De-
fence of Poetry, Sidney's An Apology for Poetry (1891) and
Shelley's Alastor (1922). In 1885 he issued an article on The
Sonnet and the Sonnets of Shakespeare.
He has published several volumes including Iideiding tot de
nieuwe Nederlandsche diclit Kunst, 1880-1900 (1914); Proza
(1911 etc.); De Maker (1924) and Rondom mijn Werk, i8go-
1923 (1925)-
See M. Uyldert, Albert Verwey (1908).
VESICA PISCIS, in architecture, the term given to a
pointed oval panel formed by two equal intersecting circular
io6
VESNIC— VESPERS
curves; a common form given to a panel in which the figure of
Christ is represented. It is employed in mediaeval seals, especially
those of bishops and monastic establishments. (See also MAN-
DORLA.)
VESNIC, MILENKO (1862-1921), Serbian diplomatist,
was born as a Turkish subject in what was then the Sanjak of
Novi Pazar, on Feb. 13, 1862, but made his way to Belgrade, where
he was educated. After studying law he took his doctorate in
Munich. He entered the Serbian diplomatic service in 1891, but
soon left it for journalism and teaching. In 1893 he entered
Parliament and was for a short time Minister of Education in the
Gruijic Cabinet. In 1899 he and other Radical leaders were
falsely charged with complicity in the attempt on King Milan's
life, and Vesnic was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. After
a year he was pardoned, resumed his professorship, and in 1901
became Minister in Rome. In 1904 he was appointed Minister in
Paris, a post which he held, with short intervals of political work,
until his death. He was one of the delegates sent by King Peter
to negotiate the peace of London in 1913, and in 1919 was dele-
gate of the new Yugoslav State at the Peace Conference. In
1920 Vesnic, who remained a Radical, became the head of a coali-
tion cabinet. He died in Paris on May 15, 1921.
VESOUL, a town of eastern France, capital of the depart-
ment of Haute-Saone, 236 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the Eastern
railway to Belfort. Pop. (1926) 9,614. Vesoul is of ancient origin,
but in existing records is first mentioned in the 9th century. Orig-
inally a fief of the church of Besanqon, it passed to the house
of Burgundy, becoming, in the I3th century, capital of the baili-
wick of Amont. The castle was destroyed in the i;th century.
The town suffered much during the wars of religion and the
Thirty Years' War. Vesoul belonged temporarily to France after
the death of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; was returned
to the empire when Charles VIII., king of France, broke off his
marriage with the daughter of Maximilian, king of the Romans;
and again became part of France under Louis XIV. after the
peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. Vesoul stands between the river
Durgeon and the isolated vine-clad hill of La Motte (1,263 ft.),
crowned by a votive chapel which in 1855 replaced the old fortifi-
cation. The 1 3th and i5th century wails of the town still exist
on its northern side.
VESPASIAN, in full TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, Roman
emperor A.D. 70-79* was bom on Nov. 18, A.D. 9, in the Sabine
country near Reate. His father was a tax-collector and money-
lender on a small scale ; his mother was the sister of a senator.
After having served with the army in Thrace and been quaestor
in Crete and Gyrene, Vespasian rose to be aedile and praetor,
having meanwhile married Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of a
Roman knight, by whom he had two sons, Titus and Domitian,
afterwards emperors. Having already served in Germany, in the
years 43 and 44, in the reign of Claudius, he distinguished him-
self in command of the 2nd legion in Britain under Aulus Plautius.
He reduced Vectis (isle of Wight) and penetrated to Uie borders
of Somersetshire. In 51 he was for a brief space consul; In 63
he went as governor to Africa, where, according to Tacitus (ii. 97),
his rule was "infamous and odious"; according to Suetonius (Vesp.
4), "upright and highly honourable." He went with Nero's suite
to Greece, and in 66 was appointed to conduct the war in Judaea.
On the first of July, 69, while he was at Caesarea, he was
proclaimed emperor, first by the array in Egypt, and then by his
troops in Judaea. The legions of the East at once took the cus-
tomary oath of allegiance. Nevertheless, Viteliius, the occupant
of the throne, had on his side the veteran legions of Gaul and
Germany, Rome's best troops. But the feeling in Vespasian's
favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia,
Pannonia and Illyricum soon declared for him, and made him in
fact master of half of the Roman world. They entered Italy on
the north-east under the leadership of Antonius Primus, defeated
the army of Viteliius at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cre-
mona and advanced on Rome, which they entered after furious
fighting, in which the Capitol was destroyed by fire. The new em-
peror received the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at
Alexandria, whence he at once forwarded supplies of core to
Rome, which were urgently needed, along with an edict or a
declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire
reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason.
Leaving the war in Judaea to his son Titus, he arrived at Rome
in 70. He at once devoted his energies to repairing the evils
caused by civil war. He restored discipline in the army, which
under Viteliius had become utterly demoralized, and, with the co-
operation of the senate, put the government and the finances on a
sound footing. He renewed old taxes and instituted new, increased
the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the
treasury officials. By his own example of simplicity of life, he
put to shame the luxury and extravagance of the Roman nobles
and initiated in many respects a marked improvement in the
general tone of society. By taking over the censorship, the last
of the republican magistracies, he gained complete control over the
entry to the senate. He altered the constitution of the praetorian
guard, in which only Italians, formed into nine cohorts, were en- '
rolled, while Italians seem to have been excluded from the legions;
he tended to assimilate the auxiliaries to the legions in personnel.
The time-expired men, when they went back to their homes, he
made use of to promote the urbanization and Romanization of the
more backward and unorganized provinces. In 70 a formidable
rising in Gaul, headed by Claudius Civilis, was suppressed and the
German frontier made secure; the Jewish War was brought to a
close by Titus's capture of Jerusalem, and in the following year,
after the joint triumph of Vespasian and Titus, the temple of
Janus was closed, and the Roman world had rest for the remain-
ing nine years of Vespasian's reign. In 78 Agricola went to
Britain, and both extended and consolidated the Roman dominion
in that province, pushing his arms into North Wales and the Isle
of Anglesey. In the following year Vespasian died, on June 23.
The "avarice" of Tacitus and Suetonius seems to have been
an enlightened economy, which, in the disordered state of the
Roman finances, was an absolute necessity. Vespasian could
be liberal when he chose, as Quintilian's pension shows. Pliny's
great work, the Natural History, was written during Vespasian's
reign and dedicated to his son Titus. Of the philosophers who en-
couraged conspiracy by republican theorizing only one, Helvidius
Priscus, was put to death, and he had affronted the emperor by
studied insults. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were
words honestly expressing the temper of Vespasian.
Much money was spent on public works and the restoration and
beautifying of Rome — a new forum, the splendid temple of peace,
the public baths and the vast Colosseum being begun under
Vespasian. The roads and aqueducts were repaired, and the limits
of the pomerium extended.
The most important of his changes in the provinces wa$ the
reorganization of the eastern provinces, whereby Judaea became a
province of its own, Syria absorbed the vassal kingdom of Com-
magene and had its legionary forces strengthened and centred at
Samosata, and Cappadocia and lesser Armenia were absorbed in
Galatia, Whose governor also was given legionary troops to bold
the upper river, stationed at Melitene; second to this comes the
annexation of the agri decumates, the first step to cutting out the
salient in the Rhine-Danube frontier. Mention may be made of
his extension of Latin rights to Baetica.
To the last Vespasian was a blunt soldier, with strength of char-
acter, and with a steady purpose to establish good order and secure
the prosperity and welfare of his subjects. In his habits he was
punctual and regular, transacting his business early in the morn-
ing, and enjoying his siesta after a drive. He was free in his
conversation, and his humour was apt to take the form of rather
coarse jokes. There is something very characteristic in the ex-
clamation he is said to have uttered in his last iltneas, "An emperor
ought to die standing."
See Tacitus, Histories: Suetonius, Vespasian; Dfc Cassias Lcvi;
MerivaJe, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, chs. 57-60; H.
Schiller, Ceschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i., pt. a ; B. W» Hender-
son, Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 69-70
(zQoS) ; Five Roman Emperor* (1927) ; M. L Rostovtaeff, Sotfal and
Economic History of the Homan Empire (1946),
VESPERS, in the Roman Catholic liturgy, the seventh of the
eifht "hours" which make up the daily office, (See BREVIAKY.)
VESPERS— VESPUCCI
107
VESPERS, SICILIAN, the revolution of the Sicilians against
Angevin domination, so called because it broke out at the hour
of Vespers on Easter Tuesday 1282. The government of Charles
I. of Anjou (q.v.) was highly oppressive, and the people of Sicily
were strongly attached to the house of HohensUufen. The actual
outbreak was a purely unpremeditated popular movement. Charles
at that time was making preparations for an attack on the East
Roman empire, and heavily taxing the Sicilians in order to meet
his expenses. Peter III. king of Aragon, wishing to assert the
claims to Sicily which he possessed in right of his wife Constanza
daughter of Manfred (tf.v.), was negotiating with the enemies of
Charles, when the people of Sicily, goaded beyond endurance,
rose unexpectedly against their rulers. On March 31, 1282 a riot
broke out in a church near Palermo, in consequence, according to
tradition, of the insults of a French soldier towards a Sicilian
woman, and a general massacre of the French began. The rising
spread to the city, where a republic was proclaimed, and then
through the rest of the island; thousands of French men, women
and children were butchered (there may be some exaggeration in
the wholesale character of the slaughter), and by the end of
April the whole of Sicily was in the hands of the rebels. Charles
at once led an expedition against the Sicilians and besieged Mes-
sina. The island was saved from re-conquest by the intervention of
Peter of Aragon, but this intervention changed the character of
the movement, and the free communes which had been proclaimed
throughout the island had to submit to royal authority and a re-
vived feudalism. Peter, having reached Palermo in Sept. 1282,
accepted the Sicilian crown, and declared war on Charles. See
SICILY; NAPLES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The standard work on the subject is Michcle
Amari's Guerra del Vespro (a vols. 8th ed., Florence, 1876), which is
based on a study of the original authorities, but is too strongly preju-
diced against the French ; cf. L. Cadier's Essai sur V administration du
royanme de Sidle par Charles J. et Charles If. tf Anjou (fasc. 59 of the
Biblioth&que des ecoles fran$aises de Rome et d'Athenes, 1891). See
also A. de Saint-Priest, Histoire de la conquete de Naples par Charles
d'Anjou (1847-49) ; A. Cappefli'a preface to the "Leggenda di Messer
Giovanni da Procida," in Miscellanea di opuscoli inediti o rari dei
secoli XIV. XV. (Turin, 1861) ; F. Lanzani, Storia dei communi
d'ltalia, lib. v. ch. 3 (Milan, 1882).
VESPUCCL AMERIGO (1451-1512), merchant and adven-
turer, who gave his name of Amerigo to the new world as America,
was born at Florence on March 9, 1451. His father, Nastagio
(Anastasio) Vespucci, was a notary, and his uncle, Fra Giorgio
Antonio Vespucci, to whom he owed his education, was a scholarly
Dominican and a friend of Savonarola. Amerigo was placed as a
clerk in the great commercial house of the Medici, then the ruling
family in Florence. A letter of Dec. 30, 1492, shows that he was
then in Seville; and till Jan. 12, 1496, he seems to have usually
resided in Spain, especially at Seville and Cadiz, probably as an
agent of the Medici. In December 1493, on the death of a
Florentine merchant, Juanoto Berardi, established at Seville, who
had fitted out the second expedition of Columbus In 1493, and had
also undertaken to fit out 1 2 ships for the king of Spain (April 9,
i495)> Vespucci was commissioned to complete the contract. As
Ferdinand recalled the monopoly conceded to Columbus (this
order of April 10, 1495, was cancelled on June 2, 1497), "private"
exploring now had an opportunity, and adventurers of all kinds
were able to leave Spain for the West. Vespucci claims to have
sailed with one of these "free-lance" expeditions from Cadiz on
May 10, 1497. Touching at Grand Canary on the way, the four
vessels he accompanied, going 37 days on a west-south-west
course, and making 1,000 leagues, are said to have reached a sup-
posed continental coast in 16° N., 70° W. from Grand Canary
(June 16, 1497). This should have brought them into the Pacific.
They sailed along the coast, says Vespucci, for So leagues to the
province of Farias (or Lariab), and then 870 leagues more, always
to the north-west, to the "finest harbour in the world," which
from this description should be in British Columbia or there-
abouts, thence 106 leagues more to north and north-east, to the
islands of the people called "Iti," from which they returned to
Spain, reaching Cadiz in October 1498. Still following Vespucci's
own statement, he, in May 1499, started on a second voyage in a
fleet of three ships under Alonao de Ojeda (Hojeda). Sailiag
south-west over 500 leagues they crossed the ocean in 44 days,
finding land in 5° S. Thence, encountering various adventures,
they worked up to 15° N., and returned to Spain by way of
Antiglia (Espanola, San Domingo), reaching Cadiz in Sept. 1500.
Entering the service of Dom Manuel of Portugal, Vespucci
claims to have taken part in a third American expedition, which
left Lisbon in May 1501, Vespucci has given two accounts of this
alleged third voyage, differing in many details, especially dates and
distances. From Portugal he declares that he sailed to Bezeguiche
(Cape Verde), and thence south-west for 700 leagues, reaching the
American coast in 5° S. on the 7th (or i7th) of August. Thence
eastward for 300 (150) leagues, and south and west to 52° S. (or
73° 30'; in his own words, "13° from the antarctic pole," i.e., well
into the antarctic continent). He returned, he adds, by Sierra
Leone (June 10), and the Azores (end of July), to Lisbon (Sept.
7, 1502). His second Portuguese (and 'fourth and last American)
voyage, as alleged by him, was destined for Malacca, which he
supposed to be in 33° S. (really in 2° 14' N.). Starting from Lis-
bon on May 10, 1503, with a fleet of six ships, and reaching Bahia
by way of Fernando Noromha (?), Vespucci declares that he
built a fort at a harbour in 18° S., and thence returned to Lisbon
(June 18, 1504). In Feb. 1505, being again in Spain, he visited
Christopher Columbus, who entrusted to him a letter for his son
Diego. On April 24, 1505, Vespucci received Spanish letters of
naturalization ; and in 1508 was appointed piloto mayor or chief
pilot of Spain, an office which he held till his death, at Seville, on
Feb. 22, 1512.
If his own account had been trustworthy, it would have followed
that Vespucci reached the mainland of America eight days before
John Cabot (June 16 against June 24, 1497). But Vespucci's own
statement of his exploring achievements hardly carries conviction.
This statement is contained (i.) in his letter written from Lisbon
(March or April 1503) to Lorenzo Piero Francesco di Medici, the
head of the firm under which his business career had been mostly
spent, describing the alleged Portuguese voyage of March 1501-
Sept. 1502. The original Italian text is lost, but we possess the
Latin translation by "J°cimdus interpreter," perhaps the Giocondo
who brought his invitation to Portugal in 1501. This letter was
printed (in some nine editions) soon after it was written, the first
two issues (Mundus Novus and Epistola Albericii de Novo
Mundo), without p!ace or date, appearing before 1504, the third,
of 1504 (Mundus Novus), at Augsburg. Two very early Paris
editions are also known, and one Strasbourg (De Ora Antarctica)
1505, edited by E. Ringmann. It was also included in the Paesi
novamente retrovati of 1507 (Vicenza) under the title of Novo
Mondo da Alb. Vcsputio. The connection of the new world with
Vespucci, thus expressed, is derived from the argument of this
first letter, that it was right to call Amerigo's discovery a new
world, because it had not been seen before by any one. This pre-
pared the way for the American name soon given to the continent,
(ii.) In Vespucci's letter, also written from Portugal (September
1504), and probably addressed to his old schoolfellow Piero
Soderini, gonfaloniere of Florence 1502-12. From the Italian
original (of which four printed copies still exist, without place or
date, but probably before 1507) a French version was made, and
from the latter a Latin translation, published at St. Di£ in Lor-
raine in April 1507, and immediately made use of in the Cosmo-
grapJtiae Introductio (St. Die, 1507) of Martin Waldseemiiller
(Hylacomylus), professor of cosmography in St. Die university.
Here we have perhaps the first suggestion in a printed book that
the newly discovered fourth part of the world should be called
"America, because Americus discovered it."
Since Alexander von Humboldt discussed the subject in his
Examen critique de I'historie de la geographic du nouvcau con-
tinent (1837), vol. iv., the general weight of opinion (in spite of
F. A. de Varnhagen, Amerigo Vespucci, son car act ere, ses Merits
. . . sa vie . . . , Lima, 1865, and other pro-Vespuccian works)
has been that Vespucci did not make the 1497 voyage, and that
he had no share in the first discovery of the American continent.
See also R. H. Major, Prince Henry the Navigator (1868), pp.
367-388; F. A. de Vamhagen, Le Premier voyage de America Vespucci
(Vienna, 1869) ; Nouyettes recherches sur les derniers voyages du navi-
gaUvr forentin (Vienna, 1869) ; Ainda Amerigo Vespucci Novos
io8
VESTA— VESTMENTS
Estudos (Vienna, 1874) ; Luigi Hugues, // terzo viaggio di A. Fej-
pucci (Florence, 1878) ; "Alcune considerazioni sul Primo Viaggio
di A. Vespucci," in the Boltetino of the Italian Geographical Society,
series ii. vol. x., pp. 248-263, 367-380 (Rome, 1885) ; "II quarto
Viaggio di A. Vespucci," in the same Bolletino, year xx., vol. xxiii.,
PP. 532-554 (Rome, 1886); "Sul nome America* " in the same
Bolletino, series iii. vol. i., pp. 404-427, ^15-530 (Rome, 1888), and
an earlier study under the same title (Turin, 1886) ; "Sopra due
lettere di A. Vespucci," in the same, series iii. vol. iv., pp. 849-872,
929-951 (Rome, 1891) ; Narrative and Critical History of America,
edited by Justin Winsor, vol. ii., pp. 129-186 (1886) ; The Letters
of A. Vespucci (translation, etc., by Clements R. Markham, Hakluyt
Society, 1894) ; • H. Harrisse, A. Vcspuccius (London, 1895); Jos.
Fischer and F. R. von Weiser, The Oldest Map with the Name America
. . . (Innsbruck, 1903) ; B. H. Soulsby in the Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society (Feb. 1902), pp. 201-209; H. Vignaud, A.
Vespucci (1917) ; A. Magnaghi, A. Vespucci (1926). (C. R. B.)
VESTA, the Roman hearth-goddess. The name is etymologi-
cally identical with Hestia (q.v.)t but the Roman cult is nearer
the primitive conditions. In an early community fire was hard
to make, and therefore it was desirable that at least one fire
should be kept always burning. This duty would naturally de-
volve upon the chief or king, and the actual maintenance of the
fire would usually fall to his young daughters, since slaves, if he
had any, would hardly be trusted with a duty considered holy,
he and his sons would be out most of the day, and his wife
would be busy with housework. Much of the actual prepara-
tion of food would also fall upon the daughters, as soon as they
were old enough, for a Roman housewife in early days might not
grind corn or cook food for her husband (Plutarch, quaest. Rom.,
85). Hence we get, in early historical times, besides the private
cult of Vesta and the di penates (q.v.) in every household, a
public cult of a sacred royal hearth, never allowed to go out,
tended by girls (Virgines Vestales) whose service begins when
they are from six to ten years old (Gellius, i. 12, i), and lasts
originally for five years (Dion. Hal., i. 76, 3), i.e., till they are
old enough for marriage, or at least bethrothal. The earliest
cult of this kind was supposed to be that at Lavinium ; the most
famous was at Rome.
In Republican times, the pontifex maximus took the place of
the king for many sacred purposes. The Vestals, whose number
was six, and whose term of service had now been lengthened to
30 years, were in his charge, being freed from the potestas of
their own fathers. They must, when chosen, be of the required
age, free-born of free-born and respectable parents (although
later, daughters of freedmen were eligible), having both parents
alive (patnmae et inatrimae), and free from physical and men-
tal defects. The pontifex took the candidate by the hand, pro-
nouncing a formula of admission to the sacred office; her hair
was cut and the cuttings hung on a certain tree ; she was dressed
in an ancient costume, identical with that of a bride. From this
it does not follow that she was the wife of either fire-god or
king (KJausen, Frazer, Wissowa), but rather that the bride's
dress was that of a virgin. If a Vestal let the fire go out she
was beaten. On such occasions, and also apparently once a year,
when it was solemnly extinguished and re-lighted at the New
Year (March i), the fire was re-kindled by friction of wood (the
use of a burning-glass, Plut, Nutna. 9, if Roman at all, is cer-
tainly a late innovation). If found guilty of unchastity, she was
subjected to an ordeal which amounted to a horrible form of
capital punishment; she was shut up with a little food in an
underground cell, which was covered over with earth. The
Vestals' duties, besides the tending of the fire, comprised the
fetching of water from a sacred spring (Vesta would have no
water from the city mains), the preparation of sacred food-stuffs
(muries, or brine, and mola salsa, coarse meal mixed with salt)
for ritual purposes; also the custody of various holy objects, said
to include the Palladium (q.v.) in the penus Vestae or store-
chamber of the shrine of Vesta, which was so holy that no one
but a Vestal might enter it. They took part in ceremonies of
various kinds, besides Vesta's own elaborate daily ritual. Fur-
ther, the privileges accorded to the Vestals, and especially those
which were extended to their senior, the Virgo Maxima, were
those of princesses.
The shrine of Vesta stood in the Forum, near the Regia, or
palace of the kings. It was not technically a templum but a
round structure, a stone imitation of the primitive "bee-hive"
hut. When Augustus became pontifex maximus, he built a sec-
ond shrine of Vesta on the Palatine and handed over the Regia
to the Vestals. They also had for their quarters the splendid
Atrium Vestae, between the shrine and the Velia. Their cult
continued in great honour throughout the empire, until the abo-
lition of pagan worship by the Christian emperors. Gratian con-
fiscated the Atrium Vestae in 382. Considerable ruins of both it
and the shrine are still to be seen; the former contains numerous
statues (all late) of Vestals. The shrine contained no statue, the
eternal fire serving instead. Images of Vesta of any kind are
rare; when shown in art she is represented as a woman fully
draped, sometimes accompanied by an ass.
Her festival, the Vestalia, was on June 9; thereafter, until
June 15, the shrine was closed for the annual ceremonial cleans-
ing. This period was deemed highly unlucky.
Allied deities were the very old pair of fire-gods, Cacus and
Caca, probably belonging to the Palatine settlement, and the
later Fornax, spirit of the baker's oven (hence Vesta's associa-
tion with the ass, which turns the mill; bakers in early Rome
were also millers).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides the literature given under HESTIA, see A.
Wissowa, Religion u. Kultus, and in Rosc.her, art. VESTA; these give
numerous references to earlier literature; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough,
ii., p. IQS ff. ; H. J. Rose, Primitive Culture in Italy, p. 81 ff., and in
Mnemosyne (1925), p. 410 ff. (H.J.R.)
VESTERAS or WESTERAS, a town and bishop's see of Swe-
den, capital of the district (Ian) of Vestmanland, on a northern
bay of Lake Malar, 60 m. N.W. by W. of Stockholm by rail
Pop. (1928), 29,160. The original name of the town was Vestra
Aros ("western mouth"), in distinction from Gstra Aros, the
former name of Uppsala. Several national diets were held in
Vesteras, the most notable being those of 1527, when Gus-
tavus Vasa formally introduced the Reformation into Sweden,
and 1544, when he had the Swedish throne declared hereditary
in his family. Its Gothic cathedral, rebuilt by Birger Jarl
on an earlier site, and consecrated in 1271, was restored in 1850—
60, and again in 1896-98. The episcopal library contains the valu-
able collection of books which Oxenst jerna, the chancellor of Gus-
tavus Adolphus, brought away from Mainz near the end of the
Thirty Years' War. A castle overlooking the town was captured
by Gustavus Vasa and rebuilt by him, and again in the 1 7th cen-
tury, and remains the seat of the provincial Government.
VESTINI, an ancient Sabine tribe which occupied the east-
ern and northern bank of the Aternus in central Italy. It entered
into the Roman alliance, retaining its own independence, in 304
B.C., and issuing coins of its own in the following century. A
northerly section round Amiternum near the passes into Sabine
country probably received the Caerite franchise soon after. The
local dialect, which belongs to the north Oscan group, survived
certainly to the middle of the 2nd century B.C. (see the inscrip-
tions cited below) and probably until the Social War. The oldest
Latin inscriptions of the district are C.I.L. ix. 3,521, from Furfo
with Sullan alphabet, and 3,574, which cannot be earlier than
100 B.C. (see LATIN LANGUAGE). The Latin first spoken by the
Vestfni was not that of Rome, but that of their neighbours the
Marsi and Aequi (qq.v.). The inscription of Scoppito shows that
at the time at which it was written the upper Aternus valley
must be counted Vestine, not Sabine, in point of dialect.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See PAELIGNI and SABINI, and for the inscriptions
and further details, R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, pp. 258 et seq.
VESTMENTS, ceremonial garments worn by priests and
others in performing the offices of religion. Ecclesiastical vest-
ments, to which this article is confined, are the special articles of
costume worn by the officers of the Christian Church "at all times
of their ministration," as distinct from the "clerical costume"
worn in everyday life. Ecclesiastical vestments may be divided
into two categories: (i) liturgical, (2) non-liturgical. Liturgical
vestments are again divided, under the completed rules of the
Catholic Church, into three classes: (i) Those worn only at
the celebration of mass— chasuble, maniple, pontifical shoes and
VESTMENTS
109
gloves, pallium; (2) those never worn at mass, but at other litur-
gical functions — surplice and cope; (3) those used at both — alb,
amice, stole, dalmatic, tunicle. Non-liturgical vestments are those
— e.g., cappa magna, rochet — which have no sacred character, have
come into use from motives of convenience or as ensigns of dig-
nity, and are worn at secular as well as ecclesiastical functions.
Origin of Ecclesiastical Vestments. — The liturgical vest-
ments of the church are not, as was once supposed, borrowed
from the sacerdotal ornaments of the Jewish ritual, but were
developed out of the articles of dress worn by all and sundry
under the Roman empire.
Thus in the 37th of the so-called "canons of Hippolytus" we
read: "As often as the bishops would partake of the Mysteries,
the presbyters and deacons shall gather round him clad in white,
quite particularly clean clothes, more beautiful than those of the
rest of the people."
When, in the year 258, St. Cyprian was led to martyrdom, he
wore (see Braun, Die liturgische Gcwandung, 1907, p. 65) an
under tunic (linca), an upper tunic (tunica dalmatica) and mantle
(lacerna, byrrus). This was the ordinary type of the civil costume
of the time. The tunica, a loose sack-like tunic with a "hole for
the head, was the innermost garment worn by all classes of Roman
citizens under the republic and empire. The tunica was originally
of white wool, but in the 3rd century it began to be made of
linen, and from the 4th century was always of linen. About the
6th century the long tunica alba (white tunic) went out of fashion
in civil life, but it was retained in the services of the Church and
developed into the various forms of the liturgical alb (q.v.) and
surplice (q.v.). The tunica dalmatica was a long, sleeved upper
tunic, originating, as its name implies, in Dalrnatia, and first
becoming fashionable at Rome in the 2nd century; it is the origin
of the liturgical dalmatic and tunicle (see DALMATIC). Another
over-dress of the Romans was the paenula, a cloak akin to the
poncho of the modern Spaniards and Spanish Americans, i.e., a
large piece of stuff with a hole for the head to go through, hanging
in ample folds round the body. This was originally worn only by
slaves, soldiers and other people
of low degree ; in the 3rd century,
however, it was adopted by fash-
ionable people as a convenient
riding or travelling cloak; and
finally, by the sumptuary law de-
creed by the emperor Theodosius
in 382, it was prescribed as the
proper everyday dress of sena-
tors, instead of the military
chlamys, the toga being reserved
for state occasions. This was the
origin of the principal liturgical
vestment, the chasuble (q.v.).
As late as the 6th century these
garments were common both to
the clergy and laity, and, so far
as their character was concerned,
were used both in the liturgy and
in everyday life. Meanwhile,
however, a certain development
had taken place. By the 4th cen-
tury the garments worn at litur-
gical functions had been sepa- FIG. i.— YESTMENTSX>F POPE HON.
rated from those in ordinary use, ORIUS CD. eas), FROM A MOSAIC
though still identical in form. "* s. AGNESE IN ROME
It is in the 4th century, too, that the first distinctive vest-
ment makes its appearance, the omophorion worn by all bishops
in the East; in the 5th century we find this in use at Rome under
the name of pallium (q.v.), as the distinctive ornament of the
pope (see fig. i). About the same time the orarium, or stole
(q.v.), becomes fixed in liturgical use. The main development and
definition of the ecclesiastical vestments, however, took place
between the 6th and 9th centuries. The secular fashions altered
with changes of taste; but the Church retained the dress with the
other traditions of the Roman empire. At Rome, especially, where
(H"OEN> ""'
the popes had succeeded to a share of the power and pretensions
of the Caesars of the West, the accumulation of ecclesiastical
vestments symbolized a very special dignity: in the second quar-
ter of the 9th century the pope, when fully vested, wore a camisia
girdled (see ROCHET), an alb (linea) girdled, an amice (anago-
laium), a tunicle (dalmatica minor), a dalmatic (dalmatica ma-
jor), stole (orarium), chasuble (planet a) and pallium. With the
exception of the pallium, this was also the costume of the Roman
deacons. By this time, moreover, the liturgical character of the
vestments was so completely established that they were no longer
worn instead of, but over, the ordinary dress.
Hitherto the example of the Roman Church had exercised no
exclusive determining influence on ritual development even in the
West. The popes had, from time to time, sent the pallium or the
dalmatic — specifically Roman vestments — as gifts of honour to
various distinguished prelates; Britain, converted by a Roman
mission, had adopted the Roman use, and English missionaries
had carried this into the newly Christianized parts of Germany;
but the great Churches of Spain and Gaul preserved their own
traditions in vestments as in other matters. From the 9th cen-
tury onwards, however, after the revival of the Roman empire by
Charlemagne, this was changed; everywhere in the West the
Roman use ousted the regional uses.
The process of assimilation, however, was by no means one-
sided. If Spain and Gaul borrowed from Rome, they also exer-
cised a reciprocal influence on the Roman use; it is interesting
to note, in this connection, that of the names of the liturgical
vestments a very large proportion are not of Roman origin, and
that the non-Roman names tended to supersede the Roman in
Rome itself. Apart from the archiepiscopal pallium, the Churches
of Spain and Gaul had need to borrow from Rome only the dal-
matic, maniple and liturgical shoes.
The period between the 9th and the i3th centuries is that of
the final development of the liturgical vestments in the West. In
the Qth century appeared the pontifical gloves; in the loth, the
mitre; in the nth, the use of liturgical shoes and stockings was
reserved for cardinals and bishops. By the i2th century, mitre
and gloves were worn by all bishops.
In an age when, with the feudal organization of society, even
everyday costume was becoming a uniform, symbolizing the exact
status of the wearer, it was natural that in the Church the official
vestments should undergo a similar process. With this process,
which was practically completed in the nth century, doctrinal
developments had little or nothing to do, though from the 9th
century onwards liturgiologists were busy expounding the mystic
symbolism of garments which hitherto had for the most part no
symbolism whatever. Yet in view of later controversies, the
changes made during this period, notably in the vestments con-
nected with the mass, are not without significance. Hitherto the
chasuble had been worn indifferently by all ministers at the eucha-
rist, even by the acolytes; it had been worn also at processions and
other non-liturgical functions; it was now exalted into the mass
vestment par excellence. New vestments took the place, on less
solemn occasions, of those hallowed by association with the holy
sacrifice; thus the processional cope (q.v.) appeared in the nth
century and the surplice (q.v.) in the i2th. A change, too, came
over the general character of vestments. Up to the 9th century
these had been very plain; what splendour they had was due to
their material and the ample folds of their draperies. But from
this time onwards they tend to become more and more elaborately
decorated with embroidery and jeweller's work (see, e.g., the
articles CHASUBLE and COPE).
Very significant, too, is the parting of the ways in the develop-
ment of Jiturgical vestments in the East and West. During the
first centuries both branches of the Church had used vestments
substantially the same, developed from common originals; the
alb, chasuble, stole and pallium were the equivalents of the sti-
charion, phenailion, orarion and omophorion. While, however, be-
tween the 9th and i3th centuries, the Western Church was adding
largely to her store of vestments, that of the East increased her
list by but three, the encheirion, epimanikia (see MANIPLE) and
the sakkos (see DALMATIC).
no
VESTMENTS
In the Western Church, though considerable alterations con-
tinued to be made in the shape and decoration of the liturgical
vestments, and in this respect various Churches developed different
traditions, the definition of their use was established by the close
of the 1 3th century and still continues in force. Before discussing
the changes made in the Reformed Churches, due to the doctrinal
developments of the i6th century, we may therefore give here a
list of the vestments now worn by the various orders of clergy in
the Roman Catholic Church and the Oriental Churches.
Roman Catholic Church.— As the sacrifice of the mass is the
central mystery of the Catholic faith, the vestments worn by the
priest when celebrating mass are the most important. The cassock
(q.v.), which must always be worn under the vestments, is not
itself a liturgical garment. Over this the priest, robing for mass,
puts on the amice, alb, girdle (cingnlum), maniple, stole and chas-
uble. Taking the other orders downwards: deacons wear amice,
alb, girdle, maniple, stole and dalmatic; subdeacons, amice, alb,
girdle, maniple and tunicle; the vestment proper to the minor
orders, formerly the alb, is now the surplice or cotta. (The stole
and maniple alone arc symbolical of order, i.e., of the relation to
the sacrifice of the mass.) Bishops, as belonging to the order of
priesthood with completed powers, wear the same vestments as the
priests, with the addition of the pectoral cross, the pontifical
gloves and ring; liturgical sandals and stockings; a tunicle and
dalmatic worn over the stole and under the chasuble, and the mitre
(see fig. 3). Archbishops, on solemn occasions, wear the pallium
over the chasuble (see fig. 2). Bishops also carry a pastoral
staff (q.D.) as a symbol of their pastoral office. Finally, the pope,
when celebrating mass, wears the same vestments as an ordinary
bishop, with addition of the subdnctorium (see ALB), and orale
or Janone (see AMICE). It should be noted that the liturgical
head-dress of the pope is the mitre, not the tiara, which is the
symbol of his supreme office and jurisdiction (see TIARA).
Of the liturgical vestments not immediately or exclusively
associated with the sacrifice of the mass the most conspicuous are
the cope and surplice. The bi-
retta, too, though not in its origin
or in some of its uses a liturgical
vestment, has developed a dis-
tinctly liturgical character (see
BIRETTA). Besides the strictly
liturgical vestments there are also
numerous articles of costume
worn at choir services, in proces-
sions, or on ceremonial occasions
in everyday life, which have no
sacral character; such are the
almuce (q.v.), the cappa and
mozzetta (see COPE), the rochet
(q.v,), the pileolus, a skull-cap,
worn also sometimes under mitre
and tiara. These are generally
ensigns of dignity; their form and
use vary in different churches,
and they often represent special
privileges conferred by the popes,
e.g., the cappa of the Lateran
STl
basilica worn by the canons of JET, """"' ""Y"" "">I"Y
(*tLL
FlG. 2. — VESTMENTS OF STfGAND.
ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
FROM THE BAYEUX
Westminster cathedral, or the al-
muce worn, by concession of
Pope Pius IX., by the members (>°52-io70);
of the Sistine choir. TAPESTRY
Oriental Churches.— As already stated, the vestments of the
great historical Churches of the East are derived from the same
Graeco-Roman originals as those of the West, but in contradis-
tinction to the latter they have remained practically stereotyped,
both in character and number, for a thousand years; in the East,
however, even more than in the West the tendency to gorgeous
ornamentation has prevailed.
An Orthodox bishop, vested for the holy liturgy, wears over his
cassock: (i) the sticharion or alb (q.v.)-y (2) the epitrachelion
or stole (q.v.) ; (3) the zone, a narrow stuff girdle clasped behind,
which holds together the two vestments above named; (4) the
epimanikia, liturgical cuffs, corresponding, possibly, to the ponti-
fical gloves of the West; (5) the epigonation, a stiff lozenge-shaped
piece of stuff hanging at the right side by a piece of riband from
the girdle or attached to the sakkos, the equivalent of the Western
maniple (q.v.)', (6) the sakkos, like the Western dalmatic (q.v.),
worn instead of the phainolion, or chasuble; (7) the omophorion,
the equivalent of the Western pallium (q.v.). Besides these, the
bishop wears a pectoral cross
(engkolpiori) and a medal con-
taining a relic (panagia). He also
has a mitre (q.v.), and carries a
crozier (dikanikion) t a rather
short staff ending in two curved
branches with serpents' heads,
with a cross between them.
'The vestments of a priest are
the sticharion, epitrachelion, gir-
dle, epimanikia and phainolion
(see CHASUBLE). He wears all
these vestments only at the cele-
bration of the eucharist and on
other very solemn occasions; at
other ministrations he wears only
the epitrachelion and phainolion
over his cassock. A dignitary in
priest's orders is distinguished by
wearing the epigonation; and in
Russia the use of the mitre is
sometimes conceded to distin-
Lu.rii"«,«ADu,°"IIMT" (M"D"' """ Srishsd priests by the tsar. The
FIG. 3.— VESTMENTS OF THE MONU- deacon wears the sticharion, with-
MENTAL FIGURE OF BISHOP JOHAN- out a girdle, the epimanikia, and
I NES OF LflBECK (D. 1350) IN LU- the orarion (see STOLE) hanging
BECK CATHEDRAL, GERMANY ovcr his left shoulder. The lesser
orders wear a shorter sticharion and an orarion wound round it.
On less solemn occasions bishops wear the mandyas, a cope-
like garment fastened at the lower corners as well as at the neck,
j and the kalimaukion, a tall, brimless hat, with a veil hanging down
1 behind, and in place of the dikanikion they carry a short staff
with an ivory cross-piece.
The Liturgical Colours. — In another respect the vestments
of the Eastern differ from those of the Western Church. In the
i East there is no sequence of liturgical colours ; the vestments are
usually white or red, and stiff with gold embroidery. In the West
the custom, long universal, of marking the seasons of the ecclesias-
tical year and the more prominent fasts and festivals by the
colour of the vestments of clergy and altar, dates, approximately,
from the I2th century, certain rules being laid down by Pope Inno-
cent III., c. 1200, which are still those of the Roman Church.
According to the rubric of the Roman Missal (tit. xviii.) the
liturgical colours are five: white, red, green, violet, black. The
following is a list of the occasions to which the various colours are
appropriated : —
White. — Christmas to octave of Epiphany, Trinity Sunday, all
festivals of Christ (except those of the Passion), of the Blessed
Virgin, the Holy Angels and Confessors, holy virgins and women
(not martyrs), nativity of St. John the Baptist, festivals of the
! chains of St. Peter and of his see (cathedra Petri), Conversion
j of St. Paul, All Saints, consecration of churches and altars, anni-
j versary of election and coronation of popes, and of election and
[ consecration of bishops. White is also worn during the octaves
of these festivals, on ordinary days (for which no special colour is
provided) between Easter and Whitsuntide, at certain special
masses connected with the saints falling under the above category
and at bridal masses. White is also the colour proper to sacra-
mental processions, and generally to all devotions connected with
the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament. At baptisms the priest
wears a violet stole during the first part of the service, i.e., the
exorcization, then changes it for a white one. White is worn at the
funerals of children.
Red.— Saturday before Whit Sunday, Whit Sunday and its
VESTMENTS
FIG, 4. — VESTMENTS OF DR. HENRY
octave; all festivals in commemoration of the sufferings of Christ,
i.e., festival of the instruments of the Passion, of the Precious
Blood, of the invention and elevation of the Cross ; all festivals of
apostles, except those above noted; festivals of martyrs; masses
for a papal election; the Feast of the Holy Innocents, when it falls
on a Sunday (violet if on a week-day), and its octave (always
red). In England red vestments are worn at the mass (of the
Holy Spirit) attended by the Roman Catholic judges and barristers
at the opening of term, the so-
called "Red Mass."
Green. — From the octave of
Epiphany to Septuagesima, and
between Trinity and Advent, ex-
cept festivals and their octaves
and Ember days.
Violet. — Advent ; the days be-
tween Septuagesima and Maundy
Thursday; vigils that fall on fast
'days, and Ember days, except the
vigil before Whit Sunday (red)
and the Ember days in Whit sun
week (red). Violet vestments are
also worn on days of intercession,
at votive masses of the Passion,
at certain other masses of a pro-
nouncedly intercessory and peni-
tential character, at intercessory
processions, at the blessing of
candles on Candlemas Day, and
at the blessing of the baptismal
water. A violet stole is worn by SEVER" (D"""i47i)7 FRO M~A BRASS
the priest when giving absolution IN THE CHAPEL OF MERTON COL-
after confession, and when ad- LEGE, OXFORD, SHOWING SURPLICE,
ministering extreme unction. ALMUCE, AND COPE
Black. — Masses for the dead and funeral ceremonies of adults;
the mass of the presanctified on Good Friday.
In the Anglican Church, where the liturgical colours have been
revived, these generally follow the Roman use. Some churches,
however, have adopted the colours of the use of Salisbury
(Sarum), which was in force before the Reformation throughout
the province, of Canterbury.
Benediction of Vestments.— In the Roman Catholic Church
the amice, alb, girdle, stole, maniple, chasuble must be solemnly
blessed by the bishop or his delegate, the prayers and other forms
to be observed being set forth in the Pontificate (see BENEDIC-
TION). Other vestments — e.g., dalmatic, tunicle, surplice — are
sometimes blessed when used in connection with the sacrifice of
the mass, but there is no definite rule on the subject.
Mystic Meaning of Vestments.— The origin of the vestments
was in course of time forgotten, and they began to develop a
symbolic meaning. The earliest record of any attempt to inter-
pret this symbolism that we possess is, so far as the West is con-
cerned, the short exposition in the Explicatio Missae of Germanus,
bishop of Paris (ci. 576), the earliest of any elaboration that
of Hrabanus Maurus (d. 856). From the latter's time onward
a host of liturgists took up the theme, arguing from the form, the
material, the colour and the fashion of wearing the various gar-
ments to symbolical interpretations almost as numerous as the
interpreters themselves. We cannot, even outline here the process
of selection by which the symbolic meanings now stereotyped in
the Roman Pontifical were arrived at. They are now formulated
in the words used by the bishop when, in ordaining to any office,
he places the vestment on the ordinand with the appropriate words,
e.g., "Take the amice, which signifies discipline in speech," while
other interpretations survive in the prayers offered by the priest
when vesting, e.g., with the amice, "Place on my head the helmet
of salvation," etc.
Protestant Churches.— In the Protestant Churches the cus-
tom as to vestments differs widely, corresponding to a similar
divergence in tradition and teaching. At the Reformation two
tendencies became apparent. Luther and his followers regarded
vestments as among the adiaphora, and in the Churches which
afterwards came to be known as "Lutheran" many of the tradi-
tional vestments were retained. Calvin, on the other hand, laid
stress on the principle of the utmost simplicity in public worship;
at Geneva the traditional vestments were absolutely abolished,
and the Genevan model was followed by the Calvinistic or "Re-
formed" Churches throughout Europe. The Church of England,
in which the Lutheran and Calvinistic points of view struggled for
the mastery, a struggle which resulted in a compromise, is separ-
ately dealt with below. At the present day the Lutheran Churches
of Denmark and Scandinavia retain the use of alb and chasuble
in the celebration of the eucharist (stole, amice, girdle and maniple
were disused after the Reformation), and for bishops the cope
and mitre. The surplice is not used, the ministers conducting the
ordinary services and preaching in a black gown, of the i6th
century type, with white bands or ruff. In Germany the Evangeli-
cal Church (outcome of a compromise between Lutherans and
Reformed) has, in general, now discarded the old vestments. In
isolated instances (e.g., at Leipzig) the surplice is still worn; but
the pastors now usually wear a barret cap, a black gown of the
type worn by Luther himself, and white bands. In Prussia the
superintendents now wear pectoral crosses (instituted by the
emperor William II.). In the "Reformed" Churches the minister
wears the black "Geneva" gown with bands. It is to be noted,
however, that this use has been largely discontinued in the modern
"Free" Churches. On the other hand, some of these have in recent
times adopted the surplice, and in one at least (the "Irvingite"
or Catholic Apostolic Church) the traditional Catholic vestments
have been largely revived.
Anglican Church. — In the matter of the vestments the Re-
formation in England passed through several stages. Under Henry
VIII. no alterations were made. In the first Prayer Book of Ed-
ward VI. (1549) the Lutheran example seems to have been fol-
lowed: the priest at Holy Communion is directed to wear "a white
alb plain with a vestment or
cope," while the assisting priests
or deacons are to wear "albs with
tunicles." Elsewhere there are
directions for the wearing of sur-
plice and hood at choir services
in cathedrals and collegiate
churches, and bishops are directed
to wear, besides a rochet, a sur-
plice or alb, and a cope or vest-
ment, with a pastoral staff borne
either by themselves or their
chaplains. Of the amice, girdle,
maniple and stole there is no
word; and, in view of the prac-
tice of the "Lutheran" Churches,
it appears that these vestments
were to be disused.
The intention of the framers
of this book, among whom was
Bishop Ridley, was to substitute
the Holy Communion for the
Mass considered as a sacrifice. It
was soon found, however, that
the conservative clergy took ad-
vantage of the retention of so
much of the old liturgy to cele-
brate it as "a verie masse." To
guard against this the second
Prayer Book of Edward VI. , in addition to changing the order of
the prayer of consecration, prescribed as the sole vestment of the
minister the surplice, which had never been associated with the
sacrifice of the mass, but had been for many centuries the vest-
ment proper to the administration of the sacraments (see SUR-
PLICE). This book was, of course, suppressed during the reaction
of Queen Mary's reign, but in 1559, after the accession of Eliza-
beth, parliament once more adopted it, and passed the Act of
Uniformity, which made its use obligatory on all.
The Ornaments Rubric.— In the Prayer Book of 1559 no
FIG. S.—VESTMENTS OF CRANLEY,
ARCHBIStfOP OF DUBLIN (D. 1417),
FROM A BRASS IN NEW COLLEGE
CHAPEL. OXFORD. SHOWING MITRE.
AMICE, CHASUBLE, MANIPLE, DAL-
MATIC, TUNICLE, STOLE, ALB,
GLOVES AND CALIGAE, AND WEAR.
ING THE PALLIUM OVER THE CHAS-
UBLE
112
VESTRIS
explicit directions were given as to the vestments to be worn. It is
probable that the queen, from motives of policy as well as per-
sonal tastes, wished to preserve as far as possible the outward
forms of the "old religion." However this may be, the Act of
Uniformity, prefixed to the new Prayer Book, ended with a section
directing that the ornaments of the Church and of the ministers
thereof were to be "retained and had in use" as they were "by
authority of Parliament in the second year of the reign of King
Edward VI., until other order shall be
therein taken by the authority of the
Queen's Majesty, with the advice of the
Commissioners appointed and authorized
under the Great Seal of England, or of the
Metropolitan." The rubric in the Prayer
Book itself, apparently inserted by the
Privy Council without the authority of
parliament, ran: ". . . the minister at the
time of the Communion, and at other
times of his administration, shall use etc.
. . . according to the Act of Parliament
at the beginning of this book." The word-
ing of the "Ornaments rubric" in the
Prayer Book as revised in 1662, and still
in use, was taken directly from the last
section of the Act of Uniformity.
This ambiguous procedure lies at the
root of the troubles which have since dis-
tracted the Church of England. The sec-
ond year of Edward VI. is now admitted
to mean the first Prayer Book, which ^
. . i , „ i »» • "UITT. "COITUIII ON
authorized, not indeed all the Mass vest- BKASSKS- (MORINO
ments, but at least the most conspicuous FIG. e.— VESTMENTS OF
of them. Yet nothing is historically clearer ANGLICAN PRIEST IN CAS. j
than the fact that these vestments were BARROW TACK* SCA^
not retained. If they continued anywhere FROM A BRASS OF WIL-
in use after 1559, it was not for long. LIAM DYE* (D. ise?) AT
Whatever the letter of the law under the WESTERHAM. KENT
rubric, the Protestant bishops and the commissioners made short
work of such "popish stuff" as chasubles, albs and the like. As
for copes, in some places they were ordered to be worn, and were
worn at the Holy Communion, while elsewhere they were burned.
The difficulty seems to have been not to suppress the chasuble,
of the use of which after 1559 not a single authoritative instance
has been adduced, but to save the surplice, which the more zealous
Puritans looked on with scarcely less disfavour. At last, in 1565,
Queen Elizabeth determined to secure uniformity. The result
was the issue in 1566 by the archbishop of the statutory Adver-
tisements, which fixed the vestments of the clergy as follows:
( i ) In the ministration of the Holy Communion in cathedral and
collegiate churches, the principal minister to wear a cope, with
gospeller and epistoler agreeably; at all other prayers to be said
at the Communion table, to use no copes but surplices; (2) the
dean and prebendaries to wear surplice and hood; (3) every
minister saying public prayers, or ministering the sacraments, to
wear "a comely surplice with sleeves." For 300 years these direc-
tions (confirmed by the canons of 1603) governed the use of the
Church of England in the matter of vestments, though the
cope came to be worn only on occasions of high ceremony.
With the growth of the "Oxford" or "Tractarian" movement,
from 1830 onward, there came a change. The revival of high
sacramental doctrine and of the belief in the Sacrifice of the Mass
(which was ingeniously distinguished from the "sacrifices of
masses" denounced in the XXXIX. Articles) naturally led to a
movement to revive the use of the vestments which symbolized
these doctrines. Opposition was naturally aroused; the law was
appealed to; and the judicial committee of the Privy Council
(Hebbert v. Purchas, 1870, and Ridsdale v. Clifton, 1877) de-
cided that the Advertisements of 1566 were the "other order"
contemplated in Elizabeth's Act of Uniformity, and that from
this time the cope and surplice were the only vestments legal in
the Church of England. In the course of their judgment their
lordships pointed out that the Advertisements had been accepted
as authoritative by the canons of 1603 ( canons 24 and 58), and
argued convincingly that the revisers of the Prayer Book in 1662,
in restoring the rubric of 1559, had no idea of legalizing any vest-
ments other than those in customary use under the Advertise-
ments and the canons.
This judgment was far from settling the question. The "ritual-
istic" clergy refused to obey it, on the ground that it was not
delivered by a spiritual court; and, in the absence of any gener-
ally recognized authority, the clergy did what was right in their
own eyes, until in place of the old ideal expressed in the Acts of
Uniformity, there were almost as many "uses" as parishes, doc-
trine and the vestments which symbolized it varying through
every shade from Rome to Geneva. Thirty years after the Rids-
dale judgment the confusion had become so great that it was
felt that something must be done to restore at least a sem-
blance of unity, the dominant opinion
being that this could best be done by
sanctifying with some sort of authority the
parochial uses which had grown up. To
this end convocation appointed a sub-
committee of five bishops to investigate
the matter. Their report "On the Orna-
ments of the Church and its Ministers" —
a learned and ingenious document — was
presented in 1908. It concluded that under
the Ornaments Rubric the vestments pre-
scribed in the first Prayer Book of Edward
VI. are permitted, if not enjoined.
This naturally gave a great impetus to
the "Anglo-Catholic" movement, which
was now favoured by many, if not most,
of the bishops; but nothing could be done
to give the revived practices legal validity
so long as the Church continued to be
effectively under the control of Parlia-
ment. The situation in this respect was
altered by the so-called Enabling Act of
1919, which gave tu the Church powers of FIG. ?.— VESTMENTS OF
self-government, measures passed by the ARCHBISHOP OF GREEK
Convocations and the newly established ^"^s CHURi" "*
Church Assembly being subject only to the
veto of parliament. Early in 1927 an alternative Prayer Book,
drawn up by a committee of bishops and intended, among other
things, to regularize practices of doubtful legality under the old
book, was adopted by both Convocations and by the Church As-
sembly. The rubric in this alternative book (the old Prayer Book
still being retained alongside of it) directs that the minister at the
Holy Communion is to wear either a surplice with stole or scarf,
or "an alb plain with a vestment or cope." The last direction, bor-
rowed from the first Prayer Book of Edward VI., is not explained,
and "an alb plain" therefore seems to mean without amice, maniple
and girdle, the stole being admitted by implication. The alterna-
tive Prayer Book was submitted to Parliament in 1928 but was
rejected by the House of Commons.
BJHLIOGRAPHY. — Father Joseph Braun's Die JJturgische Gewandung
(Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1907) is a monument of careful and painstak-
ing research. See also Mgr. L. Duchesne's Origines du culte chritien
(1903), and especially C. RohauU de Fleury's La Messe (1883-89). See
also F. X. Kraus, Realencykhpddie der christlichen Altertilmer (Frei-
burg.-i.-B. 1882, 1886) ; Smith and Chcetham, Diet, of Christian An-
tiquities (ed. 1893) and The Catholic Encyclopedia (1907 onwards).
For the vestment question in the Church of England see the report
of the sub-committee of Convocation on The Ornaments of the Church
and its Ministers (1908) ; Hiewrgia Anglicana, documents and extracts
illustrative of the ceremonial of the Anglican Church after the Refor-
mation, new ed. revised and enlarged by Vernon Stalcy (1902-3) ; J.
T. Tomlinson, The Prayer Book, Articles and Homilies (1897), a
polemical work from the Protestant point of view, but scholarly and
based on a mass of contemporary authorities to which references are
given; the bishop of Exeter, The Ornaments Rubric (1901) , a pam-
phlet. For the legal aspect of the question see G. J. Talbot, Modern
Decisions on Ritual (1894). (W. A. P.)
VESTRIS, LUCIA ELIZABETH (1797-1856), English
actress, was born in London in Jan. 1797, the daughter of Gaetano
Stefano Bartolozzi (1757-1821) and granddaughter of Francesco
VESUVIUS— VETCH
Bartolozzi, the engraver. In 1813 she married Auguste Armand
Vestris, who deserted her four years later. Madame Vestris had
made her first appearance in Italian opera in the title-role of
Peter Winter's // ratio di Proserpina at the King's theatre in
1815. She had an immediate success in both London and Paris,
where she played Camille to Talma's Horace in Horace. Her
first hit in English was at Drury Lane in James Cobb's (1756-
1818) Siege of Belgrade (1820). She was particularly a favourite
in "breeches parts," like Cherubino in the Marriage of Figaro,
and in Don Giovanni. In 1831 she became lessee of the Olympic
theatre, and began the presentation of a series of burlesques and
extravaganzas for which she made this house famous. She mar-
ried Charles James Mathcws (q.v.) in 1838, accompanying him
to America and aiding him in his subsequent managerial ventures.
She died in London on Aug. 8, 1856.
See C, E, Pearce, Madame Vestris and her Times (1923).
VESUVIUS, a volcano rising from the eastern margin of
the Bay of Naples in Italy, about 7 m. E.S.E. of Naples. The
height of the mountain varies from time to time within limits
of several hundred feet, but averages about 4,000 ft. above sea-
level (in June 1900, 4,275 ft., but after the eruption of 1906
3,668 ft.). Vesuvius consists of two distinct portions. On the
northern side a lofty semicircular cliff, reaching a height of 3,714
ft., half encircles the present active cone, and descends in long
slopes to the plains. This precipice, Monte Somma, forms the
wall of a vastly greater prehistoric crater.
At the beginning of the Christian era, and for many previous
centuries, no eruption had been known. Strabo, however, detected
the probable volcanic origin of the cone and drew attention to its
fire-eaten rocks. The sides of the mountain were richly cultivated,
as they are still, the vineyards being 'of extraordinary fertility.
Pompeian wine jars are frequently marked with the name Vesu-
vinum (vinum). (The wine is now known as Lacrima Christi.)
On the barren summit lay a wide flat depression, walled by rugged
rock festooned with wild vines. The present crater-wall of Monte
Somma is doubtless a relic of that time. It was in this lofty
rock-girt hollow that the gladiator Spartacus was besieged by the
praetor Claudius Pulcher (73 B.C.) : he escaped by twisting ropes
of vine branches and descending through unguarded fissures in
the crater-rim. A painting discovered when excavating in Pompeii
in 1879 represents Vesuvius before the eruption (Notizie degli
scaviy 1880, pi. vii.).
After centuries of quiescence the volcanic energy began again
to manifest itself in a succession of earthquakes, which spread
alarm through Campania. For some sixteen years after 63 these
convulsions did much damage to the surrounding towns. On Aug.
24, 79, the earthquakes, which had been growing more violent,
culminated in a tremendous explosion of Vesuvius. A contempo-
rary account of this event has been preserved in two letters of
the younger Pliny (Epist. vi. 16, 20) to the historian Tacitus,
He was staying at Misenum with his uncle, the elder Pliny, who
was in command of the fleet. The latter set out on the afternoon
of the 24th to attempt to rescue people at Herculaneum, but came
too late, and went to Stabiae, where he spent the night, and died
the following morning, suffocated by the poisonous fumes. Three
towns are known to have been destroyed — Herculaneum at the
western base of the volcano, Pompeii on the south-east side, and
Stabiae, which was situated farther south on the site of the mod-
ern Castellamare.
For nearly fifteen hundred years after the catastrophe of 79
Vesuvius remained in a condition of less activity. Occasional
eruptions are mentioned, in A.D. 202, 472, 512. 685, 993, 1036,
1049, 1139. At length, after a series of earthquakes lasting for
six months and gradually increasing in violence, the volcano burst
into renewed paroxysmal activity on Dec. 16, 1631. Though the
inhabitants bad been warned by the earlier convulsions of the
mountain, so swiftly did destruction come upon them that 18,000
are said to have lost their lives.
Since this great convulsion, which emptied the crater, Vesuvius
has never again relapsed into a condition of total quiescence. At
intervals, varying from a few weeks or months to a few years,
it has broken out into eruption, sometimes emitting only steam,
dust and scoriae, but frequently also streams of lava. The years
1766-67, 1779, 1794, 1822, 1872, 1906 and 1929 were marked by
special activity. The extensive eruption of 1906 completely
altered the conformation and aspect of the cone, considerably
reducing its height.
The modern cone of the mountain has been built up by suc-
cessive discharges of lava and fragmentary materials round a
vent of eruption, which lies a little south of the centre of the
prehistoric crater. The southern segment of the ancient cone, an-
swering to the semicircular wall of Somma on the north side, has
been almost concealed, but is still traceable among the younger
accumulations. The numerous deep ravines which indented the
sides of the prehistoric volcano, and still form a marked feature
on the outer slopes of Somma, have on the south side served as
channels to guide the currents of lava from the younger cone.
On one of the ridges between these radiating valleys an observa-
tory for watching the progress of the volcano was established
by the Neapolitan government (1844), and is now a national
institution. A continuous record of each phase in the volcanic
changes has been taken, and some progress has been made in
the study of the phenomena of Vesuvius, and in prognosticating
the occurrence and probable intensity of eruptions. The foot
of the cone is reached from Naples by electric railway, and thence
a wire-rope railway (opened in 1880) carries visitors to within
150 yd. of the mouth of the crater.
See John Phillips, Vesuvius (1869) ; Pompei e la Regione Sotterrata
dal Vesuvio neW Anno 79 (Naples, 1879) ; L. Palmieri, Vesuvio e la sua
Storia (Milan, 1880) ; H. J. Johnstone-Lavis, "The Geology of Monte
Somma and Vesuvius" (1884), in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xl. p.
85; J. L. Lobley, Mount Vesuvius (London, 1889) ; F. Furchheim,
Bibliografia del Vesuvio (Naples, 1897) ; T. McK. Hughes, "Hercu-
laneum," in Proc. Camb. Antiq. Soc. No. xlviii. p. 25 (Cambridge,
1908) ; A. Lacroix, £tude mmeralogique des products silicates de
Itruption du Vtsuve 1006 (1907) ; K. Burkhalter, A us dcm Reiche des
Vesuves (Steffisburg, 1908) ; F. Zambonini, Mineralogia Vesuviana
(Naples, 1910) ; F. A. Perrett, The Vesuvius Eruption of 1006 (Wash-
ington, 1924). (A. GEJ.; T. A.)
VETCH, in botany, the English name for Vicia sativa, also
known as tares, a leguminous annual herb with trailing or climb-
ing stems, compound leaves with five or six pairs of leaflets,
reddish-purple flowers borne singly or in pairs in the leaf-axis,
and a silky pod containing four to ten smooth seeds. The wild
form, sometimes regarded as a distinct species, V. angnstifolia,
is common in dry soils. There are two races of the cultivated
vetch, winter and spring vetches: the former, a hardy form,
capable of enduring frost, has smoother, more cylindrical pods
with smaller seeds than the summer variety, and gives less bulk
of stem and leaves. The spring vetch is a more delicate plant and
grows more rapidly and luxuriantly than the winter variety.
The name vetch is applied to other species of the genus Vicia.
Vicia orobus, bitter vetch, and V. sylvatica, wood vetch, are
British plants. Another British plant, Hippocrepis, is known as
horseshoe vetch from the fact of its pod breaking into several
horseshoe-shaped joints. Anthyllis vnlneraria is kidney-vetch,
a herb with heads of usually yellow flowers, found on dry banks.
AstragaluSj another genus of Leguminosae, is known as milk-
vetch; species of Coronilla are known as crown vetch.
Vetches are a very valuable forage crop indigenous to Great
Britain. Vetches are well adapted for poor soils. They arc gener-
ally used in combination with grass and clover, beginning with the
first cutting of the latter in May, taking the winter vetches in June,
recurring to the Italian rye grass or clover as the second cutting is
ready, and afterwards bringing the spring vetches into use. Each
crop of vetch can thus be utilized when in its best condition for
cattle food. (X.)
Cultivation in the United States.— Vetches are most ex-
tensively grown in the Pacific Coast area in the States of Wash-
ington, Oregon and California, and in the Great Lakes area in the
States of Michigan, Indiana, Ohio and New York. In the latter
region hairy vetch (V. villosa) is used almost exclusively, while
in the former region common vetch (V. sativa) is much more fre-
quently planted. Hairy vetch is chiefly grown for green manure
and seed crop. Common vetch, while widely grown as a soil-
improving crop, is used in western Oregon and Washington for
VETERANS' BUREAU— VETERINARY SCIENCE
pasturage, silage, hay, green fodder and seed crop. In general,
the cultural practices with vetches are the same as in European
countries. Like other legumes, vetches require the presence of
certain symbiotic bacteria for their successful development; in
planting vetch on lands for the first time such bacteria must
be supplied by artificial inoculation.
Besides the hairy and the common vetch, several other species
are grown to a limited extent, as the Hungarian vetch (V. pan-
nonica) and the purple vetch (V. atropurpurea) in the Pacific
States, and the monantha vetch (V . monantha} in the Gulf States.
(R. McKE.)
CULTIVATION AND TRADE
Vetches have long been esteemed as a supplementary green
food for summer feeding, but in recent years they have been ex-
tensively cultivated also for the purposes of ensilage. Although
a certain proportion of the vetch acreage must be cultivated for
seed production, the crop is not commonly grown for its grain,
but is generally cut in the (lowering or early-seeding stage for the
purposes first mentioned. Sometimes, however, vetches are grown
in association with rye for early spring gracing — though earliness
of growth in spring is not one of the special features of the vetch
plant. Grown in association with oats they form a useful mixture
for silage, for conversion into hay, or for green fodder.
There are two varieties of the common vetch (Vicia sativa),
viz., the winter and the summer sorts. The botanical distinctions
between the two varieties are not very pronounced, and in prac-
tice greater reliance must be placed on the parentage of the seed
than on its name. When winter vetches are required, it is important
to obtain seed from a crop that had been sown in the autumn,
Vetches are adapted for a very wide range of soils, but yield
the greatest bulk of forage on land of the heavier and more moist
class. The crop is usually grown without yard manure, but where
this is available the vetch can make good use of it. In the absence
of dung, a complete mixture of artificial manures should be given
where the soil is in poor heart.
Even when intended for seed production, vetches are commonly
grown in association with another crop that will afford mechanical
support. For ensilage, typical mixtures for autumn sowing are
two bushels of tares and j bushel of rye per acre; and two bushels
of tares, i bushel of beans and i bushel of winter oats. These
are for light and heavy land respectively. On rich land, however,
lighter seedings of tares are required to avoid lodging, the differ-
ence being made up by increased quantities of beans and oats.
The vetches grown in Great Britain are put to a variety of
uses. About 15% of the area is cut for hay, about 60% is cut
for green fodder or silage, and about 25% is harvested ripe for
the seed. A certain amount of green fodder and hay is sold to
horse and cow owners in towns, but this trade declined very
sharply with the reduction in the number of horses and of town
dairies, and is now very small. Of the seed, only about 5,000
tons per annum are placed on the market, 70% of the produce
being used for seed purposes or for feeding to stock on farms.
That sold is usually bought for poultry and pigeon mixtures. Im-
ports of vetch seed averaged only 25,000 tons in the five years
1922 to 1926, the bulk corning from the Baltic.
(J. R. B,; H. C. L.)
VETERANS' BUREAU: see PENSIONS IN UNITED STATES.
VETERINARY SCIENCE, the branch of knowledge that
deals with the anatomy of domesticated animals, their physiology
and racial characteristics, their breeding, feeding and hygienic
management; the pathology and treatment of their diseases and
injuries; the improvement of stock; their relations to man with
regard to inter-communicable maladies and to his use of their
flesh and products. Here the subject is considered in relation to
medicine; other aspects are treated under special headings. (See
HORSE, Doc, etc.; ANTHRAX, CANINE DISTEMPER, GLANDERS,
etc.; SLAUGHTER-HOUSE and ABATTOIRS; and the comparative
anatomy sections of separate anatomical articles.)
History. — The veterinary art in its modern development dat.es
from the establishment of the veterinary school of Lyons in
1761. Schools were established in London in 1791; Edinburgh,
1823; Glasgow, 1863; Dublin, 1900; and Liverpool 1904 (trans-
fer of a second Edinburgh school founded in 1873).
The profession was first organized in Great Britain by the
foundation in 1844 of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.
This body regulates the examinations of students who must be
trained in an affiliated veterinary college, appoints examiners, and
admits as members of the college all who pass the qualifying ex-
aminations. There is thus only one portal into the veterinary
profession. The Royal college keeps the statutory register of
veterinary surgeons, has power to remove the names of members
convicted of misdemeanours or of conduct disgraceful in a pro-
fessional respect, and to prosecute unregistered persons who use
a title stating that they are specially qualified to practise (Veteri-
nary Surgeons Act, 1881). The recognized course of instruction
covers a period of four years after the passing of an approved
examination in general education, and leads to the diploma of
M.R.C.V.S. Possession of this diploma is essential for com-
missioned rank in the Royal Army Veterinary Corps and for
appointment as government veterinary officers in Great Britain
and in the Dominions.
The Royal college also grants the postgraduate diploma of
fellow, after presentation of a thesis of sufficient merit and the
passing of a special examination. The college diploma in veteri-
nary state medicine is awarded after nine months' postgraduate
study in epizootiology, veterinary bacteriology, and protozoology,
veterinary hygiene and toxicology, chemistry, meat inspection,
dairy and milk inspection, administration and reporting. The
universities of London, Edinburgh and Liverpool grant degrees in
veterinary science (bachelor, master and doctor) ; the course is
usually taken with that for the qualifying diploma but occupies
five years. The degree in itself does not confer a licence to prac-
tise or entitle to registration. Liverpool university grants a post-
graduate diploma in veterinary hygiene, and Manchester uni-
versity a diploma in veterinary State medicine.
The veterinarian is in Great Britain legally debarred from
treating certain diseases, e.g., plcuro-pneumonia of cattle, rinder-
pest, glanders, epizootic lymphangitis, sheep-pox, rabies and foot
and mouth disease. The Diseases of Animals Acts, 1894-1925, and
the orders made thereunder provide for notification of the above-
named diseases.
The Orders also provide for the notification of anthrax, para-
sitic mange of horses, sheep-scab, swine fever and certain forms
of tuberculosis. Diagnosis of suspected disease by veterinary in-
spectors is followed by segregation, and destruction of diseased
and in-contact animals where necessary with suitable compensa-
tion. Many markets and farms, and all ports, arc systematically
inspected and all importation of animals controlled. The Ministry
of Agriculture and Fisheries has a staff of veterinary inspectors
for this work and for the investigation of other animal diseases.
Local authorities in Great Britain and Ireland employ veteri-
nary officers, either whole-time or part-time, for meat and milk
inspection and to carry out the statutory duties of the authority
for the eradication of contagious disease.
Research institutes have been established in London, Cam-
bridge, Edinburgh, Weybridge and elsewhere, for the investiga-
tion of animal diseases and for the preparation of vaccines and
sera for their prevention or treatment. Similar institutes have
been created in many of the Dominions and Colonies.
In the United States courses leading to the degree of Doctor of
Veterinary Science require three years and in the best colleges four
years, the requirements for admission being a high-school educa-
tion or its equivalent. Most of the State Universities have veteri-
nary colleges in connection with their schools of agriculture and
some of them give a six-year combined course leading to degrees
in both agriculture and veterinary medicine. The American Vet-
erinary Medical Association holds a place comparable to that of
the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons in Great Britain and
exercises an influence on the setting of standards in the profes-
sion. Practitioners must be graduates of an acceptable school to
gain admission. Besides the demand for private practice in rural
localities, especially in connection with the growing dairy indus-
try, the Bureau of Animal Industries, U.S. Dept. of Agri., employs
VETERINARY SCIENCE
about a thousand veterinarians as meat inspectors, quarantine
agents, and in extension work. The Veterinary Corps is a division
of the Medical Department of the Army. Veterinary graduates
are also in demand as State Veterinarians, as teachers and gov-
ernment research workers.
DISEASES OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS
Reference is made here only to some of the more important
disorders other than those described in separate articles which
treat of ACTINOMYCOSIS, ANTHRAX, ABORTION, CANINE DIS-
TEMPER, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, GLANDERS, PLEURO-PNEU-
MONIA, RABIES, RINDERPEST, SWINE FEVER. In the treatment
of animal patients the main object is to place them in those con-
ditions which allow nature to operate most freely in restoring
health. Fresh air, cleanliness, quiet and comfort, should be se-
cured as far as possible.
The Horse. — Epizootic Lymphangitis is a chronic contagious
disease, characterized by inflammation of the superficial lymphatic
vessels and regional lymphatic glands. Nodular swellings appear
which soften and discharge a creamy pus, with formation of
ulcers. The eruptions usually appear on the limbs but may occur
elsewhere, and are caused by the cryptococcus of Rivolta. Inocu-
lation probably occurs through a wound, and lesions slowly ap-
pear. Affected animals are destroyed; they do not react to
mallein, and the disease is thus distinguished from glanders.
Strangles is an acute contagious disease in which there is in-
flammation of the mucous membrane of the upper air passages
and suppuration of lymphatic glands, usually the submaxillary,
but other glands may be involved An organism, streptococcus
eqidy is always present in the nasal discharge and in the abscess
cavities, and is the probable cause, but a filterable virus has been
suggested as the primary causative factor. Formerly common
amongst young horses, it is becoming a rare disease under modern
conditions. There is fever, catarrh, diminished appetite, languor
and sore-throat; the suppurating glands become swollen and pain-
ful, and then soften and discharge pus. Recovery usually follows
and immunity is acquired. Irregular or atypical forms of the
disease occur, and are more dangerous. Infection takes place by
inhalation and ingestion and also by inoculation or wound in-
fection, with involvement of the associated lymph glands so
that any part of the body may be affected. Widespread abscess
formation is sometimes seen, due to pyaemic infection of the
blood stream.
Horse-pox (variola equina), a rare and benign disease, spreads
like cowpox, by contact, and may be transmitted to man. Lesions
appear on the skin, in the hollows of the heels, on the back of the
limbs, and on mucous membranes, mouth, nose, etc. Isolation,
with strict cleanliness, for three weeks is advisable.
Cattle. — Black-quarter or Blackleg is a specific infection of
young cattle, the causal organism being B. chauveii. Large crepi-
tant swellings develop in the quarter or other parts; there is high
fever, with lameness, and later, marked depression, and death
occurs within two days. Immunity can, however, be conferred
by vaccination with blackleg aggressin, and the disease can thus
be controlled.
Mammitis, or Garget, of which there arc acute and chronic
forms, is due to a streptococcus transmitted usually in the process
of milking. In acute cases the udder becomes swollen, hot and
painful; in others the course is gradual, with little constitutional
disturbance, the incubation period lasting for months. The milk
may tye scarcely altered or greatly changed and offensive. Tuber-
culous mastitis is of great importance and is usually chronic.
Prevention depends on immediate isolation of affected animals,
careful inspection, and cleanliness in housing and milking.
Milk Fever. — An intoxication associated with lactation most
frequently met with in recently calved high-grade cows, but the
goat, sow, bitch, mare and ewe are also susceptible. Symptoms
vary widely, but usually involve the nervous system, causing
excitement, spasms, paralysis, coma, and there is often marked
disturbance of respiration, circulation and digestion. By inflation
of the udder with filtered air or oxygen, as introduced by Schmidt
of Kolding, Denmark, the mortality in this once fatal disease
has been brought very low. Goats, ewes and mares respond to
this treatment equally well.
Johne's Disease. — A chronic specific enteritis of cattle, caused
by the growth in the intestinal mucous membrane and mesenteric
glands of a bacillus discovered by Johne. It produces thickening
of the bowel and interferes with food absorption; there is
diarrhoea and extreme wasting. The course is long, sometimes
years, and in such cases the animals are ''carriers." Infection is
by food contaminated with infected excreta. Early diagnosis is
difficult. Suspected animals should be slaughtered; no treatment
is effectual in severe cases. Some animals improve, put on
weight, and again relapse. Isolation is important.
Cowpox (variola vaccinia), is a mild, contagious, eruptive dis-
ease of the udder and teats; the eruption at its height, when not
altered by attempts at milking, shows a depressed centre, a raised
silvery edge, containing lymph, and outside this a pink areola.
It is transmissible to man, and affords protection against small-
pox. (See VACCINATION.) In cows it requires little treatment.
Sheep-pox (variola ovina) is the most serious of all the
variola of animals. It is highly infectious, and benign and
malignant forms are met with. It occurs in France and southern
and eastern European countries, but not in America or Australia.
It is unlikely to appear in Great Britain. The virus is ultra-
visible, and very resistant.
Foot-rot, a specific infectious disease of the feet in sheep, is
said to be caused by the bacillus of necrosis, but this is probably
a secondary invader. It is a soil disease, rare in hilly or light
lands, but common on deep soils. Lameness may be severe, tissue
changes marked, and the hoofs deformed. Arsenical footbaths
are useful for mass treatment. Infected animals should not be
introduced to sound flocks.
Tuberculosis. — An inoculable and infectious disease caused by
the bacillus of Koch, of which there are three types, human,
bovine and avian. No domestic animal is completely immune, but
cattle, pigs and poultry are chiefly affected. In cattle, grape-like
masses form in the chest and abdominal cavity, the lymphatic
glands become enlarged and caseous, and diseased centres appear
! in the substance of the organs. The symptoms vary greatly ac-
! cording to the organs attacked. Cattle in apparent health may
on post-mortem show extensive invasion. The tuberculin test is
efficient in proving the existence of infection, but not its degree,
and emaciated, heavily-affected animals may fail to react. Con-
; genital tuberculosis is rare, post-natal infection being the rule.
This fact induced Bang to advocate isolation of reactors, with
pasteurization of milk, for eliminating tuberculosis from herds.
Calmettc has introduced a live vaccine (B.C.G.) so modified that
although it confers immunity from natural infection it is not
pathogenic for animals or men. "Open tuberculosis'* is a term
applied to advanced cases of the disease affecting the lungs, bowels,
womb, and udder, or otherwise discharging bacilli and therefore
dangerous, and by the Tuberculosis Order all such cases must be
notified. In pigs the glands of the throat and the bones are often
diseased, and in the latter case the meat is condemned. The
bovine bacillus, found in meat and particularly in milk, is the
cause of considerable disease, especially in children.
Poultry Diseases. — The diseases here mentioned are all highly
contagious and fatal. In all cases segregation, and rigid disin-
fection of runs, incubators and fittings are essential.
Dacillary White Diarrhoea is the most important disease of
fowls in this country, and responsible for more losses than all
other diseases combined. It runs an acute course in chicks and
a chronic course in adults. Chicks which survive an outbreak
may become "carriers," and on reaching maturity produce eggs
containing the causal agent, B. Pullorum. The disease is mainly
introduced by infected eggs, day-old chicks, or adult "carrier"
fowls. "Carriers" can be detected by the agglutination test.
CoccidiosiSy next in importance, is caused by the protozoan
Eimeria avium, and attacks chicks from two to eight weeks old.
The mortality varies from 20 to 90%, depending on their age.
Fowl Pox, a contagious disease due to a filter-passing virus, is
characterized by eruptive lesions on the skin or its appendages, by
diphtheritic membranes in the mouth, or by an oculo-nasal dis-
ri6
VETO— VEXILLUM
charge. There may be present only one of these lesions, or a
combination of them, in the same bird.
Fowl Typhoid, enzootic in Wales and the bordering counties,
and the cause of heavy annual losses, is a contagious septicaemia,
the symptoms being pallidity of comb and a characteristic green-
ish yellow diarrhoea. The incubation period is about six days
and death may occur within 16 days.
Gapes, due to worms in the wind-pipe causing the bird to gasp
for breath, affects mainly young chicks. Gape- worm eggs passed
in the bird's faeces contain larvae after ten days' time, and may
hatch; infestation is caused by swallowing free larvae or eggs
containing larvae. Prevention is by isolation. Turkeys frequently
carry the parasite, and should not run with chickens.
Fowl Cholera, very rare in Great Britain, is caused by B.
avisepticus. It is characterized by profuse diarrhoea and is highly
fatal. The intestinal mucous membrane usually shows acute in-
flammation and small haemorrhages are frequently present in
the heart.
'Fowl Plague, due to a filter-passing virus, has an incubation
period of 24 to 48 hours; treatment is useless.
Parasitology. — The small intestines of colts are frequently
infested with Ascaris equorum, producing malnutrition and
anaemia, but the large intestine is the great worm reservoir for the
horse. Here the stron$yle$ are found, of which both larvae and
adults induce disease. The former taken in with the food, pene-
trate the mucous membrane, reach certain tissues and blood
vessels and finally return to the bowel. Sclerostoma tetracantha
has a similar cycle except that it docs not enter the blood vessels
or distant tissues. Its symptoms are emaciation, foetid diarrhoea
and weakness. The egg-laying females of Oxynris cttrvula pass
from the bowel to the anal region and produce pruritus. The
botfly passes its larval stage in the stomach and when the larvae
are numerous may cause disease. In sheep and cattle the common
fluke Distoma hepaticivm infests the liver, causing the highly
fatal "liver rot." Small stomach strongylcs produce serious effects
in young cattle and lambs, with inflammation and diarrhoea, fol-
lowed by death from exhaustion. In cattle, sheep and pigs small
thread-worms induce bronchitis, husk, and pneumonia. None of
these parasites multiplies inside the host ; eggs and larvae pass to
the exterior in the droppings or sputum, undergo certain changes,
and return with the food. Tapeworms infest the domestic ani-
mals, particularly dogs and lambs. The larval Hydatids, or
bladder-worms, are found in various organs, brain, liver, muscles,
etc., causing giddiness and paralysis. Pigs are frequently infested
with Ascaris lumbric aides, which may cause obstruction when
numerous, and may wander into the bile ducts and induce fatal
jaundice. External parasites cause disease of the skin, e.g.,
mange, scab and ring-worm in all domestic animals. Ticks and
various flies are responsible for transmitting diseases due to blood
parasites, e.g., redwater in cattle (England), Texas fever, equine
biliary fever, jaundice in dogs, surra in horses and camels, heart-
water in ruminants (South Africa). Much advance has recently
been made in the treatment of these diseases by organic com-
pounds of arsenic, antimony, etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— L. G. Neumann, Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of
Domestic Animals (1905) ; F. Dun, Veterinary Medicines (Edinburgh,
IQIO) ; G. D. Laudcr, Veterinary Toxicology (1912); G. Fleming,
Veterinary Obstetrics (1912) ; J. A. W. Dollar, Veterinary Surgery and
Operative Technique (1912) ; F. T. G. Hobday, Anaesthesia of Animals
and Birds (1915); E. W. Iloare, System of Veterinary Medicine (2
vols., 1915) ; S. Sisson, The Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals
(1917) ; P. G. Heincmann, Milk (Philadelphia, 1919) ; D. N. Paton
and J. B. Orr, Physiology for Veterinary Students (Edinburgh, 1920) ;
Sir F. Smith, Veterinary Physiology (1921) ; R. G. Linton, Veterinary
Hygiene (Edinburgh, 1921) ; Sir J. McFadycan, Anatomy of the
Horse (Edinburgh, 1023) ; F. Smith, History of Veterinary Literature
(2 vols., 1924) ; J- Reighard and H. Jenning, Anatomy of the Cat
(1925) ; F. Hutyra and J. Marck, Special Pathology and Therapeutics
of Diseases of Domestic Animals (3 vols., 1926) ; G. Leighton, Meat
Inspection (Edinburgh, 1927) ; R. G. Linton, Animal Nutrition and
Dietetics (Edinburgh, 1927) ; R. A. Kclser, Veterinary Bacteriology
(1927) ; O. C. Bradley, Topographical Anatomy of the Dog (Edin-
burgh, 1928) ; Encyclopaedia of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery t
edit. G. H. Wooldridpe (1926) ; Black's Veterinary Dictionary (1928) ;
Annual Register of Veterinary Surgeons; Handbook for Veterinary
Surgeons; Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics
(quarterly, Croydon) ; Tropical Veterinary Bulletin (quarterly) ;
Veterinary Journal (monthly); Veterinary Record (weekly).
(F. Bu.;F. T. H.)
VETO, generally the right of preventing any act, or its actual
prohibition; in public law, the constitutional right of the com-
petent authority, or in republics of the whole people in their
primary assembly, to protest against a legislative or administra-
tive act, and to prevent wholly or temporarily, its validation or
execution. See CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.
VETTER, a lake of south Sweden, 80 m. long and 18 m. in
extreme breadth, 733 sq.m. in area, 390 ft. maximum depth, and an
elevation above sea-level of 289 ft. It drains by the Motala river
to the Baltic. Its waters are remarkably transparent and blue, its
shores picturesque and steep on the east side, where the Omberg
(863 ft.) rises abruptly, with furrowed flanks pierced by caves.
The lake is subject to sudden storms. Its northern part is crossed
from Karlsborg to Motala by the'Gota canal route. At the south-
ern end is the important manufacturing town of Jonkoping, and
15 m. N. of it the picturesque island of Vising. Vadstena, 8 m. S.
of Motala, with a staple industry in lace, has a convent (now a
hospital) of St. Bridget (1383), a beautiful monastic church
(1395-1424) and a castle of King Gustavus Vasa. At Alvastra,
16 m. S., are ruins of a Cistercian monastery (nth century).
VETULONIA, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy. It lies
1,130 ft. above sea-level, about 10 m. directly N.W. of Grosseto,
on the north-east side of the hills which project from the flat
Marcmma and form the promontory of Castiglione. In Etruscan
times there was a bay here. Silius Italicus tells us that it was
hence that the Romans took their magisterial insignia (fasces,
curule chair, purple toga and brazen trumpets), .and it was un-
doubtedly one of the twelve cities of Etruria. There are remains
of the acropolis walls of massive limestone, in almost horizontal
course, and also of houses and a street of the Roman period.
The earliest tombs found belong to the Villanovan period
(First Benacci to late Second Benacci stage). Next come transi-
tional tombs (in some of which hut-urns arc found) surrounded
by a ring of stones, and a few graves which are very early Etrus-
can: and then a group of important palaeo-Etruscan tombs (850-
700 B.C.), most of them circle graves, in which objects of very
great value and interest have been found. The objects found are
in the museum at Florence.
See Randall Maclver, Villanovans and Early Etruscans (1924).
VEVEY, a small town in the Swiss canton of Vaud, near the
eastern extremity of the Lake of Geneva. In 1920 it had a popula-
tion of 12,768, of whom 9,634 were French-speaking, while there
were 8,692 Protestants, 3,835 Roman Catholics and 74 Jews.
Vevey was a Roman settlement (Viviscus) and later formed part
of the barony of Vaud, that was held by the counts and dukes of
Savoy till 1536, when it was conquered by Bern. In 1798 it was
freed from Bernese rule and became part of the canton du Lernan
(renamed canton de Vaud in 1803) of the Helvetic Republic.
Vevey is by rail 1 2 m. S.E. of Lausanne, and is well served by
steamers plying over the Lake of Geneva,. It is the second town
in point of population in the canton. It stands at the mouth of the
Veveyse, and commands fine views of the mountains. The whole
of the surrounding country is covered with vineyards. Every
twenty years or so the Fete dcs Vignerons is held here by an
ancient gild of vinedressers. It was last held in 1927.
VEXILLUM, the name for a small ensign consisting of a
square cloth suspended from a cross-piece fixed to a spear [Lat.
dim. of velum, piece of cloth, sail, awning, or from where, vectum,
to carry]. The vexillum was strictly the ensign of the maniple,
as signum was of the cohort, but the term came to be used for
all standards or ensigns other than the eagle (aquild) of the
legion (see FLAG). Caesar (B.C. ii. 20) uses the phrase vexillum
proponere of the red flag hoisted over the general's tent as a
signal for the march or battle. The standard-bearer of the maniple
was styled vexttlarius, but by the time of the Empire vexillum
and vexillarius had gained a new significance. Tacitus uses these
terms frequently both of a body of soldiers serving apart from
the legion under a separate standard and also with the addition
of some word implying connection with a legion of those soldiers
who, after serving 16 years with the legion, continued their serv-
VEZELAY— VICAR
117
ice, under their own vexillum, with the legion (see also COLOURS,
MILITARY). The term is also used for the scarf wrapped round
a bishop's pastoral staff (q.v.). Modern science has adopted
the word for the web or vein of a feather of a bird and of the
large upper petal of flowers, such as the pea.
VEZELAY, a village of France, in the department of Yonne,
10 m. W.S.W. of Avallon by road. Its population, which was over
10,000 in the middle ages, was 421 in 1926. The history of Vezelay
is bound up with its Benedictine abbey, which was founded in
the gth century under the influence of the abbey of Cluny. The
acquisition of the relics of St. Magdalen, soon after its founda-
tion, began to attract crowds of pilgrims, whose presence enriched
both the monks and the town which had grown up round the
abbey and acknowledged its supremacy. In the i2th century
the exactions of the abbot Artaud and the refusal of the monks
to grant politic^ independence, to the citizens resulted in an
insurrection in which the abbey was burnt and the abbot mur-
dered. During the next fifty years three similar revolts occurred,
fanned by the counts of Nevers. During the i2th century
Vezelay was the scene of the preaching of the second crusade in
1146, and of the assumption of the cross in 1190 by Richard
Coeur de Lion and Philip Augustus. The influence of the abbey
began to diminish in 1280; its decline was hastened during the
wars of religion of the i6th century.
Vezelay stands on a hill on the left bank of the Cure, and still
preserves most of its ancient ramparts, notably the Porte Neuve,
consisting of two massive towers flanking a gateway. The famous
church of La Madeleine dates from the i2th century and was
restored by Viollet-le-Duc. It consists of a narthex, with nave
and aisles; a triple nave, without triforium, entered from the
narthex by three doorways; transepts; and a choir with triforium.
The oldest portion of the church is the nave, constructed about
1125. Its groined vaulting is supported on wide, low, semicircular
arches, and on piers and columns, the capitals of which are finely
carved. The narthex was probably built about 1140. The central
entrance, leading from it to the nave, consists of two doorways,
divided by a central pier supporting sculptured figures, and is
surmounted by a carved tympanum. The choir and transepts are
later in date than the rest of the church, which they surpass in
height and grace of proportion. They were doubtless built in
place of a Romanesque choir damaged in a fire in 1165. A crypt
beneath the choir is perhaps the relic of a previous Romanesque
church which was destroyed by fire in 1120. The west facade
of the Madeleine has three portals; that in the centre is divided
by a pier and surmounted by a sculptured tympanum. The upper
portion of this front belongs to the i3th century.
VIANDEN, an ancient town in the grand duchy of Luxem-
bourg, on the banks of the Our, close to the Prussian frontier.
Pop. about 2,500. It possesses one of the oldest charters in
Europe, granted early in the i4th century by Philip, count of
Vianden, who was the ancestor of William of Orange. The
original name of Vianden was Viennensis or Vienna. The ruins
of the ancient castle stand on an eminence of the little town. Its
size and importance in its prime may be gauged from the fact
that the Knights' Hall could accommodate five hundred men-at-
arms. A feature of the chapel is a hexagonal hole in the centre
of the floor, opening upon a bare subterranean chamber, which
seems to have been constructed by order of the crusader Count
Frederick II. on the model of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
VIAREGGIO, a maritime town and sea-bathing resort of
Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, on the Mediterranean,
13 m. N.W. of Pisa by rail, 7 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921)
25,224 (town), 27,618 (commune). Being sheltered by dense
pine-woods on the north, it is frequented as a winter resort, and in
summer by some thousands for its sea-bathing. In 1740 the popu-
lation was only 300, and in 1841, 6,549. The body of Shelley was
burned on the shore near Viareggio after his death by drowning
in 1822. At Varignano near Viareggio is a large oil refinery.
VIATICUM, a Latin word meaning "provision for a jour-
ney" (Gr.rd ^65ta), is used by early Christian writers to denote
anything that gave spiritual comfort to the dying. Ultimately
it came to be restricted to the last communion given to the
dying. In extreme cases the viaticum may be given to per-
sons not fasting, and the same person may receive it frequently
if his illness be prolonged. The ritual administration is that
prescribed for the communion of the sick, except in the for-
mula "Accipe, f rater (soror), viaticum corporis Domini nostri
Jesu Christi, qui te custodiat ab hoste maligno, et perducat in
vitam aeternam. Amen." The viaticum is given before extreme
unction, a reversal of the mediaeval practice due to the importance
of receiving the Eucharist while the mind is still clear.
VIBORG, a town of Denmark, capital of the amt (county)
of its name, lying in the district of Jutland, on Viborg lake. Pop.
(1928), 15,357. The most notable building is the cathedral (1130-
69, restored 1864-76). It contains some famous modern paint-
ings by Joachim Skovgaard. The Black Friars' church is of the
1 3th century, and the museum possesses specimens of the Stone,
Bronze and Iron Ages. The Borgcvold Park borders the lake on
the site of a former castle. The industries embrace distilleries,
iron foundries and manufactures of cloth. There is beautiful
scenery in the hilly country near Lake Hald, to the south.
VIBORG: see VIIPURI.
VIBURNUM, a genus of handsome shrubs (rarely small
trees) of the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae, q.v.), compris-
ing about no species, found in temperate and subtropical regions,
especially in eastern Asia and North America, many of which are
planted for ornament. They are usually upright rather large
shrubs with opposite, simple, medium-sized leaves, and numerous
flowers, mostly in large umbel-like clusters, the marginal flowers
sometimes enlarged and sterile. The fruit is a drupe, often highly
coloured, with a single, usually flattened stone. Two sixties are
native to Great Britain: V. Lantana (wayfaring-tree), found
widely also in Europe and naturalized in the eastern United States;
and V. Qp-ulus (guelder-rose), indigenous to Europe and Asia. The
common snowball of the gardens is a floral variant of the latter.
In the United States and Canada some 15 species occur, several
of which are widely distributed. Four species attain the size of
trees: V. Lent ago (nanny-berry), V. prunijolium (black haw), V.
rnfidulum (rusty black haw) and V. obovatum (small viburnum).
Well-known shrubby species are V. trilobunt (high-bush cran-
berry), V. alnijolium (hobble-bush), V. dentatum (arrow-wood),
and V. acerijolium (dockmackie).
Besides the foregoing many other species are cultivated for their
ornamental foliage, flowers and fruit.
VICAR, a title, more especially ecclesiastical, describing vari-
ous officials acting in some special way for a superior. Cicero uses
vicarius to describe an under-slave kept by another slave as
part of his private property. The vicarius was an important offi-
cial in the reorganized empire of Diocletian. It remained as a
title of secular officials in the middle ages, being applied to persons
appointed by the Roman emperor to judge cases in distant parts
of the empire, or to wield power in certain districts, or, in the
absence of the emperor, over all the empire. In the early middle
ages the term was applied to representatives of a count adminis-
tering justice for him in the country or small towns and dealing
with unimportant cases, levying taxes, etc. Monasteries and re-
ligious houses often employed a vicar to answer to their feudal
lords for those of their lands which did not pass into mortmain.
The title of "vicar of Jesus Christ," borne by the popes, was
introduced as their special designation during the 8th century, in
place of the older style of "vicar of St. Peter" (or vicarius prin*
cipis apostolorum).
All bishops were looked upon as in some sort vicars of the
pope, but the title vicarius scdis apostolicae came especially to be
applied as an alternative to legatus sedis apostolicae to describe
papal legates to whom in certain places the pope delegated a
portion of his authority. Pope Benedict XIV. tells us in his treatise
De synodo dioecesana that the pope often names vicars-apostolic
for the government of a particular diocese because the episcopal
see is vacant or, being filled, the titular bishop cannot fulfil his
functions. The Roman Catholic Church in England was governed
by vicars-apostolic from 1685 until 1850, when Pope Pius IX.
re-established the hierarchy. Vicars-apostolic at the present day
are nearly always titular bishops taking their titles from places not
u8
VICENTE
acknowledging allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.
Sometimes the pope appointed a neighbouring bishop as the
vicar of a church which happened to be without a pastor. A special
vicar was appointed by the pope to superintend the spiritual af-
fairs of Rome and its suburbs, to visit its churches, monasteries,
etc., and to correct abuses. It became early a custom for the
prebendaries and canons of a cathedral to employ "priest-vicars"
or "vicars-choral" as their substitutes when it was their turn as
hebdomadary to sing High Mass and conduct divine office. In
the English Church these priest-vicars remain in the cathedrals
of the old foundations as beneucecl clergy on the foundation; in
the cathedrals of the new foundation they are paid by the chap-
ters. "Lay vicars" also were and are employed to sing those parts
of the office which can be sung by laymen. The incumbent of a
parish where the titles are impropriate is entitled vicar.
In the Anglican Church a vicar-general is employed by the arch-
bishop of Canterbury and some other bishops to assist in such
matters as ecclesiastical visitations. In the Roman Catholic
Church bishops sometimes appoint lesser vicars to exercise a more
limited authority over a limited district. They are called "vicars-
forane" or rural deans. They are entrusted especially with the
surveillance of the parish priests and other priests of their dis-
tricts, and with matters of ecclesiastical discipline. They are
charged especially with the care of sick priests and in case of death
with the celebration of their funerals and the charge of their
vacant parishes. In canon law priests doing work in place of the
parish priest are called vicars. Thus in France the cure or head
priest in a parish church is assisted by several vicaircs.
See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae el infmiar Latinitatis, ed. L.
Favrc (Niort, 1883, etc.) ; Migne, Encyclopedic. thcoloxique, series i.
vol. 10 (Droit Canon) ; Comte de Mas Latrie, Trtsor de chronologic
(Paris, 1889) ; and Sir R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Laiv of the
Church oj England (2nd cd. 1895).
VICENTE, GIL (c. 1465-1536?), sometimes called the Por-
tuguese Shakespeare, was born in the latter part of the reign of
King Alphonso V. The first half of his life is vague. He was of
humble birth and almost certainly spent his boyhood in some
mountain village of the north of Portugal. He was perhaps ap-
prenticed later to his father or uncle, Martim Vicente, goldsmith
of Guimaraes, and first came to the court at Evora, with many
other provincials, on the occasion of the marriage of King Joao
II. 's young son and heir to a daughter of the Catholic king in 1490.
His work as goldsmith attracted the attention of Queen Lianor,
and after the death of her son in 1491, and her husband four
years later and the accession of her brother Manuel, Vicente re-
tained her favour. It was at her request that he contributed (in
1509) a few verses to a poetical contest printed in the Cancioneiro
Geral (1516). On the evening of June 7, 1502, the day after
the birth of King Manuel's heir, the future Joao III., Vicente with
a few others, dressed as herdsmen, entered the queen's chamber
and recited a rustic monologue of 114 lines in Spanish. This
primitive Auto da Visit a^am pleased Queen Lianor, and for the
following Christmas Vicente had ready a longer but equally simple
Ant'o Pastoril Castelhano.
For the next 34 years he was a kind of poet laureate, accom-
panying the court from Lisbon to Almeirim, Thomar, Coimbra
or Evora and staging his plays to celebrate great events and the
solemn occasions of Christmas, Easter and Maundy Thursday.
The departure of a Portuguese fleet on the expedition against
Azamor in 1513 turned his attention to more national themes, and
in the Exhort a^do da Guerra (1513") and Auto da Fama (1515),
inspired by the splendid victories of Albuquerque in the East, he
wrote fervent patriotic verse which still stirs the hearts of his
countrymen. Vicente's first wife, Branca Bezcrra, may have died
at about this time, and it seems that he was a widower when
in 1514 he produced the charming Contedia do Viuvo.
His career as goldsmith kept pace with his growing success as
dramatist. In 1509 he was appointed overseer of works in gold
and silver at Thomar and elsewhere; in 1512 he was elected to the
Lisbon Guild of Goldsmiths, and in Oct. 1513 he became one of
their four representatives on the Lisbon town council. On Feb.
4 of this year he was appointed master of the Lisbon mint, a post
which he resigned on Aug. 6, 1517, in favour of Diogo Rodriguez,
whose sister Melicia he married, perhaps in the same year. After
the death of King Manuel in 1521 and of Queen Lianor four years
later, Vicente frequently complains of poverty, but he received
various pensions in the new reign; his accomplished daughter
Paula won the favour of Princess Maria (1521-77); and he en-
joyed the personal friendship of King Joao III.
On the occasion of the departure by sea of King Manuel's
daughter Bcatriz to wed the duke of Savoy in Aug. 1521, Vicente's
; Cortes de Jupiter was acted in a large room "adorned with tap-
• estry of gold," a fact chronicled by his friend, the poet Resende.
I The Fragoa de Amor (1524) was also written for a court occasion,
! the betrothal of King Joao III. to the sister of the Emperor
Charles V. In the Auto Pastoril Portugues (1523), the farce 0
Jmz da Beira (1525), the Tragi-comedia da Serra da Estrella
(1527; and the satirical O Clcrigo^da Beira (1529—30) he returned
to the people, to the peasants and shepherds of The Beira moun-
tain country which he knew so intimately.
He devoted himself more and more to the stage and multiplied
himself in answer to the critics of Sa de Miranda's school. In
1526 came the Templo de Apolo, followed in rapid succession by
the biblical play Sumario da Historia de Dens, the Nao de Amorcs,
the Divisa da Cidade de Coimbra, and the Farsa dos Almocreves,
These last three plays, with the Serra da Estrella, were all pro-
duced before the court in 1527 at Lisbon and Coimbra. On the
other hand the Auto da Festa appears to have been acted in a
private house at Evora. The elaborate Auto da Feira (1528)
with its living popular types, contains some exceedingly caustic
satire against Rome (personified on the stage) : "You remit tht
sins of the whole world and forget to shrive yourself." It musl
be remembered that this was not a question of religion but oJ
national politics: the relations of the devout Joao III. with th<
Vatican were often as troubled as those of his equally pious anc
even more regalist nephew Philip II. of Spain.
Vicente was now over 60, but he retained his vigour and ver
satility. The brilliant scenes of two of his last plays, the Romagen,
de Agravados (1533) and the Floresta de Enganos (1536), are
loosely put together, and may well be earlier work; but the lyrical
power of the Triunfo do Inverno (1529) and the long, compact
Amadis de Gaula (1532) prove that his hand had lost none of its
cunning and that his mind remained alert and young. The Auto
da Mofina Mendes (1534), partly a, religious allegory, partly a
version of "Pierrette et son pot au lait," shows his old lightness
of touch and penetrating charm. The Auto da Lusitania, which
was acted in the presence of the court in 1532, may with some
plausibility be identified with the Cafa de Segredos at which Vi-
cente tells us he was at work in 1525. It was the last of his plays
to be staged at Lisbon in his lifetime; in Lent of 1534, by request
of the abbess of the neighbouring convent of Odivelas, he pro-
duced there his religious Auto da Cananea, but the remainder of
his plays were acted before the king and court at Evora; and it
was probably at Evora that Vicente died in the year of his last
play (1536).
Vicente's 44 plays admirably reflect the tragi-comedy of his
age of change and upheaval in all its splendour and its squalor.
Eleven are written exclusively in Spanish, 14 in Portuguese; the
rest are bilingual; scraps of church or medical or law Latin, of
French and Italian, of the dialect or slang of peasants, gipsies,
sailors, fairies and devils frequently occur. His drama may bo
divided into religious plays, foreshadowing the Calderon autos,
court plays, pastoral plays, popular farces and romantic comedy.
They were often elaborately staged: a ship was rowed on the
scene, or a tower opened to display some splendid allegory; here
too he forestalled the later Spanish drama.
The various plays of the years 1513-19, composed when he was
about 50, show Vicente at the height of his genius. He possessed
a genuine comic vein, an incomparable lyric gift, and the power of
seizing touches of life or literature and transforming them into
something new by the magic of his phrase and his satiric force,
under which lay a strong moral and patriotic purpose.
A far-sighted patriot and imperialist, and intensely national, he
was also a devout son of the church; but he belonged to the more
VICENZA— VICKERS LIMITED
119
outspoken days before the Reformation, and his satire of priests
and of the abuses of Rome was frank and merciless; so that when
in 1531 one of his plays, the Jubileu de Amores (which some
critics would identify with the Auto da Feira) was acted at Brus-
sels, the papal nuncio, Cardinal Aleandro, who was present, felt
"as if I were in mid-Saxony listening to Luther or in the horrors
of the sack of Rome." As a lyric poet Vicente is first seen at his
best in the wonderful poems of the Auto da^Sibila Cassandra
(1513?) in Spanish. This poet, who goes to the very heart of the
Portuguese people, can as a lyric poet occasionally rival and
even excel Camoes, who, as Prof. W. P. Ker remarked, is "less of
a miracle than Vicente" and owed more to the Renaissance.
Vicente was over 50 when Sa de Miranda brought the new forms
and metres from Italy; in their rivalry Vicente remained faithful
to the indigenous octosyllabic verse. He had to meet growing crit-
icism, and, in answer to the taunts of pedants, borrowed from
Gomez Manrique the proverb, "Better an ass that carries me than
a horse that throws me," and, building on it the Farsa de Ines
Pereira, turned the tables on the "men of good learning."
It is Vicente's originality that he is an artist of the Renaissance
untainted by its pedantry. He is at once the most imitative and
the most original of poets; we continually find him working up his
borrowed material, like gold in the hands of an artist of genius,
into concrete figures; and his rapidly sketched portraits of peas-
ant, priest and courtier will last as long as literature. Even in his
rudest plays, and when the execution is at its roughest, his bold
plastic genius makes itself felt. His plays are rich in folklore, and
in his love of all that was popular and indigenous he seized on the
essential and eternal elements of art. His knowledge of the
French language was small, the influence of France came to him
through Spain, and his Boreas were inspired by the Spanish ver-
sion of the Dance of Death. The Spanish influence is always
strong in this most national poet; he even quotes from the Book
of Job, not direct but through Garci Sanchez de Badajoz. He had
studied very carefully the work of the early Spanish playwrights
Gomez Manrique and Encina, although he soon surpassed them.
No other country produced so inspired a dramatic poet before the
second half of the i6th century. Actor, stage-manager and author,
Vicente was also goldsmith and musician; he wrote the settings for
some of his own lyrics, delightful popular romances and cos-
sanies interspersed in his plays, which often end and open with a
song, and are sometimes, as in the Auto da Alma, one long lyric.
Vicente is no exception to the general rule that Portuguese
literature is mainly lyrical, in prose and verse; but in his many-
sidedness he delineated life in its various aspects with the skill
of a master, and he is the true forerunner of writers so different
as Moliere, Lope de Vega, Calderon and Shakespeare.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The only collected editions of Vicente's plays, a
few of which were printed separately in his lifetime (seven of these
were placed on the Portuguese Index of 1551), are the folios of Lisbon
(1562 and 1586) ; the 3 vols. of Hamburg '1834) and Lisbon (1852) ;
and the modern edition by Dr. Mended dos Remedies (3 vols..
Coimbra, 1907-14). The critical edition of the 1562 text prepared
by Mme. Michaelis de Vasconcellos immediately before her death
has not yet seen the light. The only English translations are A. F.
G. Bell, Lyrics of Gil Vicente (1914; 3rd ed. 1921) and Four Plays
of Gil Vicente (1920). See E. Prcstage, "The Portuguese Drama in
the i6th Century; Gil Vicente/* in the Manchester Quarterly (July
and Oct. 1897) ; M. Menendez y Pelayo, Antologia de Poetas Liricos,
vol. vii. ; T. Braga, Gil Vicente e as origens do theatro nacional
(Porto, 1808) ; J. I. de Brito Rebello, Gil Vicente (1902 and 1912) ;
C. Michaelis de Vasconcellos, Notas Vicentinas, 4 vols. (Coimbra,
1912-22) ; A. Braamcamp Freire, Vida e Obras de Gil Vicente (Porto,
1919) ,- and A. F. G. Bell, Gil Vicente (1921). For a fuller bibliog-
raphy see Four Plays of Gil Vicente (1920). A new Vicente play, the
Auto da Festa, was published from his library in 1906 by the Conde
de Sabugosa. (A. B.)
VICENZA (anc. Vketia), a town and episcopal see of Venetia,
Italy, capital of the province of Vicenza, 42 m. W. of Venice by
rail, 131 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 32,200 (town); 47,558
(commune); (1921) 42,628 (town), 60,267 (commune). It lies
at the northern base of the Monti Berici, on both sides of the
Bacchiglione, at its confluence with the Retrone. It was sur-
rounded by 1 3th century walls, now mostly demolished. The town
has many fine buildings by Andrea Palladio (q.v.). The best is the
basilica, one of the finest works of the Renaissance, of which
Palladio himself said that it might stand comparison with any
similar work of antiquity, replacing the exterior of the Palazzo
della Ragione, a Gothic building (1444-1477), which the colon-
nades of the basilica entirely enclose. Begun in 1549, it was fin-
ished in 1614. Close by is the Torre di Piazza (i2th-i5th cent.)
270 ft. high, and here are also the Loggia del Capitanio, by Pal-
ladio (1571) and the long Lombardesque Monte di Pieta (i6th
cent.). He also designed many of the fine palaces which give
Vicenza its individuality; only two, the Porto Barbaran and
Chiericati palaces (the latter containing the picture gallery), have
two orders of architecture, the rest having a heavy rustica basis
with only one order above it. Many palaces attributed to him are
really the work of Scamozzi (the architect of the fine Palazzo del
Municipio, 1588) and others of his successors. The famous Teatro
Olimpico begun by him, but finished in 1583, is a remarkable at-
tempt to construct a theatre in the ancient style, and the stage,
with the representation of streets ascending at the back, is curious.
The Italian Gothic cathedral (mainly i3th cent.), consists of a
nave with eight chapels on each side, and a very high Renaissance
domed choir. The churches of S. Lorenzo (1280-1344) and S.
Corona (1260-1300), both of brick, are better examples of
Gothic; both contain interesting works of art — the latter a very
fine "Baptism of Christ," by Giovanni Bellini. The church of SS.
Felice e Fortunate was restored in 975, but has been much altered,
and was transformed in 1613. The portal is of 1154, and the
Lombardesque square brick tower of 1166. Under it lies a mosaic
pavement with the names of the donors, belonging to the original
church of the Lombard period (?). Of the Palladian villas in the
neighbourhood, La Rotonda, i| m. S.E., is a square building with
Ionic colonnades and a central dome which has been more than
once copied in England and France. Near by is the Villa Val-
marana, with fine frescoes by G. B. Tiepolo (1737), and the
new Piazzale della Vittoria, behind which is the baroque church of
Monte Berico, with good works of art, from which porticoes lead
down to the tower. Vicenza also has palaces in the Venetian
Gothic style.
The ancient Vicetia was of less importance than Verona and
Patavium. It was for some time during the middle ages an inde-
pendent republic, but was subdued by the Venetians in 1405.
Towards the end of the i5th century it became the seat of a
school of painting strongly influenced by Mantegna, of which
the principal representatives were Bartolomeo Montagna, its
founder, his son Benedetto Montagna, more important as an en-
graver, Giovanni Speranza and Giovanni Buonconsiglio. Andrea
Palladio (1518-1580) was a native of Vicenza, as was also a
contemporary, Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616), who was largely
dependent on him, but is better known for his work on archi-
tecture (Architettura universale, 1615). Palladio inaugurated a
school of followers who continued to erect similar buildings in
Vicenza even down to the French Revolution. Other natives of
Vicenza were Giangiorgio Trissino (1478-1553) (see ITALIAN
LITERATURE, PALLADIO), Antonio Pigafetta (1491-1534) and
Antonio Fogazzaro (1842-1911) q.v. (T. A.)
See G. Pettina, Vicenza (Bergamo, 1905).
VICKERS LIMITED, one of the greatest British iron and
steel manufacturers, shipbuilders, engineers and armament manu-
facturers. This joint-stock company, which in 1928 had a share
capital of roundly ,£12,500,000, was founded a century ago. In
1828 George Naylor and his son-in-law, Edward Vickers, began
business in a small way in the production of steel for cutting
tools, files, and so forth, and until 1865 their works were at
Wadsley and Sheffield. The firm was transformed in 1867 into a
limited company as Vickers Sons and Company.
As early as 1869 the company made steel forgings for guns, and
this business developed strongly after 1880. In 1888 the firm
decided to build complete guns, put down the necessary machinery
and obtained some orders from the British Government. Not long
after they set up their own designing staff, without which trade
with foreign governments was impossible. The Maxim Nordenfelt
Guns and Ammunition Company and the Naval Armaments Com-
pany with a shipyard at Barrow-in-Furness were bought up in
120
VICKSBURG
1897, and from that time the company made artillery ranging
from the rifle calibre machine gun to the heaviest naval ordnance.
The company were now in a position to build warships at Barrow
completely equipped with armour and guns made at the Sheffield
works, for armour plate manufacture had also been taken up.
After the World War the capital of the company amounted to
li 3, 500,000, to which it had risen by successive issues from
.£155,000, the original figure at the formation of the limited com-
pany in 1867. Hy the acquisition of control of the British Westing-
house Company and the Metropolitan Carriage Company this
was raised to £20,663,188.
Several ventures into heavy engineering were tried, but the
boom in trade after the war due to replacements of losses and de-
ferred repairs soon came to an end, and it became evident that the
earning power of the company's works was not commensurate with
the capital invested in them. The capital was drastically written
down in 1926, unremunerative businesses were closed, and the sys-
tem of management changed and decentralized. The reduced earn-
ing power of the works had not brought financial stress; the firm
had always large cash resources. By 1928 it was shown that the
reforms had been very successful.
During 1927 negotiations with Sir W. G. Armstrong Whitworth
and Company Ltd. led to an agreement under which the armament
and naval shipbuilding sides of both firms were merged in a
joint company under the style of Vickers Armstrongs Limited.
(L. C. M.)
VICKSBURG, a city of western Mississippi, U.S.A., on the
Mississippi river, at the mouth of the Yazoo, about midway be-
tween Memphis and New Orleans; the county seat of Warren
county. It is on Federal highways 61 and 80 and is served by the
Illinois Central system and river steamers and barges. Construc-
tion of a bridge across the Mississippi (for vehicular, railway and
pedestrian traffic) was begun in 1928. Pop. 18,072 in 1920, 51%
negroes, and was estimated locally at 25,000 in 1928. The city is
built on a high bluff, rising to 350 ft. above sea-level.
On the landward side the city is completely surrounded by the
Vicksburg National Military park (1,323 ac.), and beyond the
northern end of the park, fronting on the river, is one of the
largest and most beautiful of the national cemeteries, containing
16,727 graves of Union soldiers, of which 12,723 are marked
"unknown." The park includes the battle lines of the opposed
armies during the investment of Vicksburg, May 18 to July 4,
1863 (see below), and all the fighting ground between them.
About 900 bronze markers tell the story, and three observation
towers afford comprehensive panoramas of the field. There are
15 State memorials, scores of statues and busts of Union and
Confederate commanders, and on Oct. 13, 1927, a bronze statue
of Jefferson Davis (by Henry H. Kitson) was unveiled, and
presented by the State of Mississippi to the United States. There
are many beautiful ante-bellum residences in the city and its
environs. Vicksburg is an important cotton and hardwood lumber
market. It has railroad and machine shops, lumber mills, cotton-
seed-oil mills, and factories making furniture, boxes, baskets,
veneer, hoops, staves and oars. The factory output in 1925 was
valued at $4,489,664. The city has a commission form of gov-
ernment.
Early in the i8th century the French built Ft. St. Peter near
the site of Vicksburg, and on Jan. 2, 1730, its garrison was
massacred by the Yazoo Indians. In 1783 the Spaniards erected
Ft. Nogales, which was taken by U.S. troops in 1798 and renamed
McHenry. The first permanent settlement was made about 1811
by the Rev. Newitt Vick (d. 1819), a Methodist preacher, and
in accordance with his will a town was laid out in 1824. It was
incorporated in 1825 and chartered as a city in 1836.
The Campaign of 1862 to 1863^— Vicksburg is historically
famous as being the centre of interest of one of the most im-
portant campaigns of the American Civil War. The command
of the Mississippi, which would imply the severance of the Con-
federacy into two halves, and also the reopening of free commer-
cial navigation from St. Louis to the sea, was one of the principal
objects of the Western armies of the Union from the time that
they began their southward advance from Illinois, Missouri and
Kentucky in Feb. 1862. A series of victories in the spring and
summer carried them as far as the line Memphis-Corinth, but
in the autumn they came to a standstill and were called upon to
repulse the counter-advance of the Southern armies. The Fed-
erals were accompanied by a flotilla of thinly armoured but power-
ful gunboats which had been built on the upper Mississippi in the
autumn of 1861, and had co-ope rated with the army at Fort
Livingston*
7: '
VICKSBURG
CAMPAIGN.
APRIL* MAY 1863
Donelson, Shiloh and Island No. 10, besides winning a victory
on the water at Memphis.
At the same time a squadron of sea-going vessels under Flag-
officer Farragut had forced the defences of New Orleans (q.v.)
and, accompanied by a very small military force, had steamed
up the great river. On reaching Vicksburg the heavy vessels again
forced their way past the batteries, but they had to deal, no longer
with low-sitqd fortifications, but with inconspicuous earthworks
on bluffs far above the river-level, and they failed to make any
impression. Farragut then returned to New Orleans. From Helena
to Port Hudson the Confederates maintained complete control
of the Mississippi, the improvised fortresses of Vicksburg, Port
Hudson and Arkansas Post (near the mouth of Arkansas river)
being the framework of the defence. It was to be the task of
Grant's army around Corinth and the flotilla at Memphis to
break up this system of defences, and, by joining hands with
Farragut and clearing the whole course of the Mississippi, to cut
the Confederacy in half.
The long and painful operations by which this was achieved
group themselves into four episodes: (a) the Grenada expedition
of Grant's force, (6) the river column under McClernand and
Sherman, (c) the operations in the bayoux, and (d) the final
"overland" campaign from Grand Gulf. The country in which
these operations took place divides itself sharply into two zones;
the upland east of the Mississippi below Vicksburg and east of
the Yazoo above, and the levels west of this line, which are a
maze of bayoux, backwaters and side channels, the intervening
land being kept dry near the river itself by artificial banks
(levees) but elsewhere swampy. At Vicksburg, it is important
to observe, the bluffs trend away from the Mississippi to follow
the course of the Yazoo, rejoining the great river at Memphis.
Thus there are two obvious lines of advance for the Northern
army, on the upland (Memphis and Grand Junction on Grenada-
Jackson), and downstream through the bayou country (Memphis-
Helena-Vicksburg). The main army of the defenders, who were
commanded by General Pemberton, between Vicksburg and Jack-
son and Grenada, could front either north against an advance by
Grenada or west along the bluffs above and below Vicksburg.
The first advance was made at the end of Nov. 1862 by two
columns from Grand Junction and Memphis on Grenada. The
Confederates in the field, greatly outnumbered, fell back without
fighting. But Grant's line of supply was one long single-line, ill-
equipped railway through Grand Junction to Columbus, and the
opposing cavalry under Van Dorn swept round his flank and, by
destroying one of his principal magazines (at Holly Springs),
without further effort comnelled the abandonment of the advance.
VICO
121
Grant then sent Sherman with the flotilla and some 30,000 men to
attack Vicksburg from the water-side, while he himself should
deal with the Confederate field army on the high ground. But the
scheme broke down completely when Van Dorn cut Grant's line
of supply, and the Confederate army was free to turn on Sherman.
The latter, ignorant of Grant's retreat, attacked the Yazoo
bluffs above Vicksburg (battle of Chickasaw Bayou) on Dec. 29;
but a large portion of Pemberton's field army had arrived to help
the Vicksburg garrison, and the Federals were easily repulsed with
a loss of 2,000 men. General McClernand now appeared and took
the command Dut of Sherman's hands, informing him at the same
time of Grant's retreat. Sherman thereupon proposed, before
attempting fresh operations against Vicksburg, to clear the country
behind them by destroying the Confederate garrison at Arkansas
Post. This expedition was completely successful: at a cost of
about 1,000 men the fort and ir.s 5,000 defenders were captured on
Jan. 11, 1863.
Retreating from the upland, Grant sailed down the river and
joined McClernand and Sherman at Millikcn's Bend at the begin-
ning of February, and assumed command of the three corps
(XIII., McClernand; XV., Sherman; XVII., McPhcrson) avail-
able. He had already imagined the daring solution of his most
difficult problem which he afterwards put into execution, but for
the present he tried a scries of less risky expedients to reach the
high ground beyond Pemberton's flanks, without, indeed, much
confidence in their success, yet desirous in these unhealthy fiats
of keeping up the spirits of his army by active work, and of
avoiding, at a crisis in the fortunes of the war, any appearance of
discouragement. Three such attempts were made in all, with the
co-operation of the flotilla under Rear Admiral David D. Porter.
First, Grant endeavoured to cut a canal across the bend of the
Mississippi opposite Vicksburg, hoping thus to isolate the fortress,
to gain a water connection with the lower river, and to land an
army on the bluffs beyond Pemberton's left flank. This was
unsuccessful. Next he tried to make a practicable channel from
the Mississippi to the upper Yazoo, and so to turn Pemberton's
right, but the Confederates, warned in time, constructed a fort
at the point where Grant's advance emerged from the bayoux.
Lastly, an advance through a maze of creeks (Steele's Bayou
expedition), towards the middle Yazoo and Haines's Bluff, encoun-
tered the enemy, not on the bluffs, but in the low-lying woods
and islands, and these so harassed and delayed the progress of the
expedition that Grant recalled it. Shortly afterwards Grant
determined on the manoeuvre in rear of Vicksburg which estab-
lished his reputation. The troops marched overland from Milliken's
Bend to New Carthage, and on April 16 Porter's gunboat flotilla
and the transports ran past the Vicksburg batteries. All this,
which involved careful arrangement and hard work, was done
by April 24. General Banks, with a Union army from New Or-
leans, was now advancing up the river to invest Port Hudson,
and by way of diverting attention from the Mississippi, a cavalry
brigade under Benjamin Grierson rode from La Grange to Baton
Rouge (6oom. in 16 days), destroying railways and magazines
and cutting the telegraph wires en route. Sherman's XV. Corps,
too, made vigorous demonstrations at Haines's Bluff, and in the
confusion and uncertainty Pemberton was at a loss.
Foiled at Grand Gulf on April 29, on the 30th McClernand
and the XIII. Corps crossed the Mississippi 6m. below Grand
Gulf, followed by McPherson. The nearest Confederate brigades,
attempting to oppose the advance at Port Gibson, were driven
back. Grant had now deliberately placed himself in the middle
of the enemy, and although his engineers had opened up a water-
line for the barges carrying his supplies from Milliken's Bend to
New Carthage, his long line of supply curving round the enemy's
flank was very eiposed. But his resolute purpose outweighed
all textbook strategy. Having crossed the Mississippi, he collected
wheeled transport for five days' rations, and on Sherman's arrival
cut loose from his base altogether (May 7). Free to move, he
aimed north from the Big Black river, so as to interpose between
the Confederate forces at Vicksburg and those at Jackson. A
fight took place at Raymond on May 12, and Jackson was cap-
tured just in time to forestall the arrival of reinforcements for
Pemberton under General Joseph E. Johnston. The latter, being
in supreme command of the Confederates, ordered Pemberton to
come out of Vicksburg and attack Grant. But Pemberton did not
do so until it was too late. On May 16 Grant, with all his forces
well in hand, defeated him in the battle of Champion Hill with a
loss of nearly 4,000 men, and sharply pursuing him drove him
into Vicksburg. By May 19 Vicksburg and Pemberton's army in
it was invested by land and water. Grant promptly assaulted his
works, but was repulsed with loss (May 19); the assault was
repeated on May 22 with the same result, and Grant found himself
compelled to resort to a blockade. Reinforcements were hurried
up from all quarters. Johnston's force (east of Jackson), was
held off by a covering corps under Blair (afterwards under Sher-
man), and though another unsuccessful assault was made on
June 25, resistance was almost at an end. On July 4, the day
after, far away in Pennsylvania, the great battle of Gettysburg
had closed with Lee's defeat, the garrison of Vicksburg, 37,000
strong, surrendered.
See J. H. Wilson, "A Staff Officer's Journal of the Vicksburg
Campaign/' Mil. Serv. Inst. Journ., vol. xliii., p. 93-109, 261-275
(1908) ; and W. L. Livermorc, "The Vicksburg Campaign," Mil. Hist.
Soc. of Mass., vol. ix., p. 538-571 (Boston, 1912). For a personal
side light, see U. S. Grant, "Letter to his Father on the Capture of
Vicksburg, 1863," Amcr. Hist. Rev,, vol. xii., p. 109 (Lancaster, Pa.
1906).
VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1668-1744), Italian jur-
ist and philosopher, was born at Naples on June 23, 1668, and in
1697 became professor of rhetoric at the university there. Mean-
while he had acted as tutor to the nephews of the bishop of Ischia,
G. B. Rocca, at the castle of Vatolla, near Cilento, in the province
of Salerno. There he passed nine studious years, chiefly devoted
to classical reading, Plato and Tacitus being his favourite authors,
because "the former described the ideal man, and the latter man
as he really is." Two authors exercised a weighty influence on his
mind — Francis Bacon and Grotius. He was no follower of their
ideas, indeed often opposed to them; but he was stimulated by
Bacon to investigate certain great problems of history and
philosophy, while Grotius led him to philosophic jurisprudence.
In 1708 he published his De ratione studiorum, in 1710 DC an-
tiquissima Italorum sapientia, in 1720 De ttnivcrsi iuris uno pritt-
cipio et fine wio, and in 1721 DC constantia iuris prudentis. He
failed to secure the university chair of jurisprudence which he had
hoped these works would secure for him. His great work, Prin-
cipii' d'una scienza nuova appeared in 1725 (2nd ed. 1730, which
is practically a new work). In 1735 Charles III. of Naples made
Vico historiographer-royal, with a yearly stipend of 100 ducats.
Soon after his mind began to give way, but during frequent inter-
vals of lucidity he made new corrections in his great work, of
which a third edition appeared in 1744, prefaced by a letter of
dedication to Cardinal Trojano Acquaviva. He died on Jan. 20,
1744, and was buried in the church of the Gerolimini.
Vico is perhaps the greatest name in the Neapolitan tradition
of jurisprudence. His aim was the relation of the history of law
to that of the human mind, and the problem with which he was
faced is stated in its final form in the Scienza Nuova. The ques-
tion is — if the principle of justice be one and immutable, how
arc the varying codes to be accounted for? His solution is offered
in his Universal Law (Diritto wiivcrsale).
Law, he held, emanates from the conscience of mankind, and
participates in the changes of the human mind. The reasons for
its changes, therefore, must be sought in the general history of
human development. The primitive sentiment of justice is uncon-
scious and instinctive, and expresses itself in religious forms of a
concrete nature, mankind being at this stage incapable of abstract
ideas (cf. Vinopadoff , History of Jurisprudence). These give place
to abstract formula, and these in turn to the direct manifestation
of the philosophic principles of law. Thus the history of Roman
Law, for instance, can be divided into three parts, the divine, the
heroic and the human, corresponding to the three main phases of
general Roman history. Thus in the varying aspects of law Vico
found the expression of a single fundamental principle.
This theory seems to have originated in his study of Roman
law, which Vico saw as a continuous progress from the primitive
122
VICTOR— VICTOR AMEDEUS II.
law of the XII. Tables to the universal and flexible jus gentium.
This conception he generalized into a complete philosophy of
history. The history of humaaity he sees as a process of devel-
opment from "poetic wisdom," the impersonal, religious, instinc-
tive ideas of primitive society to "occult wisdom," which turns
divinely implanted ideas into conscious philosophical wisdom.
Like most discoverers of a system, however, Vico carried it fur-
ther than it would go. His law of cycles, the "eternal ideal his-
tory, invariably followed by all nations, " which is the expression
of this theory, seeks to reduce the whole course of history to con-
formity with this threefold succession of phases, divine, heroic and
human, which he sees exemplified in government, language, liter-
ature, jurisprudence and civilization.
See Vico's autobiography in the Scienza Nuova, and Sir J. Ferrari's
introduction to his edition of the works of Vico (6 vpls., Milan, 1835-
37) and the more complete edition, including translation by Pomodoro
of the Latin works (Naples, 8 vols., 1858-69). A complete bibliography
was prepared by B. Croce, Bibliographia Vichiana (Naples, 1904).
See also Cantoni, Vico (Turin, 1867) ; R. Flint, Vico ("Philosophical
Classics," 1885) ; B. Croce, many articles in various Italian reviews
and La filosofia di Giambattista Vico (Bari, 1911).
VICTOR, the name taken by three popes and two antipopes.
VICTOR I. was bishop of Rome from about 190 to 198. He
submitted to the opinion of the episcopate in the various parts
of Christendom the divergence between the Easter usage of
Rome and that of the bishops of Asia. The bishops, particularly
St. Irenaeus of Lyons, declared themselves in favour of the usage
of Rome, but refused to associate themselves with the excom-
munication pronounced by Victor against their Asiatic colleagues.
VICTOR II., the successor of Leo IX., was consecrated in St.
Peter's, Rome, on April 13, 1055. His father was a Swabian
baron, Count Hartwig von Calw, and his own baptismal name
was Gebhard. At the instance of Gcbhard, bishop of Regensburg,
uncle of the emperor Henry III., he had been appointed while
still a young man to the see of Eichstadt ; in this position his
great talents soon enabled him to render important services to
Henry, whose chief adviser he ultimately became. His nomination
to the papacy by Henry, at Mainz, in September 1054, was made
at the instance of a Roman deputation headed by Hildebrand,
whose policy doubtless was to detach from the imperial interest
one of its ablest supporters. In June 1055 Victor met the em-
peror at Florence, and held a council, which anew condemned
clerical marriages, simony and the alienation of the estates of
the church. In the following year he was summoned to Germany
to the side of the emperor, and was with him when he died at
Botfeld in the Harz on Oct. 5, 1056. As guardian of Henry's in-
fant son, and adviser of the empress Agnes, Victor now wielded
enormous power, which he began to use with much tact for the
maintenance of peace throughout the empire and for strength-
ening the papacy against the aggressions of the barons. He died
shortly after his return to Italy, at Arezzo, on July 28, 1057.
His successor was Stephen IX. (X.)
VICTOR III. (Dauferius Epifani), pope from May 24, 1086 to
Sept. 1 6, 1087, was the successor of Gregory VII. He was a son
of Landolfo V., prince of Benevento, and was born in 1027. After
studying in various monasteries he became provost of St. Benedict
at Capua, and in 1055 obtained permission from Victor II. to
enter the cloister at Monte Cassino, changing his name to
Desiderius. He succeeded Stephen IX. as abbot in 1057, and his
rule marks the golden age of that celebrated monastery; he pro-
moted literary activity, and established an important school of
mosaic. Desiderius was created cardinal priest of Sta. Cecilia
by Nicholas II. in 1059, and as papal vicar in south Italy con-
ducted frequent negotiations between the Normans and the pope.
Among the four men suggested by Gregory VII. on his death-
bed as most worthy to succeed him was Desiderius, who was
favoured by the cardinals because of his great learning, his con-
nection with the Normans and his diplomatic ability. The abbot,
however, declined the papal crown, and the year 1085 passed
without an election. The cardinals at length proclaimed him
pope against his will on May 24, 1086, but he was driven from
Rome by imperialists before his consecration was complete, and,
laying aside the papal insignia at Terracina, he retired to his
beloved monastery. As vicar of the Holy See he convened a
synod at Capua on March 7, 1087, resumed the papal insignia
on the 2ist of March, and received tardy consecration at Rome
on the 9th of May. Owing to the presence of the antipope,
Clement III. (Guibert of Ravenna), who had powerful partisans,
his stay at Rome was brief. He sent an army to Tunis, which
defeated the Saracens and compelled the sultan to pay tribute
to the papal see. In August 1087 he held a synod at Benevento,
which renewed the excommunication of Guibert; banned Arch-
bishop Hugo of Lyons and Abbot Richard of Marseilles as
schismatics; and confirmed the prohibition of lay investiture.
Falling ill at the synod, Vicar returned to Monte Cassino, where
he died on Sept. 16, 1087. His successor was Urban II.
Victor III., while abbot of Monte Cassino contributed personally
to the literary activity of the monastery. He wrote Dialogi de
miraculis S. Bcnedicti, which, along with his Epistolae, are in J. P.
Mitfne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 149, and an account of the miracles of Leo IX.
(in Ada Sanctorum, iqth of April). The chief sources for his life
are the "Chronica monasterii Casinensis," in the Mon. Germ. hist.
Script, vii., and the Vitae in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 149, and in
J. M. Watterich, Pont if. Roman. Vita* (1862).-
See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII.
bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle
Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-02) ;
K. J. von Hefele, C onciliengeschichte (2nd ed., 1873-90), vol. 5;
Hirsch, "Desiderius von Monte Cassino als Papst Victor III./' in
Forschungen zur de-utschen Geschichte, vol. 7 (Gottingen, 1867) ;
H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, vol. 3 (rcpub., 1899).
VICTOR IV. was a title taken by two antipopes. (i) Grcgorio
Conti, cardinal priest of Santi Dodici Apostoli, was chosen by a
party opposed to Innocent II. in succession to the antipope Ana-
cletus II., on March 15, 1138, but through the influence of
Bernard of Clairvaux he was induced to make his submission on
the 2Qth of May. (2) Octavian, count of Tusculum and cardinal
deacon of St. Nicola in carcere Tulliano, the Ghibelline antipope,
was elected at Rome on Sept. 7, 1159, in opposition to Alexander
III., and supported by the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Con-
secrated at Farfa on the 4th of October, Victor was the first of
the series of antipopes supported by Frederick against Alexander
III. Though the excommunication of Frederick by Alexander in
March 1160 made only a slight impression in Germany, this pope
was nevertheless able to gain the support of the rest of western
Europe, because since the days of Hildebrand the power of the
pope over the church in the various countries had increased so
greatly that the kings of France and of England could not view
with indifference a revival of such imperial control of the papacy
as had been exercised by the emperor Henry III. He died at
Lucca on April 20, 1164 and was succeeded by the antipope
Paschal III. (1164-1168).
See M. Meyer, Die Wahl Alexanders III. und Victors IV. 1150
(Gottingen, 1871) ; and A. Hauck, Kirchengeschiehte Deutschlands
Bandiv. (1922). (C. H. H.)
VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS, prefect of Pannonia
about 360 (Amm. Marc. xxi. 10), possibly the same as the consul
(jointly with Valentinian) in 373 and as the prefect of the city
who is mentioned in an inscription of the time of Thcodosius.
Four small historical works have been ascribed to him on more or
less doubtful grounds — (i) Origo Gentis Romanac, (2) De Viri-
bns niustribus Romae, (3) De Caesaribtis, (4) De Vita et Mori-
bus Imperatorum Romanorum excerpta ex Libris Sex. Aur. Vic-
toris. The four have generally been published together under the
name Historic, Romana, but the fourth is a rechauffe1 of the third.
The first edition of all four was that of A. Schottus (8vo, Antwerp,
1579). A good modern edition of the De Caesaribus is by F.
Pichlmayr (Munich, 1892).
VICTOR AMEDEUS II. (1666-1732), duke of Savoy and
first king of Sardinia, was the son of Duke Charles Emmanuel II.
and Jeanne de Savoie-Nemours. Born at Turin, he lost his father
in 1675, and spent his youth under the regency of his mother,
known as "Madama Reale" (madame royale), an able but ambi-
tious and overbearing woman. He assumed the reigns of govern-
ment at the age of sixteen, and married Princess Anne, daughter of
Philip of Orleans and Henrietta of England, and niece of Louis
XIV., king of France. His first sign of independence was
his visit to Venice in 1687, where he met Prince Eugene of Savoy
VICTOR EMMANUEL II.
123
and other personages, without consulting Louis. Louis now tried to
precipitate hostilities by demanding his participation in a second
expedition against the Waldensians. The duke unwillingly com-
plied, but when the French entered Piedmont and demanded the
cession of the fortresses of Turin and Verrua, he refused, and while
still professing to negotiate with Louis, joined the league of
Austria, Spain and Venice. War was declared in 1690, but at the
battle of Staffarda (Aug. 18, 1691), Victor was defeated by the
French. A treaty with France was signed in 1696, and Victor ap-
pointed generalissimo of the Franco-Piedmontese forces in Italy
operating against the imperialists. By the treaty of Ryswick
(1697) a general peace was concluded.
On the outbreak of the war of the Spanish Succession in 1700
the duke was again on the French side, but the insolence of
Louis and of Philip V. of Spain towards him induced him, at the
end of the two years for which he had bound himself to them, to
go over to the imperialists 6704)- After some successes the
French were completely defeated by Victor and Prince Eugene
(1706). By the peace of Utrecht (1713) the Powers conferred the
kingdom of Sicily on Victor Amedeus, whose government proved
efficient and at first popular. But after a brief stay in the island
he returned to Piedmont and left his new possessions to a viceroy;
when the Quadruple Alliance decreed in 1718 that Sicily should be
restored to Spain, Victor was unable to offer any opposition, and
had to content himself with receiving Sardinia in exchange.
The last years of Victor Amedeus's life were saddened by
domestic troubles. After his wife's death, he married the Contessa
di San Sebastiano, abdicated the crown and retired to Chamb6ry
to end his days (1730). But his second wife, an ambitious
intrigante, induced him to return to Turin and attempt to revoke
his abdication. This led to a quarrel with his son, Charles Em-
manuel III., who arrested his father and confined him at Rivoli
and later at Moncalieri; there Victor died on Oct. 31, 1732.
Victor Amedeus, not only won for his country a high place in
the council of nations, but he doubled its revenues and increased
its prosperity and industries.
See D. Carutti, Storia del Regno di VUtorh Amedco If. (Turin,
1856) ; and E. Parri, Vittorio Amrdio If. ed Eugenia di Savoia (Milan,
1888) ; C. A. Garufi, Rapporlc diplomatics tra Filippo V. e Vittorio
Amr.de o di Savoia . . . 1712-1720 (Palermo, 1914). The Marchesa
Vitellcsehi's work, The Romance oj Savoy (2 vols., London, 1905),
is based on original authorities, and is the most complete monograph
on the subject.
VICTOR EMMANUEL II. (1820-1878), king of Sardinia
and first king of Italy, was born at Turin on March 14, 1820,
and was the son of Charles Albert, prince of Savoy-Carignano.
Brought up in the bigoted and chilling atmosphere of the Pied-
montese court, he received a rigid military and religious training,
but little intellectual education. In 1842 he married Adelaide,
daughter of the Austrian Archduke Rainer. Victor Emmanuel
played no part in politics during his father's lifetime, but took an
active interest in military matters. When the war with Austria
broke out in 1848, he was delighted at the prospect, of distinguish-
ing himself, and was given the command of a division. At Goito
he was slightly wounded and displayed great bravery, and after
Custozza defended the rearguard to the last (July 25, 1848).
After the defeat at Novara on March 23, Charles Albert, having
rejected the peace terms offered by the Austrian field-marshal
Radctzky, abdicated in favour of his son. Victor Emmanuel was
received by Radetzky with every sign of respect and the field-
marshal offered not onlv to waive the claim that Austria should
face of the overwhelming tide of reaction that established his
position as the champion of Italian freedom and earned him the
sobriquet of R£ Galantuomo (the honest king). But the task
entrusted to him was a most difficult one. Parliament having re-
jected the peace treaty, the king dissolved the assembly; in the
famous proclamation from Moncalieri he appealed to the people's
loyalty, and the new Chamber ratified the treaty (Jan. 9, 1850).
This same year, Cavour (q.v.) was appointed minister of agri-
culture in D'Azeglio's cabinet, and in 1852 became prime minister.
In having Cavour as his chief adviser Victor Emmanuel was
most fortunate, and but for that statesman's astounding diplo-
matic genius the liberation of Italy would have been impossible.
The years from 1850 to 1859 wcfe devoted to restoring the shat-
tered finances of Sardinia, reorganizing the army and modernizing
the antiquated institutions of the kingdom. Among other re-
forms the abolition of the joro ecclesiastico (privileged ecclesias-
tical courts) brought down a storm of hostility from the Church
both on the king and on Cavour, but both remained firm in sus-
taining the prerogatives of the civil power. When the Crimean
War broke out, the king strongly supported Cavour in the pro-
posal that Sardinia should join France and England against Rus-
sia so as to secure a place in the councils of the great powers and
establish a claim on them for eventual assistance in Italian
affairs (1854). In 1855, while the allied troops were still in
the East, Victor Emmanuel visited Paris and London, where he
was warmly welcomed by the Emperor Napoleon 111. and by
Queen Victoria, as well as by the peoples of the two countries.
Victor Emmanuel's object now was the expulsion of the Aus-
trians from Italy and the expansion of Sardinia into a North
Italian kingdom, but he did not regard the idea of Italian unity
as coming within the sphere of practical politics for the time
being, although a movement to that end was already beginning to
gain ground. With this end in view he entered into communica-
tion with some of the conspirators, especially with La Farina, the
leader of the Societd. Nazionalc, and even communicated with
Mazzini and the republicans. In 1859 Cavour 's diplomacy suc-
ceeded in drawing Napoleon III. into an alliance against Austria,
although the king had to agree to the cession of Savoy and pos-
sibly of Nice and to the marriage of his daughter Clothilde to
the emperor's cousin Prince Napoleon. These conditions were
very painful to him, but he was always ready to sacrifice his own
personal feelings for the good of his country. He had an inter-
view with Garibakfi and appointed him commander of the newly
raised volunteer corps, the Cacciatori delle Alpi. Even then Na-
poleon would not decide on immediate hostilities, and it required
all Cavour's genius to bring him to the point and lead Austria
into a declaration of war (April 1859). Although the Franco-
Sardinian forces were successful in the field, Napoleon, fearing
an attack by Prussia and disliking the idea of a too powerful
Italian kingdom on the frontiers of France, insisted on making
peace with Austria, while Venetia still remained to be freed.
Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he could not continue the cam-
paign alone, agreed to the armistice of Villafranca. When Cavour
heard the news he hurried to the king's headquarters at Mon-
zambano, and in violent, almost disrespectful language implored
him to continue the campaign at all hazards. But the king on
this occasion showed great political insight and saw that by adopt-
ing the heroic course proposed by the latter he ran the risk of
finding Napoleon on the side of the enemy, whereas by waiting
all might be gained. Cavour resigned office, and bv the oeace
VICTOR EMMANUEL III.— VICTORIA
theory a republican, was greatly attached to the bluff soldier-
king. When Garibaldi having conquered Sicily was determined
to invade the mainland possessions of Francis II. of Naples, Vic-
tor Emmanuel, foreseeing international difficulties, wrote to the
chief of the red shirts asking him not to cross the straits; but
Garibaldi, although acting throughout in the name of his majesty,
refused to obey and continued his victorious march, for he knew
that the king's letter was dictated by diplomatic considerations
rather than by his own personal desire. Then, on Cavour's ad-
vice, King Victor decided to participate himself in the occupation
of Neapolitan territory, lest Garibaldi's doubtful entourage should |
proclaim the republic or create anarchy. When he accepted the j
annexation of Romagna offered by the inhabitants themselves
the pope excommunicated him, but, although a devout Catholic,
he continued in his course undeterred by ecclesiastical thunders,
and led his army in person through the Papal States, occupying
the Marches and Umbria, to Naples. On Oct. 29 he met Gari-
baldi, who handed over his conquests to the king. On Feb. 18,
1861, the parliament proclaimed him king of united Italy.
The next few years were occupied with preparations for the
liberation of Venice, and the king corresponded with Mazzini,
Klapka, Turr and other conspirators against Austria in Venetia
itself, Hungary, Poland and elsewhere, keeping his activity secret
even from his own ministers. The alliance with Prussia and the
war with Austria of 1866, although fortune did not favour Italian
arms, added Venetia to his dominions.
The Roman question yet remained unsolved, for Napoleon,
although he had assisted Piedmont in 1859 and had reluctantly
consented to the annexation of the central and southern prov-
inces, and of part of the Papal States, would not permit Rome to
be occupied, lest he should lose the support of the French cleri-
cals, and maintained a French garrison there to protect the pope.
When war with Prussia appeared imminent Victor Emmanuel
was anxious to assist the man who had helped him to expel the
Austrians from Italy, but he could not do so unless Napoleon
gave him a free hand in Rome. This the emperor refused to do
until it was too late. Even after the first French defeats the
chivalrous king, in spite of the advice of his more prudent coun-
cillors, wished to go to the rescue, and asked Thiers, the French
representative who was imploring him for help, if with 100,000
Italian troops France could be saved, but Thiers could give no
such assurance and Italy remained neutral. On Sept. 20, 1870,
the French troops having been withdrawn, th'e Italian army en-
tered Rome, and on July 2, 1871, Victor Emmanuel made his
solemn entry into the Eternal City, which then became the cap-
ital of Italy.
The pope refused to recognize the new kingdom even before
the occupation of Rome and the latter event rendered relations
between church and state for many years extremely delicate,
The king himself was anxious to be reconciled with the Vatican,
.but the pope, or rather his entourage, rejected all overtures, and
the two sovereigns dwelt side by side in Rome until death with-
out ever meeting. Victor Emmanuel devoted himself to his
duties as a constitutional king with great conscientiousness, but
he took more interest in foreign than in domestic politics and
contributed not a little to improving Italy's international posi-
tion. On Jan. 9, 1878, Victor Emmanuel died of fever in Rome,
and was buried in the Pantheon.
Bluff, hearty, good-natured and simple in his habits, ho
always had a high idea of his own kingly dignity, and his really
statesmanlike qualities often surprised foreign diplomats, who
were deceived by his homely exterior. As a soldier he was very
brave, but he did not show great qualities as a military leader.
He had a great weakness for female society, and kept several
mistresses; one of them, the beautiful Rosa Vercellone, he created
Countess Mirafiori e Fontanafredda and married morganatically
in 1869; she bore him one son.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Beside the general works on Italy and Savoy,
see V. Bersczio, // Rcgno di Vittorio Emanuele II. (Turin, 1869) ;
G. Massari, La vita ed il Regno di Vittorio Emanuele //. (Milan,
1878) ; N. Bianchi, Storia delta Diplomazia Europea in Italia (Turin,
1865) ; II CarteKRio Cavour Nigra 1858-61 (Bolognc, 1926) ; C. S.
Forester, Victor Emmanuel II, (1927). (L. V.)
VICTOR EMMANUEL IH. (1869- ), king of Italy,
son of King Humbert I. and Margherita of Savoy, was born at
Naples on Nov. n, 1869. He entered the army and soon after
attaining his majority, was appointed to the command of the
Florence Army Corps, and in 1896 to that of the Naples Army
Corps. His formal accession to the throne took place on Aug. 9
and 11, 1900, after the assassination of his father (July 29).
When in 1915 Italy declared war on Austria, the king at once
went to the war zone, remaining there until the armistice, ap-
pointing his uncle Ferdinand, duke of Genoa, regent of the king-
dom to act in his stead. At the front he lived in a most unas-
suming manner at the "Villa Italia" near Udine, and after
Caporetto near Padua, constantly visiting the trenches and the
most exposed positions, as well as the military hospitals, and
leading to a very large extent the life of the soldiers. Although
nominally commander-in-chief he pever interfered with the con-
duct of operations, or in the matter of appointments. After
Caporetto he multiplied his activities a thousand-fold, and his
proclamation of Nov. 19, 1917, sounded like a trumpet-call to
the whole people. After the armistice, King Victor Emmanuel
returned to Rome on Nov. 14, 1918. He visited Paris and the
French front with the crown prince, and subsequently London.
At the time of the Fascist march on Rome (Oct. 28-30, 1922),
the prime minister, Signor Facta, intended to proclaim martial
law throughout Italy, and had actually prepared the decree and
communicated it to the prefects and the Press; but the king,
realising that its application would mean civil war, refused to
sign it and insisted on its immediate withdrawal. After the occu-
pation of the capital the Fascist squadre, before returning home,
marched past the Quirinai and paid homage to the king. The
advent of the Fascist Government undoubtedly strengthened the
prestige of the Crown, which the troubles of 1919-22 had seri-
ously shaken.
One of the great moments in King Victor Emmanuel's life oc-
curred in Feb. 1929, when an enthusiastic crowd demonstrated
outside the Quirinai in token of its satisfaction at the ending of
the Roman Question (see PAPACY), and the king appeared in ac-
knowledgment of the ovation. The Treaty with the Holy See, the
Concordat and the Financial Convention are amongst the most
memorable documents the king has ever signed.
Victor Emmanuel married Princess Elena of Montenegro, who
bore him four daughters: Yolanda Margherita (June i, 1901),
Mafalda (Nov. 19, 1902), Giovanna (Nov. 13, 1907) and Maria
(Dec. 26, 1914) ; and a son and heir, Umberto, prince of Piedmont
(Sept. 15, 1904). Princess Yolanda was married on April 9,
1923, to Captain Count Giorhio Calvi of Bergolo, and Mafalda
on Sept. 23, 1925, to Prince Philip of Hessen. A keen scholar,
and especially interested in numismatics, in 1910 and 1913 he
published six volumes of his monumental work on the coins of
Italy, the Corpus numnorum italicorum, of which four more vol-
umes appeared later. After the war Victor Emmanuel made over
to the nation many royal residences in various parts of Italy.
Among the most famous of these are the Pitti Palace in Flor-
ence, the villas of Castello, La Petraia and Poggio a Cajano in
the neighbourhood of that city, the royal palaces of Milan, Venice,
Genoa, Naples, the villa of Capodimomte near Naples, and the
"Neapolitan Versailles" at Caserta. Some of these buildings were
turned into hospitals and homes for war victims, and others into
museums.
See L. Morandi, Come ju educato Vittorio Emmanuele 111. (1901) ;
and B. Astoni and P. Rost, II Re alia guerra (1918). (L. V.)
VICTORIA, queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland, empress of India (1819-1901), only child of Edward,
duke of Kent, fourth son of King George III., and of Princess
Victoria Mary Louisa of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (widow of Prince
Emich Karl of Leiningen, by whom she already had two children),
was born at Kensington Palace on May 24, 1819. The circum-
stances leading up to her birth were somewhat peculiar. In 1817
Princess Charlotte, the daughter of the Prince Regent, had died
in childbirth, and her death removed the only legitimate offspring
of the 13 sons and daughters of George III. In order to remedy
this defect three of the sons, the dukes of Clarence, Kent and
VICTORIA
125
Cambridge, all of them well advanced in middle life, married
in 1818. The two children of. the duke of Clarence died in
infancy; the duke of Cambridge had a son, also duke of Cam-
bridge (1819-1904), Victoria's only first cousin, and for nearly
40 years commander-in-chief of the British army; but since the
duke of Cambridge was younger than the duke of Kent, Victoria,
christened Alexandrina Victoria, became heir to the throne.
Victoria never knew her father, for he died when she was
eight months old, but his place was filled, in so far as any man
could fill it, by her mother's brother, the admirable and sagacious
Leopold (1790-1865). Leopold had been the husband of Princess
Charlotte, and thus prospective prince consort of England. He
continued to reside in the country, at Claremont, until, in 1831,
he was accepted as the first king of the Belgians. The widowed
mother trusted him as her best adviser, and he was responsible
for the general character of the princess's education. After his
removal to Belgium Victoria and Leopold carried on a close and
affectionate correspondence throughout the 34 remaining years
of their joint lives. After her accession (1837) the niece tactfully
eluded and quickly terminated the uncle's attempts to control
British policy behind the backs of the British cabinet. None the
less, though she could not accept him as an extra-constitutional
adviser, Victoria found, in correspondence with her uncle, a
delightful outlet for her private and unofficial feelings; only to
him, for example, could she speak of Palmerston and Russell as
''those two dreadful old men." On his death she recorded in her
Journal that he had been "ever as a father" to her.
The young princess's home was Kensington Palace, though she
stayed at times with her uncle at Claremont, and frequently
travelled on the Continent with her mother. Her half-sister
Feodore was her nursery companion, and remained her friend
until her death in 1872. When Victoria was five an admirable
governess was found for her in the person of Fraiilein (after-
wards the Baroness) Lehzen, a native of Coburg. Louise Lchzen
won the whole-hearted devotion of the princess and was the
principal personal influence in her life down to her accession,
at the age of 18, quite eclipsing the influence of her mother, the
duchess of Kent. Victoria's relations with her mother (who
lived until 1861) may be described as correct, and usually
friendly, but no more. Hers is an elusive, pathetic figure. Her
influence was of a negative character, yet not for that reason
unimportant. She felt an intense aversion towards her brothers-
in-law, George IV. and the duke of Clarence, subsequently
William IV., and the feeling was fully reciprocated. Thus the
little princess grew up in almost complete isolation from the
surviving members of her father's family, and her accession was,
as it were, the beginning of a new dynasty. With a Coburg
mother, a Coburg guardian-uncle, a Coburg governess (and sub-
sequently a Coburg husband), she always thought of herself as
a member of the House of Coburg rather than the House of
Hanover, a feeling which expressed itself in her disapproval of
the name "George," when chosen for the grandson who was to
be George V.
Victoria's upbringing and education could easily be criticized
by modern standards. Until she became queen she never slept
a night away from her mother's room, and she was not allowed
to converse with any grown-up person, friend, tutor, or servant,
without the duchess of Kent or Lehzen being present. Most will
agree, however, that the education, whatever its intrinsic merits,
had excellent results. Leopold considered that his niece should
be kept as long as possible from a knowledge of her position;
so Victoria was 12 years old before a carefully arranged history
lesson revealed to her that she was to be queen. When she
realized the destiny in store for her, her first words were "I will
be good." Very shortly afterwards she began the detailed and
highly characteristic Journal which was continued throughout her
life. Selections from it, down to 1885, are included in the volumes
of the Queen's Letters.
Accession. — William IV. died in the early hours of June 20,
1837, and the archbishop of Canterbury and the lord chamber-
lain, hastening with the news of the king's death to Kensington,
were received by Victoria in her dressing-gown at 5 A.M. In
the morning the privy council assembled at Kensington, and the
usual oaths were administered to the queen by the lord chancel-
lor. The grace and dignity of Victoria's demeanour on this
occasion made an immense impression on all present. Romantic
sentiment was very much in fashion, and the accession of the
girl-queen carried an almost instinctive conviction to her subjects
that a new, and much better, epoch in the long history of English
monarchy had begun.
An important and welcome result of the accession of a female
sovereign was the separation of the crowns of Great Britain and
Hanover, the latter passing to William IV.'s next surviving
brother, the deservedly unpopular duke of Cumberland. The
separation of the two crowns was indeed even more important
than could be realized at the time. Thirty years later Prussia,
under Bismarck's guidance, annexed the Hanoverian kingdom. It
is impossible to estimate the complications that would have arisen
if the Hanoverian crown had still belonged to the British
sovereign.
Melbourne. — The young queen entered with intense zest upon
her new freedom, her new interests and her new duties. "I have,"
she wrote, "so many communications from the Ministers, and
from me to them, and I get so many papers to sign every day,
that I have always a very great deal to do. I delight in this work."
After 1 8 years of seclusion, zealously supervised by the duchess
and Lehzen, with scarcely any male society except Uncle Leopold
and sundry tutors, it was a delight to do business with the great
men of the land. But all other great men were eclipsed in her
eyes by her prime minister, Lord Melbourne. The story of that
romantic friendship has often been told. The queen had neces-
sarily much to learn about the elements of domestic and foreign
policy, and the art and tact of Melbourne made such lessons a
pleasure. But the statesman's unlimited influence was not in all
respects wisely used. Himself the leader of the Whig party, he
surrounded the queen with Whig ladies, and allowed her to be-
come an enthusiastic partizan of the Whig party. The duchess
of Kent had been rigorously excluded from all share in the
queen's political duties. A spiteful rivalry arose between the
ladies of the duchess and of the queen, culminating in baseless
accusations of immoral conduct against Lady Flora Hastings,
a maid of honour to the duchess of Kent. Before the first year
of the reign was over the queen's court, had, temporarily, sunk
low in the esteem of high society, and it is impossible to believe
that Melbourne could not, with more vigilance, have prevented
these scandals. The loyalty of the nation as a whole, however,
was probably unimpaired, and the coronation ceremony, on
June 28, 1838, with the royal procession through the streets
of London, provided an impressive demonstration of that loy-
alty.
In May 1839 Lord Melbourne resigned, and Sir Robert Peel,
the Conservative leader, stipulated that the mistress of the robes
and the ladies of the bedchamber appointed by his predecessor
should be removed. The queen refused. Lord Melbourne urged
her to give way, but he could not undo in a minute the results
of his own work, and, when Peel had refused to take office with
the ladies unchanged, Melbourne very weakly consented to resume
office. The next few months witnessed Chartist riots and demon-
strations more extensive than any before or afterwards, and
denunciation of the queen's conduct was a popular item in
Chartist propaganda.
In certain other respects the queen's manner of life during
these first years of her reign was in marked contrast with what
was to follow. She preferred the gaiety of the town to the peace
of the country, delighted in social festivities and late hours, and
even rebuked those whose judgments of others seemed to her
over-strict and puritanical. Long afterwards she wrote to Mr.
Theodore Martin, the author of the Life of the Prince Consort : —
"The Queen's letters between '37 and '40 are not pleasing, and
indeed rather painful to herself. It was the least sensible and
satisfactory time in her whole life. . . . That life of mere amuse-
ment, flattery, excitement, and mere politics, had a bad effect
on her naturally simple and serious nature. But all changed
after '40."
126
VICTORIA
1840-1861
Marriage. — It had long been Leopold's design that Victoria
should marry his nephew Prince Albert, son of the duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Albert, who was the same age as Victoria,
had visited her before her accession, and had since been carefully
coached for his prospective career by Baron Stockmar. Stockmar
was one of the most important and least conspicuous figures of
igth century history. Originally a doctor of medicine, he had
long been the intimate adviser of Leopold, and he was now to be
transferred to the service of Albert. He was very able, with an
ambition which found its sole satisfaction in securing the great-
ness of his successive masters. It has been said with little exag-
geration that Albert was "Stockmar's creation/' and one may
add that Victoria as revealed from 1840 onwards was the creation
of Albert. During the Melbourne ascendancy the queen had
rather alarmingly declared that she did not see why she should
ever marry, but when Albert arrived on a visit in Oct. 1839,
Victoria capitulated at once, and the engagement was announced.
The marriage was solemnized on Feb. 10, 1840, the queen being
dressed entirely in articles of British manufacture.
The task confronting Albert as husband of the British queen
was no simple one. His position was virtually without precedent,
for Queen Anne's husband had been content with his nonentity,
Queen Elizabeth had not married, and Queen Mary had married
the ruler of a foreign country who only occasionally visited her.
Moreover Albert's character was not of a kind to recommend
him either to the British aristocracy or to the nation. He was
stiff and shy, studious, laborious, jxxJantic and exact, entirely
indifferent to "sport." At first the queen herself was the greatest
of his difficulties, for in spite of her personal devotion she was
determined to exclude him as rigorously from political affairs as
she had already excluded her mother. Melbourne was her sole
partner in public life; Lehzen, the promoted governess, was
supreme over the royal household; nothing apparently remained
for Albert but to be the father of her children. But, with
Stockmar at his elbow, he made his way. Melbourne was dis-
missed by the general election of 1841. Victoria's prejudice against
Peel gave Albert his opportunity, and he negotiated a satisfactory
compromise on the "Bedchamber" question. Peel, with his earnest
middle-class temperament, was to Albert a comparatively con-
genial spirit, and Victoria soon learnt to like him. Albert became
the queen's partner in politics, and, being her superior in intellect
and knowledge, became inevitably her master and guide. Lehzen
returned to her native Germany. Meantime the queen had be-
come a mother. The "Victorian Age" had begun in earnest.
It will be convenient to summarize at once the growth of the
royal family. The Princess Royal (the "Vicky" of the tetters)
was born in November 1840; in 1858 she married the crown prince
Of Prussia and was the mother of the Em^ror William II. The
prince of Wales (Edward VII.) was born in 1841. There fol-
lowed Princess Alice, afterwards grand duchess of Hesse, 1843;
Prince Alfred, afterwards duke of Edinburgh and duke of Snxe-
Coburg-Gotha, 1844; Princess Helena (Princess Christian),
1846; Princess Louise (duchess of Argyll), 1848; Prince Arthur
(duke of Connaught), 1850; Prince Leopold (duke of Albany),
1853; Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenburg), 1857.
The queen's first grandchild was born in 1859 <™d her first great-
grandchild in 1879- There were 37 great-grandchildren alive at
the time of her death.
The growing cares and joys of family life combined with the
influence of Albert to produce a complete change in the queen's
habits.^ Gone was the love of idle splendour and "mere amuse-
ment" The early 'forties were the "hungry 'forties," and Victoria
expressed to Peel a desire to cut down the expenses of the court
in order to give more of her income to charity. Sir Robert dis-
couraged an impulse which seemed to him all too human. "I
am afraid the people would only say," he replied, "that Your
Majesty was returning them change for their pounds in half-
pence." A sovereign, he said, must do all things in order, not
seeking praise for doing one particular thing well, but striving
to be an example in all respects, even in the giving of dinner-
parties. The dinner-parties of the royal pair were indeed a con-
spicuous example of decorum, but the guests found them stiff
and by no means amusing. At the same time it should be said
that the young queen's dignity and discretion made a great
impression upon the royal visitors from abroad. Among such in
the first ten years of her married life were Frederick William IV.
of Prussia, Louis-Philippe of France, and the Tsar Nicholas I.
Osborne and Balmoral. — In June 1842 the queen made her
first railway journey (though railways had been in use for some
12 years), travelling from Windsor to Paddington. The Master
of the Horse, whose business it was to provide for the queen's
journeys, was much put out by this innovation. He visited the
station and inspected the engine several hours before it was due
to start; and when the journey was about to begin the queen's
coachman insisted on mounting the engine and presiding over its
manipulation. It is said that his scarlet livery got so much
soiled on the journey that he did not insist upon repeating the
experiment. A few weeks later 'the queen used the railway for
her first journey to Scotland. Railway travel, the most character-
istic innovation of the queen's reign, made an important contribu-
tion to her happiness, for it enabled her, without losing contact
with her ministers, to reside for long periods of each year in the
country houses she built for herself at Osborne in the Isle of
Wight, and at Balmoral in the Highlands of Scotland. Politicians
sometimes complained, not without reason, of the labours and
delays occasioned by the queen's addiction to these resorts,
especially to the distant Balmoral; but at a later period the
delays of correspondence were reduced by another innovation,
the telegraph. Telegraphic communication was established be-
tween London and Balmoral in the early 'sixties. At the same
time, it was usually expected that members of the Cabinet should
take turns in "doing service," as Lord Palmerston called it, of
residence with the queen when at Balmoral.
The estate at Osborne was purchased by Peel's advice, and
the residence built, in 1846, out of the queen's savings from her
income. The lease of the original (and quite small) Balmoral
House was taken two years later. In 1852 the estate was bought,
and the great palace in "Scotch baronial" style completed in
1855. At Balmoral her happiest days were spent. "Every year,"
she wrote, "my heart becomes more fixed in this dear Paradise,
and so much more so now, that all has become my dear Albert's
oum creation, own work, own building, own laying-out; — and his
great taste, and the impress of his dear hand, have been stamped
everywhere." The queen held the Highlanders in more esteem
than any other section of her subjects. Her favourite servant,
the Highlander John Brown, was her inseparable attendant down
to his death in 1883. Protestant to the core, she felt a more
entire sympathy with the Presbyterian Established Church of
Scotland than with the English Church. It is probable that she
esteemed no English minister of religion so highly as the Scottish
Presbyterian, Norman MacLeod. When he died in 1872 she
wrote : — "There was in beloved Norman MacLeod such geniality
with true piety, and the strongest belief, the largest, widest
Christian love . . ." ending with the words, "he was a thorough
Highlander."
The Great Exhibition of 1851 belongs to the career of Albert
rather than Victoria. The old Houses of Parliament had been
burnt down and the problems connected with the building of
the new Houses suggested to Peel the desirability of a royal
commission to consider the best means of promoting the arts
and sciences. He invited Albert to preside over the commission,
and its work suggested to the prince the idea of the Exhibition.
That Exhibition, the first of its kind, held in the Crystal Palace
erected in Hyde Park, owed everything to Albert's organizing
energy. The work of the commission led to the creation of the
Museum and the Science and Art Department at South Kensing-
ton, and to the founding of art schools and picture galleries all
over the country.
Conflicts with Palmerston.— The fall of Peel in 1846 and the
return of the Whigs brought Lord Palmerston to the Foreign
Office and led to the severest struggle between the Crown and its
ministers since the day when George III. had dismissed the
Coalition of Fox and North in 1783. Palmerston bad passed his
VICTORIA
127
6oth birthday and could look back on a career of high office
which began ten years before the royal couple were born. Con-
fident in his parliamentary skill and in his capacity to solve every
problem of foreign policy on the spur of the moment, shrewd,
bold, instinctive, casual, contemptuous of foreign potentates and
diplomatic amenities, he was in every respect the antithesis of
Albert. Albert distrusted Palmerston's character, disapproved of
his methods, disliked his policy, and, prompted by Stockmar, dis-
agreed with his conception of the British constitution. In the
contests that ensued Victoria was the disciple of Albert, a dis-
ciple whose zeal and vehemence outran that of her husband
and master; for Albert was never vehement. The fundamental
issue was the interpretation of the British constitution — a consti-
tution notoriously flexible and elusive. Lord Clarendon, after
dining with the royal pair at the height of the conflict, declared
that they "laboured under the. curious mistake that the Foreign
Office was their peculiar department, and that they had the right
to control, if not to direct, the foreign policy of England."
It is impossible here to follow the struggle through all its phases.
Suffice it to say that the royal pair secured an ally in the prime
minister, Lord John Russell, himself, for Palmerston often treated
his colleagues as casually as he treated the sovereign, and took
important decisions and sent off important despatches without
consulting either the one or the other. In 1850 the queen delivered
a kind of ultimatum in the form of a memorandum drawn up
for her use by Stockmar. "With reference to the conversation
about Lord Palmerston which the queen had with Lord John
Russell the other day, and Lord Palmerston's disavowal that he
ever intended any disrespect to her by the various neglects of
which she has had so long and so often to complain, she thinks
it right, in order to avoid any mistakes for the future, to explain
what it is she expects from the foreign secretary. She requires:
(i) That he will distinctly state what he proposes in a given
case, in order that the queen may know as distinctly to what she
has given her royal sanction; (2) Having once given her sanc-
tion to a measure, that it be not arbitrarily altered or modified
by the minister." Lord Palmerston accepted the rebuke with
apparent meekness, but his conduct continued unchanged. At
the end of 1851 he expressed to the French ambassador, without
having consulted either Russell or the queen, his approval of
Napoleon's coup d'etat. Russell immediately dismissed him and
used the occasion to make public the queen's memorandum
quoted above. But in a few months Palmerston secured his "tit
for tat" by overthrowing Russell's administration.
It was unfortunate for Victoria and Albert that Palmerston
was the most popular statesman in the country. At the beginning
of 1854, when the country was visibly drifting into the Crimean
War, it was announced that Palmerston (at that date home secre-
tary in Aberdeen's coalition Government) had resigned office. At
once an extraordinary storm of popular fury burst forth against
the royal pair whose machinations, it was supposed, guided by
the hidden hand of the alien Stockmar, had brought about the
downfall of the one statesman in whom the nation felt confidence.
There were rumours that both the queen and the prince had been
committed to the Tower. "Thousands of people," wrote Albert
to Stockmar, "surrounded the Tower to see the Queen and me
brought to it." It was supposed that Albert was in the pay of the
Russians. Palmerston's resignation was, however, withdrawn, and
the gross absurdity of the charges brought against the prince,
coupled with the unmistakable patriotism of his conduct through-
out the war, produced a marked revival of royalist sentiment.
The queen personally superintended the committees of ladies who
organizeo! relief for the wounded, and eagerly seconded the efforts
of Florence Nightingale; she visited crippled soldiers in the hos-
pitals, and instituted the Victoria Cross. The alliance with
France led to a visit from the French emperor, whom the queen
found very attractive, and in 1856 the visit was returned, this
being the first occasion that a British sovereign had visited Paris
since the coronation of Henry VI. in the days of Joan of Arc.
The Crimean War made Palmerston prime minister, and he
retained the office, with one short interval, until his death in 1865.
From 1859 onwards Russell was foreign secretary and his conduct
was not found much more satisfactory than that of Palmerston.
Palmerston and Russell supported, while Victoria and Albert
disliked, the actions of Cavour and Garibaldi which led to the
union of Italy. In 1861 the American Civil War broke out. A
vessel of the "Northern'/ navy improperly arrested two "Southern"
envoys on a British steamer, and a typically unwise and peremp-
tory despatch of Russell's might have involved Great Britain in
an unforgivable war with Lincoln's Government, had not Albert
secured its alteration. It was the last act of his life. His health
had long been unsatisfactory and his spirits depressed. His
constitution, never robust, was undermined by overwork and
political adversity. At the end of 1861 he was smitten with
what was probably typhoid fever and died on Dec. 14.
1862-1901
Widowhood. — Victoria was only 42 at the date of her tragic
bereavement; 39 years of life remained to her, nearly half her
life, and much more than half her reign. The queen's life during
her long widowhood lacks the variety of the earlier years; crowded
with events it may in a sense be said to be, but those events
are the political history of the nation and empire over which
Victoria was called to rule, and it is no easy task to disentangle
biography from history. Yet it is on this latter part of the
queen's life that a judgment of her character and statesmanship
should be principally founded. Until her marriage she had been
little more than a child; during her married life she had accepted
wholeheartedly the guidance of her adored husband; after 1861
she stood alone and, ably as she was served by a succession of
devoted secretaries, her conception of her duties and her policy
was her own. "I am determined," she wrote to her uncle Leo-
pold, "that no one person — may he be ever so good or ever so
devoted among my servants — is to lead or guide or dictate to me.
I know how he would disapprove of it. . . . Though miserably
weak and utterly shattered, my spirit rises when I think any wish
or plan of his is to be touched or changed, or I am to be made
to do anything."
There were many, and among them both the editor of the
Times and the prime minister, Lord Palmerston, who assumed
that the prince of Wales, who was already somewhat older than
his mother had been at her accession, would be admitted, either
at once or by degrees, to a partnership with the queen like that
which her husband had enjoyed. But Victoria would have none
of it. Though she groaned under the labours of her self-imposed
isolation, and expressed again and again a longing for a release
from them by death, she rigidly excluded her heir from all share
in her political duties, and maintained that exclusion to the end.
Perhaps if "Bertie" (as he was always called in the family) had
been more like Albert, her decision might have been otherwise,
and the lives of both mother and son, we cannot doubt, would
have been happier. But the prince was of a Hanoverian rather
than a Coburg type. He had not proved amenable to the educa-
tion so carefully provided for him. He might have ideas of his
own, and Victoria was determined that the royal policy should
continue to be Albert's and that she alone knew what that policy
would be.
It is impossible to exaggerate the grief of the widowed queen.
Other women have loved their husbands as dearly, but not all,
nor perhaps many, of these have experienced so long and so
poignantly what Tennyson, Victoria's favourite poet, called "sor-
row's crown of sorrow," the continued overshadowing of the
present by the never-forgotten brightness of the past. The queen's
mourning, alike in form and in fact, was indefinitely prolonged.
Never again would she, to the end of her days, take up her resi-
dence in London. Only seven times, and then as a rule with much
protest and complaining, did she consent to undertake the cere-
monial duty of opening the parliamentary session. Up to the
time of the first Jubilee the public and spectacular functions of
royalty remained almost entirely in abeyance, except in so far
as they could be, and were, performed by the prince and princess
of Wales. It was inevitable that this should cause dissatisfaction.
There were suggestions, in the 'sixties, that the queen should
abdicate in favour of her son. In the early 'seventies two rising
politicians, Joseph Chamberlain and Sir Charles Dilke, were
128
VICTORIA
reputed to be "republicans," and the queen's failure to use her
large income for what was supposed to be its proper purpose,
was acrimoniously criticised.* Victoria bitterly resented such com-
plaints. Her physicians agreed that her health could not stand
the strain of public ceremonies, and she held that she was dis-
charging with unremitting industry the essential, as distinct from
the ornamental, duties of her office. The modern notion that
politics should be left to politicians had never been accepted
by even the most lethargic of her predecessors, and it certainly
found no favour with Victoria.
The Constitutional Monarch. — In his treatise on The Eng-
lish Constitution (published 1865) Bagehot said that the sovereign
had, in relation to his ministers, three rights — the right to be
consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn; and,
he adds, a sovereign of great sense and sagacity would want no
others. "He would find that his having no others would enable
him to use these with singular effect." If the sovereign dis-
approved of the minister's policy "he might not always turn his
course, but he would always trouble his mind. In the course of a
long reign a sagacious king would acquire an experience with
which few ministers could contend." Moreover the sovereign's
position must give him imponderable advantages in any conflict
of opinion with his ministers. For there is a "divinity which
doth hedge a king," and the minister, as Bagehot quaintly puts it,
"cannot argue on his knees."
Victoria had learnt from her husband and her uncle Leopold
to have a low opinion of the intelligence, industry and patriotism
of politicians in general and English politicians in particular.
She conceived it to be her duty to do all that lay within her
power to save her people — for were they not her people? — from
the disasters into which their elected representatives were only
too likely to lead them. She exercised to the full her "right to
be consulted." Again and again, as we turn the pages of the
Letters of Queen Victoria (i 862-85), we find ministers repri-
manded for making decisions without first submitting them to the
queen. The ministers humbly apologise, plead haste, or accident,
or suggest that the decision in question had in fact already been
in principle approved, and promise not to offend again, — a promise
seldom fulfilled, it would appear. The duties of ministers in this
respect were indeed not easy, for in politics, especially foreign
policy which was the queen's principal interest, speed is often
an essential ingredient of efficiency, and the queen's absence at
Balmoral or Osborne (she spent about four months of every
year at each of these residences) made royal consultation diffi-
cult. In her exercise of "the right to encourage," the queen was
more sparing, though she gave generous commendation where
she felt that commendation was deserved ; but only an exceptional
statesman — a Disraeli for example — won that affectionate con-
fidence which the queen gave so readily to all her leading soldiers
and to some of her representatives abroad, Lord Odo Russell,
for example, when ambassador at Berlin, and Lord Lytton when
Viceroy of India. The third of the rights enumerated by Bagehot,
"the right to warn" was exercised without any intermission what-
ever. Again and again the queen exerted all her resources to
secure a reversal of the policy adopted by her ministers. In small
matters often and in great matters sometimes she succeeded.
But when she found that no warnings of hers, however vehement,
would avail, she remembered the limitations of her power, and
officially identified herself with the policy she personally detested.
England and Germany.— For the first four years of the
queen's widowhood (1862-65) Lord Palmerston, now nearly 80,
was prime minister, with Russell, already past 70, as his foreign
secretary, and the most embarrassing question of the day was the
notorious "Schleswig-Holstein question" (q.v.). Roughly speaking,
the question at issue was whether these two duchies, with their
mainly German population, should remain subject to the king of
Denmark, or become a separate state under a German prince, or be
annexed by Prussia. In the English press and public there was
widespread sympathy for Denmark, strengthened by the marriage,
in 1863, of the prince of Wales with the charming Danish princess
who was subsequently Queen Alexandra. Palmerston and Russell
were strongly pro-Danish, and might well, in defiance of the
views of the rest of the cabinet, have plunged the country into
a disastrous war. The queen played an all-important part in
restraining "those two dreadful old men." Her sympathies were
with Prussia. Her eldest daughter had married the Prussian crown
prince, and Albert had always held that the German States ought
ultimately to be united under the Prussian monarchy. Within
two months of the death of her husband she was at work, insisting
on the removal of a provocative phrase from a despatch to Prussia.
In her long struggle with Russell and Palmerston she was main-
taining the rights of the cabinet as well as the prerogatives of the
Crown, and her efforts were crowned with the success they
deserved.
But the Prussia now in the ascendant was not the Prussia to
which Albert had given his blessing. Bismarck was in power,
and for Victoria he was henceforth and always a "terrible man."
The war of 1866, when the Prussian armies engaged and defeated
in six weeks the forces of Austria and all the German States,
was a bitter grief to the queen, who had near relations fighting
on both sides. Her personal offer of mediation before the con-
flict had been rudely brushed aside. In 1870 the clever camou-
flage of Bismarck's diplomacy and an almost instinctive distrust
of the French made her once more a whole-hearted partisan of
Prussia. But when the victory of Prussia had been assured the
queen exerted herself to snve Paris from bombardment, and
Bismarck himself furnished evidence of her success, when he
complained that "the petticoat sentimentality" with which Vic-
toria had infected the Prussian royal family hampered the designs
of the Prussian army. Victoria looked forward to the day when
her son-in-law would succeed to the Prussian throne, dismiss
Bismarck, and direct the new German empire into liberal and
humane courses. But it was not to be. Bismarck's emperor lived
to be 91; the crown prince reigned but 100 days (in 1888); and
William II. accepted all that was worst, while rejecting most of
what was wisest, in the policy of Bismarck. Only once, in 1888,
did Victoria engage in direct encounter with "the terrible man."
Her grand-daughter, a daughter of the German crown prince,
was engaged to Prince Alexander of Battenburg (Prince of Bul-
garia) and Bismarck was determined to prevent the match. Bis-
marck claimed a personal interview with Victoria, and the mar-
riage had to be abandoned.
Franchise Reform.— After the death of Palmerston (1865)
his successor Lord Russell revived the question of an extension
of the franchise beyond the "middle-class" limits fixed in 1832.
The Russell-Gladstone Bill was rejected; the Government re-
signed, and the Hyde Park riots followed. The queen had little
or no personal interest in such questions but she had a horror of
demonstrations of popular discontent, which she always feared
might ultimately take a republican direction, and she took an early
opportunity of writing to her new prime minister, the Conserva-
tive Lord Derby, urging him to take up the question in earnest
and achieve its settlement, and promising to do all in her power
to secure the co-operation of the Leaders of the Opposition. The
result was the famous Second Reform Bill of 1867, so skilfully
piloted through the House of Commons by Disraeli. It is prob-
able, no doubt, that the Conservative Government would in any
case have pursued a similar policy, for the same ministers had
done so, unsuccessfully, in 1858. None the less the queen's
action is one of many examples that could be adduced to show
that she was not, in domestic affairs, a supporter of a policy of
standing still. On certain domestic questions, such as Housing,
she was well in advance of most of the politicians of her day,
and posterity will endorse her remark that the clearance of slums
was more worthy of attention than a great many of the subjects
with which igth century parliaments occupied their time.
Ireland. — The years 1867-68 were marked by the destructive
outrages of the Fenians. Victoria characteristically refused to
take the precautions for her personal safety which her ministers
urged upon her. Both political parties turned their attention
perforce to Irish grievances, and Gladstone won a decisive vic-
tory in the election of 1868 with a programme in which the main
item was the disestablishment of the Irish Church. From 1868-74
he was her prime minister.
VICTORIA
129
Victoria's attitude towards Ireland was much the same as that
of a great many of her English subjects. She had little under-
standing of or sympathy with Irish grievances, and the demand
for Home Rule, now beginning to be vocal in the House of
Commons, she regarded as sheer disloyalty. It had been suggested
that she should establish a "Balmoral" in Ireland, but the idea
was repugnant to her. The Irish climate was "unhealthy," and
being a bad sailor she detested the crossing. Perhaps the prince
of Wales might establish a residence there? No; he would only
be able to reside there very occasionally, and the upkeep of the
house would not be worth its expense. On the other hand the
queen was always intensely appreciative of the bravery of her
Irish regiments, and their gallantry in South Africa led her to
make, in 1900, a three weeks' visit to Dublin which was one of
the last public actions of her life.
Gladstone and Disraeli. — The queen felt a strong repugnance
towards Gladstone's policy of disestablishing and partially dis-
endowing the Irish Protestant Church. She regarded it as a dimi-
nution of her own prerogatives and as a concession to popery,
nor were her feelings assuaged by the document which Gladstone
presented to her as an exposition of the measure, for she found
it entirely incomprehensible. None the less she recognized that the
electorate had spoken decisively, and that the bill must be passed.
Her attention turned to the House of Lords. Gladstone's policy
threatened to produce, for the first time since the "Great" Reform
Bill, a serious conflict between the two Houses, and such a con-
flict she regarded as endangering the whole fabric of the consti-
tution, and opening the way to "democracy" and republicanism;
that the monarchy could survive in a completely democratized
State Victoria never believed. Her chosen instrument in securing
a compromise between the Houses was Archbishop Tait, and
Gladstone seconded her efforts by timely concessions on the dis-
endowment clauses.
Equally distasteful to the queen were the Army reforms of
Cardwell, but here again, realizing that the reforms could not be
resisted, she worked hard for their smooth passage, exerting a
moderating influence on her cousin, the duke of Cambridge, who
was commander-in-chief . The abolition of the system of purchase
of commissions, rejected by the House of Lords, was achieved over
their heads by royal warrant.
Disraeli's accession to office in 1874 opened what was for the
queen a far happier period. There had been a time, in the far-
off days of Corn Law Repeal, when Victoria and Albert had
regarded Disraeli as the most detestable of all politicians, but as
soon as Disraeli became leader of the House of Commons, in
1852, he began to obliterate those memories. "Mr. Disraeli,"
she had written to her uncle Leopold, "writes very curious reports
to me of the proceedings of the House of Commons — much in the
style of his books." It was a style that the queen came rapidly
to appreciate. Disraeli's brief prime ministership in 1868 had
greatly advanced him in ro^al favour. Never, since the death of
Prince Albert, had her political duties been made so easy and so
interesting. None of her prime ministers realized as Disraeli
realized that, when a queen is on the throne, the successful prime
minister must be a perfect courtier. No one could have surpassed
Gladstone in his reverence for the throne, but that reverence
expressed itself in a solemn and pompous abasement: Disraeli's
homage to the throne was expressed as personal devotion to the
lonely and essentially simple-minded woman who was its occupant.
The new prime minister's vigorous imperial and foreign policy
was entirely congenial to the queen, who warmly applauded the
acquisition of the Suez Canal shares, and welcomed the measure
which conferred upon her the title of empress of India (1876),
but she was by no means inclined to relax the vigilance of her
control over ministerial policy. The prolonged Balkan crisis and
the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 excited her passionate interest,
and though she trusted Lord Beaconsfield (as he had now become),
she had the very lowest opinion of his foreign secretary, Lord
Derby (son of the former prime minister). "The Queen writes
every day and telegraphs every hour," wrote Beaconsfield to his
confidant, Lady Bradford. If Victoria had had her way in 1877,
Great Britain would probably have undertaken another war with
Russia, as unprofitable as the Crimean War.
The election of 1880 brought Gladstone back to power and
ushered in what were to be the most harassing years, from a
political standpoint, of the queen's reign. Her antipathy to Glad-
stone had been deepened by his conduct in opposition. Gladstone
had denounced Beaconsfield's reckless imperial ventures in Af-
ghanistan and South Alrica and his support of the blood-stained
Turk against Russia as something worse than mere errors of
policy. He had held them up to reprobation as iniquitous, and
the queen, identifying herself with Beaconsfield's policy, regarded
Gladstone's speeches as something like personal insults to herself.
Gladstone had nominally resigned the leadership of the Liberal
party in 1874, and Victoria tried to avail herself of this fact to
construct a Liberal administration under Granville or Hartington,
from which Gladstone should be excluded ; but it was impossible.
The Liberal Government of 1880-85 was one of the most
unfortunate in British history; it was the Government of
Majuba, the Phoenix Park murders, and the fall of Khartoum.
Space does not allow us to examine the complicated and tragic
record, nor is it here appropriate either to condemn or to acquit
the Government on the various charges that have been brought
against it. The queen's letters during these years make extremely
distressing reading. She distrusted her prime minister and found
kittle that was good in many of his colleagues. Lord Granville
at the foreign office was "as weak, as water"; Chamberlain was
constantly uttering sentiments which, the queen held, should have
excluded him from any cabinet. The "right to warn" was lavishly
employed, yet it would seem, did not influence ministers. Almost
inevitably a tone of peevishness and, as one might say, of "nag-
ging" becomes more and more apparent. Even on the rare
occasions when the ministers gained the queen's approval, her
commendation is seasoned by the taunt that what (hey are now
doing might well have been done before. The role of a consti-
tutional monarch as Victoria understood it becomes well-nigh
impossible, when the gulf between the monarch's and the minis-
try's policy is of more than a very moderate width, and the result
is bad for all concerned; for the sovereign becomes one of the
ministry's principal embarrassments, and a hypothetically bad
ministry is more likely to be made worse than better by con-
tinuous royal badgering.
The Jubilee Period. — But for the queen the worst was very
nearly over. After the election of 1885 Gladstone adopted a
policy of Home Rule, and a section of his own party joined
with the Conservatives in defeating the Home Rule Bill of 1886.
Henceforth, with a brief Gladstonian interval in the early 'nineties,
the Conservatives, under Salisbury, were in power. Imperialism
after the queen's own heart became more and more the national
mood. Before her death she saw the more deplorable of Gladstone's
withdrawals reversed, with Kitchener at Khartoum and Roberts
at Pretoria. A sunlit and glorious evening came to greet the end
of her long laborious day. Gladstonian Liberalism was on the
wane; Socialism had not yet made effective entry into politics.
After the acute industrial distress of the early 'eighties a period
of unprecedented material prosperity set in — the "Jubilee period."
The end of a century was approaching, and the end of an age, the
Victorian Age. In the Jubilees of 1887 and 1897 the queen was
accepted as the worthiest symbol of a great nation and an un-
paralleled empire. The end came in the first month of the new
century, after a brief and painless illness. It was by four years
the longest reign, and by three days the longest royal life, in
British history.
Church Patronage. — The queen took a keen interest in ap-
pointments to vacant bishoprics, and undoubtedly valued as highly
as Queen Elizabeth had done her position as the Head of the
Established Church. She was herself deeply religious and her
preference was for what would now be regarded as a somewhat
old-fashioned type of Protestant piety, but her views on the
exercise of her patronage were well abreast of the times. The foes
of the Establishment and of true religion, in her judgment, were
agnosticism and the "ritualism" of the Anglo-Catholic movement;
it is, she wrote to Disraeli in 1875, "of the utmost importance
that really intellectual, liberal-minded, and courageous men should
130
VICTORIA
be appointed/' The "materialistic tendencies" of the age could
not be checked by "evangelical trash." Two years later we find
her writing, "Unbelief can only be met by a full recognition of
the rights of reason and science/' Her preference was for Broad
Churchmen, and perhaps the most important ecclesiastical ap-
pointment of her reign, that of Tait to the Archbishopric of
Canterbury, was her personal choice forced upon a reluctant
prime minister. Her most trusted adviser in ecclesiastical mat-
ters was Dean Wcllesley of Windsor, and after his death in
1882 she relied much on his successor, Dr. Randall Davidson,
subsequently archbishop of Canterbury. It is characteristic of
her eminent fairness of mind that she scrutinised with consider- j
able suspicion the ecclesiastical recommendations of Disraeli,
rebuking his attempts to use church preferment for the promotion
of supposed Conservative interests, whereas she treated with far
greater respect the recommendations of Gladstone who, whatever
his political delinquencies, could never be accused of sacrificing
the interests of the Church to those of his party.
The Empire. — Much might be said of the queen's pride and
interest in the peoples of her far-flung empire. India was always
near her heart and she encouraged her viceroys to write her long
personal letters. In her later years she had a devoted Indian
personal servant, and amused herself with learning the elements of
Hindustani. The queen's devotion to her Indian subjects was'
amply appreciated and returned, alike by the chiefs and by the
common people. Sir W. R. Lawrence writes (1928) in his book
The India we Served: — "From my verandah in the early morning
of Feb. 3, 1901, I saw a sight which set me thinking. I saw the
greater part of Calcutta's dense population file solemnly past on
their way to the great park (Maidan) to sit there all day, without
food, mourning for the great Queen-Empress who had made them
her children."
In 1863 we find her describing in her Journal with obvious
relish the visit of certain Maori chieftains. "They all kissed my
hand and behaved extremely well." On a later occasion the visitor
was the redoubtable Cetewayo, and the queen's only regret was
that he did not appear in his native costume, though there was
apparently very little of it. In 1874 she conveyed, through her
friend Dean Stanley, to Bishop Colenso of Natal, her warm
approval of his championship of the rights of a native chief
against the oppressive policy of the Natal Government. An
amusing example of her good sense was afforded by the annexa-
tion of Fiji at the same date. Cabinet ministers agreed in finding
this name "barbarous and unpleasing"; one suggested "the New
Orkneys," another "Oceania," and Disraeli favoured "the Windsor
Islands." Victoria held that "Fiji" was quite good enough, and
Fiji it remains to this day.
The Queen's Achievement. — The essential achievement of
the great queen is plain for all to see: it is massive in its sim-
plicity. She received a crown that had been tarnished by inepti-
tude and vice; she wore it 63 years, and made it the symbol of
private virtue and public honour. If a monarchy at once dignified
and popular is of value to the nation and empire, then it was
Victoria who gave back these long lost values to the crown. The
achievement was one of character much more than of intellect.
Opinions will differ as to the queen's political acumen, and as to
the soundness of her interpretation of her duty towards her
ministers. No one can question the intensity of her devotion to
her duty, as wife, mother, and queen, nor the transparent honesty
of her character. There are degrees of honesty even among honest
men, and the queen's honesty was of the highest degree. After
all, the two best things in the world, perhaps, are hard work and a
happy family life, and the queen presented to her subjects a
shining example of both. Her personal sympathies extended
beyond her family to all her servants, and the humblest could
always be the most sure of her sympathies. On occasions of
mourning the queen's message was something more than royal; it
it was spoken from the heart of a widowed woman. When, five
weeks after her husband's death, there was a bad colliery disaster
at Hartley, the queen commanded her secretary to write: — "Her
tenderest sympathy is with the poor widows and mothers; her own
misery only makes her feel the more for them." It is but one
example of many.
Perhaps a fit conclusion would be a prayer from the queen's
Journal, one of many; it is dated Jan. i, 1878. "May this year
bring us peace, and may I be able to maintain strongly and stoutly
the honour and dignity of my dear country 1 . . . God help me on
in my arduous task!"
The most important authority for the queen's life is the two series
of Letters of Queen Victoria, 1837-1861 (1907), and 1862-1885 (1926-
27). There is an excellent popular life by Lytton Strachey (1921) and
a detailed biographical article by Sidney Lee in the Dictionary of
National Biography, to which a full bibliography is appended.
(D. C. So.)
VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO
DA (c. 1540-c. 1613), Spanish musical composer, was born prob-
ably at Avila. In 1573 he was appointed as Maestro di Cappella
to the Collegium Germanicum at Rome, where he had probably
been trained. Victoria left Rome 'in 1589, being then appointed
vice-master of the Royal Chapel at Madrid, a post which he held
until 1602. In 1603 he composed for the funeral of the empress
Maria the greatest requiem of the Golden Age, which is his last
known work, though in 1613 a contemporary speaks of him as still
living. He was not ostensibly Palestrina's pupil; but Palestrina
had the main influence upon his art, and alike personally and ar-
tistically the relations of the two were close. The work begun by
Morales and perfected by Palestrina left no stumbling-blocks in
Victoria's path and he was able from the outset to express the
purity of his ideals of religious music without having to sift the
good from the bad in that Flemish tradition which had entangled
Palestrina's path while it enlarged his style. From Victoria's first
publication in 1572 to his last requiem (the Officium Dejunctorum
of 1605) there is practically no change of style, all being pure
church music of unswerving loftiness and showing no inequality
except in concentration of thought. Like his countryman and pre-
decessor Morales, he devoted himself entirely to sacred music;
yet he differs from Morales, perhaps more than can be accounted
for by his later date, in that his devotional spirit is impulsive
rather than ascetic. He strikes the note of aspiration rather than
that of renunciation.
Victoria's work is the crown of Spanish music : music which has
been regarded as not constituting a special school, since it absorbed
itself so thoroughly in the Rome of Palestrina. In any extensive
anthology of liturgical polyphony such as the Musica Divina of
Proske, his work stands out as impressively as Palestrina's and
Lasso's; and the style, in spite of a resemblance to Palestrina
which amounts to imitation, is as individual as only a successful
imitator of Palestrina can be. That is to say, Victoria's individ-
uality is strong enough to assert itself by the very act of follow-
ing Palestrina's path. When he is below his best his style does not
become crabbed or harsh, but over-facile and thin, though never
failing in euphony. If he seldom displays an elaborate technique
it is not because he conceals it, or lacks it. His mastery is unfail-
ing, but his methods are those of direct emotional effect; and the
intellectual qualities that strengthen and deepen this emotion are
themselves innate and not sought out. The emotion is reasonable
and lofty, not because he has trained himself to think correctly,
but because he does not know that any one can think otherwise.
His works fill eight volumes in the complete edition of Breitkopf
and Hartel. . (D. F. T.)
VICTORIA, a State of the Commonwealth of Australia oc-
cupying a triangular area of c. 88,000 sq.m. (56,245,760 ac.) in
the extreme south-cast of the continent of which it forms roughly
a thirty-fourth part. After Tasmania it is the smallest Australian
State, and is marked off from New South Wales on the north by
the river Murray from near its source to the South Australian
border and by a straight boundary line drawn from The Springs,
on Forest Hill near the Murray source, east-south-east to Cape
Howe. On the west its border marches, along long. 140° 58" E.,
with that of South Australia for some 250 m. (i.e., from the Mur-
ray to Discovery bay near the mouth of the river Glenelg) and
on the south a coast-line of c. 680 miles extends, with some
marked irregularities, in an east-west direction from Discovery
bay to Cape Howe (long. 150° E.) and faces Bass strait, the
Southern and Pacific oceans and Tasmania. Its most northerly
VICTORIA
portion lies in the north-east at c. lat. 34° S. and its coast-line
lies approximately along lat. 38° 30' S. (Wilson's promontory,
the most southerly point of Australia: lat. 39° 8' S.) and in re-
spect of size, climatic conditions and general economic develop-
ment it shows certain marked resemblances to, and also signifi-
cant differences from, the British Isles (c. 88,756 sq.m.; v. inf.).
Physiography. — Geological structure and surface configura-
tion mark out the area into four main divisions: (a) A "back-
bone" of highlands, styled somewhat misleadingly in view of its
breadth the "Great Dividing Range." It falls into an eastern
and a western section, the line of division corresponding ap-
proximately with the Kilmore Gap (c. 1,145 ft.) north of Mel-
bourne. The eastern section comprises the massive but broken
plateau of the Australian Alps (q.v.), which forms part of the
main eastern highland belt of Australia. (See AUSTRALIA: 6>o-
morphology; also NEW SOUTH WALES and TASMANIA: Physiog-
raphy.) From its granite and basalt surfaces blunted elevations
such as Mounts Cobboras (Bowen Mtns.), Feathcrtop, Hotham,
Bogong rise to over 6,000 feet. Eastwards it sinks somewhat
(Mounts Howitt, Tamboritha, Buffalo, etc., over 5,000 ft.) and
narrows to the Hume Range which dies down to 2,000-3,000 ft.
towards the Kilmore gap and the Melbourne basin (q.v.). These
highlands (3,000-4,000 sq.m. above 3,000 ft.), which occupy
most of the eastern corner of the State, form a fine and pic-
turesque mountain massif in which ice and rivers, working partly
along north-south structural lines (cf. the Omeo gap, r. 2,800 ft.,
between the headwaters of the Mitta-Mitta and Tambo rivers)
have excavated great wild valleys and given to Victoria a play-
ground (e,£,, Mount Buffalo) which rivals the famous Kosciusko
area of New South Wales. Westwards from the Kilmore Gap the
k4range," though similarly broken into spurs («.#., Mount Alex-
ander 2,430 ft.), is much lower and forms a broad rough upland
belt composed largely of ancient metamorphic, with later igneous,
rocks (basalt, etc.) rarely rising above 2,000 feet. At the west
extremity, just before it sinks to the western plains, lie the north-
south Grampian and other ranges (Mt. William, 3,829 ft.), (b)
The extreme south of the State is occupied by what appear to be
fragments of a parallel range, composed largely of later (Meso-
zoic) rocks. Subsidence in the direction of Bass strait apparently
ruptured this system, admitted the sea to Port Phillip, and left
the isolated hill-ranges (Otway range rising to I,QOO ft.; Buln
Buln | Strzclccki] range with Mt. Fatigue, 2,110 ft.) which
occupy the projections on either side of it. Wilson's promontory
is a semi-detached granitic mass rising to 2,350 feet, (c) Between
the two uplands referred to in (a) and (b) an east-west cor-
ridor-like depression stretches nearly the length of the State.
from Gippsland to the western plains. In the east it is occupied
and has been partly built up, by streams (Latrobe, etc.) which
rise in the flanking highlands, and here also the coastal margins
south of the Strzelecki range form a parallel and connected low-
land. The central portion is the irregularly submerged land-and-
water area which opens out as a broad inverted V from an apex
near Melbourne. To the west the trough runs from about Geelong
to the south-west coast (Warrnambool-Portland), and makes
junction with the western plains which are the southern ex-
tremity of the river Murray basin. Fertile, sheltered and well-
watered in the east, in the west these southern Victorian lowlands
are paved with wide sheets of Tertiary (Oligocene-Pliocene)
basalt — supporting a few small cones and some lakes — which lend
to them, as to the northern fringes of Tasmania opposite, an ex-
ceptional richness and economic significance, (d) Between the
Great Dividing Range and the Murray, the north and north-west
of the State consists of lowlands undistinguished, except for the
flattening mountain 'spurs along their southern margin, by any
outstanding topographic features.
Coastol Features and Drainage.— Qi the coastal features the
most important are those of the central "water-triangle" —
Port Phillip, Corio Bay, Western Port: and other forms of sub-
mergence. (See MELBOURNE.) Cape Otway, Wilson's promon-
tory and Cape Howe are outstanding points in bold rocky
stretches while Portland enjoys shelter from the south-west gales
owing to the Cape Nelson projection. The south-east Gippsland
coast is noted for its "Ninety Mile Beach" due to longshore sand-
drift. Through it a narrow gap at Cunninghame (Lakes Entrance)
gives entrance to the long chain of lagoon-like lakes formed by the
Latrobe, Macallister, Mitchell, Tambo, and other streams denied
free outlet to the sea. Thus is formed an interesting and beauti-
ful district, one of the pleasure-grounds of the State. The south*
east streams mentioned, along with the Mitta-Mitta (125 m.),
Ovens (no m.), etc., on the north-east, descend steeply from
the eastern highlands and have generally swift, perennial, rain
and snow-fed flows capable of supplying an as yet undetermined
amount of hydro-electric power. The Murray has c. 1,200 m. of
its course along the Victorian boundary and, apart from those
already mentioned, the Goulburn (280 m.), Campaspe (100 m.)
and Locldon (155 m.) are perhaps the most important. Of the
remaining south coast streams the Glenelg (280 m.) and the
Hopkins-Mt. Emu Creek (135 m. and 170 m.) are the longest.
Climate. — Latitude, relief, and coastal extension (i m. of
coast per 129 sq.m. of land) give to Victoria a relatively mild,
warm, and equable climate with a rainfall ranging from moderate
to large. Temperatures showing ann. averages of 66°-48° F along
the coastal parts become higher and more extreme (76°-5i«5°)
in the north-west interior, and lower and more extreme (c. 56°-
32°) in the eastern uplands. Thus, while hot spells are not un-
known on the coasts (Melbourne: temps, of 100° recorded on
5-6 consecutive days), they are severer in the north-west (10
days; absolute extremes ii/°-2i0; while winter temps, below
freezing and snow are normal upon the eastern heights. Rainfall,
which is brought mainly by the west-east procession of southern
depressions ("Antarctic lows") and to a less extent by monsoonal
depressions from the north ("tropical lows'1), is also markedly
influenced by land elevation and coastal or interior position. Thus
(he southern "lows," bringing winter rain, pass mainly along the
southern side of the Great Dividing range while the tropical lows
are likewise obstructed and visit chiefly the north-east of the
State. Similarly while the eastern heights have falls of 50-75 in.
and the Otway Range c. 40 in., the "Malice" in the north-west has
an average of 12-6 inches. Two areas again — one a lowland
strip 25-50 m. wide extending from about Ararat south-east and
east to the eastern side of Port Phillip bay and thence north-east
to the Kilmore gap, the other a small area around Sale in Gipps-
land— are in marked rain-shadows and, though flanked by areas
of 25-40 in., receive under 20 inches. Apart from such irregu-
larities rainfall in general diminishes from 40—60 in. and over
along the south and in the east to 10-12 in. in the north-west of
the State.
Water Supply; Mining, and Power. — Except in the north
and the north-west, Victoria is relatively free from the water-
supply problems which confront most of the Australian States.
Nevertheless the rainfall in the drier areas was sufficiently low
and unreliable to cause loss in times of drought and extensive
boring (1886-1906) revealed mainly cither medium or poor (sa-
line) waters or none at all. Later a large area was discovered in
the "Mallee" having good sub-artesian supplies at 150-750 ft.
which led to settlement along the belt now traversed by the
Ouyen-Pinnaroo (South Australia) railway line. Altogether there
were (1926) 374 bores in the Mallec, besides others in the Maffra
(Gippsland) district. On the other hand the climate was suf-
ficiently hot and dry, and there was enough water available but
going to waste, to stimulate water-supply and irrigation schemes,
particularly in the north and north-west, on a scale large accord-
ing to any standard. For this also the surface configuration was
adapted — an arc of highland catchment, fairly extensive upper
basins of streams which, fed with winter or perennial rains,
descended with some speed and volume into broad lower valleys
before debouching upon flat alluvial-floored plains. Natural hol-
lows, lagoons and basins also assisted the construction of storage
reservoirs while the rainfall and carrying capacity of the land is
sufficient to justify large-scale expenditure upon additional water
supply. Earlier experience of private or semi-private enter-
prises (water trusts, etc.) led to the vesting of powers in the
State Rivers and Water Supply Commission which now controls
ail such works excepting those of Mildura, Melbourne, Geelong
132
VICTORIA
and certain municipalities and which in addition acts for Vic-
toria in connection with the River Murray development scheme.
Apart from urban and municipal supplies, the schemes have in
general two aims, (a) the supply of water to country areas for
domestic, stock and in one case (Coliban-Castlemaine— Bendigo)
for mining, purposes, (b) The supply of water for irrigation, the
two types being naturally often associated. The irrigated areas
(1926/7) covered an area of 406,500 ac., while the rural areas
supplied with water for domestic and stock purposes amounted to
some 23,200 sq.m. or c. 27% of the whole State and lay chiefly
in the Mallee and Wimmera districts. In 1927 there was storage
accommodation (reservoirs, etc.) for 2,330,500 ac.ft. (i ac.ft. =
43,560 cu. ft. — 272,250 gall, water) existing or under construc-
tion in the State, and of this c. 2,280,000 ac. ft. (including a
share in the Hume Reservoir, v. inf.) is under the control of the
State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. The water is sup-
plied mainly by gravitation but along the lower (Victorian) Mur-
ray by pumping (e.g., Mildura, Millewa, Red Cliffs areas), and
in one case (Sugarloaf reservoir, upper Goulburn river) a hydro-
electric power scheme is associated (v. inf.). Associated, or of a
similar nature, are flood-control and drainage works (e.g., West
Gippsland; lower Goulburn and Loddon, covering in all c. 160,000
ac.). As instances of the scope of these schemes may be men-
tioned: the Wimmera-Mallee Supply Scheme, capacity c. 213,000
ac.ft., supplying c. 11,000 sq.m. through c. 10,500 m. of channels;
in the northern Mallee, schemes designed to supply c. 2\ mil-
lion ac. and including some 720 m. of channels, 100 bore-
wells and 260 excavated tanks (1,210,000 cu.yd.); the Goulburn
schemes (Sugarloaf, Waranga, etc., reservoirs;, 360,000 ac.ft.
These supply continually increasing areas. Of the works on the
Murray assigned to Victoria under the River Murray Waters
Act the Torrumbarry WTeir is completed and the great Hume
reservoir above Albury (q.v.) (2,000,000 ac.ft.; Victorian share,
1,000,000 ac.ft.) and one lock are being completed. Besides these
State undertakings the Mildura Trust irrigates (1926/7) upwards
of 42,000 acres. By 1927 the Government had expended some
£28,000,000 upon works of the above description in Victoria
(v. inf. Agriculture).
Mining. — This, as elsewhere in Australia, has greatly declined.
The principal metal produced is gold (50,000-54,000 oz.;
-£209,000), chiefly in the Bcechworth, Bendigo and Castlemaine
areas, but only about 2,000 men are employed. Coal is now of
much greater importance. Black coal (Jurassic) exists in south-
ern Gippsland, the chief being at Wonthaggi where the State
mine, working within a reserved area of 17 sq.m., has proved
reserves of 28 million tons within 5 sq.m. (Output, 1926: 532,000
tons; £585,000). In addition brown coal deposits underlie c.
1,200 sq.m. in central Gippsland and have an estimated av. thick-
ness of 50 ft. (at Morwell: 750 ft.). Reserves faf 11,000,000,000
tons exist and form a practically inexhaustible source of power,
the development and application of which constitutes one of the
largest constructive enterprises in the Commonwealth in recent
times. Brown coal, machine-mined by open-cut at the two State
mines at Morwell and Yallourn respectively, is supplied to a
power-station near by having an initial 50,000 kw., and possible
150,000 kw., capacity. From this, and from a smaller station at
Newport, power is distributed, through various receiving stations
to Melbourne and to over 100 towns in its vicinity, in Gippsland,
etc. In addition power generated at Geelong supplies towns as
far west as Warrnambool, and the recently-completed hydro-elec-
tric power stations on the upper Goulburn (Sugarloaf-Rubicon, etc.
area) supply Murray River towns (Albury, Corowa, Echuca) and
intervening areas. When completed the system, which is managed
by the State Electricity Commission, will supply practically the
whole of the south central, north-east, and central northern Vic-
toria and is likely to effect, especially in the metropolitan area,
something of a revolution as regards manufacturing industry.
In addition at Yallourn is a large briquetting works (c. 100,000
tons per annual capacity). The hydro-electric resources which
exist mainly in the eastern part of the State are as yet little
developed (v. sup.). Such as had been surveyed were estimated
in 1924 at r. 127,000 available h.p.
Vegetation, Timber, Settlement and Land Occupation.—
A very large part of Victoria was originally covered with tree-
growth of some sort, the bare rock-surfaces of the eastern high-
lands, the basalt plains of the south-west, and the heath and sand-
hill country in parts of the west and north-west being the chief
exceptions. But much of this forest, especially in the flatter lands,
has been cleared, and the nature and value of the remainder
varies. The north-west is characterised by mallee (cf. South
Australia, Western Australia and see AUSTRALIA: Vegetation),
either as a continuous scrub, or in patches with intervening salt-
bush, etc., or in association with other trees (cypress-pine, etc.).
In the drier parts of the north and west the forest is of the open
(forested steppe) description or consists of river-side belts mainly
of red (swamp or river) gum. Of forests proper the chief lie
along the uplands, flanks and spurs of the Great Dividing Range,
in the Glenelg river basin (c. 3,900,000 ac.), on the southern
coastal hills, and in the valleys and on the lower and middle slopes
of the eastern highlands (c.. 3,000,000 ac.). The tree types vary
from district to district but are prevailingly eucalypts (cf. some
beech forest on the Otway Range, cf. Tasmania) which supply
some 20 varieties of useful timber. The finest growths are in the
east, notably in Gippsland, though much good timber in the high-
lands is commercially inaccessible. After long and wasteful ex-
ploitation and destruction due to bush-fires, settlement, and
mining, the forest resources, under the State Forest Commission,
are being carefully husbanded and will provide a valuable and
permanent asset. Some 4,330,000 ac. have been reserved, and in
addition an extensive scheme of soft-wood plantation (largely
Finns insignis for "kraft" paper, butter and fruit packing-cases,
etc.) is being prosecuted (e.g., in the south-west) and education
in forestry is provided. Sawmilling is an important industry in
the Upper Yarra (Warburton), Otway, and Gippsland areas.
(V. also inf. Statistical Survey: Production, Manufactures, For-
estry, Trade, Imports.)
In spite of relatively large waste areas in the east and north-
west, Victoria has a larger proportion of land alienated from the
Crown than any other Australian State. At base this is due to the
favourable conditions of climate, soil and topography outlined
above. It is also due to a fixed and vigorous public policy of
land settlement and development, water-supply, irrigation and
drainage schemes being perhaps the most striking, but the active
subdivision and closer settlement of large estates (v. inf. Statis-
tical Survey: Agriculture) and the encouragement, through Agri-
cultural colleges (five in number), schools, etc., of improved and
intensified production being equally important factors. Within
natural limits Victoria has a very wide range of production, and
there are few parts of its utilizable area which are physically in-
capable of yielding a variety of products. The great gold days
have long passed and the decline in metal-mining is perhaps
permanent. The era of power-development and of manufactures
is only beginning, and while this will almost certainly lead to an
intensification of Melbourne's predominance and to further con-
centration of population in the metropolitan area, it will almost
as certainly stimulate rural settlement and development and help
to overcome some of those difficulties which have faced land-
settlement in the past. A comparison of Victoria with Great
Britain (each c. 88,000 sq.m.) reveals some striking similarities in
general primary production, save that the "older" country, with
its larger human population, has in general a higher agricultural
productivity per unit area and higher densities of cattle popula-
tion. But the differences are also striking, for nowhere in Great
Britain are there the vineyards, irrigated areas, or even the forests
which diversify and lend economic range and stability to Victoria
and constitute her a well-endowed State.
Agriculture, Fruit, Vines. — The area under cultivation has
steadily increased and has more than doubled during the last 20
yrs. (v. inf. Statistical Survey: Agriculture). This increase, more-
over, has not been at the expense of the pastoral industry and of
dairying (v. inf.) but is due largely to the increasing application,
through education, of science to methods of production. Broadly
the improvements lie in the direction of fallowing, use of fer-
tilizers, seed breeding and selection, and more skilful rotation of
VICTORIA
133
crops. The value of bare fallow, combined with manuring, has
been effectively realised, especially in connection with wheat-
growing. Of the total area under crop in 1927 (7,300,000 ac.)
over £ (c. 2,570,000 ac.) was under fallow and of this 91% was
in the three main wheat-growing districts. Similarly the use of
manures (c. go Ib. per acre) has steadily increased and is now
almost universal (1926: 97% of area under crop), c. j of the
total amount used being artificial manures. (Cf. 1926/7: imports
of 221,000 tons, £529,000, the great bulk being rock phosphate
from Nauru, etc.) The five principal arable crops are wheat, oats,
barley, potatoes and hay.
Wheat. — For the last five years wheat has occupied an average
of 56% of the whale area under crop. The area sown to it in-
creased by nearly one million acres between 1900 and 1927, and
has recently again greatly expanded (1927-28: 2,900,000 ac.;
1928-29 [estimated]: 3,826,000 ac.). The yield varies markedly
from season to season with the rainfall and also from locality to
locality. Thus averages of 18-24 bu. per ac. in the Wimmera (up
to 40 bu. and over in favoured parts of the State) are matched by
averages of 7-13 bu. in the Mallee, but the average for the State
as a whole has steadily risen (aver. 1916-26: 14-13 bu. cf. aver,
for Australia: 12.41 bu.), though in the recent severe drought it
fell to 7-51 bu. (1927-28). Wheat will grow almost anywhere in
Victoria where terrain favours, but 94% of the wheat-lands lie in
the Wimmera, Mallee and Northern divisions within a triangle
bounded on the west by a line from about Mildura to Horsham, on
the north by the Murray, and on the south by a line from Horsham
to about Corowa. This forms part of the main Australian wheat-
belt and from it extensions run westwards towards the South
Australian border along strips marked by the lines of railway. The
three divisions mentioned contain between them nearly 83% of
the cultivated land in the State, the Mallee having 47%,, the
Wimmera 31% and the Northern 29% of their respective areas
under cultivation. By far the greater part of this is utilized for
producing wheat. The provision of labour-saving machinery, of
railways, and of an assured water-supply have helped to bring into
being large-scale commercial production. In 1891-92 the Mallee,
generally considered a desert, produced only 5% of the State's
wheat; during the last five years it has produced, on an average,
31%, and in 1926-27 nearly 2^ million acres were under cultiva-
tion in this area. The average wheat -farm is 200-250 ac. The
total production of wheat, in spite of drought (1927-28: 21,800,-
ooo bu.) is now of the order of 40-50 million bu. of high-grade
grain, of which some 12,000,000 bu. are required for seed and for
home consumption. The railways, driven in long parallel lines
across the level lands, penetrate the wheat areas at spaced inter-
vals and concentrate the grain upon Melbourne, whence it forms
a staple export either as grain or as flour (cf. 1926-27: 44 flour
mills; c. 1,100 hands, handling 17 million bushels wheat yielding
360,000 tons flour valued at £5,790,000).
Other Crops. — Oats, grown to a large extent in the wheat
areas but also more towards the north-east, and hay, are important
subsidiary crops. The place of root crops, under the less intensive
farming methods employed, is largely taken by "hay'* which in-
cludes wheat, oats, lucerne, etc. Thus 150,000-200,000 ac. sown
to wheat and c. 960,000 ac. oats (1926-27) were cut as hay, and
of the total hay crop (1927) of c. 1,400,000 tons, i-J- million tons
were oaten, 128,000 tons wheaten and 34,600 tons lucerne. Pota-
toes, of which the production is reviving, are grown mainly on the
rich volcanic soils of the Central Division (c. 10% of total crop),
north Central (c. 17%), Western (c. 25%), and Gippsland.
In these areas the rainfall also is good (25-35 in.) and there is
ready access to Melbourne, the main market. Of other arable
crops maize, grown mainly (91%) in Gippsland where relatively
high temps, and summer rainfall are available (1927: 20,000 ac.,
685,000 bu.); onions (1926-27: 8,500 ac.; 44,000 tons) in the
southern valley from about Warrnambool to Melbourne and also
south-east of Melbourne (Mornington and Buln Buln) ; hops, are
also worthy of mention. At Maffra, near Sale in Central Gippsland,
a rising beet -sugar industry is being encouraged by a Government
mill and irrigation works (Macallister River) (1926-27: 2,000
ac.; 10,000 tons; 1,200 tons sugar) and steps now being taken by
the Commonwealth Government may stimulate tobacco culture
(c. 1,150 ac.; 8,000 cwt. dry leaf, grown mainly in the north-east).
In the neighbourhood of Melbourne, and in the orchard areas also,
large quantities of market-garden produce is grown on rich open
lands, or by irrigation or under glass (Bacchus Marsh; Werribee;
Hallam, etc.) (1926-27: total area market gardens: 17,800 ac.).
Fruit-growing is widely distributed but commercial orchards exist
chiefly in (a) the Melbourne basin, mainly to the south-east, east
and north; (b) the irrigated Murray lands (v. inf.). Apples, pears
and northern fruits, including small (berry) fruits, are largely
grown in the south, the sub-tropical varieties predominating in the
northern areas (v. inf. Statistical Survey: Agriculture).
Irrigated Areas (Murray River and other) (v. sup.: Water-
Supply). The area cultivated under irrigation has steadily in-
creased, the 406,500 ac. of 1926-27 representing an increase of
over 70,000 ac. upon the average of the previous five years. An
increasing proportion of the space is being devoted to the intensive
growing of fodder-crops (several crops per season) and to dairying
and stocWattening in association therewith (1926-27: pastures,
33%; lucerne, 29%, sorghum and other fodders, 7% of total
area = c. 281,000 ac. in all under fodder crops). Some wheat
( 10% = 40,600 ac.) is also grown, the high yields (40 bu. or more
per ac.) compensating for relatively expensive methods. Better
known, perhaps, is the fruit production of the Murray river irri-
gation areas, especially those sub-tropical varieties (apricots,
peaches, oranges, etc.; grapes, raisins, currants, etc.) which are
favoured by the presence of good stiff (semi-retentive) soils,
ground-moisture, together with dryness, warmth and sunshine at
the right periods. The industry flourishes particularly in the Mil-
dura and Shepparton areas (1926-27: 17% of total irrigated
area — 69,000 ac.). The relative stability of production conditions,
the suitability for "small" settlers, increasing co-operation in pro-
duction and marketing have steadily attracted settlers (e.g., 1905-
1927: increase of 30,000 in irrigation areas compared with de-
creases in rural population of Victoria as a whole. Mildura
[42,200 ac.] : Pop., 1911: 6,120; 1927: 15,100). At the same time,
production far exceeds home consumption (e.g., 1927: raisin pro-
duction: c. 658,000 cwt.; home consumption, c. 88,000 cwt.; cur-
rants: 135,500 cwt.; c. 30,000 cwt. Surplus: raisins: c. 570,000
cwt. ; currants, c. 105,000 cwt.) and markets abroad are therefore
essential.
Pastoral Industries; 'Dairying, etc. — Partly in spite of, and
partly because of the general progress in agriculture, the pastoral
and dairying industries are also expanding, sheep, dairy cows and
pigs in particular having increased in numbers in recent years.
Victoria now takes rank with New South Wales as one of
the leading dairying State* of the Commonwealth. The industry
is carried on in the irrigation areas (v. sup.) but mainly in the
southern plains, from east to west of the State, where low and
well-watered lands, a humid climate (upwards of 30 in. rain-
fall) and market and export facilities exist (Melbourne, Portland,
Warrnambool, etc.). Cheese and butter factories are numerous
and places such as Colac and Terang in the south-west, Morwell
and Bairnsdale in Gippsland; Kerang and Wangaratta in the north
are dairying centres. Great attention is paid to scientific educa-
tion and to improved methods of production, marketing, etc.
Associated is the pig-rearing industry (bacon-curing, etc.) and
also bee and, increasingly, poultry keeping. Cattle (for slaughter)
are grazed over wide areas and fattened in the southern agricul-
tural districts, but the industry has a mainly domestic value (e.g.,
of the 500,000 head slaughtered in 1926, c. 484,000 were for home
consumption). 5/tfi£-rearing has a far wider commercial signifi-
cance, Victoria being one of the leading wool and mutton pro-
ducers in Australia. The total number carried has risen steadily
to c. 15 million head in 1927, and the fact that c. 80%, of the
total is comprised in flocks of 500-5,000 head is evidence of the
more intensive production methods referred to (cf. flocks of 20,-
ooo and upwards: 1-53%,). From the rougher and wetter lands
sheep have been, for physical or economic reasons, gradually
excluded and 65% of the total number are now found in the
Western, Wimmera, and Northern divisions (Western: 32-66%,
25,900,000 Ib. wool [1926-27]; Wimmera: 16-84%, 17,100,000
134
VICTORIA
lb.; Northern: 15-62%, 17,240,000 lb.). The sheep-lands, in fact,
stretch in a broad band from south-west to north-east across the
State and form part of the great sheep-belt of eastern Australia
which extends into the Riverina (New South Wales, q.v.) and
beyond. The fleeces are of good average weight (7-8 lb.) and the
wool, particularly that from the western plains, is clean, long and
well-coloured and is in great demand. Of the total production
(1926-27: 121,300,000 lb.) about \ (1926-27: 31,000,000 lb.) is
taken by the Victorian textile etc. mills and the remainder is
exported (1925-26: 60% crossbred etc.; 18-5 merino). Woollen
and knitting mills are situated in Melbourne, Geelong, Castle-
maine, Ballarat, Warrnambool and other centres and the industry
is steadily expanding. Mutton and lamb export is conducted on a
large scale. Of 4,530,000 head slaughtered in 1926, 30% were
exported frozen from 13 freezing works, total exports amounting
in 1927 to 47,300,000 lb. (£1,195,500). (V. also inf. Statistical
Survey: Production, Pastoral Industries, Manufacturing Indus-
tries, Trade.)
Manufacturing Industries; Communications; Trade; etc.
— Manufacturing industries in Victoria fall into three main classes
(a) those closely connected with primary production: sawmilling,
cheese and butter making, bacon-curing, meat-freezing, fruit-
canning, etc. (b) those of a rather more developed nature but
still dependent upon primary production : woollen and hosiery
mills; furniture-making; power production, etc. (c) those of more
purely secondary character often dependent, in whole or in part,
upon imported raw or semi-manufactured materials (manufacture
of motor-vehicles, agricultural machinery, railway rolling-stock,
etc.). Many of these have been referred to above (v. also Mel-
bourne and inf., Statistical Survey: Manufacturing Industries).
Since 1917-18 the number of factories and of workers have each
increased by 37%, the value of output by 90%, and the horse-
power employed by 178%. Steam is still the chief motive power,
but the number of factories using electricity has increased remark-
ably (1926—27: Steam, 678 factories using 268,000 h.p.; Electric,
5,141 factories using 123,360 h.p.), and the possibilities in con-
nection with electricity have been indicated above.
Communications. — These, as a natural consequence of the
relatively small area, high productivity, and also of the energy of
the people, are on the whole better developed in Victoria than in
any other Australian State (e.g., Victoria had, in 1926, 53-34 m.
of railway per 1,000 sq.m. of territory; cf. Tasmania: 40-9; New
South Wales, 19-6; Australia: 9-56). Apart from mountainous
and barren areas, there are few parts which are not readily
accessible. Areas distant more than 10 m. from a railway hardly
exist except in the east and in some few parts in the west. Roads
suitable for motor traffic are wide-spread. Railways (v. inf.,
Statistical Survey) are virtually all State-owned, of 5' 3" gauge,
and fall into the following main classes (a} through routes con-
necting Melbourne with Sydney (via Albury, where a break to
the 4' 8V" "standard" gauge of New South Wales occurs), and
with Adelaide (via Ballnrat, Serviceton and Wolseley: see SOUTH
AUSTRALIA), (b) east-west intra-State lines serving the "Great
(Southern) Valley*' and the south coast from Warrnambool to
the Snowy River (Gippsland), (c) an impressive system of lines
running roughly parallel north-east, north, but mainly north-west,
draining the northern plains, the Murray valley, and the wheat-
lands of the north-west. These lines give a striking impression of
purposeful striving and reaching forward, and this indeed they
do to the extent of tapping the south-western (trans-Murray)
Riverina (q.v.) in New South Wales, (d) the denser metropolitan
net around Melbourne and Port Phillip bay, now electrified in its
suburban units. A fifth type is visible but is not strongly devel-
oped: viz., north-south lines draining the hinterlands to their near-
est convenient ports (e.g., Portland, Warrnambool). Melbourne
is connected with Tasmania by submarine cable.
Trade. — Some details regarding trade have already been given
and a survey is afforded below. (See Statistical Survey: Trade.)
Victoria's trade amounts in general to 27-30% of that of the
Commonwealth. Of her exports wool, wheat, flour and butter
amounted, during the last five years, to 73% of the total — or
adding skins, meat, and fruit: 89% — wool alone accounting for
42%. Nearly 40%, of Victorian exports went (1927) to, and 43%
of her imports came from, the British Isles. Trade with the
United States amounted to £15,000,000 (16-6% of total); that
with India and Ceylon amounted to c. £3,500,000; with New
Zealand to £2,320,000.
Shipping and Ports. — V. inf., Statistical Survey. (Note that
vessels there mentioned do not include River Murray steamers.)
Population. — Statistics regarding the population of the State
are given below (see Statistical Survey). The great preponderance
of population in the metropolitan area is worthy of note. Some
indications of the reasons will be found above (see also MEL-
BOURNE) and the growth of manufacturing industries in this area
has been referred to (cf. 5,160 factories out of the State's total of
7,690). Outside of Melbourne the most densely populated parts
are ( i ) the surroundings of Melbourne comprised within the rim
of the Melbourne basin and arouncj the shores of Port Phillip, the
latter mainly seaside and residential settlements on the- east —
Mordialloc (1926: 7,760), Mornington, Sorrento— and, on the
west, industrial areas as well as Geelong (pop. 41,000; q.v.)', (2)
Ballarat (q.v.) and Bendigo (q.v.) and the districts for which
they serve as centres; (3) the southern coastal portions, particu-
larly from Geelong to Warrnambool and southern and central
Gippsland. The remainder of the State is more sparsely settled,
but the main belts and concentrations extend north-eastwards
along the main overland railway-line: Seymour, Benalla, Wan-
garatta (3,900), Albury (q.v.) — formerly mining, now mainly
agricultural and pastoral centres — and along the Murray irriga-
tion settlements, e.g., Mildura (6,000). The west is much more
evenly and also more sparsely settled, densities continually de-
creasing towards the west except that, as elsewhere and in general,
the railway lines mark zones of heavier population and themselves
usually follow belts of better lands (cf. the striking instance of the
Ouyen-Pinnaroo line which follows the belt of sub-surface waters).
A fairly clear indication of the character of the rural settlements
in Victoria will be conveyed by the general economic description
given above. By far the greater number are agricultural, dairying
or irrigation centres, often a combination of several types (Ham-
ilton, 5,300; Stawell, 4,700; Horsham, 4,200). It is noteworthy
that Victoria, with c. 19.5 persons per sq.m., is by far the most
densely populated State of the Commonwealth (cf. Tasmania,
8-2; New South Wales, 7-6; Commonwealth, 2-1).
Statistical Survey.-- Area and Land Occupation; Area:
87,844 sq.m. (56,245,760 ac.)«2>96% Commonwealth; wholly
within the temperate zone. Coast-line: 680 m.-i m. per 129 sq.
miles. Land Occupation (1926-27); alienated: 34,446,200 ac. ;
Crown lands: 21,800,000 ac. (forest, etc., reserves: 4,635,000 ac. ;
Mallee and other reserves: 821,000 ac.; leases and licences: 6,200,-
ooo ac. ; unoccupied: 5,751,000 ac.). Area under cultivation
(1926-27): 7,304,200 ac. Area under pasture: (1925-26):
29,830,000 ac.
Population (estimated Dec. 31, 1927): 1,741,400 (males: 867,-
400; females: 8 74,000) ȣ. 28% of Commonwealth total and c.
19.5 per sq. mile. Birth rate (1926): 20-84; death rate: 9-63 per
1,000. Metropolitan (1927), Melbourne and suburbs (165,666
ac.): 975,i6o = r. 55-3% of total. Net increase (ten years: 1911-
21): 16-4%; absolute increase (1926): 27,800, Rates of increase
(1926): State- 1-65%; metropolitan: 3-54%; remainder of State,
—53%.
Occupations (census, 1921: total pop., 1,531,280): Breadwin-
ners: 669,453 of whom: Industrial, 234,245; Primary Producers,
147,438 (agricultural, 103,116; pastoral, 22,679; mining and quar-
rying, 8,679; forestry, 8,153; water conservation and supply,
2,808). Commercial: 108,011; Professional: 60,585; Domestic:
58, 225; Transport: 53,332.
Production (1926-27): Total £98,342,400. Manufactures
(added value): £51,005,400. Total primary 47,337,000. Dairying
and Pastoral: £22,280,400 (Dairy: butter, £6,233,400; milk, etc.
[liquid] £2,481,000; milk [condensed] etc., £1,498,000. Pastoral:
wool, £7,876,700; sheep [mutton], £2,585,700; cattle, £2,331,000;
pigs, £1,343,700). Agricultural, etc.: Total £15,745,000 (Wheat,
£9,546,800; other cereals, £1,159,500; hay and fodder, £5,204,100;
vine products — grapes, raisins, currants — £1,551,600; wine, £254,-
VICTORIA
135
200; fruit, £971,000; vegetables etc., £887,500). Poultry: £4,819,-
500. Forests (timber, fire-wood, tan bark): £1,888,800. Mining:
£1,880,200. Production: value per caput: Total £57. 9. o. Maftu- \
factures: £29. 15. n. Total primary: £27. 13. i (dairy and pas-
toral £13. o. 4; cultivation £9. 4. o; forests £1. 2. i). Mining:
£i. i. ii.
Manufacturing Industries: (1926-27) Factories: 7,690, of
which 5,158 in metropolis (10 years, 1917-27: 37% increase);
workers, 161,640 ( = 37% increase); value added in process,
£54,188,570; total (net) value of output, £127,398,000. Food and
Drink: Factories; 732 (including butter, 182; jam, etc., 58; bacon
curing, 21 ; meat freezing, etc., 13); workers, 18,880; output,
£36,072,000. Clothing and Textiles: 2,087 (including woollen
mills, 27; hosiery, 176; boots, etc., 204); 55>ioo; £27,592,000.
Metal, Machinery, etc.: 1,023 (including engineering 315; iron
and foundries 117; agricultural implements 73; railway work-
shops 21); 28,560; £17,693,000. Printing, etc.: 582; 11,720; £7,-
091,000. Raw Materials: 243; 4,112; £6,452,000. Work in Wood:
678 (including sawmills, 207; joinery 336); 9J34J £5,379-ooo.
Heat, Light, Power: 129 (including electric light, 86); 2,984; £5,-
066,000. Vehicles, etc.: 949; 8,236; £3,590,000.
Mining and Quarrying (1926) : Total : £i ,782,200. Stone : £700,-
200; coal, black (591,000 tons) £657,800; brown (958,000 tons)
£188,900; gold: £208,500.
Agriculture (1926-27): Area cultivated: 7,304,200 ac. (cf.
1895-1905: c. 3-55 million ac. [aver.]; 1905-15: 5-03 million ac.;
1920-25: c. 6-9 million ac.). Size of Holdings: 10,000 ac. and over:
1925, 104 holdings aggregating 1,577,000 ac. (cf. 1906: 195 aggre-
gating 4,134,000 ac.); 5,000-10,000 ac.: 273 holdings aggregating
1,869,000 ac. (also declining); all holdings smaller than above
increasing in number. Production: Wheat: 2,915,000 ac. (c. 56%
of area cropped); 46,886,000 bu. (aver. 12-17 bu. per ac.); £9,-
547,000. Hay: 1,081,000 ac.; 1,388,000 tons; £4,720,000. Oats:
303,400 ac.; 4,884,000 bu. ; £653,000. Potatoes: 66,200 ac.;
163,000 tons; £672,000. Ann. value of five principal crops (i.e.,
including barley), 1923-27: £i2-5-£i7-6 mill. Vines: 2,832 grow-
ers; 41,160 ac.; 3,587,000 bu. grapes; (wine: 2,346,300 gal.;
raisins: 657,700 cwt., £1,294,300; currants: 135,500 cwt., £182,-
500). Gardens and Orchards; 101,000 ac. (mainly apples, pears,
peaches, oranges, apricots, plums), value, including table grapes,
£1,055,300.. Market gardens, £888,000.
Irrigation (1926-27): 406,530 ac. («= increase of 70,060 ac.
over average for previous five years).
Pastoral and Dairying (1927): Live stock: horses: 448,000;
dairy-cows: 673,000; other cattle: 763,000; sheep: 14,920,000;
pigs: 284,300. Density (estimated): 1911: 302; 1927: 319, live
stock per sq. mile. Production: Stock slaughtered (1926) : sheep,
4,528,000 (£2,586,000); cattle, 499,500 (£2,331,000); pigs, 410,-
ooo (bacon, c. 21 million Ib.) (£1,344,000). Dairying (1927):
Owners, 56,935; cows, 673,000; butter, 82 million Ib. (£6,233,-
400) ; cheese, c. 6 million Ib. (£270,600); milk, etc., (£3,980,000).
Wool (1926-27) : clip 98-2 million Ib,; wool on skins, c. 23 million
ib. ; total wool, c. 121,300,000 Ib., £7,877,000 (1923-24 — 1926-
27: £7,o83,ooo-£i i, 444,000). Fleece (aver.); 6-5-7 Ib. Honey:
54,000 hives; 2,370,000 Ib.vhoney; 33,240 Ib. wax; £47,300.
Forestry and Fisheries: Fisheries (1926-27): 845 boats; 1,260
men; catch, c. £167,500. Forests: Wooded area: c. 8 million ac.;
dedicated forests: c. 4-33 million ac.; sawmills (1926-27): 207;
workers, 2,860; Victorian timber cut: 115-8 million super ft.,
£914,300 (v. sup.: Production).
Trade, Commerce, Communications: Trade (1926-27: over-
seas only): Total: £90,302,600=29-2% of Commonwealth total.
Excess of imports over exports: £20,819,000. Exports: £34,741,-
70o«£2o. 5. ii per caput; 24% of Commonwealth total. Wool:
£14,306,000 (177-5 million Ib.); hides and skins: £2,106,000;
frozen meats: £1,323,000; wheat: £6,976,700 (24-75 million bu.);
flour: £2,123,000 (167,000 tons); butter: £2,612,000 (34*4 mil-
lion Ib.); milk, etc.: £1,067,000; fruits (dried and preserved):
£1400,000. Imports: £55,56i,ooo=£32. 9. 2 per caput; 33-7% of
Commonwealth total. Textiles, clothing, etc.: £17,073,000; met-
als, machinery, motors, etc.: £15,700,000; oils: £3,204,500; food-
stuffs: £3,187,000; stationery, paper, etc.: £2,707,000; rubber and
leather manufactures: £2,411,000; timber and worked wood:
£ i ,94 7 ,000 ; dru&s and chemicals : L i ,900,000.
Shipping (1927: overseas and interstate): Vessels cleared:
overseas: 2,666, 7,181,000 tons; interstate: c. 2,000 vessels,
4,322,000 tons; of which total 2,352 vessels (6,067,000 tons)
British, 1,636 vessels (2,246,000 tons) Australian.
Ports (1926-27): Melbourne: 4,000 vessels (7,325,000 tons),
of which overseas: 765 (3,296,000 tons); interstate: 1,770 (3,-
625,000 tons) ; local (within State): 1,466 (403,300 tons). Cargo:
discharged, 3,754.000 tons (1,853,000 tons overseas); shipped,
1,501,300 tons (826,700 tons overseas). Geelong: 750 vessels
(770,900 tons). Cargo discharged, 279,500 tons; shipped, 321,000
tons. Portland: 108 vessels (152,000 tons); discharged, 9,800
tons; shipi>ed, 44,950 tons. Warrnambool: 150 vessels (49,000
tons) ; discharged, 23,700 tons; shipped 4,200 tons.
Railways (1927) : State-owned lines: 4,692 m. open, 68 m. under
construction; 103 m. authorized. Net profit on working: £3,-
240,000. Loss (after meeting interest charges): £47,540.
Finance: Public revenue (1926-27): £27,128,700; public ex-
penditure: £27,744,903; public debt: £149,546,966; (average rate
of interest payable: 4-91%; debt per caput [1925—26], £82. 15.
7). Total taxation (1925-26): £24,649,770 (£14. 12. 9 per caput).
Revenue per caput (1925-26), £15. o. i; expenditure per caput:
£15. 3. 7. Accumulated deficiency: £977,500. Bank deposits
(total, 1927): £157,989,366. Joint Stock Banks: Assets: £99,-
962,000; liabilities: £93,539,000; deposits: £91,924,000. State
Savings Bank (1927) : depositors 1,167,630; balances: £58,304,000.
Savings Banks (State, Commonwealth, School) (1926): deposits:
£63,254,000 (£37. 6. 7 per caput of population).
Social: Schools (1926): Total 3,020; scholars: 326,900. State,
2,525; teachers, 7,000; scholars, 255,100. Cost per scholar, £13.
5. 6. Private: 495; 2,210; 71,770. University of Melbourne:
students: 2,720; receipts: £198,900; expenditure: £147,100.
State Expenditure (1925-26) upon: Education: £3,025,700 (£i.
15. ii per caput of population); charitable institutions: £1,096,-
300; pensions, etc. £656,800. (0. H. T. R.)
HISTORY
The first discoverer of Victoria, formerly a part of New
South Wales (q.v.) was Captain Cook in command of H.M.S.
''Endeavour,'* who sighted Cape Everard on April 19, 1770, a
few days prior to his arrival at Botany bay. The first persons
to land in Victoria were the supercargo and a portion of the
crew of the merchant ship "Sydney Cove" which was wrecked
at the Furneaux islands in Bass strait on Feb. 9, 1797. In 1802,
Port Philip was discovered by Lieut. Murray, and in 1804 Lieut. -
Col. Collins attempted to form a settlement there. After three
months he was compelled to abandon the scheme, and to remove
his party to Van Diemen's Land. In 1826 a convict establishment
was attempted by the Government of New South Wales at. Settle-
ment Point but it was soon abandoned. In 1834 Edward and
Francis Henty, who had taken part in the original expedition to
Swan river, Western Australia, and afterwards migrated to Van
Diemen's Land, crossed Bass strait, established a shore whaling
station at Portland bay, and formed sheep and cattle stations on
the river Wannon and Wando rivulet, near the site of the present
towns of Merino, Casterton and Coleraine. In 1835 a number of
flock owners in Van Diemen's Land purchased through Batman
from the aborigines a tract of 700,000 acres on the shores of Port
Philip. The sale was repudiated by the British Government. Bat-
man, however, remained at Port Philip, and commenced farming
within the boundaries of the present city of Melbourne. He was
followed by John Pascoe Fawkner and other settlers from Van Die-
men's Land, who occupied the fertile plains of the new territory.
In 1836 Captain Lonsdale was sent to Melbourne by the Govern-
ment of New South Wales to act as resident magistrate in Port
Philip. The first census taken in 1838 showed that the population
was 3,511, of whom 3,080 were males and 431 females. In 1841,
owing to the constant immigration from Great Britain, the popu-
lation had increased to 11,738. Melbourne was incorporated as a
town in 1842, and was raised to the dignity of a city in 1847. The
third census (which was taken in 1846) showed -a population of
32,870.
136
VICTORIA
The elective element was introduced into the legislative council
of New South Wales in 1842, in the proportion of 24 members
to 12 nominated by the Crown, and the district of Port Phillip,
including Melbourne, returned six members. But the colonists
were not satisfied with government from and by Sydney; an agi-
tation in favour of separation commenced, and in 1851 Victoria
was formed into a separate colony with an executive council ap-
pointed by the Crown, and a legislative council, partly elective and
partly nominated, on the same lines as that of New South Wales.
The population at that date was 77,435. Gold was discovered a
few weeks after the colony had entered upon its separate existence,
and a large number of persons were attracted to the mines, first
from the neighbouring colonies and subsequently from Europe and
America.
Local self-government was introduced in 1853, and the legisla-
ture found time to discuss a new constitution, which not only
eliminated the nominee element from the legislature, but made
the executive Government responsible to the people. The ad-
ministration of the goldfields was not popular, and the miners
were dissatisfied at the amount charged for permission to mine
for gold, and at there being no representation for the goldfields
in the local legislature. The discontent culminated at Ballarat
in Dec. 1854, in riots in which there was a considerable loss of
life both amongst the miners and the troops. Eventually, an ex-
port duty on gold was substituted for the licence fee, but every
miner had to take out a right which enabled him to occupy a
limited area of land for mining and also for residence. The new
constitution was proclaimed in 1855. The crown lands were occu-
pied by graziers, termed locally "squatters," who held them under
a licence renewable annually at a low rental. These licences were
very valuable, and the goodwill of a grazing farm or "run" com-
manded a high price. Persons who desired to acquire freehold for
the purpose of tillage could only do so by purchasing the land at
auction, and the local squatters, unwilling to be deprived of any
portion of a valuable property, were generally willing to pay a
price per acre with which no person of small means desirous of
embarking upon agricultural pursuits could compete. The re-
sult was that although the population had increased in 1861 to
540,322 the area of land under crop had not grown proportion-
ately, and Victoria was dependent upon neighbouring colonies
and even more distant countries for a considerable portion of its
food. A series of Land Acts was passed, the first in 1860, with
the view of encouraging a class of small freeholders. The princi-
ple underlying all these laws was that residence by landowners on
their farms, and their cultivation, were more important to the
State than the sum realized by the sale of the land. The policy
was only partially successful, and by a number of ingenious eva-
sions a large proportion of the best land in the colony passed into
the possession of the original squatters. But a sufficient propor-
tion was purchased by small farmers to convert Victoria into a
great agricultural country, and to enable it to export large quan-
tities of farm and dairy produce.
The greater portion of the revenue was raised by the taxation
through the customs of a small number of products, such as
spirits, tobacco, wine, tea, coffee, etc. But an agitation arose in
favour of such an adjustment of the import duties as would pro-
tect the manufactures which at that time were being com-
menced. A determined opposition to this policy was made by a
large minority in the Assembly, and by a large majority in the
Council (the "Upper House") but by degrees the democratic
party triumphed. Notwithstanding these struggles the population
of the colony steadily increased, and. the legislature found time
to pass some measures which affected the social life and the com-
mercial position of the colonies. State aid to religion was abol-
ished, and divorce was made comparatively easy. A system of
free, compulsory and secular primary education was introduced.
The import duties were increased and the transfer of land was
simplified. In 1880 a fortnightly mail service via Suez between
England and Melbourne was introduced, and in the following
year the census showed a population of 862,346. During the
same year the lengthy dispute between the two houses of parlia-
ment was brought to an end by the passage of an Act which re-
duced the qualifications for members and the election of the
legislative council, shortened the tenure of their seats, increased
the number of provinces to 14 and the number of members to 42.
In 1883, a Coalition Government, in which the Liberal or Pro-
tectionist and the Conservative or Free-trade Party were repre-
sented, took office, and with some changes remained in power for
seven years. During this political truce several important changes
were made in the constitution. An Act for giving greater facil-
ities for divorce was passed, and with some difficulty obtained
the Royal assent. The Victorian railways were handed over to
the control of three commissioners, who to a considerable extent
were made independent of the Government, and the civil service
was placed under the supervision of an independent board. In
1890 all the Australian colonies, including New Zealand, sent
representatives to a conference at Melbourne, at which resolu-
tions were passed in favour of the establishment of a National
Australian Convention, to consider a scheme for the Federal con-
stitution. This Convention met in Sydney in 1891 and took the
first step towards federation (see AUSTRALIA).
In 1891 the Coalition Government resigned and a Liberal ad-
ministration was formed. An Act passed in that year placed the
railways again under the control of the Government. Measures
of a democratic and collectivist tendency thereafter obtained the
assent of the legislature. The franchise of property-holders not
resident in an electorate was abolished and the principle of "one
man one vote" was established. Acts were passed sanctioning old
age pensions; prohibiting shops, except those selling perishable
goods, from keeping open more than eight hours; compelling the
proprietors to give their assistants one half-holiday every six
days; preventing persons from working more than 48 hours a
week; and appointing for each trade a tribunal composed of an
equal number of employers and employed to fix a minimum wage.
Victoria enjoyed a large measure of prosperity during the
later '8os and earlier '905, and its financial prosperity enabled the
Government to expend large sums in extending railway com-
munication to almost every locality and to commence a system
of irrigation. The soil of Victoria is on the whole more fertile
than in any other colony on the mainland of Australia. The rain-
fall is more equable than in any portion of Australia, but the
northern and north-western districts are subject to droughts, and
costly irrigation schemes have not proved as successful as was
expected. In 1892 the prosperity of the colony was checked by
a great strike which for some months affected production, but
speculation in land continued for some time longer, especially in
Melbourne, which at that time contained nearly half the popula-
tion (500,000 out of a total of 1,140,105). In 1893 there was a
collapse. The value of land declined enormously, hundreds of
persons believed to be wealthy were ruined, and there was a
financial panic, which caused the suspension of all the banks, with
the exception of the Australasia, the Union of Australia, and the
New South Wales. Most of them resumed payment; but three
went into liquidation. It was some years before the normal con-
dition of prosperity was restored, but the great resources of the
colony and the energy of its people discovered new markets, and
new products for them, and enabled them materially to increase
the export trade. In 1908 female suffrage was instituted. Mem-
bers of the legislative assembly need no property qualification
and clergymen of any denominations are not allowed to be mem-
bers of the legislative council or legislative assembly. Victoria
was federated with all the other Australian States into the Com-
monwealth of Australia on Jan. i, 1901. (See also AUSTRALIA.)
VICTORIA, a city and port of Brazil, capital of the state
of Espirito Santo, on the west side of an island at the head of the
Bay of Espirito Santo. Pop. (1920), 21,866. The principal streets
follow the water-line, rising in terraces from the shore, and are
crossed by narrow, steep, roughly paved streets. The buildings are
old and of the colonial type. The entrance to the bay is rather
tortuous and difficult, but is sufficiently deep for the largest ves-
sels. The harbour is not large, but is safe and deep, being com-
pletely shut in by hills. Large quays, piers, warehouses, etc.,
facilitate the handling of cargoes. Victoria is a port of call for
coasting steamers and a shipping port in the coffee trade. The
VICTORIA
137
other exports are sugar, rice and mandioca (manioc) to home
ports. A railway starting at Victoria connects with Rio de Janeiro,
270 m. to the southwest. Another line runs north and west into
the important mineral region of Minas Geraes, for which it pro-
vides an outlet.
Victoria was founded in 1535 by Vasco Fernando Coutinho, on
the south side and nearer the entrance to the bay, and received
the name of Espirito Santo. The old site is still occupied, and is
known as Villa Velha (Old Town).
VICTORIA, capital of British Columbia, Canada, and princi-
pal city of Vancouver island, in the south-east corner of which it is
finely situated. It is on the Canadian National railway, and is the
terminus of a line from Esquimalt and Nanaimo and the coast be-
yond. There is also a line across the Saanich peninsula. Vic-
toria, which is a fine city with many gardens, the oldest in the
province, has a splendid parliament building, the large Dominion
astrophysical observatory, and a university. The city is a favourite
tourist resort. The population was 38,727 in 1921 (over 60,000
including suburbs), and includes a number of Chinese. The port,
which is the fourth in Canada, is fine and well-equipped. Steamers
run daily to points on the British Columbian coast, and to Aus-
tralia and the East, and it is the headquarters of the Royal Ca-
nadian navy. The city is an industrial centre, the principal products
being canned fish, biscuits, timber, soap, machinery, furniture,
boots and clothing, bricks and cement. There is a large trade in
coal, timber, canned salmon, etc. Until the redistribution of the
fleet in 1905, the headquarters of the British Pacific squadron
were at Esquimalt (pop. in 1921, 6,484), a fine harbour 3 m. W.
of Victoria. It is provided with graving and dry docks, and
another dry dock was in course of construction in 1924. It has
a naval college, and is defended by fortifications of a modern type.
VICTORIA, a city of Texas, U.S.A., 120 m. S.W. of Houston,
on the Guadalupe river, 35 m. from Matagorda bay (Gulf of
Mexico) ; the county seat of Victoria county. It is on Federal
highway 96, and is served by the Missouri Pacific and the Southern
Pacific railways. The population was 5,957 in 1920 (70% native
white and 19% negroes) and was estimated locally at 8,750 in
1928. It is a "city of roses," and the trade centre of a rich agri-
cultural region, in which cotton is still the leading crop but diversi-
fied farming is rapidly increasing. The project of an intracoastal
canal from New Orleans to Corpus Christi (finally approved by
Congress in 1927) had its inception in Victoria in 1906, and the
Guadalupe river up to this point is included in the canal system.
Victoria was settled by the Spanish about 1824 and was incor-
porated as a city of Texas in 1837.
VICTORIA, LAKE, the largest lake in Africa and chief
reservoir of the Nile, lying between o° 20' N. to 3° S. and
31° 40' to 34° 52' E. Among the fresh-water lakes of the world
it is exceeded in size by Lake Superior only and has an area of
over 26,000 sq.m. In shape it is an irregular quadrilateral, but its
shores, save on the west, are deeply indented. Its greatest length
from north to south is 250 m., its greatest breadth 200 m. Its
coast-line exceeds 2,000 m. It fills a shallow depression in the
central part of the great plateau which stretches between the
western and eastern rift-valleys (see AFRICA), and has an eleva-
tion of about 3,720 ft. above the sea. Its greatest ascertained
depth is a little over 270 ft., and it is remarkable for the severe
and sudden storms which render navigation dangerous. It contains
many archipelagos, the majority being near the coast-line. The
lake is full of reefs, many just below the surface of the clear
water. It is abundantly stocked with fish. The land surrounding
the lake consists of gneiss, quartz and schistose rocks, covered with
marl and red clay and in the valleys with loam.
Shores and Islands.— The shores of the lake present varied
aspects, The western coast, which contains no large indentations,
is, in the south, backed by precipices 300 ft. high, behind which
rise downs to thrice the height of the cliffs. Going north, the hills
give way to papyrus and ambach swamps, which mark the delta of
the Kagcra. Beyond the delta the hills reappear, and increase in
height, till at the north-west corner they rise some 500 ft. above
the water. This western shore is marked by north to south faults
which run parallel to the lake at a short distance inland. The
northern coast is very deeply indented and is marked by rocky
headlands jutting into the waters. This high land is narrow, and
streams which rise on its northern face drain north away from the
lake. On a promontory about 30 m. east of the Katonga is
Entebbe, the port and administrative centre of the Uganda Pro-
tectorate. The chief indentations on the north side are Murchison
bay and Napoleon gulf. -Napoleon gulf itself is deeply indented,
one bay, that of Jinja, being the outlet of the Nile, the water
here forcing its way over the Ripon falls through the rock-bound
shore of the lake. The north-east corner of the lake is flat and
bare. A narrow channel leads into Kawirondo gulf, which, with
an average width of 6 m., extends for 45 m. to Risumu, the ter-
minus of the railway from the east coast of Africa. Hills dominate
the south shore of the gulf and behind them is the Kasagunga
range. Proceeding south the shore trends generally south-west, is
marked by many deep inlets with bold bluffs and by mountains. At
the south-east corner is Speke gulf, and at the south-west corner
Emin Pasha gulf. Here the coast is barren and hilly, while long
ridges of rock run into the lake.
The largest island in the lake, Ukerewe, north of Speke gulf, is
almost a peninsula. It is uninhabited, wooded and hilly, rising
650 ft. above the lake. At the north-west corner of the lake is
the Sessi archipelago, consisting of sixty-two islands. The largest
island in this group is Bugala. Most of these islands are densely
forested, and some of them attain considerable elevation. Their
scenery is of striking beauty. Buvuma island is at the entrance of
Napoleon gulf and there are numerous other islands, of which the
chief are Bugaia, Lolui, Rusinga and Mfwangani. The islands are
of ironstone formation overlying quartzite and crystalline schists.
Rivers. — The Kagera, the largest and most important of the
lake affluents, rises east of Lake Kivu, and enters the west side of
the lake just north of i° S. It is the most remote head-stream
of the Nile (q.v.). The other rivers entering Lake Victoria from
the west are the Katonga and Ruizi, both north of the Kagera.
Between the Katonga and the Nile outlet, the rivers which rise
close to the lake drain away northward, the watershed being the
lake shore. On the north-east several streams reach the lake —
notably the Sio, Nzoia and Lukos (or Yala). On the east the Mara
Dabagh enters the lake between i° and 2° S. It is, next to the
Kagera, the largest of the lake tributaries. On the southern shores
a number of short rivers drain into the lake. The only outlet of
the lake is the Nile (q.v.).
The area drained by the lake covers, with the lake itself, 92,240
sq. miles. A detailed survey was made of the lake by Sir William
Garstin. (See British Bluebook, Egypt, 1902.)
Discovery and Exploration.— The quest for the Nile sources
led to the discovery of the lake by J. H. Speke in 1858. In 1862
Speke and J. A. Grant partially explored the north-west shore,
leaving the lake at the Nile outlet. It was circumnavigated by
H. M. Stanley in 1874. The invitation sent by King Mtesa of
Uganda through Stanley to the Christian missionaries led to the
despatch from England in 1876 of the Rev. C. T. Wilson, to
whom we owe our first detailed knowledge of the lake. Wilson
and Lieut. Shergold Smith, R.N., made, in 1877, the first voyage
across the lake. Lieut. Smith and O'Neill were in the same year
murdered on Ukerewe island. In 1889 Stanley further explored
the lake, discovering Emin Pasha gulf. In 1890 the ownership
of the lake was divided by Great Britain and Germany, the first
degree of south latitude being taken as the boundary line. The
southern portion, which fell to Germany, was visited and de-
scribed by scientists of that nation. At the instance of the British
Foreign Office a survey of the northern shores was carried out in
1899-1900 by Commander B. Whitchouse, R.N. The same officer,
in 1903, undertook, in agreement with the German government, a
survey of the southern shores. There is steamer service on the
lake, weekly from Kisumu to Uganda ports and back, weekly
round the lake and fortnightly between the Sessi islands and
Entebbe. The lake is connected with the coast by rail from Kisumu
to Mombasa, and there is a line from Jinja northwards to
Namasagali. The lake is now entirely surrounded by British
territory, the southern half being in Tanganyika territory, the
northern in the Uganda protectorate and a small portion of the
VICTORIA FALLS— VICTOR-PERRIN
east coast is within the confines of Kenya colony.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See NILE and UGANDA and the British Bluebook
Egypt No. 2 (1904). This report, which is mentioned above also
summarizes the information of previous travellers, whose works are
quoted. In 1908 the British Admiralty published a chart of the lake
(scale 4 in. to the mile). See also E. G. Ravenstein, "The Lake-level
of the Victoria Nyanza," Geog. Journ. Oct. 1901 ; Sir H. H. Johnston,
The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902).
VICTORIA FALLS, rivalled only by Niagara in grandeur,
form the most remarkable feature of the river Zambezi, Cen-
tral Africa. The falls are about midway in the course of the Zam-
bezi in 17° 51' S., 25° 41' E. For a considerable distance above
the falls the river flows over a level sheet of basalt, its valley
bounded by low and distant sandstone hills. Its clear blue waters
are dotted with numerous tree-clad islands. These islands in-
crease in number as the river, without quickening its current,
approaches the falls, whose nearness is indicated only by a veil
of spray. At the spot where the Zambezi is at its widest — over
i, 860 yds. — it falls abruptly over the edge of an almost vertical
chasm with a roar as of continuous thunder, sending up vast
columns of vapour.
The chasm, extending over the whole breadth of the river, is
about half the total width of Niagara but it is more than twice
the depth, varying from 256 ft. at the right bank to 343 ft. in the
centre. Unlike Niagara the water does not fall into an open basin
but is arrested at a distance of from 80 to 240 ft. by the opposite
wall of the chasm. Both walls are of the same height, so that the
falls appear to be formed by a huge crack in the bed of the river.
The only outlet is a narrow channel cut in the barrier wall at a
point about three-fifths from the western end of the chasm, and
through this gorge, not more than 100 ft. wide, the whole volume
of the river pours for 130 yd. before emerging into an enormous
zigzag trough (the Grand Carton ) which conducts the river past
the basalt plateau. The tremendous pressure to which the water
is subjected in the confinement of the chasm causes the perpetual
columns of mist which rise over the precipice.
The fall is broken by fslands on the lip of the precipice into
four parts. Close to the right bank is a sloping cataract 36 yd.
wide, called the Leaping Water, then beyond Boaruka Island,
about 300 yd. wide, is the Main Fall, 473 yd. broad, and divided
by Livingstone Island from the Rainbow Fall 535 yd. wide. At
both these falls the rock is sharp cut and the river maintains its
level to the edge of the precipice. At the left bank of the river
is the Eastern Cataract, a millrace resembling the Leaping Water.
From opposite the western end of the falls to Danger Point,
which overlooks the entrance of the gorge, the escarpment of the
chasm is covered with great trees known as the Rain Forest; look-
ing across the gorge the eastern part of the wall (the Knife Edge)
is less densely wooded. At the end of the gorge the river has hol-
lowed out a deep pool, named the Boiling Pot. It is some 500 ft.
across; its surface, smooth at low water, is at flood-time troubled
by slow, enormous swirls and heavy boilings. Thence the channel
turns sharply westward, beginning the great zigzag mentioned.
This grand and gloomy canon is over 40 m. long. Its almost
perpendicular walls are over 400 ft. high, the level of the escarp-
ment being that of the lip of the falls. A little below the
Boiling Pot, and almost at right angles to the falls, the canon is
spanned by a bridge (completed in April 1905) which forms a link
in the Cape to Cairo railway scheme. This bridge, 650 ft. long,
with a main arch of 500 ft. span, is slightly below the top of the
gorge. The height from low-water level to the rails is 420 ft.
The volume of water borne over the falls varies greatly, the
level of the river in the canon sinking as much as 60 ft. between
the full flood of April and the end of the dry season in October.
When the river is high the water rolls over the main falls in
one great unbroken expanse; at low water (when alone it is pos-
sible to look into the grey depths of the great chasm) the falls
are broken by crevices in the rock into numerous cascades.
The falls are in the territory of Rhodesia. They were dis-
covered by David Livingstone on the i/th of November 1855, and
by him named after Queen Victoria of England. Livingstone
approached them from above and gained his first view of the falls
from the island on the lip now named after him. In 1860 Living-
stone, with Dr. (afterwards Sir John) Kirk, made a careful investi*
gation of the falls, but until the opening of the railway from
Bulawayo (1905) there were but few visitors. The land in the
vicinity of the falls is preserved by the Rhodesian government
as a public park.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Livingstone's Missionary Travels and Re-
searches in South Africa (1857) for the story of the discovery of the
falls, and the Popular Account of Dr. Livingstone's Expedition to the
Zambesi and its Tributaries 1858-1864 (1894) f°r a fuller description
of the falls and a theory as to their origin. In the Geographical Journal
Jan. 1905, A. J. C. Molyneux on "The Physical History of the Victoria
Falls," gives photographs and bibliography. Consult also "The Gorge
and Basin of the Zambesi below the Victoria Falls," by G. W. Lamp-
lugh in the Geog. Jour. (1908), vol. xxxi.
VICTORIA REGIA, the giant water-lily of the Amazon,
the leaves of which may be 2 metres across, with the edges turned
up to a height of several centimetres. On the lower surface, the
projecting ribs bear spines. The flowers are large and pink. The
plant is widely cultivated and has been introduced into Java (there
is a fine specimen in the Buitenzorg gardens) and elsewhere. The
roasted fruit is eaten in Brazil. There are two other species of the
genus, also South American. (See WATER-LILY.)
VICTORINUS, GAIUS MARIUS (4th century A.D.),
Roman grammarian, rhetorician and Neoplatonic philosopher,
an African by birth, lived during the reign of Constantius II.
He taught rhetoric at Rome (one of his pupils being Jerome)
and in his old age became a convert to Christianity. His con-
version is said to have greatly influenced that of Augustine. When
Julian published an edict forbidding Christians to lecture on
polite literature, Victorinus closed his school. A statue was
erected in his honour as a teacher in the Forum Trajanum.
The treatise De Definitionibus (ed. T. Stangl in Tidliana et
Mario-Victoriniaua, Munich, 1888) is probably by him and not
by Boetius, to whom it was formerly attributed. His manual of
prosody, in four books, taken almost literally from the work of
Aphthonius, is extant (H. Keil, Grammatici La tint, vi.). It is
doubtful whether he is the author of certain other extant treatises
attributed to him which will be found in Keal. His commentary
on Cicero's De Inventions (in Halm's Rhetores Latini Minores,
1863), is very diffuse, and is itself in need of commentary. His
extant theological writings will be found in J. P. Migne, Cursus
Patrologiae Latinae, viii.
See G. Geiger, C. Marius Victorinus Afer, em neuplatonischer
Phi,losoph (Mettcn, 1888) ; G. Koffmann, De Mario Victorino phil-
osopho Christiano (Breslau, 1880) ; R. Schmid, Marius Victorinus
Rhetor und seine Beziehungen zu Augustin (Kiel, 1895) ; Gore in
Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der
romischen IMteratur, iv. i (1904) ; Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature
(Eng. trans., 1900), 408.
VICTOR-PERRIN, CLAUDE, DUKE OF BELLUNO (1764-
1841), marshal of France, was born at La Marche (Vosges) on
Dec. 7, 1764. In 1781 he entered the army as a private soldier,
and after ten years' service he received his discharge and settled
at Valence. Soon afterwards he joined the local volunteers, and
distinguishing himself in the war on the Alpine frontier, in less
than a year he had risen to the command of a battalion. He
served at Toulon (1793), in the Italian campaign of 1796-97, in
La Vendee, and then in Italy at Marengo. In 1802 he was
governor of the colony of Louisiana for a short time, in 1803
he commanded the Batavian army, and in 1805-6 was French
plenipotentiary at Copenhagen. On the outbreak of hostilities with
Prussia he joined the V. army corps (Marshal Lannes) as chief
of the general staff. He distinguished himself at Saalfeld and
Jena, and after Friedland where he commanded the I. corps
Napoleon gave him the marshalate. After the peace of Tilsit
he became governor of Berlin, and in 1808 he was created duke
of Belluno. In the same year he was $ent to Spain,, where he
took a prominent part in the Peninsular War (especially at
Espinosa, Talavera, Barrosa and Cadiz), until his appointment
in 1812 to a corps command in the invasion of Russia. Here his
most important service was in protecting the retreating army at
the crossing of the Beresina. He took an' active part in the wars
of 1813-14, till in February of the latter year he had the mis-
fortune to arrive too late at Montereau-sur-Yonne. The result
VICUNA— VIDOCQ
139
was a scene of violent recrimination and his supersession by the
emperor, who transferred his command to G6rard.
Victor now transferred his allegiance to the Bourbons, and in
Dec. 1814 received from Louis XVIII. the command of the second
military division. In 1815 he accompanied the king to Ghent, and
on the second restoration he was made a peer of France. He
was war minister in 1821-23. In 1830 he was major-general of
the royal guard, and after the revolution of that year he retired
altogether into private life. He died in Paris on March i, 1841.
His papers for the period 1793-1800 have been published (Paris,
1846).
VICUNA, a term applied both to a distinctive variety of
wool, and also to a special kind of "finish" given to certain va-
rieties of woollen textures. Vicuna wool is the fleece obtained
from the vicuna (q.v.), a wild relative of the llama (q.v.) in-
habiting the mountainous districts of Chili and Peru. This type
of wool is distinguished for its' remarkably long, fine, soft and
lustrous character for which it is greatly priced. These properties
adapt it eminently for the production of woollen and worsted
textures that require a soft and full "handle" or "feel," and also
for the development of a "nap."
Vicuna fabrics comprise several varieties of woollen and
worsted textures, which are of the character of serge (q.v.), ex-
cepting that they are more supple, softer and fuller, and of a more
subdued lustre than true serge textures. This is partly owing to
the different character of wool employed in their manufacture,
as well as to the method of finishing. Like serges, also, vicuna
fabrics are usually based on the simple twill weave structures
and employed as dress and costume materials and suitings.
Vicuna fabrics comprise two distinct types of textures, viz.:
(i) simple structures for the lighter and medium textures suit-
able for women's wear, and light suitings and coatings for men's
summer wear; and (2), double-cloth structures for the heavier
and stronger textures suitable for men's overcoatings. This class
is produced either from two-fold worsted both for warp and weft,
or from two-fold worsted warp, and single worsted or woollen
weft, for softer textures. One example of the latter class is
woven with the 5-end Venetian (double-stitch $-end warp satin)
weave, and a lo-end sateen (weft-face) back; while a second
example is woven with the four-end (?-^) twill face weave, and
with the plain weave on the back, which produces a relatively
stronger and better wearing cloth.
To obtain the true "vicuna" handle, the routine of the finishing
process is varied to suit the character of yarn employed, the
weave structure and the "setting" of the fabric, i.e., the number
of warp and weft threads per inch in the fabric. The procedure
then consists of knotting and mending; crabbing or blowing with
steam, to set the fabric; scouring; milling; dyeing; washing-off;
tentering; raising (wet); cutting;
brushing; steaming or dewing;
shrinking and pressing (rotary
machine). An alternative method
is to raise the cloth previous to
milling. (H. N.)
VICUNA or VICUGNA,
one of the two wild South Ameri-
can representatives of the camel-
tribe still surviving (see TYLO-
PODA). From its relative the gua-
naco, the vicuna (Lama vicunia)
differs by its inferior stature,
more slender build, shorter head, V|CUNA (LAMA VICUNIA)
and the absence of bare callosities on the hind limbs. The colour
is orange-red. Vicunas live in herds on the bleak and elevated
parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual
snow, in various parts of Peru, in southern Ecuador, and south-
wards to central Bolivia. The wool is delicate and soft and
highly valued for weaving.
VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO (c. 1489-1566), Italian
scholar and Latin poet, was born at Cremona shortly before the
year 1490 and died at Alba on Sept. 27, 1566. He entered the
order of the Canonici Regolari Lateranensi, and made a repu-
tation by two Latin poems, on the Game of Chess and the Silk-
worm. On the strength of this he went to Rome, when Leo X. on
his succession (1513) gave him a priory and set him to compose
a poem on the life of Christ. This Christiad is his most famous
work. Between 1520 and 1527 he produced another hexameter
poem on the Art of Poetry (ed. Baldi, Wurzburg, 1881). In 1532
he became bishop of Alba.
See the Life by Lancetti (Milan, 1840).
VIDAME, a French feudal title. The vidame (Lat. vice-
dominns) was originally, like the avoue (advoeatus), an official
chosen by the bishop of the diocese, with the consent of the count
(see ADVOCATE). During the Carolingian epoch, advocatus and
vicc-dominns were interchangeable terms; it was only in the nth
century that they became differentiated, the title of avoue being
commonly reserved for nobles charged with the protection of an
abbey, that of vidame for those guarding an episcopal see. In
the 1 2th century the office of vidame, like that of avoue, had
become an hereditary fief. As a title, however, it was less common
and less dignified than that of avoue\ The advocati were often
great barons who added their function of protector of an abbey to
their own temporal sovereignty; the vidames were usually petty
nobles, who exercised their office in strict subordination to the
bishop. Their chief functions were: to protect the temporalities
of the see, to represent the bishop at the count's court of justice,
to exercise the bishop's temporal jurisdiction in his name, and to
lead the episcopal levies to war.
See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions fran^aises (Paris, 1892) ;
Du Canpe, Glossarium (cd. Niort, 1887), s. "Vice-dominus"; A. Mallet,
"Etude hist, sur les avoues et les vidames," in Position des theses de
V&cole des chartes (an. 1870-7.2).
VIDIN (formerly written WIDIN or WIDDIN), a fortified
river-port and capital of a department in the extreme N.E. of
Bulgaria; on the right bank of the Danube, near the Yugoslav
frontier. Top. (1926) 19,115, including about 3,000 Turks and
1,500 Spanish Jews— descendants of refugees who fled hither
from the Inquisition in the i6th century. Vidin is an episcopal
see and the headquarters of a brigade. A steam ferry connects it
with Calafat, on the Rumanian bank of the Danube, and there
is a branch railway to the main line Sofia-Lorn. The old town,
containing several mosques and synagogues and a bazaar, pre-
serves its oriental appearance. There is a modern cathedral,
a school of viticulture and a high school, besides an ancient clock-
tower and the palace (Konak) formerly occupied by the Turkish
pashas. Vidin exports cereals and fruit, and is locally celebrated
for its gold and silver filigree. It has important fisheries and
manufactories of spirits, beer and tobacco.
Vidin stands on the site of the Roman town of Bononia in
Moesia Superior. It is a fortress of great natural strength owing
to the marshes which surround it. In the i4th century it was
the seat of an independent tsardom, which was overthrown by the
Turks in 1396. Under the Turks it was the seat of a pashalik,
which under Pasvanoglu (1794-1807) was practically independent.
VIDOCQ, FRANCOIS EUGENE (i?75-i857), French
detective, was born at Arras in 1775 (or possibly 1773). After
an adventurous youth he joined the French army, where he rose
to be lieutenant. At Lille he was sentenced to eight years' hard
labour, and sent to the galleys at Brest, whence he escaped twice
but was recaptured. For the third time he escaped, and lived for
some time in the company of thieves and other criminals in Paris
and elsewhere, making a careful study of their methods. He then
offered his services as a spy to the Paris police (1809). Eventually
Vidocq was made chief of the reorganized detective department
of the Paris police, with a body of ex-convicts under his im-
mediate command. Vidocq possessed unbounded energy and a
real genius for hunting down criminals. In 1827 he retired and
started a paper-mill, the work-people in which were drawn entirely
from ex-convicts. The venture was a failure, and in 1832 Vidocq
re-entered the police service and was employed mainly in political
work. Anxious to get back to his old detective post he himself
foolishly organized a daring theft. His real part in the matter
became known, however, and he was dismissed from service.
He died in poverty. Several volumes have been published under
140
VIDYASAGAR— VIENNA
his name, the best known of which is Mtmoires de Vidocq (1828).
It is, however, extremely doubtful whether he wrote any of them,
See Charles Ledru, La Vie, la mort et Us dernicrs moments de
Vidocq (1857).
VIDYASAGAR, ISWAR CHANDRA (1820-1891),
writer and social reformer of Bengal, was born at Birsinha in the
Midnapur district in 1820, of a Kulin Brahman family. He was re-
moved to Calcutta at the age of nine, was admitted into the
Sanskrit College, and carried on his studies in the midst of priva-
tions and extreme poverty. In 1839 he obtained the title of
Vidyasagar (-"Ocean of learning") after passing a brilliant
examination, and in 1850 was appointed head pundit of Fort
William College. In 1846 appeared his first work in Bengali prose,
The Twenty-Five Tales of a BetaL This was succeeded by his
Sakuntala, 1855, and by his great work, The Exile of Sita, 1862.
As a social reformer and educationist, too, Iswar Chandra made
his mark. He associated himself with Drinkwater Bethune in the
cause of female education; and the management of the girls*
school, called after Bethune, was entrusted to him in 1851. And
when Rosomoy Datta resigned the post of secretary to the Sans-
krit College of Calcutta, a new post of principal was created, and
Iswar Chandra was appointed to it. He simplified the method of
learning Sanskrit; and thus rendered a great service to Sanskrit
learning of that ancient tongue among his countrymen. Under
the education scheme of 1854 he established aided schools in
Bengal. In 1858 he resigned his appointment under government.
He became manager of a private college at Calcutta.
But he now turned to practical reform. He had discovered that
the ancient Hindu scriptures did not enjoin perpetual widowhood,
and in 1855 he startled the Hindu world by his work on the
Remarriage of Hindu Widows. Such a work, from a learned and
presumably orthodox Brahman, aroused a storm of indignation.
He appealed to the British government to declare that the sons of
remarried Hindu widows should be considered legitimate heirs.
The act was passed in 1856, and some years after Iswar Chandra's
own son was married to a widow. In the last years of his life
Iswar Chandra wrote works against Hindu polygamy. He was as
well known for his lavish charity and wide philanthropy as for his
educational and social reforms. He received the C.I.E. in 1880.
He died on July 29, 1891. (R. C. D.)
VIEBIG, CLARA (1860- ), German novelist, was born
on July 17, 1860, at Trier, and educated at Diisseldorf and at the
Berlin high school of music. She married in 1896 Fritz Cohn,
and has one son. She began by writing stories of the Eifel coun-
try, in which she was born, Kinder der Eifel (1897). Among the
most famous of her earliest novels was Das schlafende Heer
(1904), the scene of which is laid in German Poland; in this book
there is no extenuation of the faults of either Germans or Poles.
Among her other works are: Einer Mutter Sohtt (1906), Tochter
der Hektiba (1917), Unter dent Freiheitsbaum (1924), and Die
Passion (1926).
VIEIRA, ANTONIO (1608-1697), Portuguese Jesuit, writer
and orator, was born at Lisbon on Feb. 6, 1608. He went with
his parents to Brazil in 1615, was educated by the Jesuits at
Bahia, and entered the order, receiving the priesthood in 1635.
He at once made his mark as a preacher. He was sent, in 1640,
with the viceroy's son to congratulate John IV. of Portugal on
his accession, and was employed on various important diplo-
matic missions to England, France, Holland and Italy. Vieira was
full of new and progressive ideas and advocated in a series of
important pamphlets the abolition of the distinction between Old
and New Christians, the reform of the procedure of the inquisi-
tion, and the admission to Portugal of Jewish and foreign traders.
As a young man he had determined to serve the negro slaves
and the native Indians, and on his return in 1653 he resumed
his great missionary work among the Indians. He was hindered
in every possible way by the Colonial authorities, and decided
that the only way to ensure the success of his mission was to
secure* the withdrawal of the Indians from the jurisdiction of the
governors and to place them under that of the Society. In 1654
he sailed to Lisbon, and there secured from the king the necessary
decrees. During the next six years he organized the new control
and organized the missionaries. But his enemies among the
colonists, who complained that the supply of slaves had decreased,
and among the other religious orders shut out from the missions,
secured his exile to Portugal. King John was dead, and he had
no protector against the inquisition when he was charged with
heretical teaching in some of his strange books, notably in the
Clavis Prophetarum. He was imprisoned for two years (1665-
67), and on his release was prohibited from writing, teaching and
preaching. On the accession of Pedro II. it was determined that
he should go to Rome to procure the revision of the sentence.
There Clement X. invited him to preach before the college of
Cardinals, and he became confessor to Queen Christina* of Sweden
and a member of her literary academy. At the request of the
pope he drew up a report of 200 pages on the inquisition in
Portugal, with the result that after a judicial inquiry Pope Inno-
cent XI. suspended it for five years (1676-81). Ultimately Vieira
returned to Portugal with a papal bull exempting him from the
jurisdiction of the grand inquisitor, and in Jan. 1681 he embarked
for Brazil. He resided in Bahia and in 1687 became superior of
the province. He died on July 18, 1697.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Vieira's writings include: Sermoes (Sermons) (15
vols., Lisbon, 1679-1748) , and many subsequent but incomplete editions ;
Span., Ital., Ger. and French translations have gone through several
editions, Historia do Futuro (Lisbon, 1718) ; this and the Quinto
Imperio and the Clavis Prophetarum seem to be in essence one and
the same book in different redactions. Cartas (Letters) (3 vols.,
Lisbon, 1735-46). Noticias reconditas do modo de proccder a
Inquisicdo de .Portugal com os sens presos (Lisbon, 1821). The Arte
de Furtar published under Vieira's name is not his. A badly editeH
edition of Vieira's works in 27 vols. appeared in Lisbon, 1854-58;
there are unpublished mss. of his in the British Museum and Biblio-
th6que Nationale; and a bibliography will be found in Sommervogcl,
Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jfaus, viii. 653-85.
See also Andre de Barros, Vida (Lisbon, 1746), a Jesuit panegyric;
D. Francisco Alexandre Lobo bishop of Vizeu, "Historical and Critical
Discourse," Obras (Lisbon, 1849), vol. ii., a valuable study; Joao
Francisco Lisboa, Vida (5th ed., Rio, 1891), he is unjust to Vieira,
but may be consulted to check the next writer; Abbe E. Carel,
Vieira, sa vie et ses oeuvres (Paris, 1879) ; Luiz Cabral, Vieira, biog.,
caractere, eloquence (Paris, 1900) ; ibid., Vieira pregador (2 vols.,
Oporto, 1901) ; Sotcro dos Rcis, Curso de lilteratura Portugueza e
Brazileira, iii. 121-244.
VIELLE, a French term, derived from Lat. fidicula, embrac-
ing two distinct types of instruments: (i) from the I2th to the
beginning of the i5th century bowed instruments having a box-
soundchest with ribs; (2) from the middle or end of the I5th
century, the hurdy-gurdy (q.v.). The most common shape given
to the earliest vielles in France was an oval, which with its modi-
fications remained in favour until the guitar-fiddle, the Italian
lyra, asserted itself as the finest type, from which also the violin
was directly evolved.
VIENNA, the capital of the Austrian republic, has the status
of an autonomous federal province and its municipal council fulfils
the functions of a provincial diet. The city lies at the eastern foot
of the Wiener Wald, on the right bank of the Danube within easy
reach of a number of contrasted physical and economic regions.
Here many of the great routes from north to south and west to
east intersect while close at hand runs the linguistic frontier be-
tween German, Slav and Magyar. From the multiplicity of these
contacts Vienna acquired a cultural leadership that placed it in
the forefront of European cities. Only an arm of the river, the
Danube canal, passes through Vienna. The main river was devel-
oped between 1870 and 1877, and now has a quay length on the
right bank of about 9 m. with accommodation in a winter harbour,
Freudenau, to shelter above 500 barges of 500-700 tons cargo
capacity. Navigation is possible for about 300 days per year.
The new channel has an average width of 915 ft.; bordering its
left bank is a free flood space about i m. in width, separated by
a dam from houses that stretch to the old course of trje Danube.
The city is divided into 21 districts of which the Inner Town
on the right bank of the Danube canal is the nucleus. The fortifi-
cations which girdled this old town were removed in 1858-60
and replaced by a magnificent boulevard— the Ringstrasse— i m.
long and 150 ft. in width, planted with four rows of trees and
lined with splendid buildings and monuments. Near the centre of
this inner city is the cathedral of St. Stephen, a Gothic building
SCENES IN VIENNA
1. Schonbrunn Palace and gardens on the outskirts of Vienna. Used as a
summer residence by the imperial family
2. The Imperial Museums of Fine Arts and Natural History, Built 1870-
89, the museums are similar in their detail
3. A section of the Parliament building. The Grecian stylo has been
adapted to modern requirements
5. The Hofburg (Imperial Palace) a huge complex of buildings of various
styles and epochs. The oldest part dates from the 13th century
6. The Vienna Opera house. Interior vies in sumptuousness with the
Opera house of Paris. Built 1861-69
7. Spire of St. Stephen's Cathedral towering 450 ft. In the atr and re-
garded as one of the finest Gothic spires in the world. Rebuilt
VIENNA
141
dating mainly from the i4th and 15th centuries, but incorporating
fragments of the original i2th century edifice, destroyed by lire
1193. Among its many impressive features may be mentioned
the lofty tower (450 ft.), rebuilt in 1860-64, the catacombs, the
groined ceiling, the 35 marble altars and the sarcophagus of Fred-
erick III. This district is rich in Baroque buildings, many occu-
pied by Government departments, banks and other commercial
organizations, for it is gradually ceasing to be a residential neigh-
bourhood; here too are situated the larger and most fashionable
shops, particularly in the Graben thoroughfare.
South-west of the cathedral and near the Ring is the Hofburg,
a huge complex of buildings of various periods and styles enclos-
ing a number of courtyards, the oldest parts dating from the
r 3th century but including extensive additions since 1887. As a
former imperial palace it abounds in magnificently appointed pri-
vate and State apartments, numerous valuable collections and
the National Library of about 1,200,000 volumes, 34,000 mss.,
91,000 maps, 81,000 papyri, including the famous "Papyrus
Rainer," and a large collection of musical and dramatic works.
The Hofburg is separated from the Ring by handsome and
spacious parks, the Hofgarten and Volksgartcn. Other notable
buildings in the old town include the i4th century Gothic Augus-
tine and Maria Stiegen churches, the Minorite church of similar
date and style containing a remarkable mosaic of Leonardo da
Vinci's "Last Supper*' by Raffaeli, the richly-frescoed Baroque
churches of St. Peter (1702-13) and the university (1625-31),
the Capuchin church, the i3th century Schotten church (restored
1828-83), the church of St. Ruprecht first built in 740 and the
old Rathaus.
Beyond the imposing Ring and grouped around it are a num-
ber of impressive buildings and parks. Opposite the Hofburg
stand the museums of natural history and art, two domed
Renaissance buildings dating from 1872-81, identical in con-
struction but separated by gardens containing the Maria Teresa
monument. Adjoining the museums to the west is the palace
of justice (1881) burned during riots in 1927, and the houses
of parliament (1883) in modified Grecian style. Beyond these
stands the new Ratliaus (1873-83), a very large and lavishly
decorated building separated from the Ring by the Rathaus park.
This edifice is in modern Gothic style which is a striking con-
trast to the Classical and Renaissance styles so strongly repre-
sented in Viennese architecture. To the north stands the univer-
sity, an example of Renaissance style (1873-74), even larger than
the Rathaus. The university, the oldest German foundation
(1365), has done much to raise Vienna to its high position as
one of the leaders of culture amongst the European nations and
its medical faculty is of world-wide reputation. The university
library with 1,060,000 volumes is very well-equipped.
Other important buildings of the Ringstrasse include the Opera
(1861-69), in French early Renaissance style, On the eastern
side lies the Town park, rich in monuments. The Inner town
and its immediate neighbourhood is still, unlike the older parts
of most European towns, the fashionable quarter, containing
many of the embassies and legations, the government offices and
the principal hotels; it is also the richest in handsome buildings.
Across the Danube canal and between it and the main stream
lie Leopoldstadt and Brigittenau, the only districts on the left
bank of the canal. The former is the chief commercial quarter
and is still inhabited to a great extent by Jews. Around the Ring
stretches a girdle of nine inner suburbs once bound to the inner
town by a second line of fortifications (1706) known as the
Lines. These were rased in 1893 and a second wide boulevard
(Gurtelstrasse) follows their course around the city.
Vienna is richly endowed in museums, picture-galleries and other
marks of cultural leadership, stored with masterpieces represen-
tative of all types, masters and periods In addition it possesses
many private exhibitions of note. Every form of intellectual de-
velopment, artistic, musical and scientific in all its branches, has
1 42
VIENNA
its representative collections supplemented by large libraries be-
longing to the state, city, private societies or monastic orders. In
itself it is a museum of architecture and a city of open spaces
and parks, amongst which may be mentioned the Prater (2,000
ac.), a wooded park on the cast side of the river between the
Danube and the Danube canal.
Situated at an altitude of about 550 ft. above sea-level, it has
a healthy and agreeable climate. The mean annual temperature
is 49-4° F and the range about 40° F. The climate is change-
able but stimulating, liable to rapid falls of temperature and
sudden storms especially in spring and autumn, and the rainfall
amounts to 27 in. a year. Its water supply is drawn from the
Alps by aqueducts.
Though it has suffered loss both in population and trade by
the war Vienna has gathered to itself much of the industrial life
of Austria and still holds a high place amongst the world's cities
as a producer of artistic fancy goods, notably leather, jewellery,
objets d'art, silks, clothing, millinery and other luxury goods. In
addition it has manufactures of optical instruments, metal wares,
heavy iron and steel machinery and rolling stock, furniture, paper,
beer, textiles and chemicals and is an important publishing centre
and also has a thriving film industry. As a transit centre it is
recovering its old importance. The revival of the Industrial Fair,
electrification of the city belt railway, the transformation of
palaces, even parts of the Hofburg, into offices, shops and public
halls, of old imperial gardens into public parks, schemes of hous-
ing, these and many other activities for ultimate social welfare
are indicative of a progressive spirit somewhat foreign to popular
ideas of the Viennese.
The population of Vienna numbered in 1923 1,866,147 inhabi-
tant on an area of 107 sq.m., compared with the population of
2,031,498 in igio and 1,841,326 in 1920. By virtue of its situation
the population of Vienna has always been of a very cosmopolitan
character with a preponderance of the German element. The
break up of the empire caused many of the Hungarians, Czechs
and other Slavs to leave the city but increased the proportion
of Jews, which rose from g% (1910) to 11%.
See F. Hcidcrich, Wien als Europtiiscker Verkehrsknotenpunkt.
"Handclsmuseum" (Vienna, JQJO) ; Collection by Vienna University
Wien, sfin Boden und seine Gesehickte (Vienna, 1924) ; and the vol-
umes of the Heiderich-Fcstschrift "Zur Geographic dcs Wiener Beck-
ens'* (Vienna, 1923), which treat of all aspects of the jreojrraphy of
Vienna; League of Nations, The Financial Reconstruction of Austria
(Geneva, 1926). (W, S. L.)
HISTORY
Under the name of Vindobona Vienna was a Celtic settlement
and later Roman garrison town. The Roman fortress stood on the
small eminence bounded N. by the modern Salzgries, E. by the
Rotenturmstrasse, S. by the Grabcn and W. by the Tiefer
Graben. Here Marcus Aurelius is supposed to have died (A.D.
180). During the period of the Great Migrations and the suc-
ceeding centuries its traces were lost; but tradition ascribes the
foundation of the St. Peter's Church to Charlemagne (A.D. 800),
the Church of St. Rupprecht being older still. After the estab-
lishment of the Ostmark (see AUSTRIA) it revived. In 1137
"Wienne" is mentioned as a "civitas."
In that year Henry Jasomirgott chose it as capital of the duchy
of Austria, establishing his court Am Hof outside the old walls.
The cathedral (Stcfanskirchc) was founded in the same year; a
commercial town grew up round it, and a ghetto round the
present Judenplatz. Later, under the Babenberger, Vienna became
an important trading centre, largely thanks to new relations
between East and West established by the Crusades. It was also
the centre of a brilliant court life and of an important school
of lyric poetry (Walter von der Vogelweide, etc.), while the
great epics of the NiebeJungcn and the Gudrun were composed
near its walls. By the end of this period it had grown to about
the size of the present Innere Stadt ; many monastic orders were
established here, and many churches built; although owing to
the numerous fires and later rebuilding, none of these have kept
their original form.
The Habsburg Rule — The first Habsburg to enter Vienna
as ruler, Albert, came into immediate conflict with the city,
which he invested and forced to capitulate, annulling many of its
privileges. The era of the earlier Habsburgs was generally un-
fortunate; the plague, the visitations of robbers and condottieri,
the financial crisis and monetary depreciation, and the ceaseless
internecine wars of the Habsburgs hit the city hard; yet it re-
mained a wealthy and important centre, and some of the Habs-
burgs were its generous patrons, notably Rudolph IV., who
founded the university (1356) and did much for the reconstruc-
tion of the Stefanskirche. Under Frederick IV. Vienna at first
preserved neutrality; but it was the centre of the movement
against Frederick led by Eiczing, and after Archduke Albrecht
had twice stormed the city in 1458, a radical opposition was
formed, and Frederick was besieged in the Hofburg (1462),
Frederick never liked Vienna, residing for preference in Wiener
Neustadt, and later in Linz; Matthias Corvinus of Hungary,
however, after taking Vienna, made it his residence. Maximilian I.
showed an equal lack of interest in Vienna; and Ferdinand I.,
on arriving in Austria, found Vienna entirely old-fashioned. An-
other great fire raged in 1525, and in 1529 the city had to
stand a siege from the Turkish troops. The suburbs were de-
serted, and more and more inhabitants crowded into the old
town. Rudolph II. resided in Prague; but Ferdinand II. returned
to Vienna, which remained the residence of the Habsburgs.
The spiritual forces of the Counter-Reformation were what gave
Vienna its most characteristic aspect. The period of early baroque
saw the foundation of a number of churches — the Franciscans, the
Jesuits, the Capucines and many more, including a number out-
side the city walls, such as the Barmherziger Briider, the Paulaner,
Schwarzspanicr and the Barnabiten; with a smaller output of
other buildings such as the Archbishop's palace. The second siege
of Vienna by the Turks (1683) was the indirect cause of the
appearance of the characteristic Viennese cafes, almost simul-
taneously with another no less characteristically Viennese product
of the Orient — the lilac, first planted in Vienna, to spread thence
over Western Europe. The disappearance of the Turkish danger
ushered in a time of rapid expansion; the Hofburg was rebuilt,
its library and stables constructed, together with a number of
buildings in sumptuous baroque style: the Karlskirche, the Peters-
kirche, the Reichskanzlei, Hofreitschule and Burgerliches Zeug-
haus, the Pestsaulc in the Graben, the Josefssaule in the Holier
Markt, the Lichtcnstcin, Starhemberg, Schwarzenberg, Kinsky,
Esterhazy and Prince Eugen palaces. The Belvedere palace was
built 1717-24; Schonbrunn was begun about 1695, but not
finished till half a century later. The architecture of the later
1 8th century is by comparison sober and practical.
The reign of Francis I. created the typical Viennese of tradition;
frivolous, non-political, discontented, easy-going; "Alt-Wien" with
its waltzes, its Prater and its political spies. The revolution of
1848 showed that even the Viennese were not patient for ever.
Its main driving forces in Vienna were the students and the work-
men of the suburbs, in which a dense industrial population had be-
gun to grow up with the development of machinery. Again Vienna
suffered a siege; this time from the troops of its own emperor,
by whom it was quickly reduced. The modern period under
Francis Joseph saw another transformation. The old ramparts
and glacis were levelled, the great Ringstrasse built in their place.
Round it a number of great buildings were erected in various
styles; the Opera, the new Rathaus, the Parliament, the Burg-
theater, the new university and the Votivkirche. In the latter
half of the igth century the population of Vienna grew with
great rapidity. The inner ring of suburbs was entirely incor-
porated with the city, which stretched out beyond the " Vorortlinie"
to the outer ring, swallowing up many of the vineyards on which
much of Vienna's old fame had rested. The municipality again
became a powerful political force, and once again came into
conflict with the emperor, who had twice refused to confirm the
appointment of Karl Lueger as Burgomaster of Vienna.
After the World War and revolution of 1918, which caused
untold suffering in Vienna, partially relieved by the general effort
of many foreign charitable organizations, the power passed to
the Social Democratic party. Vienna became capital of the new
Austrian republic, receiving the status of a province in 1921. The
VIENNA
Social Democratic municipality embarked on a far-reaching and
ambitious programme of social reform, which included a serious
attempt to grapple with the very acute housing problem.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. Tschischka, Geschichte der Stadt Wien (Stutt-
gart, 1852); M. Hermann, Alt- und Neu-Wien (1880); K. Weiss,
Geschichte der Stadt Wien (1883) ; E. Guglia, Geschichte der Stadt
Wien (1892) ; K. E. Schimmer, Alt- mid Neu-Wicn, 2 vols. (1904) ;
H. Tietzc, Wien (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1923) ; R. Kralik, Geschichte der
Stadt Wien (1926). Publications oi the "Verein flir Geschichtc dcr
Stadt Wien" (formerly Altertumsvercin) 1897 cl seq. (L. Li.)
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-3 815). The fall of
Napoleon left the disposition of his empire to the four Powers who
had overthrown him — Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain. Other
countries, of whom Spain, Portugal and Sweden were the most
important and signed the Treaties of Paris, May 30, 1814, had
shared in this task, but the four greater Powers were bound to-
gether by a special alliance (Treaty of Chaumont, March i, 1814).
Thus though the treaties with France stipulated that all coun-
tries who had taken part in the war should send plenipotentiaries
to a congress at Vienna, the four Powers meant to make the deci-
sions themselves, and. as they could not agree at Paris, bound
France by a secret, article of the treaties to recognize these deci-
sions at a future date.
The Delegates. — Thus the meeting at Vienna, where repre-
sentatives began to arrive towards the end of September, was
meant to be. merely a convenient assembly to ratify the decisions
of the "four." Nevertheless, all Europe sent its most important
statesmen. Metternich, principal minister of Austria since 1809,
naturally represented his Emperor Francis 11., a stubborn man
who sometimes had a policy of his own. Wessenberg, an ambas-
sador, Gentz, a journalist of great capacity, who acted as secre-
tary of the congress, and Hudelist, a permanent official, were his
principal assistants. The brilliant, but wayward and emotional,
Alexander I. of Russia directed his own diplomacy. His servants
who were mainly foreigners, included Capo d' Istria (a Greek),
Stein (the regenerator of Prussia), Nesselrode (of German blood),
Laharpe (his Swiss tutor), and C/,artoryski (a Pole). The weak
Frederick William III. of Prussia had as his principal minister
Prince von Hardenberg, who had lost credit owing to physical
infirmities, but was ably seconded by the celebrated \Vilhelrn von
Humboldt and some efficient civil servants. Great Britain was
represented by the foreign minister Lord Castlcreagh, the creator
of the Alliance of Chaumont. With him were Lord Clancarty,
Lord Stewart and Lord Cathcart. lie had a small but capable
staff including Edward Cooke, undersecretary of State for foreign
affairs. When Castlereagh had to return to his parliamentary
duties the duke of Wellington replaced him and Lord Clancarty
was principal representative after the duke's departure. The
restored Louis XVIII. sent the astute diplomatist, Prince Talley-
rand, who had only mediocre helpers except La Besnardiere, one
of Napoleon's permanent officials. Spain, Portugal and Sweden
also had only men of moderate parts to represent them, in Labra-
dor, Palmclla and Lovenheilm. Count Munster, who represented
the British Prince Regent as ruler of Hanover, had mudi influ-
ence on German questions. Many of the rulers of the minor
States of Europe put in nn appearance. With them came a host of
courtiers, secretaries and ladies (o enjoy the magnificent hospital-
ity of the almost bankrupt Austrian court. The social side of
the congress made a great impression on the age, and on history.
It was one of the causes of the long and unexpected delay in pro-
ducing a result, for Metternich at least sometimes subordinated
business to pleasure.
Procedure of the Congress.— This was due to the difficulty
and complexity of the problems to be solved. First there was the
problem of the organization of the congress, for which there was
no precedent. The "four" were determined to keep the manage-
ment of the main problems entirely in their own hands; but since
they had rather rashly summoned a congress they must pay some
attention to it. The ministers of the "four" assembled early to
discuss this problem, and finally agreed on Sept. 22 that the
"four" should have the "initiative/* by which they meant the "de-
cision" of the future of all the conquered territories. They were
then to "communicate" with France and Spain. The "congress"
was to be summoned only when all was ready.
This was the situation which Talleyrand found when he arrived
on Sept. 24. He refused to accept it and was supported by
Labrador. He denied that either the "four" or the "six" were
legally constituted bodies, and desired that the congress should
be summoned to elect a directing committee. If there was any
other body which had any rights it was the "eight" Powers who
had signed the Paris treaties. The "four" were much disturbed,
for they knew that all the smaller Powers would support Talley-
rand if they gave him the chance of appealing to them. But they
had no intention of giving way, and refused to summon a meeting
of all the plenipotentiaries. A notice was issued that the opening
of the congress was postponed till Nov. i. No solution could be
found, however, and after a meeting of the "eight" on Oct. 30
the opening was again postponed.
Meanwhile the work of the. congress proceeded without the
sanction of the main body of plenipotentiaries. The "four'' dis-
cussed the main territorial problems informally amongst them-
selves. The "eight1' assumed the formal direction of the congress;
a committee of German states met to draw up a constitution for
Germany, and a special committee on Switzerland was appointed
by the "four." Talleyrand was thus excluded from the main work
of the congress, but his protests on behalf of the smaller Powers
grew fainter as he realised that the "four" were not in agreement,
Castlereagh and Metternich gradually won his confidence and at
last insisted on France being admitted to the "four." The "four"
thus became the "five'1 and it was this committee of five which
was the real Congress of Vienna. Between Jan. 7 and Feb. 13 it
settled the frontiers of all territories north of the Alps and laid
the foundations for the settlement of Italy. In this it was much
assisted by a statistical committee which Castlereagh had pro-
posed. Meanwhile the committee of "eight" dealt with more
general matters. The congress as a representative body of all
Europe never met.
Poland and Saxony. — The great difficulty which nearly pro-
duced war was the disposition of Poland and Saxony. By treaties
signed in 1813 Alexander had promised that the sovereigns of
Prussia and Austria should rule over as many subjects as they had
done before they were reduced in size by Napoleon. He had also
promised that the duchy of Warsaw, which Napoleon had con-
stituted out of the Prussian and Austrian shares of the Polish
partitions, should be divided between the three Powers. After the
battle of Leipzig, however, he claimed practically all Poland for
Russia, and suggested that Austria could find compensation in
Italy, and Prussia by annexing all Saxony, whose king had been
the most faithful of Napoleon's vassals. In this plan he was moved
by a sJncere wish to give the Poles an opportunity for the ex-
pression of their nationality; but, of course, he intended to keep
Russian sovereignty over all Poland. Metternich was much
alarmed, and Hardenberg, while very desirous of Saxony, was not
anxious to see Russia's frontier extended so far. Castlereagh was
also, as a true disciple of Pitt, afraid of Russian expansion. Ac-
cordingly Castlereagh encouraged Austria to agree to the sacrifice
of Saxony to Prussia so that the three Powers could oppose
Russia's demands on Poland. With great difficulty he eventually
succeeded in so doing, carrying on himself meanwhile an exceed-
ingly frank controversy with Alexander. But the plan, which
included an offer of constituting an entirely independent Poland,
which it was known Alexander must reject, failed because Fred-
erick William III., who was grateful to the tsar for his help in the
overthrow of Napoleon, refused to support Hardenberg when the
crisis came. Metternich and Hardenberg were, therefore, es-
tranged, and the former withdrew his consent to Prussia's ab-
sorption of all Saxony. Prussia then went altogether on to Russia's
side, and a complete deadlock resulted.
Caatlereagh's Diplomacy,— Cast lereagh had been much cha-
grined at the failure of his first plan. Moreover, his cabinet were
alarmed at his activity in European matters, and he was warned
against going too far. The difficult negotiations with the United
States, with whom Britain was still at war, also made caution
necessary. Nevertheless, Castlereagh saw that if a European war
broke out both France and Britain would certainly be involved
144
VIENNE
before it was over. He had already prepared the way with Talley-
rand, and in December both he and Metternich promised Talley-
rand that the Bourbon house should be re-established in Naples
instead of Murat. Secure of Talleyrand's support they insisted
that France should be admitted to the committee of the "four."
When Hardenberg threatened war, Castlercagh drew up a secret
treaty of defensive alliance which Talleyrand and Metternich
signed on Jan. 3. 1815. For a few days the issue was doubtful,
but the tsar, who had already obtained most of Russia's demands,
inclined to peace, and eventually Prussia gave way. With Castle-
reagh acting as media for, a compromise was arranged on the
question of Saxony, and then the rest of the territorial settlement
was comparatively easy, especially as Castlereagh reduced the
demands of both Hanover and the Netherlands, whose policy was
ultimately controlled by Britain.
Decisions of the Congress. — Alexander gave back Galicia to
Austria, Thorn and a region round it to Prussia, while Cracow
was made a free town. The rest of the duchy of Warsaw was
incorporated as a separate kingdom under the tsar's sovereignty.
Prussia got two-fifths of Saxony, and was compensated by ex-
tensive additions in Westphalia and on the left bank of the Rhine.
It was Castlereagh who insisted on her accepting this latter terri-
tory, with which it was suggested the king of Saxony should be
compensated, for he wanted Prussia to guard the Rhine against
France and act as a buttress to the new kingdom of the Nether-
lands, which Holland had formed by incorporating Belgium.
Austria was compensated by Lombardy and Venice. She also got
back most of the Tyrol. The South German States on the whole
did well. Hanover was also enlarged. The outline of a con-
stitution, a loose confederation, was drawn up for Germany. It
was a triumph for Metternich and a defeat for Stein. Denmark
lost Norway to Sweden but got Lauenberg, while Swedish Pom-
crania went to Prussia. In Italy, Piedmont absorbed Genoa;
Tuscany and Modena went to an Austrian archduke; Parma was
given to Marie Louise, though the young Napoleon's claims to
succeed failed to win British and French approval. The papal
territory was restored to the pope. Murat 's fate was decided even
before his rash attempt after Napoleon's return from Elba, and
the Sicilian Bourbons restored to Naples. Switzerland was given
a new constitution. Valuable articles were included on the free
navigation of international rivers and diplomatic precedence. (See
DIPLOMACY.) Castlercagh's great efforts on behalf of the abolition
of the slave trade were only rewarded by a pious declaration.
The final act, which included all these agreements in one great
instrument, signed on June 9, 1815, by the "eight" (except Spain,
who refused as a protest against the Italian settlement) was after-
wards acceded to by all the other Powers, and was the most com-
prehensive treaty which Europe had ever possessed.
As a result the lines laid down by the Congress of Vienna
lasted, except for one or two changes, for over 40 years. The
statesmen had successfully worked out their principle of a balance
of power. But the idea of nationality had been almost entirely
ignored — necessarily so because it was not yet ready for ex-
pression. Territories had been bartered about without much refer-
ence to the wishes of their inhabitants. Until an even greater
settlement took place it was customary for historians to condemn
the statesmen of Vienna. It is now realised how difficult their
task was, and the fact that they secured for Europe a period of
peace, which was its cardinal need, is fully recognized. But the
statesmen failed to give to international relations any organ by
which their work could be adapted to the new forces of the igth
century, and it was ultimately doomed to destruction.
BiBLiOGKAi'iiY. — -Treaties and acts of the congress may be consulted
in J. L. Kliiber, Aden des Winner Congresses, 9 vols. (1817-35) ;
Comte d'Anpeberg (J. L. Chodzko), Le Congres de Vienne (1863);
British and Foreign State Papers, vol. ii., gives some of the documents
in English, and the final act is found in many collections. For the
diplomacy, Duke of Wellington, Supplementary Despatches, vols. ix.
and x. (1858-72) ; Viscount Castlercagh, Memoirs and Correspondence
(ed. C. W. Vane; 12 vols. 1848-53); C. M. de Talleyrand-Perigord,
Memoirs, vols. ii. and iii. (1891) ; the works of F. von Gentz; A. de la
Garde-Chambonas, Souvenirs du Congres de Vienne, ed., with intro-
duction and note, Comte Fleury (1901), gives an interesting picture of
the congress from its personal and social side; A. Fournier, Die
Geheimpolizei auf dem Wiener Congress (1913) ; M. H. Weil, Les
dessotts du Congres de Vienne (1917) ; C. K. Webster, The Congress of
Vienna (1919), which was written for the information of the Paris
Conference, gives a bibliography. See also British Diplomacy (1813-
15), ed. C. K. Webster (1921) ;' Cambridge Modern History^vol. ix.,
ch. xix. and xxi., with bibliography (1902) ; Cambridge History of
British Foreign Policv (cd A. W. Ward and G. P. Gooch, vol. i., 1922).
(C. K. W.)
VIENNE, a department of west-central France, formed in
1790 out of Poitou (four-fifths of its present area), Touraine
(one-seventh) and Berry, and bounded by Deux-Sevres on the
west, Charente on the south, Haute-Viennc on the south-east,
Inclrc on the cast, Indre-et-Loire on the north-east and north and
Maine-et-Loire on the north-west. Pop. (1926), 310,474. Area,
2,711 sq.m. The department includes the basin of the Vienne
from the point at which it emerges from the Plateau Central
down to its junction with the Greusc, while its extreme south-
west corner includes a small part of the course of the Charente.
It thus contains the famous gate of Poitou (Seuil du Poitou) be-
tween the Plateau Central and the Gatinc, the historic south-west
entry into the Paris basin. The winter average temperature is
39° to 41° F, the summer average temperature being 66° to 68°.
The prevailing winds are from the south-west and west. The
annual rainfall is 24 in. in the north to 32 in. in the south.
Wheat, oats and barley are the principal cereals grown, other
important crops being lucerne, sainfoin, clover, mangcl-wurzels
and potatoes. Some colza and hemp are grown. The district of
Poitiers grows good red wine, and the white wine of Trois-
Moutiers near Loudun is well known. The breeding of live stock
is fairly active. Poitou is famous for its mules, and the geese
and turkeys of the department are highly esteemed. Among the
fruit trees are the chestnut, walnut and almond. In the forests
a small number of wild boars and other wild game survives.
Freestone is quarried. There are mineral springs at La Roche-
Posay. The most important industrial establishments are the
national arms manufactory at Chatellerault and the cutlery works
near that town. The. capital of Vienne is Poitiers, and the
department is divided into 3 arronclissements (Poitiers, Chatel-
lerault, Montmorillon), 31 cantons and 300 communes. The chief
towns are Poitiers, Chatellerault, Loudun, Montmorillon and
Chauvigny (qq.v.}. Sanxay has ruins of a theatre and other Gallo-
Roman remains near by. Vienne is rich in mcgalithic monuments.
VIENNE, the chief town of an arrondissement of the depart-
ment of the Isere, France. Pop. (1926) 21,861. Vienne stands
on the left bank of the Rhone just below the junction of the
Gere with the Rhone, between the river and low hills, and about
20 m. by rail S. of Lyons. Its site is an immense mass of ancient
ddbris, which is constantly yielding interesting antiquities. On
the bank of the Gere arc traces of the ramparts of the old Roman
city, and on the Mont Pipet (E. of the town) are the remains
of an amphitheatre, while the ruined castle there was built in the
1 3th century on Roman substructures. Several of the ancient
aqueducts (one only is now actually in use) are still to be seen.
Vicnfic, originally the capital of the Allobroges, became a
Roman colony about 47 B.C. under Caesar, who embellished and
fortified it. A little later these colonists were expelled by the Allo-
broges; the exiles then founded the colony of Lyons (Lugdunum).
It was not till the days of Augustus and Tiberius that Vienne
regained all its former privileges as a Roman colony. Later it
became the capital of the Provincia Viennensis. In 257 Postumus
was proclaimed emperor here, and for a few years Vienne was the
capital of a short-lived provincial empire. It is said to have been
converted to Christianity by Crescens, the disciple of St. Paul.
There were Christians here in 177, as in the Greek letter (pre-
served to us by Eusebius) addressed at that date by the churches
of Vienne and Lyons to those of Asia and Phrygia mention is
made of "the" deacon of Vienne. The first bishop certainly known
is Verus, who was present at the Council of Aries in 314.
About 450 Vienne became an archbishopric and continued one
till 1790, when the see was suppressed. The archbishops disputed
with those of Lyons the title of "Primate of All the Gauls."
Vienne was conquered by the Burgundians in 438, and in 534
was taken by the Franks. Sacked in 558 by the Lombards and in
VIENNE— VIGEE-LEBRUN
145
737 by the Saracens, the government of the district was given
by Charles the Bald in 869 to a Count Boso, who in 879 was pro-
claimed king of Provence, and was buried in 887 in the cathedral
church of St. Maurice. Vienne then continued to form part of the
kingdom of Provence or Aries till in 1032 it reverted to the Holy
Roman Empire. Vienne was sacked in 1562 by the Protes-
tants under the baron des Adrets, and was held for the Ligue
1590-95, when it was taken by Montmorency. The fortifications
were demolished between 1589 and 1636. Jn 1790 the archbish-
opric was abolished, the title "Primate of all the Gauls" being
attributed to the archbishops of Lyons.
Ancient Monuments. — The town possesses two fine Roman
monuments. One is the temple of Augusta and Livia, a building
of the Corinthian order, built by the emperor Claudius, and in-
ferior only to the Maison Carree at Nimes. From the 5th century
to 1793 it was a church (Notre^Pame dc Vie), and the. "festival
of reason" was celebrated in it at the time of the Revolution. The
other is the Plan de I' Aiguille, a truncated quadrangular pyramid,
about 52 ft. in height, resting on a portico with four arches; it is
now generally believed to have been part of the spina of a large
cirrus, the outlines of which have been traced. The church of
St. Peter belonged to an ancient Benedictine abbey and was
rebuilt in the 9th century, in the earliest Romanesque style. It
has of late years been completely restored, and shelters the mag-
nificent Musce Lapidaire. The former cathedral church of St.
Maurice (nth to i6th centuries), has three aisles, but no apse or
transepts. The most striking portion is the VV. front (1533),
which rises from a terrace overhanging the Rhone.
There arc very important cloth factories and also distilleries,
iron foundries, refining furnaces, etc. Vienne is the seat of a
sub-prefect, of a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of commerce
and a board of trade-arbitrators.
VIENNE, a river of central France, 219 m. long, a left-hand
tributary of the Loire. Rising on the plateau of Millevaches at a
height of 2,789 ft., the Vienne flows westward through the hilly
country of the crystalline rocks of the Central Plateau of France.
The first large town on its banks is Limoges, below its confluence
with the Taurion (right). The river next reaches St. J union, turns
abruptly northwards to Confolens and passes on to the Jurassic
rocks to flow through a picturesque and wider valley. Passing
Chauvigny, it proceeds to the confluence of the Clain (left), on
which stands Poitiers, just above Chatellerault. Below that town
it receives the Creuse (right), which rises on the Millevachcs
Plateau and is 159 m. long. From near Chatellerault, past Chinon,
to its junction with the Loire the Vienne flows across Cretaceous
strata. There is little river-traffic on the Vienne below its conflu-
ence with the Creuse (30 m.). (See LOIRE.)
VIENNE, COUNCIL OF, an ecclesiastical council, which
in the Roman Catholic Church ranks as the fifteenth ecumenical
synod. It met from October 16, 1311, to May 6, 1312, under the
presidency of Pope Clement V. The transference of the Curia
from Rome to Avignon (1309) had brought the papacy under the
influence of the French crown; and this position Philip the Fair
of France now endeavoured to utilize by demanding from the
pope the dissolution of the powerful and wealthy order of the
Temple, together with the introduction of a trial for heresy against
the late Pope Boniface VIII. To evade the second claim, Clement
gave way on the first (see TEMPLARS). On the 22nd of March
the order of the Temple was suppressed by the bull Vox clamantis,
while further decisions as to the treatment of the order and its
possessions followed later. Additional decisions were necessitated
by the violent disputes which raged within the Franciscan order
as to the observance of the rules of St. Francis of Assisi.
See Mansi, Collectio Conciliorum, vol. xxv.; Hefele, Concilienge-
schichte, vol. vi. pp. 532-534.
VIERSEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, n m. by
rail S.W. from Crefeld, and at the junction of lines to Miinchen-
Gladbach, Venlo, etc. Pop. (1925) 32,037. Viersen is one of the
chief seats in the lower Rhine country for the manufacture of
velvets, silks and plush, cotton, paper, boots and cement.
VIERZON, a town of central France, in the department of
Cher, 20 m. N.W. of Bourges by rail. The Cher and the Yevre
unite at the foot of the hill on which lie Vierzon-Ville (pop.
[1926] 11,313) and Vierzon-Villages (pop. [1926] 6,929), Vier-
zon-Bourgneuf (pop. [1926] 2,114) is on the left bank of the
Cher. The town has a port on the canal of Berry and is an im-
portant junction on the Orleans railway; there are several large
manufactories for the production of agricultural machines, also
foundries, porcelain, brick and tile works and glass works.
VIETA (or VifciE), FRANCOIS, SEIGNEUR DE LA BIGOTTERE
(1540-1603), more generally known as FRANCISCUS VIETA, French
mathematician, was born at Fontenay-le-Comte, in Poitou. Ac-
cording to F. Ritter, Bolletino Boncotnpagni (1868), Vieta was
brought up as a Catholic, and died in the same creed; but there
can be no doubt that he belonged to the Huguenots for several
years. On the completion of his studies in law at Poitiers Vieta
became an advocate in his native town, and later councillor of the
parlemcnt of Brittany. Rohan, the well-known chief of the
Huguenots, took Vieta under his special protection. After the
accession of Henry IV., Vieta became in 1589 councillor of the
parJement at Tours, and subsequently a royal privy councillor.
We know of one important service rendered by Vieta as a
royal officer. While at Tours he discovered the key to a Spanish
cipher, consisting of more than 500 characters, and thenceforward
all the despatches in that language which fell into the hands of
the French could be easily read. Philip II. was so convinced that
his cipher was a safe one that when he found the French were
aware of the contents of his letters he complained to the pope
that the French were using sorcery against him.
Vieta printed at his own expense the numerous papers which he
wrote on various branches of this science, and communicated
them to scholars in almost every country of Europe.
Vieta has been called the father of modern algebra. All that is
wanting in his writings, especially in his Isagoge in artcm analyti-
cam (1591), in order to make them look like a modern school
algebra, is merely the sign of equality. His Rccensio canonica
cffcctionum geometric arum is what we now call an algebraic
geometry.
He conceived methods for the general resolution of equations of
the second, third and fourth degrees different from those of Ferro
and Ferrari, with which, however, it is difficult to believe him to
have been unacquainted. He knew the connection existing between
the positive roots of an equation (which, in his clay, were alone
thought of as roots) and the coefficients of the different powers of
the unknown quantity. He found out the formula for deriving
the sine of a multiple angle, knowing that of the simple angle with
due regard to the periodicity of sines. This formula must have
been known to Vieta in 1593. In his Apollonius Callus (1600)
Vieta made use of the centre of similitude of two circles. Lastly
he gave an infinite product for the number TT. (See article on
CIRCLE.)
Victa's collected works were issued under the title of Opera Mathc-
matica by F. van SchooU-n at Lcyclen in 1646.
VIGAN, a municipality (with administration centre and 25
barrios or districts) and the capital of the province of Ilocos Sur.
Luzon, Philippine islands, near the mouth of the Abra river, about
200 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. (1918) 17,765. In 1918, Vigan
had 38 factories and 45 household industry establishments, with
outputs valued at 255,200 and 93,000 pesos respectively. The
language is Ilocano.
VIGEE-LEBRUN, MARIE-ANNE ELISABETH
(1755-1842), French painter, was born in Paris on Apr. 16, 1755,
the daughter of a painter, from whom she received her first in-
struction, though she benefited more by the advice of Doyen,
Greuze, Joseph Vernct and others. When only about 20 years of
age she had made her name by her portraits of Count Orloff and
the duchess of Orleans, and had become a general favourite in so-
ciety. In 1776 she married the painter and art-critic J. B. P. Le-
brun, and in 1783 her picture of "Peace bringing back Abun-
dance" (now at the Louvre) gained her the membership of the
Academy. When the Revolution broke out in 1789 she escaped
first to Italy, where she worked at Rome and Naples. At Rome
she painted the Princesses Adelaide and Victoria, and at Naples
the "Lady Hamilton as a Bacchante" now in the collection of
146
VIGELAND— VIGILANTIUS
Tankerville Chamberlayne. She then visited Vienna, Berlin and
St. Petersburg, returning to Paris in 1781. In 1782 she went to
London, where she painted Lord Byron and the prince of Wales.
She was a great traveller, and her portraits are to be found in the
collections of many countries. She died in Paris on Mar. 30,
1842 at the age of 87, having been widowed for 29 years.
Among her many sitters was Marie Antoinette, of whom she
painted over 20 portraits between 1779 and 1789. A portrait of
the artist is in the hall of the painters at the Uilizi, and another at
the National Gallery. The Louvre owns two portraits of Mme.
Lebrun and her daughter, besides live other portraits.
A full account of her eventful life is given in her Souvenirs (1835,
1837) and in C. Fillet's Mme. Yiger-Le Brim (i8go). The artist's
autobiography has been translated by Lionel Strachey, Memoirs of
Mme. Vigee-Lt'brun (New York, 1903), fully illustrated.
VIGELAND, ADOLF GUSTAV (1869- ), Norwegian
sculptor, was born at Mandel in South Norway on April n,
1869. In early youth he studied wood engraving and in 1889 at
Christiania (Oslo), produced his first work as a sculptor, a relief
depicting incidents from the Iliad. He afterwards travelled and
studied under Skeibrok in Christiania and Bissen in Copenhagen.
Vigeland's work deals with the primitive emotion of men. He
forsook his earlier semi-impressionistic form of art and adopted a
more classic style. His chief work "The Fountain," begun in
1915, is still unfinished (1926). It. was intended, when complete,
to consist of 26 large groups of stone and a multitude of minor
figures in bronze; the whole depicting the history of mankind,
from barbarism to civilisation. Vigeland also achieved a wide
reputation as a portrait sculptor.
See M. G. Vidalene, L'art norvegien contemporain (1921).
VIGEVANO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy,
in the province of Pavia, on the right bank of the Ticino, 24 m.
by rail S.W. from Milan on the line to Mortaca, 381 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1921) 20,920 (town); 30,583 (commune). It
is a mediaeval walled town, with an arcaded market-place and a
castle of the Sforza family, dating from the T4th century and
adorned with a loggia by Bramantc and a tower imitating that of
Filarete in the Castcllo Sforzesco at Milan. It is a place of some
importance in the silk trade.
VfGFUSSON, GUDBRANDR (1828-1889), the fore-
most Scandinavian scholar of the igth century, was born of a
good Icelandic family in Brciftafjord. In 1849 he came to Copen-
hagen university as a bursarlus in the Regense college. He was,
after his student course, appointed stipcndiarins by the Arna-
Magnaean trustees, and worked for 14 years in the Arna-Magnaean
library till, as he said, he knew every scrap of old vellum and of
Icelandic written paper in that whole collection. During his
Danish life he twice revisited Iceland (last in 1858), and made
short tours in Norway and south Germany with friends. In 1866,
after some months in London, he settled down in Oxford, which
he made his home for the rest of his life. He held the office of
reader in Scandinavian at the University of Oxford (a post created
for him) from 1884 till his death. He was a jubilee doctor of
Upsala, 1877, and received the Danish order of the Dannebrog in
1885. Vigfusson died of cancer and was buried in St. Sepulchre's
cemetery, Oxford. His memory was remarkable; if the whole of
the Eddie poems had been lost he could have written them down
from memory.
By his Tunatdl (written between Oct. 1854 and April 1855) he
laid the foundations for the chronology of Icelandic history, in a
series of conclusions that have not been displaced (save by his
own additions and corrections), and that justly earned the praise
of Jacob Grimm. His editions of Icelandic classics (1858-68),
Biskopa Sogur, Bardar Saga, Porn Sogur (with Mobius), Eyrbyg-
gia Saga and Flateyar-bok (with linger) opened a new era of
Icelandic scholarship, and can only fitly be compared to the Rolls
Series editions of chronicles by Dr. Stubbs for the interest and
value of their prefaces and texts. Seven years of constant and
severe toil (1866-73) were given to the Oxford Icelandic-English
dictionary, incomparably the best guide to classic Icelandic, and
a monumental example of single-handed work. His later series of
editions (1874-85) included Orkncyinga and Hdconar Saga, the
great and complex mass of Icelandic historical sagas, known as
Sturlunga and the Corpus Poeticum Bore ale, in which he edited
the whole body of classic Scandinavian poetry.
VIGIL, in the Christian Church, the eve of a festival. The
vigiliae (petnoctationes, Travpvx^s) were originally the services
celebrated during the night preceding the feast. The abuses con-
nected with nocturnal vigils led to their being attacked, especially
by Vigilantius of Barcelona (c. 400), against whom Jerome ful-
minated in this as in other matters. The custom, however, per-
sisted until the middle ages, when the nocturnal vigiliae were, ex-
cept in the monasteries, gradually discontinued, the vigil services,
with the term itself, being transferred to the day preceding the
feast. The only surviving relic of the older custom, in the Roman
Catholic Church, is the midnight mass at Christmas.
The Church of England has a special collect, gospel and epistle
for "Easter Even" only. For the other vigils recognized, the
rubric directs that the collect appointed for the feast "shall be
said at the Evening Service next before."
VIGILANCE COMMITTEE, in the United States, a self-
constituted judicial body, occasionally organized in the western
frontier districts for the protection of life and property. The
first committee of prominence bearing the name was organized
in San Francisco in June 1851, when the crimes of desperadoes
who had immigrated to the gold-fields were rapidly increasing
in number and it was said that there were venal judges, packed
juries and false witnesses. At first this committee was composed
of about 200 members; afterwards it was much larger. The gen-
eral committee was governed by an executive committee and the
city was policed by sub-committees. Within about 30 days four
desperadoes were arrested, tried by the executive committee and
hanged, and about 30 others were banished. Satisfied with the re-
sults, the committee then quietly adjourned, but it was revived five
years later. Similar committees were common in other parts of
California and in the mining districts of Idaho and Montana.
That in Montana exterminated in 1863-64 a band of outlaws
organized under Henry Plummer, the sheriff of Montana City; ^24
of the outlaws were hanged within a few months. Committees or
societies of somewhat the same nature were formed in the South-
ern States during the Reconstruction period (1865-72) to protect
white families from negroes and "carpet-baggers," and besides
these there were the Ku-Klux-Klan (q.v.) and its branches, the
Knights of the White Camelia, the Tale Faces and the Invisible
Empire of the South, the principal object of which was to control
the negroes by striking them with terror.
See T. J. Dimsdule, The Vigilantes of Montana (Virginia City,
i860) ; H. II. Bancroft, Popular Tribunals (Sun Francisco, 1887) J
P. Garnctt, ed., Papers of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance
of 1851 (Berkeley, Calif., 1910-19) ; Mary Floyd Williams, ed., Papers
of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance of itfji (Berkeley, 1919) ;
Mary Floyd Williams, History of the San Francisco Committee of
Vigilance of 1851 (Berkeley, 1921) ; and William John McConnell,
Frontier Law (Yonkcrs-on-IIudson, N.Y., 1924).
VIGILANTIUS (fl. c. 400), the presbyter, celebrated as the
author of a work, no longer extant, against superstitious practices,
which called forth one of the most violent and scurrilous of
Jerome's polemical treatises, was born about 370 at Calagurris
(Cazeres or perhaps Saint Bertram! de Comminges, Haute-
Garonne), where his father kept a "static" or inn on the great
Roman road from Aquitania to Spain. Sulpicius Severus sent
him in 395 with letters to Paulinus of Nola. On his return to
Severus in Gaul he was ordained, and set out for Palestine, where
he was received by Jerome at Bethlehem. Vigilantius was dragged
into the dispute then raging about Origen, in which he did not see
eye to eye with Jerome. About 403, some years after his return
from the East, Vigilantius wrote his work against superstitious
practices, in which he argued against relic worship, as also against
the vigils in the basilicas of the martyrs, the rejection of earthly
goods and the attribution of special virtue to the unmarried state,
especially in the case of the clergy. All that is known of the
work is through Jerome's treatise Contra Vigftantiumf or, as that
controversialist would seem to prefer saying, "Contra Dormitan-
tium." The influence of Vigilantius long remained potent both
in France and Spain, as is proved by the polemical tract of
VIGILIUS— VIGNY
'47
Faustus of Rhegium (d. c. 490).
VIGILIUS, pope from 537 to 555, succeeded Silverius and
was followed by Pelagius I. He was ordained by order of Beli-
sarius while Silverius was still alive; his elevation was due to
Theodora, who had induced him to promise to disallow the
council of Chalcedon, in connection with the "three chapters"
% controversy. But he failed to fulfil his promise, and was sum-
'moned to Constantinople, which he reached in 547. There he
issued a document known as his Jttdicatum (548), in which he
condemned indeed the three chapters, but expressly disavowed
any intentions thereby to disparage the council of Chalcedon.
After some trimming, he prepared another document, the Consti-
tutum ad Imperatorem, which was laid before the so-called fifth
"oecumenical" council in 553, and led to his condemnation by
the majority of that body, some say even to his banishment.
Ultimately, however, he was induced to confirm the decrees of
the council, and was allowed after an enforced absence of seven
years to set out for Rome. He died at Syracuse, before he
reached his destination, on June 7, 555.
VIGINTISEXVIRI. This was the collective name which
was given in Rome to "26" magistrates of inferior rank. They
were divided into six boards, two of which were abolished by
Augustus. Their number was thereby reduced to twenty and
their name altered to VIC.INTIVIKJ. ("the twenty1'). The six
boards were: (i) Tresviri capitales (see TRESVIRI) ; (2) Tres-
viri monetales; (3) Quatuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, who had
the care of the streets and roads inside the city; (4) Duowri viis
extra urbem jntrgandis (see DUUMVIRI), abolished by Augustus;
(5) Decemviri • stlitibns iudicandis (see DKCEMVIRI) ; (6) Qua-
tuor praejecti Capuam Cumas, abolished by Augustus.
See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. (1887), p. 592.
VIGLIUS, the name taken by WIC.LE VAN AYTTA VAN
ZUICHEM (1507-1577), Dutch statesman and jurist, a Frisian by
birth, who was bom on Oct. 19, 1507. He studied at various
universities — Louvain, Dole and Bourges among others — devot-
ing himself mainly to the study of jurisprudence, and afterwards
visited many of the principal seats of learning in Europe. His
great abilities attracted the notice of Erasmus and other celebrated
men, and his renown was soon wide and general. Having lectured
on law at the universities of Bourges and Padua, he accepted a
judicial position under the bishop of Mlinster which he resigned
in 1535 to become assessor of the imperial court of justice
(Reichskammergcricht). For five years he was professor nt
Ingolstadt. In 1542 the official connection of Viglius with the
Netherlands began. At. the emperor's invitation he became a
member of the council of Mechlin, and some years later presi-
dent, of that body. He was soon one of the most trusted of the
ministers of Charles V., whom he accompanied during the war
of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546. He was generally regarded
as the author of the edict against toleration issued in 1550; a
charge which he denied. When the emperor abdicated in 1555
Viglius was anxious to retire also, but at the instance of King
Philip II. he remained at his post and was rewarded by being
made coadjutor abbot of St. Bavon, and in other ways. In 1559,
when Margaret, duchess of Parma, became regent of the Nether-
lands, Viglius was an important member of the small circle who
assisted her in the work of government. He was president of the
privy council, member, and subsequently president, of the state
council, and a member of the committee of the state council
called the consulta. In 1565 he was allowed to give up the presi-
dency of the state council, but was persuaded to retain his other
posts. However, he had lost favour with Margaret, who accused
him to Philip of dishonesty and simony, while his orthodoxy was
suspected. When the duke of Alva arrived in the Netherlands
Viglius at first assisted him; but he subsequently opposed the
duke's scheme of extortion. He died at Brussels on May 5, 1577.
He wrote a Tagebuch des Schmalkaldischrn DonaitkncKs, edited
by A. von Druffel (Munich, 1877), and some of his lectures were
published under the title Commentaru in decem Institutionum titutos
(Lyons, 1564). His Vita et opera historica are given in the Analecta
Belgica of C. P. Hoynck van Papendrccht (the Hague, 1743). See
L. P. Gachard, Correspondence de Philippe If. sur les affaires des
Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1848-79) ; and Correspondance de Marguerite
d'Autriche, duchesse de Parme, avec Philippe II. (Brussels, 1867-81) ;
and £. Poullct, Correspondance de cardinal de Granvelle (Brussels,
1877-81).
VIGNE, PAUL DE (1843-1901), Belgian sculptor, was born
at Ghent. His first exhibit was the "Fra- Angelico da Fiesole" at
the Ghent Salon in 1868. In 1872 he exhibited at the Brussels
Salon. He was employed by the government to execute caryatides
for the Brussels conservatoire. In 1876 the Antwerp Salon ac-
cepted his busts of E. Hie! and \V. Wilson, which were afterwards
placed in the communal museum at Brussels. Until 1882 he lived
in Paris, where he produced the marble statue "Immortality"
(Brussels Gallery), and "The Crowning of Art," a bronze group
on the facade of the Palais des Beaux-Arts at Brussels. His monu-
ment to the popular heroes, Jean Breydel and Pierre de Coninck,
was unveiled at Bruges in 1887. At his death he left unfinished
his principal work, the Anspach monument, which was erected at
Brussels under the direction of the architect Janlet with the co-
operation of various sculptors.
Other works arc the bronze bust of "Psyche" (Brussels Gallery),
of which there is an ivory replica; the marble statue of Marnix
de Ste. Aldcgonde in the Square clu Sablon, Brussels; the Met-
dcpcnningcn monument in the cemetery at Ghent; and the monu-
ment to Canon de Haerne at Courtrai.
See E. L. dc Taeye, Les Artistes Beiges contnnporains (Brussels,
1896), and 0. G. Dcstrc'c, The Renaissance of Sculpture in Belgium
(London, 1895).
VIGNETTE, in architecture, a running ornament, represent-
ing a little vine, with branches, leaves and grapes, common in the
Tudor period. It is also called trayle. From the transference of
the term to book-illustration resulted the sense of a small picture,
vanishing gradually at the edge.
VIGNY, ALFRED DE (1797-1863), French poet, was born
at Loches (Indre-ct-Loire) on March 27, 1797. For generations
the ancestors of Alfred de Vigny had been soldiers, and he him-
self joined the army, with a commission in the Household Troops,
at the age of sixteen. But the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
wars were over, and after twelve years of life in barracks he re-
tired. While still serving he had made his mark, if as yet un-
recognized, by the publication in 1822 of a volume of poems,
and in 1826 by another, together with the famous prose romance
of Cinq-Mars, which derived some of its popularity from the
enormous vogue of the novels of Scott. Some of his most cele-
brated pieces — Eloa, Dolorida, Moise — appeared (1822-23)
before the work of younger members of the Romantic school
whose productions strongly resemble these poems. Nor is this
originality limited to the point, which he himself claimed in
the Preface to his collected Poems in 1837 — that they were
"the first of their kind in France, in which philosophic thought
is clothed in epic or dramatic form." Indeed this claim is dis-
putable in itself; it is in poetic, not philosophic quality, that his
idiosyncrasy and prccursorship are most remarkable. It is quite
certain that the other Alfred — Alfred de Musset — felt the influ-
ence of his elder namesake, and the verses of Hugo, and even
of Lamartine, considerably his elder, owe something to him. His
poetry, written for the most part in the earlier part of his life,
is small in volume, but it forms probably his chief title to fame.
Alfred de Vigny, though he belonged to no cenacle, but shut
himself up, as the saying went, in a tour d'ivoire, belonged to the
Romantic movement of the 'thirties, and was stimulated by it
to drama and to novel-writing. In the year before the revolution
of July he produced at the Theatre Francois a translation, or
rather paraphrase, of Othello, and an original piece, La Mare'chale
d'Ancrc. In 1832 he published the curious book Stello, contain-
ing studies of unlucky youthful poets — Gilbert, Chatterton, Ch6-
nier — and in 1^35 he brought out his drama of Chatterton, which,
by the hero's suicide, shocked French taste even after five years
of Romantic education, but had a considerable success. The
same year saw the publication of Servitude et grandeur militaires,
a collection of sketches rather than a connected work in which
Vigny's military experience, his idea of the soldier's duties, and
his rather poetical views of history were all worked in. The
subjects of Chatterton and Othello, were, of course drawn from
148
VIGO— VIKING
English sources, and in fact Alfred de Vigny knew English well,
lived in England for some time and married in 1828 an English-
woman, Lydia Bunbury.
In 1845 Alfred de Vigny was elected to the Academy, but
made no compromise in his "discourse of reception," which was
unflinchingly Romantic. Still, he produced nothing save a few
scraps; and, beyond the work already enumerated, little has to be
added except his Journal d'nn pobte and the poems called Les
Destinecs. Vigny died at Paris on Sept. 17, 1863.
See M. Palcoloftuc, "Alfred de Vigiiy" in the Grands ecrivains
fran^ais (1891) ; L. Dorison, Alfred de Vigny , poete-philosophe
(1892) and Un symbole social (1894) ; G. Assc's Alfred de Vigny et
les Editions originates de sa poesie (1895); E. Dupuy's La Jeunesse
des Romantiques (1905); E. Lauvriere's Alfred de Vigny (Paris,
IQIO) ; L. S^che, Alfred de Vigny (2 vols., 1016) ; Anatole France,
Alfred de Vigny (1923) ; M. Citoleux, A. de Vigny, Persistances
classiqiies et afjinites etrangtres (1924) ; A. V. de Vi^ny, Leltrcs in&dites
A Victor Hugo, 1820-1831 (1925). There are many editions of Vigny's
works; there is a critical edition (1914) of his poems, edited by E.
Est£ve for the Soc. des T.xtes frangais modernes.
VIGO, a seaport and naval station of north-western Spain, in
the province of Fontevedra; on Vigo bay (Ria de Vigo) and
on a branch of the railway from Tuy to Corunna. Pop. (1920)
53,100. Vigo was attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and
1589. In 1702 a combined British and Dutch fleet under Sir
George Rooke and the duke of Ormonde destroyed a Franco-
Spanish fleet in the bay, and captured treasure to the value of
about £1,000,000. In 1719 Vigo was captured by the British
under Viscount Cobham. Vigo bay, one of the finest of the
Galician fjords, extends inland for 19 m,, and is sheltered by
low mountains and by the islands (Tslas de Cies, ancient Insitlae
Siccae) at its mouth. The town is built on the south-eastern
shore, and occupies a hilly site dominated by two obsolete forts.
Vigo owes its importance to its deep and spacious harbour, and
to its fisheries. It has developed very rapidly in the 20th cen-
tury, and has more than doubled its population. It is a port of call
for many lines trading between Western Europe and South
America. The town contains flour, paper and sawmills, sugar
and petroleum refineries, tanneries, distilleries and soap works.
VIIPURI, formerly Viborg, a seaport and summer resort of
Finland in 60° 43' N., 28° 45' E., at the mouth of the Saima
canal on the Bay of Viipuri in the Gulf of Finland. Pop. (1925)
48,367. The canal links it with a series of lakes. Its exports arc
cement and farm produce, and its imports coal, fertilizers, food-
stuffs and manufactured goods. It is picturesquely situated on
glaciated, dome-shaped, granite hills surrounding the bay, which
is guarded by the naval station of Bjorko. Viipuri is a tourist
centre for the Finnish lakes. Its castle, built in 1293 by Marshal
Torkel Knutson, was the first centre for the spread of Christianity
in Karelia.
VIJAYANAGAR (ve-jah-yahn'a-gar) ("the city of vic-
tory"), an ancient Hindu kingdom and ruined city of southern
India. The kingdom lasted from about 1336 to 1565, forming
during all that period a bulwark against the Mohammedan inva-
sion from the north. The great part of its history is obscure; but
its power and wealth are attested by more than one European
traveller, and also by the character of the existing ruins. At
the beginning of the i4th century Mohammedan raiders had
effectually destroyed every Hindu principality throughout south-
ern India, but did not attempt to occupy the country perma-
nently. In this state of desolation Hindu nationality rose again
under two brothers, named Harihara and Bukka, of whom little
more can be said than that they were Kanarese by race. Hence
their kingdom was afterwards known as the Carnatic (q.v.). In
1565, on the downfall of the kingdom, the confederate sultans
of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda, overwhelmed the Vija-
yanagar army in the plain of Talikota, and sacked the defenceless
city. The city has ever since remained a wilderness of immense
ruins, which are now conserved by the British Government.
See R. Scwell, A Forgotten Empire (1900) ; and B. S. Row, History
of Vijayanagar (Madras, 1906).
VIKING. A word wiring, "warrior," corresponding to the
0. Norse vikingr and the modern viking, was current in England
at least a century before the earliest recorded Scandinavian
descents upon the West. Its Scandinavian equivalent early
acquired the more specialized sense of "sea-warrior," and the
modern term "Viking age" is a convenient designation of the
phase of Scandinavian history which produced the incessant
raiding expeditions characteristic of the Qth and early loth cen-
turies. Most of our evidence as to the Vikings of this period is
derived from the literature of the lands which they visited, and.
is therefore essentially hostile. To contemporary chroniclers
they were utterly hateful, faithless, cruel and enemies of civi-
lization and the arts of peaceful life. Their own side of the story
is untold, for the men who created the great literature of western
Scandinavia had no certain memory of events or personalities in
the true Viking age. Their character can only be inferred from
the. scale upon which their raids were planned, the forms of
society which arose in the different lands of their settlement, and
the archaeological evidence which reveals something of their cul-
ture. Judged in this way they cease to appear as a mere blind
force of destruction. It becomes clear that they possessed their
own culture, though it was not the culture of the Christian West.
Long before the end of the Qth century they had learned to pene-
trate all the greater water-ways of Europe. And the raids through
which they gained this knowledge were only preliminary to wider
voyages through which at last even the New World became known
for a moment to men of Scandinavian birth.
The Viking Raids. — The Vikings began by more or less des-
ultory raids, in the course of which they seized upon some
island, which they generally used as an arsenal for attacks on the
mainland. At first the raids were made in the summer, and the
first wintering in any new scene of plunder meant settlement in
the country, and some sort of division of territory. After that
the northerners assimilated themselves more or less to the natives
of the country. This course was followed in the history of the
Viking attacks on Ireland, the earliest of their continuous series
of attacks. Thus they began by seizing the island of Rechru
(now Lambay .) in Dublin bay (A.D. 795) and in 20 years were on
the northern, western and southern coasts; by A.D. 825 they ven-
tured raids to a considerable distance inland. In A.D. 832 came a
large fleet under Turgcsius (Thorgestr). The new invader ex-
tended his conquests till, in A.D. 842, one-half of Ireland (called
Lcthcuinn or Con's Half) had submitted; he established his wife,
Ota, as a sort of volva, or priestess, in what had been one of
Ireland's most famous literary monasteries, Clonmacnoise.
Turgcsius was killed soon after, in 845; and though in A.D. 853
Olaf the White was over-king of Ireland, the Vikings' power
diminished. In the end, territory was — if by no formal treaty —
ceded to their influence; and the (Irish) kingdoms of Dublin
and Waterford were established on the island.
This sketch may be taken as the prototype of Viking invasion
of any region of Western Christendom which was continuously
attacked. Almost simultaneously with the attacks on Ireland came
others, probably also from Norway, on the western coasts and
islands of Scotland. Plunderings of lona are mentioned in A.D.
802, 806, and in the course of a generation almost all the monastic
communities in western Scotland had been destroyed. On the
Continent there were three distinct regions of attack. The Danes
early settled on the island of W'alchcren, which had, in fact, been
given by the emperor Louis the Pious to a fugitive Danish king,
Harald by name, who sought the help of Louis and adopted
Christianity. From the island the raids extended on either side:
sometimes eastward as far as the Rhine, and so into Germany
proper; at other times westward to the Somme, and thus into
the territory of Charles the Bald, the future kingdom of France.
Toward the end of the Qth century all Frisia between Walcheren
and the German ocean seems to have been possessed by the in-
vaders. The serious attacks of the pirates in any part of the em-
pire distant from their own lands began about the middle of the
century, when they first wintered in the Seine territory. Their
first attack on Paris was in A.D. 845; in A.D. 885-887 a much more
important but unsuccessful one took place, the invaders receiving
an indemnity for raising the siege and leave to pass beyond Paris
into Burgundy. The settlement of Danes under Rollo on the
lower Seine, i.e., in Normandy, belongs to the next century.
VIKRAMADITYA
149
The third region is the mouth of the Loire, where the island
point d'appui was Noirmoutier. The Northmen wintered there
in A.D. 843. No region was more often ravaged than that of the
lower Loire, so rich in abbeys — St. Martin of Tours, Marmoutiers,
St. Benedict, etc. But the country ceded to the Vikings under
Hasting at the Loire mouth was insignificant and not in permanent
occupation.
Near the end of the Qth century, however, the plundering ex-
peditions which emanated from these three sources became so
incessant and so widespread that we can signalize no part of west
France as free from them, and at the same time much mischief
was wrought in the Rhine country and in Burgundy. Unfor-
tunately, at this point our best authority ceases; and we cannot
well explain the changes which brought about the Christianization
of the Normans and their settlement in Normandy as vassals of
the West Prankish kings.
For the Viking attacks in the British Isles, the course of events
is clearer. In its general features it follows the normal course.
The Vikings had begun to visit tHc English coast about the end
of the 8th century, but their serious attacks do not begin till 838.
Their first wintering was on the contiguous island of Thanet in
A.D. 851. In 865 England was visited by a "great army," which
overthrew the ancient kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and
East Anglia. Wcsscx was saved only by Alfred's victory at Eding-
ton, after which Guthrum, the Danish leader, accepted baptism
and settled with his men in East Anglia. But the forces defeated
at Edington represented but half of the Viking army in England
at the time. The other half had already settled in Northumbria,
and the region between Humber and Welland.
The six territories which we have signalized — Ireland, Western
Scotland, England, the three in West Francia which merge into
each other by the end of the Qth century — do not comprise the
whole field of Viking invasion. To the cast they twice sailed up
the Elbe (A.D. 851, 880) and burnt Hamburg. Southwards they
plundered far up the Garonne, and in the north of Spain; and one
fleet of them sailed round Spain, plundering, but attempting in
vain to establish themselves in this Arab caliphate. They plun-
dered on the opposite African coast, and at last got as far as the
mouth of the Rhone, and thence to Luna in Italy.
In the third quarter of the gth century two distinct tendencies
appeared among the Vikings in the West. One section was ready
to settle down and receive territory at the hands of the Christian
rulers; the other section adhered to a life of adventure and of
plunder. A large portion of the great army, unable to obtain
settlement in England, sailed to the Continent and spread dev-
astation far and wide. Under command of two Danish "kings,"
Godfrcd and Siegfried, they were first in the country of the Rhine-
mouth or the Lower Scheldt; afterwards dividing their forces,
some devastated far into Germany, others extended their ravages
on every side in northern France down to the Loire. The whole of
these vast countries, Northern Francia and part of Burgundy and
the Rhineland, were as much at their mercy as England before the
battle of Edington, or Ireland before the death of Turgesius.
But in every country alike the wave of Viking conquest now
began to recede. The settlement of Normandy was the only per-
manent outcome of the Viking age in France. In England, under
Edward the Elder and Aethelflaed, Mercia recovered a great
portion of what had been ceded to the Danes. In Ireland a great
expulsion of the invaders took place in the beginning of the loth
century. In the following generations the kingdoms of Denmark
and Sweden became consolidated, and the energy of the Nor-
wegian peoples found vent in the settlement of Iceland.
Severe as were the raids in Europe, and great as was the suffer-
ing— on account of which a special prayer, A furore Normannorum
libera nos was inserted in some of the litanies of the West — if the
Vikings had been nothing more than pirates their place in history
would be insignificant. But the Viking outbreak has to some
extent the character of a national movement. While some were
harrying in the West others were founding Garoariki (Russia) in
the East; others were pressing farther south till they reached the
eastern empire in Constantinople, so that when Hasting and Bjb'rn
had sailed to Luna in the Gulf of Genoa the northern folk had
almost put a girdle round the Christian world. There is every
evidence that they were not a mere lawless folk, but under suit-
able conditions, as in their loth century colony of J6mborg,
could develop an elaborate discipline and a strict code of honour.
They were not entirely unlettered, for the use of runes dates
back considerably earlier than the Viking age.
The Viking Ships. — In certain material possessions — those
belonging to war and naval adventure — the Vikings were ahead
of the Christian nations. There is certainly a historical connec-
tion between the ships which the tribes on the Baltic possessed
in the days of Tacitus and the Viking ships, a fact which would
lead us to believe that the art of shipbuilding had been better
preserved there than elsewhere in northern Europe. Merchant
vessels must, of course, have plied between England and France
or Frisia. But it is certain that even Charlemagne possessed no
adequate navy. Nor was any English king before Alfred stirred
up to undertake the same task. The Viking ships had a character
apart. They may have owed their origin to the Roman galleys;
they did without doubt owe their sails to them. Their structure
was adapted to short voyages in a sea not exposed to the most
violent, storms or dangerous tides. They were shallow, narrow in
the beam, pointed at both ends, and so eminently suitable for
manoeuvring (with oars) in creeks and bays. The Viking ship
had but one large and heavy square sail, and when a naval battle
was in progress it would depend for its manoeuvring on the
rowers. In saga literature we read of craft (of "long ships") with
20 to 30 benches of rowers, which would mean 40 to 60 oars. It
is not probable that the largest viking ships had more than ten
oars a side. As these ships must often, against a contrary wind,
have had to row both day and night, it seems reasonable to
imagine the crew divided into three shifts which would give twice
as many men available to fight on any occasion as to row. Thus
a 20 oared vessel would carry 60 men. But some 40 men per ship
seems, for this period, nearer the average. In 896, it is incidentally
mentioned in one place that five vessels carried 200 Vikings, an
average of 40 per ship. Elsewhere about the same time we read
of 12,000 men carried in 250 ships, an average of 48.
The round and painted shields of the warriors hung outside
along the bulwarks ; the vessel was steered by an oar at the right
side. Prow and stern rose high; and the former was carved most
often as a snake's or dragon's head. The warriors were well
armed. The byrnie, a mail-shirt, is often mentioned in Eddie
songs; so are the axe, spear, javelin, the bow and arrows and the
sword. An immense joy in battle breathes through the earliest
Norse literature, which has scarce its like in any other literature;
and we know that the language recognized a peculiar battle fury,
a madness by which men were seized and which went by the name
of "berserk's way" (bcrserksgangr). The courage of the Viking
was proof against anything, even as a rule against superstitious
terrors. He was unfortunately hardly less marked for cruelty and
faithlessness. It is also true, however, that they showed a capacity
for government, and in times of peace for peaceful organization.
Normandy was the best-governed part of France in the nth
century; and the Danes in East Anglia and the Five Boroughs
developed a form of society remarkable for its stability amid
changing political conditions. Nevertheless, the significance of
the Vikings in the history of western Europe lies less in the com-
munities which they founded than in the stimulus given by their
raids to the new military organization of society out of which
feudalism was presently to arise.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A good general bibliography is to be found in the
Cambridge Mediaeval History, vol. iii. (1922). See also Munch, Del
Norske Folks Historic (1852) ; J. C. H. Steenstrup, Normanntrne, 4
vols. (1876-82) ; C. F. Keary, The Vikings in Western Europe (1891) ;
A. Bugge, Vikingerne (1904-06) and A. Mawer, The Vikings (1913).
VIKRAMADITYA, a legendary Hindu king of Uzjain, who
is supposed to have given his name to the Vikram Samvat, the
era which is used all over northern India, except in Bengal, and
at whose court the "nine gems" of Sanskrit literature are also
supposed to have flourished. The Vikram era is reckoned from
the vernal equinox of the year 57 B.C., but there is no evidence
that that date -corresponds with any event in the life of an actual
king. As a matter of fact, all dates in this era down to the loth
VILL— VILLA DEL FILAR
Century never use the word Vikram, but that of Malava instead,
that being the tribe that gives its name to Malwa. The name
Vikramaditya simply means "sun of power," and was adopted
by several Hindu kings, of whom Chandragupta II. (Chandra-
gupta Vikramaditya), who ascended the throne of the Guptas
about A.D. 375, approaches most nearly to the legend.
See Alexander Cunningham, Book of Indian Eras (1883); and
Vincent Smith, Early History of India (1904).
VILL, the Anglicized form of the word villa, used in Latin
documents to translate the Anglo-Saxon tun, township. Ultimately
"vill" and "township" became regarded as equivalent terms, and
so remained in legal use until the ecclesiastical parish became
regarded as the normal unit of local administration. In classical
Latin villa had meant "country-house," "farm," "villa" (see
VILLA); but even by the 3rd century it had acquired the sense
of "village." Later it even displaced civitas, for city; thus
Rutilius Namatianus in his Itincrarium speaks of villac ingentes,
oppida parva; whence the French ville (see Du Cange, Glossarium
lat. s,v. Villa). In the Frankish empire villa was also used of the
royal and imperial palaces or seats with their appurtenances.
In the sense of a small collection of habitations the word came
into general use in England in the French form "village." From
villa, too, are derived villein and villeinage (q.v.).
VILLA, FRANCISCO ("Pancho") (1877-1923), Mexican
revolutionary general, born at Rio Grande, state of Durango,
Mexico, Oct. 4, 1877. As a youth without a home, roaming and
thieving, he gathered around him a band of rough followers and
changed his real name, Doroteo Arango, to that of a bandit once
notorious in his region. He headed a well-organized ring of cattle
rustlers operating in the northern states and this caused a price
to be placed on his head by the Diaz Government. He was, there-
fore, very willing in 1910 to join Madero in his revolt against
Diaz. Villa was captured by Gen. Victoriano Huerta during the
campaign but later escaped into Texas. In 1914 he reentered
Mexico to join forces with Gen. Venustiano Carranza (q.v.)
against Huerta who had in the meantime overthrown Francisco
Madero (q.v.) and seized the presidency. The two generals drove
Huerta from the country but in the moment of triumph could
not agree between themselves. Carranza refused to treat with
Villa, regarding him as a mere bandit and not trusting his inten-
tions. Villa marched into Mexico City and Carranza fled to Vera
Cruz. But Obregon (q.v.), Carranza's chief general, succeeded in
driving Villa out of Mexico City and pursued him relentlessly
until he took refuge in the mountains of the northern states. The
United States recognized Carranza's Government and Villa, feel-
ing he had been duped, developed a hatred for the "gringos" which
led to his later outrages. On Mar. 9, 1916, with some 400 men
he crossed the U.S. border and raided Columbus, N. Mex., killing
1 6 citizens and partly burning the town. The next day President
Wilson ordered a force into Mexico to capture Villa and his band.
It was expected that Carranza would co-operate in the pursuit of
his enemy but instead he voiced his objections to the entrance of
U.S. troops and on June i/th notified Gen. Pershing that further
invasion would be resisted by arms. The American troops with-
drew without effecting their object. Villa ceased to be an inter-
national menace but remained under arms until the Federals in
1920 bought his retirement with the gift of a large estate. On
July 20, 1923, his automobile was swept by a shower of bullets
and he and his three companions were killed.
VILLA, the Latin word (diminutive of vicits, a village) for a
country-house. The word is loosely and incorrectly used, especially
in England, for small detached or semi-detached suburban houses.
In its correct usage, however, it signifies a summer residence of
great extent, especially in Italy, or one in which Italian influence
is dominant. References to the villa are constantly made by
Roman writers. Cicero is said -to have possessed no less than
seven villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum; Pliny the
younger had three or four, two of which he described at length
in his letters; that at Tusculum and that near Laurentium. The
remains of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli, which covered an area
over 7 m. long and in which reproductions were made of all the
most celebrated buildings he had seen during his travels, and the
villas of the i6th century on similar sites, such as the Villa d'Este
near Tivoli, enable one to form some idea of the exceptional beauty
of the positions selected and of the splendour of the structures
which enriched them. Literary descriptions, as well as existing
remains, reveal the house proper of the Roman villa as a rather
rambling building designed to take advantage of breeze and view,
rather than to be symmetrical. Long colonnades were frequent,
there were occasional towers, and the building was often on more
than one level. R. Lanciani (Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent
Excavations, 279 ff.) states that the Casino del Ligorio (Villa Pia)
in the Vatican gardens (1558-62), by P. Ligorio, and the Barberini
villa at Castel Gandolfo of all existing Renaissance villas most
closely resemble their Roman prototypes. Such villas were not
limited to Italy but are found throughout the empire.
According to Pliny, there were two kinds of villas, the villa
nrbana, which was a country-seat and the villa rustica, the farm-
house. The Villa Boscoreale near Pompeii, which was excavated in
1893-94, is an example of the villa rustica, in which the princi-
pal room was the kitchen, with the bakery and stables beyond
and room for the wine presses, oil presses, hand mill, etc. The
villas near Rome were all built on hilly sites, so that the laying
out of the ground in terraces formed a very important element
in their design, and this forms the chief attraction of the Italian
villas of the i6th century, among which the following are the best
known: the Villa Madama, the design of which, attributed to
Raphael, was carried out by Giulio Romano in 1520; the Villa
Medici (1540); the Villa Albani, near the Porta Salaria; the
Borghese; the Doria Pamphili (1650); the Villa di Papa Giulio
(1550), designed by Vignola; the Aldobrandini (1598-1603) by
G. della Porta; the Falconieri (1546) and the Mondragone Villas
(1573-75) at Frascati, and the Villa d'Este near Tivoli (1549),
by P. Ligorio, in which the terraces and staircases are of great
ingenuity and beauty. In the proximity of other towns in Italy
there are numerous villas, of which the example best known is
that of the Villa Rotunda or Capra, by A. Palladio, near Vicenza,
which was copied by Lord Burlington in his house at Chiswick.
The Italian villas of the iGth and i7th centuries, like those of
Roman times, included not only the country residence, but all the
other buildings on the estate, such as bridges, casinos, pavilions
and small temples, which were utilized as summer-houses; and
these seem to have had a certain influence in England, which
may account for the numerous imitations in the large parks in Eng-
land, as also the laying out of terraces, grottos and formal gardens.
In France the same influence was felt, and at Fontainebleau, Ver-
sailles (1667-88), Meudon and other royal palaces, Le Notre
transformed the parks surrounding them and introduced many
Italian features.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites
grecques et romaines (1877-1919) ; W. R. Tuckerman, Die Garten-
kunst der italienischen Renaissance-Zfit (1884) ; R. Lanciani, Ancient
Rome in the Light of Recent Excavations (1889); P. Gasman, La
Villa Imptriale de Tibur (1904); J. Dunn, "Baukunst der Romer,"
in Handbuch der Architektur (1905) ; H. I. Triggs, The Art of Gar-
den Design in Italy (1905) ; R. Lanciani, Wanderings in the Roman
Campagna (1909) ; Edith Wharton, Italian Villas and their Gardens
(1910) ; G. Lowell, Smaller Italian Villas and Farmhouses (1916) ;
H. H. Tanzer, The Villas of Pliny the Younger (1924).
VILLACH, an old town in Carinthia, Austria, on the Drava
at the western end of the basin of Klagenfurt (q.v.). Since it
lies on one of the through routes from Vienna to Italy a great
deal of traffic still passes through the town. It is the timber trade
centre for Italy and manufactures lead wares based upon the
very rich lead-mines of Bleiberg, about 9 m. west of the town.
The town is a centre for tourist traffic to the surrounding
Alpine highlands. The i5th century church of St. Jacob in Gothic
style has a tower about 315 ft. high. Pop. (1923), 22,100. Warm-
bad Villacb, a watering-place with hot sulphur baths, and Mitte-
wald, a favourite summer resort, whence the ascent of the
Dobratsch can be made, are in the neighbourhood of Villach.
Some of the prettiest Carinthian lakes are to be found near Vil-
lach, among others the Ossiacher-see.
VILLA DEL PILAR, a city of Paraguay, 104 m. south of
Asuncion, on the left bank of the navigable river Paraguay. Pop.
VILLAFRANCA DI VERONA— VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 151
(1929) about 8,000. Villa del Pilar is a thriving city, containing
barracks, law courts, a national college, several schools and a
branch of the Agricultural Bank. It is in a district producing
tobacco, yerba mate, hides and oranges. It has a good harbour
and is served by steamer and by the Paraguay Central railway.
VILLAFRANCA DI VERONA, a town of Venetia, Italy,
in the province of Verona, n m. S.S.W. of Verona, on the railway
to Mantua, 174 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921), 9,968 (town);
12,174 (commune). It has considerable silk industries. Here
preliminaries of peace were signed between Napoleon III. and
the Austrians in 1859 after the battle of Solferino. Five miles
to the N. is Custozza, where the Italians were defeated by the
Austrians in 1848 and 1866.
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. The study of village com-
munities has become one of the fundamental methods of dis-
cussing the ancient history of .institutions. It will be sufficient
to confine the present inquiry to the varieties presented by nations
of Aryan race, not because greater importance is to be attached
to these nations than to other branches of humankind, although
this view might also be reasonably urged, but principally because
the Aryan race in its history has gone through all sorts of ex-
periences, and the data gathered from its historical life can be
tolerably well ascertained.
The best way seems to be to select some typical examples,
chiefly from the domain of Celtic, Slavonic and Germanic social
history, and to try to interpret them in regard to the general
conditions in which communal institutions originate, grow and
decay. As the principal problem will consist in ascertaining how
far land was held in common instead of by individuals, it is
advisable to look out for instances in which this element of
holding in common is very clearly expressed. We ought to get,
as it were, acclimatized to the mental atmosphere of such social
arrangements in order to counteract a very natural but most
pernicious bent prompting one to apply to the conditions of the
past the key of our modern views and habitual notions. A certain
acquaintance with the structure of Celtic society, more especially
the society of ancient Wales, is likely to make clear from the
outset to what extent the husbandry and law of an Aryan race
may depend on institutions in which the individual factor is greatly
reduced, while the union first of kinsmen and then of neighbours
plays a most decisive part.
Seebohm called our attention to the interesting surveys of
Welsh tracts of country made in the i4th century, soon after these
regions passed into the hands of English lords. The fragments
of these surveys published by him and his commentary on thorn
are very illuminating, but further study of the documents them-
selves discloses many important details and helps to correct some
theories propounded on the subject. Let us take up a concrete
and simple case, e.g., the description of Astret Canon, a trev or
township (villata) of the honour of Denbigh, surveyed in 1334.
In the time of the native Welsh princes it was occupied entirely
by a kindred (progenies) of free tribesmen descended from a
certain Canon, the son of Lawaurgh. The kindred was subdivided
into four gavells or bodies of joint-tenants. On the half-gavcll
of Monryk ap Canon, e.g., there are no less than 16 coparceners,
of whom eight possess houses. The peculiarity of this system
of land tenure consists in the fact that all the tenants of these
gavells derive their position on the land from the occupation of
the township by their kindred, and have to trace their rights
to shares in the original unit. Although the village of Astret
Canon was occupied by something like 54 male tenants, the
majority of whom were settled in houses of their own, it continued
to form a unit both in regard to the payment of land tax and other
services and payments, and also in respect of the possession and
usage of the soil. On the other hand, movable property is owned
in severally. Services have to be apportioned among the members
of the kindreds according to the number of heads of cattle owned
by them. From the description of another township— Pireyon —
we hear that gavells ought to be considered as equal shares in
respect of the arable, the wood and the waste of the township.
If the shares were reduced into acres there would have fallen to
each of the eight gavells of Pireyon giac., one rood and a half
and six perches of arable and woodland, and 53iac. and half a
rood of waste land. But as a matter of fact the rights of the
tenants of the gavell were realized not through the appropriation
of definite acres, but as proportionate opportunities in regard to
tillage and as to usages in pasture, wood and waste. Pastoral
habits must have greatly contributed to give the system of land-
holding its peculiar character. It was not necessary, it would have
been even harmful, to subdivide sharply the area on which the
herds of cows and the flocks of sheep and goats were grazing.
We do not notice any systematic equalization between members
of the tribal communities of the trevs. In fact, both differences
in the ownership of cattle and differences of tribal standing,
established by complex reckonings of pedigree and of social rank,
led to marked inequalities. But there was also the notion of
birthright, and we find in the laws that every free tribesman con-
sidered himself entitled to claim from his kindred grazing facilities
and five erws for tillage. Such a claim could be made uncondition-
ally only at a time when there was a superabundance of land to
dispose of. In the 141 h century, to which our typical descriptions
refer, this state of things had ceased to be universal. Although
great tracts of Welsh land were undoubtedly still in a state of
wilderness, the soil in more conveniently situated regions was
beginning to be scarce, and considerable pressure of population
was already felt, with a consequent transition from pastoral pur-
suits to agriculture.
Although there are no rearrangements or redivision within the
tribe as a whole, inside every gavell, representing more narrow
circles of kinsmen, usually the descendants of one great-grand-
father, i.e., second cousins, the shares are shifted and readjusted
according to one of two systems. In one case, that of the trev-
cyvriv or joint-account village, every man receives "as much as
another yet not of equal value" — which means, of course, that
the members of such communities were provided with equal allot-
ments, but left to make the best of them, each according to chance
and ability. This practice of reallotment was, however, restricted
in the i4th century to taeog trevs, to villages occupied by half-
free settlers. The free tribesmen, the priodarii of Wales, held by
daddcnhud, were rcallotted shares within the trev on the coming
of each new generation or, conversely, on the going out , the dying
out, of each older generation. In other words: at. the demise of
the last of the grandfathers in a gavell, all the fathers took equal
rank arid claimed equal shares, although formerly some of the
portions had been distributed equally only between the grand-
fathers or their offspring (stirps). The right to claim redivision
held good only within the circle of second cousins.
Another fact which is brought out with complete evidence
by the Welsh Surveys is that the tenure is ascribed to communi-
ties of kinsmen and not to chiefs or headmen. The latter certainly
existed and had exerted a powerful influence on the disposal of
common land as well as on government and justice. But in the
view of the 14th-century surveys each township is owned not by
this or the other elder, but by numerous bodies of coparceners. In
this way there is a clear attribution of rights of communal owner-
ship, and not merely of rights of maintenance.
Let us now compare this description of Celtic tribal tenure
with Slavonic institutions. The most striking modern examples
of tribal communities settled on a territorial basis are presented
by the history of the Southern Slavs in the Balkan Peninsula and
in Austria, of Slovenes, Croats, Serbs and Bulgarians, but it is
easy to trace customs of the same kind in the memories of
Western Slavs conquered by Germans, of the Poles and of the
different subdivisions of the Russians. A good clue to the subject
is provided by a Serb proverb which says that a man by himself
is bound to be a martyr. The Slavs of the mountainous regions
of the Balkans and of the Alps in their stubborn struggle with
nature and with human enemies have clustered and still cluster
to some extent in closely united and widely spreading brother-
hoods (brats tva) and tribes (plemena). Some of these brother-
hoods derive their names from a real or supposed common
ancestor, and are composed of relatives as well as of affiliated
strangers. They number sometimes hundreds of members, of guns,
as the fighting males are characteristically called. Such are the
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
Vuktici, Kovacevici, — as one might say in Old English the Vuko-
tings or Kovachevings, — of Montenegro. The dwellings, fields,
and pasturages of these brotherhoods or kindreds are scattered
over the country. But there was the closest union in war, revenge,
funeral rites, marriage arrangements, provision for the poor and
for those who stood in need of special help, as in case of fires,
inundations and the like. And corresponding to this union there
existed a strong feeling of unity in regard to property, especially
property in land. Although ownership was divided among the
different families, a kind of superior or eminent domain stretched
over the whole of the bratstvo, and was expressed in the partici-
pation in common in pasture and wood, in the right to control
alienations of land and to exercise pre-emption.
As the Welsh kindreds were subdivided into gavells formed of
extended family communities, even so the Bosnian, Montenegrin,
Serbian and Slovene tribes fell into house communities, Kncas,
Zadntgas, which were built up on the principle of keeping blood-
relatives and their property together as long as possible. They
consisted generally of some 1 5 to 20 grown-up persons, some six
or seven first and second cousins with their wives and children,
living in a hamlet around the central house of the domacin, the
house leader. In some instances the number of coparceners in-
creased to 50 or even to 70. The members of the united house
community, which in fact is a small village or hamlet, joined in
meals and work. Their rights in the undivided household of the
hamlet were apportioned according to the pedigree, i.e., this
apportionment took account first of the stirpes or extant de-
scendants of former scions of the family, so that, say, the offspring
of each of two grandfathers who had been brothers were con-
sidered as equal sharers although the stirps, the stock, of one
was represented only by one person, while the stirps of the other
had grown to consist of two uncles and of three nephews all alive.
There was no resettlement of shares, as in the case of Wales,
but the life of the house community while it existed unbroken
led to work in common, the contributions to which were regulated
by common consent and supervised by the leader. Grounds,
houses, implements of agriculture (ploughs, oxen, carts) and of
viniculture — casks, cauldrons for the making of brandy, etc. —
were considered to be common capital and ought not to be sold un-
less by common consent. Divisions were not prohibited. Naturally
a family had to divide sooner or later, and the shares had to be
made real, to be converted into fields and vineyards. But this
was an event which marked, as it were, the close of the regular
existence of one union and the birth of similar unions derived
from it. As a rule, the kuda kept together as long as it could, be-
cause co-operation was needed and isolation dangerous — for eco-
nomic considerations as well as for the sake of defence.
Attention, however, should be called more particularly to the
parallel phenomena in the social history of the Russians, where
the conditions seem to stand out in specially strong contrast with
those prevailing among the mountain Slavs of the Balkans and of
the Alps. In the enormous extent of Russia we have to reckon
with widely different geographical and racial areas, among others,
with the Steppe settlements of the so-called Little Russians in
the Ukraine, and the forest settlements of the Great Russians
in the north. In spite of great divergencies the economic history
of all these branches of Slavonic stock gravitates towards one
main type, viz., towards rural unions of kinsmen, on the basis
of enlarged households. In the south the typical village settle-
ment is the dvoristc, the big court or hamlet consisting of some
four to eight related families holding together; in the north it is
the peciste, the big oven, a hamlet of somewhat smaller size
in which three to five families are closely united for purposes of
common husbandry.
Another fact to be noticed is the tendency to form artificial
associations on the pattern of the prevailing unions of kinsmen.
People who have no blood-relations to appeal to for clearing the
waste, for providing the necessary capital in the way of cattle
and plough implements, for raising and fitting out buildings, join
in order to carry on these economic undertakings, and also to
help each other against aggressors. The members of these volun-
tary associations, which at once call to mind German, Norse and
English gilds, are called "siabri," "skladniki," and the gilds them-
selves "spolkie," in south Russia. In a district of the Ukraine
called the "Ratensky Sharostvo" there were no fewer than 278
such gilds interchanging with natural kindreds. The organization
of all these unions could in no way be called patriarchal. Even
in cases when there is a definite elder or headman (bolshoy), he
was only the first among equals and exercised only a limited
authority over his fellows: all the important decisions had to
be taken by the council of the community.
In Great Russia, in the districts gathered under the sway of
the Moscow tsars, the basis of the household community and of
the rural settlements which sprang from it was modified in an-
other direction. The entire agricultural population was subjected
to strict supervision and coercive measures for purposes of mili-
tary organization and taxation. Society was drilled into uniformity
and service on the principle that every man has to serve the tsar,
the upper class in war and civil administration, the lower class
by agricultural labour. A consequence of the heavy burden laid
on the land and of the growth of a landed aristocracy was a change
in the management of land allotments. They became as much
a badge of service and a basis for fiscal requirements as a means
of livelihood. The result was the practice of reallotments accord-
ing to the strength and the needs of different families. The shift-
ing of arable (pcredcl) was not in this case a reapportionment of
rights, but a consequence of the correspondence between rights
and obligations.
Let us now pass to village communities in Teutonic countries,
including England. A convenient starting-point is afforded by the
social and economic conditions of the southern part of Jutland.
The Saxon or Ditmarschen portion of this region gives us an
opportunity of observing the effects of an extended and highly
systematized tribal organization on Germanic soil. The inde-
pendence of this northern peasant republic, which reminds one
of the Swiss cantons, lasted until the time of the Reformation.
We find the Ditmarschen organized in the i5th, as they had been
in the loth century, in a number of large kindreds, partly com-
posed of relatives by blood and partly of "cousins" who had
joined them. The membership of these kindreds is based on
agnatic ties — that is, on relationship through males — or on affilia-
tion as a substitute for such agnatic kinship. The families or
households are grouped into brotherhoods, and these again to
clans or uSchlachten" (Gcschlechter), corresponding to Roman
gcntes. Some of them could put as many as 500 warriors in the
field. They took their names from ancestors and chieftains: the
Wollersmanncn, Hennemannen, Jcrremanncn, etc. — i.e., the men
of Woll, the men of Hcnne, the men of Jerre. In spite of these
personal names the organization of the clans was by no means a
monarchical one: it was based on the participation of the full-
grown fighting men in the government of each clan and on a
council of co-opted ciders at the head of the entire federation.
Let us notice the influence of this tribal organization on hus-
bandry and property. The regular economic arrangement was an
open-field one based on a three-field and similar systems. The
furlongs were divided into intermixed strips with compulsory ro-
tation on the usual pattern. And it is interesting to notice that in
these economic surroundings indivisible holdings corresponding
to the organic unities required for efficient agriculture arose of
themselves. In spite of the equal right of all coheirs to an estate,
this estate does not get divided according to their numbers, but
cither remains undivided or else falls into such fractions, halves
or fourths, as will enable the farming to be carried on successfully.
The Hufe or Hof goes mostly to the eldest son, but also sometimes
to the youngest, while the brothers of the heir cither remain in
the same household with him, generally unmarried, or leave the
house after having settled with their heir, who takes charge of
the holding, as to an indemnity for their relinquished claims.
This evidence is of decisive importance in regard to the forma-
tion of unified holdings; we are on entirely free soil, with no
vestige whatever of manorial organizat ion or of coercion of tenants
by the lord. The Hufe, the normal holding, is preserved intact
in order to secure agricultural efficiency. This "Anerben" system
is widely spread all through Germany. The question whether the
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
153
eldest or the youngest succeeds is a subordinate one. Anyhow,
manorial authority is not necessary to produce the limitation of
the rights of succession to land and the creation of the system
of holdings, although this has been often asserted, and one of
the arguments for a servile origin of village communities turns
on a supposed incompatibility between the unified succession
and the equal rights of free coheirs.
We need not speak at any length about other parts of Germany,
as space docs not permit of a description of the innumerable
combinations of communal and individual elements in German
law, but we must point out some facts from the range of Scandi-
navian customs. In the mountainous districts of Norway we
notice the same tendency towards the unification of holdings as
in the plains and hills of Schleswig and Holstein. The bunder of
Gudbrandsdalen and Telemarken, the free peasantry tilling the
soil and pasturing herds on the, slopes of the hills from the days
of Harold Harfagr to our own times, sit in Odal%aards, or free-
hold estates, from which supernumerary heirs are removed on
receiving some indemnity, and which are protected from aliena-
tion into strange hands by the privilege of pre-emption exercised
by relatives of the seller. Equally suggestive are some facts on the
Danish side of the straits, viz., the arrangements of the bols which
correspond to the hides and virgates of England and to the Hufen
of Germany. Here again we have to do with normal holdings
independent of the number of coheirs, but dependent on the
requirements of agriculture — on the plough and oxen, on certain
constant relations between the arable of an estate and its out-
lying commons, meadows and woods. The bol does not stand
by itself like the Norwegian guard, but is fitted into a very close
union with neighbouring bols of the same kind. Practices of
coaration, of open-field intermixture, of compulsory rotation of
lot-meadows, of stinting the commons, arise of themselves in
the villages of Denmark and Sweden.
We catch a glimpse, to begin with, of a method of dividing
fields which was considered archaic even in those early times,
the so-called "forniskift" and "ham a r ski ft/' The two principal
features of this method are the irregularity of the resulting shapes
of plots and the temporary character of their occupation. The
first observation may be substantiated by a description like that
of Laasby in Jutland: "These lands are to that extent scattered
and intermixed by the joint owners that it cannot be said for
certain what (or how much) they are." Swedish documents, on
the other hand, speak expressly of practices of shifting arable
and meadows periodically, sometimes year by year.
Now the uncertainty of these practices based on occupation be-
came in process of time a most, inconvenient feature of the situa-
tion and evidently led to constant wrangling as to rights and
boundaries. The description of Laasby which I have just quoted
ends with the significant remark: "They should be compelled to
make allotment by the cord." This making of allotments by the
cord is the process of rcbning, from reb, the surveyor's cord, and
the juridical procedure necessary for it was called "solskift" —
because it was a division following the course of the sun.
The two fundamental positions from which this form of allot-
ment proceeds are: (i) that the whole area of the village is com-
mon land (faellesjord), which has to be lotted out to the single
householders; (2) that the partition should result in the creation
of equal holdings of normal size (bols). In some cases we can
actually recognize the effect of these allotments by ancient solskift
in the i8th century, at a time when the Danish enclosure acts
produced a second general revolution in land tenure.
The 12 oldest inhabitants, elected as sworn arbitrators for ef-
fecting the allotment, begin their work by throwing together into
one mass all the grounds owned by the members of the commu-
nity, including dwellings and farm-buildings, with the exception of
some privileged plots. There is a close correspondence between
the sites of houses and the shares in the field. The first oper-
ation of the surveyors consists in marking out a village green for
the night-rest and pasture of the cattle employed in the tillage
(fortd), and assigning sites to the houses of the coparceners with
orchards appendant to them (tofts); every householder getting
exactly as much as his neighbour. From the tofts they proceed
to the fields on the customary notion that the toft is the mother
of the field. The fields are disposed into furlongs and shots, as
they were called in England, and divided among the members of
the village with the strictest possible equality. This is effected
by assigning to every householder a strip in every one of the
furlongs constituting the arable of the village. Meadows were
often treated as lot-meadows in the same way as in England.
After such a "solskift" the peasants held their tenements in undis-
turbed ownership, but the eminent, demesne of the village was
recognized and a revision of the allotment was possible.
After having said so much about different types of village com-
munities which occur in Europe it will be easier to analyse the
incidents of English land tenure which disclose the working of
similar conceptions and arrangements. Features which have been
very prominent in the case of the Welsh, Slavs, Germans or Scan-
dinavians recur in the English instances sometimes with equal
force and at other times in a mitigated shape.
There are some vestiges of the purely tribal form of community
on English soil. Many Saxon and Anglian place-names are derived
from personal names, followed by the suffix ing, and closely re-
semble the common patronymics of Saxon and German families
and kindreds. It is most probable, as Kemblc supposed, that
we have to do in most of these instances with tribal and family
settlements, although the mere fact of belonging to a great land-
owner may have been at the root of some cases.
A very noticeable consequence of tribal habits in regard to land-
ownership is presented by the difficulties which stood in the way
of alienation of land by the occupiers of it. The Old English
legal system did not originally admit of any alienation of folk-
land, land held by folkright, or, in other words, of the estates
owned under the ordinary customary law of the people. Such land
could not be bequeathed out of the kindred and could not be sold
without the consent of the kinsmen. Such complete disabilities
could not be upheld indefinitely, however, in a growing and pro-
gressive community, and we find the ancient folkright assailed
from different points of view. The Church insists on the right
of individual possessors to give away land for the sake of their
souls; the kings grant exemption from folkright and constitute
privileged estates held by charter and following in the main the
rules of individualized Roman law; the wish of private persons
to make provision for daughters and to deal with land as with
other commodities produces constant collisions with the custom-
ary tribal views. Already, by the end of the Saxon period, trans-
fer and alienation of land make their way everywhere, and the
Norman conquest brings these features to a head by substituting
the notion of tenure — i.e., of an estate burdened with service to
a superior — for the ancient notion of tribal folkland.
But although the tribal basis of communal arrangements was
shaken and removed in England in comparatively early times, it
had influenced the practices of rural husbandry and landhokling,
and in the modified form of the village community it survived
right through the feudal period, leaving characteristic and material
traces of its existence down to the present day.
To begin with, the open-field system with intermixture of strips
and common rights in pasture and wood was the prevailing sys-
tem in England for more than a thousand years. Under the name
of champion farming it existed everywhere in the country until
the Enclosure Acts of the i8th and iQth centuries put an end to
it; it may be found in operation even now in some of its features
in backward districts. It would have been absurd to build up
these practices of compulsory rotation of crops, of a temporary
relapse of plots into common pasture between harvest and plough-
ing time, of the interdependence of thrifty and negligent husband-
men, from the point of view of individual appropriation. On the
other hand, it was the natural system for the apportionment of
claims to the shareholders of an organic and perpetual joint-
stock company.
Practices of shifting arable are seldom reported in English evi-
dence. There are some traces of periodical redivisions of arable
land in Northumberland: under the name of runrig such prac-
tices seem to have been not uncommon in the outer fields, the
non-manured portions, of townships in Scotland, both among the
VILLALBA— VILLAMEDIANA
Saxon inhabitants of the lowlands and the Celtic population of
the highlands. The joining of small tenants for the purpose of
coaration, for the formation of the big, heavy ploughs, drawn by
eight oxen, sometimes caused a shifting in the possession of strips
between the coparceners of the undertaking. But, as a rule, the
arable was held in severalty by the different members of the
township.
On the other hand, meadows were constantly owned by entire
townships and distributed between the tenements entitled to
shares from year to year either by lot or according to a definite
order. These practices are in full vigour in some places even at
the present day. Any person living in Oxford may witness the
distribution by lot on Lammas day (Aug. i) of the Lammas
meadows, that is, the meadows inclosed for the sake of raising
hay-grass in the village of Yarnton. some three miles to the north
of Oxford.
Let us, however, return for a moment to the arable. Although
held in severalty by different owners it was subjected to all sorts
of interference on the part of the village union as represented
in later ages by the manorial court framing by-laws and settling
the course of cultivation. It might also happen that in conse-
quence of encroachments, disputes, and general uncertainty as to
possession and boundaries, the whole distribution of the strips of
arable in the various fields had to be gone over and regulated
anew. In such cases, as in the Danish examples quoted before,
the strips were apportioned, not to single owners, but to the nor-
mal holdings, the hides, and the actual owners had to take them
in proportion to their several rights in the hides. This point is
very important. It gives the English village community its pe-
culiar stamp. It is a community not between single members or
casual households, but between definite holdings constructed on
a proportional scale. Although there was no provision for the ad-
measurement or equalization of the claims of Smith and of Brown,
each hide or ploughland of a township took as much as every
other hide, each virgate or yardland as every other yardland, each
bovate or oxgang as every other oxgang. Now the proportions
themselves, although varying in respect of the number of acres
included in each of these units in different places, were constant
in their relation to each other. The yardland was almost every-
where one-fourth of the hide or ploughland, and corresponded to
the share of two oxen in an eight-oxen plough; the oxgang was
reckoned at one-half of the yardland. and corresponded to the
share of one ox in the same unit of work.
The natural composition of the holdings has its counterpart,
as in Schleswig-Holstcin and as in the rest of Germany, in the
custom of unified succession. The English peasantry worked out
customary rules of primogeniture or of so-called Borough English
or claim of the youngest to the land held by his father. The
German examples already adduced teach us that the device is not
suggested primarily by the interest of the landlord. Unified suc-
cession takes the place of the equal rights of sons, because it is
the better method for preserving the economic efficiency of the
household and of the tenement corresponding to it. There are
exceptions, the most notorious being that of Kentish gavelkind,
but in agricultural districts the holding remains undivided as long
as possible, and if it gets divided, the division follows the lines
not of the casual number of coheirs, but of the organic elements
of the ploughlands. Fourths and eighths arise in connection with
natural fractions of the ploughteam of eight oxen.
One more feature of the situation remains to be noticed, and
it is the one which is still before our eyes in all parts of the
country, that is, the commons which have survived the wholesale
process of enclosure. They were an integral part of the ancient
village community from the first, because there existed the most
intimate connection between the agricultural and pastoral part of
husbandry in the time of the open-field system. Pasture was not
treated as a commodity by itself but was mostly considered as
an adjunct, as appendant to the arable, and so was the use of
woods and of turf. The problem of admeasurement of pasture
was regulated in the same way as that of the apportionment of
arable strips, by a reference to the proportional holdings, the
hides, yardlands and oxgangs of the township, and the only ques-
tion to be decided was how many heads of cattle and how many
sheep each hide and yardland had the right to send to the com-
mon pasturage grounds.
When in course of time the open-field system and the tenure of
arable according to holdings were given up, the right of free-
holders and copyholders of the old manors in which the ancient
townships were, as it were, encased, still held good, but it became
much more difficult to estimate and to apportion such rights.
In connection with the individualistic policy of enclosure the
old writ of admeasurement of commons was abolished in 1837
(3 & 4 Will. IV.). The ordinary expedient is to make out how
much commonable cattle could be kept by the tenements claim-
ing commons through the winter. It is very characteristic and
important that in the leading modern case on sufficiency of com-
mons— in Robertson v. Hartopp — it was admitted by the Court
of Appeal that the sufficiency has to be construed as a right of
turning out a certain number of beasts on the common, quite
apart from the number which had been actually turned out at
any given time. Now a vested right has to be construed from the
point of view of the time when it came into existence. The stand-
ards used to estimate such rights ought not to be drawn from
modern practice, which is generally independent of common of
pasture, but ought to correspond to the ordinary usages estab-
lished at a time when the open-field system was in full vigour.
The legal view stands thus at present, but we cannot conceal from
ourselves that after all the inroads achieved by individual appro-
priation it is by no means certain that, the reference to the rights
and rules of a previous period will continue to be recognized.
However this may be, in the present, commons we have certainly
a system which draws its roots from customs as to the origin
of which legal memory docs not run.
We may, in conclusion, summarize very briefly the principal
results of our inquiry as to the history of European village com-
munities. It. seems that they may be stated under the following
heads: (i) Primitive stages of civilization disclose in human so-
ciety a strong tendency towards mutual support in economic mat-
ters as well as for the sake of defence. (2) The most natural
form assumed by such unions for defence and co-operation is
that of kinship. (3) In epochs of pastoral husbandry and of the
beginnings of agriculture land is mainly owned by tribes, kindreds
and enlarged households, while individuals enjoy only rights of
usage and possession. (4) In course of time unions of neighbours
are substituted for unions of kinsmen. (5) In Germanic societies
the community of the township rests on the foundation of effi-
cient holdings — bols, hides, hufen — kept together as far as pos-
sible by rules of united or single succession. (6) The open-field
system, which prevailed in the whole of Northern Europe for
nearly a thousand years, was closely dependent on the customs of
tribal and neighbourly unions. (7) Even now the treatment of
commons represents the last manifestations of ancient communal
arrangements, and it can only be reasonably and justly interpreted
by reference to the law and practice of former times.
An indication of the nature of modern work on this subject
will be found in Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (1802), The
Growth of the Manor (1905) and English Society in the nth
Century (1907). (P. Vi.)
VILLALBA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province
of Lugo; on the left bank of the river Ladra, one of the head-
streams of the Mino, and at the junction of the main roads
from Ferrol and Mondonedo to the city of Lugo. Pop. (1920)
15,194. Villalba stands on a fertile plateau 1,500 ft. above sea-
level. Cloth and pottery are manufactured, and there is some
trade in grain and live stock. The nearest railway station is Otero,
1 5 m. S. by E. on the Lugo-Corunna line.
VILLAMEDIANA, COUNT DE (1580-1622), Spanish
poet, was born at Lisbon, the son of a diplomatist. He acquired
a bad reputation as a gambler and was banished from court in
1608. On his return to Spain (1617) he proved himself a fearless,
pungent satirist. So great was the resentment caused by his en-
venomed attacks that he was once more ordered to withdraw from
court in 1618. Appointed gentleman in waiting (1621) to Philip
IV.'s young wife, Isabel de Bourbon, daughter of Henri IV., Ma
VILLANELLE— VILLANOVANS
ostentatious attentions to the queen supplied his numerous foes
with a weapon which was destined to destroy him. A fire broke
out while his masque, La Gloria de Niquea, was being acted before
the court on May 15, 1622, and Villamediana carried the queen
to a place of safety. Suspicion deepened and on Aug. 21 he was
murdered as he stepped out of his coach. The responsibility for
his death was divided between Philip IV. and Oiivares, and
naturally the crime remained unpunished.
Villamediana's works contain not only the nervous, blighting
verses which made him widely feared and hated, but a number of
more serious poems embodying the most exaggerated conceits of
gongorism. But, even when adopting the pifverse conventions
of the hour, he remains a poet of high distinction, and his satirical
verses, more perfect in form, are instinct with a cold, concen-
trated scorn which has never been surpassed.
VILLANELLE, primarily a round song taken up by men on
a farm (Lat. villa) ; originally loose in form, but afterwards ar-
bitrarily fixed. It was a pastoral, set to a rustic dance, and had,
therefore, a regular system of repeated lines. The old French
villanelles, however, were irregular; the "Rosette, pour un peu
d'absence" of Desportes (d. 1606), is a sort of ballade, and those
of d'Urfe (d. 1625) are scarcely less lax. The rigorous form seems
to have been settled by accident. Among the posthumous poems
of Jean Passerat (d. 1602) several villanelles were found, of
which one became so popular as to set the standard for subse-
quent poets. It runs thus:
"J'ai perdu ma tourterelle:
Est-ce point colic que j'oi?
Je vcux aller apres die.
Tu rcgreUes ta fcmellc?
Helas! atissi fais-je moi:
J'ai perdu rna tourterelle.
Si ton amour cst fidele,
Aussi cst forme ma loi:
Jo vcux aller apros die.
Ta plainte se renouvelle?
To u jours plaindre je me dois:
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle.
En nc voyant plus la belle
Plus ricn de beau je ne vois:
Jc voux aller aprcs elle.
Mort, quo tant do fois j'appelle,
Prends ce qui se donne a toi:
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle,
Jc veux aller aprcs cllc."
For 300 years the villancllc has been written in tercets, on
two rhymes, the first and the third being repeated alternately
in each tercet. It is usual to confine it to five tercets, but that is
not essential; it must, however, close with a quatrain, the last
two lines of which are the first and third of the original tercet.
Boulmier, who was the first to show that Passerat was its in-
ventor, published collections of these poems in 1878 and 1879,
and was preparing another when he died, in 1881. When, in 1877,
so many of the early French forms of verse were reintroduced into
English, the villanelle attracted much attention; it was simul-
taneously cultivated by W. E. Henley, Austin Dobson, Lang and
Gosse. Henley wrote a large number, and described the form in a
specimen beginning: "A dainty thing's the Villanelle." There are
several examples in English of humorous villanelles, especially
by Austin Dobson and by Henley.
See J. Boulmier, Les Villanelles (2nd od., 1870).
VILLANI, GIOVANNI (c. i->75-i348), Florentine chron-
icler, was born at Florence of a mercantile family, and spent
much of his early manhood in travelling on business in Italy,
France and the Netherlands. He returned definitely to Florence
before 1312, and from 1316 onwards held many important offices
in his native city, and was employed on various diplomatic mis-
sions. In his last years he was involved in the bankruptcy of the
Bonaccorsi, and fell into poverty. He died in 1348 in the plague
epidemic described by Boccaccio.
His Historic Florentine, or Cronica universale, begins with Bib-
lical times and comes down to 1348. The ground covered by the
narrative, especially in the times near Villani's own, bears witness
to the author's extensive travels and to the breadth of his mind.
It is the cornerstone of the early mediaeval history of Florence.
Villani was Guelph, but without passion; and his book is more
taken up with an enquiry into what is useful and true than with
party considerations. He is a chronicler, not an historian, and has
but little method in his narrative. He provides information on the
constitution of Florence, its customs, industries, commerce and
arts; and of the chroniclers of his day he is perhaps unequalled
for the value of his statistical data. The Chronicle has been
printed by L. A. Muratori in tome xiii. of the Rerum Italicarum
Scriptores (Milan, 1728) and has been edited by I. Moutier and
F. G. Dragomanni (Florence, 1844). Other editions appeared at
Trieste (1857) and at Turin in 1879. Selections have been trans-
lated into English by R. E. Selfe (2nd cd. 1906).
See P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Florentine* Studien (Leipzig, 1874) I G.
Gervinus, "Gcschichte der Florentinen Historiographie" in his His-
toriscke Schriften (1833) ; U. Balzani, Le cronache Italiane nfl media
evo (Milan, 1884) ; A. Gaspary, Geschichte der italienisckcn Liter atur
(Berlin, 1885) ; O. Knoll, Beilr. zur ital. Historiographic im 14, Jahr.
(Gottingen, 1876), and O. Hartwig, "G. Villani und die Leggcnda di
Messer Gianni di Procida" in H. von Sybel's Historische Zcitschrijt.
Bd. 25.
VILLANOVANS is merely a conventional term chosen by
archaeologists as a distinctive and useful designation for a group
of tribes exhibiting a fairly uniform civilization over a great part
of Italy in the Early Iron Age (q.v.). Villanova itself, from which
the name is derived, is a little village eight kilometres from
Bologna, near which, between 1853 and 1855, was excavated a
cemetery of previously unknown character. The burials were all
cremations; the ashes of the deceased being deposited in a large
jar of rough hand-made pottery, which was placed in a round
hole in the ground, sometimes but not always enclosed in a rec-
tangular cist of unhewn slabs. Inside the jar, which was of the
very distinctive form shown in fig. i, were the remains of human
bones incompletely consumed by the fire; while in the layer of
ashes surrounding the jars were bones of anfmals, together with
small objects of use or ornament made of bronze, iron, amber,
glass or bone.
Numerous other cemeteries of similar character have been dis-
covered, first in the neighbourhood of Bologna, then in Etruria
and the northern part of Latium. The civilization revealed in these
was shown to belong to the first phases of the Iron Age, beginning
about the i2th or nth century H.C., and the general name of Vil-
lanovan was applied to it as descriptive of its homogeneous char-
acter. All these cemeteries, whatever may be the peculiarities
of their local variation, are united by at
least one common bond of custom; they
all contain cremation burials with at most
a very slight i>ercentage of unburned
bodies. In this respect they are contrasted
with all the contemporary cemeteries of
eastern and southern Italy, which consist
exclusively of the inhumations of unburned
bodies. Occasional examples of jars re-
sembling the Villanovan burial-urn have
indeed been found in Apulia and Calabria,
but in these provinces they were never
adopted for ceremonial purposes but sim-
F,G i.— TYPICAL VILLA- ply used for carrying water. As all the
NOVAN OSSUARY. AFTER tribes of eastern and southern Italy buried
cozzADiNi thejr j^d without burning, this difference
of custom implies a difference of religious belief, and probably a
divergence of racial origin. This inference seems to be justified
by a study of the dress, armament, arts and manufactures of the
several regions, which shows the Bolognese and Etrurians to be
closely allied in the principal details of their material culture,
while the Apulians and the Calabrians arc notably different and
appear to have evolved independently from another inheritance.
Territorial Extension. — In the north the territory of the
Villanovans began at the river Reno and extended from the
Panaro on the west to Rimini on the east. South of Rimini they
i56
VILLANOVANS
BRON7P HrLMrT
. Z. - BRONZE HELMET
never inhabited the east coast but on the west of the mountainous
backbone they extended their sway over the whole of Etruna and
down into Latium as far as the Alban hills. Roughly speaking,
therefore, they occupied about a third of Italy north of Rome, the
other two-thirds being taken up principally by the kindred civili-
zations of the Comacines (q.v.) and Atestines (q.v.) on the north
and by a hostile block of Picenes on the east. (See PICENES.) It
is useful to distinguish the inhabitants of
the Bologncse region as the northern Vil-
lanovans, while those of Etruria and the
adjoining parts of Latium may be termed
the southern Villanovans.
Theories of Origin. — As to the origin
and racial affinities of this group of cre-
mating tribes, which exercised such a pro-
found influence upon Italy before the
arrival of Etruscans or Greeks, there arc
two rival theories. To neither of these can
exclusive preference be given; future dis-
coveries must decide between them, and it
is not likely that any final decision will be
reached for many years. But on the most
essential points the two theories are in
complete agreement. Whether the Villa-
novans were direct lineal descendants of
the builders of the Tcrrcmare or only a
kindred race which did not enter Italy
until the dawn of the Iron Age, three
. . 11 i •.- j / \ ii_ < 11
points are generally admitted: (i) that all
the Villanovans are related by some degree of kinship as members
of the same original family, (2) that their ultimate parentage is to
be traced to the peoples of central Europe then settled on the
middle Danube, and (3) that the direction of their occupation of
Italy was from north to south.
However, while we are very fully informed as to the char-
acter of Villanovan culture in Italy itself, yet the nature and
degree of its connections with the countries cab. and north of the
Adriatic remain obscure. The relationship to Hallstatt in partic-
ular is far less close than might have been expected. To some ex-
tent, however, this may be explained by the circumstance that no
graves at Hallstatt are as early as the beginnings of the Villanovan
period. The very earliest graves of this people in Italy have been
found in the mountainous tract of Tolfa
and Allumiere on the coast of southern
Etruria. They form a valuable link con-
necting the cemeteries of the Alban hills
and the earliest graves of the Forum at
Rome with sites like Corneto and Vetu-
lonia. The cemeteries of Tolfa, Castel
Gandolfo, Grottaferrata and two or three
graves in the Forum may be assigned to
the 1 2th and nth centuries B.C.
The First Benacci sites at Bologna begin
in the nth century, and are followed in
due order by the Second Benacci, dating
from 950 to 700 B.C., and by the Arnoaldi
which covers 700 to 500 n.c. Cemeteries
corresponding in date and style to the
First and Second Benacci periods of Bo-
logna have been found at various sites _ _____
scattered over the country between Tolfa FIG. 3. — POTTERY ossu-
and Florence or Pisa. But the third, or ARIE$ IN FORM OF HUTS
Arnoaldi period, is not represented south of the Arno, because
the southern Villanovans had been subjugated by the Etruscans
before 700 B.C. and their civilization transformed by their con-
querors. In the north the history is different, for as the Etruscans
did not cross the Apennines to found any colonies there before the
end of the 6th century, the Bolognese Villanovans survived as a
distinct and highly characterized people till after 500 B.C.
Local Differences.— In spite of a close family resemblance in
their general character there were many local differences of custom
and practice. Thus the northern Villanovans invariably used the
I burial urn shown in fig. i and covered it with a pottery bowl. But
i on various Etrurian sites this standardized jar was not employed
at all, and on others where it was used the jar was occasionally
I covered with a helmet instead of a bowl. To this practice is due
the survival of some magnificent examples of qth century bronze
work, such as the helmet shown here (fig. 2).
Another alternative form of burial urn used by the south but
not in the north was the pottery hut, a
miniature model of the dwelling house, of
which two examples are shown (fig 3).
Neither of those variations from their cere-
monial form was Adopted by the Bolog-
nese, who retained the standard type of
ritual urn with the most rigid conservatism,
though the potters somewhat modified its
outline in the course of centuries..
One of the most notable traits common
to both branches of the Villanovans is their
remarkable skill in metal work. Helmets
such as fig. 2, large bronze vessels like fig.
4, or belts like that seen in fig. 8 were F|G- 4 — OSSUARY OF
freely made in the gth century B.C. by a HAMMERED BRONZE
primitive but extremely effective process. The technique consists
in the hammering by hand of thin sheets of copper or bronze,
which were then bent round and fastened together with rivets.
Lines of these rivets generally form the principal decoration, which
FlG. 5. — THE FIRST BENACCI PERIOD AT BOLOGNA. SHOWING BRONZE
FIBULAE AND PINS. HOOK, TWEEZERS, OBJECT OF UNKNOWN USE WITH
BRONZE STAFF AND HEAD, AND DISCS OF AMBER
is extremely simple. This process is quite unlike anything used by
the people of the Terremare, and it was probably learned by the
Villanovans in their original transalpine homes. That they traded
with the Danube region at this date is shown by the bronze swords
of Hallstatt type with hilts terminating in spiral volutes, which
have been found in small numbers at various places in Etruria as
well as farther north. The skill of the Villanovan coppersmiths ex-
VILLANUEVA DE LA SERENA— VILLANUEV A Y GELTRLF 157
FlC. 6. — SECOND BE-
NACCI PERIOD AT BO-
LOGNA. SHOWING SWORD,
ARMLETS, RAZOR EN-
GRAVED WITH BOAT AND Europe.
plains the rapid development of every form of metal-work when
the mines of Tuscany and Elba were more freely exploited in the
8th and following centuries. The Etruscans by themselves never
constituted any large number of persons ; they formed a small rul-
ing aristocracy but the backbone of the population was always Vil-
lanovan. For this reason it is important to realize the high grade of
that native Italian civilization upon which the Etruscan was
grafted. Artistic spirit and enterprise, new ideas of decoration and
ornament, improvements in technique were
all contributed by the Etruscans, but there
already existed a high standard of primitive
workmanship and a long tradition amongst
the native workmen whom they found in
the country. The Villanovans in fact had
attained a stage of civilization which must
be considered quite high long before they
came under any influences from the
Aegean or the Orient. They owed a good
deal to their intercourse with central
Europe but nothing whatsoever to any of
the Mediterranean peoples. As early as
the xoth century B.C. the existence of con-
siderable commerce with countries north
of the Alps is proved by the presence of
Baltic amber as well as of glass beads in
the tombs. This is the natural continua-
tion of a traffic which began in the Bronze
Age, when Italy freely exported her own
models of weapons to foreign countries.
In its general aspect the whole character
of the civilization recalls that of central
Art is still in its infancy, and
HAFTED AXE, PIKE. ALL decoration is entirely confined to a few
OF BRONZE geometric motives. Even on the pottery,
which affords the greatest scope for decoration, the only schemes
of ornament are incised rectilinear patterns of the simplest kind.
All over Europe the same geometric school of design is dominant
at this period. The first traces of naturalism in Italy begin to
appear on a few rare pieces of imported pottery brought in from
the Aegean during the Sth century, and on Etruscan bronze work
of the same period.
The everyday life of the Villanovans may to some extent be
estimated by the products of their tombs and dwellings. It may
be inferred that they lived in small villages composed of wattle
and daub huts roofed with wooden beams. Their clothing was of
a thick material, doubtless wool spun from the fleeces of their own
sheep on their own bronze distaffs and
spindles. It was fastened with strong
fibulae of bronze, or, in the later periods,
of iron. These fibulae, often decorated
with pieces of bone, amber or glass, follow
a distinct course of evolution, which is a
great help in tracing the stages of chro-
nology. The Villanovans were well ac-
quainted with the horse — bronze bits are
very frequent even in the earliest ceme-
teries— but there is no evidence that they
used chariots, which were first introduced
by the Etruscans. That they were of war-
like character is amply proved by the con-
stant occurrence of swords, battle-axes and
daggers. Defensive armour, however, was
rare and confined to the use of helmets.
The practice of hunting is vouched for by
the bones of wild animals found in the FIG. 7. — SECOND BE-
ashes of the funeral feasts, and the occur- NACCI PERJOD AT BO-
rencc of sheep and oxen shows familiarity LOGNA- SHOWING BRONZE
with the farm. FIBULAE OR SAFETY-P.NS
As manufacturers these tribes were important principally for
their metal-work. Pottery was made everywhere, but only for
use in Italy, and seldom exported even to a neighbouring com-
munitv. Until the 7th renhirv it WAS all hanrl-mnH** hut ahnut
700 B.C. the wheel was introduced and with it came new processes
of decoration. By the 7th century, however, the only Villanovans
who retained their independence were the northern branch about
Bologna. All Etruria and Latium had now been conquered by the
Etruscans; but north of the Apennines the Bolognese continued
to develop their provincial life without any interference from the
foreigner. They entered, however, into peaceful trade relations
with their new neighbours and acquired an occasional ornament or
FIG. 8.— SECOND BENACCI PERIOD AT BOLOGNA, SHOWING AXES, HORSE-
BIT. T1NTINMABULUM. DISTAFF, GIRDLE, ALL OF BRONZE; AND TWO AXES
WITH HANDLES OF BONE
piece of Etruscan jewellery from which it is possible to establish
some valuable synchronisms of dating. When the Etruscans even-
tually crossed the Apennines and founded their colony of Felsina
at Bologna about 500 B.C., they did not expel nor at once absorb
the older inhabitants. For some generations the two peoples lived
side by side, each preserving its own individuality, dwelling in
separate settlements and burying their dead in separate cemeteries.
It is only very rarely at Bologna that an Etruscan object is found
in a Villanovan grave or vice versa. But gradually the superior
civilization ousted the other, and before the Gauls put an end to
the existence of both communities at Bologna in the 4th century
Villanovanism was practically extinct. Its survival, however, in
this northern region for nearly three centuries after it had been
extinguished in Etruria affords a most valuable study of the proc-
ess by which, presumably, the Etruscans gradually replaced and
dominated the "Villanovans in other parts of the country. The
archaeological history of Bologna has made it possible to solve the
principal difficulties which beset students of this subject in the last
generation. We can now distinguish between the products of the
Villanovans and those of the Etruscans and give due value and
prominence to the older people whose contribution to the civiliza-
tion of early Italy had so long been neglected or undervalued.
See I). Randall-Maclver, Villanovans and Early Etruscans (1924),
which gives all the original Italian sources; A. Grenicr, Bologne villa-
novienne et £trusqnc (1912), which is the most closely detailed study
of the northern region; F. von Duhn, Italischc Graberkundt (1924),
which deals with the subject incidentally rather than as a correlated
whole. (D. R.-M.)
VILLANUEVA DE LA SERENA, a town of western
Spain, in the province of Badajoz, near the left bank of the river
Guadiana, and on the Madrid-Badajoz railway. Pop. (1920)
14,857. Villanueva is the chief town of La Serena, locally cele-
brated for red wine and melons. Grain and hemp are also culti-
vated, and live stock extensively reared in the neighbourhood.
VILLANUEVA Y GELTRU, a seaport of north-eastern
Spain, in the province of Barcelona; on the Barcelona-Tarragona
section of the coast railway, Pop. (1920) 13,720. Villanueva
is a busy modern town, with manufactures of cotton, woollen and
linen goods, and of paper. It has also iron foundries and an
important agricultural trade. The harbour affords safe and deep
anchorage; it is a lifeboat station and the headquarters of a large
fishing fleet. The coasting trade is also considerable. Villanueva
has a museum, founded by the Catalan poet and historian, Victor
Rfllamipr /'iK?/*— rnriT^ whirh rnnfainc ?i loror** liKr-arxr ir»rliirlin«r
i58
VILLARD— VILLARS
not oniy numerous historical works but also many valuable mss.
VILLARD, HENRY (1835-1900), American journalist and
financier, was born in Speyer, Rhenish Bavaria, Apr. 10, 1835. Me
emigrated to America in 1853 and engaged in journalistic work
for German-American newspapers and later for leading American
dailies. He reported the Lincoln-Douglas debates for eastern
newspapers, the Pikes Peak gold rush for the Cincinnati Daily
Commercial and the Civil War from the field of action for the
New York Herald and New York Tribune. In 1881 he purchased
the Nation and the New York Evening Post.
Through acting as agent for German bondholders he became
interested in railway finance. In 1875 he aided in reorganizing
the Oregon and California Railroad and the Oregon Steamship
company and in 1876 became president of both companies. He
was receiver of the Kansas Pacific Railroad in 1876-78. In 1870
he organized the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company which
built a line along the Columbia river from Portland to Wallula.
In 1 88 1 Villard secured control of the Northern Pacific and be-
came its president. Its transcontinental line was completed
under his management but the costs so far exceeded the estimate
that both Villard and the road became insolvent in 1883 and Vil-
lard was removed from the presidency. He later recouped his
losses so that from 1889-1893 he served as chairman of the
board of directors of the same company. In 1890 he bought the
Edison Lamp Co. at Newark, N.J., and the Edison Machine Works
at Scheneqtady, N.Y., and formed them into the Edison General
Electric Co. of which he was president until its reorganization in
1893 as the General Electric Co. He died at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.,
Nov. 12, 1900.
Sec Memoirs of Henry Villard (2 vols., 1904).
VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, LOUIS THOMAS (1750-
1812), French admiral, was born at Auch. He served for some
time in the royal guard, but had to leave after killing one of his
comrades in a duel. He then entered the navy, and in 1773 was
lieutenant on the "Atalante" in Indian waters. In 1778 after the
siege of Pondicherry, he was promoted captain. He took part in
the battle of Cuddalore, and in 1781 was taken prisoner. He was
released in 1783, and did not emigrate during the Revolution. In
1791 he commanded the "Prudente" at San Domingo, and in
1794 was appointed rear-admiral and assisted the Conventional,
St. Andre, in the reorganization of the fleet. Villaret was in com-
mand of the French fleet at the battle of the First on June. He
was a member of the Council of the Ancients in 1796, and was
sentenced to deportation in 1797 on account of his royalist sym-
pathies. He then lived in obscurity at Oleron. In 1801 he com-
manded the squadron which transported the French army to
San Domingo, and in 1802 was made captain-general of Mar-
tinique, which he surrendered to the English in 1809. In 1811 he
became governor-general of Venice.
VILLARI (vil'Jahr-i), PASQUALE (1827-1917), Italian
historian and statesman, born at Naples Oct. 3, 1827, studied with
Luigi la Vista under Francesco do Sanctis. Implicated in the riots
of May 15, 1848, at Naples, against the Bourbon government, he
took refuge in Florence where he published his Storia di Giro-
lamo Savonarola e de' sitoi tempi (2 vols. 1859-61). It was fol-
lowed by a work of even greater critical value, Niccold Maehia-
velli e i suoi tempi (1877-82). Both these works have been
through many editions, the latest in 1927. Meanwhile Villari had
been professor of history at Pisa, and now obtained the chair of
philosophy of history at the Institute of Studii Superiori in Flo-
rence. He was also a member of the council of education (1862),
and in 1869 was made undersecretary of state for education. In
1884 he was nominated senator, and in 1891-92 minister of educa-
tion. His collected essays on Florentine history were published as /
primi due sccoli della storia di Firenze (1893-94), and in 1901 his
Le Invasion* barbariche in Italia, a popular account of the events
following the dissolution of the Roman empire. All these works
have been translated into English by his wife. Villari died at
Florence on Dec. 5, 1917. Villari's historical, political and social
writings exercised a deep influence on his generation, and most of
the Italian historians of to-day have been his pupils.
His other works include: Saggi Critici (1868); Arte, Storia, e
Filosofia (Florence, 1884); Scritti varii (Bologna, 1894); an-
other volume of SagKi Critici (Bologna, 1896); Discussioni cri~
tiche e discorsi (Bologna, 1905), containing his speeches as presi-
dent of the Dante Alighieri Society; Lettere Meridionali contain-
ing the first exposure of conditions in south Italy (Turin, 1885),
Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (Florence, 1902); U Italia
da Carlo Magno alia Morte di Arrigo VII. (Milan, 1910, Eng.
trs. 1910) and Storia, politica e istruzione (Milan, 1914).
See F. Baldasscroni, Pasquale Villari (Florence, 1907).
VILLA RICA, the largest city in the interior of Paraguay,
on the railway from Asuncion (70 m. N.W.) to Encarnacion.
Pop. (1927) about 25,000. Situated in a rich agricultural region
watered by the upper Tepicuary, with finely timbered mountains
extending to the E. and W., Villa Rica has an important trade in
tobacco, oranges and yerba mate. It is to a great extent primitive,
but contains some attractive buildings, including a college, a
church, schools and a branch of the Agricultural Bank.
VILLARREAL, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
Castell6n de la Plana; 4 m. from the Mediterranean sea, near
the right bank of the river Mijares, and on the Barcelona-Valencia
railway. Pop. (1920) 16,770. Villarreal has a station on the
light railway between Onda and the seaports of Castcllon de la
Plana and Burriana. Palm-groves, churches with blue-tiled
cupolas, and houses with flat roofs and vicw-turrct'.s (mir adores)
to some extent preserve the Moorish character of the town. Under
Moorish rule, and up to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1609,
it was the headquarters of a flourishing trade. There are extensive
orange-groves, watered by the irrigation canal of Castellon, which
is a good example of Moorish engineering skill. There are manu-
factures of paper, woollen goods and spirits.
VILLARS, CLAUDE LOUIS HECTOR DE, PRINCE DE
MARTIGNES, MARQUIS AND Due DE VILLARS AND VICOMTE DE
MELUN (1653-1734), marshal of France, one of the greatest
generals of French history, was born at Moulins on May 8, 1653,
and entered the army through the corps of pages in 1671. He
served in the light cavalry in the Dutch wars, and distinguished
himself by his daring and resourcefulness. But in spite of a
long record of excellent service under Turcnnc, Concle and Lux-
embourg, and of his aristocratic birth, his promotion was but
slow, for he had incurred the enmity of the powerful Louvois,
and although he had been proprietary colonel (mestre de camp)
of a cavalry regiment since 1674, thirteen years elapsed before
he was made a marechal de camp. In the interval between the
Dutch wars and the formation of the League of Augsburg, Villars
was employed in an unofficial mission to the court of Bavaria, and
there became the constant companion of the elector, with whom
he took the field against the Turks and fought at Mohacs. He
returned to France in 1690 and was given a command in the cav-
alry of the army in Flanders, but towards the end of the Grand
Alliance War he went to Vienna as ambassador. His part in the
next war (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE), beginning
with Friedlingen (1702) and Hochstett (1703) and ending with
Denain (1712), has made him immortal. For Friedlingen he re-
ceived the marshalate, for the pacification of the insurgent Ce-
vennes the Saint-Esprit order and the title of duke. Friedlingen
and Hochstett were barren victories, and the campaigns of which
they formed a part, records of lost opportunities. Villars's glory
thus begins with the year 1709 when France, apparently helpless,
was roused to a great effort of self-defence by the exorbitant de-
mands of the Coalition. In that year he was called to command
the main army opposing Eugene and Marlborough on the north-
ern frontier. During the famine of the winter he shared the
soldiers' miserable rations. When the campaign opened the old
Marshal Boufflers volunteered to serve under him, and after the
terrible battle of Malplaquet (tf.iO, in which he was gravely
wounded, he was able to tell the king: "If it please God to give
your majesty's enemies another such victory, they arc ruined."
Two more campaigns passed without a battle and with scarcely
any advance on the part of the invaders, but at last Marlborough
manoeuvred Villars out of the famous Ne plus ultra lines, and
the power of the defence seemed to be broken. But Louis made
VILLARS— VILLEHARDOUIN
a last effort, the English contingent and its great leader were
withdrawn from the enemy's camp, and Villars, though still suf-
fering from his Malplaquet wounds, outmanoeuvred and decisively
defeated Eugene in the battle of Denain. This victory saved
France, though the war dragged on for another year on the Rhine,
where Villars took Landau, led the stormers at Freiburg and
negotiated the peace of Rastatt with Prince Eugene.
He played a conspicuous part in the politics of the Regency
period as the principal opponent of Cardinal Dubois, and only
the memories of Montmorency's rebellion prevented his being
made constable of France. He took the field for the last time
in the War of the Polish Succession (1734), with the title ^mar-
shal-general of the king's armies," that Turenne alone had held
before him. But he was now over eighty years of age, and the
war was more diplomatic than earnest, and after opening the
campaign with all the fire and restless energy of his youth he died
at Turin on June 17, 1734.
Villars' memoirs show us a "fanfaron plein d'honneur/' as
Voltaire calls him. He was indeed boastful, with the gasconading
habit of his native province, and also covetous of honours and
wealth. But he was an honourable man of high courage, moral
and physical, and a soldier who stands above all his contempo-
raries and successors in the i8th century, on the same height as
Marlborough and Frederick.
The memoirs, part of which was published in 1734 and afterwards
several times republished in untrustworthy versions, were for the
first time completely edited by the Marquis de Vogue' in 1 884-9 2.
VILLARS (VILLARS-SUR-OLLON), a Swiss winter sports
centre, frequented in summer also, situated at over 4,iooft. above
sea-level, on a narrow gauge railway that branches from the
Lausanne-Brig main line at Bex, about Sim. beyond the point
at which the railway leaves the Lake of Geneva. It is some
distance above Gryon and commands a fine view of the Dent du
Midi and the western Alps, and the Grand Muveran (3,061
metres) nearby. The railway runs on to Chesieres, another resort
which, in its turn, has road vehicles to Ollon, a station on the
light railway from Monthey, which joins the Lausanne-Brig main
line at Aiglc.
VILLAVICIOSA, a seaport of northern Spain, in the
province of Oviedo; on the Rio de Villaviciosa, an estuary formed
by the small river Villaviciosa which here enters the Bay of
Biscay. Pop. (1920) 20,712. The town is the headquarters of a
large fishery, and has some coasting trade. Its exports are chiefly
agricultural produce.
VILLEFRANCHE-DE-ROUERGUE, a town of France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, 36 m.
W. of Rodez by road. Pop. (1926) 5,557. Villefranchc, founded
about 1252, owes its name to the numerous immunities granted
by its founder Alphonsc, count of Toulouse (d. 1271), and in
1348 it was so flourishing that sumptuary laws were passed. Soon
afterwards the town fell into the hands of Edward, the Black
Prince, but was the first place in Guicnne to rise against the
English. New privileges were granted to the town by King Charles
V., but these were taken away by Louis XI. In 1588 the inhabit-
ants repulsed the forces of the League. Villefranche, which has
a station on the Orleans railway, lies amongst the hills on the
right bank of the Aveyron at its junction with the Alzou. One
of the three bridges that cross the river is of the i3th century,
and there arc many houses of the i3th and I4th centuries. The
church of Notre Dame is flanked by a massive tower, beneath
the porch of which passes one of the chief streets. The fine wood-
work in the choir dates from the isth century. The isth and i6th
century buildings (notably the fine refectory and two cloisters, the
smaller a gem of late Gothic work) of a Carthusian monastery
stand above the town on the left bank of the Aveyron. Quarries
of phosphates and mines of galena and blende are worked near
Villefranche. Villefranchc is an agricultural centre with minor
industries, and is the seat of a sub-prefect.
VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAONE, a manufacturing town
of east-central France, capital of an arrondissenvent in the de-
partment of Rhone, on the Morgon near its junction with the
Saone, 21 m. N. by W. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1926) 16,427.
Founded in 1212 by Guichard IV., count of Beaujeu, Villefranche
became in the i4th century capital of the Beaujolais. Edward II.
was forced to surrender the Beaujolais to the duke of Bourbon.
Among its industries the chief are the manufacture of working
clothes, the manufacture, dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics,
including surgical dressings, linings, the spinning of cotton thread,
copper founding and the manufacture of machinery and agri-
cultural implements. The wines of Beaujolais, hemp, cotton cloth,
linen, cotton thread, drapery goods and cattle are the principal
articles of trade. An old Renaissance house is used as the town
hall. The I5th century church of Notre Dame des Maruis, has
a i6th century tower and spire (rebuilt in 1862), standing to the
right of the faqade. Villefranche is the seat of a sub-prefect and
has a tribunal of commerce and a chamber of commerce.
VILLEHARDOUIN, GEOFFROY DE (< n6o-c. 1213).
the first vernacular historian of France, and perhaps of modern
Europe, who possesses literary merit, is rather supposed than
known to have been born at the chateau from which he took his
name, near Troyes, in Champagne, about the year 1160. Not
merely his literary and historical importance, but almost all that
is known about him, comes from his chronicle of the fourth
crusade, or Conquetc de Constantinople. He was one of a list of
knights of Champagne who with their count, Thibault, took the
cross at a tournament held at Escry-sur-Aisnc in Advent 1199.
The next year six deputies, two appointed by each of the three
allied counts of Flanders, Champagne and Blois, were despatched
to Venice to negotiate for ships. Of these deputies Villchardouin
was one and Quesnes de Bethune, the poet, another. They con-
cluded a bargain with the seigniory for transport and provisions at
a fixed price. Villehardouin had hardly returned when Thibault
fell sick and died. Villehardouin made another embassy into Italy
to prevent if possible some of his fellow-pilgrims from breaking
the treaty with the Venetians by embarking at their ports and
employing other convoy.
Villehardouin does not tell us of any direct part taken by him-
self in the debates on the question of interfering or not in the
disputed succession to the empire of the East — debates in which
the chief ecclesiastics present strongly protested against the diver-
sion of the enterprise from its proper goal. It is quite clear, how-
ever, that the marshal of Champagne, who was one of the leaders
and inner counsellors of the expedition throughout, sympathized
with the majority, and it is fair to point out that the temptation
of chivalrous adventure was probably as great as that of gain.
He narrates spiritedly enough the dissensions and discussions in
the winter camp of Zara and at Corfu, but is evidently much more
at ease when the voyage was again resumed and, after a fair pass-
age round Greece, the crusaders at last saw before them the great
city of Constantinople which they had in mind to attack.
When the assault was decided upon, Villchardouin himself was
in the fifth "battle," the leader of which was Mathieu de Mont-
morency. But he does not tell us anything of his own prowess.
After the flight of the usurper Alexius, and when the blind Isaac,
whose claims the crusaders were defending, had been taken by the
Greeks from prison and placed on the throne, Villfhardouin, with
Montmorcncy and two Venetians, formed the embassy sent to
arrange, terms. He was again similarly distinguished when it be-
came necessary to remonstrate with Alexius, the blind man's son
and virtual successor, on the non-keeping of the terms. Indeed
Villehardouin's talents as a diplomatist seem to have been held in
very high esteem, for later, when the Latin empire had become a
fact, he was charged with the delicate business of mediating be-
tween the emperor Baldwin and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat,
in which task he had at least partial success. He was also
appointed marshal of "Romanic" — a term very vaguely used, but
apparently signifying the mainland of the Balkan Peninsula, while
his nephew and namesake, afterwards prince of Achaia, took a
great part in the Latin conquest of Peloponnesus.
Villehardouin himself before long received an important com-
mand against the Bulgarians. He was teft to maintain the siege
of Adrianoplc when Baldwin advanced to attack the relieving
force, and with Dandolo had much to do in saving the defeated
crusaders from utter destruction, and in conducting the retreat, in
i6o
VILLEINAGE
which he commanded the rearguard, and brought his troops in
safety to the sea of Rodosto, and thence to the capital. As he
occupied the post of honour in this disaster, so he had that (the
command of the vanguard) in the expedition which the regent
Henry made shortly afterwards to revenge his brother Baldwin's
defeat and capture. And, when Henry had succeeded to the crown
on the announcement of Baldwin's death, it was Villehardouin who
fetched home his bride Agnes of Montferrat, and shortly after-
wards commanded under him in a naval battle with the ships of
Theodore Lascaris at the fortress of Cibotus. In the settlement of
the Latin empire after the truce with Lascaris, Villehardouin
received the fief of Messinople from Boniface of Montferrat, with
the record of whose death the chronicle abruptly closes.
Villehardouin reappears for us once, but once only, in the chron-
icle of his continuator, Henri de Valenciennes. There is a great
gap in style, though none in subject, between the really poetical
prose of the first historian of the fifth crusade and the Latin
empire and the awkward mannerism (so awkward that it has been
taken to represent a "disrhymed" verse chronicle) of his follower.
But the much greater length at which Villehardouin appears on
this one occasion shows us the restraint which he must have exer-
cised in the passages which deal with himself in his own work. He
again led the vanguard in the emperor Henry's expedition against
Burilas the Bulgarian, and he is represented by the Valenciennes
scribe as encouraging his sovereign to the attack in a long speech.
Then he disappears altogether, with the exception of some brief
and chiefly diplomatic mentions. Du Cange discovered and quoted
a deed of donation by him dated 1 207, by which certain properties
were devised to the churches of Notre Dame de Foissy and Notre
Dame de Troyes, with the reservation of life interests to his
daughters Alix and Damcrones, and his sisters Emmelinc and
Haye, all of whom appear to have embraced a monastic life. A
letter addressed from the East to Blanche of Champagne is cited,
and a papal record of 1212 styles him still "marshal of Romania."
The next year this title passed to his son Erard; and 1213 is
accordingly given as the date of his death.
It would be out of place to attempt any further analysis of the
Conquete here. But it is npt impertinent, and is at the same time
an excuse for what has been already said, to repeat that Villehar-
douin's book, brief as it is, is in reality one of the capital books of
literature, not merely for its merit, but because it is the most
authentic and the most striking embodiment in contemporary lit-
erature of the sentiments which determined the action of a great
and important period of history. There are but very few books
which hold this position, and Villehardouin's is one of them. If
every other contemporary record of the crusades perished, we
should still be able by aid of this to understand and realize what
the mental attitude of crusaders, of Teutonic knights, and the rest
was, and without this we should lack the earliest, the most un-
doubtedly genuine, and the most characteristic of all such records.
The very inconsistency with which Villehardouin is chargeable,
the absence of compunction with which he relates the changing of
a sacred religious pilgrimage into something by no means unlike a
mere filibustering raid on the great scale, add a charm.
The book appears to have been known in the ages immediately
succeeding his own; and, though there is no contemporary manu-
script in existence, there are some half-dozen which appear to date
from the end of the i3th or the course of the i4th century, while
one at least appears to be a copy made from his own work in that
spirit of unintelligent faithfulness which is much more valuable
to posterity than more pragmatical editing. The first printed edition
of the book, by a certain Blaise de Vigenere, dates from 1585,
is dedicated to the seigniory of Venice (Villehardouin, it should
be said, has been accused of a rather unfair predilection for the
Venetians) , and speaks of either a part or the whole of the memoirs
as having been printed twelve years earlier. Of this earlier copy
nothing seems to be known. A better edition, founded on a Nether-
landish ms., appeared at Lyons in 1601. But both these were com-
pletely antiquated by the great edition of Du Cangc in 1657, wherein
that learned writer employed all his knowledge, never since equalled,
of the subject, but added a translation, or rather paraphrase, into
modern French which is .scarcely worthy either of himself or his
uuthor. Dom Brial gave a new edition from different ms. sources in
1823, and the book figures with different degrees of dependence on
Du Cange and Brial in the collections of Petitot, Buchon, and Michaud
and Poujoulat.
I All these, however, have been superseded for the modern student
1 by the editions of Natalis de Wailly (1872 and 1874), in which the
i text is critically edited from all the available mss. and a new transla-
| tion added, while there is a still later and rather handier one by
i E. Bouchet (2 vols., Paris, 1891), which, however, rests mainly on
I N. dc Wailly for text. The charm of Villehardouin can escape no
| reader; but few readers will fail to derive some additional pleasure
from the two essays which Saintc-Beuve devoted to him, reprinted
in the ninth volume of the Causerics du lundi. See also A. Debidour,
Lcs Chroniqueurs (1888). There are English translations by T. Smith
| (1829), and (more literally) Sir F. T. Marzials (Everyman's Library,
1908).
VILLEINAGE (VILLAINAGE, VILLENACE), a mediaeval term
(from villa, villanus), pointing to serfdom, a condition of men
intermediate between freedom and slavery. It occurs in France
as well as in England, and was certainly imported into English
speech through the medium of Norman French.
The materials for the formation of the villein class were already
in existence in the Anglo-Saxon period. On the one hand, the
Saxon ceorls (twihyndemen), although considered as including
the typical freemen in the earlier laws (Acthelberht, Hlothhere
and Edric, Ine), gradually became differentiated through the
action of political and economic causes, and many of them had
to recognize the patronage of magnates or to seek livelihood as
tenants on the estates of the latter. These ceorls, sitting on gafol-
land, were, though personally free, considered as a lower order
of men, and lapsed gradually into more or less oppressive sub-
jection to the lords of whom they held their land. It is character-
istic in this connection that the West Saxon laws do not. make any
distinction between ceorls and lacts or half-frccmcn as the Kentish
laws had done: this means that the half-free people were, if not
Welshmen, reckoned as members of the ceorl class. Another
remarkable indication of the decay of the ceorl's estate is af-
forded by the fact that in the treaties with the Dnnes the twihynde
ceorls are equated with the Danish leysings or frccdmcn. It does
not mean, of course, that their condition was practically the
same, but in any case the fact testifies to the gulf which had
come to separate the two principal subdivisions of the free class
— the ceorl and the thegn. The Latin version of the Rectitndines
Singidarnm Personarum, a document compiled probably in the
nth century, renders gcneat (a peasant tenant of a superior kind
performing lighter services than the gcbur, who was burdened
with heavy week-work) by villamts; but the gcbur came to be
also considered as a villanns according to Anglo-Norman termin-
ology. The group designated as gebnrs in Anglo-Saxon charters,
though distinguished from mere slaves, undoubtedly included
many freedmen who in point of services and economic subjection
were not very much above the slaves. Both ceorls and geburs
disappear as separate classes, and it is clear that the greater part
of them must have passed into the rank of villeins.
In the terminology of the Domesday Inquest we find the
villeins as the most numerous element of the English population.
Out of about 240,000 households enumerated in Domesday 100,000
are marked as belonging to villeins. They are rustics perform-
ing, as a rule, work services for their lords. But not all the
inhabitants of the villages were designated by that name. Villeins
are opposed to socmen and freemen on one hand, to bordarii,
cottagers and slaves on the other. The distinction in regard to the
first two of these groups was evidently derived from their greater
freedom, although the difference is only one in degree and not in
kind. In fact, the villein is assumed to be a person free by birth,
but holding land of which he cannot dispose freely. The distinc-
tion as against bordarii and cottagers is based on the size of the
holding: the villeins are holders of regular shares in the village
— that is, of the virgates, bovates or half-hides which constitute
the principal subdivisions in the fields and contribute to form the
plough-teams — whereas the bordarii hold smaller plots of some
five acres, more or less, and cottarii are connected with mere
cottages and crofts. Thus the terminology of Domesday takes
note of two kinds of differences in the status of rustics: a legal
one in connection with the right to dispose of property in land,
and an economic one reflecting the opposition between the holders
of shares in the fields and the holders of auxiliary tenements. The
feature of personal serfdom is also noticeable, but it provides a
VILLEINAGE
161
basis only for the comparatively small group of servi, of whom
only about 25,000 are enumerated in Domesday Book. The con-
trast between this exceptionally situated class and the rest of
the population shows that personal slavery was rapidly disappear-
ing in England about the time of the Conquest. It is also to be
noticed that the Domesday Survey constantly mentions the
terra villanorum as opposed to the lord's demesne, and that the
land of the rustics is taxed separately for the geld, so that the
distinction between the property of the lord and that of the
peasant dependent on him is clearly marked.
The Domesday Survey puts before us the state of things in
England as it was at the very beginning of the Norman and at
the close of the Saxon period. The development of feudal society,
of centralizing kingship and ultimately of a system of common
law, brought about great changes which all hinge on the funda-
mental fact that the kings, while increasing the power of the
State in other respects, surrendered it completely as regards the
relations between the peasants and their lords. The protection of
the assizes was tendered in civil matters to free tenants and
refused to villeins. The royal courts refused to entertain suits
of villeins against their lords, although there was a good deal
of vacillation before this position was definitely taken up. Bracton
speaks in his treatise of the possibility of interference by the
courts against intolerable cruelty on the part of the lord in-
volving the destruction of the villein's waynage, that is, of his
tillage, and in the Notebook of Bracton may be found a couple
of cases which prove that 131)1 century judges occasionally allowed
themselves to entertain actions by persons holding in villeinage
against their lords. Gradually, however, the exception of villeinage
became firmly settled. As the historical and practical position
was developing on these lines the lawyers who fashioned English
common law in the i2th and i3th centuries did not hesitate to
apply to it the teaching of Roman law on slavery. Bracton fits
his definition of villeinage into the Romanesque scheme of Azo's
Summa of the Institutes, and the judges of the royal courts made
sweeping inferences from this general position. To begin with,
the relation between the villein and his lord was regarded as a
personal and not a praedial one. Everyone born of villein stock
belonged to his master and was bound to undertake any service
which might be imposed on him by the master's or the steward's
command. The distinction between villeins in gross and villeins
regardant, of which much is made by modern writers, was sug-
gested by modes of pleading and docs not make its appearance
in the Year-Books before the isth century. Secondly, all in-
dependent proprietary rights were denied to the villein as against
his lord, and the legal rule "quicquid servo acquiritur domino
acquiritur" was extended to villeins. The fact that a great number
of these serfs had been enjoying protection as free ceorls in
former ages made itself felt, however, in three directions, (i)
In criminal matters the villein was treated by the King's Court
irrespectively of any consideration as to his debased condition.
More especially the police association, organized for the keeping
of the peace and the presentation of criminals — the frankpledge
groups — were formed of all ''worthy of were and wite," villeins as
well as freemen. (2) Politically the villeins were not eliminated
from the body of citizens; they had to pay taxes, to serve in great
emergencies in the militia, to serve on inquests, etc., and although
there was a tendency to place them on a lower footing in all these
respects yet the fact of their being lesser members of the common-
wealth did not remove the fundamental qualification of citizenship.
(3) Even in civil matters villeins were deemed free as regards
third persons. They could sue and be sued in their own name,
and although they were able to call in their lords as defendants
when proceeded against, there was nothing in law to prevent them
from appearing in their own right. The state even afforded them
protection against extreme cruelty on the part of their masters
in respect of life and limb, but in laying down this rule English
lawyers were able to follow the precedents set by late Roman
jurisprudence, especially by measures of Hadrian, Antonine and
Constantine the Great.
There was one exception to this harsh treatment of villeins.
The rustic tenantry in manors of ancient demesne, that is, in
estates which had belonged to the crown before the Conquest,
had a standing-ground even against their lords as regards the
tenure of their plots and the fixity of their services. Technically
this right was limited to the inhabitants of manors entered in the
Domesday Survey as terra re%is of Edward the Confessor. On
the other hand the doctrine became effective if the manors in
question had been granted by later kings to subjects, because if
they remained in the hand of the king the only remedy against
ejectment and exaction lay in petitioning for redress without any
definite right to the latter. If, however, the two conditions men-
tioned were forthcoming, villeins, or, as they were technically
called, villein socmen of ancient demesne manors, could resist
any attempt of their lords to encroach on their rights by depriving
them of their holdings or increasing the amount of their cus-
tomary services. Their remedy was to apply for a little writ of
right in the first case and for a writ of momtravcntnt in the
second. These writs entitled them to appear as plaintiffs against
the lord in his own manorial court and, eventually, to have the
question at issue examined by way of appeal, on a writ of error,
or by reservation on some legal points in the upper courts of the
king. A number of cases arising from these privileges of the men
of ancient demesne are published in the Notebook of Bracton and
in the Abbreviatio placitorum. This exceptional procedure does
not simply go back to the rule that persons who had been tenants
of the king ought not to have their condition altered for the
worse in consequence of a royal grant. If this were the only
doctrine applicable in the case there would be no reason why
similar protection should be denied to all those who held under
grantees of manors escheated after the Conquest. A material
point for the application of the privilege consists in the fact that
ancient demesne has to be proved from the time before the
Conquest, and this shows clearly that the theory was partly
derived from the recognition of tenant right in villeins of the
Anglo-Saxon period who, as we have said above, were mostly
ceorls, that is, freeborn men.
In view of the great difference in the legal position of the free
man and of the villein in feudal common law, it became very
important to define the exact nature of the conditions on which
the status of a villein depended. The legal theory as to these
conditions was somewhat complex. Of course, persons born from
villein parents in lawful wedlock were villeins, but as to the con-
dition of illegitimate children there was a good deal of hesitation.
There was a tendency to apply the rule that a bastard follows the
mother, especially in the case of a servile mother. In the case of
mixed marriages, the condition of the child was determined by the
free or villein condition of the tenement in which it was born. This
notion of the influence of the tenement is in accord with feudal
ideas and makes itself felt again in the case of the pursuit of a
fugitive villein. He can be seized without further formalities
if he is caught in his "nest," that is, in his native place. If not,
the lord can follow him in fresh pursuit for four days; once these
days are past, the fugitive is maintained provisionally in posses-
sion of his liberty, and the lord has to bring an action de nativo
habcndo and has to assume the burden of proof.
So much as to the proof of villeinage by birth or previous
condition. But there were numbers of cases when the discussion
as to servile status turned not on these formal points but on an
examination of the services performed by the person claimed
as a villein or challenged as holding in villeinage. In both cases
the courts had often recourse to proof derived not from direct
testimony but from indirect indications as to the kind of services
that had been performed by the supposed villein. Certain services,
especially the payment of merchet — the fine for marrying a
daughter — were considered to be the badge of serfdom. Another
service, the performance of which established a presumption as to
villeinage, was compulsory service as a reeve. The courts also
tried to draw a distinction from the amount and regularity of
agricultural services to which a tenant was subjected. Bracton
speaks of the contrast between the irregular services of a serf,
"who could not know in the evening what he would have to do
in the morning," and services agreed upon and definite in their
amount. The customary arrangements of the work of villeins,
162
VILLEINAGE
however, render this contrast rather fictitious. The obligations of
downright villeins became so far settled and regular that one of
the ordinary designations of the class was custumarii. Therefore
in most cases there were no arbitrary exactions to go by, except
perhaps one or the other tallagc imposed at the will of the lord.
The original distinction seems to have been made not between
arbitrary and agreed but between occasional services and regular
agricultural week-work. While the occasional services, even when
agricultural, in no way established a presumption of villeinage,
and many socmen, freemen and holders by serjeanty submitted
to them, agricultural week-work was primarily considered as a
trait of villeinage and must have played an important part in the
process of classification of early Norman society.
This point, brings us to consider the matter-of-fact conditions
of the villeins during the feudal period, especially in the I2th,
i3th and i4th centuries. As is shown by the Hundred Rolls and
countless other records of the same kind, the customary condi-
tions of villeinage did not tally by any means with the identifica-
tion of villeinage with slavery suggested by the jurists. It is true
that in nomenclature the word serin is not infrequently used (e.g.,
in the Hundred Rolls) where villani might have been mentioned,
and the feminine nicf (nativa) appears as the regular parallel
to villanns, but in the descriptions of usages and services we find
that the power of the lord loses its discretionary character and
is in every respect, moderated by custom. As personal dependents
of the lord native villeins were liable to be sold, and we find actual
sales recorded: Glastonbury Abbey, e.g., sells a certain Philipp
Hardyng for 20 shillings. But such transfers of human chattels
occur seldom, and there is nothing during the English feudal
period corresponding to the brisk trade in men characteristic of
the ancient world. Mcrchct was regarded as a badge of serfdom
in so far as it was said to imply a ''buying of one's own blood"
(servus de sanguine suo cmendo). The explanation is even more
characteristic than the custom itself, because fines on marriage
might be levied and were actually levied on people of different
condition, on the free as well as on the serf. Still the tendency
to treat mere he t as a distinctive feature of serfdom has to be
noted, and we find that the custom spread for this very reason
in consequence of the encroachments of powerful lords; in the
Hundred Rolls it is applied indiscriminately to the whole rustic
population of certain hundreds in a way which can hardly be
explained unless by artificial extension. Hcriot, the surrender of
the best horse or ox, is also regarded as the common incident of
villein tenure, although, of course, its very name proves its
intimate connection with the outfit of soldiers (here-geatu).
Economically the institution of villeinage was bound up with
the manorial organization — that is, with the fact that the country
was divided into a number of districts in which central home
farms were cultivated by work supplied by villein households.
The most important of villein services is the week-work per-
formed by the peasantry. Every virgater or holder of a bovate
has to send a labourer to do work on the lord's farm for some
days in the week. Three days is indeed the most common standard
for service of this kind, though four or even five occur some-
times, as well as two. It must, be borne in mind in the case
of heavy charges, such as four or five days' week-work, that only
one labourer from the whole holding is meant, while generally
there were several men living on every holding — otherwise the
service of five days would be impossible to perform. In ;he
course of these three days, or whatever the number was, many
requirements of the demesne had to be met. The principal of
these was ploughing the fields belonging to the lord, and for such
ploughing the peasant had not only to appear personally as a
labourer, but to bring his oxen and plough, or rather to join
with his oxen and plough in the work imposed on the village;
the heavy, costly plough with a team of eight oxen had to be
made up by several peasants contributing their beasts and im-
plements towards its composition. In the same way the villagers
had to go through the work of harrowing with their harrows, and
of removing the harvest in their vans and carts. Carriage duties
in carts and on horseback were also apportioned according to
the time they took as a part of the week-work. Then came in-
numerable varieties of manual work for the making and keeping
up of hedges, the preservation of dykes, canals and ditches, the
threshing and garnering of corn, the tending and shearing of
sheep, and so forth. All this hand-work was reckoned according
to customary standards as day-work and week-work. But besides
all these services into which the regular week-work of the peas-
i antry was differentiated, there were some additional duties. The
I ploughing for the lord, for instance, was not only imposed in
the shape of a certain number of days in the week, but took
sometimes the shape of a certain number of acres which the
village had to plough and to sow for the lord irrespectively of
the time employed. This was sometimes termed gafolearth. Ex-
ceedingly burdensome services were required in the seasons when
farming processes are at their height — in the seasons of mowing
and reaping, when every day is of special value and the working
power of the farm hands is strained to the utmost. At those
times it was the custom to call up the whole able-bodied popula-
tion of the manor, with the exception of the housewives, for two,
three or more days of mowing and reaping on the lord's fields;
to these boon-works the peasantry was asked or invited by special
summons, and their value was so far appreciated that the villagers
were usually treated to meals in cases where they were again and
again called off from their own fields to the demesne. The
liberality of the lord actually went so far, in exceptionally hard
straits, that ale was served to the labourers.
By the i4th century this social arrangement, based primarily
on natural economy, had given way; the time of commercial, con-
tractual, cash intercourse was fast approaching.
If we now turn to the actual stages by which this momentous
passage from the manorial to the commercial arrangement was
achieved, we have to notice first of all a rapid development of
contractual relations. We know that in feudal law there was a
standing contrast between tenure by custom — villein tenure — and
tenure by contract — free tenure. While the manorial system was
in full force this contrast led to a classification of holdings and
affected the whole position of people on the land. Still, even,
at that time it might happen that a freeholder owned some land
in villeinage by the side of his free tenement, and that a villein
held some land freely by agreement with his lord or with a third
person. But these cases, though by no means infrequent, were
still exceptional. As a rule people used land as holdings, and those
were rigidly classified as villein or free tenements. The interest-
ing point is that, without any formal break, leasing land for life
and /or terms of years is seen to be rapidly spreading during the
1 3th century, and many small tenancies are created Which break
up the disposition of the holdings. From the close of the J3th
century countless transactions on the basis of leases for terms
of years occur between the peasants themselves. Any suitably
kept set of I4th century court rolls contains entries in which
such and such a villein is said to appear in the halt-mote and to
surrender for the use of another person named a piece of land
belonging to the holding. The number of years and the conditions
of payment are specified. Thus, behind the screen of the normal
shares a number of small tenancies arise which run their economic
concerns in independence of the cumbersome arrangements of
tenure and service, and, needless to add, all these tenancies are
burdened with money rents.
Another series of momentous changes took place in the arrange-
ment of services. Even the manorial system admitted the buying
off for money of particular dues in kind and of specific perform-
ance of work. A villein might be allowed to bring a penny instead
of a chicken, or to pay a rent instead of appearing .with his oxen
three times a week on the lord's fields. Such rents were called
mal or mail in contrast with the gafol, ancient rents which had
been imposed independently, apart from any buying off of custom-
ary services. There were even whole bodies of peasants called
Molmen, because they had bought off work from the lord by set-
tling with him on the basis of money rents. As time \vent on these
practices of commutation became more and more frequent. There
were, for both sides, many advantages in arranging their mutual
relations on this basis. The lord got clear money — a much-coveted
means of satisfying needs and wishes of any kind — instead of
VILLfcLE
163
cumbrous performances which did not come always at the proper
moment, were carried out in a half-hearted manner, yielded no
immediate results, and did not admit of convenient rearrangement.
The peasant got rid of a hateful drudgery which not only took
up his time and means in an unprofitable manner, but placed
him under the arbitrary control of stewards or reeves and gave
occasion to all sorts of fines and extortions.
With the growth of intercourse and security money circulated
more freely and the number of such transactions increased in pro-
portion. But it must be kept in mind that the conversion of serv-
ices into rents went on very gradually, as a series of private
agreements, and that it would be wrong to suppose, as some
scholars have done, that it had led to a general commutation by the
middle or even the end of the i4th century. The T4th century was
marked by violent fluctuations in the demand and supply of labour,
and particularly the tremendous loss in population caused in the
middle of this century by the Black Death produced a most
serious crisis. No wonder that many lords clung very tenaciously
to customary services, and ecclesiastical institutions seem to have
been especially backward in going over to the system of money
rents. There is evidence to show, for instance, that the manors of
the abbey of Ramsey were managed on the system of enforced
labour right down to the middle of the isth century, and, of
course, survivals of these customs in the shape of scattered
services lived on much longer. A second drawback from the point
of view of the landlords was that commutation for fixed rents
gradually lessened the value of the exactions to which they were
entitled. Money not only became less scarce but it became
cheaper, so that the couple of pence for which a day of manual
work was bought off in the beginning of the I3th century did not
fetch more than half of their former value at its end. As quit
rents were customary and not rack rents, the successors of those
who had redeemed their services were gaining the whole surplus
in the value of goods and labour as against money, while the
successors of those who had commuted their right to claim services
for certain sums in money lost all the corresponding difference.
These inevitable consequences came to be perceived in course of
time and occasioned a tendency to revert to services in kind which
could not prevail against the general movement from natural
economy to money dealings, but was strong enough to produce
social friction.
The economic crisis of the i4th century has its complement
in the legal crisis of the i5th. At that time the courts of law
began to do away with the denial of protection to villeins which,
as we have seen, constituted the legal basis of villeinage. This
is effected by the recognition of copyhold tenure (see COPYHOLD).
It is a fact of first-rate importance that in the 15th century
customary relations on the one hand, and the power of govern-
ment on the other, reached a stage of development at which the
judges of the king began to take cognizance of the relations of
the peasants to their lords. The first cases which occur in this
sense are still treated not as a matter of common law, but as a
manifestation of equity. As doubtful questions of trust, of
wardship, of testamentary succession, they were taken up not in
the strict course of justice, but as matters in which redress was
sorely needed and could only be given by the exceptional power
of the court of chancery. But this interference of isth century
chancellors paved the way towards one of the greatest revolutions
in the law; without formally enfranchising villeins and villein
tenure they created a legal basis for it in the law of the realm. In
the formula of copyhold — tenement held at the will of the lord
and by the custom of the manor — the first part lost its significance
and the second prevailed, in downright contrast with former
times when, on the contrary, the second part had no legal value
and the first expressed the view of the courts. One may almost
be tempted to say that these obscure decisions rendered unneces-
sary in England the work achieved with such a flourish of trumpets
in France by the emancipating decree of Aug. 4, 1789.
The personal condition of villeinage did not, however, disappear
at once with the rise of copyhold. It lingered through the i6th
century and appears exceptionally even in the 17th. Deeds of
emancipation and payments for personal enfranchisement are
often noticed at that time. But these are only survivals of an
arrangement which has been destroyed in its essence by a com-
plete change of economic and political conditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. Seehohm, The English Village Community
(1883); P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (1802); Pollock and
Maitland, History of English Law (1805) ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday
Book and Beyond (1897) ; A. Savine in the English Historical Review,
xvii. (1902) ; in the Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, xvii.
(1903) ; and in the Economic Quarterly Review (1904) ; P. Vino-
gradofl, Growth of the Manor (1905); English Society in the Xlth
Century (1908) ; W. S. Iloldsworth, History of English Law, (1909).
See also LAND TENURE. (P. Vi.)
VILLELE, JEAN BAPTISTE GUILLAUME MARIE
ANNE SERAPHIN, COMTE DE (17/3-1854), French states-
man, was born at Toulouse on April 14, 1773 and educated for
the navy. He joined the "Bayonnaise" at Brest in July 1788 and
served in the West and East Indies. Arrested in the Isle of
Bourbon under the Terror, he was set free by the revolution of
Thermidor (July 1794). He acquired some property in the island,
and married in 1799 the daughter of a great proprietor, M. Des-
bassyns de Richemont, whose estates he had managed. The ar-
rival of General Decaen, sent out by Bonaparte in 1802, restored
security to the island, and five years later Villele, who had now
realized a large fortune, returned to France. He was mayor of his
commune, and a member of the council of the Haute-Garonne
under the Empire. At the restoration of 1814 he at once declared
for royalist principles. He was mayor of Toulouse in 1814-15
and deputy for the Haute-Garonne in the "Chambre Introuvable"
of 1815. Villele, who before the promulgation of the charter had
written some Observations sur le projct de constitution opposing
it, as too democratic in character, naturally took his place on the
extreme right with the ultra-royalists. In the new Chamber of
1816 Villele found his party in a minority, but his personal au-
thority nevertheless increased. He was looked on by the minis-
terialists as the least unreasonable of his party, and by the "ultras"
as the safest of their leaders. Under the electoral law of 1817
the Abbe Gregoirc, who was popularly supposed to have voted for
the death of Louis XVI. in the Convention, was admitted to the
Chamber of Deputies. The Conservative party gained strength
from the alarm raised by this incident and still more from the
shock caused by the assassination of the due de Berri. The due
de Richelieu was compelled to admit to the cabinet two of the
chiefs of the Left, Villele and Corbiere. Villele resigned within
a year, but on the fall of Richelieu at the end of 1821 he became
the real chief of the new cabinet, in which he was minister of
finance. Although not himself a courtier, he was backed at court
by Sosthenes de la Rochefoucauld and Madame du Cayla, and
in 1822 Louis XVIII. gave him the title of count and made him
formally prime minister.
He immediately proceeded to muzzle opposition by stringent
press laws, and the discovery of minor Liberal conspiracies afforded
an excuse for further repression. Forced against his will into
interference in Spain, he reaped some credit from the campaign
of 1823. Meanwhile he had persuaded Louis XVIII. to swamp
the Liberal majority in the upper house by the nomination of
twenty-seven new peers; he availed himself of the temporary pop-
ularity of the monarchy after the Spanish campaign to summon a
new Chamber of Deputies. This new and obedient legislature, to
which only nineteen Liberals were returned, made itself into a
septennial parliament, thus providing time, it was thought, to
restore some part of the ancien regime. Villele's plans were as-
sisted by the death of Louis XVIII. and the accession of his
bigoted brother. Prudent financial administration since 1815 had
made possible the conversion of the state bonds from 5 to 4%.
It was proposed to utilize the money set free by this operation
to indemnify by a milliard francs the Emigres for the loss of their
lands at the Revolution; it was also proposed to restore their
former privileges to the religious congregations. Both these
propositions were, with some restrictions, secured. Sacrilege was
made a crime punishable by death, and the ministry were pre-
paring a law to alter the law of equal inheritance, and thus create
anew the great estates. These measures roused violent opposi-
tion in the country, which a new and stringent press law, nick-
164
VILLENA— VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT
named the "law of justice and love," failed to put down. The
peers rejected the law of inheritance and the press law; it was
found necessary to disband the National Guard; and in Novem-
ber 1827 seventy-six new peers were created, and recourse was
had to a general election. The new Chamber proved hostile to
Villele, who resigned to make way for the short-lived moderate
ministry of Martignac.
The new ministry made Villele's removal to the upper house a
condition of taking office, and he took no further part in public
affairs. At the time of his death, on March 13, 1854, he had ad-
vanced as far as 1816 with his memoirs, which were completed
from his correspondence by his family as Memoires ct corre-
spondance du comic de Villble (Paris, 5 vols., 1887-90).
Sre also C. dc Mazadc, L' Op position royalistc (Paris, 1804) I J- G.
Hyde dc Neuville, Notice sur le comic de Villcle (Paris, 1809) ; and
M. Chotard, "JL'Ocuvrc nnanciere dc M. de Villcle," in Annalcs des
sciences politiques (vol. v., 1890).
VILLENA, ENRIQUE DE (1384-1433), Spanish author,
sometimes wrongly called marques de Villcna. About 1402 he
married Maria de Castilla, who speedily became the recognized
mistress of Henry III.; the complaisant husband was rewarded
by being appointed master of the military order of Calatrava in
1404, but the nomination was rescinded in 1415. Villcna is rep-
resented by a fragment of his Arte dc trobar (1414), an indi-
gestible treatise composed for the Barcelona Consistory of Gay
Science; by Los Trabajos dc Hercules (1417), a. pedantic and
unreadable allegory; by his Tratado dc la Consolacidn and his
handbook to the pleasures and fashions of the table, the Arte
cisoria, both written in 1423; by the Libro dc Aojamiento (1425),
a ponderous dissertation on the evil eye and its effects; and by a
translation of the Aeneid, the first ever made (1428). His treatise
on leprosy exists but has not been published. Villena's writings
do not justify his extraordinary fame; his subjects are devoid of
charm, and his style is so uncouth as to be almost unintelligible.
Yet he has an assured place in the history of Spanish literature;
he was a generous patron of letters and his translation of Virgil
marks him out as a pioneer of the Renaissance.
VILLENA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Ali-
cante; on the right bank of the river Vinalapo, and at the junction
of railways from Valencia, Alicante, Albacete and Yecla. Pop.
(1920) 16,544. Villena contains some interesting examples of
Moorish domestic architecture. It is dominated by a Moorish
castle. The surrounding hills are covered with vines, and to the
east there is an extensive salt lagoon. Silk, linen, flour, wine,
brandy, oil, salt and soap are the chief industrial products.
VILLENEUVE, PIERRE CHARLES JEAN BAP-
TISTE SILVESTRE (1763-1806), French admiral, was born
at Valensoles (Provence) on Dec. 31, 1763. He entered the
French royal navy as a "garde du Pavilion," and received rapid
promotion, being named post-captain in 1793, and rear-admiral
in 1796. At the close of the year he took part in the unsuccessful
expedition to Ireland.
He accompanied the expedition to Egypt, with his flag in the
"Guillaume Tell" (86). She was the third ship from the rear
of the French line at the battle of the Nile, and escaped in
company with the "Genereux" (78). Villeneuve reached Malta
on Aug. 23. His conduct was severely blamed, and he defended
himself by a specious letter to his colleague Blanquet-Duchayla
on Nov. 12, 1800, from Paris. In a letter written to him on Aug.
21, 1798, Napoleon says that the only thing with which Villeneuve
had to reproach himself was that he had not retreated sooner,
since the position taken by the French commander-in-chicf had
been forced and surrounded. But, in dictating his account of
the expedition to Egypt to General Bert rand at St. Helena, the
ex-emperor attributed the defeat at the Nile largely to the "bad
conduct of Admiral Villeneuve." Villeneuve failed in the execu-
tion of the scheme for the invasion of England in 1805.
Nevertheless, Napoleon selected him to succeed Latouche
Treville at Toulon on his death in August 1804. The duty of the
Toulon squadron was to draw Nelson to the West Indies, return
rapidly, and in combination with other French and Spanish ships,
to enter the Channel with an overwhelming force. It is quite
obvious that Villeneuve had from the first no confidence in the
success of the operation. He knew that the French were not effi-
cient, and that their Spanish allies were in a far worse state than
themselves. It required a very tart order from Napoleon to drive
him out of Paris in October 1804. He took the command in No-
vember. For the details of the campaign see TRAFALGAR. Having
undertaken to carry out a plan of which he disapproved, it was
clearly his duty to execute the orders he received. But Ville-
neuve could not free himself from the conviction that it was
his business to save his ileet even if he ruined the emperor's
plan of invasion. Thus after he returned to Europe and fought
his confused action with Sir R. Calder off Ferrol on July 22,
1805, he first hesitated, and then, in spite of vehement orders
to come on, turned south to Cadiz.
His decision to leave Cadiz and give battle in October 1805,
which led directly to the battle of Trafalgar, cannot be justified
even on his own principles. He foresaw defeat to be inevitable,
and yet he went out solely because he learnt from the Minister
of Marine that another officer had been sent to supersede him.
At Trafalgar he showed personal courage, but the helpless in-
capacity of the allies to manoeuvre gave him no opportunity to
influence the course of the battle. He was taken as a prisoner
to England, but was soon released. He committed suicide at
Rennes, on April 22, 1806.
The correspondence of Napoleon contains many references to
Villeneuve. Accounts of the naval operations in which he was con-
cerned will he found in James's Naval History. Troude, in his Batailles
navales de la France, vol. iii., publishes several of his letters and orders
of the day.
VILLENEUVE-LES- AVIGNON, a town of south-eastern
France, in the department of Card on the right bank of the
Rhone opposite Avignon. Pop. (1926) 2,618. In the 6th century
the Benedictine abbey of St. Andre was founded on Mont
Andaon, and the village which grew up round it took its name. In
the 1 3th century the monks, acting in concert with the crown,
established a bastide, or "new town," which came to be called
Villeneuve. The town was the resort of the French cardinals
during the sojourn of the popes at Avignon, and was important
till the Revolution.
Villeneuve preserves many remains of its mediaeval importance.
The hospice, once a Franciscan convent, and the church and other
remains of the Carthusian monastery of Val-de-Bcnediction,
founded in 1356 by Innocent VI., arc notable. A iyth century
gateway and a rotunda, built as shelter for a fountain, are in-
teresting. On the Mont Andaon, a hill to the north-east of the
town, stands the fort of St. Andre (i4th century), with a forti-
fied entrance gateway and a Romanesque chapel and remains of
the abbey of St. Andre".
VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT, a town of south-western
France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-
Garonne, 22 m. N. by E. of Agen on a branch line of the Orleans
railway. Pop. (1926) 7,174. Villeneuve was founded in 1254
by Alphonse, count of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX., on the site
of the town of Gajac, which had been deserted during the Albi-
gensian crusade.
The river Lot divides the town into two parts. The chief quar-
ter stands on the right bank and is united to that on the left bank
by a 1 3th century bridge. On the left bank portions of the i3th
century ramparts, altered and surmounted by machicolations in
the 1 5th century, remain, and high square towers rise above the
gates to the north-east, the Porte de Paris, and south-west, the
Porte de Pujols. Arcades of the i3th century surround the Place
La Fayette, and there are old houses of the i3th, i4th and isth
centuries in various parts of the town. On the left bank of the
Lot, 2 m. S.S.W. of Villeneuve, are the 13th-century walls of
Pujols. The buildings of the ancient abbey of Eysses, about a
mile to the N.E., mainly I7th century, remain. Villeneuve has a
sub-prefecture and a tribunal of commerce. It is an important
agricultural centre and has a very large trade in plums (prunes
d'ente) and in the produce of the market gardens which surround
it, as well as in cattle, horses and wine. The preparation of pre-
served plums and the tinning of peas and beans occupy many
hands; there are also manufactures of shoes and tin boxes.
VILLEROI— VILLON
165
VILLEROI, FRANCOIS DE NEUFVILLE, Due DE
(1644-1730), French soldier, was the son of Nicolas de Neufville,
Marquis de Villcroi, marshal of France (1598-1685). His father,
created a duke by Louis XIV., was the young king's governor,
and the boy was thus brought up in close relations with Louis.
An intimate of the king, a finished courtier and a man of great
gallantry, Villeroi was marked out for advancement in the army
and in 1693 was made a marshal. In 1695, when Luxembourg
died, he obtained the command of the army in Flanders, and
William III. found him a far more complaisant opponent than the
"little hunchback." In 1701 he superseded Catinat in Italy and
was soon beaten by Eugene at Chiari. (See SPANISH SUCCESSION
WAR.) In the winter of 1701 he was made prisoner at Cremona,
and the wits of the army made at his expense the famous
rhyme :
Par la faveur He Bcllonc, ct par un bonhcur san £gal.
Nous avons conserve Cremonc — et perdu notre general.
In the following years he was pitted against Marlborough in the
Low Countries, and in 1706 the duke defeated him at Ramillies
(q.v.)> Louis superseded him in the command, and henceforward
Villeroi lived the life of a courtier. He died on July 18, 1730 at
Paris.
VILLERS LA VILLE, a village of Belgium in the province
of Brabant, 2 m. E. of Quatre Bras, with a station on the direct
line from Louvain to Charleroi. Pop. (1920) 1,059. It is chiefly
interesting on account of the fine ruins of the Cistercian abbey of
Villcrs founded in 1147 and destroyed by the French in 1795.
VILLIERS, BARBARA: see CLEVELAND, DUCHESS or.
VILLIERS DE L'ISLE-ADAM, PHILIPPE AU-
GUSTE MATHIAS, COMTE DE (1838-1889), French poet,
was born at St. Brieuc in Brittany and baptized on Nov. 28, 1838.
He may be said to have inaugurated the Symbolist movement in
French literature, and Axel, the play on which he was engaged
during so much of his life, though it was only published after
his death, is the typical Symbolist drama. He began with a
volume of Premieres Poesies (1856-58). This was followed by
a wild romance of the supernatural, Isis (1862), and by two plays
in prose, Rlen (1866) and Mor^ane (1866). La Revolte, a play
in which Ibsen's Doll's House seems to be anticipated, was repre-
sented at the Vaudeville in 1870; Contes crnels, his finest volume
of short stories, in 1883, and a new scries in 1889; Le Noitveau
Monde, a drama in five acts, in 1880; L'fivc future, an amazing
piece of buffoonery satirizing the pretensions of science, in 1886;
Tribulat Bonhomet in 1887; Le Secret de Vechafaud in 1888;
Axel in 1890. He died in Paris, under the care of the Freres
Saint- Jean-de-Dicu, on the igth of August 1889.
Villiers has left behind him a legend probably not more fan-
tastic than the truth. Sharing many of the opinions of Don
Quixote, he shared also Don Quixote's life. He was the descend-
ant of the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, famous in his-
tory, and his pride as an aristocrat and as an idealist were equal.
He hated mediocrity, science, progress, the present age, money
and "serious" people.
He remains a remarkable poet and a remarkable satirist, im-
perfect as both. He improvised out of an abundant genius, but
the greater part of his work was no more than improvisation.
He was accustomed to talk his stories before he wrote them.
Sometimes he talked them instead of writing them. But he has
left, at all events, the Contes cniels, in which may be found
every classic quality of the French conte, together with many of
the qualities of Edgar Allan Poe and Ernst Hoffman; and the
drama of Axel, in which the stage takes a new splendour and a
new subtlety of meaning. Villiers's influence on the younger
French writers was considerable. It was always an exalta-
tion. No one in his time followed a literary ideal more romanti-
cally. (A. SY.)
See also R. du Pontavice de Hcussey, Villiers de risk-Adam (1893),
a biography, English trans. (1904) by Lady Mary Loyd; S. Mallarme,
Les Miens. Villiers de Vide- Adam (1892) ; R. Martineau, Un vivant
ft deux morts (1901), bibliography. A selection from his stories,
Histoires souverainfs, was made by his friends (Brussels, 1899) ; there
is a translation of the Contes cruets by Hamish Miles (Sardonic Tales,
1927).
VILLON, FRANCOIS (1431-*- 1463), French poet, was
born in 1431, and, as it seems, certainly at Paris. He was entered
on the books of the university of Paris as Francois de Montcorbier,
but was always known by the name of his patron, Guillaume de
Villon. It appears that he was born of poor folk, that his father
died in his youth, but that his mother, for whom he wrote one
of his most famous ballades, was alive when her son was thirty
years old. Villon was received into the house of Guillaume de
Villon, chaplain in the collegiate church of Saint-Benoit-le-Bes-
tourne, and a professor of canon law, who was probably a rela-
tive. The poet became a student in arts, no doubt early and took
the degree of bachelor in 1449 and that of master in 1452.
On June 5, 1455, being in the company of a priest named Giles
and a girl named Isabeau, he met, in the rue Saint-Jacques, a
certain Breton, Jean le Hardi, a master of arts, who was with a
priest, Philippe Chermoye or Scrmoise or Sermaise. A scuffle
ensued; daggers were drawn; and Sermaise, who started the broil,
died of his wounds. Villon tied, and was sentenced to banish-
ment— a sentence which was remitted in January 1456, the formal
pardon being extant in two different documents, in one of which
the culprit is described as "Francois des Logos, autrement dit
Villon," in the other as "Francois de Montcorbier." By the end
of 1456 he was again in trouble. In his first broil "la femme
Isabeau" is only generally named, and it is impossible to say
whether she had anything to do with the quarrel. In the second,
Catherine de Vaucellcs, of whom we hear not a little in the poems,
is the declared cause of a scuffle in which Villon was so severely
beaten that, to escape ridicule, he decided to flee to Angers, where
he had an uncle who was a monk. As he was preparing to leave
Paris he composed the Petit Testament. Hitherto Villon had been
rather injured than guilty. But on the eve of leaving Paris he was
concerned, just before Christmas 1456, in robbing the chapel of
the college of Navarre from which five hundred gold crowns were
stolen. The robbery was not discovered till March 1457, and in
May the police came on the track of a gang of student -robbers
owing to the indiscretion of one of them, Guy Tabaric. A year
more passed, when Tabaric, being arrested, turned king's evidence
and accused Villon, who was then absent, of being the ringleader,
and of having gone to Angers, partly at least, to arrange for
similar burglaries there. Villon, for this or some other crime,
was sentenced to banishment: and he did not attempt to return
to Paris. For fouf years he was a wanderer, apparently a pedlar
for some part of the time; and he may have been, as each of his
friends Regnier de Montigny and Colin dcs Cayeux certainly was.
a member of a wandering thieves' gang. It is certain that at one
time (in the winter of 1457), and probable that at more times
than one, he was in correspondence with Charles d'Orleans, and
visited that prince's court at Blois. He made his way to Bourges
where he was again in trouble, and had a taste of prison. From
Bourges he went to the Bourbonnais, where he found shelter for a
brief period with Jean II. de Bourbon. Thence, if his own words
are to be taken literally, he wandered to Dauphin6. lie was in
prison at Orleans, put to the question and under sentence of death,
when he was released on the passage of the little princess of Or-
leans through the town on July 17, 1460. He had spent the sum-
mer of 1461 in the bishop's prison of Meung. Villon owed his
release to Louis XT., who passed through Meung on a royal
progress and freed prisoners on Oct. 2.
It was now that he wrote the Grand Testament, the work
which has immortalized him. Although he was only thirty nothing
appears to be left him but regret ; his very spirit has been worn out
by excesses or sufferings or both. In the autumn of 1462 we find
him once more living. in the cloisters of Saint-Benoit, and in
November he was in the Chatelet for theft. In default of evidence
the old charge of the college of Navarre was revived, and even a
royal pardon did not bar the demand for restitution. Bail was,
however, accepted, but Villon was present at a street quarrel from
which he hastily got away. Nevertheless he was arrested, tortured
and condemned to be hanged, but the sentence was commuted to
banishment (for ten years) by the parlement on Jan. 5, 1463.
From this time he disappears from history.
Villon's two Testaments are made up of eight-line stanzas of
1 66
VILNA
eight -syllabled verses, varied in the case of the Grand Testament
by the insertion of ballades and rondeaux. The sense of the vanity
of human life pervades the whole of Villon's poetry. It is the
very keynote of his most famous and beautiful piece, the Ballade
des dames du temps jadis, with its refrain, "Mais ou sont les
neigcs d'antan?", of the ballade of La Grosse Margot, with its
burden of hopeless entanglement in shameless vice; and of the
equally famous Regrets de la Belle Hcaulmiere, in which a woman,
once young and beautiful, now old and withered, laments her lost
charms. So it is almost throughout his poems, including the grim
Ballade des pendns, and hardly excluding the very beautiful
Ballade que Villon feist a la requeste de sa mere, pour prier
Nostre-Dame, with its sincere and humble piety. In Villon's verse
mediaeval Paris lives. Villon himself was beloved by the Paris
of his day. His bright keen intellect, the exquisite polish of his
verses and his realism, make him one of the great forces in French
poetry. His influence on the moderns has been very great.
His certainly genuine poems consist of the two Testaments with
their codicil (the latter containing the Ballade des pendus, or more
properly Epitaphe en forme de ballade, and some other pieces of a
similarly grim humour), a few miscellaneous poems, chiefly bal-
lades, and an extraordinary collection (called Le Jargon ou jobclin)
of poems in argot, the greater part of which is now totally unin-
telligible, if, which may j>erhaps be doubted, it ever was otherwise.
Several poems usually printed with Villon's works are certainly,
or almost certainly, not his. The chief are Les Repues Franches,
a curious series of verse stories of cheating tavern-keepers, etc.,
having some resemblance to those told of George Peele, but of a
broader and coarser humour. These, though in many cases "com-
mon form" of the broader tale-kind, are not much later than his
time, and evidence to reputation if not to fact.
The first dated edition of Villon is of 1489. Before 1542 there
were very numerous editions, the most famous being that (1533)
of Clement Marot, one of whose most honourable distinctions is
the care he took of his poetical predecessors. The Pleiade move-
ment and the classicizing of the grand sieclc put Villon rather out
of favour, and he was not again reprinted till early in the iSth
century, when he attracted the attention of students of old French
like Le Duchat, Bernard de la Monnoye and Prosper Marchand.
The first critical edition in the modern sense — that is to say, an
edition founded on mss. (of which there are in Villon's case several,
chiefly at Paris and Stockholm)- -was that of the Abbe* J. II. R.
Prompsault in 1832. The next was that of the "Bibliophile Jacob"
(P. Lacroix) in the BiblioMque EhMrienne (Paris, 1854). The
standard editions arc Oeuvres complies de Francois Villon, by M,
Auguste Lonfcnon (i8g->), a revision of this text by Lucien Foulet,
Francois Villon: Oe.uvrcs (1923); and L. Thuasnc, Francois Villon;
Oeuvres: Edition critique. (1923), based on the Stockholm ms. of 1470,
the ms. Fr. 20041 of the Bibliothequc National?, and Levet's text of
1480. M. Marcel Schwob discovered new documents relating to the
poet, but died before he could complete his work, which was post-
humously published in 1905. The researches of Schwob were com-
pleted by P. Champion in his Francois Villon, sa vie. ct son temps
(1913). See also A. Longnon, Etude biographiqiif sur Francois Villon
(1877) ; Gaston Paris, Francois Villon (IQOI) ; D. B. Wyndham Lewis,
Francois Villon, A Documented Sumey (1028), with preface by H.
Belloc, which contains renderings of the individual poems by Rossetti,
Swinburne and Henley, and a full survey of the documents.
VILNA or WILNO, a province of Poland, having the prov-
ince of Nowogr6dek on the south, Russia on the east, Latvia on
the north and Lithuania on the west. Area 10,965 sq.m.; pop.
(1921) 983.000, of whom 57-4% are Poles, 25-4% White Rus-
sians, 5-6^ Lithuanians, 8- 2% Jews and 3-4% other nationalities.
The national struggle has always been fierce in this area, whether
between Lithuanians and White Russians, or the persecution of
Poles by Russians, or the present feud between Poles and Lithu-
anians. The district is a Polish island, in White Russian territory,
which for centuries formed the centre of the great Lithuanian
Ruthenian principality. The World War and its sequel, the Polish
Lithuanian feud, has retarded the development of the province.
It forms an extension of the Baltic uplands towards the Valdai
plateau. The north part is drained by the Disna and just touches
the Dvina; the south part is drained by the Wilija. Numerous
lakes and marshes, partly covered with forests, and scarcely passa-
ble, except when frozen, occupy a great part of the province.
Lakes Narocz and Dryswiaty are the largest. The climate is
slightly tempered by the proximity of the Baltic sea, but in win-
ter the thermometer descends as low as —30° F. The flora and
fauna are intermediate between those of Poland and central Rus-
sia. Agriculture and forestry are the main occupations of the in-
habitants. The province is backward, and grows mainly rye and
oats. It has a considerable export of timber.
There are few towns, the chief of them being Vilna (pop.
128,900), Oszmiana, Swienciany, Molodeczno, Wilejka, Disna and
Braslaw. Near Krewo are the ruins of an old castle; at Troki,
to which Gedymin moved his capital from Krewo, are the ruins of
his castle, standing picturesquely over the lake.
VILNA or WILNO, a town of Poland, capital of the province
of the same name, 436 m. S.S.W. of Leningrad, at the inter-
section of the railways from Leningrad to Warsaw and from
Libau to the mouth of the Don. Pop. (1921) 128,900. With its
suburbs Antokol, Lukishki, Pogu'lyanka and Sarechye, it stands
on and around a knot of hills (2,450 ft.) at the confluence of the
Vileika with the Viliya. Its streets are in part narrow and not very
clean; but Vilna is an old town, rich in historical associations. Its
imperial palace, and the cathedral of St. Stanislaw (1387, restored
1801), containing the silver sarcophagus of St. Casimir and the
tomb of Prince Vitoft, are fine buildings. There is a second cathe-
dral, that of St. Nicholas, built in 1596-1604; also several churches
dating from the T.jth to the i6th centuries. The Ostra Brama
chapel contains an image of the Virgin greatly venerated by
Orthodox Greeks and Roman Catholics alike. The museum of
antiquities has valuable historical collections. The ancient castle
of the Jagellones is now a mass of ruins. The old university,
founded in 1578, restored (1803) by Alexander I., but closed in
1832 for political reasons was reopened in 1920. Vilna is an arr.hie-
piscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church and an episcopal see
of the Roman Catholic Church. The city possesses a botanical
garden and a public library. It is an important centre for trade
in timber and grain, which are exported; and has theological
seminaries, both Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic. (X.)
History. — Vilna was founded in the xoth century, but became
important as the capital of Lithuania (q.v.) under Gedymin in
1323. In the early part of the isth century, Lithuania and
Poland coalesced, but owing to their cultural superiority the Poles
gradually absorbed Lithuania although in point of territory it was
three times the size of Poland. Vilna became a centre of Polish
erudition and had a printing-press as early as 1519, but politically
ceded pride of place to Warsaw. In the long struggle between
Russia, Poland and Sweden which filled the i7th century, the city
was nearly ruined. Russia finally retained it. in 1795, after the
partition of Poland. In 1803 a university was established there,
but suppressed for political reasons in 1832. The Polish in-
habitants took part in the abortive risings of 1831 and 1863. The
town remained the capital of what was now the province of
Vilna and became a first class fortress. As such, it fell into Ger-
man hands after an ephemeral resistance in the autumn of 1915.
The question of the political disposal of Vilna therefore did not
arise until Poland and Lithuania re-emerged as separate States
after the World War of 1914-18. No definite frontier existed
between them, but on Dec. 8, TQIQ, the Supreme Council of the
Allies in Paris laid down a provisional eastern frontier for Poland,
the so-called "Curzon Line" which assigned to Poland most ter-
ritories where the Polish element was in a majority, but excluded
mixed and doubtful districts, the principal among these being
Vilna city and province which the Bolsheviks, with whom the
Lithuanians were then at war, had succeeded in capturing for
themselves. The provisional Lithuanian Government fled to
Kaunas (Kovno). Three months later, the Lithuanians by ar-
rangement with the Poles were on the point of recapturing Vilna
when it fell to Polish troops. Obviously, in time of war, this
important strategic position at the confluence of two rivers and
at the intersection of three railway lines had to be secured quickly.
Lithuania made peace with Russia (July 1920), her claim to
Vilna being recognised by the Soviet — now that the Poles held it.
Soon after, the Poles, fighting Russia single-handed, lost not
only Vilna, but nearly all their country. Nevertheless the face of
VIMEIRO— VINCENNES
167
the war changed, and the Poles drove back the Bolsheviks who,
no longer able to hold Vilna themselves, handed it to Lithuanian
troops (end of Aug. 1920), and from that time forth remained
consistent in their recognition of the Lithuanian claim. On Oct. 9,
Polish troops under the "rebel" general Zeligovski recaptured the
town thereby breaking the agreement signed at Suvalki in the
presence of the military control commission of the League of
Nations two days earlier, whereby the Poles recognised the
Lithuanian occupation of Vilna and Vilna region. Since then the
Lithuanians have never ceased to protest against the Polish
occupation of their historic capital, of two-fifths of their historic
territory and the alienation of nearly half their historic popula-
tion. They had the sympathy of the League of Nations.
But on Jan. 15, 1923, the Lithuanians, imitating the conduct
of Zeligovski at Vilna, seized Memcl (q.v.) by a coup de main.
On March 15, 1923, the Conference of Ambassadors, in considera-
tion of the peace treaty of Riga between Soviet Russia and
Poland, assigned Vilna definitely to Poland. Lithuania refused to
accept the ruling, even though the convention signed in Paris
(May 8, 1924) gave her Memel and area — the economically valu-
able "Lithuania Minor" — and maintained a state of "latent war"
with Poland ever since, neither regular diplomatic relations nor
even direct postal communications being resumed by the end of
the year 1928. This manner of conducting policy, apart from
the danger to Europe, arising from frontier incidents has gravely
hurt Vilna. As a result, sympathies which were Lithuanian have
been lost.
Among the many attempts by the League of Nations to secure
an equitable settlement, two struck at the root of the question.
The first, in 1921, was the taking of a plebiscite under the pro-
tection of an international force. It failed because the respec-
tive governments would not risk being involved in so perilous
an experiment, once Soviet Russia threatened to make it a casus
belli if an inter-European force was assembled near its frontier.
The second, also in 1921, was the Hy man's proposal whereunder
Vilna was to come under Lithuanian sovereignty as an autonomous
canton with special guarantees. It presupposed a permanent
military and economic alliance between the two states — of which
Lithuania is afraid lest she be a second time absorbed by the
culturally superior Poles.
The underlying idea of both these and all other similar schemes
is the settlement on the basis of the sovereignty of the national
majority — whichever it might prove to be — with adequate guar-
antees for the racial minorities. However, whether we consider
the Russian census of 1897 (which the movement of population
during the war has strongly vitiated), or any subsequent reason-
ably fair statistics, one thing is clear: within the limits of Vilna
City the Poles are in a majority. On the other hand, within the
area of the former Russian province, live, according to Polish
admission about 80,000 Lithuanians, according to the Kovno
authorities not less than half a million. But the latter includes
so-called "denationalized" Lithuanians by which are meant per-
sons of Lithuanian origin who have long ago abandoned their
language for the reason that, until its post-war revival, it was
little more than a primitive peasant-tongue. The question is fur-
ther complicated by the existence of pure Polish "islands" within
the admittedly Lithuanian areas, not to mention the very large
Russian settlements.
See POLAND; LITHUANIA; also League of Nations Official Journal
(spec. Suppl. 4) and the Lithuanian Press Bureau's The Lithuanian-
Polish Dispute (3 vol. 1922). (W. L. B.)
VIMEIRO, BATTLE OF, 1808. Advancing upon Lisbon
(see PENINSULAR WAR), Wellesley halted to cover the landing of
reinforcements at the mouth of the Alcabrichella. Two miles from
the sea this river cuts its way through a high ridge, which it
divides into a western and an eastern section; at the southern
entrance of the gorge thus formed lies the village of Vimeiro.
Wellesley's force, 20,000 strong, was encamped upon the western
ridge, with two brigades upon Vimeiro hill, a knoll just south of
the village. On the morning of Aug. 21, 1808, Wellesley learned
that Junot, with 13,000 men, was advancing to attack him. Junot,
ignoring the western ridge, directed the brigades of Thomifcres
and Chariot to attack Vimeiro hiJl, while Brennier mounted the
eastern ridge and swept along it from the east. Wellesley at once
sent five brigades on to the eastern ridge, two to overlook Vimeiro
hill and three to stop Brennicr's advance along its crest. The
attack on Vimeiro hill followed a course that was to be the
pattern for many such engagements throughout the war. The
French advanced in solid columns on a narrow frontage, having
thus little fire power; the British received them in line, wrapping
themselves round the head and flanks of the columns, withered
them with volleys of musketry, charged with the bayonet and
swept them down the hill with heavy loss. A second attack by
four battalions of grenadiers met with a similar fate, though two
battalions did fight their way into Vimciro village and were only
dislodged after heavy hand-to-hand fighting. Meanwhile Brennier
had lost himself among ravines north of the eastern ridge, but
Solignac, who had been sent to reinforce him, struck correctly
westwards along the ridge and blundered into three British
brigades in line. Within a few minutes Solignac's brigade had
practically ceased to exist, but as the bulk of the British chased
joyfully along the ridge in pursuit of the survivors Brennicr's
brigade came up from the valley behind them and roughly
handled two battalions that had been left to guard Solignac's
abandoned guns. Fortunately their comrades returned in time
to scatter Brennier's men. The moment was ripe for a general
advance and pursuit of Junot 's beaten army, but Sir Harry
Burrard at this point arrived to take over command from Welles-
ley and timidly ordered hostilities to cease. Junot had lost half
his guns and a quarter of his men, the British loss being only 750.
VINCENNES, a suburb 7 kilometres cast of Notre Dame de
Paris, in the department of Seine, on a wooded plateau. Pop.
(1926), 41,836. Its celebrated rastle, situated to the south of
the town and on the northern border of the Bois de Vincennes,
was formerly a royal residence, begun by Louis VII. in 1164,
and more than once rebuilt. It was frequently visited by Louis
IX. The chapel, an imitation of the Sainte Chapelle at Paris,
was begun by Charles V. in 1379, continued by Charles VI. and
Francis L, consecrated in 1552 and restored in modern times. In
the sacristy is the monument erected in 1816 to the memory of
the duke of Enghien, who was shot in the castle moat in 1804.
Louis XI. made the castle a state prison in which Henry of
Navarre, the great Conde, Mirabeau and other distinguished per-
sons were afterwards confined. Louis XV11I. added an armoury,
and under Louis Philippe numerous casemates and a new fort to
the east of the donjon were constructed. Vincennes has a school
of military administration and carries on horticulture and the
manufacture of ironware, rubber goods, chemicals, etc.
VINCENNES, a city of S.W. Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wahash
river; the county seat of Knox county, the oldest settlement of
the State. It is on federal highways 4r ;md 50; has a municipal
airport; and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Big Four,
the Chicago and Eastern Illinois, and the Pennsylvania railways.
Pop. (1920) 17,160 (94% native white); estimated locally at
21,000 in 1928. Vincennes is in a rich agricultural region, sur-
rounded by vast coalfields. Its manufactures include structural
steel, pearl buttons (from mussel shells taken from the Wabash),
glass, shoes, ploughs, fertilizer, ice-cream moulds, Hour, and
ketchup. A French trading post was established on the site of Vin-
cennes probably as early as 1702, and about 1731 a fortification
was erected by Francois Margane, Sieur de Vincennes, around
which a permanent settlement soon grew up. It remained under
French sovereignty until 1777, was occupied by the British and
named Fort Sackville. On February 25, 1779, it was captured
by George Rogers Clark, returning after his expedition to Kas-
kaskia. Vincennes was the capital of Indiana Territory from
1800—13. It was incorporated as a borough in 1839 and became
a city in 1856. Buildings of historic interest still standing (1929)
include: the house in which the first Territorial legislature met on
July 9, 1805; the Governor's mansion, built by William Henry
Harrison, the first governor of the territory; and Vincennes
University, opened in 1806, now a junior college. The county
court-house was built in 1873-4 as a memorial to the pioneers
and soldiers of Knox county.
i68
VINCENT— VINCENT OF LERINS
VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST., deacon and martyr, whose
festival is celebrated on Jan. 22. In several of his discourses
St. Augustine pronounces the eulogy of this martyr, and refers
to Acts which were read in the church. It is doubtful whether
the Acts that have come down to us (Ada Sanctorum, January,
ii- 394-397) are those referred to by St. Augustine, since it is
not certain that they are a contemporary document. According
to this account, Vincent was born of noble parents in Spain, and
was educated by Valerius, bishop of Saragossa, who ordained him
to the diaconate. Under the persecution of Diocletian, Vincent
was arrested and taken to Valencia. He was subjected to ex-
cruciating tortures and thrown into prison, where angels visited
him, lighting his dungeon with celestial light and relieving his
sufferings. His warders, having seen these wonders through the
chinks of the wall, forthwith became Christians. lie died in an
interval when new torments were being prepared. His body, ex-
posed to the wild beasts in vain, was thrown into the sea, but
was recovered and buried outside Valencia.
See T. Ruinart, Ada martyr um sincera (Amsterdam, 1713), PP-
364-366; Le Nain de Tillemont, Mcnwires pour servir a, Ihistoire
eccltsiastiqite (Paris, 1701, seq.), v. 215-225, 673-675.
VINCENT, GEORGE EDGAR (1864- ), American
educationalist, was born at Rockford, 111., on March 21, 1864.
After graduating at Yale in 1885, he engaged in editorial work
and in 1886 was made literary editor of the Chautauqua press. He
was president of the Chautauqua institution from 1907 to 1915
and thereafter honorary president. In 1892 he was appointed
fellow at the University of Chicago. He taught at Chicago as in-
structor, assistant professor, associate professor, and from 1904 to
1911 as professor of sociology. He was dean of the junior colleges
from 1900 to 1907, and then for four years was dean of the facul-
ties of arts, literature and sciences. From 1911 to 1917 he was
president of the University -of Minnesota. In 1917 he was chosen
president of the Rockefeller Foundation in New York city; he had
been a member of the General Education Board since 1914. Vin-
cent has written The Social Mind and Education (1897), and with
Albion W. Small An Introduction to the Studv of Society (1894).
VINCENT DE PAUL, ST. (1576-1660), French divine,
founder of the "Congregation of Priests of the Mission," usually
known as Lazarites (</.v.), was born on April 24, 1576 at Pouy,
near Dax, in Gascogne, and was educated by the Franciscans at
Dax and at Toulouse. He was ordained priest in 1600. Voyaging
from Toulouse to Narbonne, he was captured by Barbary pirates,
who took him to Tunis and sold him as a slave. He converted his
third master, a renegade Italian, and escaped with him to Aigues-
Mortes near Marseilles in June 1607. After short stays at
Avignon and Rome, Vincent found his way to Paris, where he
became acquainted with Pierre de Berulle (q.v.), who found him
a curacy at Clichy near Paris (1611). He then became tutor to
the count of Joigny at Folleville, in the diocese of Amiens, where
his success with the peasants led to the "missions" with which his
name is associated. In 1617 he became curate of Chatillon-les-
Dombes (or sur-Chalaronne), and the countess of Joigny supplied
him with money to found his first confreric dc charitc, an associa-
tion of women who ministered to the poor and the sick.
Among the works of benevolence with which his name is
associated are the establishment of a hospital for galley slaves at
Marseilles, the institution of two establishments for foundlings
at Paris, and the organization of the Filles dc la Charite, to
supplement the work of the confrMes, whose members were
mainly married women with domestic duties. He died at Paris
on Sept. 27, 1660, and was buried in the church of St. Lazare.
He was beatified by Benedict XIII. in 1729, and canonized
by Clement XII. in 1737.
The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was founded by Frederic
Ozanam and others in 1833.
Lives by Maynard (4 vols., Paris, 1860), Bougaud (2 vols., Paris,
i8yi), E. dc Broglic (5th edition, Paris, 1809) ; Letters (2 vols.,
Paris, 1882) ; A. Loth (Paris, 1880) ; H. Simard (Lyons, 1894) ; E. K.
Sanders, V. de Paul, priest and philanthropist (1913).
VINCENT OP BEAUVAIS, or VINCENTIUS BELLOVA-
CFNSIS (c. ii9O-r. 1264), the encyclopaedist of the middle ages,
was probably a native of Beauvais. The exact dates of his birth
and death are unknown. A tolerably old tradition, preserved
by Louis a Valleoleti (c. 1413), gives the latter as 1264; but
Tholomaeus de Luca, Vincent's younger contemporary (d. 1321),
seems to reckon him as living during the pontificate of Gregory
X. (1271-76). If we assume 1264 as the year of his death, the
immense volume of his works 'forbids us to think he could have
been born much later than 1190. Very little is known of his
career. It is certain, however, that he at one time held the post of
"reader" at the monastery of Royaumont (Mons Re Kalis), not far
from Paris, on the Oise.
The Speculum Majus, the great compendium of all the knowl-
edge of the middle ages, as it left the pen of Vincent, seems to
have consisted of three parts only, viz., the Speculum Naturalc,
Doctrinale and Historiale. Such, at least, is fcchard's conclusion,
derived from an examination of the earliest extant mss. All the
printed editions, however, consist of four parts, the additional
one being entitled Speculum Morale. This has been clearly shown
to be the production of a later hand, and is ascribed by £churd
to the period between 1310 and 1325.
The Speculum Naturale is divided into thirty-two books and
3,718 chapters. It is a vast summary of all the natural history
known to western Europe towards the middle of the i3th century.
It is, as it were, the great temple of mediaeval science, whose
lloor and walls are inlaid with an enormous mosaic of skilfully
arranged passages from Latin, Greek, Arabic and Hebrew authors.
The Speculum Doctrinale, in seventeen books and 2,374
chapters, is a summary of all the scholastic knowledge of the
age. It is intended to be a practical manual for the student and
the official alike; and, to fulfil this object, it treats of the mechanic
arts of life as well as the subtleties of the scholar, the duties of
the prince and the tactics of the general. It also treats of mathe-
matics, under which head are included music, geometry, astron-
omy, astrology, weights and measures, and metaphysics. It. is note-
worthy that in this book Vincent shows a knowledge of the
Arabic numerals, though he does not call them by this name.
The last book (xvii.) treats of theology or mythology, and winds
up with an account of the Holy Scriptures and of the Fathers,
down to Bernard of Clairvaux and the brethren of St. Victor.
As the fifteenth book of the Speculum Doctrinale is a summary
of the Speculum Natnrale, so the Speculum Historiale may be
regarded as the expansion of the last book of the same work. It
consists of thirty-one books divided inlo 3,793 chapters. It
brings history down from the creation to the crusade of St. Louis.
Four of the mediaeval historians from whom he quotes most
frequently are Sigcbert of Gembloux, Hugh of Fleury, Helinand
of Froidmont, and William of Malmesbury.
Vincent has hardly any claim to be reckoned as an original
writer. But it is difficult to speak too highly of his immense in-
dustry in collecting, classifying and arranging these three huge
volumes of 80 books and 9,885 chapters. The undertaking to
combine all human knowledge into a single whole was in itself
a colossal one and could only have been born in a mind of no
mean order. Indeed more than six centuries passed before the
idea was again resuscitated; and even then it required a group
of brilliant. Frenchmen to do what the old Dominican did unaided.
A list of Vincent's works, both ms. and printed, will bo found in
tho Hhtoirc litteraire de France, vol. xviii., and in Jacques £chaid's
Script ores ordhtis praedicatorum (1719-21). The Tractatus consola-
torius pro morte amid and the Liber de eritditione filforum regalium
(dedicated to Queen Margaret) were printed at Basle in December
1480.
See J. B. Bourgeat, Etudes sur Vincent de Beauvais, theologien,
philosophc, encyclopedists (Paris, 1856) ; K. Boutaric, Examen dcs
sources du Speculum historiale dc Vincent de Beauvais (Paris, 1863) ;
and in tome xvii. of the Revue des questions hhtoriques (Paris, 1875) ;
W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichlsquellen, vol. ii. (1894) ;'B.
Haureau, Notices . . . de MSS. latins dc la Bibliotheque Nationale,
tome v. (1892) ; and E. Male, L'art rcligieux du Xllle slecle en France.
VINCENT OF LERINS, ST., or VINCENTIS LERINENSIS
(d. c. A.D. 450), theologian, was a native of Gaul, possibly brother
of St. Loup, bishop of Troyes. He became a monk and priest at
Lerinum (Lerins), an island off Cannes, and died in or about 450.
The monastery of Lerins produced many eminent churchmen,
VINDELICIA— VINE
169
among them Hilary of Aries. In 434, three years after the coun-
cil of Ephesus, he wrote the Commonitorium adversus profanas
omnium haereticorum novitates, in which he ultimately aims
at Augustine's doctrine of grace and predestination. In it he
discusses the "notes" which distinguish Catholic truth from
heresy, and (cap. 2) lays down and applies the famous threefold
test of orthodoxy — quod ubiqne, quod semper, quod ab omnibus
crcditum est.
The Commonitorium has been edited by Baluze (Paris, 1663, 1669
and 1684), by Kliipfcl (Vienna, 1809), and by R. S. Mo.xon (1915).
It also occurs in vol. i. of Migne's Patrol. Ser. Lai. (1846). A full
summary is given in A. Harnack's History of Dogma, iii. 230 ff. See
also F. II. Stanton, Place of Authority in Religion, pp. 167 ff. ; A.
Cooper-Marsdin, The School of Lerins (Rochester, 1905).
VINDELICIA, in ancient geography, a country bounded on
the south by Rhaetia, on the north by the Danube and the Vallum
Hadriani, on the east by the Ocnus (Inn), on the west by the
territory of the Helvetii. It thus corresponded to the north-
eastern portion of Switzerland, the south-east of Baden, and the
south of Wiirttemberg and Havana. Together with the neigh-
bouring tribes it was subjugated by Tiberius in 15 B.C., and
towards the end of the ist century A.D. was made part of Rhaetia.
VINDHYA, a range of mountains in Central India. They
form a well-marked, though not continuous, chain with the river
Narbnda on the south and separate the Ganges basin from the
Deccan. Starting on the west in Gujarat, they cross the southern
edge of the Malwa plateau and, continued by the Bhanrcr and
Kaimur ranges, abut on the Ganges valley near Benares. They
have an elevation of 1,500 to 4.500 ft., nowhere exceeding 5,000 ft.
They arc built of the "Vindhyan formation" (part of the Pre-
Cambrian rocks of India). Traditionally they formed the bound-
ary between the M.idyadesha of the Sanskrit invaders and the
non-Aryan Deccan.
VINE. The grape-vine, botanically Vitis (family Vitaceae),
is a genus of about 40 species, widespread in the north temperate
zone, but richest in species in North America. The best known
and longest cultivated species is the old-world grape-vine, Vitis
vim/era; a variety of this, silvcstris, occurs wild in the Medi-
terranean region, spreading eastwards towards the Caucasus and
northwards into southern Germany, and may be regarded as the
parent of the cultivated vine.
History and Distribution. — It is of interest to note that
grape-stones have been found with mummies in Egyptian tombs
not less than 3,000 years old. The seeds have the characteristics
of those of T. vim f era, but show some very slight variations from
the type of seed now prevalent. Among the Greeks in the time
of Homer wine was in general use. The cultivation of the vine
must also have been introduced into Italy at. a very early period.
Jn Virgil's time the varieties in cultivation srern to have been
exceedingly numerous; and the varied methods of training and
culture now in use in Italy are in many cases identical with those
described by Coluraclla and other Roman writers. Grape-stones
have been found among the remains of Swiss and Italian lake
dwellings of the Bronze period, and others in tufaceous volcanic
deposits near Montpcllicr, not long before the historic era.
The Old World species is also extensively cultivated in Cali-
fornia, but the grape industry of the eastern United States has
been developed from native species, chiefly V '. Labrusca (northern
fox grape), I7, aestivalis (summer grape) and I7, roiitndijolia
(southern fox grape, giving the muscadine grapes with the well
known variety scuppernong), and their hybrids with V. vinifem.
Some of the American varieties have been introduced into France
and other countries infested with Phylloxera, to serve as stocks
on which to graft the better kinds of European vines, because
their roots do not. suffer so much injury from the attacks of this
insect as do European species.
The vine requires a high summer temperature and a prolonged
period in which to ripen its fruit. Where these are forthcoming,
it can be profitably cultivated, even though the winter tempera-
ture be very low, Tchihatchef mentions that at Erivan in Russian
Armenia the mean winter temperature is 7°-i C and falls in
January to -30° C, and at Bukhara the mean temperature of
January is 4° C and the minimum -22° C, and yet at both places
the vine is grown with success. In the Alps it is profitably culti-
vated up to an altitude of 1,000 ft., and in the north of Piedmont
as high as 3,000 ft. At the present time the limit of profitable
cultivation in Europe passes from Brittany, lat. 47° 30', to beyond
the Rhine by Liege and through Thuringia to Silesia in lat. 51°
55'. In former centuries vines were cultivated farther north.
Apart from their economic value (see CURRANT; RAISIN;
WINE), vines are often cultivated for purely ornamental pur-
VlNE (VITIS VINIfTRA), SHOWING BRANCHES WITH FLOWERS AND FRUIT
poses, owing to the eleganee of their foliage, the rich colouration
they assume, the shade they afford, and their hardihood.
Vegetative Characters. — Vines have woody climbing stems,
with alternate, entire or palmately lobed leaves, provided at the
base with small stipules. Opposite some of these leaves springs a
tendril, by aid of which the plant climbs. The ilowcrs are small,
green and fragrant, and arc arranged in dense clusters. Each has
a small calyx in the form of a shallow rim, sometimes five-lobed
or toothed; five petals, which cohere by their tips and form a
cap or hood, which is pushed off when the stamens are ripe; and
live free stamens, placed opposite the petals and springing from
a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the ovary; each bears a two-
celled anther. The ovary bears a sessile stigma and is more or
Jess completely two-celled, with two erect ovules in each cell.
This ripens into the berry and seeds.
The seeds or grape-stones are. somewhat club-shaped, with a
narrow neck-like portion beneath, which expands into a rounded
and thickened portion above. On the inner or central side of the
seed is a ridge bounded on either side by a shallow groove. This
ridge indicates -the point of union of the "raphe" or seed-stalk
with the seed; it serves to distinguish the varieties of V. vinifcra
from tho. e of other species. In endeavouring to trace the filiation
and affinities of the vine, the characters afforded by the seed are
specially valuable, because they have not been wittingly interfered
with by human agency.
Cultivation Under Glass. — When the plant is grown under
glass, the vine border should occupy the interior of the house and
also extend outwards in the front, but it is best made by instal-
ments of 5 or 6 ft. as fast as the previous portions become well
filled with roots, which may readily be done by packing up a turf
wall at the extremity of the portion to be newly made; an exterior
width of 15 ft. will be sufficient. Inside borders require frequent
and thorough waterings. In well-drained localities the border may
be partially below the ground level, but in damp situations it
should be made on the surface ; in either case the firm solid bottom
should slope outwards towards an efficient drain. A good bottom
170
VINE
may be formed by chalk rammed down close. On this should be
laid at least a foot thick of coarse, hard, rubbly material, a layer
of rough turf, grass side downwards, being spread over it to
prevent the compost from working down. The soil itself, which
should be 2\ or 3 ft. deep, never less than 2 ft., should consist of
five parts rich turfy loam, one part old lime rubbish or broken
bricks, including a little wood ashes or burnt earth (ballast), one
part broken charcoal, and about one part of half-inch bones, the
whole being thoroughly mixed, and kept dryish till used.
Young vines raised from eyes, i.e., buds having about \ in. wood
above and i in. below, are generally preferred for planting. The
eyes being selected from well-ripened shoots of the previous year
are planted about the end of January, singly, in small pots of light
loamy compost, and after standing in a warm place for a few days
should be plunged in a propagating bed, having a bottom heat of
75°, which should be increased to 85° when they have produced
several leaves, the atmosphere being kept at about the same tem-
perature or higher by sun heat during the day, and at about 75°
at night. As soon as roots are freely formed the plants must be
shifted into 6-inch pots, and later on into 1 2-inch ones. The
shoots are trained up near the glass, and, with plenty of heat (top
and bottom) and of water, with air and light, and manure water
occasionally, will form firm, strong, well-ripened canes in the
course of the season. To prepare the vine for planting, it should
be cut back to within 2 ft. of the pot early in the season, and only
three or four of the eyes at the base should be allowed to grow
on. The best time for planting is in spring, when the young shoots
have just started. The vines should be planted inside the house,
from T to 2 ft. from the front wall, and from 6 ft. to 8 ft. apart,
the roots being placed an inch deeper in the soil than before.
When the shoots are fairly developed, the two strongest are to
be selected and trained in. When forcing is commenced, the
vinery is shut up for two or three weeks without fire heat, the
mean temperature ranging about 50°. Fire heat must, be at first
applied very gently, and may range about 55° at night, and from
65° to 70° by day, but a few degrees more may be given them as
the buds break and the new shoots appear. When they arc in
flower, and onwards during the swelling of the berries, 85° may
be taken as a maximum, running up to 90° with sun heat and the
temperature may be lowered somewhat when the fruit is ripe.
As much ventilation as the state of the weather will permit should
be given. A due amount of moisture may be kept up by the use
of evaporating troughs and by syringing the walls and pathways
two or three times a day, but the leaves should not be syringed.
Pruning. — There arc three principal systems of pruning vines,
termed the long-rod, the short-rod and the spur systems, and
good crops have been obtained by each of them. The spur system
has, however, become the most general. In this case the vines arc
usually planted so that one can be trained up under each rafter,
or up the middle of the sash, the latter method being preferable.
The shoots are cut back to buds close to the stem, which should
be encouraged to form alternately at equal distances right and
left, by removing those buds from the original shoot which are
not conveniently placed. The young shoots from these buds are
to be gently brought to a horizontal position, by bending them a
little at a time, and tied in, and usually opposite about the fourth
leaf the rudiments of a bunch will be developed. The leaf directly
opposite the bunch must in all cases be preserved, and the young
shoot is to be topped at one or two joints beyond the incipient
fruit, the latter distance being preferable if there is plenty of
room for the foliage to expand. If the bunches are too numerous
they must be thinned before the ilowers expand, and the berries
also must be properly thinned out and regulated as soon as they
are well set.
Cultivation in Pots. — This is very commonly practised with
good results, and pot-vines are very useful to force for the earliest
crop. The plants should be raised from eyes, and grown as strong
as possible in the way already noted, in rich turfy loam mixed
with about one-third of horse dung and a little bone dust. The
temperature should be gradually increased from 60° to 80°, or
qo° by sun heat, and a bottom heat a few degrees higher must be
maintained during their growth. As the roots require more room.
the plants should be shifted from 3-inch pots into those of 6,
1 2 or 1 5 in. in diameter, in any of which larger sizes they may be
fruited in the following season, but, to be successful in this, the
young rod produced must be thoroughly matured after it has
reached its limit of growth. The periodical thorough cleansing of
the vine steins and every part of the houses is of the utmost
importance to keep down insect pests. (X.)
Grape Diseases. — All cultivated, as well as wild grapes, are
subject to diseases. These diseases are due either to plant parasites
or physiological disturbances caused by abnormal or unfavourable
environment. The causative factors involve nutrition, soil and
climate.
The principal fungus diseases arc black rot, caused by Gui-
gnardia bidwellii; downy mildew, caused by Plasmopara viticola;
powdery mildew, caused by Uncinula nccator; anthracnose, caused
by Sphaceloma ampelinum; ripe rot, caused by Glomerella tin-
Kiilata; dead arm, caused by Cryptosporella viticola; bitter rot,
caused by Mclanconium fuligineum; white rot, caused by Conio-
tliyrium diplodiella; crown gall, caused by Bacterium tumefaciens,
and rougeot, caused by Pseudopeziza tracheiphila. Most of these
diseases are found wherever grapes are cultivated, except in irri-
gated, arid regions, where powdery mildew is the principal trouble.
The so-called physiological or non-parasitic diseases are most
frequently found in such regions also. The principal non-parasitic
diseases are known as California vine disease, Spanish measles
and Little-leaf. Their exact cause has not yet been determined
and satisfactory methods of prevention are not known. The prin-
cipal means of control of the fungus diseases is the application of
Bordeaux mixture. Sulphur dust is used for powdery mildew in
arid regions. (C. L. S.)
Injurious Insects. — A list of the insects which subsist wholly
or in part on the fruit, foliage, roots or other parts of the grape
in the various countries of the world where the fruit is grown
would comprise probably not less than 1,000 species. For-
tunately, these insects are still mostly restricted to the respective
countries where they arc indigenous, since, with but few excep-
tions, there has been but little exchange of grape insects between
countries by commerce or otherwise. An important exception is
the grape Phylloxera, a plant louse native to central and eastern
North America, occurring on various wild grapes. This insect
found its way to Europe as early as 1868, where its injuries to
the roots of vinifera or European grapes seriously threatened the
vine-growing industry. Later it appeared in California, perhaps
direct from Europe, where great damage was done to vimfera
varieties. Injuries are now fairly well avoided in Europe, and
also in California, by using for grafting purposes the roots of re-
sistant American vines. In America the outstanding grape pests
arc the Phylloxera (Phylloxera viticola) in vinifera districts; leaf-
hoppcrs (Typhlocyba spp.); the berry moth (Polychrosis vite*
ana] ; root worm (Fidia viticida) ; rose chafer (Macrodactylus
subspinosus} ; caterpillars of various moths (Desmi-a funeralis,
Alypia octom-aculata, Memythrus polistiformis, Pholns achemori) ;
certain beetles, as Ualtica chalybea, Craponius inaequalis and
Adoxus obscurus. (A. L. Q.)
GRAPE CULTURE IN EUROPE
The cultivation of the vine is an important industry in all the
countries of southern Europe, where its product is chiefly con-
verted into wine. The production of good table grapes is more
difficult and also more limited. As a result they are in demand
and profitably raised under glass in the more northerly countries,
the indoor product also being usually superior in size and some-
times in quality to outdoor table grapes.
Great Britain. — The vine is hardy in Great Britain so far an
regards its vegetation, but it is not hardy enough, except when
cultivated under glass, to bring its fruit to satisfactory maturity,
so that for all practical purposes the vine must be regarded
as a tender fruit. Planted against a wall or a building having a
south aspect, or trained over a sunny roof, such varieties as the
Black Cluster, Black Prince, Pitmaston White Cluster, Royal
Muscadine, Sweetwater, etc., will ripen in the warmest English
summers so as to be very pleasant eating; but in cold summers
VINE
the fruit is not eatable in the raw state.
France. — France continues to rank second among all countries
in the world in the area of her vineyards, although they have
decreased from 2-4 million hectares in 1874 to i«36 million hec-
tares in 1924. Holdings are usually small. Of the 1,565,000 vine-
growers reporting in 1924 over 70% reported vineyards of less
than one hectare in extent. The harvests of wine (not counting
Alsace-Lorraine) for the 6 years, 1919-24, averaged 58,100,000
hectolitres (1,535 million gal.). The production for 1927 was
48,890,000 hectolitres, an amount considerably below normal. In
volume the Mediterranean counties produced over half the entire
amount. The second wine region in point of output is the Bor-
deaux area, chiefly in the valleys of the Garonne, Dordogne and
Charente rivers, in this region are grown the grapes from which
the two most famous French brandies, cognac and armagnac, are
distilled. The eastern area, covering about 10 counties, comprises
the regions in which the well-known Burgundy, Bcaujolais and
Macon wines are produced. The yield of the Loire region (prin-
cipally vins roses r white and sparkling wines) has grown less,
amounting to but 354,000 hectolitres in 1927. The grapes from
which champagne is made arc grown almost entirely in the Marne
county. The product of Alsace-Lorraine comprises mainly white
wines of the Rhine and Moselle types and amounted in 1920 to
224,000 hectolitres. The output of Algeria, of which the bulk is
consumed in France, amounted to 12,400,000 hi. in 1925 and
8,400,000 hi. in 1927; that of Tunis was about 900,000 hi. of
which about 550,000 hi. were exported to France. The quantity of
production bears no relation to the quality, and the latter varies
greatly in different localities even in the same year. Damp weather
and lack of sun seriously affect the sugar and alcoholic content of
the wine. France imports more wine than she exports, importing
much from Spain, Algiers, and Greece for blending. Better wines
from Spain, Portugal and Italy are imported to be consumed
without blending, or for dessert or liqueur wines.
Spain and Portugal. — The acreage devoted to vineyards has
increased in both Spain and Portugal in recent years. That of
Spain, 1-35 million hectares, closely approaches that of France
and gives the country a ranking of third among grape-producing
countries. The wine crop was abundant in Spain in 1927 amount-
ing to 28,325,192 hi. as compared with 15,753,538 hi. in 1926.
The average production is about midway between. The industry
gives employment to between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 people.
Seville, Barcelona, Andalusia and Tarragona are the principal
producing districts. Exports of Malaga and Almeria grapes are
heavy, while over half of the Malaga crop is made into high quality
raisins which are widely distributed over the world and furnish the
chief competition for the raisins of California. An unofficial esti-
mate placed the production of wine in Portugal at 6,273,200 hi.
for 1927, an amount about one-third greater than normal. The
area under vintage in 1926 was 345,000 hectares. Exports of port
wine amounted in 1927 lu $11,142,000 and of other wine to
$14,073,000.
Italy and Eastern Europe. — Italy has a larger area given
over to vineyards than any other country in the world, the total
being in the neighbourhood of two million hectares. The total
production of grapes in 1927 was 57,958,000 metric quintals as
against a 5-year average of 68,164,000 metric quintals. Wine
production was 35,650,000 hectolitres, also less than average. The
year saw poor crops in southern Italy, especially in Latium, Apulia
and Sicily.
Vineyards also form one of the principal industries of Greece.
The country produces enough wine to meet its local needs and
exports a quantity which has increased from 60,000 tons in 1925 to
139,000 tons in 1927. Two-thirds of the vineyards are in old
Greece. Due to phylloxera the cultivation of the vine all but died
out in Macedonia where the industry is now being revived by
refugee settlers. The government is Hiding both by loans and by
the distribution of plants and cuttings. The total grape production
of Greece was 275,000 metric tons in 1927.
A comparative view of the importance of the vine in other
countries of Europe is shown in the following statistics of produc-
tion for 1927:
Country
Area in vineyards
Wine production
Rumania ...
Hungary ....
Yugoslavia
Germany ....
Bulgaria ....
Switzerland
695,000 acres
542,000
441,000
181,872
180,37.}
37,000
igi,-0o,ooo gal.
51066,000 "
75,428,000
31,407,618 "
9,240,000
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — R. Billiard, La w^ne dans Vantiquitt (1013); K-
Chuncrin, Viticulture modernc (1919) ; I.. Duchcin. Manuel dr viticul-
ture practique (1914); P. Pacottel, Viticulture (1917); A. I. Pcrold,
A Treatise on Viticulture (1927); C, Rodier, Le vin de fiourgoxnc
(1920); W. Ruthc, Der deutsche Wein (1926); Ottavio-Marcscalchi,
/ principn delta viticoltura (1909) ; Viala-Yermord, Traitc gtneralc de
viticulture (7 vol., 1901-10). (X.)
GRAPE CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES
Jn the United States the term grape is generally used to denote
not only the fruit but also the plant that produces it; the word
vine when used alone means any twining or climbing plant and
not, as in England, meaning solely the grape-producing plant.
History. — When the early discoverers visited North America
wild grape vines were so prominent that the region was repeatedly
called vineland. John Adlum's vineyard near Georgetown, D.C.,
planted in 18.20, first produced grapes successfully on the Atlantic
coast. Adlum's introduction of the Catawba into general culture
and improvement gave to the world valuable new fruits.
In 1860 nine-tenths of the 5,600 ac. of vineyard established east
of the Rocky Mountains were Catawba grapes and little was
then known regarding such varieties as Concord, Delaware, Hart-
ford, lona, Adirondack and Rogers hybrids. From 1860 to 1870
there was rapid increase in acreage of improved varieties derived
from native American grapes. Concord became and still re-
mains the leading variety of American origin commercially
grown. The Mission Fathers in California were the lirst to grow
successfully a variety (the Mission) of the Old World grape
(F. vim/era) in the United States. They brought it to San Diego.
Calif., in 1769. The Mission remained the leading variety grown
until 1860, when the choicest European kinds were introduced.
Grape Regions. — Viticulture in the United States comprises
three regions which are distinguished by the grape species grown
in each :
The Vim] era Region, in which forms of the Old World vine
(F. vini/era) are grown for all purposes, is almost entirely in
California. Eighty-five per cent of the viticultural output of the
United States are vinifera grapes. These are usually planted
8X8, 9X9, 8X10 or 8X12 ft. apart. Cane or spur renewal
pruning with vines trained to stakes is practised with all varieties
excepting Sultanina and Emperor, which are pruned to a four-
arm renewal system and trained on a two-wire upright trellis.
In untrelliscd vineyards cross ploughing methods are employed.
The American Euvitis Region, in which improved varieties and
hybrids of the more northern hardier American species with vin-
ifera are grown, covers in its broadest sense the entire United
States. It is most, extensive, however, in the States west of the
Hudson and north of the Ohio rivers, in States bordering on the
Great Lakes and in the more central States of the Mississippi
valley. These grapes are mostly pruned to the four-arm renewal
system and trained to a two-wire upright trellis; of late years,
however, the modified Munson system is rapidly gaining favour.
The Muscadine Region is the area in which improved varieties
of V. rotundi folia are grown for commercial purposes. These
are native varieties which thrive under suitable conditions through-
out the Coastal Plain from the James river to Florida, reaching
well up into the Blue Ridge mountains, and along the Gulf coast
to Texas and northward along the Mississippi river to south-
eastern Missouri and the Tennessee river. These vines are usually
grown on an overhead arbour trellis and planted 20X10 ft. apart.
In 1927 there were about 900,000 ac. of vineyard in the
United States, of which 675,000 ac. were in California; the next
largest acreages were in New York, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
and Missouri, in the order named.
The Grape Industry.— The 1889 grape crop was valued at
172
VINEGAR— VINELAND
$2,846,748. Of this 42% was converted into wine and brandy,
47% used as table grapes and n% cured as raisins and dried
grapes. The use of grapes in the fresh state and cured into raisins
had then become important. In 1899 there was nearly 100% in-
crease over 1889 in vineyard acreage and grape crop. In 1909,
2,571,065,205 Ib. of grapes were produced, which furnished
52,912,396 gal. of wine and unfermented juice, 6,393,150 gal.
brandy, 24,470 cases canned grapes, 104,400,000 Ib. raisins and
dried grapes and 18,640 cars of table grapes. During the decade
ending with 1909 the commercial manufacture of unfermented
grape juice had become an industry.
In 1919 the grape output of America from 320,000 ac. was
2,513,680,861 Ib., used in 32,551,937 gal. of wines and juices,
1.802,421 gal. of brandy, 104,446 cases canned grapes, 28,495 car
loads fresh grapes shipped and 395.000,000 Ih. of raisins. The
adoption of the Prohibition Amendment caused many radical
changes in the utilization of grapes. In 1927 the total grape crop
of the United States from 710,000 ac. amounted to 2,604,712
tons, valued at $65,000,000. Of this California produced 2,404,000
tons or 923'%; Michigan, 51,700 tons; New York, 51,526; Ohio,
20,000; Pennsylvania, 14,850; Missouri, 7,000; Iowa, 5,329;
North Carolina, 5,135; Kansas, 3,735; Oregon, 3,500; Illinois,
3,440; Washington, ^,200; and Arkansas, 3,000 tons.
(G. C. H.)
See A. F. Barren, "Vines and Vine Culture," Roy. Jiort. Soc. (1900) ;
H. W. Ward, The Book of the Grape; V. P. Hcdrick, "The Grapes of
New York," N.Y. Agric. Expt. Sta. vol. iii. (1905); W. W. Robbins,
Botany of Crop Plants (Philadelphia, 1924) ; L. H. Bailey, Manual of
Cultivated Plants (1924) and Standard Cyclopaedia of Horticulture
(1914-27).
VINEGAR. There can be no doubt that vinegar was first
obtained by the natural souring of fermented wine, whence it
received its name; the alcohol natural to wine or beer, under
appropriate conditions, readily becomes oxidized by the atmos-
phere to form acetic acid — a change represented by the chemist
by the expression
CHaCILOH -f O,. -> CHaCOOH + H,O
Alcohol Oxygen Acetic Acid Water
The interesting mechanism of this change has only been under-
stood of quite recent years. Just as the alcohol in wine or beer
is produced by living agency (sec FERMENTATION), so the sub-
sequent acetous fermentation is due to a micro-organism, the
vinegar bacillus or Bacterium accti. The curious arid complicated
recipes of mediaeval writers for the preparation of vinegar owed
their success to the fact that they unwittingly involved infection
with and the promotion of these organisms. Distinguished scien-
tists, such as Liebig and Dobcrcincr, had chemical theories for
acetification but the truth was not discovered until Pasteur in
1864 confirmed experimentally the view put forward in 1837
that the living cells which formed a scum on the beer were
really responsible for the changes observed. Hansen in 1878
described for the first time the three species of vinegar bacilli.
Vinegar brewing as a separate industry dates from about the
i7th century when it was established in France. Prior to that it
was just a by-product of the wine producer and the brewer.
The connection between the brewing and vinegar industry in
England is shown by the Revenue Acts which, in the reign of
Charles II. charged different duties on beer and on vinegar-beer.
There are two well-known methods of manufacture, the slow
process and the quick one; the latter has now almost superseded
the former except for the preparation of pure wine vinegar as
distinct from ordinary or malt vinegar. In the slow process the
alcoholic wash, whether prepared from wine or not, must contain
10% of alcohol; it is filled into casks holding 50 or 100 gallons,
which are half-full of beech shavings and have previously been
impregnated with vinegar. In these casks it is exposed to the
atmosphere, by the simple expedient of leaving the bung-holes
open until all the alcohol has been converted into acetic acid. The
exposure was formerly in a field or yard but is now often in a
special building, so that the casks may be kept slightly warm; the
acetified gyle is filtered and stored. This process is chiefly used
in the Orleans district of France and has the merit of producing
a vinegar of peculiarly fine aroma; it is, however, slow and waste-
ful and liable to various disturbing factors, such as the develop-
ment of vinegar eels.
The Modern Process. — The more modern and efficient process
is that of malt vinegar manufacture, the first stages of which are
closely similar to those used in the preparation of beer, A quan-
tity of malt — about one quarter per 150 gallons — is crushed and
extracted with hot water in the mash tun or tank at a temperature
of about 68° C (155° F), the whole mash being well raked over
so that all the soluble sugars may be extracted After running
off the infusion the grain is "sparged" by a stream of hot water
from perforated revolving pipes arranged over the top of the
mash tun. The liquid or gyle so prepared, which should have
a specific gravity of about 1,060, is run over a refrigerator to
reduce the temperature to about 21° C (70° F), then fermented
by ''pitching" with yeast. The yeast begins to ferment or attenuate
the gyle and is allowed to operate for about 3 days, by which
time all the sugar is converted into alcohol and the specific
gravity is reduced to 1,005 or lower; the gyle now contains about
6% of alcohol. The yeast is skimmed off and the wash stored
until required for acetification; prolonged storage is advantageous.
The acetifier is essentially a large vat with a false bottom on
which is packed beech twigs, lump pumice stone, corncobs, beech-
wood shavings, coke, rattan, excelsior, or basket work, previously
well cleaned, and through which vinegar has been percolated. The
acetic bacilli grow on the twigs and begin to operate when the
gyle is sparged or sprinkled over them. The essential conditions
are an adequate supply of air and a suitable temperature. The
latter is maintained by the reaction itself, and is regulated by the
air supply which is obtained by means of holes round the sides
of the vat below the false bottom, and is adjusted so that the
temperature rises to about 41° C (106° F) at which the acetifica-
tion is most efficiently effected. The gyle is sprinkled on to the
twigs from the top, trickles through the mass and is pumped
from the bottom back again, so that a continuous percolation
is obtained. Acetification is complete in a fortnight or three
weeks as compared with as many months in the slow process.
In theory 6% alcohol should yield 7-5% of acetic acid but in
practice there is always some loss so that the vinegar coming
from the acetifier seldom contains more than about 6% of acid.
It appears on the market at various strengths from 4% to 6% or
more. Two common sources of disturbance in the acetifier are
"mother" and eels. The former is a slimy film, sometimes called
"tripe," which gradually forms on the twigs, due to a peculiar so-
called zoogloeal condition of the bacteria, which impairs the
efficiency of the acetifier so that it ultimately has to be emptied
and cleaned out. The vinegar eel is a curious creature resembling
a thread worm, which may often be seen near the surface of
vinegar which has been exposed to the air. Its presence much
reduces the activity of the acetifiers but is not of any physio-
logical importance from the point of view of the consumer.
Special Vinegars. — In addition to wine vinegar and ordinary
malt or table vinegar, there are various special kinds. Artificial
or wood vinegar is an entirely factitious product, made by diluting
acetic acid, manufactured by various synthetic processes, with
water and colouring it with caramel; it has neither the food value
nor the aroma of the genuine article. Cider vinegar is manu-
factured on a considerable scale in America and on a small scale
in parts of England by processes analogous to that of malt
vinegar. Wine vinegar is prepared mainly in France and varies
in colour according as red or white wine has been used as the
raw material. Spirit vinegar is a product manufactured from
diluted alcohol which is acetified and coloured.
The question of a standard for vinegar is a vexed one; in
the United States and Australia there is a legal minimum of
4% acetic acid; in England a standard of 4% was suggested by
the Local Government Board and is generally enforced.
See C. A. Mitchell, Vinegar: its Manufacture &r Examination (1927) ;
Brannt, Vinegar (1914). (H. E. C.)
VINELAND, a borough of Cumberland county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., 35 m. S. of Philadelphia; served by the Central of New
Jersey and the Pennsylvania railways. Pop. (1920) 6,799. It has
an area of i sq.m., laid out in unusually broad streets, straight
VINER— VINLAND
173
and well shaded. The surrounding country is devoted largely to
fruit, poultry and sweet potatoes, and the borough has a great
variety of manufacturing industries. It is the seat of the New
Jersey training school for backward children (1888), the State
Home for the care and training of feeble-minded women (1888)
and the State Home for disabled soldiers, sailors, marines and
their wives. Vineland was founded in 1861 by Charles K. Landis
(1835-1900). The village was incorporated in 1880.
VINER, SIR ROBERT (1631-1688), lord mayor of Lon-
don, was born in Warwick. He was apprenticed in London to
his uncle, Sir Thomas Viner (1558-1665), a goldsmith, who was
lord mayor of London in 1653-54. Robert became a partner in
his business, and was chosen lord mayor in 1674. Sir Robert, who
was knighted in 1665, was appointed the king's goldsmith in
1 66 1, and lent large sums of money for the expenses of the state
and the extravagances of the cgurt; over £400,000 was owing to
him when the national exchequer suspended payment in 1672,
and he became bankrupt. He obtained from the state an annuity
of £25,000. Viner died at Windsor on Sept. 2, 1688.
See Viner: a Family History, published anonymously (1885).
VINET, ALEXANDRE RODOLPHE (1797-1847),
French critic and theologian, of Swiss birth, was born near Lau-
sanne on June 17, 1797. He was educated for the Protestant min-
istry, being ordained in 1819, when already teacher of French
language and literature in the gymnasium at Basel; and during
the whole of his life he was litterateur as well as theologian. His
literary criticism brought him into contact with Sainte-Beuve, who
recognized his quality. Vinct's Chrestomathie franfaise (1829),
fctndes sur la littcrature jran^aisc au XIXme siecle (1849-51),
and JHstoire de la littcrature frartfaise au XVIIIme siecle, together
with his fctudes sur Pascal, ktudes sur les moralistes aux XVIme
et XVIImc siecle Sj Histoire de la predication parmis les Re formes
de France and other works, show wide knowledge, moral serious-
ness, and a fine faculty of appreciation.
As theologian he gave a fresh impulse to Protestantism espe-
cially in French-speaking lands, but also in England and else-
where. Lord Acton classed him with Rothe. He built all on con-
science, as that wherein man stands in direct personal relation
with God, and as the seat of a moral individuality which nothing
can rightly infringe. Hence he advocated complete freedom of
religious belief, and to this end the formal separation of Church
and State, in his Memoir c en faveur de la liber id des cultes (1826),
Essai sur la conscience (1829), Essai sur la manifestation des con-
victions religieuses (1842). Accordingly, when in 1845 the civil
power in the canton of Vaud interfered with the church's auton-
omy, he led a secession which took the name of L'figlise libre.
A considerable part of his works was not printed till after his
death at. Clarcns, May 4, 1847. They were re-edited with notes
by Ph. Bridel in 1912 (Lausanne).
His life was written in 1875 by Eugene Rambert, who re-edited the
Chrestomathie in 1876. See also L. M. Lane, Life and Writings of A.
Vinet (1890) ; L. Molines, £tude sur Alexandre Vinet (Paris, 1800) ;
V. Rivet, Etudes sur les origincs de la penste religicuse de Vinet (Paris,
1806) ; A. Schumann, Alex. Vinet (1907) ; E. A. L. Scillicrc, A. Vinet,
historien de la pcnsie franchise (1925). A uniform edition of his works
dates from 1908. (J. V. B.)
VINGT-ET-UN (colloquially, "Van John"), a round game
of cards, at which any number of persons may play, though five
or six are enough. The right to deal having been decided, the
dealer gives one card face downwards to each person, including
himself. The others thereupon look at their cards and declare
their stakes — one, two, three or more counters or chips — accord-
ing to the value of their cards. When all have staked, the dealer
looks at his own card and can double all stakes if he chooses. The
amount of the original stake should be set by each player opposite
his card. Another card is then dealt, face downwards, all round;
each player looking at his own. The object of the game is to make
21, by the pips on the cards, an ace counting as i or n, and the
court cards as 10 each. Hence a player who receives an ace and
a ten-card scores 21 at once. This is called a "natural"; the holder
receives twice — sometimes thrice — the stake or the doubled stake.
If the dealer has a natural too, the usual rule is that the other
natural pays nothing, in spite of the rule of "ties pay the dealer."
The deal passes to the player who turns up the natural, unless it
occurs in the first round of a deal or the dealer has a natural too.
If the dealer has not a natural, he asks each player in turn, begin-
ning with the player on his left, if he wishes for another card or
cards, the object still being to get to 21, or as near up to it as
possible. The additional cards are given him one by one, face
upwards, though the original cards are not exposed. If he requires
no additional card, or when he has drawn sufficient, he says,
"Content," or "I stand." If a player overdraws, i.e., if his cards
count more than 21, he pays the dealer at once. When all are
cither overdrawn or content, the dealer may "stand" on his own
hand, or draw cards, till he is overdrawn or stands. All the hands
are then shown, the dealer paying those players whose cards are
nearer to 21 than his own, and receiving from all the others, as
"ties pay the dealer." If the dealer's cards, with the additions,
make exactly 21, he receives double the stake, or doubled stake;
if a player holds 21, he receives double likewise, but ties still pay
the dealer. If a player receives two similar cards he may put his
stake on each and draw on them separately, receiving or paying
according as he stands successfully or overdraws, but the two
cards must be similar, i.e., he cannot draw on both a knave and a
queen, or a king and a ten, though their values are equal for the
purpose of counting. A natural drawn in this way, however, only
counts as 21, and docs not turn out the dealer. Similarly a player
may draw on three cards, or even four, should they be dealt him.
A player who overdraws on one of such cards must declare and
pay immediately, even though he stands on another. After a
hand is played, the "pone" (Latin for "behind") — the player
on the dealer's right — collects and shuffles the cards played, the
dealer dealing from the remainder of the pack, till it is exhausted,
when he takes the cards the pone holds, after the pone has cut
them. It is a great advantage to deal. (W. DA.)
VINITA, a city of north-eastern Oklahoma, U.S.A., on fed-
eral highways 66 and 73, and served by the Frisco and the Mis-
souri-Kansas-Texas railways; county seat of Craig county. Pop.
(1920) 5.010. Vinita is the trade centre and shipping point of a
farming, dairying, stock-raising, and fruit-growing region. It has
a creamery and a canning factory. The city was founded in 1870
and chartered in 1898.
VINLAND or WINELAND. This was the southernmost
of the countries discovered by Leif Ericson (q.v.) on his voyage
from Norway to Greenland in the year 1000, and it was later
visited by Thorfinn Karlsefni (q.v.), probably in 1004. (See also
AMERICA: Pre-Columbian discoveries.) It derived its name from
the wild grapes which the discoverer found there. It is first
mentioned in writing by Adam of Bremen (q.v.) in his descrip-
tion of the northern countries, about 1075, his informant being
King Svein Estridsson of Denmark. The fullest information
about this country, as well as about these voyages in general is
to be found in the Saga of Eric the Red and the Talc of the
Greenlanders. All these sources agree as to the general char-
acteristics of the country: wild grapes, self-sown wheat, and
very mild winter. In some Icelandic writings the name Vinland
the Good occurs, and this led Dr. Fridtjof Nansen to assume
that the story about Vinland was merely a transformation of the
old legends about the Isles of the Blest (q.v.). His arguments
have not been generally accepted, although it is possible that the
epithet "the good" may have later been added under the influence
of these legends. The historicity of the discovery can hardly
be disputed, nor that Vinland was a part of the American con-
tinent, but more definite location is difficult. If we are to
accept the account of the wild grapes as authentic, the location
of Vinland must fall within the northern limits for this plant
which, on the Atlantic coast, are generally put at Passamaquoddy
bay. Of the principal writers who have dealt with the problem,
C. C. Rafn placed Vinland round Mount Hope bay, in the State
of Rhode Island, Gustav Storm in Nova Scotia, where the exist-
ence of wild grapes is, however, doubtful. W. H. Babcock and W.
Hovgaard have practically reverted to Rafn's view, while G. M.
Gathorne-Hardy looks for it at the mouth of the Hudson river.
For bibliography of the subject see the articles on AMERICA, Pre-
Columbian Discoveries, and LEIT ERICSON. (H. HE.)
VINOGRADOFF— VIOLET
VINOGRADOFF, SIR PAUL GAVRILOVICH (1854-
1925), Anglo-Russian scholar, was born at Kostromo, near Mos-
cow, and educated at the University of Moscow. As a young man
he travelled widely, and obtained a working knowledge of at least
seven modern languages, before being appointed a professor in
his own university. He then interested himself in the Zemstvo
movement, and sought to improve the provision for the edu-
cation of the Russian people. His activities, however, were dis-
pleasing to the authorities; consequently he resigned his professor-
ship and in 1902 settled in England, where he had already made
friends with many English scholars. In 1903 he was appointed
Corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford, and there he
remained until his death on Dec. 19, 1925.
Vinogradoffs first book was on The Origin of Feudalism in Italy
(1887). This was written in Russian, but his later works were
appropriately written in English, and he became recognized as
probably the first authority on the early laws and customs of
England. His standard work is Villeinage in England (1892),
in which he put. forward the theory that the Anglo-Norman manor
descended not from a condition of serfdom, but from a free
village community. His article "Folkland," published in The
English Historical Review in 1893, enunciated an entirely new
theory on this subject. His other works include : English Society
in the Eleventh Century (1908); The Growth of the Manor
(1905); Roman Law in Mediaeval Europe (1909); Self-govern-
ment in Russia (1915) and Outlines of Historical Jurisprudence
(1920-22)., He also contributed to the Encyclopedia Britannica
and The Cambridge Modern History.
VINTON, FREDERIC PORTER (1846-1911), Ameri-
can portrait painter, was born at Bangor, Maine, on the 29th of
January 1846. He was a pupil of Duveneck, of William M. Hunt
in Boston, of Leon Bonnat and Jean Paul Laurcns in Paris, and
of the Royal Academy of Munich. In 1891 he was elected a full
member of the National Academy of Design, New York. He died
in Boston, Mass., May 19, 1911.
VIOL, a generic term for the bowed precursors of the violin
(q.v.), but in England more specially applied to those immediate
predecessors of the violin which are distinguished in Italy and
Germany as the Gamha family. The chief characteristics of the
viols were a flat back, sloping shoulders, "c"-shapcd sound-holes,
and a short, finger-board with frets. AU these features assumed
different, forms in the violin, which was derived rather from the
guitar-fiddle than from the viol, the back becoming delicately
arched, the shoulders reverting to the rounded outline of the
guitar, the shape of the sound-holes changing from "c" to "/" and
the finger-board being carried considerably nearer the bridge. The
viol family consisted of treble, alto, tenor and bass instruments,
being further differentiated as da braccio or da gamba according
to the positions in which they were held, against the arm or be-
tween the knees.
VIOLA, a member of the violin family standing in point of
size between the violin and the violoncello. It is known variously
as the tenor and the alto member of the family, the latter term
obtaining in France and Italy and being derived from the fact that
in earlier days, before the full development of the violin, the
highest part was usually assigned to it. Having regard to its pitch
moreover, which is a fifth below that of the violin, the term seems
equally appropriate, the violoncello being then regarded as the
real tenor of the family, with the violin and the double-bass com-
pleting the quartet as the treble and the bass respectively. To
which it may be added that alto was originally the true and only
name of the viola, there having been then another and a larger in-
strument, now obsolete, which was known as the tenor. Apart
from its greater size, the construction of the viola is the same as
that of the violin. Its tone lacks the brilliance and incisivcness of
the latter, being much more dark and veiled in quality, and for
this reason it is less effective as a solo instrument than the violin.
But it is capable of producing fine results when played by a mas-
ter, while in the orchestra and in chamber music it is invaluable.
For full discussion of instruments of the violin family sec VIOLIN,
VIOLET. The violets comprise a large botanical genus
(Viola), in which about 250 species have been described, found
principally in temperate or mountain regions of the Northern
Hemisphere; they also occur in mountainous districts of South
America and South and Tropical Africa, while a few are found
in Australasia. The species are mostly low-growing herbs with
alternate leaves provided with large leafy stipules. The flowers,
which are solitary, or rarely in pairs, at the end of slender
axillary flower-stalks, are very irregular in form, with five sepals
(A, B ft C) .
FROM CHURCH, "TYPES OF FLORAL MCCHANISM" (CLARENDON PRESS)
VIOLET (VIOLA ODORATA), SHOWING WHOLE PLANT
A. Fruit. 8. Floral diagram. C. Longitudinal section through flower
prolonged at the base, and five petals, the lowest one larger than
the others and with a spur, in which collects honey. The irregular
construction of the flower is connected with fertilization by insect
agency. (See POLLINATION.) In the sweet violet (V. odorata) and
other species, inconspicuous permanently closed or "cleistogamic"
flowers occur of a greenish colour, so that they offer no attrac-
tions to insect visitors and their form is correspondingly regular;
they are self-pollinated. (See POLLINATION.)
Several species of Viola are native to Great Britain. Viola
canina is the dog violet, many forms or subspecies of which are
recognized; V. odorata, sweet violet, is highly prized for its
fragrance, and in cultivation numerous varieties have originated.
Other species known in gardens are: V '. altaica, flowers yellow or
violet with yellow eye; V. biflora, a pretty little species 3 to 4 in.
high with small yellow flowers, the large petal being streaked
with black; V. calcarata, flowers light blue or white, or yellow in
var. flava; F. cornuta, flowers pale blue — there are a few good
varieties of this, including one with white flowers; V. cucullata, a
free-flowering American species with violet-blue or purple flowers;
V. Mttnbyana, a native of Algeria, with large violet or yellow
flowers; V. pedata, the bird's-foot violet, with pedately divided
leaves and usually bright blue flowers. The garden pansies or
heartseases are derivatives from V. tricolor, a cornfield weed, or
V. altaica, a native of the Altai mountains. (See PANSY.)
About 75 species of Viola are native to North America, of
which about 50 occur from the Rocky Mountains eastward, and
the remainder chiefly on the Pacific coast. They are all herbaceous
and fall into two general groups: (i) the leafy-stemmed and (2)
the stemless violets. While the distinctive characters in many
species are sharply marked, the determination of numerous others
is very difficult, because of the profusion of natural hybrids.
These hybrids were made the subject of intensive experimental
study by E. V. Braincrd.
Representative North American violets are the bird's-foot violet
(V. pedata), the early blue violet (V. palmata), the bog blue
violet (V. cucullata), the arrow-leaved violet (V. sagittata), the
meadow blue violet (V. papilionacea) , the southern wood violet
(V. villosa), the striped violet (V. striata), the sweet white violet
(V. blanda), the beaked violet (V. rostrata), the Canada violet
(V. canadensis) , the round-leaved violet (V. rotundi folia) and
the hairy yellow violet (V. pubescent), of the eastern States and
Provinces; the prairie yellow violet (V. Nuttallii), of the Great
Plains region; and the pine violet (V. loba'a), the mountain violet
VIOLIN
(V. purpurea), the yellow pansy (V. pedunculata) , the western
heart 's-ease (V. oeellata) and the wood violet (V. sarmentosa)
of the Pacific coast. Numerous species are transplanted.
For further details regarding the North American species see
E. P. Brainerd, "Violets of North America," Vermont Agric. Exper. Sta.
Bull. 224 (1921) anduSome Natural Violet Hybrids of North America,"
ib. Bull. 23Q (1924).
VIOLIN, the smallest and highest-pitched of one of the most
important families of stringed musical instruments, to which it
gives its name. It consists essentially of a resonant box of peculiar
form, over which four strings of different thicknesses are stretched
across a bridge standing on the box in such a way that the tension
of the strings can be adjusted by means of revolving pegs, to which
they are severally attached at one end. The strings are tuned, by
means of the pegs, in fifths, from the second or A string, which is
tuned to a fundamental note of about 435 vibrations per second
at the modern normal pitch, thus giving ^j-llg ..._^as the four
open notes. To produce other notes of the scale the length of the
strings is varied by "stopping" them — i.e., pressing them down
with the fingers — on a finger-board, attached to a "neck" at the
end of which is the "head" in which the pegs are inserted. The
strings are set in vibration by drawing across them a bow strung
with horse-hair, which is rosined to increase adhesion.
The characteristic features which, in combination, distinguish
the violin (including in that family name its larger brethren the
viola and violoncello, and in a lesser degree the double-bass) from
other stringed instruments are the restriction of the strings to four,
and their tuning in fifths; the peculiar form of the body, or reso-
nating chamber, especially the fully moulded back as well as front,
or belly; the shallow sides or "ribs" bent into characteristic
curves; the acute angles of the corners where the curves of the
ends and middle "bouts" or waist ribs meet; and the position and
shape of the sound-holes, cut in the belly. By a gradual process of
development in all these particulars the modern violin was evolved
from earlier bowed instruments, and attained its highest perfection
at the hands of the great Italian makers in the i6th, iyth and early
1 8th centuries, since which time, although many experiments have
THE "HELLIER" STRADIVARI, DATED 1679. DISTINGUISHED BY ITS ELAB-
ORATE INLAID ORNAMENTATION AND SLIGHTLY LARGER AND HEAVIER
THAN THE MASTER'S OTHER MODELS
been made, no material improvement has been effected upon the
form and mode of construction then adopted.
The following are the exact principal dimensions of a very fine
specimen of Stradivari's work, which has been preserved in per-
fect condition since the latter end of the i;th century: —
Length of body i4in. full.
Width across top 6 -J- Jin. bare.
Width across bottom 8 Jin.
Height of sides (top) i T\in.
Height of sides (bottom) r^in.
The back is in one piece, supplemented a little in width at the
lower part, after a common practice of the great makers, and is
cut from very handsome wood; the ribs are of the same wood,
while the belly is formed of two pieces of soft pine of rather fine
and beautifully even grain. The sound-holes, cut with perfect pre-
cision, exhibit much grace and freedom of design. The scroll,
which is very characteristic of the maker's style and beautifully
modelled, harmonizes admirably with the general modelling of the
instrument. The model is flatter than in violins of the earlier
period, and the design bold, while displaying ail Stradivari's mi-
croscopic perfection of workmanship. The whole is coated with a
very fine orange-red-brown varnish, untouched since it left the
maker's hand in 1690, and the only respects in which the instru-
ment has been altered since that date are in the fitting of the
longer neck and stronger bass-bar necessitated by the increased
compass and raised pitch of modern violin music.
Acoustic Principles. — The acoustics of the violin are ex-
tremely complex. Certainly so far as the elementary principles
which govern its action are concerned, it follows sufficiently fa-
miliar laws (see SOUND). The different notes of the scale are pro-
duced by vibrating strings differing in weight and tension, and
varying in length under the hand of the player. The vibrations of
the strings are conveyed through the bridge to the body of the in-
strument, which fulfils the common function of a resonator in re-
inforcing the notes initiated by the strings. So far first principles
carry us at once. But when we endeavour to elucidate in detail
the causes of the peculiar character of tone of the violin family,
the great, range and variety in that character obtained in different
instruments, the extent to which those qualities can be controlled
by the bow of the player, and the mode in which they are influ-
enced by minute variations in almost every component part of the
instrument, we find ourselves faced by a series of problems which
have so far defied any but very partial solution.
The distinctive quality of the musical tones of the violin is gen-
erally admitted to be due largely to its richness in the upper har-
monic or partial tones superimposed on the fundamental notes
produced by the simple vibrations of the strings. The character-
istic tone and its control by the player are undoubtedly conditioned
in the first place by the peculiar response of the vibrating string
under the action of the rosined bow. This takes the form not of a
symmetrical oscillation but of a succession of alternating bound
and free movements, as the string adheres to the bow according to
the pressure applied, and, releasing itself by its elasticity, re-
bounds. The lightness of the material of which the strings are
made conduces to the production of very high upper partial tones
which give brilliancy of sound, while the low elasticity of the gut
causes these high constituents to be quickly damped, thus soften-
ing the ultimate quality of the note.
In order that the resonating body of the instrument may fulfil
its purpose in reinforcing the complex vibrations set up by the
strings, it is essential that the plates, and consequently the body
of air contained between them, should respond sensitively to the
selective impulses communicated to them, and it is the attainment
of this perfect selective responsiveness which marks the construc-
tion of the best instruments. Many factors contribute to this re-
sult— the thickness of the plates in different parts of their areas,
the size and form of the interior of the body, the size and shape of
the sound-holes through which the vibrations of the contained air
arc communicated to the external air, and which also influence the
nodal points in the belly, according to the number of fibres of the
wood cut across, varying with the angle at which the sound-holes
cross the grain of the wood. And all these important factors are
influenced by the quality and elasticity of the wood employed.
Old Instruments' Superiority. — Many speculations have
been advanced with regard to the superiority in tone of the old
Italian instruments over those of modern construction. After
taking into account the practical identity in dimensions and con-
struction between the classical and many of the best modern
models, the conclusion suggests itself that the difference must be
attributed in part to the nature of the materials used and in part
to the method of their employment as influenced by local condi-
tions and practice. The argument, not infrequently advanced, that
the great makers of Italy had special local sources of supply can
i76
VIOLIN
hardly be sustained. Undoubtedly they exercised great care in the
selection of sound and handsome wood; but there is evidence that
some of the finest wood they used was imported from across the
Adriatic in the ordinary course of trade; and the matter was for
them, in all probability, largely one of expense. There is good rea-
son to suppose, indeed, that a far larger choice of equally good
material is accessible to modern makers.
There remains the varnish with which the completed instru-
ment is coated. This was an item
in the manufacture which re-
ceived most careful attention at
the hands of the great makers,
and much importance has been
attached to the superiority of
their varnish to that used in more
recent times — so much so that its
composition has been attributed
to secret processes known only to
themselves. But that the Italian
makers individually or collec-
tively attempted, or were able, to
preserve as a secret the composi-
tion of the varnish they used is
unlikely. Instruments exhibiting
similar excellence in this respect
were too widespread in their
range, both of period and local- THE -ALARD." ONE OF THE MOST
ity, to justify the assumption FAMOUS OF STRADIVARI'S VIOLINS,
that the general composition of MADE IN 1715
the finest varnish of the early makers was not a matter of common
knowledge in an industry so flourishing as that of violin-making
in the iyth and early iHth centuries.
The excellence of an instrument in respect of its varnish de-
pended on the quality of the constituent materials, on the propor-
tions in which they were combined, and, perhaps mainly, on the
method of its application. The most enduring and perfect varnish
used for violins is an oil varnish, and the best results therewith
can only be obtained under the most advantageous conditions for
the drying process. In this respect there can be no doubt that the
southern climate placed the makers whose work lies in higher lati-
tudes at a disadvantage. In a letter to Galileo in 1638 concerning a
violin which he had ordered from Cremona, the writer states that
"it cannot be brought to perfection without the strong heat of the
sun"; and all recorded experience indicates the great importance
of slow drying of the varnish under suitable conditions. Stradivari
himself wrote to account for delay in the delivery of an instrument
because of the time required for the drying of the varnish.
That a perfect varnish conduces to the preservation of a fine
tone in the instrument is generally admitted; and its operation in
this respect is due, not merely to the external protection of the
wood from deterioration, but especially to its action, when applied
under favourable conditions to wood at a ripe stage of seasoning
(when that process has proceeded far enough, but not so far as to
allow the fibres to become brittle), in soaking into the pores of the
wood and preserving its elasticity. This being so, successful var-
nishing will be seen to be an operation of great delicacy, and one
in which the old masters found full scope for their skill and large
experience. It seems not unreasonable to conclude, therefore, that
the varnish of the old instruments contributed probably the most
important single element of their superiority in tone.
History. — The immediate ancestors of the violins were the
viols, which were the principal bowed instruments in use from the
end of the i5th to the end of the lyth century, during the latter
part of which period they were gradually supplanted by the vio-
lins; but the bass viol did not go out of use finally until towards
the later part of the i8th century, when the general adoption of
the larger pattern of violoncello drove the viol from the field
which it had occupied so long. The sole survivor of the viol type
of instrument, although not itself an original member of the fam-
ily, is the double bass of the modern orchestra, which retains many
of the characteristic features of the viol, notably the flat back,
with an oblique slope at the shoulders, the high bridge and deep
ribs.
Excepting the marine trumpet or bowed monochord, we find in
Europe no trace of any large bowed instruments before the ap-
pearance of the viols, the bowed instruments of the middle ages
being all small enough to be rested on or against the shoulder dur-
ing performance. The viols probably owe their origin directly to
the minnesinger fiddles, which possessed several of the typical fea-
tures of the violin, as distinct from the guitar family, and were
sounded by a bow. These in their turn may be traced to the "gui-
tar riddle" (tf.f.), a bowed instrument of the i3l.h century.
The parentage of the fiddle family may safely be ascribed to
the rebec, a bowed instrument of the early middle ages, with two
or three strings stretched over a low bridge, and a pear-shaped
body pierced with sound-holes, having no separate neck, but nar-
rowed at the upper end to provide a finger-board, and (judging by
pictorial representations, for no .actual example is known) sur-
mounted by a carved head holding the pegs, in a manner similar to
that of the violin. The bow, which was short and clumsy, had a
considerable curvature.
So far it is justifiable to trace back the descent, of the violin in
a direct line ; but the earlier ancestry of this family is largely a
matter of speculation. The best authorities are agreed that
stringed instruments in general arc mainly of Asiatic origin, and
there is evidence of the mention of bowed instruments in Sanskrit
documents of great, antiquity. Too much genealogical importance
has been attached by some writers to similarities in form and con-
struction between the bowed and plucked instruments of ancient
times. They probably developed to a great extent independently,
and the bow is of too great and undoubted antiquity to be regarded
as a development of the plectrum or other devices for agitating the
plucked string. The two classes of instrument no doubt were under
mutual obligations from time to time in their development.
From Viol to Violin. — The viol was made in three main
kinds, similar to the cantus, medius and bassus of vocal music.
Each of these three kinds admitted of some variation in dimen-
sions, especially the bass, of which three distinct sizes ultimately
came to be made — (i) the largest, called the concert bass viol;
(2) the division or solo bass viol, usually known by its Italian
name of viola da gamba; and (3) the lyra or tablaturc bass viol.
The earliest use of the viols was to double the parts of vocal con-
certed music; they were next employed in special compositions for
the viol trio written in the same compass; and finally they were
employed as solo instruments, the methods of composition and
execution being based on those of the lute. Most lute music is in
fact equally adapted for the bass viol, and vice versa. Subse-
quently the viols were further developed structurally, such instru-
ments as the quinton and the viola d'amore resulting.
The chief defect of the viols was their weakness of tone; this the
makers thought to remedy in two ways: first by additional strings
in unisons, fifths and octaves; and secondly by sympathetic strings
of fine steel wire, laid under the finger-board as close as possible
to the belly, and sounding in sympathy with the notes produced on
the bowed strings. This system of reinforcement was applied to all
the various sizes of viols.
The improvements which resulted in the production of the violin
proceeded on different lines. They consisted in increasing the reso-
nance of the body of the instrument, by making it lighter and more
symmetrical, and by stringing it more lightly. These changes
transformed the body of the viol into that of the violin, and the
transformation was completed by rejecting the lute tuning with its
many strings, and tuning the instrument by fifths, as the fiddle had
been tuned. The tenor viol appears to have been the first instru-
ment in which the change was made, and thus the viola or tenor
may probably be claimed as the father of the modern violin family.
The viola and violoncello are made on the same general model
and principles as the violin, but with modifications. Both are, rela-
tively to their pitch, made in smaller proportions than the violin,
because, if they were constructed to dimensions having the same
relation to pitch and tension of strings as the violin, they would
not only have an overpowering tone but would be unmanageable
from their size. These relatively-diminished dimensions, both in
the size of the instrument and in the thickness of the wood and
VIOLLET-LE-DUC— VIPERS
177
strings, give to the viola and violoncello a graver and darker
quality of tone. To some extent the reduced size is compensated by
giving them a greater proportional height in the ribs and bridge;
an increase hardly perceptible in the viola but very noticeable in ;
the violoncello. To lighten the tension and thus allow greater free- i
dom of vibration to the belly on the bass side, as with the lowest i
string of the violin, the two lowest of the viola and violoncello are
made of thin gut, covered with fine metal wire, thus providing the
necessary weight without inconvenient thickness.
Many other instruments of the violin family, of various sizes
and designs, and correspondingly different pitch and tuning, have
existed at various times, such as the viola pomposa (a kind of
small violoncello invented by Bach), the violoncello piccolo (an
instrument half the size of the ordinary violoncello), the arpeg-
gione or guitar violoncello (a six stringed instrument for which
Schubert wrote a sonata), the cellone (a deeper violoncello) and
the octobass (a deeper doublebass), but all of these are now
obsolete. None the less others continue to make their appearance
from time to time, no fewer than six, designed to fill supposed
gaps in the existing quartet, having been invented within recent
years by a French violin maker, Leo Sir.
Makers. — As regards makers, the early Italian school is
chiefly represented by the Brescian makers, Caspar da Sal6, Gio-
vanni Paolo Maggini, Giovita Rodiani and Zanetto Peregrino. It
is, however, somewhat misleading to denominate it the Brescian I
school, for its characteristics are shared by the earliest makers of
Cremona and Venice. To eyes familiar with the geometrical curves
of the later Cremona school, most of the violins of these makers
have a rude and uncouth appearance. The height of the model
varies; the pattern is attenuated; the /-holes share the general
rudeness of design, and are set high in the pattern. Andreas Amati
of Cremona, the eldest maker of that name, effected some im-
provements on this primitive model; but the violin owes most to
his sons, Antonio and Geronimo, who were partners. They intro-
duced the substantial improvements which developed the Brescian
violin into the modern instrument. Nicholas Amati (1596-1684),
son of Geronimo, made some slight further improvements and his
pupil Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) finally settled the typical
Cremona pattern, which has been generally followed ever since.
Only less famous than the last named is Giuseppe Guarnieri (del
Jesu) one of several makers of the same name (wherefore the dis-
tinguishing "del Jesu") whose instruments if less carefully finished
than those of Stradivari are remarkable for the boldness of their
design and their powerful tone, so that the finest of them have been
preferred by some of the great players to those of Stradivari him-
self. Paganini among others habitually played on one.
Among non-Italian makers a high model was adopted by Jacob
Stainer of Absam, near Hall in Tirol, whose well-known pattern
was chiefly followed by the makers of England, Tirol and Germany,
down to the middle of the iSth century, when it fell into disuse,
owing to the superior musical qualities of the Cremona violin. The
English makers may be divided into three successive groups (i)
an antique English school, having a character of its own (Rayman,
Urquhart, Pamphilon, Barak, Norman, Duke, of Oxford, etc.);
(2) imitators of Stainer, at the head of whom stands Peter Wams-
ley (Smith, Barrett, Cross, Hill, Aireton, Norris, etc.); (3) a
later school which leaned to the Cremona model (Banks, Duke of
Holborn, Betts, the Forsters, Gilkes, Carter, Fendt, Parker, Har-
ris, Matthew Hardie, of Edinburgh, etc.). The early French makers
have little merit or interest (Bocquay, Gavinies, Pierray, Guersan,
etc.), but the later copyists of the Cremona models (Lupot, Al-
dric, Chanot the elder, Nicholas, Pique, Silvcstre, Vuillaume, etc.)
produced admirable instruments, some of which rank next in
merit to the first-rate makers of Cremona.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— G. Hart, The Violin (1875) ; A. Vidal, Les Instru-
ments a archet (1876) and La Lutherie et les luthiers (1889); Carl
Engel, Researches into the Early History of the Violin Family (1883) ;
E. Heron- Allen, Violin-making as it was and is (1884-1900) ; K.
Schlesinger, The Precursors of the Modern Violin Family (1896) ;
Hill, Antonio Stradivari (1902); E. van der Straeten, 'The Viola"
(in The Strad, 1912-16) and The History of the Violoncello (1916) ;
W. von Wasielewski, Die Violine (6th cd. 1920) ; A. C. White, The
Double-Bass. (R. W. F. H.; X.)
VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGENE EMMANUEL (1814-
1879), French architect and writer on archaeology, was born in
Paris on Jan. 21, 1814 and died at Lausanne on Sept. 17, 1879.
He was a pupil of Achille Lcclere, and in 1836-37 studied Greek
and Roman architecture in Sicily and Rome. His chief interest
was in the art of the Gothic period, and he was employed to
restore some of the chief mediaeval buildings of France, his
earliest works of restoration being the abbey church of Vezelay,
St. Michel at Carcassonne, the church of Semur in Cote-d'Or,
and the Gothic town halls of Saint-Antonin and Narbonne, be-
tween 1840 and 1850. From 1845 to 1856 he restored Notre
Dame in Paris in conjunction with Lassus, and the abbey of St.
Denis; in 1849 he began the restoration of the fortifications of
Carcassonne and of Amiens cathedral.
As a writer on mediaeval architecture and the kindred arts
he takes the highest rank. His two great dictionaries are the
standard works in their class, and are most beautifully illustrated.
His principal literary works were the Dictionnaire de I' architecture
franc.aise du XI. au XVI. siecle (1854-68) ; Dictionnaire du mobilier
jran^ais (1858-75) ; L' Architecture militaire au moycn age (1854) ;
Entretiens sur V architecture (1863-72) ; Cites et r nines americaines
(1863) ; Memoire sur la dejensc de Paris (1871) ; Habitations modcrncs
(1874-77) ; Histoire d'ttne maison (1873) ; Histoire d'unc Jvrteresse
(1874) ; Histoire de Inhabitation humaine (1875) ; Le Massif du Mont
Blanc (1876) ; L'Art russe (1877) ; Histoire d'un hotel-de-villc et d'unc
cathedrale (1878); La Decoration appliquee aux edifices (1879). See
P. Gout, Viottet'le-Duc in Revue de I' Art Chrtticn Supplements III.
(1914) ; A. Fontainas and G. Gromont, Histoire Generate de I' Art
Francois, vol. ii. (1925).
VIOLONCELLO, the third largest member of the violin fam-
ily, standing midway, therefore, in point of size and pitch be-
tween the viola and the double-bass. Although the word vio-
loncello is a diminutive, signifying "small
violone," or double-bass, the instrument
is really a bass violin, formed on a differ-
ent model from the violone, which has the
sloping shoulders, and flat back of the viol
family, whereas those of the violoncello
are rounded as in the violin. It may be
added that as the word violoncello is a
diminutive the adoption of the second half
of it, 'cello, as a contraction, is hardly a
happy procedure. The violoncello came
into existence soon after the violin and
took the place of the viola da gamba, or
bass viol, which, however, it only sup-
planted very gradually. Its construction
is the same as that of the violin but on a
larger scale, the total length of the instru-
ment being 48jin., though the earliest
instruments were somewhat larger. Al-
though at first the viola da gamba con-
tinued to be preferred by connoisseurs to
DA GAMBA IN THE 18TH
CENTURY
THE VIOLONCELLO WHICH the violoncello, which was considered suit-
SUPERSEDED THE VIOLA able only for accompaniment purposes, the
Vj0jonct.j]0 established its superiority in
due course and to-day, alike in concerted
music and for solo purposes, ranks second only to the violin among
the instruments of its class. Its full rich tone lends itself especially
to the execution of expressive cantabile passages. (See VIOLIN.)
VIONVILLE, a village of Lorraine, near Metz, celebrated
as the scene of the battle of Vionville (also called Rezonville or
Mars-la-Tour), fought on Aug. 16, 1870 between the French
and the Germans (see METZ and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR).
VIPERS, snakes of the family Viperidae, which is character-
ised by the presence of poison fangs on a movable upper jaw.
The fangs are simply enlarged teeth perforated longitudinally for
the passage of the venom and, like those of all other snakes, they
are fused to the supporting bones. In this family, however, there
are no other teeth on the upper jaw and the bone itself is movable
so that the fangs are folded down parallel with the roof of the
mouth when not in use.
Venom is secreted by a pair of glands, situated behind the angle
of the mouth, and is carried to the fangs by a short duct which
178
VIPER'S BUGLOSS— VIRCHOW
opens close to their base inside a fold of skin (the vagina dentis)
which surrounds them; within this fold of skin there is also a
series of reserve fangs in different stages of development and,
should one of the functional fangs be broken, the largest of these
reserve teeth moves into its place and becomes fused to the jaw.
Vipers, as a rule, are stout sluggish creatures with a broad, flat-
tened head, and lack the large head shields so characteristic of
the majority of other poisonous
snakes; most of them are ter-
restrial though there are aquatic,
arboreal and burrowing species.
A few lay eggs but the majority
produce fully developed young.
All the viperidae arc very poi-
sonous and the bite of most of
them is dangerous to man; the
toxicity of the venom varies with
each species and the virulence of ^HE 'AFRICAN PUFF ADDER (BITIS
any bite depends, not only on the ARIETANS)
species of snake responsible for
it, but also on the amount of venom injected, the position of the
bite and the physical condition of the snake. In composition
viperine venom resembles that of the back-fanged Colubrids,
rather than that of the cobras and their allies, and its action con-
sists largely in the destruction of the blood corpuscles and vessels.
The family is subdivisible into two well-defined groups: —
(1) Viperinae. — The true vipers or adders, confined to the
Old World and characterised by the absence of a pit between the
nostril and the eye.
The majority of the snakes of this series arc terrestrial, though
Atractaspis of Tropical and South Africa is a genus of small
burrowing creatures with enlarged shields on the head; the Night
Adders (Causus), of the same region, have the head similarly
covered. Arboreal forms are represented by Athcris, of the forests
of tropical Africa, which is equipped with a prehensile tail and
is usually green or olive in colour to harmonise with its surround-
ings. The colours of the terrestrial species, on the other hand,
are more frequently shades of grey, brown or black to harmonise
with the rocky or sandy localities which they frequent. The
Puff Adder (Bitis arietaiis), which occurs throughout the drier
areas of Africa, is a sluggish, heavily-built creature which may
grow to a length of four or five feet; it is usually pale brown
with a scries of regular, dark, chevron-shaped cross-bars along
the back, a colouring which harmonises so well with sandy soil
that many accidents occur through people failing to notice the
animal until they actually tread upon it. The Gaboon Viper
(Bitis gabonica), unlike its relative, is an inhabitant of the forested
regions of Africa and exhibits a geometrical "camouflage" colour
pattern of blues, reds and yellows. Many desert species show the
feature so characteristic of desert-dwelling animals and plants,
the development of spines; Bitis nasicornis has a pair of horn-
like scales on the tip of the snout and Cerastes cornutns, the
Horned Viper of Egypt and northern Africa, has a prominent
spine above each eye. Cerastes and Echis, the latter found through
northern Africa and southern Asia, including India, exhibit a
specialisation for desert life not found elsewhere; the scales of
the sides are small and have pronounced, serrated ridges which
act, through lateral shovelling movements of the body, as scoops
to dig up loose sand and throw it onto the creatures' backs, and
so enable them to bury themselves completely. In Europe the
family is represented by the genus Vipcra of which the Adder
(V. bents) is the best known species; it is an inhabitant of the
northern countries and is the only venomous serpent in Britain.
In southern Europe an allied species V. aspis, is more common,
characterised by a "snub-nose" and this feature is even more
pronounced in V. latastci of the Iberian Peninsula, whilst in V.
ammodytes of S.E. Europe the tip of the snout is prolonged
upwards into a definite scaly appendage. In India the commonest
and most dangerous viper is the Daboia or Tic Polonga (V.
rnsselli) which reaches a length of 5 feet.
(2) Crotalinae. — Pit vipers and rattlesnakes, centred in Amer-
ica but extending into southern Asia and distinguished by the
presence of a deep pit on the side of the head between the eye
and the nostril.
This pit is lined by scales, similar to those of the rest of
the head, and has a rich nerve supply but its function is quite
unknown. Two American genera of this series are equipped with
a "rattle" on the end of the tail and are more fully described
in the article on Rattlesnake (q.v.). Of the remainder Agkistrodon
is distinguished by the possession of large shields on the head
and is found through S. Asia and Central and N. America; the
American species are semi-aquatic, the Cotton Mouth (4. pis-
civonis) rather more so than the Copperhead (A. mokasen), but
the Asiatic species (including A. hypnale of S. India and Ceylon
and A. Italy s of the Caspian region) are terrestrial. Abo occur-
ring in S.E. Asia are a number of arboreal species of the genus
Trimcresurus, the commonest and most widely distributed being
7'. gramineus, a bright green creature with a yellow stripe along
the flanks and with the tip of the •prehensile tail red. In America
some of the most dangerous poisonous snakes belong to this
family; they include the dreaded Bushmaster (Lachesis mutus)
which sometimes attains a length of 12 feet, the Fer-dc-Lance
(Bothrops atrox), the Jararaca (B. jararaca) and the Jararacussu
(B. Jararacussu), large forms which inhabit the tropical parts of
Central and South America.
VIPER'S BUGLOSS (Echium vulgare), a hairy herb of the
borage family (Boraginaceae), indigenous to Europe, including
Great Britain, and western Asia. The flowers are brilliant blue
when expanded, but the buds are reddish. Viper's bugloss, called
also blue-weed, has become widely naturalized in the United
States and Canada, from Nova Scotia to Ontario and Nebraska
and southward to North Carolina; in some sections it is a
troublesome weed. It prefers dry soil. The genus Echium con-
tains about 30 species, all found in Europe.
VIRBIUS, an old Italian divinity, associated with the worship
of Diana at Aricia (see DIANA). Under Greek influence, he was
identified with Hippolytus (q.v.), who after he had been tram-
pled to death by his own horses was restored to life by Asklcpios
and removed by Artemis to the grove at Aricia, which horses
were not allowed to enter. Virbius was the oldest priest of
Diana, and the first Rex Ncmorcnsis, "king of the grove."
See Virgil, Acn., vii. 761 and Scrvius, I.e.; Ovid. Fasti, iii. 265,
vi. 737; Metam., XV. 497; Suetonius, Caligula, 35; Straho V. p. 239;
(). Wissowa, Religion und Kidtus der Romer. (2nd. cd. 1912) ; J. G.
Frazer, The Golden Bough (3rd ed.) ; A. B. Cook, Zeus (1925).
VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821-1902), German pathologist
and politician, was born on Oct. 13, 1821, at Schivelbein, in Pom-
erania. In 1843 he received an appointment as assistant-surgeon
at the Charite Hospital, becoming pro-rector three years later. In
1847 he began to act as Privatdozent in the university, and founded
with Kcinhardt the Archiv jur pathologische Anatomic und Physi-
ologic, which, after his collaborator's death in 1852, he carried
on alone. In 1848 he went as a member of a government commis-
sion to investigate an outbreak of typhus in upper Silesia. About
this time, having shown too open sympathy with the revolutionary
or reforming tendencies, he was for political reasons obliged to
leave Berlin and retire to the seclusion of Wiirzburg, the medical
school of which profited enormously by his labours as professor
of pathological anatomy. In 1856 he was recalled to Berlin as
ordinary professor of pathological anatomy. As director of the
Pathological Institute he formed a centre for research whence
flowed a constant stream of original work.
Pathology. — Wide as were Virchow's studies, and successful as
he was in all, yet the foremost place must be given to his achieve-
ments in pathological investigation. In his book on Cdlular-
pathologic, published at Berlin in 1858, he established what Lord
Lister described as the "true and fertile doctrine that every mor-
bid structure consists of cells which have been derived from pre-
existing cells as a progeny." Virchow made many important con-
tributions to histology and morbid anatomy and to the study of
particular diseases. The classification into epithelial organs, con-
nective tissues, and the more specialized muscle and nerve, was
largely due to him; and he proved the presence of neuroglia in
the brain and spinal cord, discovered crystalline haematoidine, and
VIRE— VIRGIL
179
made out the basic structure of the umbilical cord. Among
the books he published on pathological and medical subjects may
be mentioned Vorlesungen ubcr Pathologic, the first volume of
which was the Cellular -pathologic (1858), and the remaining
three Die Krankhaften Geschwulste (1863-67); Handbuch dcr
speziellen Pathologic und Thcrapie (3 vols., 1854-62), in collabo-
ration with other German surgeons; Vier Reden ubcr Leben
und Kranksein (1862); Untcrsuchungen tiber die Entwicklung dcs
Schadelgrundcs (1857); Lehre von den Trichinen (1865); Uebcr
den Hunger-typhus (1868); and Gesammelte Abhandlungen am
dem Gebiete dcr offentlichen Medizin und dcr Seuchenlehre
(1879).
Anthropology. — Another science which Virchow cultivated
with conspicuous success was anthropology. In ethnology he pub-
lished a volume of essays on the physical anthropology of the Ger-
mans, with special reference to.the Frisians; and at his instance a
census, which yielded remarkable results, was carried out among
school children throughout Germany, to determine the relative
distribution of blondes and brunettes. His archaeological work
included the investigation of lake dwellings and other prehistoric
structures; he went with Schliemann to Troy in 1879, fruits of the
expedition being two books, Zur Landeskunde dcr Troas (1880)
and Alt-trojanische Grabcr und Schddel (1882); in 1881 he vis-
ited the Caucasus, and on his return published Das Grdberfeld von
Koban im Landc dcr Ossetcn.
Politics. — In 1862 Virchow was elected a member of the Prus-
sian Lower House. lie was a founder and leader of the Fort-
schrittspartei, and the expression Kulturkampf had its origin
in one of his electoral manifestos For many years he was chair-
man of the finance committee, and in that capacity was chief
founder of the constitutional Prussian Budget system. In 1880
he entered the Reichstag as representative of a Berlin constitu-
ency, but was ousted in 1893 by a Social Democrat. In the
Reichstag he became the leader of the Opposition, and a vigorous
antagonist of Bismarck. In the local and municipal politics of
Berlin again he took a leading part, and as a member of the
municipal council was largely responsible for the transformation
which came over the city in the last thirty years o'f the icjth
century. It was his unceasing efforts that secured for its inhabi-
tants the drainage system, sewage farms and good water-supply.
Of his writings on social and political questions may be mentioned
Die Erziehung dcs Wcihcs (1865) ; Ucbcr die nationals Entivicklung
und Bedeutung dcr Nulnrwisscnschaftcn (1865) ; Die Aufgabfn dcr
Naturwmenschaften in dem neucn nationalen Leben Deutschlands
(1871); Die Frcihfit dcr Wissemchaft im moderncn Staat (1877),
in which he opposed the idea of Hacckel — that the principles of
evolution should be taught in elementary schools — on the ground
that they wore not as yet proved, and that it was mischievous to
teach a hypothesis which still remained in the speculative stage.
See Lives by BcchiT (Herlin, 1894) and Pa^el (Leipzig, 1906) ;
Rudolj Virchow ah Patholog by Marchand (Munich, 1902) ; Rudolf
Virchow ah Arzt by Ebstein (Stuttgart, 1903) ; Geddchtnisre.de auj
R. Virchow (Berlin, 1903) ; and Bricje Virchows an seine Eltern
1830-1864, by Marie Rabl (Leipzig, 1907). A bibliography of his
works was published at Berlin in 1901.
VIRE, a town of north-western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Calvados, 47 m. S.W. of Caen by
rail. Pop. (1926) 5,466. Vire stands on a hill surrounded on three
sides by the Vire and crowned by the remains of a 12th-century
chateau. The church of Notre Dame (i3th to i5th century), and
the picturesque Tour de 1'Horloge (i^th century), be-
neath which runs the chief street, arc the principal buildings.
Vire grew up around a castle built in the i2th century by Henry
I. of England, and in the middle ages was one of the important
strongholds of Normandy. South-west of the town is the gorge
called Vaux-de-Vire, where stood the mill of Olivier Basselin (isth
century), the fuller and reputed author of the satiric songs, hence
known as "vaudevilles." (See BASSELIN, OLIVIER.)
Vire is an important market town, with trade in horses and
cattle, and has various small manufactures. It is the scat of a
sub-prefect and a tribunal of commerce.
VIRELAY, the title applied to more than one fixed form of
verse (virer, to turn). Its history and character are very obscure.
It may be connected with the Provencal ley. Historians agree
that it is a modification of the mediaeval lai; but no example of
the lai is known except the following (first printed by Pcrc Mour-
gues in his Trait e de la Pocsic) :
"Sur I'appui du mondc Que fnut-il qu'on fonde
D'espoir?
Cettc mer profondc Kt debris fccondc
Fait voir
Calme au matin 1'onde Kt 1'orage gronde
Le Soir."
But this seems to be a mere fragment of a virelay, which pro-
ceeds by "veering" the two rhymes ad libitum. This is the virelai
ancien, of which examples are rare in recent literature. There is
also the virelai nouveau, which was used by Alain Chartier in the
1 5th century. In French the old and popular Adieu vous dy tristv
Lyre is a perfect example ; and in English we have one admirable
specimen in Austin Dobson's "Good-bye to the Town, good-bye."
A so-called Virelay is found among Chaucer's spurious works
(Skeat, vii., 448). The New Virelay is written on two rhymes,
and begins with two lines that recur throughout as refrains, and
(reversed in order) close the poem in a couplet. The Virelay is a
vague and invertebrate form of verse, and one of little importance.
VIREO, the common name of birds of the American passerine
family Virconidac. There are about 50 species of these insectiv-
orous birds, which have characteristic and often very musical
songs. Twelve species inhabit the United States, all building deep,
pendent, cup-shaped nests, usually hung between the forks of a
branch. The red-eyed virco (V. olivaceus) breeds from the
Gulf States to Labrador and British Columbia, wintering in
Central and South America. West of the Cascade mountains, it
is replaced by Hutton's vireo (V. hut tout), with three subspecies,
lacking the slate crown of V. olivacens. The warbling vireo
(V. gilvus) of eastern U.S.A. and Canada has a fine song.
VIRGIL (Punuus VERGILIUS MAROJ (70-19 B.C.; the great
Roman poet, was born on Oct. 15, 70 B.C., on a farm not far from
the town of Mantua. In the region north of the Po a race of more
imaginative susceptibility than the people of Latium formed part
of the Latin-speaking population. It was favourable to his devel-
opment as a national poet that he was born and educated during
the interval of comparative calm between the first and second Civil
Wars, and that he belonged to a generation which, as the result of
the Social War, lirst enjoyed the sense of an Italian nationality. It
is remarkable that the two poets whose imagination seems to have
been most powerfully possessed by the spell of Rome — Ennius
and Virgil — were born outside the pale of Roman citizenship.
Like his friend and contemporary Horace, he sprang from the
class of yeomen, whose state he pronounces the happiest allotted
to man and most conducive to virtue and piety. At the age of
twelve he was taken for his education to Cremona, and from an
expression in one of his minor poems it may be inferred that his
father accompanied him. Afterwards he removed to Milan, where
he continued to study till he went to Rome two years later.
After studying rhetoric he began the study of philosophy under
Siron the Epicurean. One of the minor poems written about this
time in the scazon metre tells of his delight at the immediate
prospect of entering on the study of philosophy ; at the end of the
poem, the real master-passion of his life, the charm of the Muses,
reasserts itself (Catalepton v.).
Our next knowledge of him is derived from allusions in the
Eclogues, and belongs to a period nine or ten years later. Of
what happened to him in the interval, during which the first Civil
War took place and Julius Caesar was assassinated, we have no
indication from ancient testimony or from his own writings. In
42 B.C., the year of the battle of Philippi, we find him "cultivating
his woodland Muse" under the protection of Asinius Pollio, gov-
ernor of the district north of the Po. In the following year the
famous confiscations of land for the benefit of the soldiers of the
triumvirs took place. Of the impression produced on Virgil by
these confiscations, and of their effect on his fortunes, we have a
vivid record in the first and ninth eclogues. Mantua, in conse-
quence of its vicinity to Cremona, which had been faithful to the
cause of the republic, was involved in this calamity; and Virgil's
father was driven from his farm. By the influence of his powerful
friends, and by personal application to the young Octavian, Virgil
i8o
VIRGIL
[ECLOGUES AND GEORGICS
obtained the restitution of his land. In the meantime he had taken
his father and family with him to the small country house of his
old teacher Siron (Catalepton xj.
Soon afterwards we hear of him living in Rome, enjoying the
favour of Maecenas, intimate with Varius, who was at first re-
garded as the rising poet of the new era, and later on with Horace.
His friendship with Gallus, for whom he indicates a warmer affec-
tion and more enthusiastic admiration than for any one else, was
formed before his second residence in Rome, in the Cisalpine
province. The pastoral poems, or "eclogues," commenced in his
native district, were finished and published in Rome, probably
in 37 B.C. Soon afterwards he withdrew from Rome, and lived
chiefly in Campania, either at Naples or in the neighbourhood
of Nola. He was one of the companions of Horace in the famous
journey to iirundisium; and it seems not unlikely that, some time
before 23 B.C., he made the voyage to Athens which forms the
subject of the third ode of the first book of the Odes of Horace.
The seven years from 37 to 30 B.C. were devoted to the com-
position of the Georgics. In the following year he read the poem
to Augustus, on his return from Asia. The remaining years of his
life were spent on the composition of the Aeneid. In 19 B.C., after
the Aeneid was finished but not finally corrected, he set out for
Athens, intending to pass three years in Greece and Asia and to
devote that time to perfecting the poem. At Athens he met
Augustus, and was persuaded by him to return with him to Italy.
While visiting Megara under a burning sun, he was seized with
illness, and, as he continued his voyage without interruption, he
grew rapidly worse, and died on Sept. 21,19 B-c-> a ^ew days after
landing at Brundisium. In his last illness he called for the cases
containing his manuscripts, with the intention of burning the
Aeneid. He had previously left directions in his will that his lit-
erary executors, Varius and Tucca, should publish nothing of his
which had not already been given to the world by himself. A
passage from a letter of his to Augustus is also quoted, in which
he speaks as if he felt that the undertaking of the work had been
a mistake. This dissatisfaction with his work may be ascribed to
his passion for perfection of workmanship, which death prevented
him from attaining. The command of Augustus overrode the
poet's wish and rescued the poem.
Virgil was buried at Naples, where his tomb was long regarded
with religious veneration. Horace is our most direct witness of
the affection which he inspired among his contemporaries. The
qualities by which he gained their love were, according to his testi-
mony, candor — sincerity of nature and goodness of heart — and
pietas — the union of deep affection for kindred, friends and
country with a spirit of reverence. The statement of his biog-
rapher, that he was known in Naples by the name "Parthenias,"
is a testimony to the exceptional purity of his life in an age of
licence. The seclusion of his life and his devotion to his art
touched the imagination of his countrymen as the finer qualities
of his nature touched the heart of his friends. It had been, from
the time of Cicero, the ambition of the men of finest culture and
most original genius in Rome to produce a national literature
which might rival that of Greece; and the feeling that at last a
poem was about to appear which would equal or surpass the great-
est among all the works of Greek genius found a voice in the lines
of Propertius —
Ccdite Roman! scriptorcs, ceditc Graii ;
Nescio quid maius nascitur Iliade.
The veneration in which his name was held between the over-
throw of Western civilization and the revival of letters affords
testimony of the depth of the impression which he made on the
imagination of the ancient world. The traditional belief in his
pre-eminence has been on the whole sustained, though not with
absolute unanimity, in modern times.
The effect of this was a juster estimate of Virgil's relative posi-
tion among the poets of the world. Lucretius, it may be thought,
was individually the greater poet. But it can hardly be questioned,
on a survey of Roman literature, that the position of Virgil is
central and commanding, while that of Lucretius is in a great
measure isolated. If we could imagine the place of Virgil in
Roman literature vacant, it would be much the same as if we
| imagined the place of Dante vacant in modern Italian, and that of
Goethe in German literature.
Virgil's fame as a poet rests on the three acknowledged works of
his early and mature manhood — the pastoral poems or Eclogues,
the Georgics and the Aeneid — all written in that hexameter verse
, which Tennyson has called
The stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man.
Eclogues. — The pastoral poems or Eclogues — a word denoting
short selected pieces — were composed between the years 42 and
37 B.C. His expressed aim is to pay in the Latin language to the
Italian countryside the tribute of Theocritus to Sicily.
The earliest poems in the series were the second, third and fifth;
and these, along with the seventh, are the most purely Theocritean
in character. The first and ninth, which probably were next in
order, are much more Italian in sentiment, and have a much more
direct reference both to his own- circumstances and the circum-
stances of the time. The first is a reflex of the distress and con-
fusion which arose out of the new distribution of lands. The ninth
contains the lines which seem accurately to describe the site of
Virgil's farm, at the point where the range of hills which accom-
pany the river Mincio for some distance from the foot of the Lago
di Garda sinks into the plain about 14 or 15 m. above Mantua.
The sixth is addressed to Varus, who succeeded Pollio as governor
of the Cisalpine district. Its theme is the .creation of the world,
and the oldest tales of mythology. The fourth and eighth are both
closely associated with the name of Virgil's earliest protector,
I Pollio. The fourth celebrates the consulship of his patron in 40
B.C., and also the prospective birth of a child, though it was dis-
puted in antiquity, and still is disputed, who was meant by this
child whose birth was to be coincident with the advent of the new
era, and who, after filling the other great offices of state, was to
"rule with his father's virtues the world at peace." The main
purpose of the poem, however, is to express the longing of the
world for a new era of peace and happiness, of which the treaty
of Brundisium seemed to hold out some definite hopes. Some of
the phraseology of the poem led to a belief in the early Christian
church that Virgil had been an unconscious instrument of inspired
prophecy. The date of the eighth is fixed by a reference to the
campaign of Pollio against the Dalmatians in 39 B.C. It brings
before us two love tales of homely Italian life. The tenth repro-
duces the Daphnis of Theocritus, and is a dirge over the unhappy
love of Gallus and Lycoris.
There is no important work in Latin literature, with the excep-
tion of the comedy of Terence, so imitative as the Eclogues. But
they are not purely exotic. They are rather composite, partly
Greek and partly Italian, and, as a vehicle for the expression of
feeling, hold an undefined place between the objectivity of the
Greek idyll and the subjectivity of the Latin elegy. For the most
part, they express the sentiment inspired by the beauty of the
world, and the kindred sentiment inspired by the charm of human
relationships. The supreme charm of the diction and rhythm is
universally recognized.
Georgics. — It is stated that Maecenas, acting on the principle
of employing the poets of the time in favour of the conservative
and restorative policy of the new government, directed the genius
of Virgil to the subject of the Georgics. No object could be of
more consequence to a supporter of Augustus' policy leaders than
the revival of the great national industry, which had fallen into
abeyance owing to the long unsettlement of the revolutionary era
as well as to other causes. Virgil's previous life and associations
made it natural for him to identify himself with this object, while
his genius fitted him to enlist the imagination of his countrymen
in its favour. His aim was to describe with realistic fidelity, and to
surround with an atmosphere of poetry, the annual round of la-
bour in which the Italian yeoman's life was passed; to bring out
the intimate relation with nature into which man was brought in
the course of that life, and to suggest the delight to heart and
imagination which he drew from it; to contrast the simplicity,
security and sanctity of such a life with the luxury and lawless
passions of the great world ; and to associate the ideal of a life of
rustic labour with the beauties of Italy and the glories of Rome.
This larger conception of the dignity of his subject separates the
AENEID]
VIRGIL
181
didactic poem of Virgil from all other didactic, as distinct from
philosophic, poems. He has produced in the Georgics a new type
of didactic, as in the Aeneid he has produced a new type of epic,
poetry.
The subject is treated in four books, varying in length from 514
to 566 lines. The first treats of the tillage of the fields, of the
constellations, the rise and setting of which form the farmer's
calendar, and of the signs of the weather, on which the success of
his labours largely depends. The second treats of trees, and
especially of the vine and olive, two great staples of the national
wealth and industry of Italy; the third of the rearing of herds
and flocks and the breeding of horses ; the fourth of bees.
Hesiod Virgil regarded as his prototype; he supplied the out-
line of the form. The Alexandrian scientific poets provided him
with examples for his method of treatment. But a more powerful
influence on the form, ideas, sentiment and diction of the Georgics
was exercised by the great philosophical poem of Lucretius, of
which Virgil had probably been a diligent student since the time
of its first appearance, and with which his mind was saturated
when he was engaged in the composition of the Georgics. So far
as any speculative idea underlying the details of the Georgics can !
be detected, it is one of which the source can be traced to Lucre- !
tius — the idea of the struggle of human force with the forces of
nature. In the general plan of the poem Virgil follows the guid-
ance of Lucretius rather than that of any Greek model. The
distinction between a poem addressed to national and one ad-
dressed to philosophical sympathies is marked by the prominence
assigned in the one poem to Caesar as the supreme personality of
the age, in the other to Epicurus as the supreme master in the
realms of mind. In the systematic treatment of his materials, and
the interspersion of episodes dealing with the deeper poetical and
human interest of the subject, Virgil adheres to the practice of the
older poet.
The Georgics is not only the most perfect, but the most native
of all the works of the ancient Italian genius. Even where he bor-
rows from Greek originals, Virgil makes the Greek mind tributary
to his national design. The Georgics, the poem of the land, is as
essentially Italian as the Odyssey, the poem of the sea, is essen-
tially Greek.
Aeneid. — The work which yet remained for Virgil to accom-
plish was the addition of a great Roman epic to literature. This
had been the earliest effort of the national imagination, when it
first departed from the mere imitative reproduction of Greek
originals. The work which had given the truest expression to the
genius of Rome before the time of Virgil had been the Annales
of Ennius. This had been supplemented by various historical
poems but had never been superseded. It satisfied the national
imagination as an expression of the national life in its vigorous
prime, but it could not satisfy the newly developed sense of art;
and the expansion of the national life since the days of Ennius, and
the changed conditions into which it passed after the battle of
Actium, demanded a newer and ampler expression. It had been
Virgil's earliest ambition to write an heroic poem on the traditions
of Alba Longa ; and he had been repeatedly urged by Augustus to
celebrate his exploits. The problem before him was to compose a
work of art on a large scale, which should represent a great action
of the heroic age, and should at the same time embody the most
vital ideas and sentiment of the hour — which in substance should
glorify Rome and the present ruler of Rome, while in form it
should follow closely the great models of epic poetry and repro-
duce all their sources of interest. It was his ambition to be the
Homer, as he had been the Theocritus and Hesiod, of his country.
Various objects had thus to be combined in a work of art on the
model of the Greek epic : the revival of interest in the heroic fore-
time; the satisfaction of national sentiment; the expression of the
deeper currents of emotion of the age; the personal celebration
of Augustus. A new type of epic poetry had to be created. It
was desirable to select a single heroic action which should belong
to the cycle of legendary events celebrated in the Homeric poems,
and which could be associated with Rome. The only subject which
in any way satisfied these conditions was that of the wanderings
of Aeneas and of his final settlement in Latium. The story, though
not of Roman origin but of a composite growth, had long been
familiar to the Romans, and had been recognized by official acts of
senate and people. The subject enabled Virgil to tell again of the
fall of Troy, and to weave a tale of sea-adventure similar to that
of the wanderings of Odysseus. It was also recommended by the
claim which the Julii, a patrician family of Alban origin, made to
descent from lulus, the supposed son of Aeneas.
The Aeneid is thus at once the epic of the national life under its
new conditions and an epic of human character. The true keynote
of the poem is struck in the line with which the poem closes —
Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gcntcm.
The idea which underlies the whole action of the poem is that of
the great part played by Rome in the history of the world, that
part being from of old determined by divine decree, and carried out
through the virtue of her sons. The idea of universal empire is
thus the dominant idea of the poem. With this idea that of the
unbroken continuity of the national life is intimately associated.
The reverence for old customs and for the traditions of the past
was a large element in the national sentiment, and has a prominent
place in the Aeneid. So too has the feeling of local attachment
and of the power of local association over the imagination. The
poem is also characteristically Roman in the religious belief and
observances which it embodies. Behind all the conventional
machinery of the old Olympic gods there is the Roman apprehen-
sion of a great inscrutable power, manifesting itself by arbitrary
signs, exacting jealously certain observances, working out its own
secret purposes through Roman arms and Roman counsels.
The idealization of Augustus is no expression of servile adula-
tion. It is through the prominence assigned to him that the poem
is truly representative of the critical epoch in human affairs at
which it was written. The cardinal fact of that epoch was the
substitution of personal rule for the rule of the old commonwealth
over the Roman world. Virgil shows the imaginative significance
of that fact by revealing the emperor as chosen from of old in the
counsels of the supreme ruler of the world to fulfil the national
destiny, as descendant of gods and heroes of old poetic renown.
Virgil's true and yet idealizing interpretation of the imperial
idea of Rome is the basis of the greatness of the Aeneid as a repre-
sentative poem. It is on this representative character and on the
excellence of its artistic execution that the claim of the Aeneid to
rank as one of the great poems of the world mainly rests. The
inferiority of the poem to the Iliad and the Odyssey as a direct
representation of human life is so unquestionable that we are in
danger of underrating the real though secondary interest which the
poem possesses as an imitative epic of human action, manners
and character, In the first place it should be remarked that the
action is chosen not only as suited to embody the idea of Rome,
but as having a peculiar nobleness and dignity of its own. It
brings before us the spectacle of the destruction of the city of
greatest name in poetry or legend, of the foundation of the im-
perial city of the western seas, in which Rome had encountered
her most powerful antagonist in her long struggle for supremacy,
and that of the first rude settlement on the hills of Rome itself.
It might be said of the manner of life represented in the Aeneid,
that it is no more true to any actual condition of human society
than that represented in the Eclogues. But may not the same be
said of all idealizing restoration of a remote past in an age of ad-
vanced civilization? The life represented in the Oedipus Tyrannus
or in King Lear is not the life of the Periclean nor of the Eliza-
bethan age, nor is it conceivable as the real life of a prehistoric
age. Where Virgil is least real, and most purely imitative, is in
the battle-scenes of the later books.
But the adverse criticisms of the Aeneid are chiefly based on
Virgil's supposed failure in the crucial test of the creation of char-
acter. And his chief failure is pronounced to be the "pious
Aeneas." Is Aeneas a worthy and interesting hero of a great poem
of action? Not, certainly, according to the ideals realized in
Achilles and Odysseus, nor according to the modern ideal of hero-
ism. Virgil wishes to hold up in Aeneas an ideal of pious obedience
and persistent purpose — a religious ideal belonging to the ages of
faith combined with the humane and self-sacrificing qualities
belonging to an era of moral enlightenment. His own sympathy
VIRGIL
[LEGEND
is with his religious ideal rather than with that of chivalrous
romance. He felt that the deepest need of his time was not mili-
tary glory, but peace, reconcilfation, restoration of law, and piety.
In Dido Roman poetry has added to the great gallery of men
and women, created by the imaginative art of different times and
peoples, the ideal of a true queen and a true woman. On the epi-
sode of which she is the heroine the most passionate human interest
is concentrated. It has been objected that Virgil does not really
sympathize with his own creation, that he gives his approval to
the cold desertion of her by Aeneas. But if he does not condemn
his hero, he sees in the desertion and death of Dido a great tragic
issue in which a noble and generous nature is sacrificed to the
larger purpose of the gods.
Virgil brought the two great instruments of varied and con-
tinuous harmony and of a rich, chastened and noble style to the
highest perfection of which the Latin tongue was capable. The
rhythm and style of the Aeneid is more unequal than the rhythm
and style of the Georgics, but is a larger and more varied instru-
ment. The note of his supremacy among all the poetic artists of
his country is that subtle fusion of the music and the meaning of
language which touches the deepest and most secret springs of
emotion. He touches especially the emotions of reverence and of
yearning for a higher spiritual life, and the sense of nobleness in
human affairs, in great institutions and great natures; the sense
of the sanctity of human affections, of the imaginative spell exer-
cised by the past, of the mystery of the unseen world. This is the
secret of the power which his words have had over some of the
deepest and greatest natures in all ages. (W. Y. S.; X.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Appendix Vergiliana. — Under this collective name
there are current several poems of some little length and some groups
of shorter pieces, all attributed to Virgil in antiquity. Virgil wrote a
Culex, but not the Culex now extant, though it passed for his half
a century after his death. The Aetna, the Ciris and the Co pa are
clearly not Virgil's. The More-turn is said to have been translated
by him from a Greek poem by his teacher Parthenius; it is an
exquisite piece of work, familiar perhaps to English readers in Cowper's
translation. The case of the Cat ale pi on (Kara XtTrroi/) is peculiar.
Two of these little poems (Ite hinc inanes and Villula, quae Sironiseras)
are generally accepted as Virgil's; opinion varies as to the rest, with
very little to go upon, but generally rejecting them. The whole are
printed in the larger editions of Virgil. For English readers the most
obvious edition is that of Robinson Ellis (1907), who has also edited
the Aetna separately.
Manuscripts, — Gellius (Nodes Atticae, ix. 14, 7) tells us of people
who had inspected idiografhunt librum Vergilii, but this has of course
in all probability long since perished. There are, however, seven
very ancient MSS. of Virgil, (i) The Mediccus at Florence, with a
note purporting to be by a man, who was consul in 494, to say he
had read it. (2) The Palatinus Vaticanus of the 4th or 5th century.
(3) The Vaticanus of the same period. (4) The "Schedae Vaticanae."
(5) The "Schedae Berolincnses," perhaps of the 4th century. (6) The
"Schedae Sangallcnses." (7) The "Schedae rescriptae Veronenses"
— the last three of insignificant extent. For a fully detailed account
of the MSS., see Henry, Acneidea, i., and Ribbcck, Prolego-mena ad
Verg.
Ancient Commentators. — Commentaries on Virgil began to be written
at a very early date. Suetonius, V ' . Verg. 44, mentions an Aeneidomastix
of Carvilius Pictor and other works on Virgil's "thefts" and "faults,"
besides eight "volumina" of Q. Octavius Avitus, setting out in parallel
passages the "likenesses" (ijuo^TTjTts was the name of the work)
between Virgil and more ancient authors. M. Valerius Probus (latter
part of ist century A.D.) wrote a commentary, but it is doubtful for
how much of what passes under his name he is responsible, if for any
of it. At the end of the 4th century come the commentaries of Tiberius
Claudius Donatus and of Servius, the former writing as a teacher of
rhetoric, the latter of style and grammar. The work of Servius was
afterwards expanded by another scholar, whose additions greatly added
to its worth, as they are drawn from older commentators and give us
very valuable information on the old Roman religion and constitution,
Greek and Latin legends, old Latin and linguistic usages. In this
enlarged form the commentary of Servius and the Saturnalia of
Macrobius (also of the end of the 4th century) arc both of great
interest to the student of Virgil. There arc, further, sets of Scholia in
MSS. at Verona and Bern, which draw their material from ancient
commentaries. See H. Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature, xi. and
Comparctti, Vergil m the Middle Ages (1875; trans. 1895), ch. 5 (1885;
and series, 1895).
Editions. — The editions of Virgil are innumerable; Heyne (1767-
1800), Forbiger (1872-75) and Ribbeck (1859-66) in Germany,
Benoist (1876) in France, and Conington (completed by Nettleship,
and edited by Haverfield, 1898, etc.) in England, are perhaps the most
important. Good school editions in English have been produced by
Page, Sidgwick and Papillon. Conington's work, however, is without
question the best in English.
Translations. — Famous English translations have been made by
Dry den and by a host of others since his day. Since the middle of
the i9th century the most important are Conington (Aeneid in verse,
whole works in prose) ; J. W. Mackail (Aeneid and Georgics in prose) ;
William Morris (Aeneid in verse) ; Lord Justice Bowen (Eclogues
and Aeneid, i.-vi. in verse); Canon Thornhill (verse); C. J. Billson
(verse, 1906); J. Rhoades (verse, new ed., 1907). For essays on
translating Virgil, see- Conington, Miscellaneous Works, vol. i. ; R. Y.
Tyrrell, Latin Poetry (appendix).
AUTHORITIES. — For full bibliographies of Virgil consult Schanz,
Gesch. der Romischen Literatw (1899) (in Iwan von Miiller's series,
Handbuch der Klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft), and Tcuffel,
History of Roman Literature, edited by L. Schwabe and tr. by G.
C. W. Warr (1900). On the life of Virgil: Ncttleship's Ancient:
Lives of Vergil (1879) discusses the authorities, printing one of the
lives, which he shows to be by Suetonius. On the Eclogues: Glaser,
V. als Naturdtchtcr u. T heist (1880) ; Cattault, fitude sur h's Bucoliques
de V. (1897). On the Georgics: Morsch, De Graecis in Georgids a V.
expressis (1878) ; Nordcn, "V.-studien" (in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893)
(Norden has little patience with "aesthetic criticism"). On the Aeneid:
Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. vol. i. (1853) ; Cauer, De fabulis Graecis ad
Roman conditam pcrtinentibus; Hild, La Legcnde d'finec avant V.
(1883) ; Forstemann, Zur Gesch. des Aeneasmythus; H. de la Villc dc
Mirmont, Apollonios de Rhodes et Virgile (1894) (rather too long);
Pltiss, V. u. die epische Kunst (1884) ; Georgii, Die politische Tendenz
der Aen. (1880) ; Boissier, Nouvelles promenades archeologiques (1886)
(trans, under title The Country of Horace and Virgil, by D. Havelock
Fisher, 1895) ; Gibbon, Critical Observations on the Sixth Book of the
Aeneid (1770) ; Boissier, La Religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins
(1884) (with section on sixth Aeneid) ; Ettig, Achcruntica (Leipzigcr
Studien, 1891) ; Norden, "V.-studien" (in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893), on
sixth Aeneid, and papers in Ncue Jahrbiicher fur kl. Altertum (1901) ;
Dieterich, Nckyia (1893) (on Apocalypse of Peter and ancient teaching
on the other life — a valuable book) ; Henry, Aeneidea (1873-79) (a
book of very great learning, wit, sense and literary judgment ; the
author, an Irish physician, gave twenty years to it, examining MSS.,
exploring Virgil's country, and reading every author whom Virgil could
have used and nearly every ancient writer who used Virgil) .
Virgil-literature: Sainte-Beuve, £tude sur Virgile (one of the great
books on Virgil) ; Comparetti, Virgilio nel media Evo (1872) — Eng.
tr., Vergil in the Middle Ages, by E. F. M. Bencckc (1895) (a book
of very great and varied interest) ; Hoinze, Virgil's epische Technik
(1902) ; W. Y. Sellar, Roman Poets of the Augustan Age: Virgil (2nd
cd. 1883) ; Glover, Studies in Virgil (1904). Essays in the following:
F. W. H. Myers, Essays [Classical] (1883), the most famous English
essay on Virgil; J. R. Green, Stray Studies (1876) (an excellent study
of Aeneas) ; W. Warde Fowler, A Year with the Birds (on Virgil's
bird-lore) ; Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature (1884) ; Tyrrell,
Latin Poetry (1898) ; Patin, "Essais sur la poe-sie Latine (4th cd. 1900)
(one of the finest critics of Latin literature) ; Goumy, Les Latins
(1892) (a volume of very bright essays) ; J. W. Mackail, Latin
Literature (^rd ed. 1899) ; H. W. Garrod, Vergil (1912) ; T. Frank,
Vergil. A biography (1922) ; J. W. Mackail, Virgil and his meaning
to the world of to-day (1923).
THE VIRGIL LEGEND
Virgil's great popularity in the middle ages is to be partly ex-
plained by the fact that he was to a certain extent recognized by
the Church. He was supposed to have prophesied the coming of
Christ in the fourth Eclogue, and by some divines the Aeneid was
held to be an allegory of sacred things. This position was suffi-
ciently emphasized by Dante when he chose him from among all
the sages of antiquity to be his guide in the Divina Commedia.
Ancient poets and philosophers were commonly transformed by
mediaeval writers into necromancers; and Virgil and Aristotle
became popularly famous, not for poetry and science, but for
their supposed knowledge of the black art. Naples appears to
have been the home of the popular legend of Virgil, which repre-
sented him as the special protector of the city, but was probably
never quite independent of learned tradition.
One of the earliest references to the magical skill of Virgil occurs
in a letter of the imperial chancellor Conrad of Querfurt (1194),
reproduced by Arnold of Llibeck in the continuation of the Chronica
Slavorum of Helmold. John of Salisbury alludes to the brazen fly
fabricated by Virgil; Helinand (d. 1227) speaks of similar marvels
in a work from which Vincent of Beauvais has borrowed ; and Gervase
of Tilbury, in his Otia Impe.rialia (1212), and Alexander of Npckam
(d. 1217), in De Naturis Rerum, have reproduced these traditions.
Many current tales of magic were referred to Virgil, and gradually
developed into a completely new life, strangely different from that of
the real hero. They were collected in French under the title of Les
Faitz Merveitteux de Virgille (c. 1499), a quarto chapbook of ten
pages, which became extremely popular, and was printed, with more or
VIRGIL— VIRGINIA
183
less additional matter, in other languages. The English version,
beginning "This is resonable to wryght the mervclus dcdcs done by
Virgilius," was printed about 1520. We are told how Virgil beguiled
the devil at a very early age, in the same fashion as the fisherman
persuaded the jinnee in the Arabian Nights to re-enter Solomon's
casket. Another reproduction of a widely spread tale was that of the
lady who kept Virgil suspended in a basket. To revenge the affront
the magician extinguished all the fires in the city, and no one could
rekindle them without subjecting the lady to an ordeal highly offensive
to her modesty. Virgil made for the emperor a castle in which he
could sec and hear everything done or said in Rome, an ever-blooming
orchard, statues of the tributary princes which gave warning of treason
or rebellion, and a lamp to supply light to the city. He abducted
the soldan's daughter, and built for her the city of Naples upon a
secure foundation of eggs. At last, having performed many extra-
ordinary things, he knew that his time was come. In order to escape
the common lot he placed all bis treasures in a castle defended by
images unceasingly wielding iron flails, and directed his confidential
servant to hew him in pieces, which he was to salt and place in a
barrel in the cellar, under which a* lamp was to be kept burning. The
servant was assured that after seven days his master would revive,
a young man. The directions were carried out; but the emperor,
missing his medicine-man, forced the servant to divulge the secret
and to quiet the whirling flails. The emperor and his retinue entered
the castle and at last found the mangled corpse. In his wrath he slew
the servant, whereupon a little naked child ran thrice round the
barrel, crying, "Cursed be the hour that ye ever came here," and
vanished.
For the legends connected with Virgil see especially D. Comparetti,
Virgilio net media evo (2nd ed., Florence, 1896; English trans. E. F. M.
Benccke, 1895). The chief original source for the Neapolitan legends
is the 14th-century Cronica di Partenope. See further W. J. Thorns,
Early Eng. Prose Romances (1858) ; G. Brunct, Les Faitz mervcillcux-
de Virgile (Geneva, 1867) ; E. Dumcril, "Virgile enchanteur" (Melanges
archeologiqnes, 1850) ; Gcrvasc of Tilbury, Otia Imper. (ed. Licbrccht,
1856) ; P. Schwubbc, Virgilius per mediam aetatem (Paderborn, 1852) ;
Siebenhaar, DC jabulis quae media aetaie de Virgilio circumf. (Berlin,
1837) ; J. G. T. Gracs.se, Beitrage zur Lit. u. Sage des MittelaUers
(1850) ; Bartsch, "Gedirht auf. d. 7aub. Virgil" (Pfciffer's Gcrmania,
iv. 1859) ; F. Licbrccht, "Der Zaubcrer Virgilius" (ibid. x. 1865) ;
K. L. Roth, "Ober d. Zaub. Virgilius" (ibid. iv. 1859) ; W. Victor,
"Der Ursprung dcr Virgilsage" (Zeit. f. rom. Phil. i. 1877) ; A. Graf,
Roma nella memoria c nelle imaginasioni del medio evo (Turin, 1882) ;
F. W. Genthe, Leben und Fortlebcn des Pnblius Virgilius Afaro ah
Dichter und Zauberer (2nd ed., Magdeburg, 1857).
VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555), English historian,
of Italian extraction, otherwise known as P. V. CASTELLKNSIS,
was a kinsman of Cardinal Hadrian Castellensis, a native of
Castro in Etruria. His father's name is said to have been George
Virgil; his great-grandfather, Anthony Virgil, ua man well skilled
in medicine and astrology," had professed philosophy at Paris, as
did Polydore's own brother and protege John Matthew Virgil, at
Pavia, in 1517. A third brother was a London merchant in 1511.
Polydore was born at Urbino, is said to have been educated at
Bologna, and was probably in the service of Guido Ubaldo, duke
of Urbino, before 1498, as in the dedication of his first work, Liber
Proverbiorum (April 1498), he styles himself this prince's client.
Polydore's second book, De Inventoribus Rc-rnm, is dedicated to
Guide's tutor, Ludovicus Odaxius, from Urbino, in Aug. 1499.
After being chamberlain to Alexander VI. he came to England in
1501 as deputy collector of Peter's pence for the cardinal. As
Hadrian's proxy, he was enthroned bishop of Bath and Wells
in Oct. 1504. It was at Henry VII. 's instance that he commenced
his Historia Anglica (1534), on which he had been engaged for
nearly 30 years. A rash letter, reflecting severely on Henry VIII.
and Wolsey, was intercepted early in 1515, after which Polydore
was cast into prison for several months, and supplanted in his col-
lectorship (March and April). In 1525 he published the first
edition of Gildas, dedicating the work to Tunstall, bishop of Lon-
don. Next year appeared his Liber de Prodigiis, dedicated from
London (July) to Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino. Somewhere
about 1538 he left England, and remained in Italy for some time.
About the end of 1551 he went home to Urbino, where he appears
to have died in 1555. He had been naturalized an Englishman in
Oct. 1510, and had held several clerical appointments in England.
In 1508 he was appointed archdeacon of Wells, and in 1513 preb-
endary of Oxgate in St. Paul's cathedral, both of which offices
he held after his return to Urbino.
The first edition of the Historia Anglica (26 books) was printed
at Basle in 1534; the 27th book, dealing with the reign of Henry
VIII. down to the birth of Edward VI. (October 1536), was
added to the third edition of 1555. It is mainly from the time of
Henry VI. that Polydore's work is useful.
Polydore's Adagia (Venice, April 1498) was the first collection of
Latin proverbs ever printed ; it preceded Erasmus's by two years, and
the slight misunderstanding that arose for the moment out of rival
claims pave place to a sincere friendship. A second series of Biblical
proverbs (553 in number) was dedicated to Wolsey \s follower, Richard
Pace, and is preceded by an interesting letter (June 1519), which gives
the names of many of Polydore's English friends, from More and
Archbishop Warham to Linacre and Tunstall. The De Inventoribus
treating of the origin of all things whether ecclesiastical or lay (Paris,
1499), originally consisted of only seven books, but was increased to
eight in 1521. It was exceedingly popular, and was early translated into
French (1521), German (1537), English (1546) and Spanish (1551).
All editions, however, except those following the text sanctioned by
Gregory XIII. in 1756, are on the Index Expurgatorius. The De
Prodigiis also achieved a great popularity, and was soon translated
into Italian (1543), English (1546) and Spanish (1550)-
VIRGINAL or PAIR OF VIRGINALS, a name applied in
England (and also recognized on the Continent of Europe) to the
spinet as being pre-eminently an instrument for girls. (For fur-
ther particulars see PIANOFORTE and SPINET.)
VIRGINIA or VERGINIA, in Roman legendary history,
daughter of L. Virginius, a plebeian centurion. Her beauty
attracted the notice of the decemvir Appius Claudius, who
instructed Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, to claim her as
his slave. Marcus accordingly brought her before Appius, and
asserted that she was the daughter of one of his female skives,
who had been stolen and passed off by the wife of Virginius as
her own child. Appius, refusing to listen to any argument,
declared Virginia a slave and the property of Marcus. Virginius
thereupon stabbed her to the heart in the presence of Appius and
the people. A storm of popular indignation arose and the decem-
virs were forced to resign. The people for the second time
"seceded" to the Sacred Mount, and refused to return to Rome
until the old form of government was re-established.
See Livy iii. 44-58; Dion. Halic. xi. 28-45, whose account differs in
some respects from Livy's; Cicero, DC finibns, ii. 20; Val. Max. vi. i, 2 ;
for a critical examination of the story and its connection with the
downfall of the decemvirs, see Schwegler, Rum. Gesch., bk. xxx. 4, 5 ; E.
Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History (Eng. trans. 1906), p. 185.
VIRGINIA, 'The Old Dominion," is the most southerly of
the middle Atlantic group of States in the United States of Amer-
ica, and lies between 36° 30' and 39° 37' N. lat., and 75° 15' and
83° 40' W. long. The Potomac river separates it on the north
from Maryland, except east of Chesapeake bay where the
boundary is a parallel of latitude. Another parallel of latitude
separates it on the south from North Carolina and Tennessee.
On the cast lies the Atlantic ocean, along which the State pos-
sesses a tidal shore-line, following indentations, of 780 miles.
The States of Kentucky and West Virginia form the western
boundary. The total area is 42,627 sq.m., of which 2,365 sq.m.
are water surface included in land-locked bays and harbours, rivers
and lakes. In length east and west along the southern boundary
the State measures about 440 m., its extreme breadth north and
south is about 200 miles. The State is the remnant of a much
greater area named by Sir Walter Raleigh "Virginia" in honour
of Queen Elizabeth, who was known as "The Virgin Queen."
Physiography. — Virginia is crossed from north-east to south-
west by three distinct physiographic provinces, which, named
from east to west, are: (i) The Coastal plain or Tidewater re-
gion, including the Eastern Shore; (2) The Piedmont plateau;
(3) the Appalachian Mountain province. The latter is sometimes
subdivided (from east to west) into the Blue Ridge, Great valley
and Alleghany ridges. The Tidewater province occupies about
11,000 square miles. Once the plain of which it is formed was
raised to a higher elevation above sea level than now, and it
was much dissected by streams. When it was subsequently de-
pressed, the sea invaded these stream valleys to form the branch-
ing bays which characterize the region. Chief of these are the
long estuaries of the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York and
James rivers. Chesapeake bay, into which these flow, is itself
the drowned lower course of the Susquehanna. The land between
these arms of the ocean is relatively flat. In the south-east, where
1 84
VIRGINIA
[GOVERNMENT
the drainage is particularly poor, is the Great Dismal Swamp
(</.v.), a fresh-water marsh covering 700 square miles. Along the
shores of Chesapeake bay and the Atlantic ocean are low, sandy
beaches, often enclosing lagoons or salt marshes. Westward the
Tidewater province reaches to the "fall-line" of the rivers, ap-
proximated by a line drawn north and south through Richmond.
The largest of the physiographic provinces, the Piedmont pla-
teau, extends from an elevation of 150 to 300 ft. along the "fall-
line" westward to an elevation of 700 to 1,200 ft. along the foot
of the Blue Ridge. It varies in width from 40 m. in the north to
about 175 m. along the southern border. The sloping surface is
gently rolling, and has resulted from the uplift and dissection of
a nearly level plain of erosion developed on folded crystalline
rocks. Occasional hard rock ridges rise to a moderate elevation.
The mountain belt known as the Blue Ridge, from 3 to 20 m.
in breadth, passes entirely across the State from north-east to
south-west and forms the division between the Piedmont plateau
and the Great valley. In elevation it varies from 1,460 ft. at
Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac breaks through it in a pic-
turesque water-gap, to 5,719 ft. in Mt. Rogers, Grayson county,
the highest point in the State. In the north the range is narrow,
but southward it broadens toward a greater expansion in west
North Carolina and east Tennessee. Most of the rivers flowing
through the Piedmont district to the Tidewater region have their
origin on the eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, but two of the
largest, the James and Roanokc rivers, have cut passes through
from the Great valley where they have their origin.
The Great valley is in its general configuration one continuous
valley between the two great mountain ranges extending diagonally
across the State, but it is drained by five separate rivers, each
with its separate valley. The Shenandoah river drains the northern
one-third and flows north into the Potomac at Harper's Ferry.
The middle one-third is drained by the upper tributaries of the
James and Roanoke rivers which break through the Blue Ridge
and flow east. The southern one-third of the valley is drained by
the New river, which breaks through the Allegheny ridges to the
west and flows to the Ohio, and by the Holston river, which flows
south-west into Tennessee. The valley averages from 25 to 30 m.
in width and rises in elevation from 300 ft. at Harper's Ferry to
about 1,700 ft. in south-west Virginia. Its formations arc mostly
of limestone, which accounts for the many remarkable caves in
the region, and the famous Natural bridge, 215 ft. high, in Rock-
bridge county.
The altitude of the mountainous ridges to the west of the
Great valley varies from 1,500 to above 4,000 feet. Some of the
valleys and slopes are of sandstone, some of slates and shales, some
of limestone, so that they present a great variety of surface.
The rainfall is everywhere sufficient for farming. Snowfall is
confined almost entirely to the three winter months and in the
Piedmont and Tidewater region snow is infrequent and of short
duration. In the mountains it often becomes very deep.
Flora. — The Coastal plain is covered with pine forests, which
merge westward with the hard woods of the Piedmond section,
where oaks formerly prevailed, but where a second growth of
pine now constitutes part of the forest. The Blue Ridge and
Allegheny regions are covered with pine, hemlock, white oak,
cherry and yellow poplar; while toward the south-west corner
of the State there are still groves of walnut and hickory. The
cypress grows in the Dismal swamp, the river birch along the
streams of the coastal plain, and sweet gum and black gum where
the ground is swampy. Characteristic plants of the coastal region
arc the cranberry, wild rice, wild yam, wax myrtle, wistaria,
trumpet flower, passion flower, holly and white alder. Many of
these continue into the Piedmont section. Rhododendron, moun-
tain laurel and azaleas are common in the mountains.
Population. — In 1790, the year of the first Federal Census,
Virginia ranked first among the States in population, with 747,610
inhabitants. By 1860, just before the Civil War, population had
about doubled. The separation of West Virginia during the Civil
War lowered the total to 1,255,163 in 1870, but in 1900 it was
1,893,810, in 1910, 2,061,612 and in 1920, 2,309,187. The popu-
lation July i, 1928 was estimated by the Federal Census Bureau at
2,575,000. The density increased from 46-1 per sq.m. in 1900 to
57-4 per sq.m. in 1920.
Of the total in 1920 1,617,909 were of the white race, 690,017
were negroes, 824 Indians and 437 of other races. The percentage
of negroes had decreased from 35-6 in 1900 to 32-6 in 1910 and
29-9 in 1920. They were most numerous in the Tidewater region
and in the south-eastern counties of the Piedmont district.
Of the white population 1,534,494, or 94-8%, were natives —
born of native parentage. Those born of foreign or mixed parent-
NHABITANTS
i i § i § i
GRAPH SHOWING THE GROWTH OF POPULATION IN VIRGINIA, AND THE
NEGRO ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
age numbered 52,630 and those who were born in foreign lands
numbered 30,785. The percentage of illiteracy among the popu-
lation over 10 years of age amounted for the State as a whole
to 11-2; among the native whites it was 5-9% ; among the negroes
23-5%. The proportion of the population living in cities of more
than 2,500 inhabitants increased from 18-3 in 1900 to 23-1 in
1910 and 29-2 in 1920. The chief cities with their population
according to the 1910 and 1920 censuses, together with the esti-
mate of the Census Bureau for July i, 1928, follow:
Richmond
Norfolk .
Koanokc .
Portsmouth
Newport News
Lynchburg
Petersburg
__
1910
127,628
67,452
34,874
33 >l 9°
22,622
2y,4Q4
24,127
ig2O
Estimate
1928
171,667
50,842
54,387
35,596
30,070
31,012
194,400
184,200
64,600
61,600
53.30°
38,600
37,8oo
Government. — Virginia has had six State Constitutions: the
first was adopted in 1776, the second in 1830, the third in 1851,
the fourth in 1864, the fifth in 1869 and the sixth, the present, in
1902. Amendments to the present Constitution may be proposed
in either house of the general assembly, and if they pass both
houses of that and the succeeding general assembly by a majority
of the members elected to each house and are subsequently ap-
proved by a majority of the votes polled at the next general
election they become a part of the Constitution. A majority of
the members in each house of the general assembly may at any
time propose a convention to revise the Constitution and, if at
the next succeeding election a majority of the voters approve,
the general assembly must provide for the election of delegates.
To be entitled to vote one must be a citizen of the United States
and 21 years of age; have been a resident of the State for one
year, of the county, city or town for six months, and of the
election precinct for 30 days next preceding the election.
The general assembly consists of a senate and a house of dele-
gates. Senators and delegates are elected by single districts
(into which the State is supposed to be apportioned once every
ten years according to population), the senators for a term of
AGRICULTURE]
VIRGINIA
185
four years, the delegates for a term of two years. The member-
ship of both the senate and the house was in 1927 at the maximum
allowed by the State Constitution, 40 senators and 100 delegates.
The general assembly meets regularly at Richmond on the second
Wednesday in January of each even-numbered year. The length
of a regular session is limited to 60 days unless three-fifths of the
members of each house concur in extending it.
The governor, lieutenant-governor and attorney-general are
elected for a term of four years. The governor appoints the
secretary of the commonwealth, treasurer, superintendent of public
buildings, commissioner of agriculture, controller and numerous
officers with the concurrence of the general assembly. He has the
power of vetoing legislative bills or any item of an appropriation
bill (a bill can be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote
of the members present in each house), and has authority to
inspect the records of officers or to employ accountants to do so,
and to suspend, during a recess of the general assembly, any
executive officer at the seat of government except the lieutenant-
governor.
A consolidation and reorganization of administrative bodies
was effected by a legislative act in 1927 which created 12 admin-
istrative departments, namely, the departments of taxation, fi-
nance, highways, education, corporations, labour and industry,
agriculture and immigration, conservation and development,
health, public welfare, law, and workmen's compensation.
The administration of justice is vested in a supreme court of
appeals, circuit courts, city courts and justices of the peace.
The supreme court of appeals consists of seven judges, but any
three of them may hold a court or they may sit in two divisions
of not less than three judges each except in cases involving con-
stitutional questions, when the full court is required. They are
chosen for a term of 12 years by the joint vote of the two houses
of the general assembly. The court sits at Richmond, Staunton
and Wytheville. Provision is made for a special court of appeals
where the majority of the judges of the supreme court may not
properly sit or where the docket of that court is too crowded to
be disposed of "with convenient dispatch." The State is divided
into 34 judicial circuits and in each of these a circuit judge is
chosen for the term of eight years by a joint vote of both houses
of the general assembly. Similar to the circuit court, is the cor-
poration court in each city having a population of more than
10,000, the judge of which is also chosen by a joint vote of both
houses for a term of eight years.
Finance. — The value of all tangible property in the State has
increased from $1,288,000,000 ($666 per caput.) in 1904 to $2,-
402,000,000 ($1,140 per caput) in 1912 and $4,892,000,000
($2,050 per caput) in 1922 as estimated by the Federal Census
Bureau. The valuation of prop-
erty assessed for taxation pur-
poses in 1925 amounted to $2,-
119,643,765, of which $1,048,-
188,000 was real estate. In 1926
the rates of taxation per $100
assessed valuation were 25 cents
for real estate and tangible per-
sonal property, and 50 cents on
intangible property, except capi-
tal, which was $1.00, bonds of
counties, cities and towns which
were 35 cents and shares of bank OCCUPATIONS OF THE 833.576
stock which were 25 cents. PERSONS TEN YEARS OF AGE AND
Receipts and disbursements of OVER ENGAGED IN GAINFUL EM.
the State treasury during the PAYMENT, "*°
fiscal year ending June 30, 1926, amounted to $32,721,421 and
$32,371,260 respectively. The chief items of expenditure were
for the construction and maintenance of roads, $14,167,526; for
the support of free public schools, $5,142,770; for educational and
charitable institutions, $2,272,162; for expenses and salaries of
officers of the Government, $1,088,367; for hospitals for the
insane and for epileptics, $1,082,843, and for pensions to soldiers,
sailors, marines and their widows, $947,507. The total outstanding
State debt amounted in 1925 to $26,870,000, or $11,03 per caput.
Of this aggregate debt $19,539,000 was funded.
Education. — The Virginia free school system, established in
1870, is controlled by the State board of education, composed of
seven members appointed by the governor. The chief executive
of the system is the superintendent of public instruction also
appointed by the governor. The Constitution provides that
white and coloured children shall be taught in different schools.
Attendance is compulsory for children from 8 to 14 years of age,
except for pupils of high school grade. The school census of
1925 recorded 701,534 children in the State from 7 to 19 years
of age, of whom 216,802 were coloured. Of the total 551,475
were enrolled in public schools during the 1925-26 session. In
addition there were approximately 35,000 in private and parochial
schools of which Virginia has a large number. The average length
of school term was 161 days. There were 12,770 school rooms
devoted to white children and 3,602 for coloured children. Ac-
credited four year high schools numbered 369 and accredited
junior high schools 12. There were 58,676 pupils enrolled in high
schools and 2,459 high school teachers.
Between 1915 and 1926 one-roomed schools had decreased in
number from 4,666 to 3,460, two-roomed schools had increased
from 1,082 to 1,529 and schools over two rooms had increased
from 988 to 1,317. The value of school sites and buildings had
increased from $15,206,000 to $45,893,000. School expenditures
for 1925-26 amounted to $23,788,215 of which $4,108,176 was
for further capitalization leaving $19,680,039 for operation, main-
tenance and instruction. Annual expenditures per child 5 to 17
yrs. of age inclusive averaged $28.85 *n 192S-
Institutions for higher learning receiving State support are
the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, the College of Wil-
liam and Mary at Williamsburg, the Virginia Polytechnic insti-
tute at Blacksburg, the Medical college of Virginia at Richmond,
the Virginia Military institute at Lexington, four State teacher's
colleges for women, located at Farmville, Fredericksburg, Har-
risonburg and Radford. These are for whites. The State supports
one normal school for coloured teachers at Petersburg, and in
addition there is the Hampton Normal and Industrial institute
at Hampton, supported by endowment. Special schools are the
Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind at Staunton, and the
Virginia School for the Coloured Deaf and Blind at Newport
News. Important private institutions of higher learning arc: for
men, Washington and Lee university at Lexington, Roanoke col-
lege at Salem. University of Richmond, which includes West-
hampton college (for women), Emory and Henry college at
Emory, Hampden-Sidney college at Hampden-Sidney, Bridge-
water college at Bridgewater, Randolph-Macon college at Ash-
land and Lynchburg college; for women, Hollins college at Hoi-
lins, Randolph-Macon Woman's college at Lynchburg, and Sweet
Briar college at Sweet Briar. Virginia Union university at Rich-
mond is for coloured students. For theological education there
are the Theological seminary at Alexandria (Episcopal) and the
Union Theological seminary at Richmond (Presbyterian).
Charities and Corrections. — The department of public wel-
fare has for its duties the inspection of all State, county, muni-
cipal and private institutions of a charitable or correctional nature,
or those which have to do with the care or training of defective,
dependent, neglected or criminal classes. It also enforces the
juvenile and probations laws, inspects maternity hospitals, child-
placing agencies, children's nurseries and orphan homes and ad-
ministers mother's aid to widows with children under 16 years of
age. The State penitentiary is located at Richmond, and there
is a State penitentiary farm at Lassiter. There is a State home
and industrial school for white girls at Bon Air and for coloured
girls at Peaks Turnout, a State industrial school for white boys
at Beaumont and for coloured boys at Hanover.
Agriculture and Live Stock.— Agriculture is an important
industry of Virginia. Its fluctuating fortunes are revealed by
the following figures. The value of all farm property amounted in
1910 to $625,065,000, in 1920 to $1,196,556,000 and in 1925 to
$999,466,000. The amount of land in farms decreased from
19,908,000 ac. in 1900 to 18,561,000 ac. in 1920 and 17,210,000 ac.
in 1925 or from slightly more than three-fourths the area of the
i86
VIRGINIA
[INDUSTRIES
State in 1900 to approximately two-thirds the area in 1925. De-
spite this loss in acreage the number of farms increased from
186,242 in 1920 to 193,723 in 1925, their average size decreasing
from 99-7 ac. in 1920 to 88-8 ac. in 1925. The average value per
acre of farm land decreased in the same five years from $40.75
to $34.90. Farm population was 1,064,417 (46-1% of the total)
in 1920 and 980,162 (39-4% of the total) in 1925. Of the 193,723
1859
1839
TOBACCO CROP EACH YEAR. 1909-1927. ALSO IN 1839-1359, INDICATED
BY THE HORIZONTAL LINES CROSSING THE FIGURE
farms in 1925, 143,587 were operated by their owners, 48,898
by tenants and 1,238 by managers. White farmers numbered
*43'576 and coloured farmers 50,147.
The yield of all crops was better than average in 1926 and the
production of all crops, with the exception of peanuts and pota-
toes, was greater than in 1925. The total value of all crops in
1926 was estimated to be $178,348,000 ($112,703,000 in money
crops sold direct, $65,645,000 in crops fed to live stock), com-
pared with $164,784,000 in 1925. Virginia in 1926 ranked first
among States in the production of early potatoes, spinach and in
shipments of sweet potatoes; second in the production of peanuts;
third in the production of tobacco and commercial apples; and
fifth in the total value of 'truck crops. The 1926 acreage of
leading crops was as follows: corn, 1,694,000; hay, 979,000;
wheat, 687,000; tobacco, 188,000; oats, 186,000; peanuts, 138,000;
white potatoes, 134,000; cotton, 101,000; sweet potatoes, 43,000;
rye, 43,000. The leading crops in order of value were as follows:
corn, $39,597,000; tobacco, $25,412,000; tame hay, $19,344,000;
white potatoes, $18,070,000; wheat, $14,850,000; apples, $10,-
450,000; sweet potatoes, $5,375,000; peanuts, $5,244,000; cot-
ton, $3,135,000; oats, $3,047,000; peaches, $1,176,000; sorghum
(for syrup), $1,140,000. Of minor value were rye, soy beans,
barley, buckwheat, pears and cow peas. The great acreage of
tobacco, potatoes and truck crops gives Virginia a high rank in
the average value per acre of all crops. Tobacco is the most
important strictly money crop. With few exceptions its cultiva-
tion is confined to the section east of the Blue Ridge and west of
the fall-line, and, excepting portions of a half-dozen counties,
south of the James river. The Great valley and the Alleghany
valleys are unsurpassed hay regions. Clover, timothy, herdsgrass
or redtop, and alfalfa grow anywhere in the State. Long seasons
and abundant rainfall give several cuttings. Wheat is the prin-
cipal money crop in the Shenandoah and Rappahannock river
valleys. Cotton and peanuts are grown almost entirely in the
south-eastern counties, where they constitute a large share of the
farm income. During 1926 141,410 ac. were devoted to truck
crops valued at $19,215,000, the chief items, besides potatoes,
being strawberries ($2,904,000), spinach, cabbage, beans, tomatoes
and cucumbers.
The number and value of live stock on farms Jan. i, 1927, were
as follows: horses, 224,000, $14,784,000; mules, 103,000, $8,-
755,000; milch cows, 340,000, $15,300,000; other cattle, 367,000,
$10,680,000; sheep, 380,000, $3,914,000; swine, 558,000, $7,-
254,000; chickens, 9,972,000, $9,174,000. The estimated value of
dairy products in 1926 was $14,918,000, of poultry products
$28,137,000, of live stock sold or slaughtered $31,345,000, of
honey, $650,000 and of wool $664,000.
Fisheries. — Virginia has about 3,000 sq.m. of tidal waters
along the eastern coast and in Chesapeake bay where commercial
fishing proves very profitable. In 1920 the season's catch totalled
471,219,089 Ib. valued at $8,541,724. In 1925 it amounted to
276,227,784 Ib. valued at $9,084,641. In value the 1925 catch
exceeded that of all other Atlantic and Gulf States, except Mas-
sachusetts. The season is usually about 5^ months in the spring
and summer, and employs about 30,000 men. Chesapeake bay pro-
duces more oysters than any other body of water in the world,
and Maryland and Virginia lead all States in oyster production
with over 5,000,000 bu. annually. There were in Virginia in
J925 5°>744 ac. of recorded oyster-planting grounds, the chief
locations beside Chesapeake bay being Chincoteague bay, the
western shore of Accomac and Northampton counties, and the
Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James rivers.
Mines and Quarries. — Virginia's mineral resources are abun-
dant and varied. Many are as yet undeveloped. In 1926 there
were 142 mines and quarries which employed 18,223 workers.
Capital invested totalled $51,949,594. The value of output
amounted to $33,522,630, compared with $41,038,000 in 1925
and $29,363,000 in 1919. Chief in point of value was coal, in the
mining of which in 1926 15,413 men (exclusive of office help)
were engaged. There were 88 mines operating an average of 234
days each during the year. Their output was 13,949,224 short
tons valued at $27,098,734. Coal is found in Virginia in three
important districts. The Pennsylvania coal measures extend into
the seven Alleghany counties in the extreme south-western corner,
and it is from here that the bulk of the output, comes. In Taze-
wcll county is the famous Pocahontas bed which produces one of
the highest grades of coking and steam coal to be found in the
United States. There is a coal field of Mississippi.™ age in the
counties of the Great valley bordering the New river, in which
production is still light, but rapidly increasing. Just a short dis-
tance west of Richmond is a third bed, one of the first in the
United States to be mined, and still a steady producer. There are
rich deposits of iron ore in the Alleghanics and western slopes of
the Blue Ridge and iron mining has been carried on since the
1 7th century. Rocks quarried for various uses included granite,
limestone, marble, sandstone, slate and basalt, and of all there
are practically unlimited quantities.
Manufactures. — In this branch of industry there has been
rapid growth. In 1914 there were 5,508 establishments employ-
ing 102,820 wage-earners and having an output valued at $264,-
039,000. In 1927 there were 3,680 establishments employing
132,647 wage-earners, and turning out products valued at $782*-
425,841. Wages paid increased from $44,873,000 in 1914 to
$126,440,387 in 1927. Compared with 1926 there were in 1927
1,112 more establishments, 34,723 more wage-earners, $26,007,512
more paid in wages, $265,165,710 more invested in capital, and
$i 14,575,404 additional value of output. The total capital invested
in manufactures was estimated at $733,482,337. Of the wage-
earners 124,050 were male and 39,010 were female; 112,845 were
white and 50,215 were coloured.
The chief manufactures were those connected with tobacco. The
State in 1927 ranked fourth in the manufacture of cigars and
cigarettes, and third in the production of chewing and smoking
tobacco and snuff. In that year the value of tobacco products
reached $182,071,911, an increase over 1926 of $37,461,987.
Second in importance were the textile industries, cotton mill
products being valued at $30,380,994, silk mill products at $29,-
640,382 and woollen mill products at $3,193,104. Lumber and
wood products are probably third in importance as a class. The
output of sawmills in the State was valued at $10,569,083, of sash
and door factories at $17,991,711, of furniture factories at $23,-
199,968, of box and crate factories at $14,088,611, of cooperage,
barrels and staves, at $2,756,152. An output valued at $32,071,124
gives iron and machinery manufactures fourth place in impor-
tance. Other products ranking high among the manufactures of the
State were those of abattoirs and meat packing establishments.
$16,687,275; automobile accessories, $24,668,520; paper and pulp
mill products, $27,571,434; shipbuilding, $31,745,895; and flour
HISTORY]
VIRGINIA
187
and grist mill products, $20,419,833.
The chief manufacturing city in 1927 was Richmond with 621
establishments, 31,881 wage-earners, and products valued at
$290,052,593. Tobacco products predominate and Richmond in
1927 had the largest cigar factory in the world. It was the loca-
tion also of large locomotive and wood work plants. Far behind
in the value of their products were Norfolk, $35,454,000; Roan-
oke, $32,013,000; Lynchburg, $25,579,000; Newport News, $19,-
719,000; Petersburg, $17,342,476; Danville, $12,303,000, and
Portsmouth, $11,230,000. At Hopewell the first unit of the
$125,000,000 Atmospheric Nitrogen Plant is (1928) in production.
Virginia has the advantages of excellent transportation, high-
grade steam coal and abundant water-power resources. Where
the Tidewater region joins the Piedmont section there is an
abrupt rocky ledge that forms falls and rapids in the rivers that
pour over it. At this fall-line with its excellent power sites are
the cities of Petersburg, Richmond and Fredericksburg, while
Alexandria is located near the falls of the Potomac.
Transportation and Commerce. — Five large railway systems
practically originate in the State and radiate to the south and
west. The Southern railway, with its main line traversing the
State in the direction of its greatest length leaves Washington to
run south-west through Charlottesville, Lynchburg and Danville
to the North Carolina line with connections to Richmond and
Norfolk on the cast; the Atlantic Coast line with its main lines
runs south from Richmond and Norfolk; the Seaboard Air line
also has its main lines running to the south from Richmond and
Norfolk; the Norfolk and Western crosses the State from east to
west in the southern part with Norfolk its eastern terminus and
the Chesapeake & Ohio crosses from east to west farther north
from Newport News on the eastern coast through Richmond to
the West Virginia lino. Of more recent construction is the Vir-
ginia railway, opened for traffic in 1909, which connects the coal
region of West Virginia with Norfolk. The Baltimore & Ohio has
a line clown the Shcnandoah valley to Lexington. Connection be-
tween Richmond and Washington is over the Richmond, Fred-
ericksburg and Potomac, controlled by the Southern, Atlantic
Coast line, Seaboard Air line, Chesapeake & Ohio, Pennsylvania
and Baltimore and Ohio railways.
Hampton Roads, at the mouth of the James river, which forms
the harbour for the leading ports of the State, Norfolk and New-
port News, affords one of the best anchorages of the Atlantic
coast, giving shelter not only to vessels plying to its adjoining ports
but serving often as a harbour of refuge for shipping bound up or
down the coast. It is frequently used for the assembly of naval
fleets. There is a large foreign commerce and regular steam-
ship service to Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia and
Savannah. There is bay and river steamship service from Nor-
folk, Old Point Comfort and Newport News to Baltimore, Wash-
ington, Fredericksburg, Richmond and Petersburg.
There were in 1926 59,080 m. of public highways in Virginia,
5,210 of which constitute the State highway system and 12,000 a
State aided system. Of the State system 3,839 m. were surfaced.
Expenditures by the State highway department in 1925 were
$14,072,000, and by local political divisions for rural roads
$22,576,000. Motor vehicles numbered 322,614 in 1926, averag-
ing 128 per 1,000 population.
HISTORY
Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in North
America. From 1583 to 1588 attempts had been made by Sir
Walter Raleigh and others to establish colonies on the coast of
what is now North Carolina. The only result was the naming of
the country Virginia in honour of Queen Elizabeth. But glowing
accounts were brought back by the early adventurers, and in
1606 an expedition was sent out by the London Company, which
was chartered with rights of trade and settlement between 34°
and. 41° N. lat. It landed at Jamestown on May 13, 1607, and
effected the establishment of many plantations along the James
river. The purpose of the company was to build up a profitable
commercial and agricultural community, and also to hold the
country against Spain; but the hostility of the natives, unfavour-
able climatic conditions and the inexperience of the colonists
delayed the growth of the new community. John Smith became
the head of the government in Sept. 1608, governed with firmness
and ability, built a church and prepared for more extensive agri-
cultural and fishing operations. In 1609 the London Company was
reorganized, other colonists were sent, out and the boundaries
of the new couniry v/ere fixed, according to which Virginia was
to extend from a point 200 m. south of Old Point Comfort, at the
mouth of Chesapeake bay, to another point 200 m. north, "west
and northwest to the South Sea."
Before the arrival of the new governing body and additional
settlers the original Colony was reduced to the direst straits. Capt.
Christopher Newport, Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers,
the new authorities, reached Jamestown at last with 150 men, but
things were in such a deplorable state that all agreed (June 10,
1610) to give up the effort to found a colony on the James and set
sail for home. At the mouth of the river they met Lord Delaware,
the governor-in-chief, who brought other colonists and plentiful
supplies; and Lht-y returned, set up a trading post at what is now
Hampton and undertook to bring the hostile natives to subjection.
In i on, 650 additional colonists landed, the James and Appo-
mattox rivers were further explored and "plantations'1 were
established at Hcnrico and Bermuda Hundred. New colonists were
constantly being sent over and many "indentured" servants were
imported as labourers.
Struggles for Self-government. — At the beginning Virginia
colonists had held their land and improvements in common. But
in 1616 the land was parcelled out and the settlers were scattered
along the banks of the James and Appomattox rivers many miles
inland. The rapid expansion of tobacco culture soon made the
community self-supporting. The year 1619 that saw the first
negroes brought in also saw the first representative assembly in
North America, the Virginia House of Burgesses, a meeting of
planters sent from the plantations to assist the governor and
council in reforming and remaking the laws of the Colony. In
1621, a Constitution was granted whereby the London Company
appointed the governor and a council, and the people were
to choose annually from their counties, towns, hundreds and
plantations delegates to the House of Burgesses. The popular
branch, like the English House of Commons, granted supplies and
originated laws, and the governor and council enjoyed the right of
revision and veto as did the king and the. House of Lords at home.
Later the council also originated bills. The council sat also as a
supreme court to review the county courts and had in important
cases original jurisdiction. This system remained unchanged
throughout the colonial period but in 1624 the king took the place
and exercised the authority of the London Company.
On March 22, 1622, the Indians fell upon the whites and slew
350 persons. Sickness and famine once again visited the Colony,
and the population was reduced by nearly one-half. These
losses were repaired, however; the tobacco industry grew in
importance and the settlers built their cabins far in the interior of
lowland Virginia. This rapid growth was scarcely retarded by a
second Indian attack, in April 1644, which resulted in the death
of several hundred settlers. By 1648 the population was 15,000.
In her attitude toward the war in England between King
Charles and parliament, Virginia sympathized with the king. How-
ever, though Sir William Berkeley, who had been governor since
1641, was absolutely loyal to the crown, it was considered the part
of wisdom to surrender to a fleet sent over by parliament in 1652,
after a slight show of resistance; but substantial acknowledgments
were made by the parliamentary commissioners of Virginia's
rights. Richard Bennett, a Puritan, now ruled the province. He
and his Puritan successors, Edward Digges and Samuel Mathews,
made no serious change in the administration of the Colony. The
return of Berkeley, who was restored to power in 1660, was the
beginning of a reaction which concentrated authority in the hands
of the older families and thus created a privileged class. The
governor, supported by the privileged families, retained the same
House of Burgesses for 16 years lest a new one might not be
submissive. The increasing mass of the population who dwelt
along the western border and on the less fertile ridges developed
i88
VIRGINIA
[HISTORY
a feeling of hostility towards the oligarchy. They desired a freer
land-grant system, protection against the inroads of the Indians
along the border and frequent sessions of an assembly to be chosen
by all the free-holders. In 1676 the Indians again attacked the
border farmers, but the governor had refused assistance, being
willing, it was charged, that the border population should suffer
while he and his adherents enjoyed a lucrative fur trade with the
Indians. Under these circumstances Nathaniel Bacon (1647-76),
took up the cause of the borderers and severely punished the
Indians at the battle of Bloody Run. Berkeley meanwhile had
outlawed Bacon, whose forces now marched on the capital demand-
ing recognition as the authorized army of defence. This was
refused and civil war began, in which the governor was defeated
and Jamestown was burned. But Bacon fell a victim to malaria
and died in October in Gloucester county. Berkeley closed the
conflict with wholesale executions and confiscations. Censured
by the king, he sailed to England to make his defence, but died in
London in 1677 without having seen Charles. Until the accession
of William and Mary there was continued unrest in Virginia and
a bitter struggle between the popular party in Virginia and the
English Government seeking to reduce the privileges of the
House of Burgesses. In many respects the Government came off
victorious but the House retained the all important power of levy-
ing taxes. In 1689 James Blair was made commissary in Virginia
of the Bishop of London and throughout a long life did valiant
service for the Colony. In 1692 he obtained the charter for
William and Mary college and became its first president. It was
founded at Williamsburg, which in 1699 was made the capital.
Westward Expansion. — By 1700 the population of Virginia
had reached 70,000, of whom 20,000 were negro slaves. The
majority of whites were small farmers, who constantly encroached
upon the Indian lands in the Rappahannock region or penetrated
the forests south of the James, several thousand having reached
North Carolina. Between 1707 and 1740 many Scottish immi-
grants (traders, teachers and tobacco-growers) settled along the
upper Rappahannock, and, uniting with the borderers in general,
they offered strong resistance to the older planters.
Tobacco-growing was the one vocation of Virginia, and many
of the planters were able to spend their winters in London or
Glasgow and to arrange for their sons to attend the finishing
schools of the mother country. Negro slavery grew so rapidly
during the first half of the i8th century that the blacks outnum-
bered the whites in 1740. In 1716 an expedition of Governor
Alexander Spotswood over the mountains made known to the
world the rich back-country, now known as the Valley of Virginia.
A migration thither from Pennsylvania and from Europe followed
in course of time which revolutionized the province. The majority
of blacks over whites soon gave way before the influx of white
immigrants, and in 1756 there was a population of 292,000, of
whom only 1 20,000 were negroes, and the small farmer class had
grown so rapidly that the old tidewater aristocracy was in danger
of being overwhelmed. The "West" had now appeared in American
history. This first West, made up of the older small farmers, of
the Scottish settlers, of the Germans from the Palatinate and the
Scottish-Irish, far outnumbering the people of the old counties,
demanded the creation of new counties and proportionate repre-
sentation in the Burgesses. They did not at first succeed, but when
the Seven Years' War came on they proved their worth by fighting
the battles of the community against the Indians and the French.
When the war was over the prestige of the up-country had been
greatly enhanced, and its people soon found eastern leaders in the
persons of Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry. In the mean-
time the Presbyterians, who had been officially recognized in
Virginia under the Toleration Act in 1699, and had been guaran-
teed religious autonomy in the Valley by Governor Gooch in 1738,
had sent missionaries into the border counties of eastern Virginia.
The Baptists somewhat later entered the Colony both from the
north and the south and established scores of churches. The new
denominations vigorously attacked the methods and immunities
of the established church, whose clergy had grown somewhat luke-
warm in zeal and a few of them lax in morals. When the clergy,
refusing to acknowledge the authority of the burgesses in reducing
their stipends, and, appealing to the king against the assembly,
entered the courts to recover damages from the vestries, Patrick
Henry at Hanover court in 1763 easily convinced the jury and the
people that the old church was well-nigh worthless. From this
time the old order was doomed. The passage of the Stamp Act
hastened the catastrophe and gave the leaders of the new combina-
tion, notably Henry, an opportunity to humiliate the British
ministry, whom not even the tidewater party could defend. The
Townshend scheme of indirect taxation displeased Virginia quite
as much as had the former more direct system of taxation. When
the burgesses undertook in May 1769 to discuss the right and
power of taxation, the governor hastily dissolved them only to find
the same men assembling in the Raleigh tavern in Williamsburg
and issuing resolutions in defiance of executive authority.
The Struggle for Independence.— The struggle with England
reached a crisis. Virginia, supporting with zeal the revolutionary
movement, took the lead in the Continental Congresses which
directed the succeeding war (see UNITED STATES: History). In
April 1775, Patrick Henry at the head of the Hanover minute men,
who had been joined by others, compelled Governor Dunmore
(q.v.) to pay for the Colony's powder removed by the governor's
order to a British war vessel. On June 8, Lord Dunmore and his
family took refuge aboard an English man-of-war lying off York-
town. When the Continental Congress issued the famous Declara-
tion of Independence, Virginia had already assembled in conven-
tion to draft a new Constitution. A draft of a Constitution con-
taining universal suffrage, proportional representation and religious
freedom was sent to the convention by Jefferson, but the conven-
tion rejected it. The system which was adopted allowed the older
counties a large majority of the representatives in the new assem-
bly, on the theory that the preponderance of property (slavery)
in that section required this as security against the rising democ-
racy. The franchise, though not universal, was generously
bestowed; it was a very liberal freehold system.
Of actual fighting there was not a great deal in Virginia till the
later years of the war, for Lord Dunmore was soon driven out of
the State, not, however, before he had done much damage along
the seaboard and the largest town in the State, Norfolk, had been
burned. The British came again in May 1779, took Portsmouth
and Suffolk, burning the latter and plundering the surrounding
country. In Jan. 1781, Benedict Arnold captured Richmond, now
the capital. His force was not large but it was composed of regu-
lars, and Jefferson, who was then governor, found it impossible
to collect a sufficient force in time to offer effective resistance.
Later in the year, Cornwallis came up with his troops from the
south and made a junction with the British already in Virginia. A
masterly campaign by the Americans, supported by a French army
and fleet, resulted in the surrender of Cornwallis and his forces at
Yorktown on Oct. 19, 1781. This was the closing scene of the
struggle of American independence. In the meantime George
Rogers Clark, in command of Virginians, had conquered that vast
domain known later as the North-west Territory.
Virginia and the Federal Constitution. — Virginia leaders,
including Henry, were the first to urge the formation of a national
government with adequate powers to supersede the lame confed-
eracy. In 1787, under the presidency of Washington, the National
Convention sat in Philadelphia, with the result that the present
Federal Constitution was submitted to the States for ratification
during 1787-89. In Virginia the tidewater leaders urged adoption,
while the up-country men, following Henry, who thought that the
Federal Government was given too much power, opposed; but
after a long and bitter struggle, in the summer of 1788 the new
instrument was accepted, the low-country winning by a majority
of ten votes, partly through the influence of James Madison.
In 1784, Virginia ceded to the Federal Government the North-
west Territory, which it held under the charter of 1609 and also
by conquest; in 1792 another large strip of the territory of Vir-
ginia became an independent State under the name of Kentucky.
But the people of these cessions, especially of Kentucky, were
closely allied to the great up-country party of Virginia, and
altogether they formed the basis of the Jeffersonian democracy,
which from 1794 opposed the chief measures of Washington's
VIRGINIA
189
administration, and which on the passage of the alien and sedition
laws in 1798 precipitated the first great constitutional crisis in
Federal politics by the adoption in the Kentucky and Virginia
legislatures of resolutions strongly asserting the right and duty
of the States to arrest the course of the National Government
whenever in their opinions that course had become unconstitu-
tional. The election of 1800 rendered unnecessary all further
agitation by putting Jefferson in the president's chair. The up-
country party in Virginia, with their allies along the frontiers of
the other States, was now in power, and the progressives of 1776
shaped the policy of the nation during the next 25 years. Virginia
held the position of leadership in Congress, and controlled the
cabinet. Virginia also gave to the Supreme Court its greatest
chief justice, John Marshall.
A Constitutional Convention was called in 1829 to revise the
fundamental law in such a way as to give the more populous
counties of the west their legitimate weight in the legislature. The
result was failure, for the democracy of small farmers which the
east feared would have taxed slavery out of existence was denied
proportionate representation. The slave insurrection under Nat
Turner in 1831 led to a second abortive effort, this time by the
legislature, to do away with the fateful institution, The failure
of these popular movements led to a sharp reaction in Virginia, as
in the whole South, in favour of slavery.
Secession and Reconstruction.— In the national elections of
1860 Virginia returned a majority of unionist electors as against
the Democratic candidates, Breckinridgc and Lane. The governor
of Virginia called an extra session of the legislature soon after the
Federal election, and this in turn
called a convention to meet on
Feb. 13, 1 86 1. The majority of
this body consisted of Unionists,
but the convention passed the
ordinance of secession when the
Federal Government (April 17)
called upon the State to supply
its quota of armed men to sup-
press "insurrection" in the lower
Southern States. An alliance was
made with the provisional gov-
ernment of the Confederate
States on April 25, without wait-
ing for the vote of the people on
the ordinance. The Convention
called out 10,000 troops and ap-
pointed Col. Robert E. Lee of
the United States army as com-
mander-in-chief. On May 23, the
people of the eastern counties
almost unanimously voted ap-
proval of the acts of the conven-
tion, and some of the people of the north-western counties took
steps to form the State of West Virginia. Richmond soon became
the capital of the Confederacy.
The Civil War had already begun, and Virginia was of necessity
the battle-ground. Of the six great impacts made upon the Con-
federacy, four were upon Virginia soil: the first Manassas cam-
paign (1861), the Peninsula battles and battles around Richmond
(1862), second Manassas (1862), Fredericksburg and Chancellors-
ville (1862-63) and the great Wilderness-Petersburg series of
attacks (1864-65).
With the surrender of the Confederate army under Gen. Lee to
Grant at Appomattox the task of reconstruction began. Governor
Francis H. Pierpoint set up in Richmond a government based
upon the Lincoln plan and supported by President Johnson, who,
however, was in conilict with the majority in Congress, which
passed over his veto a radical Reconstruction Act. According to
the new policy Virginia, on March 2, 1867, became military dis-
trict No. i. Gen. John M. Schofield was put in charge, and under
his authority a Constitutional Convention was summoned which
bestowed the suffrage upon the former slaves. These, led by a small
group of whites, that had come into the State with the invading
INCTON, D.C.
HARPER'S FERRY, A HISTORIC TOWN
IN VIRGINIA, SCENE OF THE FAMOUS
ATTACK OF JOHN BROWN, AMERICAN
ABOLITIONIST. IN 1859
armies, ratified the i4th and isth amendments to the Federal
Constitution and governed the community until 1869. Then the
secessionists and Union men of 1861 united and regained control.
Virginia was readmitted to the Union on Jan. 26, 1870.
The 20 years following the end of the war in 1865 were years of
humiliation, poverty and political strife; also years of economic
readjustment. In many cases farms were deserted by their owners,
who moved to the cities or left the State entirely. The general
poverty was augmented by a State debt of over $45,000,000 that
had been contracted before the Civil War for works of internal
improvement. By a bill passed in 1871 two-thirds of the debt was
funded into bonds, and the remaining one-third was allotted to
West Virginia as her fair share, though that State refused to admit
the obligation. For two decades the debt settlement was the chief
issue in Virginia politics and the main subject of legislative delib-
eration. Educational and other improvements, badly needed, were
allowed to drift in the meantime. Final settlement was not arrived
at until 1891-92. A bill establishing a State-wide system of public
free schools was passed in 1870. Some educational progress had
been made when the payment of the public debt began to absorb
the school revenue. From 1870 to 1879 $1,544,765 was diverted
from school funds for this purpose. In the latter year enrolment
in the schools dropped from 202,244 to 108,074 and in some coun-
ties every school was closed. After 1882 the State began to repay
this money, and schools reopened, but their work was still handi-
capped by irregular attendance and lack of good teachers.
Recovery and Progress. — One of the most encouraging eco-
nomic developments after the Civil War was the gradual extension
of railways. These in their'turn served in time to aid in the devel-
opment Of other industries. By 1885 the railways had extended
down the Eastern Shore, down the peninsula, into the Great valley
and across the Piedmont region between Lynchburg and Danville.
This railway development accelerated the growth of many villages
and brought others into existence. Newport News came into exis-
tence as a shipping point during the decade 1880-90. The mineral
wealth of the south-west began again to be developed on a large
scale and agriculture to be intensively practiced. The recovery
increased in momentum as the 2oth century ushered in a more
prosperous era. The new constitution of 1902 largely eliminated
the negro from politics by laying down literacy and property
qualifications for voting. With this issue gone the Republicans
were free to take up the regular role of an opposition party and
as such gradually gained strength, especially in the mining regions
of the south-west. The Democrats retained control, however, from
1870 until the election of 1928 when events combined to throw
the State's presidential vote into the Republican column.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For physical description see W. B. Rogers, Geology
of Virginia (1884, reprint of six.annual reports, 1836-41) ; H. Gannett,
"Gazetteer of Virginia," in U.S. Gcol. Survey, Bull. 232 (1904) ; G. T.
Surface, ''Physiography of Virginia/' in American Geographical Society
Bulletin, vol. xxxviii. (1906) and "Geography of Virginia," in Philadel-
phia Geographical Society Bulletin, vol v. (1907) ; and Virginia, a
handbook of the department of agriculture and immigration — last
edition published in 1928. For mineral resources see T. L. Watson,
Mineral Resources of Virginia (1907) and Bulletins and Annual
Reports of the Virginia Geological Survey. For government consult
H. L. McBain, Government and Politics in Virginia (1922) ; R. Page,
Government in Virginia (1924) ; Report of Commission on Simplifica-
tion and Economy of State and Local Government (1924) ; and
Organization and Management of the State Government of Virginia
(1927), a study of the bureau of municipal research. For education
consult C. J. Heatwole, History of Education in Virginia (1916) ;
Virginia Education Commission, Virginia Public Schools, a Survey
(1920-22) ; and M. V. O'Shea, Public Education in Virginia (1928).
The best general history of Virginia is P. A. Bruce, L. G. Tyler and
R. L. Morton, History of Virginia (1924). Other general works but
covering a more limited period are R. R. Howison, History of Virginia
(1849) ; C. Campbell, History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of
Virginia (1860); and J. E. Cookc, Virginia (1903). Special historical
works are A. Brown, The First Republic in America (1898) and Genesis
of the United States (1890) ; John Fiske, Old Virginia and Her Neigh-
bors (1897) ; P. A. Bruce, Economic History of Virginia in the Seven-
teenth Century (1895), Social Life of Virginia in the Seventeenth
Century (1907), Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth
Century (1910) and History of the University of Virginia (1920-22) ;
T. J. Wertenbaker, The Planters of Colonial Virginia (1922) and Vir-
ginia under the Stuarts (1914) ; P. S. Flippin, The Royal Government
in Virginia (1919) ; L. K. Koontz, The Virginia Frontier \ 1754-63
i go
VIRGINIA— VIRGIN ISLANDS
(1925) ; H. R. Mcllwainc, Struck of Protestant Dissenters for Reli&ou*
Liberty in Virginia (1894) ; Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State
of Virginia (1787, and later editions) ; J. S. Bassett, ed., The Writ-
ings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover (1901) ; A. J. Morrison,
cd., Travels in Virginia in Revolutionary Times (1922); L. G. Tyler,
ed., Narratives of Early Virginia (1907) ; C. M. Andrews, ed., Narra-
tives of the Insurrections (1915) ; M. M. P. Stanard, Colonial Virginia,
its People and its Customs (1917) and The Story of Virginia's
First Century (1928); C. H. Ambler, Sectionalism in Virginia,
1776-1861 (1910); H. J Eckenrode, The Revolution in Virginia
(1916) ; J. C. Hallagh, A History of Slavery in Virginia (1902) ; R. L.
Morton, The Negro in Virginia Politics (IQIQ) ; T. N. Page, Social Life
in Old Virginia (1897) ; C. C. Pearson, Read just er Movement in Vir-
ginia (1917) ; Virginia Historical Society, Collections (12 vol. 1833-92)
and Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1893 et seq.) ; Wil-
liam and Mary College quarterly (1892 et seq.}; Richmond College
Historical Papers (vol. i., ii., 1915-17); Tyler's Quarterly Magazine
(1919 et seq.) ; John P. Branch Historical Papers of Randolph- Mac on
College (1901-18). Much is to be found in editions of the collected
writings of Virginia statesmen, notably Washington, Jefferson and
Madison. Two good bibliographies have been published: W. C. Tor-
rence, A Trial Bibliography of Colonial Virginia (1908) , and E. G.
Swem, Bibliography of Virginia (1916-19). (H. F. BY.)
VIRGINIA, a city of St. Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A.,
60 m. N.W. of Duluth, at an altitude of 1.500 ft., in the heart
of the Mesaba iron range and the vast playground of "the Arrow-
head country." It is served by the Duluth and Iron Range, the
Duluth, Missabe and Northern, the Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific,
and the Great Northern railways. Pop. (1920) was 14,022 (34%
foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate, 17,400. Mining and
lumbering are the principal industries. Within the city limits
are three sawmills, one of which (the largest in the world handling
white pine) employs 3,500 to 4,000 men, and ships annually 200,-
000,000 ft. of lumber. The six iron mines of the immediate
vicinity (worked by the stripping or open-pit method) employ
1,500 men and ship annually 5,000,000 tons of ore. The city
owns and operates the water, gas, electric light and power plants,
and also a steam plant which heats 94 blocks, serving 1,400 cus-
tomers. Virginia was founded in 1892 and incorporated in 1905.
VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF, a State institution for
higher education, situated at Charlottesville, Va., among the
foot-hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Its buildings, arranged
around a large rectangular lawn, were erected from a plan pre-
pared by Thomas Jefferson. The university comprises 26 inde-
pendent schools, but the courses of instruction given in these are
so co-ordinated as to form six departments; two academic. — the
college and the department of graduate studies; and four pro-
fessional— law, medicine, engineering and education. The insti-
tution owns (1928) 522 acres of land, has productive endowment
funds amounting to $10,000,000, and receives from the State an
annual appropriation of $400,000. The total budget of the uni-
versity for 1927 was $1,363,000. It is governed by a rector,
chosen by and from nine visitors, and a board of visitors ap-
pointed by the governor, and two visitors ex officio, the State
superintendent of public instruction and the president of the
university. The corporate name of the university is "The Rector
and Visitors of the University of Virginia." In 1927 the faculty
and officers numbered 257, the students 2,174 (2,056 men, 118
women), and the number of volumes in the libraries 200,000.
The university traces, its beginning to an act of the legislature
in January 1803 for incorporating the "Trustees of Albemarle
academy.'* In 1814, before the site of this proposed institution
had been chosen, Thomas Jefferson was elected a trustee, and
under his influence the legislature, in February 1816, authorized
the establishment of Central college in lieu of Albemarle academy.
The corner-stone of Central college was laid in October 1817,
and Jefferson, who was rector of its board of trustees, evolved
a plan for its development into the University of Virginia. The
legislature, thanks to the efforts of Joseph Carrington Cabell, a
close personal friend of Jefferson, adopted the plan in 1818 and
1819, and seven independent schools — ancient languages, modern
languages, mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philosophy,
chemistry and medicine — were opened to students in March 1825.
A school of law was opened in 1826. In 1837 the School of Medi-
cine became a department of three individual schools; and in
1850 the School of Law became a department of two schools.
After the gift of $500,000 by Andrew Carnegie there were estab-
lished in 1909 the Andrew Carnegie School of Engineering, the
James Madison School of Law, the James Monroe School of In-
ternational Law, the James Wilson School of Political Economy,
the Edgar Allan Poe School of English and the Walter Reed
School of Pathology.
Under Jefferson's plan only two degrees were granted : "Gradu-
ate'' to any student who had completed the course of any one
school ; and "Doctor" to a graduate in more than one school who
had shown powers of research. But in 1831, for the doctor's
degree the faculty substituted, following British custom, the
degree of Master of Arts. The college now grants the customary
university degrees.
See J. S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell and the University of Virginia
(1906). (E. A. AL.)
VIRGINIA COWSLIP (Mertensia virginica), a North
American plant of the borage family (Boraginaceae), called also
bluebells, Roanoke-bells, and tree-lungwort. It grows in low
meadows arid in open woods along streams from New York and
Ontario to Minnesota and southward to South Carolina and
Kansas. The plant is a smooth perennial, with a usually erect
simple or somewhat branching stem, i ft. to 2 ft. high, with
large, oblong, long-stalked, very veiny basal leaves. In early
spring it bears at the top of the stem showy clusters of blue-
purple flowers. These are pink in the bud but when expanded
are about an inch long and trumpet-shaped, with a purple tube and
a blue bell. This beautiful plant, one of the most popular wild
flowers of the eastern States, transplants well and is often culti-
vated. See BORAGINACEAE; MERTENSIA.
VIRGINIA CREEPER (Parthenocissm), a well-known
genus of climbing plants, containing ten species in temperate
Asia and America, of which P. tricuspidata, native to China and
Japan, and P. quinquejolia, of eastern North America, are culti-
vated. Parthenocissus belongs to the family Vitaceae and climbs
by means of sucker-like tendrils. The leaves are split into
leaflets, P. tricuspidata (Boston ivy) having three, and P. quin-
que/olia (Virginia creeper) five. The beautiful reds and yellows
assumed by the leaves in autumn add to the attractiveness of
the plants, which are commonly grown for covering walls.
VIRGINIA REEL, a lively American country-dance, for-
merly very popular in the United States, derived from the Sir
Roger dc Coverley. Originally intended for six couples only, in
longways formation, it later became common practice to form in
one long set, the men and women in separate lines facing each
other. The steps include the usual country-dance, march and
galop steps, best danced to the music of the violin, with the fid-
dler "calling" the figures, the partners advancing and swinging
each other and other couples in turn, in a pattern in which the
reel is most prominent.
VIRGIN ISLANDS, a group of small islands in the West
Indies, about 100 in number, mostly uninhabited. They extend
E. from Porto Rico, lying between 17° and 18° 50' N., and 64°
10' and 65° 30' W.: total area about 465 sq.m. The islands are
rocky, or sandy and barren, but the cultivated portions yield
cotton, sugar and the usual W. Indian food-crops. Guinea grass
grows abundantly on the hillsides, and good cattle are reared.
The coasts abound with fish. The climate is healthy and the heat
moderate. Culcbra and Vieques or Crab Islands were acquired by
the United States from Spain in 1898 with Porto Rico.
Of the British Islands, 32 in all with an area of 58 sq.m., the
principal are Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Jost van Dyke,
Peter's Island and Salt Island. With the exception of the island
of Sombrero they form one of the five presidencies in the colony
of the Leeward Islands. The inhabitants are peasants who raise
cattle and burn charcoal. Some are fishermen and boatmen. The
chief town is Roadtown (pop. 400) at the head of a fine harbour
on the S. of Tortola, and trade is mostly with St. Thomas. Som-
brero is maintained as a lighthouse by the British government.
Population of the presidency, mostly negroes (1921) 5,082.
The Virgin Islands were discovered by Columbus in his second
voyage, in 1493, and named Las Virgenes, m honour of St. Ursula
and her companions In 1666 the British occupied Tortola, and
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VIRGINIUS RUFUS— VISBY
191
have held it ever since. In the i;th century the Virgin Islands
were favourite resorts of the buccaneers. The islands of St.
Thomas and St. John were taken by the British from Denmark in
1 80 1, but restored in the following year. In 1807 they surrendered
to the British, and continued in their hands till 1815, when they
were again restored.
In 1917, after various unsuccessful negotiations begun before
1867, the three islands, St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John, were
brought from Denmark by the United States of America for
$25,000,000. St. Thomas and St. John form one administrative
municipality, St. Croix another and each has a local legislative
council. The inhabitants of these islands have become (1927)
citizens of the United States. They numbered 26,051 in 1917
and 20,728 in 1927, the decrease being largely due to emigration
to the United States. In 1917, 92-6% of the population was negro,
or coloured. The combined area of the American islands is
132-47 sq.m. In 1927 the police census gave St. Croix 11,118,
St. Thomas 8,826 and St. John 784 inhabitants. Charlotte Anialie
(now St. Thomas), with a population of 7,747 in 1917, is the
largest town and the seat of government; it has a fine harbour
and is 1,442 m. from New York and 1,029 m- from the Panama
canal. Administrative officers for the islands are appointed by
the United States Navy Department. St. Croix (towns Chris-
tiansted and Fredcricksted) produces sugar, molasses and hides.
St. John and St. Thomas have little agriculture, but from the
Pimento, acris 'is produced bay-oil and bay rum. The export of
bay rum in 1927 totalled 60,494 gallons.
VIRGINIUS RUFUS, LUCIUS (A.D. 15-97), Roman sol-
dier, three times consul (A.D. 63, 69, 97), was born near Comum.
When governor of upper Germany under Nero (68), after he had
put down the revolt of lulius Vindex in Gaul, he was urged by his
troops to assume the supreme power; but he refused, declaring
that he would recognize no one as emperor who had not been
chosen by the senate. Galba, on his accession, aware of the
feelings of the German troops induced Virginius to accompany
him to Rome. After the death of Otho, the soldiers again offered
the throne to Virginius, but he again refused it. They then at-
tacked him, and he had to escape through the back of his tent.
Under Vitellius, one of Virginius's slaves was arrested and charged
with the design of murdering the emperor. Virginius was accused
of being implicated in the conspiracy, and his death was de-
manded by the soldiers. Vitellius refused to sacrifice him to the
army's resentment, and Virginius subsequently lived in retirement,
chiefly in his villa at Alsium, on the coast of Etruria, till his death
in 97, in which year he held the consulship, together with the
emperor Nerva. At the public burial with which he was honoured,
the historian Tacitus (then consul) delivered the funeral oration.
See Tacitus, Hist. i. ii.; Dio Cassius Ixiii. 24-27, Ixiv. 4, Ixviii. 2;
Pliny, Epp, ii, i, vi. 10; Juvenal viii, 221, with Mayor's note; L, Paul
in Rheinisches Museum (1899), liv. pp. 602-30.
VIRGO ("the virgin"), in astronomy, the sixth sign of the
zodiac, denoted by the symbol Tip. The Greeks represented this
constellation as a virgin, but different fables are current as to the
identity of the maid. She is variously considered to be: lustitia,
daughter of Astraeus and Ancora, who lived before man sinned,
and taught him his duty, and who when the golden age ended re-
turned to heaven; according to Hesiod the virgin is the daughter
of Jupiter and Themis; others make her to be Erigone, daughter
of Icarius, or Parthene, daughter of Apollo. The constellation
contains a first magnitude star, Spica.
VIRTUE: see CARDINAL VIRTUES.
VIS, an island in the Adriatic, forming part of Dalmatia, Yugo-
slavia (Italian, Lissa). Pop. (1921) 5,i39i divided between two
villages. In Vis, the capital, which has an excellent harbour, is the
old palace of the Counts Gariboldi, the monastery of the Min-
orites, several large churches and a hotel. The chief industries are
viticulture, the distillation of rosemary oil, and sardine fishing.
Komiia, the other village, has a large sardine factory. The grotto
on the island of BiSevo (Italian Busi) is said to be finer than that
of Capri. Iron ore is found on the island. To the west of the
capital lie the ruins of the ancient city of Issa, traditionally founded
by settlers from Lesbos, the Issa of the Aegean. The Parians intro-
duced a colony in the 4th century B.C. During the first Punic War
(265-41 B.C.) the Issaeans helped the Romans, who in turn de-
fended them from the Illyrians. Later, when Illyria became a
Roman province, Vis was incorporated in it, and many Roman re-
mains have been found on the island. Still later, it was ravaged by
the pirates of Almissa, taken by Venice in 996, then captured by
the Ragusans, but in 1278 Venice had re-established herself there.
Velo Sclo, then the chief settlement, was destroyed by Ferdinand of
Naples in 1483, and by the Turks in 1571. The present city rose
shortly afterwards. During the Napoleonic wars the French held
Vis until 1811, and by the cheap sale of captured merchandise,
brought prosperity to the islanders, and the trebling of its popula-
tion. In 1811 the French were defeated by the British and thence-
forward the island smuggled British goods into Dalmatia. In 1812
the British established an administrative system under native
officials, in Vis and the adjoining islands of Korcula and Lagosta.
They built a line of forts along the heights of Vis, and made a
cemetery for the sailors killed during the Napoleonic wars.
Twenty years later the Italians bombarded Vis during the War
of Liberation, but were defeated in a naval engagement with
the Austrians, who had held the island since 1815. At the close
of the World War (1914-18) the Italians occupied it.
VISALIA, a city of south-central California, U.S.A., 160 m.
N. by E. of Los Angeles; the county seat of Tulare county. It has
a municipal airport, and is served by the Santa Fe, the Southern
Pacific and electric railways, and motor-coach lines. Pop. (1920)
5»753 (85% native white); 1928 local estimate, more than
8,600. It is the trading centre and shipping point for a rich farm-
ing, dairying and poultry-raising region, where fruits, vegetables
and other agricultural products (including cotton) are grown in
great variety. Thirty miles east is the Sequoia National park of
604 sq.m., containing over 1,000,000 trees, 12.000 of which are 10
ft. or more in diameter. Visa Ha was founded in 1852 and incor-
porated in 1874.
VISBY, the capital of the Swedish island and administrative
district (Ian) of Gottland, in the Baltic sea. Pop. (1927) 10,103.
The name Visby is derived from the old Norse vc (sanctuary)
and by (town). This was no doubt a place of religious sacrifice
in heathen times. At any rate it was a notable trading-place and
emporium as early as the end of the Stone Age, and long con-
tinued to enjoy its importance as such, as is proved by the large
number of Arabic, Anglo-Saxon and other coins found.
Visby is the seat of a bishop, the port of the island, and a
favourite watering-place. It is picturesquely situated on the west
coast, 150 m. S. by E. of Stockholm by sea. The houses cluster
beneath and above a cliff (kliut) 100 ft. high, and the town is
thoroughly mediaeval in appearance. The remains from its period
of extraordinary prosperity from the nth to the i4th century are
of the highest interest. Its walls date from the end of the i3th
century, replacing earlier fortifications, and enclose a space much
larger than that now covered by the town. Massive towers rise
at close intervals along them, and nearly forty are in good preser-
vation. Between them are traces of bartizans. The cathedral
church of St. Mary dates from 1190-1225, but has been much
altered in later times; it has a great square tower at the west
end and two graceful octagonal towers at the east, and contains
numerous memorials of the i7th century. There are ten other
churches, in part ruined. Among those of chief interest St.
Nicholas', of the early part of the I3th century, formerly be-
longed to a Dominican monastery. It retains two beautiful rose-
windows in the west front. The church of the Holy Ghost
(HelgeandS'Kyrka) in a late Romanesque style (c. 1250) is a
remarkable structure with a nave of two storeys. The Romanesque
St. Clement's has an ornate south portal, and the churches of
St. Drotten and St. Lars, of the i2th century, are notable for
their huge towers. St. Catherine's, of the middle of the i3th cen-
tury, is Gothic, with a pentagonal apse. Galgberget, the place
of execution, has tall stone pillars still standing; and there is a
stone labyrinth at Trojeborg. Modern buildings include the
Gottland museum of antiquities. The artificial harbour, somewhat
exposed, lies south of the ancient Hanseatic harbour, now filled
up. See GOTTLAND and SEA LAWS.
VISCACHA— VISCHER
VISCACHA or BISCACHA, a large South American bur-
rowing rodent belonging to the family Chinchillidae. The viscacha
(Viscaccia) is distinguished from the other members of that
group by having only three hind toes; it is the heaviest-built and
largest member with smaller ears than the rest. It has a long tail
and shaggy fur; the general colour of the latter being dark grey,
with black and white markings on the face. Viscachas inhabit the
South American pampas between the Uruguay river and the Rio
Negro in Patagonia, where they dwell in warrens covering from
JOG to 200 sq.ft. and forming mounds penetrated by numerous
burrows. The ground around the "viscachera" is cleared from
vegetation, the refuse of which is heaped upon the mound. Any-
thing the rodents meet with on their journeys, such as thistle-
stalks or bones, arc deposited on the viscachrra. In frequented
districts they seldom emerge till evening. Their chief food is
grass and seeds, but they also consume roots. (See RODENTIA.)
VISCERAL SENSATIONS, the sensations that arise from
the viscera and other internal bodily organs and tissues. The
visceral sensations belong to the general class of organic sensa-
tions (q.v.) and are distinguished among them only by the scat
of their origin. They arc characterized by their paucity of quali-
tative variety and by their functional importance in consciousness.
On the side of quality they include only cold and warmth, and the
dull pressures and the aches that come from muscle and other
tissue beneath the skin. (Cf. CUTANEOUS SENSATIONS.) On the
side of function they constitute the sensory basis for many of the
vague awarenesses or "conscious attitudes" that are ever present
in the mental life. For instance, recognition is a perception
coloured by a feeling of familiarity, and this feeling often has its
seat in the viscera although it has no fixed sensory basis. Visceral
sensations are also functionally important as carrying much of the
conscious organic reverberation that is characteristic of strong
emotion.
The oesophagus and stomach are sensitive to pressure on dis-
tension and to ache on extreme distension, as well as to warmth
and to cold. This fact can be brought out only by research,
because the stomach is ordinarily not often 'distended without
distension of the bodily walls and is altered appreciably in tem-
perature only by large quantities of hot or cold material. The
common belief in the insensitivity of the oesophagus comes about
because its sensations are ordinarily localized as above or below
the bony chest wall, i.e., either in the throat or in the stomach.
The intestines are less accessible to experimentation, but it is
probable that they are sensitive to pressure and pain like the
stomach, but that excitation of these sensations is rare.
It is well known that in surgical operations the viscera appear
to be almost entirely insensitive. The meaning of this finding is
that cutting and ordinary pressure are not adequate stimuli to
the sensations that they arouse on the skin. Apparently distension
or muscular contraction of the viscera themselves are the proper
stimuli. The peritoneum, its extension in the mesentery, and pos-
sibly the pleura are very sensitive to pain, even upon cutting.
The more usual attack upon the problem of visceral sensa-
tions has been by way of the perceptions which they mediate.
These perceptions seem to involve no unique qualities, but never-
theless to carry very specific significance for the organism. Thirst
arises from dryness of the membranes of the oral cavity, and is
ordinarily caused by a lack of water in the system. It is no
more a new quality than is the perception of dryness on the skin.
Hunger is an ache of a peculiar temporal pattern, for it is caused
by certain slow rhythmic contractions of the stomach that appear
in the absence of stomachic contents or at regular intervals by
habit. Any substance introduced into the stomach to inhibit these
contractions abolishes hunger. The alimentary experiences of
fullness, repletion and nausea, and the experiences of the excre-
tory processes, are simply internal perceptions, in terms of pres-
sure or pain, of the states or processes to which they correspond.
Appetite is the desire for food in the absence of hunger, and
is ordinarily associated with all normal food-taking, since the
first food that enters the stomach inhibits the hunger contrac-
tions. Appetite, however, seems to have no peculiar sensory or
perceptual basis at all. Its mechanism is purely unconscious as !
in the instincts and habits, although of course the eater perceives
his desire for food by perceiving his behaviour toward it. Some
psychologists have thought that there are sensations of oppression
from the heart and of stuffiness from the lungs, but the matter
remains undetermined. Sexual experience involves unique per-
ceptual patterns of pressure and pain. Like appetite, however,
the psychology of sex is best understood functionally as an
instinctive urge and a form of behaviour, although to the indi-
vidual the earlier perceptions of bodily state may seem to be the
causes of subsequent behaviour. That emotion involves visceral
sensations is well known, but we are still ignorant of their degree
and nature, although a great deal is now known of the visceral
state during emotion (q.v.).
Sre A. F. Hertz, Sensibility of the Alimentary Canal (1911) ; A. J.
Carlson, Control of Hunger in Health and Disease (Chicago, 1916) ;
W. B. Cannon, Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage
(London and New York, 1915) ; E. G. Boring, American Journal of
Psychology, vol. xxvi., pp. 1-57, 485-494 (1915) J vol. xxviii., pp. 443-
453 (I91?) ; Psychological Review, vol. xxii., pp. 306-331 (1915).
(E. G. BOR.)
VISCHER, the name of a family of Nuremberg sculptors,
who contributed largely to the masterpieces of German art in
the 1 5th and i6th centuries.
1. HERMANN, the elder, came to Nuremberg as a worker in brass
in 1453 and there became a "master" of his gild. There is only
one work that can be ascribed to him with certainty, the baptismal
font in the parish church of Wittenberg (1457). This is decorated
with figures of the Apostles. >
2. His son, PETER, the elder, was born about 1455 in Nurem-
berg, where he died on the 7th of January 1529. He became "mas-
ter" in 1489, and in 1494 was summoned by the Electoral Prince
Philipp of the Palatinate to Heidelberg. He soon returned, how-
ever, to Nuremberg, where he worked with the help of his five
sons, Hermann, Peter, Hans, Jakob and Paul. His works are:
the tomb of Bishop Johannes IV., in the Breslau cathedral (1496) ;
the tomb of Archbishop Ernest, in Magdeburg cathedral (1497);
the shrine of Saint Sebald in the Sebalcluskirchc at. Nuremberg,
between 1508 and 1519; a large grille ordered by the Fugger
brothers in Augsburg (lost) ; a relief of the "Crowning of the
Blessed Virgin" in the Erfurt cathedral (a second example in the
Wittenberg Schlosskirche, 1521); the tombstones for Margareta
Tucherin in the Regensburg cathedral (1521), and for the Eisen
family in the Agidienkirche at Nuremberg (1522) ; the epitaph for
the cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg in the collegiate church at
Aschaffenburg (1525); the tomb of the electoral prince Frederick
the Wise in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg (1521); the epitaph
of the duchess Helene of Mecklenburg in the cathedral at
Schwcrin. Besides these works there are a number of others
ascribed to Peter the elder with less certainty. In technique few
bronze sculptors have ever equalled him, but his designs are
marred by an excess of realism and a too exuberant fancy.
His chief early work, the tomb of Archbishop Ernest in Magde-
burg cathedral (1495), is surrounded with fine statuettes of the
Apostles under semi-Gothic canopies; it is purer in style than the
magnificent shrine of St. Sebald, a tall canopied bronze structure,
lavishly decorated with reliefs and statuettes. The general form
of the shrine is Gothic, but the details are those of the 16th-
century Italian Renaissance treated with much freedom and orig-
inality. Some of the statuettes of saints attached to the slender
columns of the canopy are modelled with much grace and even
dignity of form. A small portrait figure of Peter himself, intro-
duced at one end of the base, is a marvel of clever realism: he has
represented himself as a stout, bearded man, wearing a large
leathern apron and holding some of the tools of his craft. This
gorgeous shrine is a remarkable example of the uncommercial spirit
which animated the artists of that time, and of the evident delight
which they took in their work Dragons, grotesques and little
figures of boys, mixed with graceful scroll foliage, crowd every
possible part of the canopy and its shafts, designed in the most
free and unconventional way and executed with an utter disregard
of the time and labour which were lavished on them.
See R. Bauer, Peter Vischer und das alte Nurnberg (1886) ; C. Head-
lam, Peter Vischer (1901).
VISCHER— VISCONTI
193
VISCHER, FRIEDRICH THEODOR (1807-1887), Ger-
man writer on the philosophy of art, was born at Ludwigsburg on
June 30, 1807, the son of a clergyman. He was educated at
Tubingen, and began life in his father's profession. In 1835 he
became Privatdozent in aesthetics and German literature at his
old university, was advanced in 1837 to extraordinary professor,
and in 1844 to full professor. In consequence, however, of his
outspoken inaugural address, he was suspended for two years by
the Wurtternbcrg government, and in his enforced leisure wrote
the first two volumes of his Aesthetik oder Wissenschaft dcs
Schonen (1846), the fourth and last volume of which did not
appear till 1857. Vischer threw himself heartily into the great Ger-
man political movement of 1848-49, and shared the disappoint-
ment of patriotic democrats at its failure. In 1855 he became
professor at Zurich. In 1866, his fame being now established, he
was invited back to Germany with a professorship at Tubingen
combined with a post at the Polytechnikum of Stuttgart. He died
at Gmunden on Sept. 14, 1887.
Vischer was not an original thinker, and his monumental
Aesthetik, in spite of industry and learning, has not the higher
qualities of success. Still, he had a thorough knowledge of every
branch of art except music, and much valuable material is buried
in his volumes.
His writings include literary essays collected under the titles
Kritische Gauge and Altes und Neues, poems, an excellent critical
study of Goethe's Faust (1875), and a successful novel, Auch
Einer (1878; 25th ed., 1904).
See O. Keindl, F. T. Vischer, Erinnerungsblatter (1888) ; J. E. von
Gunthert, /»'. T. Vischer, ein Charaklerbild (1888) ; I. Frapan, Vischer-
Erinnerungen (1889); T. Ziegler F. T. Vixher (Vortran) (1843);
J. G. Oswald, F. '/'. Vischer als Dichter (1896).
VISCONTI, the name of a celebrated Italian family which
long ruled Milan; they claimed descent from King Desiderius,
and in the nth century possessed estates on Lakes Como and
Maggiore. A certain OTTONE, who distinguished himself in the
First Crusade, is mentioned in 1078 as viscount of Milan. The
real basis for the family's dominion was laid, however, by another
OTTONE (d. 1295), a canon of Desio, appointed archbishop of
Milan by Pope Urban IV. in 1262 through the influence of
Cardinal Ubaldini. The Delia Torre family, who then controlled
the city, opposed the appointment, and not until his victory at
Desio in 1277 was Ottone able to take possession of his see. He
imprisoned Napoleone Delia Torre and five of his relatives.
His nephew, MATTEO, born at Invorio on Aug. 15, 1255, suc-
ceeded him as political leader of Milan, and although an uprising
of the Delia Torre in 1302 compelled him to take refuge at
Verona, the emperor Henry VII., restored him to Milan in 1310
and made him imperial vicar of Lombardy. He brought under
his rule Piacenza, Tortona, Pavia, Bergamo, Vercelli, Cremona and
Alessandro. An able general, he yet relied for his conquests more
on diplomacy and bribery, and was esteemed as a model of the
prudent Italian despot. Persevering in his Ghibelline policy, and
quarrelling with Pope John XXII. over an appointment to the
archbishopric of Milan, he was excommunicated by the papal
legate Bertrand du Puy in 1322. He at once abdicated in favour
of his son Galeazzo, and died at Crescenzago on June 24.
GALEAZZO I. (1277-1328), who ruled at Milan from 1322 to
1328, defeated the Holy Army which the pope had sent against
the Visconti at Vaprio on the Adda (1324), with the aid of the
emperor Louis the Bavarian. In 1327 he was imprisoned for a
short time by the emperor at Monza because he was thought
guilty of making peace with the church. By his wife Beatrice
d'Este he had the son Azzo who succeeded him. His brother
MARCO commanded a band of Germans, conquered Pisa and Lucca
and died in 1329. Azzo (1302-1339), who succeeded his father
in 1328, bought the title of imperial vicar for 25,000 florins from
the same Louis who had imprisoned Galeazzo I. He conquered
ten towns, murdered his uncle Marco (1329), suppressed a revolt
led by his cousin Lodrisio, reorganized the administration of his
estates, built the octagonal tower of S. Gottardo, and was suc-
ceeded in turn by his uncles Lucchino and Giovanni. LUCCHINO
made peace with the church in 1341, bought Parma from Obizzo
d'Este and made Pisa dependent on Milan. He was poisoned in
1349 by his wife Isabella Fieschi.
GIOVANNI, brother of the preceding, archbishop of Milan and
lord of the city from 1349 to 1354, was one of the most notable
characters of his time. He befriended Petrarch, extended the
Visconti sway over Bologna (1350), defied Pope Clement VI.,
annexed Genoa (1353), and died on Oct. 5, 1354, after having
established the rule of his family over the whole of northern Italy
except Piedmont, Verona, Mantua, Ferrara and Venice. The
Visconti from the time of Archbishop Giovanni were no longer
mere rivals of the Delia Torre or dependants on imperial caprice,
but real sovereigns with a recognized power over Milan and the
surrounding territory. The State was partitioned on the death of
Giovanni among his brother Stefano's three sons, Matteo II.,
Galeazzo II. and Bernabo. MATTEO II., who succeeded to Bologna,
Lodi, Piacenza and Parma, abandoned himself to the most revolt-
ing immorality, and was assassinated in 1355 by direction of his
brothers, who thenceforth governed the State jointly and with
considerable ability. GALEAZZO II., who held his court at Pavia,
was the patron of Petrarch, the founder of the University of
Pavia, and a gifted diplomat. He married his daughter Violante
to the duke of Clarence, son of Edward III. of England, giving a
dowry of 200,000 gold florins; and his son Gian Galeazzo to
Isabella, daughter of King John of France. He died in 1378.
BERNABO, who held his court at Milan, was involved in constant
warfare, to defray the expenses of which he instituted very
oppressive taxes. He fought Popes Innocent VI. and Urban V.,
who proclaimed a crusade against him, and the emperor Charles
IV., who declared the forfeiture of his fief. He endeavoured to
exercise sole power in the State after the death of his brother, but
his young nephew Gian Galeazzo put him to death (1385).
GIAN GALEAZZO, the most powerful of the Visconti, became
joint ruler of the Milanese territories on the death of his father
in 1378 and sole ruler on the death of his uncle seven years later.
He founded the cathedral of Milan, built the Certosa and the
bridge across the Ticino at Pavia, improved the University of
Pavia and established the library there, and restored the university
at Piacenza. He was an able and economical administrator, and
was reputed to be one of the wealthiest princes of his time. Am-
bitious to reduce all Italy under the sway of the Visconti, he
conquered Verona in 1387; and in the following year, with the
aid of the Venetians, took Padua. He plotted successfully against
the rulers of Mantua and Ferrara, and finally turned his attention
to Tuscany. In 1399 he bought Pisa and seized Siena. The em-
peror Wenceslaus had already conferred on him the title of duke
of Milan for 100,000 florins, reserving only Pisa, and refused
to take arms against him. Gian Galeazzo took Perugia, Lucca
and Bologna (1400-01), and was besieging Florence when he
died of the plague (Sept. 3, 1402). His sons, Giovanni Maria and
Filippo Maria, were mere boys at the time of his death, and were
taken under the protection of the celebrated condotticre Facino
Cane de Cesale; but most of Gian Galeazzo 's conquests were lost.
GIOVANNI MARIA was proclaimed duke of Milan in 1402, dis-
played an insane cruelty, and was killed in 1412 by Ghibelline
partisans. FILIPPO MARIA, who became nominal ruler of Pavia
in 1402, succeeded his brother as duke of Milan. Cruel and
extremely sensitive about his personal ugliness, he nevertheless
was a great politician, and, by employing powerful condottieri,
managed to recover the Lombard portion of his father's duchy.
From his marriage with the unhappy widow of the above-
mentioned Facino Cane he received a dowry of nearly half a
million florins. He died in 1447, the last of the Visconti in direct
male line, and was succeeded in the duchy, after the shortlived
Ambrosian republic, by Francesco Sforza, who had married his
daughter Bianca in 1441. (See SFORZA.)
There is a contemporary history of the principal members of the
family by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, which may be had in
several editions. See J. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Ren-
aissance in Italy, trans, by S. G. C. Middlcmorc (London, 1898) ;
J. A. Symonds, Age of the Despots (New York, 1888) ; C. Maeenta,
I Visconti e gli Sforza net Castello di Pavia (1883) ; A. Medin, /
Visconti nella poesfa contemporanea (Milan, 1891) ; F. Mugnier,
"Lettres des Visconti de Milan" in Mtmoires et documents de la
194
VISCONTI-VENOST A— VISCOSITY
soci&tt savoisienne d'histoirc et d'archcologie, vol. x. of the second
series (1896).
VISCONTI-VENOSTA, EMILIO, MARQUIS (1829-
1914), Italian statesman, was born at Milan on Jan. 22, 1829. A
disciple of Mazzini, he took part in all the anti-Austrian con-
spiracies until the ineffectual rising at Milan on Feb. 6, 1853,
of which he had foretold the failure, induced him to renounce
his Mazzinian allegiance. Continuing, nevertheless, his anti-
Austrian propaganda, he rendered good service to the national
cause. He was obliged in 1859 to escape to Turin, and during the
war with Austria of that year was appointed by Cavour royal
commissioner with the Garibaldian forces. Elected deputy in
1860, he accompanied Farini on diplomatic missions to Modena
and Naples, and was subsequently despatched to London and
Paris to acquaint the British and French Governments with the
course of events in Italy. Cavour gave him a permanent appoint-
ment in the Italian foreign office, and he was subsequently ap-
pointed under-secretary of State by Count Pasolini. Upon the
latter's death he became minister of foreign affairs (March 24,
1863) in the Minghetti cabinet, in which capacity he negotiated
the September Convention for the evacuation of Rome by the
French troops. Resigning office with Minghetti in the autumn
of 1864, he was in March 1866 sent by La Marmora as minister
to Constantinople, but was almost immediately recalled and re-
appointed foreign minister by Ricasoli. Assuming office on the
morrow of the second battle of Custozza, he succeeded in pre-
venting Austria from burdening Italy with a proportion of the
Austrian imperial debt, in addition to the Venetian debt proper.
The fall of Ricasoli in Feb. 1867 deprived him for a time of
his office, but in Dec. 1869 he entered the Lanza-Sclla cabinet as
foreign minister, and retained his portfolio in the succeeding
Minghetti cabinet until the fall of the Right in 1876. During this
long period he was called upon to conduct the delicate negotia-
tions connected with the Franco-German War, the occupation
of Rome by the Italians, and the consequent destruction of the
temporal power of the pope, the Law of Guarantees and the visits
of Victor Emmanuel II. to Vienna and Berlin. In 1894, after 18
years' absence from active political life, he was chosen to be
Italian arbitrator in the Bering Sea question, and in 1896 once
more became foreign minister in the Di Rudini cabinet at a junc-
ture when the disasters in Abyssinia and the indiscreet publication
of an Abyssinian Green Book had rendered the international posi-
tion of Italy exceedingly difficult. His first care was to improve
Franco-Italian relations by negotiating with France a treaty with
regard to Tunis. During 'the negotiations relating to the Cretan
question and the Graeco-Turkish War, he secured for Italy a
worthy part in the European Concert, and joined Lord Salisbury
in saving Greece from the loss of Thcssaly. Resigning office in
May 1898, on a question of internal policy, he once more retired
to private life, but in May 1899 again assumed the management
of foreign affairs in the second Pelloux cabinet, and continued to
hold office in the succeeding Saracco cabinet until its fall in Feb.
1901. During this period his attention was devoted chiefly to the
Chinese problem and to the maintenance of the equilibrium in
the Mediterranean and in the Adriatic. In regard to the Mediter- j
ranean he established an Italo-French agreement, by which France |
undertook to leave Italy a free hand in Tripoli, and Italy not to I
interfere with French policy in the interior of Morocco. Prudence j
and sagacity, coupled with unequalled experience of foreign I
policy, enabled him to assure to Italy her full portion of influence j
in international affairs, and secured for himself the unanimous
esteem of European cabinets. In recognition of his services he was
created Knight of the Annunziata by Victor Emmanuel III.
on the occasion of the birth of Princess Yolanda Marghcrita of
Savoy (June i, 1901). In Feb. 1906 he was Italian delegate to
the Morocco conference at Algeciras. After this he retired into
private life. He died in Rome on Nov. 28, 1914.
An account of Visconti-Venosta's early life (down to 1859) is
given in an interesting volume by his brother Giovanni Visconti-
Venosta, Ricordi di Giovcntb (Milan, 1904).
VISCOSE. In 1928, nearly nine-tenths of the world's entire
output of artificial silk was based on the sodium xanthogenite
ester known as viscose. For particulars of the process see ARTI-
FICIAL SILK and CELLULOSE.
VISCOSITY. All bodies, whether solids, liquids or gases,
oppose a resistance to deformation or relative displacement of
portions of the body against one another. This resistance may be
of different kinds; if may, for instance, increase as the velocity
with which parallel planes a fixed distance apart are displaced
relatively to each other increases, and in that case, which is of
great importance in nature, it is said to be due to viscosity. The
definition will become clearer
when we consider the viscosity of
liquids, which is readily observed
and was the first in point of time
to be investigated both mathe-
matically and experimentally.
, The Viscosity of Liquids.—
We imagine two indefinitely ex-
tended parallel plates A and B
FIG. i (fig. i) between which a liquid
is contained, and keep plate A moving in its own plane with a
constant velocity v, indicated by the length of the arrow, while
plate B remains at rest. The liquid in contact with A moves with
it, while that in contact with B stands still; as the velocity in the
liquid changes continuously, we can imagine it to consist of thin
sheets or laminae, each moving with the velocity indicated by the
arrows in fig. i. A certain force must be applied to A to keep the
velocity v constant, and Newton made the assumption that this*
force was proportional to the area of the plates and to the
velocity with which adjoining laminae passed over each other, in
other words to the velocity gradient, v/d. These assumptions are
purely intuitive, but all subsequent investigations have fully con-
firmed them. Other things being equal, the force varies greatly
in different liquids, and to make comparison possible, it is usual
to state the force required per unit area to keep A moving with
unit velocity when d = unit distance and the space between the
plates is filled with a particular liquid; this quantity is called the
coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. The units generally employed
in physics for force, length and time are used to express viscosity
coefficients, viz., the dyne, centimetre and second.
Two parallel plates with a liquid between them constitute an
arrangement from which we can easily deduce a definition of the
viscosity coefficient, but one which cannot be realized experi-
mentally. Arrangements are, however, possible which fulfil the
essential condition that the liquid should behave as if it consisted
of thin laminae each moving with a constant velocity — a type
of motion which is, for that reason, called "laminar." We can,
for instance, "roll up" the two parallel planes of fig. i into two
concentric cylinders and rotate the outer one with constant
velocity, while the inner one is at rest (fig. 2). Each circle in
the ring of liquid then rotates with a constant velocity; the inner
cylinder tends to follow the mo-
tion and from the torque exerted
on it the coefficient of viscosity
can be deduced.
Laminar motion is also set. up
when a liquid flows through a
cylindrical tube of small bore and
sufficient length, as long as the
velocity does not exceed a cer-
tain limit. The liquid flows as if
it consisted of thin concentric
tubes, each moving with a con-
stant velocity which increases from the wall towards the axis
(fig. 3). The coefficient of viscosity can be deduced from the
dimensions of the tube and the quantity of liquid forced through
it in unit time by a known pressure.
It is, finally, possible to determine the coefficient of viscosity
of a liquid by observing the velocity with which a small sphere
of known diameter and mass falls in it. It was shown by Stokes
that a small sphere falling in a viscous medium soon attains a
constant velocity (in a medium offering no resistance its velocity
is uniformly accelerated) given by the following equation:
FIG. 2
VISCOSITY
195
V =a
91
in which the symbols mean: v the velocity of fall per second, r the
radius of the sphere, p and p' the density of the sphere and of the
liquid respectively, g the acceleration of gravity = 981 cm/sec2
and ij the coefficient of viscosity. Other things being equal, the
coefficient of viscosity and the velocity of fall are inversely
proportional.
Measuring the flow through
a capillary tube was the first
method used for determining vis-
cosities, and is still the most
generally employed. The law
governing the flow through capil-
laries was found experimentally
by Poiseuille in a classical investi-
gation published in 1842. He
found that the volume of liquid
which passed through a capillary
in unit time was (i)- proportional
to the pressure, (2) proportional
to the fourth power of the radius FlG- 3
and (3) inversely proportional to the length of the tube. In
symbols, if Q = volume discharged in unit time, P — pressure,
R = radius and L = length of the tube:
where C is a constant characteristic for each liquid, which always
increases with rising temperature. Poiseuille did not deduce co-
efficients of viscosity, but this was done by several physicists
who treated the problem mathematically by working out the
conditions of flow for one of the elementary tubes described above
and integrating; the equation thus obtained is known as Poi-
seuille's formula:
where 77 is the coefficient of viscosity, which can therefore be
calculated from Poiseuille's experimental
data. As has been mentioned, the coeffi-
cient of viscosity is expressed in cm-gm-
sec units; the coefficient rj = i-ooo in
these units is called a poise (in honour of
Poiseuille) and its hundredth part a centi-
poise. The viscosity coefficient of water
at 20° C. is almost exactly a centipoise.
A convenient alternative method of ex-
pressing the viscosity 771 of a liquid is to
state the ratio rji/rjo, where rjo is the vis-
cosity of a suitably chosen standard liquid;
this ratio is called the relative viscosity.
Capillary Viscometers. — A number of
instruments have been designed for meas-
uring viscosity by means of the flow
through a capillary; they all have this in
common, that a constant volume, denned
by suitable marks, is forced through a
capillary by a known pressure. A type of
historical interest is that used by Thorpe
and Rodger in a famous investigation on^o* THORPE * ROOCERS, IN
a large number of pure organic liquids ico'uHca'HoV\HVAlloYATLIOso"
(fig. 4). CD is the capillary, the bore and cltTV>
length of which are accurately known. A ^1G- 4
definite volume of liquid is introduced into the right hand limb
with a fine pi):>ette reaching down to R ; air pressure is then applied
to the left hand limb, until the liquid stands at K, any excess at the
same time overflowing into the trap T2. A known pressure, meas-
ured by a water manometer, is then applied to the right limb, and
the time which the liquid takes to fall from the mark ma to the
mark ni4 measured by a stop watch reading to i second. The liquid
is then forced up the opposite limb, the procedure reversed and
the time from mi to m2 taken; the two times are averaged. The
volumes L and R between the marks are accurately known, and
' from them, the times, pressures and dimensions of the capillary;
| the viscosity coefficients in absolute measure are calculated by
; Poiseuille's formula.
In another instrument, designed by Wilhelm Ostwald and called
after him, which is very generally used, the pressure producing
the flow is produced simply by the column of liquid itself (fig. 5).
A constant volume of liquid is charged into the wide limb from a
pipette and is drawn through the capillary into the bulb well
above the mark A; it is then allowed to flow out and the time
between the marks A and B is taken with a stop watch. This
is done once and for all for a standard liquid, the viscosity r/,,
and density p» of which, at a convenient temperature, are accu-
rately known; the time to is found as the average of several
determinations.
As the same volume of liquid is always used, the effective column
of liquid is always of the same height, so that the pressures pro-
ducing the flow are directly proportional to the densities. If there-
fore the time of efflux for another liquid of density pi is found
to be /i its viscosity rjj, is, by Poiseuille's formula:
T/l = ??0 -~-
Po/o
As has been mentioned, arid will be discussed more fully below,
the viscosity of all liquids decreases with rising temperature, and
measurements arc therefore carried out in a thermostat, i.e., a
bath of suitable liquid, the temperature of which is kept constant
by a regulating device. The viscosity coefficients of a number of
pure liquids are given in Table I, and those of a number of liquids
of technical interest, which arc not. so well defined, in Table II.
TABLE I. Viscosity Coc.ffu tents of Pure Liquids in Ccnti poises
Temperature 20° Unless Otherwise. Stated
Water at o° . . 1-7921 Carbon disulphide . 0*367
,, ,, ion . . i -^07 7 Acetone . . . 0*3225
,, ,, :o° . . 1-0050 Formic acid . . 1-782
,, ,, 50° . . 0-5404 Acetic ,, . . 1-219
100" . . 0-2838 Propionic acid . . 1-099
Kthyl alcohol . . 1-192 Bcn/.cnc
Methyl ,, . . 0-501 Toluene
Chloroform. . . 0-564 O-xylene
Carbon tctrachloride 0-969
0-649
0-586
0-897
TABLE II. Viscosity Cor/fit it nts of Technical Liquids in Ccnti poises
Temperature 20° Unless Otherwise Stated
24-2
80-8
735-0
621-0
1-46
Shale oil .
Spindle oil .
Rumanian fuel oil at
7-70
92-0
5I5-0
100% Sulphuric acid.
Olive oil
Glycerin at ^5" .
Castor oil at 25°
Turpentine .
"Standard White"
para 1 tin .
Viscosity and Temperature.^-Two fairly typical examples
of the variation of viscosity with temperature are given in tig. 6,
in which the viscosity coefficients of water and of mercury are
plotted against the temperatures (lower scale for water, upper
for mercury). The viscosity decreases throughout the whole
range, but the decrease per degree is much greater at low than
at high temperature. The viscosity of water decreases by about
2-7% per degree between o° and 10°, by about 2% per degree
between 10° and 20°, etc., while the decrease is much more
uniform for mercury.
No general law connecting viscosity with temperature has yet
been found, although for any given liquid the variation can be
represented with fair accuracy by one of a number of interpola-
tion formulae.
Viscosity and Pressure.— The viscosity of all liquids so far
examined, except water, increases with pressure and may attain
enormous values when the pressure becomes very high. This has
been demonstrated by Bridgman, who investigated over 40 liquids
at pressures up to 12,000 atmospheres and at two temperatures,
196
VISCOSITY
H
30° and 75°. Earlier workers had examined a few liquids at j
pressures up to 3,000 atmospheres. Up to this limit the viscosity j
generally increases in approximately linear ratio with the pressure, ;
but beyond it the increase becomes much more rapid. This is
well shown in fig. 7, in which the relative viscosities (the vis-
cosity at atmospheric pressure being taken as unity) of (A)
ether and (B) carbon disulphide are plotted against the pres-
sures: at 12,000 atmospheres the viscosity
of ether is about 46 times, and that of car-
bon disulphide about 15 times that at
atmospheric pressure. These are, however,
liquids in which the effect of pressure is
comparatively small? in many others the
viscosity at the highest attainable pres-
sures is many hundred and even thousand
times as high as at atmospheric pressure.
As mentioned, Bridgman determined the
viscosities at 30° and at 75°; at the same
pressure the viscosity at the higher tem-
perature is always smaller than at the
lower. The liquid at the higher tem-
perature, however, occupies a greater vol-
ume than at the lower, when the pressures
are equal, and since it is very natural to
assume that the change in viscosity caused
by either temperature or pressure is merely
a consequence of the accompanying change
in volume, it is of great interest to com-
pare the viscosities at equal volumes. The
volumes corresponding to different pres-
sures up to 12,000 atmospheres were de-
termined by Bridgman in an earlier investi-
gation; they are plotted in fig. 8 as abscis-
sae and the viscosities at 30° and 75° cor-
responding to them as ordinates. The vis-
cosity at 30° is always higher than that
at 75° and at the same volume; in other
words, the viscosity is not determined by
the volume alone, as has been assumed in
several theories. The point is of funda-
mental importance and still awaits ex-
planation.
Water behaves anomalously, as it does
in respect of other physical properties. At
temperatures below about 30° the viscosity at first decreases with
increasing pressure and shows a minimum at about T,OOO atmos-
pheres, which is the more marked the lower the temperature. At
temperatures above 30° water behaves like other liquids, i.e., the
viscosity increases with the pressure throughout the whole range.
Viscosity and Chemical Constitution. — Thomas Graham,
the founder of colloid chemistry, who carried out a great number j
of viscosity measurements by Poiseuille's method, was the first j
to suggest that the viscosity of compounds of similar const itu- !
tion might increase in a regular manner with the number of mole- '
cules or groups contained in them. Several investigations have
been directed towards establishing such a connection, the best
known of which was carried out by Thorpe and Rodger. They
found that in any homologous series the viscosity increased j
with the molecular weight, the increase being fairly regular with
the higher members, while the first two or three behaved anoma- |
lously — as they do in regard to other physical properties. Series ;
like the alcohols and the fatty acids show considerable irregulari-
ties which are ascribed to association, i.e., to their consisting, not i
of single molecules, but of complexes of such, which break up
with rising temperature. There is other evidence of association,
and the anomalies of water are ascribed to the same cause.
Viscosity of Solutions and Mixtures. — The investigations
on both these have been extremely numerous. Solutions of all non-
electrolytes and of electrolytes with certain well-known excep-
tions have viscosities higher than that of the solvent, the increase
for equal increments of dissolved substance becoming higher at
high concentrations. The exceptions are solutions of certain salts
FIG. 5
of potassium, ammonium, rubidium and caesium in water or
alcohol, which, between certain limits of temperature and con-
ccntration, have viscosities lower than that of the solvent.
The viscosity of all solutions, like that of pure liquids, decreases
with rising temperature; the effect is even more marked than in
the latter, especially at high concentration. This is well shown in
fig. 9, in which the viscosities of 40 and 60% cane sugar solutions
are plotted against the temperature; the viscosity of the 60%
solution at o° is over 70 times, and that of the 40% solution
about 15 times the respective values at 100°; for water this ratio
is about 6-3.
It has so far been impossible to find the law connecting the
viscosity of a solution with its concentration, and none of the
empirical formulae which have been proposed fits more than a
limited number of solutions. There are hardly any mixtures the
viscosity of which is the mean calculated from the viscosities and
percentages of the two components; if the viscosity of a mixture
of chemically quite indifferent liquids is plotted against the per-
centage of one component, a slightly sagged curve (fig. 10) is the
nearest approach to the straight line (dotted) which would repre-
sent the viscosity of the "ideal" mixture. It frequently happens,
however, that the curve has a maximum (fig. n) or a minimum
(fig. 12); in other words, the viscosity of the mixture, at certain
ratios of the components, is greater or smaller than the viscosity
of either alone. The maximum or minimum may occur at the
same concentration at all temperatures (fig. n) or it. may shift
with changing temperature (fig. 12). Maxima and minima frc -t
quently occur at ratios, at which other physical constants, like
the specific volume or the boiling point, also show extreme values ;
thus Poiseuille and Graham already observed, that the viscosity-
maximum of the alcohol-water mixture occurred at the same
ratio as the greatest contraction on mixing.
It has not so far been possible to formulate any molecular
theory of the viscosity of liquid which accounts even qualitatively
FIG. 6
for the variations with temperature and pressure. The kinetic
theory of gases, on the other hand, led to some very striking
conclusions regarding the viscosity of gases, which were subse-
quently verified by experiment and must now be described
briefly.
The Viscosity of Gases.— A few years after the publication
of Poiseuille's paper Thomas Graham investigated very carefully
the flow of gases through capillaries. The times in which equal
volumes of different gases passed through the same tubes under
VISCOSITY
197
the same pressure were different and were expressed as "tran-
spiration coefficients," the time for oxygen being takfen as unity.
Graham found the same transpiration coefficients with different
tubes, so that they represented a constant characteristic of the
gas itself. Maxwell in developing the kinetic theory of gases
deduced an expression from which it follows immediately that
(i) the viscosity of a gas is independent of the pressure, and (2)
| investigators. The viscosity coefficients of a few gases at o° are
i given below in centipoises; it will be noticed that the viscosity
| coefficient of air at that temperature is almost exactly T^ of
that of water at o°.
40
35
30-
25
20
15
10
5,000
10,000
FIG. 7
it increases with rising temperature in linear ratio with the square
root of the absolute temperature. (See KINETIC THEORY OF
MATTER.)
The first of these very striking and unexpected conclusions was
verified experimentally by 0. E. Meyer and subsequently with
improved apparatus by Maxwell himself. The method used was
one which had been applied to liquids before: a set of three
circular discs A (fig. 13) suspended from a fine wire was made
to oscillate round its axis between four fixed discs A'; the
viscosity of the air damps the oscillations and can be deduced from
the decrease in their amplitudes. The viscosity of air was in this
way found to be constant between pressures of 760 mm. of
mercury (normal barometric pressure) and i millimetre. There
are considerable deviations from this law at high pressures, and
at very low pressures, when the mean free path of the molecules
becomes comparable to the dimensions of the vessel, the viscosity
diminishes very considerably. This property has been utilized in
the construction of gauges for extremely low pressures. (See
VACUUM.)
Meyer also deduced from the kinetic theory that the flow of
gases through capillaries followed Poiseuille's law, and calculated
from Graham's "transpiration coefficients" and the dimensions
of his tubes the viscosity coefficients of a number of gases. The
capillary method has also been used very generally by later
TABLE III. Viscosity Coefficients of Gases in Centipoises
Temperature o°
Atmospheric air.
Oxygen
I lydrogcn .
Carbon monoxide
0-01719
o-o 1 9 73
0-00849
0*01665
Carbon dioxide .
Sulphur dioxide .
Ammonia .
0-01382
0-01168
It has also been shown that Stokes's formula applies to the
fall of spheres in gases as well as in liquids, provided the spheres
arc not small compared with the mean free path. It is a matter
of common experience that very finely divided matter stays sus-
pended in air for a considerable time, and Stokes's formula can
be used to calculate the size of particles of a given material, e.£.,
droplets of water, which will sink at a given rate. If this is to be
say i cm. per hour, the diameter of the globule must not exceed
i-33// (i v ^-iAo mm-)-
The striking prediction that the viscosity of gases, unlike that
of liquids, increases with rising temperature, has also been verified
experimentally. The viscosity is not, however, proportional to
the square root of the absolute temperature, as theory requires,
but increases much more rapidly. The discrepancy has been
15
10
0.7
0.8
0.9
FIG. 8
1.0
1.1
explained by Sutherland, who found the actual law of the variation
with absolute temperature to be
Vr
where C is a constant for each gas, known as Sutherland's
constant.
The Viscosity of Solids. — The first physicist to put forward
and to define the concept of viscosity in solids, more especially in
"highly elastic solids within the limits of high elasticity" was Sir
William Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) ; he did so in a paper
published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1865 and
afterwards included in the article "Elasticity" in the 4th edition
of the Encyclopedia Britannica. The concept is a difficult one,
i98
VISCOSITY
but the difficulty is not so much that of defining viscosity or vis-
cous flow as that of defining a solid. Stokes, C.R., suggested that
"there seems no line of demarcation between a solid and a viscous
fluid"; Maxwell, on the other hand, considered any body which ex-
hibited flow at all stresses as a liquid, whereas bodies which did not
flow until a certain minimum stress had been exceeded, were plastic
solids. It has become quite usual to describe, in accordance with
100
FIG. 9
Maxwell's view, glass as a "supercooled liquid" (although, unlike
liquids, it is capable of transverse vibrations) and to confine the
term solid to crystalline bodies or, more strictly still, to single
crystals.
If one follows Stokes rather than Maxwell it is easy to find
such transitions, viz., bodies which at ordinary temperature main-
tain their shape and vibrate when touched with a vibrating tuning
fork, but under continued low stress flow. Pitch is representative
of this class and has been much investigated; it has been shown
that at ordinary temperature, when it is "solid," it can be forced
through a capillary and exhibits purely viscous flow in accordance
with Poiscuillc's law. At 13-3° the coefficient of viscosity is about
5,000 million poises, and at 99-9° about 120 poises; the decrease
in viscosity is quite continuous.
The viscosity coefficient of substances like pitch, which at low
temperatures keep their shape, can be determined by methods not
applicable to liquids; it can, for example, be deduced from the
rate at which a cylinder, to one end of which a constant torque
is applied, is twisted. The method was used by Trouton and
Andrews, who "round that even in pitch there were some elastic
effects, the cylinder untwisting to a small extent when the torque
was removed. Thomson studied the decrement of the amplitude
of torsional oscillations performed by wires from which heavy
masses were suspended, with a view to finding whether the damp-
ing could be completely accounted for by an internal resistance
of the nature of viscosity, but arrived at a negative result.
The difficulty encountered in studying viscous flow in solids is,
in fact, that of separating it from other types of deformation,
which may precede or accompany it. The most successful pro-
0.3
20
40
FIG. 10
cedure for doing so is that adopted by Andradc, who measured
the rate of elongation of metal wires stretched by constant stress.
If a wire is stretched, as is often done, by a constant load, the
50 60 70 80 90 100
FIG. 11
stress, i.e., the load per unit area, keeps increasing, as the cross-
section becomes smaller when the wire becomes longer. Andrade
decreased the load in the same ratio in which the cross-section
was reduced by giving the weight, which stretched the wire, a
VISCOUNT— VISION
199
suitable profile and allowing it to sink into a liquid, as the wire
became longer. He found in. this way that the elongation could
be divided into three parts: an immediate extension on loading,
an initial flow which decreases with time and is therefore not
100
SCMAFT, LtlPIIG)
FIG. 12
"A'
FIG. 13
been deduced from
the
viscous, and then a constant flow, during which the rate of elonga-
tion per unit length is constant up to the breaking point; this is
the purely viscous flow. A wide
region of viscous flow was found
with lead, copper and fuse (lead-
tin alloy) wire at ordinary tem-
perature. Other metals were
found to behave like lead when a
suitable temperature was chosen :
a wire of frozen mercury at —78°
gave time-extension curves inter-
mediate between those of lead
at 1 60° and 17° while iron wire
at 444° behaved like lead at 16°.
The higher the temperature the
more docs viscous flow predomi-
nate. No viscosity coefficients have
experiments just described.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — M. Brillouin, La Viscositt (Paris, 1907) ; L. Grautz,
"Reibung" in Winkclmann's Handbuch dcr Physik, vol. i. (Leipzig,
1 908) ; A. E. Dunstan and F. B. Thole, The Viscosity of Liquids
(1914) ; E. C. Bingham, Fluidity and Plasticity (1922) ; E. Hatschck,
The Viscosity of Liquids (1928), J. L. M. Poiscuille, Mem. Savants
Strangers, o, 433 (1846) ; G. G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. PhiL Soc. ix., 8
(1851), Coll. Papers vol. iii. (IQOI) ; T. Graham, Ann. der Chew, u.
Pharm., 123, 90 (1863) ; J. C. Maxwell, PhiL Trans., 156, 249 (1866) ;
Wm. Thomson, Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. iii. (1890) ; T. E. Thorpe
and J. W. Rodger, Phil. Trans. A, 185, 397 (1894); E. N. da C.
Andrade, Proc. Royal Soc. A, 84 (1910), oo, 329 (1914) ; P. W. Bridg-
man, Proc. Nat. Acad. Amer., n, 603 (1925). (E. H.)
VISCOUNT, the title of the fourth rank of the European
nobility. In the British peerage it intervenes between the dignities
of earl and baron. The title is now purely one of honour, having
long been dissociated from any special office or functions.
In the Carolingian epoch the vice-comites, or missi comitis, were
the deputies or vicars of the counts, whose official powers they
exercised by delegation, and from these the viscounts of the
feudal period were undoubtedly derived. Soon after the counts
became hereditary the same happened in the case of their lieu-
tenants; e.g., in Narbonne, Nimes and Alby the viscounts had,
according to A. Molinier, acquired hereditary rights as early as the
beginning of the loth century. Viscountcies thus developed into
actual fiefs. Viscounts, however, continued for some time to have
no more than the status of lieutenants, either calling themselves
simply vice-comites, or adding to this title the name of the count-
ship from which they derived their powers. It was not till the i2th
century that the universal tendency to territorialize the feudal
dominions affected the viscountcies with the rest, and that the
viscounts began to take the name of the most important of their
domains. Thus the viscounts of Poitiers called themselves vis-
counts of Thouars, and those of Toulouse viscounts of Bruniquel
and Montelar. From this time the significance of the title was
extremely various. Some viscounts, notably in the duchy of
Aquitaine and the county of Toulouse, of which the size made an
effective centralized Government impossible, were great barons,
whose authority extended over whole provinces, and who dis-
puted for power with counts and dukes. Elsewhere, on the other
hancj, e.g., in the lie de France, Champagne, and a great part of
Burgundy, the vicomtcs continued to he half feudatories, half
officials of the counts, with the same functions and rank in the
feudal hierarchy as the chatclains; their powers were jealously
limited and, with the organization of the system of prevdts and
baillis in the i:th century, practically disappeared. In the royal
domains especially, these petty feudatories could not maintain
themselves against the growing power of the Crown, and they
were early assimilated to the prevots.
In Normandy vicomti's appeared at a very early date as deputies
of the counts (afterwards dukes) of the Normans. When local
Norman counts began in the iith century, some of them had
vicomtcs under them, but the normal •uicomte was still a deputy
of the duke, and Henry I. largely replaced the hereditary holders
of the vicomtcs by officials. "By the time of the Conqueror the
judicial functions of the viscount were fully recognized, and ex-
tended over the greater part of Normandy." Eventually almost
the whole of Normandy was divided into administrative vis-
countcies or bailiwicks by the end of the i .?th century. When the
Normans conquered England, they applied the term viscount c or
vicecomcs to the sheriffs of the English system, whose office, how-
ever, was quite distinct and was hardly affected by the Conquest.
Nearly four centuries later "viscount" was introduced as a
peerage style into England, when its king was once more lord of
Normandy. John, Lord Beaumont, K.G., who had been created
count of Boulogne in 1.436, was made Viscount Beaumont, Feb.
12, 1440, and granted precedence over all barons, which was
doubtless the reason for his creation. The oldest viscountcy now
on the roll is that of Hereford, created in 1550; but the Irish
viscountcy of Gormanston is as old as 1478. Sec FORMS OF
ADDRESS.
VISHNU [Sanskr. the "active one"], in the Indian Rig-Veda
a minor deity, who takes three strides, vi-kram, the last and
highest beyond mortal ken; these probably denote the three
divisions of the universe. Closely allied with Indra in his fight
with Vritra, the drought-dragon, and against the Dasas, the
dark aborigines, Vishnu in the Epic mythology developed into
the Preserver god, one of the Hindu triad with Brahma, the
creator; and Siva, the destroyer; and as such he has saved man-
kind in ten incarnations. His special devotees, the Vaishnavas,
have evolved numerous sects.
VISION or SIGHT, the function, in physiology, of the
organ known as the eye (q.v.). The sense of vision is excited by
the influence of light on the retina, the special terminal organ con-
nected with the optic nerve. By excitation of the retina, a
change is induced in the optic nerve fibres, and is conveyed by
these to the brain, the result being a luminous perception, or
what we call a sensation of light or colour. If light were to act
uniformly over the retina, there would be no image of the source
of the light formed on that structure, and consequently there
would be only a general consciousness of light, without reference
to any particular object. One of the first conditions, therefore,
of vision for useful purposes is the formation of an image on
the retina. To effect this, just as in a photographic camera, refrac-
tive structures must be placed in front of the retina which will
so bend luminous rays as to bring them to a focus on the retina,
and thus produce an image. Throughout the animal kingdom
various arrangements are found for this purpose; -but they may
2OO
VISION
be all referred to three types, namely — (i) eye-specks or eye-
dots, met with in Medusae, Annclidae, etc.; (2) the compound
eye, as found in insects and crustaceans; and (3) the simple eye,
common to all vertebrates. The eye-specks may be regarded
simply as expansions of optic nerve filaments, covered by a trans-
parent membrane, but having no refractive media, so that the
creature would have the consciousness of light only, or a simple
luminous impression, by which it might distinguish light from
darkness. The compound eye consists essentially of a scries of
transparent cone-like bodies, arranged in a radiate manner against
the inner surface of the cornea, with which their bases are united,
while their apices are connected with the ends of the optic fila-
ments. As each cone is separated from its neighbours, it admits
only a ray of light parallel with its axis, and its apex represents
only a portion of the image, which must be made up, like a
mosaic-work, of as many parts as there are cones in the eye. The
size of the visual field will depend on the size of the segment of
the sphere forming its surface.
The eyes of many insects have a field of about half a sphere, so
that the creature will see objects before and behind it as well as
those at the side. On the other hand, in many the eyes have
scarcely any convexity, so that they must have a narrow field of
vision.
For numerous anatomical details, and various diseases connected
with the eye, see EYE; the pathological aspects of vision itself are
treated at the conclusion of this article.
1. PHYSICAL CAUSES OF VISION
A luminous sensation may be excited by various modes of
irritation of the retina or of the optic nerve. Pressure, cutting
or electrical shocks may act as stimuli, but the normal excitation
is the influence of light on the retina. From a physical point of
view, light is a mode of movement occurring in a medium, termed
the aether, which pervades all space; but the physiologist studies
the operation of these movements on the sentient organism as
resulting in consciousness of the particular kind which we term
a luminous impression. Outside of the body, such movements
have been studied with great accuracy; but the physiological
effects depend upon such complex conditions as to make it im-
possible to state them in the same precise way. Thus, when we
look at the spectrum, we are conscious of the sensations of red
and violet, referable to its two extremities: the physicist states
that red is produced by 392 billions of impulses on the retina
per second, and that violet corresponds to 757 billions per sec-
ond; but he has arrived at this information by inductive reason-
ing from facts which have not at present any physiological expla-
nation. Below the red and above the violet ends of the spec-
trum there are vibrations which do not excite luminous sen-
sations. In the first case, below the red, the effect is to raise
the temperature; and above the violet the result is to cause
chemical activity in the substance by which the radiation is
absorbed. Thus the method of dispersion of light, as is followed
in passing a ray through a prism, enables us to recognize these
general facts: (i) rays below the red excite thermal impressions;
(2) from the lower red up to the middle of the violet, the thermal
rays become gradually weaker until they have no effect; (3)
from the lower red to the extreme violet, they cause luminous
impressions, which reach their greatest intensity in the yellow;
and (4) from about the end of the yellow to far beyond the
extreme violet, the rays have gradually a less and less luminous
effect, but they have the power of exciting such chemical changes
as are produced in photography. In general terms, therefore,
the lower end of the spectrum may be called thermal, the middle
luminous, and the upper actinic or chemical; but the three merge
into and overlap one another.' It may be observed that the
number of vibrations in the extreme violet is not double that
of the low red, so that the sensibility of the eye to vibrations
of light does not range through an octave. The ultra-violet rays
may act on the retina in certain conditions, as when they are
reflected by a solution of sulphate of quinine, constituting the
phenomenon of fluorescence. Far above the violet are the Ront-
gen radiations, y rays, etc.
2. OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE EYE
1. General. — When light traverses any homogeneous transpar-
ent medium, such as the air, it passes on in a straight course with
a certain velocity; but if it meet with any other transparent body
of a different density, part of it is reflected or returned to the
first medium, whilst the remainder is propagated through the
second medium in a different direction and with a different veloc-
ity. Thus we may account for the phenomena of reflection of
light and oi retraction (q.v.).
Before a ray of light can reach the retina, it must pass through
a number of transparent and refractive surfaces. The eye is a
nearly spherical organ, formed of transparent parts situated be-
hind each other, and surrounded by various membranous struc-
tures, the anterior part of which is also transparent. The trans-
parent parts are — (i) the cornea; (2) the aqueous humour, found
in the anterior chamber of the eye; (3) the crystalline lens, formed
by a transparent convex body, the anterior surface of which is
less convex than the posterior; and (4) the vitreous humour,
filling the posterior chamber of the eye. The ray must therefore
traverse the cornea, aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour.
As the two surfaces of the cornea are parallel, the rays prac-
tically suffer no deviation in passing through that structure, but
they are bent during their transmission through the other media.
2. The Formation of an Image on the Retina. — This may
be well illustrated with the aid of a photographic camera. If
properly focused, an inverted image will be seen on the glass
plate at the back of the camera. It may also be observed by
bringing the eyeball of a rabbit near a candle flame. The action
of a lens in forming an inverted image is illustrated by fig. i,
where the pencil of rays proceeding from a is brought to a focus
at a', and those from b at b' ; consequently the image of ab is
inverted as at b'a? . The three characteristic features of the retinal
image are: (i) it is reversed; (2) it is sharp and well defined if
it be accurately focused on the retina; and (3) its size depends
on the visual angle. If we look at a distant object, say a star, the
rays reaching the eye are paral-
lel, and in passing through the
refractive media they are fo-
cused at the posterior focal point
— that is, on the retina. A line
_. from the luminous point, on the
F.GJ.-IHVEIWION sv ACT.ON OF retina ^.^ throu^h ^ noda,
point is called the visual line.
If the luminous object be not nearer than, say, 60 yd. the image
is still brought to a focus on the retina without any effort on the
part of the eye. Within this distance, supposing the condition
of the eye to be the same as in looking at a star, the image
would be formed somewhat, behind the posterior focal point,
and the effect would be an indistinct impression on the retina. To
obviate this, for near distances, accommodation, so as to adapt
the eye, is effected by a mechanism to be afterwards described.
When rays, reflected from an object or coming from a lumi-
nous point, are not brought to an accurate focus on the retina, the
image is not distinct in conse-
quence of the formation of cir-
cles of diffusion, the production
of which will be rendered evident
by fig. 2. From the point A
luminous rays enter the eye in
the form of a cone, the kind of
which will depend on the pupil.
Thus it may be circular, or oval,
FIG. 2. — FORMATION OF CIRCLES or even triangular. If the pencil
OF DIFFUSION js focused in front of the retina,
as at d, or behind it as at /, or, in other words, if the retina, in
place of being at F, be in the positions G or H, there will be a lu-
minous circle or a luminous triangular space, and many ele-
ments of the retina will be affected. The size of these diffusion
circles depends on the distance from the retina of the point where
the rays are focused : the greater the distance, the more extended
will be the diffusion circle. Its size will also be affected by the
greater or less diameter of the pupil. Circles of diffusion may be
VISION
201
studied by the following experiment, called the experiment of
Scheiner, fig. 3:
Let C be a lens, and DEF be screens placed behind it. Hold
in front of the lens a card perforated by two holes A and B, and
allow rays from a luminous point 0 to pass through these holes.
The point o on the screen E will be the focus of the rays emanat-
ing from a; if a were removed farther from the lens, the focus
would be on F, and if it were
brought near to C, the focus
would then be on D. The screens
F and D show two images on the
point a. If, then, we close the up-
per opening in AB, the upper im-
FIG 3.— DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING age m On F and the lower image
THE EXPERIMENT OF SCHE.NER ;/ Qn p disappear. Suppose HOW
that the retina be substituted for the screens D and F, the contrary
will take place, in consequence of the reversal of the retinal image.
If the eye be placed at o, only one image will be seen; but if it be
placed either in the plane of F or D, then two images will be seen,
as at mm, or nn; consequently, in either of these planes there will
be circles of diffusion and indistinctness, and only in the plane E
will there be sharp definition of the image.
Owing to the optical conditions and defects of the eye (vide
infra) a mathematically punctate image is never formed upon
the retina, even in a normal eye. To understand the formation of
an image on the retina, suppose a line drawn from each of its
two extremities to the nodal point and continued onwards to the
retina, as in fig. 4, where the visual angle is x. It is evident that
its size will depend on the size of the object and the distance of
the object from the eye. Thus, also, objects of different sizes,
c, d, e in fig. 4, may be included in the same visual angle, as
they are at different distances
from the eye. The size of the
retinal image may be calculated if
we know the size of the object,
its distance from the nodal point
oy and the distance of the
nodal point from the posterior
focus. The smallest visual angle
in which two distinct points may
be observed is approximately
60 seconds; below this, the two
sensations fuse into one; and the
size of the retinal image corre- FIG. 4.— THE VISUAL ANGLE
spending to this angle is -004 mm., about the diameter of a single
retinal rod or cone. The images of two luminous points, e.g.,
stars, must, therefore be separated by the diameter of one cone,
i.e., the two cones stimulated must be separated by one unstimu-
lated cone. A very minute image, if thrown on a single retinal ele-
ment, is sufficient to excite it if the illumination is sufficiently
intense.
3. The Optical Defects of the Eye. — As an optical instru-
ment; the eye is defective. These defects are chiefly of two kinds —
(i) those due to the curvature of
the refractive surfaces, and (2)
those due to the dispersion of
light by the refractive media.
(a) Aberration of Sphericity.
— Suppose, as in fig. 5, M A K to
be a refractive surface on which
parallel rays from L to S im-
pinge, it will be seen that those
FIG. 5. — SPHERICAL ABERRATION rays passing near the circum-
ference arc brought to a focus at F1, and those passing near the
centre at F2 — intermediate rays being focused at N. Thus on
the portion of the axis between F1 and F2 there will be a series of
focal points, and the effect will be a blurred and bent image. In
the eye this defect is to a large extent corrected by the fol-
lowing arrangements: (i) the iris cuts off the outer and more
strongly refracted rays; (2) the curvature of the cornea is flatter
at the periphery, and consequently those farthest from the axis
are least deviated; (3) the anterior and posterior curvatures of
the lens are such that the one corrects, to a certain extent, the
action of the other; and (4) the structure of the lens is such that
its power of refraction diminishes from the centre to the cir-
cumference, and consequently the rays farthest from the axis
are less refracted.
(b) Astigmatism. — Another common defect of the eye is due
to different meridians having different degrees of curvature. This
defect is known as astigmatism. It may be thus detected.
In the cornea the vertical meridian has generally a shorter ra-
dius of curvature, and is consequently more refractive than the
FIG. «.— DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING ASTIGMATISM
horizontal. . The meridians of the lens may also vary ; but,
as a rule, the asymmetry of the cornea is greater than that
of the lens. The optical explanation of the defect will be un-
derstood with the aid of fig, 6. Thus, suppose the vertical
meridian C A D to be more strongly curved than the horizontal
F A E, the rays which fall on C A I) will be brought to a focus,
G, and those falling on F A E at B. If we divide the pencil of
rays at successive points, G, H, I, K, B, by a section perpen-
dicular to A B, the various forms it would present at these points
are seen in the figures underneath, so that if the eye were placed
at G, it would see a horizontal line a a'\ if at H, an ellipse with
the long axis a a' parallel to A B; if at I, a circle; if at K, an
ellipse, with the long axis, b c, at right angles to A B; and if at
B, a vertical line b c. The degree of astigmatism is ascertained by
measuring the difference of refraction in the two chief meridians;
and the defect is corrected by the use of cylindrical glasses, the
curvature of which, added to that of the minimum meridian,
makes its focal length equal to that of the maximum meridian.
(c) Chromatic Aberration. — When a ray of white light traverses
a lens, the different rays composing it, being unequally refrangible,
are dispersed: the violet rays (see fig. 7), the most refrangible, are
brought to a focus at e, and the red rays, less refrangible, at d. If
a screen were placed at e, a series of concentric coloured circles
would be formed, the central be-
ing of a violet, and the circumfer-
ence of a red colour. The reverse
effect would be produced if the
screen were placed at d. Imagine
the retina in place of the screen
THE DISPERSION OF VIGHT BY A in the two positions, the sensa-
LENS tional effects would be those just
mentioned. Under ordinary circumstances, the error is not ob-
served, as for vision at near distances the interval between the
focal point of the red and violet rays is very small. If, how-
ever, we look at a candle flame through a bit of cobalt blue
glass, which transmits only the red and blue rays, the flame may
appear violet surrounded by blue, or blue surrounded by violet,
according as we have accommodated the eye for different dis-
tances. Red surfaces appear nearer than violet surfaces situated
in the same plane.
(d) Diffraction. — The rays are best at the edge of the pupil,
breaking up the light into a series of concentric spectra. This
FIG. 7. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING
202
VISION
tt ' b'
contributes to the imperfection of the image. The effect is
greatest with a small pupil, but is practically negligible with a
pupil of 3 mm. diameter or more. Chromatic aberration and
diffraction tend to counteract each other.
(e) Defects Due to Opacities, etc., in the Transparent Media. —
When small opaque particles exist in the transparent media, they
may cast their shadow on the retina so as to give rise to images
which are projected outwards by
the mind into space, and thus
appear to exist outside of the
body. Such phenomena are
termed entoptic. They may be of
two kinds: (i) extra-retinal, that
is, due to opaque or semi-trans-
parent bodies in any of the re-
fractive structures anterior to the
retina, and presenting the appear-
ance of drops, striae, lines, twist-
ed bodies, forms of grotesque FIG. 8.— PURKINJE-S FIGURES
shape, or minute black clots dancing before the eye; and (2) intra-
retinal, due to opacities, etc., in the layers of the retina, in front
of the rods and cones. The intra-retinal may be produced in a
normal eye in various ways, (i) Throw a strong beam of light
on the ecige of the sclerotic, and a curious branched figure will
be seen, which is an image of the retinal vessels. The construc-
tion of these images, usually called Pnrkinje's figures, will be
understood from fig. 8. Thus, in the figure to the left, the rays
passing through the sclerotic at b", in the direction £/' c, will
throw a shadow of a vessel at c on the retina at b', and this will
appear as a ciark line at B. If the light, move from b" to a",
the retinal shadow will move from // to a', and the line in the
field of vision will pass from B to A. It may be shown that the
distance c b' corresponds to the distance of the retinal vessels
from the layer of rods and cones. If the light enter the cornea,
as in the figure to the right, and if the light be moved, the image
will be displaced in the same direction as the light, if the move-
ment does not extend beyond the middle of the cornea, but in
the opposite direction to the light when the latter is moved up
and down. Thus, if a be moved to a', d will be moved to d',
the shadow on the retina from c to c' , and the image b to b'. If,
on the other hand, a be moved above the plane of the paper,
d will move below, consequently
c will move above, and b' will
appear to sink. (2) The retinal
vessels may also be seen by look-
ing at a strong light through a
minute aperture, in front of
which a rapid to-and-fro move-
ment is made. Such experiments
prove that the sensitive part of
the retina is its deepest and most
external layer (the rod and cone
layer).
4. Accommodation, or the
Mechanism of Adjustment
for Different Distances. —
When a camera is placed in front
of an object, it is necessary to fo-
cus accurately in order to obtain
a clear and distinct image on the
sensitive plate. This may be
done by moving either the lens or
the sensitive plate backwards
or forwards so as to have the posterior focal point of the lens
corresponding with the sensitive plate. For similar reasons, a
mechanism of adjustment, or accommodation for different dis-
tances, is necessary in the human eye. In the normal eye, any
number of parallel rays, coming from a great distance, are fo-
cused on the retina. Such an eye is termed emmetropic (fig. 9).
Another form of eye (B) may be such that parallel rays are
brought to a focus in front of the retina. This form of eye is
myopic or short-sighted, inasmuch as, for distinct vision, the ob-
FlG. 9. — A. EMMETROPIC OR NOR-
MAL EYE; B. MYOPIC OR SHORT-
SIGHTED EYE; C. HYPERMETROPIC
OR LONG-SIGHTED EYE
ject must be brought nearer to the eye. A third form is seen in C,
where the focal point, for ordinary distances, is behind the retina,
and consequently the rays must be made more convergent by
accommodation. This kind of eye is called hyper metro pic, or far-
sighted. For ordinary distances, at which objects must be seen
distinctly in everyday life, the fault of the myopic eye may be
corrected by the use of concave and of the hypermetropic by
convex glasses. In the first case, the concave glass will move the
posterior focal point a little farther back, and in the second the
convex glass will bring it farther forward; in both cases, however,
the glasses may be so adjusted, both as regards refractive index
and radius of curvature, as to bring the rays to a focus on the
retina, and consequently secure distinct vision.
From any point. 65 metres distant, rays may be regarded as
almost parallel, and the point will be seen by the emmetropic
eye without any effort of accommodation. This point, either at
this distance or in infinity, is called the punctum remotum, or
the most distant point seen without accommodation. In the
myopic eye it is much nearer, and for the hypermetropic there is
really no such point, and accommodation is always necessary. If
an object were brought too close to this eye for the refractive
media to focus it on the retina, such circles of diffusion would
be formed as to cause indistinctness of vision, unless thfi eye
possessed some power of adapting itself to different distances.
That the eye has some such power of accommodation is proved
by the fact that, if we attempt to look through the meshes of a
net at a distant object, we cannot see both the meshes and the,
object with equal distinctness at the same time. Again, if we
look continuously at very near objects, the eye speedily becomes
fatigued. Beyond a distance of 65 metres, no accommodation is
necessary; but within it, the condition of the eye must be adapted
to the diminished distance, until we reach a point near the eye
which may be regarded as the limit of clear vision for near objects.
This point, called the punctum proximum, varies according to the
age of the individual. The range of accommodation is thus the
distance between the punctum remotum and the punctum proxi-
mum.
The mechanism of accommodation has been much disputed,
but there can be no doubt it is chiefly effected by a change in
the curvature of the anterior surface of the crystalline lens. If
we hold a lighted candle in front and a little to the side of an
eye to be examined, three reflections may be seen in the eye, as
represented in fig. 10. The first, a, is erect, large and bright, from
the anterior surface of the cornea; the second, /;, also erect, but
dim, from the anterior surface of the crystalline lens; and the
third, c, inverted, and very dim, from the posterior surface of
the lens, or perhaps the concave surface of the vitreous humour
to which the convex surface of the lens is adapted. Suppose the
three images to be in the position shown in the figure for dis-
tant vision, it will be found that the middle image b moves
towards a, on looking at a near object.
The change is due to an alteration of the
curvature of the lens, as shown in fig. n.
The changes occurring during accommo-
dation are: (i) the curvature of the an-
terior surface of the crystalline lens in-
creases, the radius of curvature changing
from 10 mm. to a minimum of 6 mm.,
and (2) the pupil contracts. An explana-
tion of the increased curvature of the an- FIG. 10. — REFLECTED
terior surface of the lens during accommo- IMAGES IN THE EYE
dation has been thus given by H. von Helmholtz. In the normal
condition, that is, for the emmetropic eye, the crystalline lens is
flattened anteriorly by the pressure of the anterior layer of the
capsule; during accommodation, the radiating fibres of the ciliary
muscles pull the ciliary processes forward, thus relieving the
tension of the anterior layer of the capsule, and the lens at once
bulges forward by its elasticity.
By this mechanism the radius of curvature of the anterior sur-
face of the lens, as the eye accommodates from the far to the
near point, may shorten from 10 mm. to 6 mm. The ciliary
muscle, however, contains two sets of fibres, the outer, longi-
VISION
203
tudinal or meridional, which run from before backwards, and
the inner, circular or equatorial (Miiller's muscle). Direct obser-
vation on the eye of an animal immediately after death shows
that stimulation of the ciliary nerves actually causes a for-
ward movement of the ciliary processes, and there can be little
doubt that the explanation above given applies to man.
There is still some difficulty in explaining the action of the
equatorial (circular) fibres. Some have found that the increased
FIG. 11. — MECHANISM OF ACCOMMODATION
convexity of the anterior surface of the lens takes place only in
the central portions of the lens, and that the circumferential part
of the lens is actually flattened, presumably by the contraction of
the equatorial fibres. Seeing, however, that the central part, of
the lens is the portion used in vision, as the pupil contracts during
accommodation, a flattening of the margins of the lens can have
no optical effect. During accommodation the pupil contracts, and
the pupillary edge of the iris, thinned out, spreads over the an-
terior surface of the capsule of the lens, which it actually touches,
and this part of the iris, along with the more convex central part
of the lens, bulges into the anterior chamber, and must thus dis-
place some of the aqueous humour. To make room for this, how-
ever, the circumferential part, of the iris, related to the ligamentum
peclinatum, moves backwards very slightly, while the flattening
of the circumferential part of the lens facilitates this movement.
HcJmholtz succeeded in measuring with accuracy the sizes of
the reflected images by means of an instrument termed an oph-
thalmometer, the construction of which is based on the following
optical principles:
5. Absorption and Reflection of Luminous Rays from the
Eye. — When light enters the eye, it is partly absorbed by the
black pigment of the retina and choroid and partly reflected.
The reflected rays are returned through the pupil, not only follow-
ing the same direction as the rays entering the eye, but uniting
to form an image at the same point in space as the luminous
object. The pupil of an eye appears black to an observer, because
the eye of the observer does not receive any of these reflected
rays. If, however, we illuminate the retina by a mirror held
close to the eye the retina can be seen through a hole in the
mirror. This is the principle of the ophthalmoscope originally
invented by Babbage in 1848, and re-discovered by Hclmholtz
in 1851. Eyes deficient in pigment, as in albinos, appear luminous,
reflecting light of a red or pink colour; but if we place in front
of such an eye a card perforated by a round hole of the diameter
of the pupil, the hole will appear quite dark, like the pupil of
an ordinary eye. In many animals a portion of the fundus of the
eyeball has a special reflecting membrane, which presents an iri-
descent appearance. This is called a tapetum. It probably renders
the eye more sensitive to light of feeble intensity.
6. Functions of the Iris. — The iris constitutes a diaphragm
which regulates the amount of light entering the eyeball. The
aperture in the centre, the pupil, may be dilated by contraction
of a system of radiating fibres of involuntary muscle, or con-
tracted by the action of a circular system of fibres, forming a
sphincter, at the margin of the pupil. The radiating fibres are
controlled by the sympathetic, while those of the circular set are
excited by the third cranial nerve. The variations in diameter
of the pupil are determined by the greater or less intensity of
the light acting on the retina. A strong light causes contraction
of the pupil; with light of less intensity, the pupil will dilate.
In the human being, a strong light acting on one eye will cause
contraction of the pupil, not only in the eye affected, but in the
other eye. These facts indicate that the phenomenon is of the
nature of a reflex action, in which the fibres of the optic nerve
act as sensory conductors to a centre in the brain, whence influ-
ences emanate which affect the pupil. The centre is in the neigh-
bourhood of the nucleus of the third nerve, beneath the anterior
pair of the corpora quadrigemina. On the other hand, the dilat-
ing fibres are derived from the sympathetic; and it has been
shown that they come from the lower part of the cervical, and
upper part of the dorsal, region of the cord. The iris in some
animals is directly susceptible to the action of light.
The pupil contracts under the influence — (i) of an increased
intensity of light; (2) of convergence of the two eyes, as in
accommodating for a near object; and (3) of such active sub-
stances as nicotine, morphia and physostigmine. It dilates under
the influence — (i) of a diminished intensity of light; (2) of
vision of distant objects; (3) of a strong excitation of any sensory
nerve; (4) of dyspnoea; and (5) of such substances as atropine
and hyoscyamine. The chief function of the iris is so to moderate
the amount of light entering the eye as to secure sharpness of
definition of the retinal image. This it accomplishes by (i) cut-
ting off the more divergent rays from near objects and (2) pre-
venting the error of spherical aberration by cutting off divergent
rays which would otherwise impinge near the margins of the lens,
and would thus be brought to a focus in front of the retina.
3. SPECIFIC INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE RETINA
The retina is the terminal organ of vision, and all the parts
in front of it arc optical arrangements for securing that an image
will be accurately focused upon it. The natural, so-called ade-
quate, stimulus of the retina is light. It is also excited by mechan-
ical and electrical stimuli. It is said that such stimuli applied to
the optic nerve behind the eye produce a luminous impression,
but the evidence on this point is not conclusive. Pressure or
electrical currents acting on the eyeball stimulate the retina and
cause the sensation of flashes of light (phosphcncs). The stimulus
acts primarily upon the rods and cones (ride supra Purkinje's
experiment), where it. sets up nervous impulses which traverse suc-
cessively the layers of the retina and the optic nerve fibres.
i. Adaptation. — We are all familiar with the experience that,
when we pass from a brightly-lighted room into a dimly-lighted
one, we are unable for a time to distinguish the objects in the
room. After a few minutes the brighter objects emerge and as
time goes on, more and more can be distinguished. This is due
to the fact that the sensitivity of the retina increases. It becomes
maximal after the eyes have been kept completely shaded from
all light for 30-40 minutes. This adaptation to dim light is called
dark adaptation. If the sensitivity is accurately measured by de-
termining the feeblest illumination which is capable of arousing
the visual sensation, it is found that the rise is very rapid dur-
ing the first 5 to 10 minutes and ultimately becomes many
thousand times greater than that of the eye adapted to strong
daylight illumination (light adaptation^).
If the spectrum produced by a very feeble illumination is
viewed by the dark adapted eye it is seen to be colourless. The
neutral grey band, however, varies in brightness, the brightest
part corresponding to about 530 juju, a part which under ordinary
illumination appears green. Vision under these conditions has
been called scotoptic or tivilight vision. If the illumination is in-
creased the eye rapidly becomes light adapted, and the colours
appear in the spectrum (photoptic vision). The brightest part of
the spectrum is then found to be about 580 ju/z in the yellow.
If in a similar manner one takes a monochromatic light, say in
the green or blue, and gradually increases the intensity from zero
there is a considerable range of intensity before the colour ap-
pears. This is called the photo chromatic interval, and it varies
according to the wave-length of the light. It is so small at the
red end of the spectrum that it is very difficult to prove its
existence.
204
VISION
The shift of brightness, which is so striking, from the green
region of the achromatic scotoptic spectrum to the yellow of the
chromatic photoplk spectrum manifests itself throughout the
spectrum. For instance, a red of 670 nn viewed under conditions
of light adaptation with moderate intensity of illumination may
be ten times as bright as a blue of 480 W whereas if the
illumination is decreased and the eye dark adapted there is a
reversal of the relative brightnesses, and the blue is now 16 times
as bright as the red. This phenomenon was discovered by Pur-
kin je, and is known as Pwkinje's phenomenon.
These are the changes which account for the difference in ap-
pearance of the colours in the landscape when twilight falls, or
at dawn. As the light fails the reds disappear first, and geraniums
and other red flowers look black, while violet and blue flowers
retain some colour and appear relatively brighter than in daylight.
Next, the greens fade away and the fields and hedges look grey.
The facts already mentioned suggest that vision under low
illumination is carried out by a mechanism which differs from
that of vision under higher illumination: and this view is sup-
ported by other facts.
Thus, we have seen that under ordinary illumination stimula-
tion of the central part of the retina, especially the fovea and
the surrounding macula lutea, gives rise to by far the most
acute visual impressions. The reverse is the case under dim
illumination and dark adaptation. The macular region becomes
the least sensitive, and is indeed "night blind." This fact was
discovered by astronomers long ago. If one looks directly at the
Pleiades only four or five stars can be seen, but if one fixes a
point a little to one side a number of weaker stars become visible.
One can easily see on any starlight night that any star becomes
unmistakably brighter if one looks at it slightly eccentrically.
The famous French astronomer, Arago, expressed the fact para-
doxically by saying that "in order to perceive a very dimly lighted
object it is necessary not to look at it."
This phenomenon has a very important bearing upon the pick-
ing up of lights at sea at night, as was shown by some experi-
ments of the late Prof. Gotch. Thus he found that "in the dark
adapted eye red light is recognized as red over an area whose
radius is three or four times that observed with green light ; yet
the red light is not seen at all outside this larger area. On the
other hand, green (or blue) light, whilst it is only recognizable as
green over the much more restricted central area, is seen as a
bright light of a dazzling white type over a very extensive area."
If the mechanism which subserves scotoptic vision is different
from that subserving photoptic the night blindness of the macular
region should afford some clue as to its nature. Now the macular
region is characterized by the absence of rods from the ncuro-
epithelium. It seems probable, therefore, that dim illumination
excites the rods but fails to excite the cones, and that it is only
when the intensity of the light is increased that the cones re-
spond. If this be so, then the rods are the organs of scotoptic and
the cones of photoptic vision. This is the so-called Duplicity
Theory. It is further supported by some facts of comparative
anatomy. In fact, it was first suggested by Schwalbe as the
result of observations on the eyes of nocturnal animals, such as
owls, which he found to have only rods in their retinae.
The rate at which the eyes become adapted to dim light varies
somewhat in normal people, and there are diseased conditions in
which it is very slow or almost absent. Such people are night-
blind. They are practically incapacitated in dull lights, and can-
not get about after dark. In one rare group the eyes appear to
be otherwise normal and the disease is transmitted from one
generation to another. The most famous and most extensive
pedigree of any diseased condition is that of some congenially
night-blind people in the Montpellier district in the south of
France. The pedigree was started by Cunier in 1838 and brought
up to date in 1907 by Nettleship. It consists of ten generations
of 2,121 persons, 135 of whom were night-blind. Much com-
moner is the night-blindness associated with the disease of the
retina called retinitis pigmentosa.
An interesting antithesis to night-blindness is found in the rare
cases of congenital total colour-blindness. As already mentioned,
for the normal sighted the colourless grey spectrum of scotoptic
vision becomes suffused with all the colours of the rainbow as
the intensity of the light is increased. For the totally colour-
blind, although the brightness increases under these conditions,
no colours are seen. Moreover, there is no shift of the maximum
brightness from the green to the yellow region of the spectrum,
such as occurs in the normal.
On the Duplicity theory the congenital night-blind may be re-
garded as having only cone vision, and the totally colour-blind
only rod vision. There are, however, difficulties in accepting this
simple explanation.
2. The Visual Purple. — The facts relating to dark adaptation
and the alteration in sensitivity of the retina on exposure to light
throw some glimmer of light on the fascinating question how the
physical stimulus is transformed into a physiological impulse
which gives rise to the visual sensation. The obvious analogy of
the photographic film predisposes one to the hypothesis that, the
radiant energy is absorbed by chemical substances in the retina,
the alteration in these substances causing a transformation of
energy into the physiological impulse — in other words, that the
first step in the process is photo-chemical.
In 1851 H. Muller found a remarkable purple substance in
the rods of the frog's retina which had been protected from the
influence of light. In 1876 Boll discovered that this substance
was bleached when exposed to light. Kuhne, in 1878 and the
succeeding years, investigated the substance exhaustively, and
it was shown that after bleaching it became regenerated if tho
eye was again protected from light, but only if the retina was
kept in contact with the still living or ''surviving" cells of the
retinal pigment epithelium. It would appear, therefore, that the
substance is formed — or at any rate certain necessary precursors
of the substance are formed — by the activity of the pigment cells,
and that it is then absorbed by the rods.
More minute investigation of the process of bleaching of this
so-called visual purple or rhodopsin has proved to be of great
theoretical interest. It is found that the rate of bleaching varies
with the nature of the light, so that if samples are bleached by
monochromatic light, of different wave-lengths the relative bleach-
ing values can be determined. The wave-length 530 MM is the
most active, the values falling off on each side. We have already
found that this wave-length is significant in another respect. It
is the brightest part of the achromatic scotoptic luminosity curve;
and if this curve is similarly plotted it is found that the
two curves are identical within the limits of experimental error.
It is impossible to resist the conclusion that so striking a coin-
cidence must have a very definite meaning, viz., that the stimula-
tion of the retina which gives rise to scotoptic vision is the result
of the bleaching of the visual purple.
We have seen that when the intensity of the light is increased
the eye becomes light adapted and the spectral colours appear;
further, that the brightest part shifts to the yellow. These facts
are less easily explained on the basis of a photo-chemical reaction
in the visual purple, although such an explanation is not impos-
sible. If the indications which give rise to the duplicity theory
are correct, photoptic vision is carried out by the cones. Kuhne
and most other observers have failed to find any evidence of
visual purple in the cones, and it is a striking fact that the part
of the retina which contains only cones, viz., the rod-free macular
area, is "night-blind," i.e., it shows little power of adaptation to
low illumination. Moreover, most observers agree that Purkinje's
phenomenon is absent when the stimuli are confined to the rod-
free area of the macula. The macular region, however, is not
completely irresponsive to adaptation. It may be that the cones
contain only a small amount of visual purple or that some more
complex reactions occur in it when strong light stimuli are ap-
plied. It is highly improbable that rod and cone responses are
fundamentally different in their mechanism. Both are doubtless
photo-chemical reactions, but the exact explanation has not yet
been satisfactorily elicited.
3. Electrical Changes. — Granted, however, that a photo-
chemical change is the first step in the production of the physi-
ological impulse, we are not much farther advanced in our knowl-
VISION
205
edge of that impulse. We know that nerve impulses in other
nerves, both motor nerves, the stimulation of which sets muscles in
activity, and other sensory nerves, such as those which subserve
touch, are accompanied by a change in electrical potential which
sets up electrial currents. These have been very thoroughly inves-
tigated by Keith Lucas and Adrian, who have proved that a stimu-
lus either produces no electrical response at all or else the maxi-
mum response — the so-called "all-or-none principle." Recently
Adrian has investigated the optic nerve of the conger eel in the
same manner, and has shown that so far as the electrical response
is concerned it agrees with thai of other nerves. So that we now
know something about the photo-chemical change and something
about the changes which occur in the optic nerve. Interposed
between them, however, is the very complex nervous mechanism
of the retina, and it was long ago shown by Holmgren that the
stimulus of light on the eye causes electrical changes of a com-
plex nature in the retina.
Holmgren, Dewar, M'Kendrick, Gotch and others, have shown
that when light falls on the retina it excites a variation of the
electrical current obtained from the eye when placed on the
cushions of a sensitive galvanometer. One electrode touches the
vertex of the cornea and the other the bark of the eyeball. The
corneal vertex is positive to the back of the eye, or to the trans-
verse section of the optic nerve. Consequently a current passes
through the galvanometer from the cornea to the back. Then
the impact of light causes an increase in the natural electrical
current — during the continuance of light the current diminishes
slowly and falls in amount even below what it was before the
impact — and the withdrawal of light is followed by a rebound, or
second increase, after which the current gradually returns to
normal.
It was also observed in these researches that the amount of elec-
trical variation produced by light of various intensities corresponded
pretty closely to the results expressed by Fechners law, which
regulates the relation between the stimulus and the sensational
effect in sensory impressions. This law is, that the sensational
effect does not increase proportionally to the stimulus, but as
the logarithm of the stimulus. Thus, supposing the stimulus to
be 10, 100 or 1,000 times increased, the sensational effect will not
be 10, 100 or 1,000 times, but only i, 2 and 3 times greater.
4. Regional Effects. — The retina is not equally excitable in all
its parts. At the entrance of the optic nerve, as was shown by
E. Mariotte in 1668, there is no sensibility to light. Hence, this
part of the retina is called the blind spot. If we shut the left eye.
fix the right eye on the cross seen in fig. 12, and move the book
towards and away from the eye, a position will be found when
the round spot disappears, that is, when its image falls on the en-
trance of the optic nerve. There is also complete insensibility
to colours at that spot. The diameter of the optic papilla is about
1-8 mm., equivalent to a visual angle of 6°; this angle deter-
mines the apparent size of the blind spot in the visual field, and
it is sufficiently large to cause a human figure to disappear at a
distance of two metres.
The yellow spot or macula lutca in the centre of the retina is
the most sensitive to light, and it is chiefly employed in direct
vision. Thus, if we fix the eye on a word
in the centre of this line, it is distinctly
and sharply seen, but the words towards
each end of the line arje vague. If we wish
to see each word distinctly, we "run the FlG ^.—DIAGRAM FOR
eye" along the line — that is, we bring sue- THE STUDY OF THE BUND
cessive words on the yellow spot. SPOT
5. Persistence of Retinal Impressions. — To excite the retina,
a feeble stimulus must act for a certain time; when the retina is
excited, the impression lasts after the cessation of the stimulus;
but if the stimulus be strong, it may be of very short duration.
Thus the duration of an electrical spark is extremely short, but
the impression on the retina is so powerful, and remains so long,
as to make the spark visible. If we rotate a disk having white
and black sectors we see continuous dark bands. Even if we paint
on the face of the disk a single large round red spot, and rotate
rapidly, a continuous red band may be observed. Here the im-
pressions of red on the same area of retina succeed each other so
rapidly that before one disappears another is superadded, the
result being a fusion of the successive impressions into one con-
tinuous sensation. This phenomenon is called the persistence of
retinal impressions. An impression lasts on the retina from ^
to ^ of a second. The cinematograph owes its effects to per-
sistence of retinal impressions.
The macular region is oval in shape, the vertical axis being
about i mm. and the horizontal 3 mm., corresponding to visual
angles of 4° and 12°. In the centre of it is a pit, the fovea cen-
trnlis, which is the point of most distinct vision. It is 0-3 mm. in
diameter, equal to a visual angle of i°, and in it the layers of the
retina are reduced to little but the neuroepit helium, which here
consists only of slender elongated cones. Around the fovea is a
rod-free area of about 0-8 mm. diameter, equal to a visual angle
of 3,°.
Visual acuity is sharpest at the point of fixation of the eye.
the image of which falls upon the fovea. Here two mathematical
points of light, such as two stars, can be discriminated as separate
points if they subtend a visual angle of about 50 seconds of arc.
This is equivalent to a retinal image of about 3-2/1, which is the
mean diameter of the foveal cones. Good visual acuity therefore
agrees with the theoretical resolving power of the eye as an optical
instrument and the fineness of grain of the recipient screen.
This is, however, not the maximum power of discrimination of
the eye, for contours, such as the appreciation of difference of
breadth of two bright lines, may be discriminated to about 10
seconds (=o-73jLi) or less. Contour discrimination is used in
physical measurements in the vernier. With binocular vision a
break in the contour separating white and black surfaces can be
discriminated if it subtends only 2 or 3 seconds of arc. The ex-
planation is to be found in the greater sensitivity to change or
difference in brightness of the parts of the diffusion circles which
are always formed. These account also for irradiation, whereby a
white square on a black background looks larger than the same
sized black square on a white background.
The field of vision around the point of fixation extends more
than 90° outwards, 70° downwards, 60° inwards and 50° upwards.
It is smaller for colours of ordinary intensities, but the colour
fields can be increased almost to the limits of the white field by
suitable increase in the intensity of the light. With ordinary
illumination and patches of coloured paper of 20 sq.mm. the blue
field is about. 10° smaller than the white, yellow rather smaller
than blue, red 20° smaller than white, and green smaller still. Most
colours change in hue as they pass from the fixation point towards
the periphery; but certain spectral colours can be found which
merely become paler or less saturated. These were called by Hess
invariable colours. With them the blue and yellow are comple-
mentary colours (vide infra), and have the same sized field; and
similarly the red and green.
6. Recurrent Vision and Flicker.— Not only is the response
to an instantaneous flash of light longer than the stimulus, but it is
often recurrent. In 187: C. A. Young noticed that when a dis-
charge from a powerful electric machine momentarily illuminates
a room the objects may be seen not once only, but two or even
three or four times in rapid succession, although the spark is single
and instantaneous. The stimulus gives rise to series of pulses of
sensation of diminishing intensity rapidly succeeding one another.
They have been specially studied by William McDougall and
others. The curves of sensation differ somewhat in time relations,
which accounts for the occasional sensations of colour derived
from pure black and white stimuli, as in Benham's top.
If the oscillations produced by intermittent stimulation arc not
sufficiently rapid to cause complete fusion, a sensation of flickering
is felt. If black and white sectors are rotated with gradually
increasing velocity there is first separate vision of the individual
sectors. This is followed by a peculiarly unpleasant coarse flicker-
ing, which passes into a fine tremulous appearance, after which
complete fusion occurs.
A large amount of work has been done upon flicker. Among
the earlier researches the work of an Eton schoolmaster, T. C.
Porter (1898) may be mentioned. With simple apparatus he
2o6
VISION
showed conclusively that what is called the critical frequency, i.e.,
the rate of alternation of two lights of different intensity at which
the sensation of flickering just disappears, is dependent entirely
upon the luminosities of the lights and is independent of their
colours or wave-lengths. This fact has been fully confirmed by
Ives and many other observers, and is accepted as the principle
of the flicker photometer. For obviously we have here an excel-
lent method of hctero-chromatic photometry. It is much easier to
say when flickering disappears than it is to say when two colours
of different hue reach the same brightness — the so-called equality
of brightness method. Moreover, each coloured light can be
separately flickered against a known white light.
7. Induction. — The sensitivity of an area of the retina which is
Stimulated by light is thereby altered, so that a second stimulus
applied to the same area docs not have the same effect as it other-
wise would have (successive contrast). Thus, if a square patch of
red paper lying on a grey background is viewed for a few seconds
and the gaze is then directed to a white surface a greenish patch
will appear on the white surface. It follows that the stimulation
with one colour makes the area less sensitive to that colour and
more sensitive to the complementary colour. In fact, if the retina
is stimulated with the purple light which is complementary to a
particular green wave-length of the spectrum and is then stimu-
lated with that green, an extremely vivid green — much greener
than is ever experienced by any other means — is seen.
If the eye is kept closed in a dark room the sensation is not that
of utter darkness, but a kind of very dark grey, due to what is
called "the intrinsic light of the retina." If now a bright patch is
looked at for a few seconds and the eyes then closed, an after-
image of the same brightness as the original presentation may be
seen, but is usually transitory (positive after-image). It is fol-
lowed, or entirely replaced by a negative after-image, which ap-
pears as a much blacker patch in the midst of the surrounding
grey. If the stimulus is coloured the positive after-image is of
the same, the negative of the complementary hue.
The effects of induction are not limited to the area of retina
Stimulated. The sensitivity of the surrounding areas, and especially
of those contiguous, are altered, and that in the opposite direction
to that of the area stimulated. Hence a white patch on a black
background looks brighter than when it is surrounded by grey,
and the black itself looks blacker than if there were no white patch.
Similarly, a red patch on a grey background causes the grey to
look greenish. These effects, from the physiological point of view,
are analogous to the reciprocal innervation of muscles which was
discovered by Sir Charles Sherrington. He found that when a
movement is made, C.R., with the arm or eyes, the muscles which,
when stimulated, cause the opposite movement are not merely pas-
sively relaxed but are actually inhibited, so that they become
slacker than usual.
It is clear that this reciprocal action of one area of retina upon
the neighbouring areas will facilitate the discrimination of con-
tours. It will, in fact, have the same practical effect as if the
retinal image were very much more sharply defined than it
really is.
4. SENSATIONS OF COLOUR
i. General Statement. — Colour (q.v.) is a special sensation
excited by the action on the retina of rays of light of a definite
wave-length. On the most likely hypothesis as to the pnysical
nature of light, colour depends on the rate of vibration of the
luminiferous aether, and white light is a compound of all the
colours in definite proportion. When a surface reflects solar light
into the eye without affecting this proportion, it is white, but if
it absorbs all the light so as to reflect nothing, it appears to be
black. If a body held between the eye and the sun transmits
light unchanged, and is transparent, it is colourless, but if trans-
lucent it is white. If the medium transmits or reflects some rays
and absorbs others, it is coloured. Thus, if a body absorbs ail
the rays of the spectrum but those which cause the sensation of
green, we say the body is green in colour; but this green can only
be perceived if the rays of light falling on the body contain rays
having the special rate of vibration required for this special
colour. The part played by the light illuminating the surface and
the way in which the colours of mixed pigments are produced are
discussed under COLOUR.
Every colour has three qualities: (i) hue, or tint, such as red,
green, violet; (2) degree of saturation, or purity, according to
the amount of white mixed with the tint, as when we recog-
nize a red or green as pale or deep; and (3) luminosity, or bright-
ness as when we designate the
tint of a red rose as dark or
bright. Two colours are said to be
identical when they are in agree-
ment as to these three qual-
ities.
FIG. 13. — DIAGRAM OF DOUBLE When we examine a spectrum,
SPECTRUM PARTIALLY SUPERPOSED we sce a series Of colours merg-
ing by insensible gradations the one into the other, thus: Red,
orange, yellow, green, blue and 'violet. These are termed simple
colours. If two or more coloured rays of the spectrum act simul-
taneously on the same spot of the retina, they may give rise to
sensations of mixed colours. These mixed colours are of two
kinds: (i) those which do not correspond to any colour in the
spectrum, such as purple and (2) those which do exist in the
spectrum. White may be produced by a mixture of two simple
colours, which arc then said to be complementary. Thus, red and
greenish blue, orange and cyanic blue, yellow and indigo blue, and
greenish yellow and violet all produce white. Purple is produced
by a mixture of red and violet, or red and bluish violet. ,
If we mix two simple colours not so far separated in the spec-
trum as the complementary colours, the mixed colour contains
more white as the interval between the colours employed is
greater, and if we mix two colours farther distant in the spec-
trum than the complementary colours, the mixture is whiter as
the interval is smaller.
2. Modes of Mixing Colour Sensations. — Various methods
have been adopted for studying the effect of mixing colours.
(a) By Superposing Parts of Two Spectra, fig. 13.
(b) By Method of Reflection. — Place a red wafer on b, in fig.
14, and a blue wafer on </, and so angle a small glass plate a
as to transmit to the eye a re-
flection of the blue wafer on d in
the same line as the rays trans-
mitted from the red wafer on b.
The sensation will be that of pur-
ple; and by using wafers of dif-
ferent colours, many experiments
may thus be performed.
(c) By Rotating Discs Which
Quickly Superpose on the Same
Area of Retina the Impressions of
Different Wave-lengths. — Such
discs may be constructed of card-
board, on which coloured sectors
are painted, representing dia-
grammatically the arrangement attributed to Sir Isaac Newton.
The angles of the sectors were thus given by him:
Red . . . .60° 45-5' Green .... 60° 45-5'
Orange. . . . 34° 105' Blue . . . ,54° 41'
Yellow . 54° 41' Indigo . . . .34° 10-5'
Violet .... 60° 45 5'
With sectors of such a size, grey will be produced on rotating
the disc rapidly. This method has been carried out with great
efficiency by the colour-top of J. Clerk-Maxwell. It is a flat top,
on the surface of which discs of various colours may be placed.
Dancer has added to it a method by which, even while the top is
rotating rapidly and the sensation of a mixed colour is strongly
perceived, the eye may be able to see the simple colours of which
it is composed. This is done by placing on the handle of the top,
a short distance above the coloured surface, a thin black disc,
perforated by holes of various size and pattern, and weighted a
little on one side. The disc vibrates to and fro rapidly, and breaks
the continuity of the colour impression; and thus the constituent
colours are readily seen.
FlG. 14. — DIAGRAM SHOWING LAM-
BERT'S METHOD OF MIXING SENSA-
TIONS OF COLOUR
VISION
207
3. The Laws of Colour Mixtures— The mixture of pure, i.e.,
spectral, colour stimuli has been exhaustively studied by Newton,
Grassmann, Clerk-Maxwell and many others, and has elicited
the fact that normal colour vision is trichromatic. Thus, if three
spectral hues are chosen, so far apart in the spectrum that neither
can be reproduced by admixture of the other two, every con-
ceivable light or light mixture gives rise to a sensation which can
be accurately matched by the sensation produced by the mixture
of suitable amounts of these three hues. The only exceptions to
this law are that brown and olive green cannot be so reproduced
without the assistance of successive contrast, which is equiva-
lent to a mixture with black. And further, although accurate
matches of hue are produced the hue produced by the admixture
of the three lights is generally less saturated, in other words, a
perfect match is only obtained by adding white to the comparison
light.
It is thus possible to obtain innumerable colour equations rep-
resenting accurately the results of such admixtures with a given
spectrum. Hence, various methods for representing colours geo-
metrically can be devised.
4. The Geometric Representation of Colours. — Colours
may be arranged in a linear series, as in thr solar spectrum. Each
point of the line corresponds to a determinate impression of
colour; the line is not a straight line, as regards luminous effect,
but is better represented by a curve, passing from the red to the
violet. This curve might be represented as a circle in the cir-
cumference of which the various colours might be placed, in
which case the complementary colours would be at the extrem-
ities of the same diameter. Sir Isaac Newton arranged the colours
in the form of a triangle, as shown in fig. 15. If we place three
of the spectral colours at three angles, thus — green, violet and
red — the sides of the triangle include the intermediate colours of
the spectrum, except purple.
The point S corresponds to white, consequently, from the inter-
section of the lines which join the complementary colours, the
straight lines from green to S, RS and VS represent the amount
of green, red and violet necessary to form white; the same holds
good for the complementary colours; for example, for blue and
red, the line SB = the amount of blue, and the line SR— the
amount of red required to form white. Again, any point, say M,
on the surface of the triangle, will represent a mixed colour, the
composition of which may be obtained by mixing the three funda-
mental colours in the proportions represented by the length of the
lines M to green, MV and MR. But the line VM passes on to
the yellow Y; we may then re-
place the red and green by the
yellow, in the proportion of the
length of the line MY, and mix
it with violet in the proportion of
SV. The same colour would
also be formed by mixing the
amount MY of yellow with MS
of white, or by the amount RM
of red with the amount MD of
greenish blue.
If measurements
GREEN
RED
PUKPL6
INDIGO
YlOLfT
FIG. 15.— GEOMETRICAL REPRESEN-
TATION OF fHE RELATIONS OF
COLOURS AS SHOWN BY NEWTON
The triangle shown is purely diagrammatic,
arc made with any given spectrum the general form of the curve is
triangular, the purples being strictly rectilinear. The lines from
red to green and from green to violet, however, will be curved
as in fig. 16.
The following list shows characteristic complementary colours,
with their wave-lengths (X) in millionths of a millimetre;
Red, X656. Blue-green, A4Q2.
Orange, X6o8. Blue, \4go.
Gold-yellow, X574. Blue, \482.
Yellow, \56;. Indigo-blue, X4&4.
Greenish yellow, \564. Violet, X433.
By combining colours at opposite ends of the spectrum, the effect
of the intermediate colours may be produced; but the lowest
and the highest, red and violet, cannot thus be formed. These
are therefore fundamental or primary colours, colours that cannot
be produced by the fusion of other colours. If now to red and
violet we add green, which has a rate of vibration about midway
between red and violet, we obtain a sensation of white. Red,
green and violet are therefore regarded as the three fundamental
colours.
5. Physiological Characters of Colours. — Colour physiologi-
cally is a sensation, and it therefore does not depend only on the
physical stimulus of light, but also on the part of the retina af-
49 60
62 53 54 66 56 5768
SHY PRESS)
FlG. 16. — COLOUR TRIANGLE; W. WHITE. R. RED, G. GREEN, B. BLUt
The numbers are those of an arbitrary scale of the spectrum of th» Are Light
(Abney & Watson)
fected. The power of distinguishing colours is greatest when they
fall on, or immediately around, the yellow spot, where the num-
ber of cones is greatest. In these regions more than two hundred
different tints of colour may be distinguished. As already men-
tioned, outside of this area lies a middle zone, where fewer tints
are perceived, mostly confined to shades of yellow and blue.
If intense coloured stimuli are employed, colours may be per-
ceived even to the margin of the periphery of the retina, but
with weak stimuli coloured objects may seem to be black, or dark
like shadows. In passing a colour from the periphery to the
centre of the yellow spot, remarkable changes in hue may be
observed. Orange is first grey, then yellow, and it only appears
as orange when it enters the zone sensitive to red. Purple and
bluish green are blue at the periphery, and only show the true
tint in the central region. Four tints have been found which do
not thus change: a red obtained by adding to the red of the spec-
trum a little blue (a purple), a yellow of 574-5 X, a green of 495 X
and a blue of 471 X.
The question now arises, How can we perceive differences in
colour? We might suppose a molecular vibration to be set up
in the nerve-endings synchronous with the undulations of the
luminifcrous aether, without any change in the chemical con-
stitution of the sensory surface, and we might suppose that where
various series of waves in the aether corresponding to different
colours act together, these may be fused together, or to interfere
so as to give rise to a vibration of modified form or rate that
corresponded in some way to the sensation. Or, to adopt another
line of thought, we might suppose that the effect of different rays
(rays differing in frequency of vibration and in physiological
effect) is to promote or retard chemical changes in the sensory
surface, "which again so affect the sensory nerves as to give rise
to differing states in the nerves and the nerve centres, with differ-
ing concomitant sensations." The former of these thoughts is
the foundation of the Young-Helmholtz theory, while the latter
is applicable to the theory of E. Hering.
6. The Young-Helmholtz Theory.— A theory widely ac-
cepted by physicists was first proposed by Thomas Young and
208
VISION
ROY
afterwards revived by Helmholtz. It is based on trichromatism of
normal colour vision and the assumption that three kinds of nerv-
ous elements exist in the retina, the excitation of which give re-
spectively sensations of red, green and violet. These may be re-
garded as fundamental sensations. Homogeneous light excites all
three, but with different intensities according to the length of the
wave. Thus long waves will excite most strongly fibres sensitive to
red, medium waves those sensitive to green, and short waves those
sensitive to violet. Fig. 17 shows diagrammatically the irritability
of the three sets of fibres. Helmholtz thus applies the theory :
1. Red excites strongly the fibres sensitive to red and feebly the
other two — sensation: Red.
2. Yello\y excites moderately the fibres sensitive to red and green,
feebly the violet— sensation : Yellow.
3. Green excites strongly the green, feebly the other two — sensa-
tion: Green.
4. Blue excites moderately the fibres sensitive to green and violet,
and feebly the red — sensation: Blue.
5. Violet excites strongly the fibres sensitive to violet, and feebly
the other two — sensation: Violet.
6. When the excitation is nearly equal for the three kinds of fibres,
then the sensation is White.
According to the Young-Helmholtz theory, there are three
fundamental colour sensations, red, green and violet, by the com-
bination of which all other col-
ours may be formed, and it is as-
sumed that there exist in the ret-
ina three kinds of nerve ele-
ments, each of which is specially
responsive to the stimulus of
waves of a certain frequency cor-
responding to one colour, and
much less so to waves of other
frequencies and other colours. If
waves corresponding to pure red
alone act on the retina, only the
corresponding nerve element for
red would be excited, and so with
green and violet. But if waves of
different frequencies are mixed
(corresponding to a mixture of
colours), then the nerve elements
will be set in action in proportion
to the amount and intensity of
the constituent excitant rays in the colour. Thus if all the nerve
elements were simultaneously set in action, the sensation is that of
white light; if that corresponding to red and green, the resultant
sensation will be orange or yellow ; if mainly the green and violet,
the sensation will be blue and indigo. No such nerve fibres or ele-
ments are known, but the theory is equally valid if the stimuli
affect three photo-chemical substances, etc.
Seeing that the Trichromatic theory or Three Components
theory, as the Young-Hclmholtz theory is better termed, depends
upon the trichromatism of normal colour vision it is clear that
the three so-called sensation curves can be deduced from colour
equations. This was first done by Clerk-Maxwell, and at. a later
date by Kcinig, an assistant of Helmholtz. They have since been
worked out by Abney by a different method, dependent upon the
fact that the brightness of the unanalysccl white light is equal to
the sum of the brightnesses of all the individual wave-lengths of
the spectrum. Abney 's curves are shown in fig. 18.
None of the curves extends at both ends to the limits of the
spectrum, as is demanded by the theoretical curves; but it must be
remembered that at the ends of the spectrum it is extremely dif-
ficult to make accurate matches, owing to the low luminosity.
7. The Opponent Colours Theory.— If one regards the spec-
trum psychologically and independent of any physical precon-
ceptions one notes that there are only four fundamentally unique
colour sensations, viz., red, yellow, green and blue. The inter-
mediate spectral colours partake of the nature of each of their
neighbours, e.g., orange, which manifestly arouses a sensation
reminiscent of both red and yellow; yellowish-green; greenish-
blue; etc. Violet to most people resembles blue mixed with a
tinge of red, and the purples outside the spectrum are all mixtures
R o
FIG. 17.— DIAGRAM SHOWING THE
IRRITABILITY OF THE THREE KINDS
OF RETINAL ELEMENTS
of red and blue or violet. From the psychological point of view,
therefore, there appear to be four, rather than three, fundamental
colours.
Moreover, these four are two pairs of complementary colours,
and may therefore be regarded as in some sense opposed to each
other. Psychologically, black is opposed to white, but whereas the
MOM ABNIY, "RKSEARCHCS IN COLOUR VISION" (LONGMANS GREEN ft CO.)
FlG. 18. — ABNEY'S R G ft B EQUAL AREA SENSATION CURVES
The sums of equal ordinates of the three curves at any point represent thai
sensation of the unanalysed white light
greys form a continuous series from white to black, no such con-
tinuous series links red with green, or yellow with blue.
The facts of induction — simultaneous and successive con-
trast— elicit the opponent effects of these pairs of toned or col-
oured and untoned or colourless sensations. On grounds of this
nature, Hering propounded his theory of colour vision, which
may be called the Opponent Colours theory. It is really a part
of a more general metabolic theory of physiological processes.
Hering hypothecates three different visual substances, white-black,
red-green, and yellow-blue substances, which exist somewhere in
the sub-cortical visual paths. He supposes that when a living sub-
stance is protected from external stimuli it undergoes spontaneous
autonomous metabolic changes. Some molecules break down or
undergo dissimilation (or katabolism), fresh ones are built up or
undergo assimilation (or anabolism). When the two processes
balance each other the substance is in a state of autonomous
equilibrium. It is to be noted that autonomous equilibrium does
not necessarily mean physiological inactivity. Fresh formative
matter may be brought from the blood in the exact quantity neces-
sary to replace the formed matter which is poured out into the
blood. If the substance is acted upon by an external stimulus
allonomous metabolic changes are set up. They may be either ana-
bolic or katabolic, but they induce a spontaneous tendency in the
opposite direction so as to reproduce autonomous equilibrium,
i.e., allonomous katabolism, for example, induces autonomous
anabolism. With constant stimulation the autonomous anabolism
becomes equal to the allonomous katabolism, and a new condition
of equilibrium at a lower potential is set up, which is called allono-
mous equilibrium. Upon removal of the stimulation autonomous
anabolism will prevail for a time until autonomous equilibrium is
again set up.
Hering supposes that when rays of a certain wave-length fall on
visual substances assumed to exist in the retina, katabolic changes
occur, while rays having other wave-lengths cause constructive or
anabolic changes. Suppose that in a red-green substance katabolic
and anabolic changes occur in equal amount, there may be no
sensation, but when waves of a certain wave-length or frequency
cause katabolic changes in excess, there will be a sensation of red,
while shorter waves and of greater frequency, by exciting ana-
bolic changes, will cause a sensation of green: and so on.
8. The Two Theories Compared.— Bering's theory accounts
satisfactorily for the formation of coloured after-images. Thus, if
we suppose the retina to be stimulated by red light, katabolism
takes place, and if the effect continues after withdrawal of the red
VISION
209
stimulus, we have a positive after-image. Then anabolic changes
occur under the influence of nutrition, and the effect is assisted by
the anabolic effect of shorter wave-lengths, with the result that the
negative after-image, green, is perceived. Perhaps the distinctive
feature of Bering's theory is that white is an independent sensa-
tion, and not the secondary result of a mixture of primary sensa-
tions, as held by the Young-Helmholtz view. The greatest diffi-
culty in the way of the acceptance of Hering's theory is with
reference to the sensation of black. Black is held to be due to
anabolic changes occurring in the white-black substance. Suppose
that anabolism and katabolism of the white-black substance are
in equilibrium, unaccompanied by stimulation of either the red-
green or the yellow-blue substances, we^nd that we have a sensa-
tion of darkness, but not one of intense blackness. This "dark-
ness" has still a certain amount of luminosity, and it has been
termed the "intrinsic light" of .the retina. Sensations of black
differing from this darkness may be readily experienced, as when
we expose the retina to bright sunshine for a few moments and
then close the eye. We then have a sensation of intense blackness,
which soon, however, is succeeded by the darkness of the "intrinsic
light." The various degrees of blackness, if it is truly a sensation,
are small compared with the degrees in the intensity of whiteness.
In the consideration of both theories changes in the cerebral
centres have not been taken into account, and of these we know
next to nothing.
It is, perhaps, natural that the three components theory has
always appealed most strongly to physicists, while physiologists
have in the past been inclined most to support the opponent
colours theory. The latter can be made to explain the facts of in-
duction; but, even though it is obviously founded largely upon
these facts, it has to be strained considerably to account for their
details. It does not, however, so satisfactorily explain the facts
of colour mixture. On the other hand, the Young-Helmholtz
theory accounts admirably for the facts of colour mixture, upon
which it was founded, whereas Hclmholtz had to resort to psycho-
logical illusions of "judgment" to make it account for the facts of
induction. As McDougall, however, has shown, it accounts quite
well for most of these facts also.
Space docs not permit of a description of the many other theories
of colour vision which have been brought forward. (See Parsons, An
Introduction to the Study o/ Colour Vision, 2nd cd., Cambridge, 1924).
9. Colour-blindness. — It has long been known that many per-
sons show peculiarities of colour vision distinguishing them from
the normal. The earliest reference in the literature is that of
Turberville in the Transactions of the Royal Society (1684). The
first case exhaustively studied was that of John Dalton, the
chemist, and colour-blindness was long known as "Daltonism."
Nearly all these people have difficulty in discriminating between
reds and greens and other colours at this end of the spectrum.
The most pronounced cases fall into two groups : in one vivid reds
are confused with dark greens; in the other greens are confused
with red, orange and yellow of more equivalent brightness.
In 1 88 1 Lord Rayleigh discovered that many people with ap-
parently normal colour vision require different amounts of red or
green in making colour matches. His crucial test was the match-
ing of the yellow of the sodium lime (589 MM) with a mixture of
lithium red (6 70 MM) and thallium green (527 MM). This is the test
used in Nagel's Anomaloscope.
All these varieties, and possibly some others, are of congenital
origin and incurable. The statistics are very unreliable, but the
grosser cases affect about 4% of males and 0-4% of females. The
disease is hereditary and generally transmitted through the female,
who is herself not usually affected.
Owing to the use of red, green and white lights for signalling on
railways, ships, etc., the elimination of the colour-blind from
candidates for posts of engine driver, navigating officers, and so on,
is of the utmost importance.
Defects of colour vision — acquired colour-blindness — occur in
various diseases of the visual apparatus, notably in toxic -amblyopia
produced by tobacco and other drugs. In these cases the defect
is often limited to the area around the fixation point — central
colour scotoma — and in all cases differs materially from congenital
colour-blindness.
A few cases of uniocular congenital colour-blindness have been
described, but none is sufficiently well authenticated to decide the
question as to exactly what are the sensations which the colour-
blind experience. We have no means of discovering the sensations
of other people except by comparison with our own responses
and inferences derived therefrom. We are all equipped with an
extensive vocabulary of colour names, and the colour-blind, guided
by shapes, variations in brightness, and other adventitious aid,
often call objects by their right colours. They never call a straw-
berry green, but they may have the greatest difficulty in finding the
strawberries on the plants, and they find it more economical to
use yellow pegs to tee their ball at golf than red ones. Hence, in
the investigation of the nature of the defect in any individual, little
credence is to be attached to the colour nomenclature they employ,
though the expert examiner will obtain some evidence from it. On
the other hand, in determining the fitness of sailors and railway
men colour naming is important, for a man who calls a red light
green is obviously unfit to be an engine driver.
One of the most efficient means of testing the sensations of
the colour-blind is to compare their matching of colours with that
of the normal person. Owing to the complexity of the light re-
flected from different coloured objects false deductions are easily
made if these are used. They will suffice to discover colour-
blindness in bad cases, but may fail to reveal it in others. Hence,
no examination is exhaustive unless spectral colours are cm-
ployed.
10. Dichromatic and Trichromatic Vision. — If a large
number of cases is examined in this .manner a group of very bad
cases can be segregated which have this common characteristic; —
Two monochromatic lights can be found such that, mixed in vari-
ous proportions, the mixtures will match every wave-length
throughout the spectrum and also the unanalysed white light. In
order to get perfect matches it will be necessary only to alter the
relative brightnesses of the pure and the mixed stimuli. In this
group two well-marked sub-groups can be distinguished, as was
discovered by Seebeck (1837). They differ in the proportions
of the two mixed lights which are required for the matches.
Since normal individuals jequire three colours to make such
matches, and are hence called trichromatic, these colour-blind
people are aptly called dichroinats. As much confusion has arisen
from the names applied to the two groups, we will temporarily
call them A and B.
Since white light can be matched by the dichromat with a
suitable mixture of two monochromatic lights, and since all
spectral colours can be matched by mixing the same two colours in
various proportions, it follows that there is some spectral colour
which will match white. This is called the neutral point of the di-
chromatic spectrum. In group A, it is at about 489/1^1, in group B
at about 500 MM: both neutral points are therefore in the bluish
green region of the spectrum. Since there is a purple, outside the
spectrum and composed of a suitable mixture of red and violet,
which is complementary to this green, it is obvious that there must
be a neutral point in the purples; and such is found to be
the case.
A further discovery of profound theoretical importance was
made by Seebeck, viz., that all colour equations valid for normal
vision are also valid for dichromatic vision, or colour matches
which are valid for the trichromatic are also valid for the dichro-
matic eye. Hence it follows that the dichromat possesses no
variable which the trichromat lacks, but lacks a variable which the
trichromat possesses. In other words, dichromatic vision is a
reduction form (von Kries) of normal vision, and not a funda-
mentally different kind of vision.
If the spectral matches of dichromats with mixtures of red (645
MM) and blue (461 MM) are plotted with the spectral wave-
lengths as abscissae and the amounts required (on an arbitrary
scale) as ordinates, it is found that no blue is required on the red
side of 530 MM (von Kries). The two groups are sharply dis-
tinguished. In the A group the red maximum is at 571 MM. and
falls rapidly towards the red end, showing the low stimulus value
for long-wave light. This is shown in many cases by an actual
2IO
VISION
inability to see the red end of the spectrum as seen by the normal
— shortening of the red end of the spectrum. In the B group the
red maximum is at 603 w and falls more slowly towards the
red end. Hence Rivers (1900) introduced the terms scoterythrous
and photerythrous to distinguish the A and B groups. It is un-
fortunate that these terms have not been generally adopted, since
they are purely descriptive and are independent of any theory. It
follows, and has been amply confirmed by experiment, that the
luminosity curve of the spectrum of the B group resembles
nearly that of the normal trichromat, whereas the maximum of
the luminosity curve of the A group is displaced towards the
green.
ii. Theories of Colour-blindness. — Most investigators of
colour-blindness have been imbued with some particular theory of
colour vision and have expressed their views in terms of the
theory. Thus, Helmholtz, deeply impressed by the fact that di-
chromatic vision is a reduction form of trichromatic and that tri-
chromatic colour equations are valid for the dichromats, con-
cluded that this form of colour-blindness could be explained by
the absence of one of the three components. The sensation curves
are usually denominated by the colour region of their maximum
effects — red, green and blue. Hence he concluded that in the A
group the red component was absent, in the B group the green. If
this were the case, there might theoretically be two other forms of
colour-blindness. In one the blue curve would be absent (C
group), and in the other all the three curves might be fused in a
central curve (D group). If such were the case, the C group
would have relatively normal colour reactions as regards the red
and green parts of the spectrum, but would confuse blues and yel-
lows. 'In the D group the individuals would merely have varying
sensations of brightness and no capacity for distinguishing colours
at all. Now, there is a well known group of people who are totally
colour-blind, and these fit in well with the theory. More recent re-
search tends to show that they cannot all, at any rate, be explained
in this manner. A relatively small number of cases has been
described which conform to the requirement of the C group.
It was, perhaps, natural that the three groups of partial colour-
blinds should be denominated red-blind, green-blind and blue-
blind by upholders of the Young-Helmholtz theory. It has, how-
ever, had the most disastrous results and has led to endless
ambiguity. For in the obvious meaning of the terms these people
are not red-, green- or blue-blind. They simply have different
responses from the normal when their retinae are stimulated with
these particular regions of the spectrum. The attempt of von Kries
to eliminate the ambiguity by calling the conditions protanopia,
deuteranopia and tritanopia failed in its object, and seems only
to have infuriated opponents of the Young-Helmholtz theory.
The explanation of the ordinary cases of partial colour-blind-
ness on the Hering theory is that both groups, A and B, are due
to absence of the red-green substance, the differences in the groups
being attributed to differences in macular pigmentation. It is
easy to prove that physical absorption by a pigment in the retina
could not account for the facts, and no satisfactory explanation
in terms of this theory has yet been brought forward.
There is? no doubt that wide variations in the degree of partial
colour-blindness occur, and the majority of the colour-blind
people cannot make perfect matches of monochromatic .spectral
hues with only two fundamental colours. In other words, they
are not completely dichromatic. Most fall into the category of
those discovered by Lord Rayleigh, but it is highly probable that
this group is really composite. They are obviously trichromatic,
but most of them show, on exhaustive examination reactions
which approximate them to one or other group of dichromats,
chiefly to group B. They also can be found to have no new vari-
able, and normal trichromatic matches are valid for them. They
can therefore be explained on the Young-Helmholtz theory on
the hypothesis that their responses to one or other of the funda-
mental components are less intense than normal; i.e., while two
of the sensation curves are normal, the third, either the "red"
or the "green" is abnormally low. These cases are aptly called
anomalous trichromats, and are sub-divided, in the terminology
of von Kries, into protanomalous and deuteranomalons.
Abney and Watson have described a group of anomalous tri-
chromats which differs fundamentally from all other cases of
colour-blindness described above, in that they are not a reduc-
tion form. All the comparatively small number of cases hitherto
investigated can be explained by a shift of the normal "green"
sensation curve 2 or 3^ towards the red end of the spectrum.
It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss the many
other theories of colour vision and their relation to colour-
blindness. The Young-Helmholtz theory has fulfilled the essen-
tial function of a scientific hypothesis in inspiring new modes of
investigation. Whether it be ultimately proved to embody the
fundamental truth or not it possesses the merit of having elicited
more knowledge on the subject than any other theory. Other
theories must be evaluated in the light of those facts.
12. Tests for Colour-blindness. — These should be considered
according to their aim, whether.it be that of denning accurately
the scientific nature of the type of colour-blindness, or merely to
determine whether the individual is suited for a particular occu-
pation. In most cases they are designed for the latter purpose,
but it cannot be too strongly insisted that, though many cases
of colour-blindness are easy to detect, others, which arc equally
dangerous, may need the most exhaustive investigation.
The matching of pigments in the form of coloured skeins of
wool (Holmgren's test), etc., will often reveal bad cases, and in
the hands of an expert examiner will raise suspicions in milder
cases which further tests will confirm. The prejudice against
Holmgren's wools is to some extent justified. Sailors object to »
test so "unpractical" and savouring of effeminacy. Moreover,
as already mentioned, pigments do not provide very satisfactory
test objects.
Lantern tests have found greater favour, but may easily prove
fallacious. The chief adventitious aid to the discrimination of
colours by the colour-blind is their relative brightness. Thus, if
a red light is shown amongst others to a member of group A, it
will appear to him very dull, and he will probably name it cor-
rectly. In the Board of Trade lantern this adventitious aid was
eliminated by making all the lights of the same luminosity. A
similar effect can be produced in the Edridge-Green lantern by
combining the coloured glasses with dimming glasses.
Selling's isochromatic plates are a useful rough test. Ishiwara's
are interesting in that they have designs which can be discrimi-
nated by the colour-blind but not by the normal.
Nagel's anomaloscope is a convenient method of applying Lord
Rayleigh's test. It is liable to give erroneous results with people
who are not accustomed to looking through a telescope.
In difficult cases — and there are many such — examination with
various spectral tests is necessary. These may fittingly begin by
the candidate delimiting with shutters the number of mono-
chromatic patches in the spectrum, as advocated by Edridge-
Green. More detailed tests by various spectral matches are best
carried out by a projection method, such as Abney's, which elimi-
nates the errors liable to arise with telescopic observation.
(X.; J. H. P.)
5. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EYE
i. General Statement.— The globe of the eye has a centre
of rotation, which is not exactly in the centre of the optic axis,
but a little behind it. On this centre it may move round axes of
rotation, of which there are three — an antero-posterior, a ver-
tical and a transverse. In normal vision, the two eyes are always
placed in such a manner as to be fixed on one point, called the
fixed point or the point of regard. A line passing from the centre
of rotation to the point of regard is called the line of regard. The
two lines of regard form an angle at the point of regard, and the
base is formed by a line passing from the one centre of rotation
to the other. A plane passing through both lines of regard is called
the plane of regard. With these definitions we can now describe
the movements of the eyeball, which are of three kinds: (i) First
position. The head is erect, and the line of regard is directed
towards the distant horizon. (2) Second position. This indicates
all the movements round the transverse and horizontal axes. When
the eye rotates round the first, the line of regard is displaced
VISION
211
above or below, and makes with a line indicating its former posi-
tion an angle termed by Helmholtz the angle of vertical displace-
ment, or the ascensional angle; and when it rotates round the
vertical axis, the line of regard is displaced from side to side,
forming with the median plane of the eye an angle called the
angle of lateral displacement. (3) Third order of positions. This
includes all those which the globe may assume in performing a
rotatory movement along with lateral or vertical displacements.
This movement of rotation is measured by the angle which the
plane of regard makes with the transverse plane, an angle termed
the angle of rotation or of torsion.
The two eyes move together as a system, so that we direct the
two lines of regard to the same point in space.
The eyeball is moved by six muscles, which are described in
the article EYE (Anatomy).
The term visual field is given to the area intercepted by the
extreme visual lines which pass through the centre of the pupil,
the amount of dilatation of which determines its size. It follows
the movements of the eye, and is displaced with it. Each point
in the visual field has a corresponding point on the retina, but
the portion, as already explained, which secures our attention is
that falling on the yellow spot.
2. Simple Vision with Two Eyes. — When we look at an
object with both eyes, having the optic axes parallel, its image
falls upon the two yellow spots, and it is seen as one object. If,
however, we displace one eyeball by pressing it with the finger,
then the image in the displaced eye does not fall on the yellow
spot, and we see two objects, one of them being less distinct
than the other. It is not necessary, however, in order to see a
single object with two eyes that the two images fall on the two
yellow spots; an object is always single if its image falls on
corresponding points in the two eyes.
The eye may rotate round three possible axes, a vertical, hori-
zontal and antero-posterior. These movements are effected by
four straight muscles and two oblique. The four straight muscles
arise from the back of the orbit, and pass forward to be inserted
into the front part of the eyeball, or its equator, if wo regard
the anterior and posterior ends of the globe as the poles. The
two obliques (one originating at the back of the orbit) come,
as it were, from the nasal side — the one goes above the eyeball,
the other below, while both are inserted into the eyeball on the
temporal side, the superior oblique above and the inferior oblique
below. The six muscles work in pairs. The internal and external
recti turn the eye round the vertical axis, so that the line of
vision is directed to the right, or left. The superior and inferior
recti rotate the eye round the horizontal axis, and thus the line
of vision is raised or lowered. The oblique muscles turn the eye
round an axis passing through the centre of the eye to the back
of the head, so that the superior oblique muscle lowers, while the
inferior oblique raises, the visual line. It was also shown by Helm-
holtz that the oblique muscles sometimes cause a slight rotation
of the eyeball round the visual axis itself. These movements are
under the control of the will up to a certain point, but there are
slighter movements that are altogether involuntary. Helmholtz
studied these slighter movements by a method first suggested by
F. C. Bonders. By this method the apparent position of after-
images produced by exhausting the retina, say with a red or green
object, was compared with that, of a line or fixed point gazed at
with a new position of the eyeball. The ocular spectra soon
vanish, but a quick observer can determine the coincidence of
lines with the spectra. After producing an after-image with the
head in the erect position, the head may be placed into any
inclined position, and if the attention is then fixed on a diagram
having vertical lines ruled upon it, it can easily be seen whether
the after-image coincides with these lines. As the after-image
must remain in the same position on the retina, it will be evident
that if it coincides with the vertical lines there must have been
a slight rotation of the eyeball. Such a coincidence always takes
place, and thus it is proved that there is an involuntary rotation.
This minute rotation enables us to judge more accurately of the
position of external objects.
3. The Horopter. — This is the locus of those points of space
which are projected on retinal points. While geometrically it
may be conceived as simple, as a matter of fact it is generally a
line of double curvature produced by the intersection of two
hyperboloids, or, in other words, it is a twisted cubic curve formed
by the intersection of two hyperboloids which have a common
generator. The curves pass through the nodal point of both eyes.
An infinite number of lines may be drawn from any point of
the horopter, so that the point may be seen as a single point,
and these lines lie on a cone of the second order, whose vertex
is the point. When we gaze at the horizon, the horopter is really
a horizontal plane passing through our feet. The horopter in
this instance is the ground on which we stand. Experiments show
"that the forms and the distances of these objects which are situ-
ated in, or very nearly in, the horopter, are perceived with a
greater degree of accuracy than the same forms and distances
would be when not situated in the horopter" (M'Kendrick, Life
of HclmholtZy 1899, p. 172 et seq.).
An object which is not found in the horopter, or, in other
words, does not form an image on corresponding points of the
retinae, is seen double. When the eyeballs are so acted upon
by their muscles as to secure images on non-corresponding points,
and consequently double vision, the condition is termed strabis-
mus, or squinting, of which there are several varieties treated of
in works on ophthalmic surgery. It is important to observe that
in the fusion of double images we must assume, not only the
correctness of the theory of corresponding points of the retina,
but also that there are corresponding points in the brain, at the
central ends of the optic fibres. Such fusion of images may occur
without consciousness — at all events, it is possible to imagine that
the cerebral effect (except as regards consciousness) would be
the same when a single object was placed before the two eyes,
in the proper position, whether the individual were conscious or
not. On the other hand, as we are habitually conscious of a
single image, there is a psychical tendency to fuse double images
when they are not too dissimilar.
4. Binocular Perception of Colour.— This may be studied as
follows. Take two No. 3 eye-pieces of a Hartnack's microscope,
or two eye-pieces of the same optical value from any microscope,
place one in front of each eye, direct them to a clear window in
daylight, keep them parallel, and two luminous fields will be
seen, one corresponding to each eye. Then converge the two eye-
pieces, until the two luminous circles cross, and the central part,
like a bi-convex lens, will appear clear and bright, while the outer
segments will be much less intense, and may appear even of a
dim grey colour. Here, evidently, the sensation is due to a fusion
of impressions in the brain. With a similar arrangement, blue
light may be admitted by the one eye-piece and red by the other;
and on the convergence of the two, a resultant colour, purple,
will be observed. This may be termed the binocular vision of
colours. It is remarkable that by a mental effort this sensation
of a compound colour may be decomposed into its constituents,
so that one eye will again see blue and the other red.
(X.;C. Go.)
6. VISUAL PERCEPTION
Visual impressions play a more important part than sensations
of any other mode in guiding our interpretations of the external
world and our orientation therein.
(a) Visual Perception of Movement.— Response to move-
ment is the most primitive of all visual reactions. An observer
may respond to visually presented movement, with only the
vaguest apprehension of the direction and extent of the move-
ment, and with no appreciation of the size, contours or colour
of the moving object.
The visual appreciation of movement probably depends pri-
marily upon the setting up of specific functional relationships
between two or more groups of retinal sensory elements. If a
retinal area is stimulated by a stationary point source, and there-
after a neighbouring area is similarly stimulated, and if the time
and space relations between the two stimuli are suitably arranged,
there results an impression, not of two stationary points, but of a
single point in motion.
212
VISION
Most of the other functions of vision, the "object" reference,
the localisation of objects, the attribution of size, contour and
distance may be regarded as in some way bound up with the
response to movement. In the course of development, however,
they come to have independent status.
(b) The "Object" Reference in Vision.— When we see any-
thing, normally a large number of visual impressions are involved.
These are synthesised, or integrated, treated as having some com-
mon origin, and referred to an external source which we call the
"object." There is no real explanation of this "object" reference
which appears to be inherent in visual response; it is bound up
with the ultimate "projident" character of all visual experience.
(c) Visual Localisation. — In general visual impressions are
interpreted as referring outward to some position in space. There
are three principal directions, the transverse, giving us breadth,
the vertical, giving us height, and the sagittal, giving us depth or
distance. Broadly speaking localisation in any of these directions
is possible only when the point or area localised has a background
out of which other points may be selected and used as points of
reference. Some of the data for such localisation are given by the
afferent sensations which arise as the eyes move from one point to
another over this background, or the lens is accommodated for
nearer or farther points in the field of view. Such movements and
accommodation are automatic and practically reflex; but if they
are to be made at all accurately there must be some retinal, or at
least visual, cue to them. Thus it is often assumed that for
each point or group of points of retinal stimulation there must be
a "local sign," by virtue of which any stimulus affecting them
is at once given a p>osition above or below, to the right or to the
left, and, in reference to some point of fixation, forward or back-
ward. Obviously this affords no explanation of visual localisation,
but is only a way of stating how fundamental is such "positional"
reference in vision.
A single luminous point exposed in a dark room can still to
some extent be localised. For all of such observations every adult
observer has a more or less definite preformed visual "scheme,"
and this may give him his necessary points of reference even
though the latter are not, strictly speaking, visually presented.
Monocular perception of depth, distance or solidity is in any
case exceedingly faulty. It is here that the development of binocu-
lar vision has its most important function. The data are given by
sensations of convergence and divergence of the two eyes, by
accommodation of the lens, and by the "local sign" system in rela-
tion to a point of fixation. For anything but fairly near distances,
however, it is accurate to speak of perception. Judgment then
comes into play, based upon all sorts of facts such as the clear-
ness of the atmosphere, the apparent size of objects, the nature of
intervening objects, the knowledge that we have already gained
in other ways as to the spatial characteristics of whatever is being
localised.
(d) Apparent Size in Vision.— For small objects apparent
size depends in part, though less than might be expected, upon
the size of the retinal image, as determined by the visual angle.
Accommodation factors come in also, and
normally contrast effects, derived from the
relation of the object to its surroundings,
are important. In the case of larger ob-
jects, eye movements may help to de-
termine apparent size, together with con-
trast effects, and with complex psychologi-
cal effects of the "schematic" order.
(e) Contour or Form Perception. —
Reaction to contour, or to form tends to become by far the most
striking and persistent function of developed vision. In fact nearly
all the common methods of measuring visual "acuity" applied to
the adult human subject are tests of the capacity to distinguish
the forms of objects. Usually this is held at bottom to rest upon
the power of the eye to discriminate two points of light as dis-
tinct one from the other. But as a matter of fact the response
to shape depends upon a most complex mass of physical, physio-
logical and psychological factors. Very important indeed in this
connection are the phenomena of simultaneous contrast by means
4-
\
Fl<5. 19. — THE
LYER ILLUSION
MULLER.
of which contours may be differentiated from the background
upon which they appear. Perception of form is an outstanding
illustration of how a complex biological function cannot be ex-
plained in terms simply of the various unitary reactions by the
combination of which it has been made possible.
(f ) Colour Perception. — Colour perception, like that of form,
is mainly a function of highly-developed and complex visual re-
sponse. The various theories which have
been put forward to account for the per-
ception of colour are discussed elsewhere,
but it should here be noted that in every-
day life our perception, or judgment, of
the colour of objects depends as much
upon representational as upon immediate
sensory effects. Thus snow may continue
to look white even when, from a purely
sensory point of view, it should be more
FIG. 20. — ZOLLNER-SFIG- red than other objects which are simul-
TAL.VERTICAL ILLUSION taneously seen as red.
(g) Optical Illusions. — An enormous literature has grown up
around the detailed investigation of optical illusions. Some of
the commonest are :
Of two equal horizontal lines, one terminated by arrow heads
and the other by feather heads, the second appears longer than
the first (fig. 19).
Of two equal lines, one vertical and the other horizontal, the
vertical appears the longer (fig. 20).
Two parallel lines may be made to appear to converge or
diverge by a series of short lines crossing the parallels at an acute
angle (fig. 21).
A filled distance appears longer than an equal unfilled distance.
There arc many other visual illusions of
form, direction, distance and movement.
No single explanation of them all is pos-
sible and perhaps the most valuable con-
clusion that can be drawn from their in-
vestigation is a further reinforcement of
the truth that visual perception is a highly
FIG. 21. — THE HORIZON- complex integration, many of the proper-
URE ties of which it is wholly impossible to
state in terms of the relatively simple physiological mechanisms
out of whose combination it has developed.
See also J. H. Parsons: Introduction to the Theory of Perception
(Cambridge, 1927), which contains numerous footnote references to
the relevant literature. (F. C. BA.)
7. ERRORS OF REFRACTION AND ACCOMMODATION
The following is a classification of errors of refraction from the
medical point of view (see also EYE) :
a. Errors of refraction —
Hypermetropia, Myopia, Astigmatism, Anisometropia, Aphakia.
b. Failure of accommodation —
Presbyopia,
Paralysis of Accommodation due to
Drugs (Atropine and its derivatives) ;
Toxic Diseases —
Diphtheria, Encephalitis, Lethargica, etc.
The eye as an optical apparatus is very much like a camera
obscura, consisting of a lens system and a sensitive screen, the
retina, upon which an inverted image of an object may be formed.
The length of the eye is roughly 23 mm., which means that the
retina is placed about 23 mm. behind the anterior surface of the
cornea. Parallel rays entering the eye come to a focus upon the
retina, so that the eye, at rest, is focused for infinity, and
the retina is placed at the principal focus of the lens system of
the eye : thus an object placed at infinity will cause an image to be
formed upon the retina.
In optics the path of rays is reversible, so that, in the case
of the eye, an object at infinity will give an image upon the
retina, and an object upon the retina will give an image at infinity.
These two points are called conjugate foci, and infinity is spoken
of as the punctum remotum of the eye. Such an eye is called an
emmetropic eye.
VISION
213
allel rays to come to a focus upon the
rell"tt- £• Poiition of punctum re-
motum of the Myopic eye. G. Concave
,ens enabling parallel rays to focus
upon the retina. H. simple lens sy$-
Not allveyes are exactly 23 mm. in length, but in all eyes the
power of the refractive apparatus is roughly the same. The result
is that if the eye be shorter than usual the image will fall behind
the retina, and a condition of hypermetropia is said to exist, and
when the eye exceeds 23 mm. in length, the image is formed in
front of the retina and a condition of myopia is the result.
1. Hypermetropia (Hyperopia, Far Sight).— This is the
form of ametropia in which, with the accommodation at rest, par-
allel rays come to a focus be-
hind the retina. The result is that
the retina cuts the point of rays,
before the focus is reached, and
as a result an indistinct image is
formed.
In emmetropia the retina is
placed at the principal focus of
the lens system of the eye, in
hypermetropia it is placed nearer
to the lens system than its prin-
cipal focus. Compare this with
the formation of an image by
a simple convex lens If an A Emmetr.pio'6ey" wlth p.rallel
Object, be placed at the prill- rays coming to a foous upon the retina.
Cipal focus Of the lens an image B- Hypermetropic eye showing how
is formed at infinity, a condi- %£*£»£? V%tt-I3"it
tion Comparable tO emmetropia, punctum remotum In Hypermetropia.
but if the object is placed nearer D My°P|c •*•• «howin0 how parallel
to the lens than its principal fo-
CUS the rays will be divergent as
they leave the lens and so will
J f . f
never come to a focus to form an
image: they will have been made
to appear to diverge from a sec-
ond point on the same Side of the hypermetropia. F. Position of punc-
lens as the object so that there *""» remotum
will be formed a virtual image, a condition comparable to the one
of a convex lens as a single magnifying glass. This means
that rays proceeding from an object upon the retina of a hyper-
metropic eye will leave the eye in a divergent direction so that they
appear to originate at a point behind the eye, the conjugate focus
of the retina, the punctum remotum, whose distance behind the
eye will vary inversely with the length of the eye. So that rays
may conic to a focus upon the retina of the eye, they must diverge
from or converge towards the punctum remotum of the eye and
it will be seen that only convergent rays can come to a focus upon
the retina of the hypcrmetropic eye. Convergent rays do not
occur in nature, so that one who suffers from hypermetropia is
unable to receive a sharp image of any object in space when the
eye is at rest.
2. The Correction and Measure for Hypermetropia. — A
convex lens has the power of rendering parallel rays convergent so
that an image is formed at the principal focus (q.v.). In ophthal-
mology lenses are considered, not in relation to the curvature of
their surface, but to their focal length. A lens which causes paral-
lel rays to come to a focus at a distance of one metre, is said to
have a focal power of one dioptre, and this is the standard adopted.
Thus a lens which has a focal power of two dioptres has twice the
power of a one dioptre lens, and so will have a focal length of half
a metre. (See OPHTHALMOLOGY.)
To relieve the condition of hypermetropia parallel rays before
they reach the eye must be rendered convergent so that they will
come to a focus at the punctum remotum of the eye. If there-
fore a convex lens is placed close to the cornea so that its principal
focus coincides with the punctum remotum of the eye, then
parallel rays will come to a focus upon the retina. The dioptric
value of the lens that fulfills this condition is the measure of the
hypermetropia and an eye is spoken of as having 2 or 3 dioptres
of hypermetropia as the case may be.
3. Visual Disturbances Produced by Hypermetropia.—
From an earlier paragraph it might be inferred that the hyper-
metropic individual was only able to see distinctly with a correcting
lens. This of course is contrary to usual experience*, and it will
be noted that only the condition of the eye at rest was referred to
— what is known as the static refraction of the eye.
The eye possesses the power of altering its focus so that an
emmetropic eye can see perfectly well in the distance when in a
condition of static refraction, and may also see small objects quite
near at hand by making a suitable effort. This is known as the
accommodation of the eye for distance. This is brought about by
an alteration in the crystalline lens and is equivalent to the addi-
tion of a convex to the eye: consequently the eye has the power of
correcting hypermetropia by an effort of accommodation. Thus it
is that the inconveniences of hypermetropia are not only depend-
ent upon the inherent defect of its optical apparatus but also
upon the extra strain placed upon the muscular effort needed to
focus the eye.
If the amount of hypermetropia is very high, it will be found
that both distant and near vision is imperfect, and often the
possessor suffers little other disability because any effort to cor-
rect the error is of little use and so no attempt is made. In the
lesser degrees, an effort is made, often with success, so as to give
quite acute distant and near vision. In youth, when the power of
accommodation is ample (vide Presbyopia) the complaint is not
so much of indistinct vision as of pain in the forehead and eye,
due to the excessive strain upon the function of accommodation,
and often it is only upon enquiry that the information is obtained
that print held at the ordinary reading distance occasionally blurs,
especially as the day progresses, and the muscle of accommodation
tires.
These symptoms are collected together under the name of
accommodative asthenopia.
4. The Treatment of Hypermetropia. — This consists essen-
tially of ordering suitable spectacles with convex lenses which are
the measure of the defect. It may be found to be the case that it
is necessary to paralyse the accommodation with either atropine
or homatropinc, so that the whole of the hypermetropia may be
discovered. This is often necessary because the sufferer has be-
come so accustomed to a continuous effort for accommodation
that he is unable to relax this effort, even when convex lenses are
placed before the eyes. As a result glasses that correct only a
part of the hypermetropia may be prescribed. In children, glasses
are often prescribed for constant use, whereas in adults, pro-
vided the distant vision is good with the naked eye, the spectacles
are only needed for near work.
5. Myopia. — This is the form of ametropia in which with the
accommodation at rest, parallel rays come to a focus in front of
the retina. The result is that the retina cuts the parallel rays be-
fore a focus is reached and so an indistinct image is formed.
Compare this with the formation of an image by a simple con-
vex lens. Myopia is similar to the arrangement of an object placed
further from the lens than its principal focus (but less than twice
that distance). The image in this circumstance is formed upon
the other side of the lens, inverted and real, nearer to the lens
than infinity. Thus an object upon the retina of a myopic eye
gives rise to a real inverted image in front of the eye at a distance
less than infinity: this point is the punctum remotum of the
myopic eye and is conjugate to the retina. It is seen that only
divergent rays can come to a focus upon the retina and that with
the accommodation at rest, only objects placed at the punctum
remotum can be seen clearly.
6. The Correction and Measure of 'Myopia. — A concave
lens has the power of rendering parallel rays divergent so that a
virtual image is formed on the principal focus. In dealing with
the correction for Hypermetropia the measure dioptre has been
explained.
To relieve the condition of myopia, parallel rays before they
reach the eye must be rendered divergent so that they appear to
come from the punctum remotum of the eye. If therefore a con-
vex lens is placed close to the cornea so that its principal focus
coincides with the punctum remotum of the eye, the parallel rays
will come to a focus upon the retina, and the lens is the measure
in dioptres of the myopia.
7. Visual Disturbances Produced by Myopia. — Hyperme-.
tropia need not necessarily rcdlice the acuity for distant vision,
214
VISION
but the smallest amount of myopia will always cause a reduction.
The defect is revealed therefore by an inability to see distant
objects, and in children a difficulty in seeing writing upon the
black-board. There is however no difficulty with near vision pro-
vided the object is held at the punctual remotum of the eye.
Jn low degrees the only disability will be a reduction of distant
visual acuity, but in the high degrees there will be difficulty in
maintaining clear vision at close range owing to the amount of con-
vergence that must be used to obtain simultaneous vision with
each eye. In the high degrees of myopia, vision after correction
with a suitable glass is often lower than standard, owing to the
stretching of the retina which frequently leads to various diseased
conditions causing serious loss of sight.
8. Development and Course of Myopia. — Myopia is almost
exclusively an acquired condition, in contrast to hypermetropia,
which is congenital. The eye has usually fully developed by the
tenth year when it should be practically emmetropic. It is be-
tween ten and twelve years that so many cases of myopia arise.
The proportion of patients that are myopic increases gradually
until the twentieth year, by which time above 20 per cent, of
the population are myopic, a figure that remains constant for all
ages, so that at the seventy-fifth year the number of patients that
suffer from myopia is still 20 per cent.
In the towns, myopia is more common than in the country, and
the prevalence of myopia among those who use their eyes for near
objects (scholars, embroiderers, tailors, compositors) lends weight
to the view that myopia is due to the strain imposed upon the
eyes by such occupations. It is however doubtful if the use of
the eyes for near work is the cause of myopia, although the eyes
that are already myopic are affected adversely by occupations
needing the use of the eyes at a close range.
9. Treatment of Myopia. — This consists essentially in order-
ing suitable spectacles with concave lenses which are the measure
of the defect. Care must be exercised lest a lens be prescribed
of higher dioptric value than that which corrects the myopia;
consequently the weakest lenses that give the highest visual
acuity are given to the patient, and he is encouraged to use them
constantly, as the correction that renders the eye as physiologi-
cally perfect as is possible is the chief means available for holding
in check the increase of myopia.
10. Astigmatism. — Simple hypermetropia and myopia are
due, as we have seen, to a disproportion between the dioptric value
of the refracting media and the length of the eye, and since the
dioptric value of the eye in either state is the same, these errors
are due to an undue shortness or length of the eye.
An error may presumably be due to some fault in the refract-
ing media, either abnormal curvative or index of refraction, and
there is one common error of refraction due to a curvature defect
called astigmatism. In this condition the radius of curvature of
the cornea is not the same in all meridians and consequently rays
of light entering the eye in one meridian will not come to a focus
at the same plane as rays entering in some other meridian, and
the result is defective vision owing to the blurred image formed
upon the retina. This error differs essentially from simple hyi>er-
metropia or myopia in which the refracting surfaces focus rays
of light equally in all meridians, constituting spherical errors.
11. Visual Disturbances Produced by Astigmatism. — In
all forms of astigmatism the visual acuity is reduced, and when
associated with a spherical error the reduction is greater. Vrhen
testing the visual acuity by test types certain letters are confused,
namely, those whose constituent parts are formed of lines inclined
to one another such as Z, X, M, N; and if a system of lines
radiating from a common centre be used as a test object, certain
of the lines will appear more sharply in focus than others. It
will be noticed that the most sharply denned line and the least
sharply defined are at. right angles one to the other. This form
of astigmatism, which is called regular astigmatism, is the only
form which may be satisfactorily corrected by lenses; astigmatism
produced by disease of the cornea is always irregular and can
only be partially corrected by spectacles.
12. The Correction and Measure of Astigmatism. — This
consists essentially in placing before the eye another astigmatic
refracting medium which ;if properly chosen and adjusted will
neutralize the distortion produced by the astigmatic surface of
the eye. Such a correcting glass contains a cylinder combined or
not with a spherical lens. The measure of the astigmatism is the
difference between the dioptric value of the lens which corrects the
axis of least and that which corrects the axis of greatest ametropia;
thus if a+2 D spherical lens corrects the axis of least and a+4 D
spherical lens corrects the axis of greatest ametropia, the eye is
said to suffer from 2 D of astigmatism.
13. Anisometropia. — This is the condition in which there is a
marked difference in the refraction of the two eyes, although
theoretically the term should apply to the slightest difference. It
has been shown that we cannot, by a voluntary effort, overcome
a difference in refraction between the two eyes of more than -12 D.
When two eyes, with a similar static refraction, are accommodated
for an object held mid-way between the two eyes, no difference
in accommodation is necessary in the two eyes to produce equally
sharp images upon the retinae, but when the object is held to one
side at a near range, an equal amount of accommodation in each
eye will not produce equally sharp images in the two eyes. It will
thus be seen that in a given case, of anisometropia an object held
in the raid line between the two eyes will not produce sharp images
in each eye when equal degrees of accommodation arc exerted in
the two eyes.
It is found that the eye which is properly focused is the one
which requires the less accommodative effort for the distance
at which the object is held, so that when one eye is myopic, anoV
the other emmetropic, the myopic eye is correctly focused and
so on.
14. Aphakia. — This is an error of refraction produced by ab-
sence of the crystalline lens from its usual position behind the
pupil, and it is the condition regularly produced by the operation
for removal of a cataract. The result is that the eye has lost one of
its most important refracting media and so is rendered highly
hypermetropic.
The condition is corrected by the use of a high power convex
lens, often as high as +11 or 12 D.
Owing to the absence of the lens the eye is deprived of all
power of focusing for distances; it has lost its function of
accommodation.
15. Presbyopia. — It is a matter of common experience that an
eye is capable of focusing itself for a variety of distances from
infinity to within a short distance of the eye (at least in young
individuals) and this function is spoken of as that of accommoda-
tion for distances.
This power of accommodation varies with age and is found to
diminish as the individual grows older, starting in quite early
life. Thus at TO years of age, 14 D can be added to the intra-
ocular lens by an extreme effort of accommodation whereas by
the age of 20 years, this is reduced to 10 D, by 30 years to 7 D,
and by 40 years to 4.5 D. By 45 years of age, the amount that can
be added is only 3-5 D, which means that in the emmetropic
individual clear vision for small objects is only possible at 28 cm.
When in these circumstances the nearest point for which the eye
can accommodate has receded to 28 cm., the eye is said to suffer
from presbyopia.
We usually hold small objects such as printed letters at 25 cm.,
and books are printed with letters of such a size that they are
capable of being read comfortably at about 25 cm.; the conse-
quence is that the presbyopic individual has to hold his book at
28 cm. which makes reading difficult, and in the evening when he
is tired, and the illumination is less good, reading becomes very
difficult. As this change is progressive, it is found that all power
of accommodation for practical purposes has been lost by 70
years of age. To read comfortably at 25 cm. it is necessary to
possess not only 4 D of accommodation, but a minimum of re-
serve of 0-5 D, and we therefore aim to give the sufferer a lens
of such a strength that together with his own power of accommo-
dation the total amounts to 4-5 D. Thus in an emmetropic indi-
vidual of 45, with 3-5 D of accommodation, the prescription of a
spectacle containing a + i D lens will bring the total up to 4-5 D,
and the nearest point for which he can focus to 22 cm. (C. Go.)
VISIT AND SEARCH— VISTULA
215
VISIT AND SEARCH, a term for the procedure adopted by
a belligerent warship to ascertain whether a vessel is enemy or
neutral, and if neutral whether it is carrying contraband. If upon
visitation the vessel proves to be the former she may be seized and
sent into a port of the belligerent; if the latter, the visiting officer
first examines the ship's papers and if these upon examination
prove unsatisfactory, he may then proceed to search both vessel
and cargo. If the vessel has been guilty of unneutral conduct, if
bound for a blockaded port, or if the cargo is contraband, the neu-
tral vessel may also be seized and sent into a port of the belliger-
ent; if innocent she must be released, the fact of visitation being
previously entered in her log book. If the court is satisfied that the
capture has been made without probable cause, the captor is held
responsible in damages and costs, and even if there was probable
cause he may be held liable for any loss or damage due to his de-
fault or that of his subordinates. Owing to the size of modern ves-
sels and the danger from submarine attacks, it is often impracti-
cable to carry out search at sea and even visit is not always at-
tempted. In the World War British and Allied commanders
directed their captures to proceed to designated ports. If resistance
to visit and search is made by an enemy or neutral vessel, it may be
attacked and even destroyed by the belligerent. By Art. 63 of the
Declaration of London "Forcible resistance to the legitimate ex-
ercise of the right of stoppage, search and capture involves in all
cases the condemnation of the vessel. The cargo is liable to the
same treatment as the cargo of an enemy vessel. Goods belonging
to the master or owner of the vessel are treated as enemy goods/'
It has been suggested that passports or certificates issued by the
authorities of the neutral vessel's State, certifying its nationality
and destination, and containing a specification of the cargo would
"afford such reasonable guarantees as to cause the exercise of the
belligerent right of search to sink into a much-desired desuetude."
(See NEUTRALITY.) (H. H. L. B.)
The instruction for the U.S. navy issued in June 191 7, stated: —
"42. The belligerent right of visit and search may be exercised outside
of neutral jurisdiction upon private vessels, unless under convoy, after
the beginning of war in order to determine their nationality, the port
of destination and departure, the character of their cargo, the nature
of their employment, or other facts which bear on their relation to the
war."
Visit and search may be carried out on the high seas or in belliger-
ent waters. Before proceeding to visit and search the vessel should
be summoned to stop and to lie to. When the vessel has come to,
an officer and two unarmed men usually constitute the visiting
party and the instructions of many States prescribe tnat the
visit and search shall be carried out with courtesy. The ship's
papers are first examined and if suspicious or defective the ves-
sel may be seized or further investigation may be made. If a
vessel does not come to when summoned, force may be used.
Some States exempt from visit and search neutral vessels under
neutral convoy. The right of visit and search continues during the
whole period of the war even during an armistice unless otherwise
specifically provided. (See NEUTRALITY.) (G. G. W.)
VISITATION, an act of visiting, a formal visit; also, from
Biblical phraseology, an act of divine retributive justice.
There are three classes of official visitations: ecclesiastical,
charitable and heraldic. Ecclesiastical visitations, originally the
periodical journeys of personal inspections to ascertain the
temporal and spiritual condition of each parish, form part of the
functions of an archbishop, bishop, or archdeacon.
In Great Britain, all charitable corporations are at law subject
to visitation. If no visitor has been appointed by the founder,
the king or his representative is the visitor of all lay, and the
Church of all ecclesiastical charitable corporations. Under the
Charitable Trust Acts and the Endowed Schools Acts, the board
of charity commissioners and the board of education have certain
visitorial powers.
Heraldic visitations (which ceased about 1686) were perambu-
lations made by a king-at-arms, or other heraldic official with a
commission under the Great Seal, to examine into pedigrees and
claims to bear arms. The results of these visitations were entered
in "visitation books"; their admissibility as judicial evidence,
however, is questioned, on the ground that they merely contain
statements obtained from the families to whom they refer (cf.
D'Arcy de Knayth case, 1901).
VISITING CARDS, The use of cards of identification for
social purposes is generally supposed to have had its origin at the
court of Louis XIV. nf France. But in a ruder form, this mark
of intercourse dates from much earlier times; the Chinese in
bygone ages employed such mediums of communication on calling
at the houses of absent friends. They were used in Germany as
early as the i6th century. Strips of paper were first employed
for the purpose; but gradually they attained a more elaborate
finish. Ladies seem to have been the pioneers in this direction, and
to have embellished their cards with hand drawings. Under Louis
XV. visiting cards were furnished with delicate engravings, show-
ing some fanciful landscape, or a view of the town or place where
the person resided.
VISOKO, a town of Bosnia, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921) 4,062.
It is connected by rail with Sarajevo, and has a brisk trade in
leather, carpets, sugar beet and tobacco. Between the i6th and
i7th centuries it was second only to Jajce as a stronghold of the
Bosnian rulers.
VISTULA, a river of Europe, which rising in Czechoslovakia,
runs through Poland, along the frontier of East Prussia, and de-
bouches through the territory of the Free City of Danzig. Its situ-
ation fits it to be a waterway of the first importance, although it is
liable to floods and frozen over for three months in the year. It
must be made navigable for river-craft at their full capacity during
a sufficiently long period of the year; and must be open to inter-
national shipping on a footing of equality. At present it is navig-
able up to Przemsza, but there is no regular traffic above Warsaw,
although it is largely used for timber-floating.
Before the World War conservancy works had only been
carried out on the German part of the river, 222 km. in length;
spur and longitudinal dykes were built to maintain the water level,
thereby facilitating the flow of water at flood-time and also im-
proving navigability. Since the War Poland has been too occupied
to carry out improvement works, or even much in the way of up-
keep. Traffic has greatly decreased.
Under Article 18 of the Treaty concluded at Versailles on June
28, 1919, between Poland and the Allied and Associated Powers
(the so-called ''Minorities Treaty") Poland undertook to apply
to the river system of the Vistula (including the Bug and the
Narew), pending the conclusion of a general convention on the
international regime of waterways, the regime set out in Articles
332-337 of the Treaty of Versailles, that is to say, the regime
applicable to International Waterways.
Serious differences of opinion arose as to the interpretation of
the legal status of the Vistula. It has been asserted that Article
1 8 should be held to provide for the possibility of the Vistula
being subject to the regime of the Barcelona Convention (see
INLAND WATER TRANSPORT), once that Convention has been rati-
fied by Poland, and should the Vistula come under the general
definition contained in the said Convention. But those who urge
this theory do not consider that the Vistula comes under this defini-
tion, since the criterion therein accepted is that the part of the
river which is naturally navigable should traverse or separate
several States. As the right bank of the Vistula in Eastern Prussia
has been given to Poland to a depth of 50 metres in land, Germany
is not a riparian State; and the Free City of Danzig should not in
law be considered as a State.
On the other hand it has been urged that the words "pending
the conclusion" mean that the regime of Articles 332 to 337 will
be automatically superseded by the regime of the General Con-
vention as soon as the latter has been concluded, and this regard-
less of the fact whether the Vistula will, or will not, eventually
come under whatever general definition is established by the Gen-
eral Convention given in the said Convention. Those who put
forward this second argument assert that the Minorities Treaty
certainly did not contemplate a temporary international regime for
the Vistula, since such an arrangement would have been contrary
to all ideas of an international regime. They maintain that, if it
is to the interest of international shipping to have certain guaran-
216
VISTULA-SAN—VISUAL EDUCATION
tees of freedom of navigation and equality of treatment, that in-
terest does not cease with the conclusion of an international con-
vention. Further, they are of opinion that the Vistula is included in
the category of navigable waterways referred to in paragraph 2 of
Article i of the Barcelona Statute. A solution to this acute legal
controversy will hardly be found unless the dispute becomes an
inter-State one and comes before the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice.
See Vistula: Trait i des MinoriUs entre les principals Puissances
allttes et assocites et la Pologne du 28 juin, 1919 (Great Britain, Treaty
Series, 1919, No. 8). (J. M. F. R.)
VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES OF THE. The middle of
Sept. 1914 marked a distinct stage in the World War, both in the
western and eastern theatres. The victories over Samsonov and
Rennenkampf in East Prussia (see MASURIA, BATTLES IN) had
rendered that province secure from invasion for some time, but
these battle-fields were too far distant from Galicia for success
to bring relief to the Austrians. Direct assistance was required.
Accordingly, 5^ corps, the bulk of the forces in East Prussia, were
transferred by rail to the Cracow-Cz^stochowa area in the latter
half of September.
This move required some 750 trains and was completed be-
tween the night of Sept. 16-17, when the troops began to entrain
about Konigsberg and Lotzen, and Sept. 28, when they were de-
ployed on the frontier of south Poland ready to advance. They
were formed into the gth Army under Hindenburg, with Luden-
dorff as his chief of staff. The 8th Army was left in East Prussia
with much reduced forces. The plan was for Hindenburg's army
to advance against the stretch of the Vistula between Zawichost
and Deblin (Iwangorod), with the intention of turning the north-
ern flank of the main Russian forces, which were at this time
concentrated in Eastern Galicia. A part of the Austrian ist
Army (Dankl) was to advance on the north bank of the Vistula
to the right of the Germans, while the main Austrian forces
moved to the attack south of the Vistula, the 4th Army (Grand
Duke Josef Ferdinand) and 3rd Army (Boroevich) towards the
lower San and Przemysl, while the 2nd Army (Bohm-Ermolli)
from the Carpathians moved in the direction of Chyrow and Sam-
bor, south of Przemys"!.
Russian Problems.— On the Russian side, at the same period
of mid-September, the most urgent tasks of the commander-in-
chief were to reconstitute his north-western front, shattered by the
defeats of the ist and 2nd Armies in East Prussia, and to build
up a central force in Poland about Warsaw. First-line troops from
Siberia and Turkistan, which had not been available for the open-
ing engagements, had now arrived, and a large number of addi-
tional reserve divisions were in the field. The gth Army, which
was originally to have formed the nucleus of the central force,
had been despatched south in the early days of September to the
rescue of the hard-pressed 4th Army (see LEMBERG, BATTLES OF),
and was now with four other Russian armies (4th, sth, 3rd, 8th)
in eastern Galicia, on the line of the San and Dniester. The sup-
ply of these five armies, comprising some 18 or 19 corps, crowded
on a comparatively narrow front, was extremely difficult. As early
as Sept. 22 three corps were ordered to move north to relieve the
congestion. Shortly afterwards, information was received of the
enemy concentration and advance, and a rapid change in the dis-
position of the armies became necessary to meet this threat. The
question arose whether a line could be built up in Poland west of
the Vistula with sufficient speed to render it safe to accept battle
in advance of the river, or whether the change of front should be
carried out behind the shelter of the river barrier. The safer course
was chosen; and the principal masses moved to the north in rear
of the Vistula, only cavalry forces being left to oppose the
hostile advance in trans-Vistula Poland. The decision was un-
doubtedly wise, but it involved certain grave disadvantages. It
meant the surrender of the whole of south-west Poland to the
enemy, severe hardships to the troops in traversing the almost
roadless region south of Lublin, and the eventual forcing of pass-
ages over the Vistula. Three armies, the 4th, gth and 5th, moved
north, while the 3rd Army took over the line of the San. The
great wheel was completed by the third week in October, by which
time the 5th, 4th and Qth Armies, in that order from north to
south, lined the Vistula from about Gura Kaivarya (south of War-
saw) to Zawichost. Meanwhile a new 2nd Army had been formed
round Warsaw.
Austro-Ocrman Offensive Fails. — The Austro-German ad-
vance, which began at the end of September, met only slight
opposition till the lines of the Vistula and the San were reached.
During the advance, however, the regrouping of the Russian
forces became evident and showed that the original German plan
was no longer applicable. The main weight of the offensive of
Hindenburg's army was therefore shifted northwards against War-
saw, the whole of the Austrian ist Army being moved to the left
bank of the Vistula and extended from Sandomierz to below Deb-
lin. By Oct. 12 fighting was general on the whole front. Hin-
denburg's army was within a few miles of Warsaw, but had greatly
superior Russian forces against it ; while all along the river from
Warsaw to Zawichost the Russian counter-offensive was battling
for passages to the left bank. South of the Vistula, the Austrian
4th and 3rd Armies had driven in light Russian forces and reached
the line of the San by Oct. 10, causing Radko-Dimitriev's 3rd
Army to raise the siege of Przemysl. But they could make no
headway in their efforts to force the line of the San. Nor did the
2nd Army, advancing from the Carpathians towards Sambor and
Chyrow, meet with any greater success.
By Oct. 17 it was clear to Hindenburg that his offensive could
not succeed. North of the Vistula, the German gth Army and
Austrian ist Army were now assailed from Warsaw, from Deblin
and from Zawichost by four Russian armies; while south of the
Vistula the three Austrian armies could make no progress against
the Russian 3rd and Sth Armies. The Austro-German attacks
were, however, continued till the 2 ist. They were succeeded by
violent Russian counter-attacks, which lasted till the 27th. Hin-
denburg then broke off the battle and led his gth Army rapidly
back to the frontier, destroying all communications as he retired.
Dankl 's Austrian ist Army withdrew in more leisurely fashion.
Between Oct. 31 and Nov. 2 it held the Russian pursuit at arm's
length in the Kielcc-Opatow region; and then retired behind the
Nida. On the San, fighting continued till the end of October,
without marked advantage to either side. But early in November,
the Austrian armies broke off the battle and withdrew.
Hindenburg's first invasion of Poland had only relieved the
pressure on Austria for a time. Its failure left Germany's ally still
further exhausted. It was a bold move, typical of Ludendorff's
strategy. But he seems to have under-rated the Russian leader-
ship and to have over-rated the fighting powers of the Austrians.
See E. Ludendorff, My War Memories (trans. 1919) ; E. von Falkcn-
hayn, General Headquarters 1914-1916 and its Critical Decisions (trans.
1919) ; A. W. F. Knox, With the Russian Army, 1914-17 (1921) ; J.
Daniloff, Russland im Weltkriege, 1914-15 (1925). (See also WORLD
WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.) (A. P. W.)
VISUAL EDUCATION, a term used in the United States
to designate those forms of instruction in which use is made of
prepared visual aids, such as models, maps and charts, mounted
pictures, lantern slides, films for the projection of still pictures,
stereographs and motion picture films. Visual education is a
method of instruction which may be used at all ages or levels
of schooling and is equally appropriate in teaching geography,
history, nature study, physics, physiology, agriculture, astronomy
and several other subjects. The most important of the
visual aids are lantern slides, stereographs, films for the projection
of still pictures and motion picture films.
Motion pictures have been tried in schools ever since they
came into wide use for entertainment, but their full possibilities
have not been realized. Efforts are being made to facilitate their
use by producing narrow width and hence cheaper films, printed
on non-inflammable stock, and by manufacturing simpler and
more easily handled machines. Efforts are also being made to
supply, on a larger scale, informational films, made to fit into
the courses of study of the schools.
Organizations for the Promotion of Visual Education.—-
The first national organization for the promotion of visual edu-
cation was the National Academy of Visual Instruction. This
VISUAL SENSATION
217
society consisted chiefly of members of extension divisions of
State universities. The second was the Visual Instruction Asso-
ciation of America, organized not only to hold meetings and
disseminate information but also to produce motion picture films.
In 1923, the department of visual instruction of the National
Education Association was formed.
Psychology of Visual Education. — The spread of visual
education, as is often the case with new movements, has been
accompanied by extravagant claims on the part of some of its
advocates and by a certain amount of loose thinking concerning
the psychological basis for the use of visual methods. Visual
education is frequently advocated on the supposed ground that
the sense of sight is a better avenue for the acquirement of experi-
ence than are the other senses, particularly hearing. Psychologi-
cal studies consisting of careful experimental comparisons have
led to sounder theory and a more moderate estimate of the essen-
tial place and value of the visual method.
The essential contrast is not between the senses of vision and
hearing. It is rather between the direct experience, which consists
of the perception of material objects on the one hand, and the
indirect experience, which consists of abstract or generalized
thought on the other hand. Direct perception is carried on by
means of the various senses — not vision alone — while thought is
carried on largely by means of language. The contrast, then, is
between sense perception and language. But, properly regarded,
the two are not opposed to one another. They rather supplement
one another. Sense perception or concrete experience alone has
little meaning or significance, while an over-emphasis on verbalism
without sufficient concrete experience leads to error and confusion
of thought. Doubtless education has tended too much to ver-
balism and needs from time to time to be brought back to a
closer contact with the world of physical objects.
The sense of vision is a particularly valuable source of educa-
tive experience. First, besides furnishing distinctive qualities
of its own it serves to represent or suggest many qualities
which are given directly by other senses, such as hardness, smooth-
ness and weight. Second, it is especially adapted to exhibit rela-
tionships of a very definite and exact nature. The chief of these
is space. On the other hand, hearing yields the sensations which
are peculiarly adapted to serve as the means to the development
of language. A well rounded education employs each for its proper
purpose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. J. Weber, Comparative Effectiveness of Some
Visual Aids in Seventh Grade Instruction (1922) ; Frank N. Freeman,
Visual Education (1924) ; A. V. Dorris, Visual Instruction in Public
Schools (1928) ; A. P. Hollis, Motion Pictures for Instruction (1926).
Current information is given in the annual reports of the National
Academy of Visual Instruction, the Visual Instruction Association of
America and the department of visual instruction of the National Edu-
cation Association. The chief periodical in the field is the Educational
Screen. Besides its monthly numbers, this journal publishes a valuable
annual supplement entitled, One Thousand and One Films.
(F. N. F.)
VISUAL SENSATION. The problem of visual sensation
has to do with the dependence of visual experience upon certain
features of the physiological visual process which lie on the so-
called "afferent" side of the nervous arc. These features include
the elementary properties of (i) the stimulus (light or electro-
magnetic radiation having appropriate wave-lengths), (2) the
retinal excitation, (3) the conduction along the optic nerves, and
(4) certain aspects of cerebral activity. The boundary line be-
tween sensation and perception is somewhat vague. From the
classical standpoint, perception is concerned with the manner in
which various constituent factors are put together to form dis-
tinct psychical patterns, these patterns being regarded in general
as representations of objects which are actually before the eyes.
Sensation, on the other hand, is considered as furnishing the
materials for such perceptual syntheses, and as being concerned
more with the stimulus energy and the sense organ response than
with either the brain processes or the object. However, modern
studies of the manner of dependence of experience upon cerebral
conditions have made rather free use of the concept of sensation.
If we regard visual sensation, from the introspective stand-
point, as a subjective material, out of which complex visual per-
ceptions are compounded, the substance of such sensation ap-
pears to be reducible to two kinds, colour and depth. Colour
characterizes object surfaces, while depth constitutes the spatial
medium which intervenes between these surfaces and the empirical
eye. These elementary factors can be arranged, at various times,
so as to form an indefinitely large number of characteristic per-
ceptual patterns, to constitute the phenomena of visual experience.
Introspective Properties of Colour. — The concept of colour
is here used broadly to include all elementary visual qualities,
whether they belong to the chromatic or to the achromatic classi-
fication. The latter comprises a scale of greys, extending between
black and white, while the former includes a cycle of hues at
various saturation values. The outstanding or psychologically
primary hues, are red, yellow, green and blue, but these have
many intermediates, of which the typical ones are orange, yellow-
green, blue-green and purple. The total number of possible achro-
matic colours has been estimated at between 600 and 800, of
discriminable hues at about 150, and of different saturation values
of each hue, at approximately 20. According to Titchener, the
total number of discriminable colours is about 35,000, but this
number must vary widely with conditions.
The achromatic colours, or greys, can be arranged in linear
order, so as to form a system which has only a single dimension.
This dimension has been variously designated as one of bright-
ness, luminosity, value, or tint, but the term brilliance is to be
preferred because of its freedom from disturbing connotations.
Brilliance is at a minimum for an ideal black and is at a maximum
for an ideal white. Intervening greys can be designated numeri-
cally by counting the number of just noticeably different achro-
matic colours which separate them from the ideal black. The
chromatic colours may also differ from one another in brilliance,
although if they differ in this only they will have identical chromas.
If we consider all chromatic colours which are possible of the
same brilliance, we find that they can be ordered to form a sur-
face, or a two-dimensional figure. This figure will automatically
include the single achromatic colour which is of the given brilli-
ance. Any colour within this surface can evidently be specified in
terms of values along each of the two dimensions. The axes for
the latter are best chosen in accordance with a system of polar
coordinates, with its centre at the grey point. Radial values,
measured in just noticeable steps from the centre, then represent
the saturations of the colours, whereas circumferential values
designate the hues.
These two systems, the chromatic and the achromatic, can obvi-
ously be combined to form a three-dimensional figure which em-
braces, simultaneously, the properties of
brilliance, saturation and hue. The re-
sulting scheme, as diagrammed in fig. i,
provides locations for all conceivable col-
ours, and thus enables us to specify any
colour numerically in terms of three de-
terminants or attributes. Chromatic col-
ours exist, or are conceivable, at all levels
of brilliance, so that the figure becomes a
psychological colour solid. The exact
boundaries of this solid cannot be speci-
fied at the present time, although we may
safely affirm a tendency for the number of possible chromatic
colours to show a maximum in the middle range of brilliance, and
to be reduced practically to zero at the ideal black and white.
The Psychophysiology of Colour.— Experimental studies
of visual sensation have been concerned, for the most part, with
the laws which connect brilliance, saturation and hue with features
of the stimulus and sense organ process. The electromagnetic
waves which constitute the stimulus impinge upon the corneas of
the eyes, pass through the pupils, and are refracted by the various
ocular media so as to form images upon the retinas. The ele-
mentary properties of the stimulus, from the physical standpoint,
are its intensity and its relative wave-length composition. The
latter can be subdivided into two features, such as dominant
wave-length and purity. The simplest psychophysiological rela-
tions are found when homogeneous, or single wave, stimuli are
•LACK
FROM TROLAND, "THI MYSTERY
Of MIND" (VAN NOSTRANO)
FlG. 1. — THE PSYCHOLOG-
ICAL COLOUR SOLID
218
VISUAL SENSATION
employed, and, in this case, the stimulus is specified by its wave-
length and intensity.
It is found that all three attributes of colour depend upon each
possible aspect of the stimulus. Beginning with the relationships
of brilliance, we note, firstly, that at constant intensity this
attribute varies with wave-length, in accordance with a function
which is approximately of the probability integral type. This
symmetrical, single maximum curve corresponds in general form
with the so-called visibility function, although, strictly speaking,
the latter represents the reciprocal intensities which are required
at different wave-lengths, to yield equal brilliances, rather than
delineating a direct psychophysical relationship. The visibility
curve gives values by which radiometric intensities must be multi-
plied in order to secure the corresponding photometric or light
intensities.
The position of the maximum of the function which connects
brilliance with wave-length varies with the stimulus intensity
and with the state of adaptation of the eye. At intensities corre-
sponding to daylight, the maximum lies at about 554 m;u, but
under twilight illumination it shifts to the neighbourhood of
511 m/i. The exact limits of the curve, which determine the ex-
tremes of the visible spectrum, naturally vary with the intensity
level, but may be taken as 400 HIM and 760 m/x for daylight con-
ditions, shifting with the maximum at lower intensities. The
high intensity curve is characteristic of photopic (or cone) vision,
while the low intensity one features scotopic (or rod) vision.
The transition from the former to the latter is responsible for
the Purkinje and other similar phenomena,
When a stimulus, of fixed wave-length composition, is varied
in intensity, the brilliance is found to be a logarithmic function
of the latter in the range of ordinary daylight intensities. At both
higher and lower intensities, the brilliance changes less rapidly
with respect to the intensity than is characteristic of the loga-
rithmic section of the law. The total law may be designated as
the Fechner function. In the logarithmic region, the just notice-
able increment of intensity is approximately one one-hundredth
part, depending upon conditions. The Fechner function is sub-
stantially independent of wave-length composition, if intensities
are expressed in photometric terms, i.e., if the physical intensi-
ties are multiplied by the corresponding visibility values. This
is true for either homogeneous or heterogeneous stimuli, and in
the latter case implies the principle that the light values of the
components in a mixture add arithmetically.
tine is determined primarily by the wave-length of the stimu-
lus, when the latter is homogeneous, and by a quantitative balance
between component wave-lengths and intensities, when it is hetero-
geneous. The hue changes progressively from one end of the
visible spectrum to the other, although at a variable rate. Maxi-
mal rates of change of hue with respect to wave-length are found
at 589 mju, 507 mju and 489-5 ITIM, at each of which points a differ-
ence of i m/x is just noticeable. At the long- wave (red) end of
the spectrum, there is no change of hue beyond about 700 m/i
and there is only one just noticeable step between 700 m/x and
678 mji. The psychologically primary hues, within the spectrum,
are the yellow at 574-5 mju, the green at 505-5 myu and the blue at
478*5 m/A, the primary red requiring the admixture of a small
quantity of short-wave radiation to the spectral rays between
700 IHM and the long- wave end. Saturation also varies with the
wave-length of a homogeneous stimulus. It shows maxima at
either end of the spectrum, with a minimum at about 575 m/z.
When the stimulus is heterogeneous, the hue and saturation
are determined by rather complex principles, known as the laws of
colour-mixture. The simplest case is that of two-corn ponent
mixtures, involving pairs of homogeneous stimuli. If the wave-
lengths and relative intensities are properly chosen, the result
can be an achromatic colour or white, and in this case the stimuli
(and the colours which they would separately evoke in isolation)
are said "to be complementary. If the wave-lengths of such com-
plementary stimuli are held constant, and the intensities are varied
from those required to yield white, a hue appears which is normal
to the stimulus that is in excess, the saturation increasing with
augmented unbalance. When the wave-lengths depart from those
of complementary stimuli, the hue is intermediate, on the shortest
arc of the hue cycle, between the hues normal to the two stimuli.
The exact position of the hue on the arc is determined by the
balance of intensities, naturally being near to that normal to
the component which is intensively predominant, in proportion
to the degree of predominance. The saturation is greater the more
GREEN
460
RED
Btue
FlG. 2. — THE COLOUR-MIXTURE TRIANGLE
the two stimuli depart from the complementary relationship,
either as regards wave-lengths or intensities.
One of the most interesting cases of two-component mixture is
that which involves the two extremes of the visible spectrum,
yielding a series of purples, of which there are approximately 20,
determined by the intensity ratios of the two components. The
purples furnish the complementaries for colours or stimuli in
the middle region of the spectrum, which find no homogeneous
complementaries. The three-component system, thus generated,
consisting of two extreme spectral stimuli and a mid-spectral stim-
ulus, provides the most important of all cases of colour-mixture.
It is found that variation of the intensity proportions of such stim-
uli, of fixed wave-lengths, permits the matching of all possible hues
at a wide variety of saturations. This fact underlies the technique
of three-colour reproduction and analysis. The laws which are in-
volved are most simply represented by means of a colour-mixture
triangle, such as is shown in fig. 2, where the three primary com-
ponents are symbolized by the vertices of the equilateral figure.
The units of measurement in this triangle are so chosen that
equal quantities of the three primaries yield white. The bril-
liance value of the blue or violet, thus required, is only about i%
of that of the red or green. The composition of any colour, in
these terms, is found by locating it within the triangle and then
dropping perpendiculars to each of the three sides. „ The length
of the perpendicular opposite each primary indicates the pro-
portion of the latter which is involved. The consequences of
mixing any two colours can be determined, in this system, by
drawing a straight line between the points which represent them,
and then finding the centre of gravity of the line, treating the
mixture intensities of the components as masses. Mixtures of
any number of components can be handled in this way by suc-
cessive combinations in pairs. Thus the triangle provides a uni-
versal method for dealing with the hue and saturation aspects
of stimulus mixtures. The colours of the spectrum can be repre-
sented by a linear locus, and in order that this should fall inside
rather than outside of the triangle, the latter is ordinarily recon-
structed on the basis of an ideal, supersaturated, green primary.
Hue and saturation also vary with the absolute intensity of,
the stimulus. At both low and extremely high intensities there is
a loss of saturation, which may be complete, There is also a
change of hue, with increasing intensity, such that all colours,
VITALIANUS— VITAMINS
219
except primary red and green, tend to become more yellowish or
bluish, according as they lie on the yellow or the blue side of
red or green, respectively. This is known as the Bezold-Brikke
effect.
The relations of colour to retinal conditions can best be dis-
cussed in connection with spatial and temporal effects, although
in only a few cases are we sure that such effects are retinally
rather than cerebrally determined. Among temporal phenomena,
we may mention those of adaptation, according to which con-
tinued exposure to any stimulus brings about changes in sensi-
tivity which lend to neutralize the characteristic effect of the
stimulus. Brilliance adaptation is apparently of two kinds, sco-
topic, involving a changing ratio between rod and cone vision,
and photopic, depending upon changes within the cone system
per se. The latter may be selective, as regards hue and saturation,
reducing the latter and rendering the retinal system temporarily
more sensitive to the complementary. Local alterations in sensi-
tivity yield so-called negative and complementary after-images
which can be used to demonstrate the rate at which recovery, or
counter-adaptation takes plate.
Other temporal effects include positive after-images, which
appear to represent, a continuation of the original excitation pro-
cess for a short time after the removal of a stimulus; rhythmic
alternations between positive and negative conditions, giving rise
to such phenomena as Charpentier's bands and "recurrent vision";
and fusion, with intermittent stimuli presented at a sufficiently
high rate, resting upon the so-called "persistence of vision."
Spatial dependencies are represented by the variation of hue
and saturation with the position of the stimulus on the retina,
the partial dependence of all of the colour attributes upon the
size of the retinal image, and by the phenomena of contrast. In
general, chromatic differentiation is at a maximum in the centre
of the visual field and falls off towards Ihe periphery in accordance
with the same qualitative law which characterizes the Bezold-
Briicke effect (vide supra). Brilliance shows a maximum in the
centre of the field under photopic conditions, but a powerful mini-
mum in the same position under scotopic adaptation. This is
attributable to the absence of rods in the retinal centre or
"fovea." Intensity thresholds for hue and brilliance are raised
by decreasing the retinal size of the stimulus below a certain
value, and at very small sizes the threshold is determined by the
total energy striking the retina, regardless of its distribution
between intensity and area. Contrast (q.v.) involves a change in
the colour evoked by a given stimulus, JDecause of the simultane-
ous action of another stimulus (or condition) on an adjoining
visual area. The change is in the direction of the opposite of 'the
contrast -inducing colour, being a darkening effect when the latter
is bright, and a shift towards the complementary of the latter
when it is of chromatic quality.
The most reliable conclusions regarding the dependency of
visual experience upon the retinal mechanism are comprised in the
so-called duplicity theory, according -to which the two histo-
logically differentiate types of receptors, the rods and the cones,
have psychophysically distinct functions. The cones are sup-
posed to have a relatively low degree of sensitivity and to sub-
serve photopic or day vision, with chromatic discrimination. The
rods, on the other hand, are characterized by a sensitivity which,
at its maximum, is about 10,000 times as great as that of the
cones, but by an absence of chromatic response. At high intensi-
ties of stimulation, they are practically eliminated by adaptation,
but at low intensities, they entirely replace the cones. A multi-
tude of spatial and temporal effects can be explained in terms of
the differences in retinal distribution, spectral sensitivity and
inertia between the rod and cone systems.
Depth. — The remaining factor in visual sensation, the depth
impression, can be disposed of quite briefly, since it is customary
to discuss its conditions in detail in connection with binocular
visual perception. Depth elements seem introspectively to be all
of the same kind, differing only in location within subjective visual
space. They must be regarded as being determined directly by
processes in (the visual areas of the cerebral cortex, although
their number and locations are regulated by a complex assembly
of peripheral factors, the so-called primary and secondary criteria
of depth. The most important among these factors consist in the
disparations of the images of identical object points upon the two
retinas. Hering treated such disparation as a sensory variable,
having positive and negative values, corresponding with crossed
and uncrossed relations of the corresponding lines of view,
respectively. (See VISION.)
For a more detailed discussion of the problems of visual sensation,
see J. H. Parson's An Introduction to the Study of Colour Vision
(1024), or L. T. Troland's The Principles of PsyrhophysioloRy, vol. ii.
chap, xiv, (1929), (L. T. T.)
VITALIANUS, bishop of Rome from 657 to 67:?, succeeded
Eugenius I, and was followed by Adeodatus. In the monothelile
controversy then raging he refrained from express condemnation
of the Typus of Constans II. The chief episode in his pontificate
was the visit of Constans to Rome; the pope received him "almost
with religious honours," a deference which he requited by stripping
all the brazen ornaments of the city — even to the tiles of the
Pantheon — and sending them to Constantinople.
VITAL STATISTICS. This important subject is treated
in a number of articles in this work, including POPULATION;
CENSUS; BIRTH-RATE; DEATH-RATE; MARRIAGE-RATE; ILLEGITI-
MACY; SF.X RATIO AT BIRTH AND DEATH; BIRTH CONTROL.
VITAMINS. Substances of unknown composition normally
present in certain foodstuffs in minute quantities, the absence of
which from the diet leads to well denned morbid states.
Accessory Factors and Growth.— The realization of the
existence of vitamins grew gradually out of numerous attempts,
made at various times, to feed animals on diets of known compo-
sition, as free as possible from all admixture (1881, Lunin). Much
later it was found in England (1906-12, Hopkins) that under
these conditions the animals lost weight and died but that if a
relatively small amount of milk were included in the diet the
animals flourished and increased in weight.
Simultaneously in Germany (1909-12, Stepp) somewhat simi-
lar observations were made and Strpp, like Hopkins and Lunin,
concluded that something more was necessary for life than the
amounts of pure carbohydrates, proteins and fats needed to sat-
isfy the animals' requirements of energy and of material for new
growth and the replacement of waste tissue. These facts were
repeatedly confirmed in England and America, but the explana-
tion was hard to find. A partial solution of the problem was
afforded by the discovery in America (1913, McCollum and
Davis) that on certain diets, themselves inadequate, growth
could be induced in rats by the incorporation in the diet of the
substances extracted by ether from yolk of egg or butter. On
other diets however, this addition was found to be ineffective and
a more complete comprehension of the conditions was only
attained after the discovery (1915, McCollum and Davis) that
not one but two "accessory" substances were required in addition
to pure carbohydrates, proteins, fats and salts. For convenience
these "accessory factors" were termed Fat-soluble A and Water-
soluble B.
Deficiency Diseases.— Even before this advance of knowledge
regarding the nutritional requirements of the growing animal
similar ideas had been developed concerning the cause and pre-
vention of certain diseases commonly attributed to a faulty diet.
The incidence of beri-beri (q.v.) had already been traced to the
exclusive use of a diet of polished rice, when it was found in Java
(1897, Eijkman) that a similar disease manifested itself in fowls
fed on this same diet. This important observation led to the
detailed laboratory study of the disease, which was soon rewarded
by the discovery that it followed on the absence from the bird's
diet of a substance present on the "silverskin" or pericarp of
the rice grain (which is removed in the process of milling and
polishing) and could be cured when this, or an extract of it made
"with water, was administered. The experimental method thus
established enabled the occurrence of this curative substance
in other materials to be studied both qualitatively and quanti-
tatively, as well as the effect upon it of varying conditions such
as temperature and oxidation.
A precisely similar course of events took place with regard to
22O
VITAMINS
scurvy (q.v.). It was found in Norway (1907 Hoist and
Frohlich) that scurvy could be induced in guinea-pigs by remov-
ing the greenstuff from the ordinary feed of grain and cabbage
leaves and by giving a diet consisting of grain and water only.
As in the case of beri-beri rapid progress followed experimental
study of the disease and it was soon established that scurvy fol-
lowed on the absence from the diet of a constituent present in
fresh cabbage and in many fruit juices. By the use of guinea-
pigs (and later of monkeys, which are also susceptible to the
disease) it became possible to study the distribution of the pre-
ventive substance both qualitatively and quantitatively in food
materials.
The closeness of the analogy between the "accessory factors"
necessary for growth and the unknown substances which were
essential for the cure or prevention of beri-beri and scurvy led to
the inclusion of all these in one class, the vitamins (Funk
1912).
Although much has been added to our knowledge since the
original classification of the vitamins as water-soluble and fat-
soluble they may still be conveniently divided into these two
groups, the former comprising vitamins BI and B2, which have
both been found to be present in the original "water-soluble B,"
together with vitamin C, the antiscorbutic vitamin, and the latter
vitamins A and D, corresponding with the original "fat-soluble A,"
and vitamin E, the anti-sterility vitamin.
The Water-soluble Vitamins (Vitamins B19 B, and C).—
As has been seen from the foregoing, the water-soluble vitamin of
McCollum and Davis was found to be effective in two different
ways, the cure or prevention of polyneuritis in pigeons (and beri-
beri in man) and the maintenance of growth and well being in
rats. Both of these effects were produced by a long list of food-
stuffs, the most efficacious being yeast, egg yolk, fish roe and the
errfbryos of seeds.
It was at first thought that only one vitamin was concerned in
these effects (1916 McCollum and Kennedy) but further investi-
gation has gradually shown that in all these sources at least two
vitamins are present, which can be distinguished both by their
behaviour towards external factors (heat, etc.) and by the effect
on the animal organism of their absence from the diet.
These are best termed vitamins BI and 62, but at the date of
writing unanimity on this question has not been attained and they
are sometimes termed vitamins F and G (Sherman).
Vitamin Bt (the Antineuritic Vitamin). — To the vitamin
which guards against and cures bferi-beri in man and polyneuritis
in birds (1897 Eijkman) the name vitamin BI has been assigned.
Although capable of withstanding the temperature of boiling
water for one or two hours, it is readily inactivated when its
solution is heated under pressure at 120° C, at which temperature
vitamin B2, which invariably accompanies it in natural sources,
is scarcely affected.
Preparations have now been obtained which are highly active in
the prevention and cure of polyneuritis in birds, a daily dose of
•Q-I-O-OI milligram being sufficient to keep a pigeon in good
health. It has, however, no effect in curing or preventing the
specific effects of absence of vitamin B2 (see below) and does not
by itself produce growth and well being in rats, the simultaneous
presence of both water-soluble vitamin BI and Ba being essential.
Vitamin B2 (the Pellagra-preventing Vitamin).— When
a rat is kept on a diet deficient only in this vitamin (and includ-
ing a plentiful supply of vitamin BI) it ceases to grow, but does
not lose weight and may be maintained in this condition for sev-
eral months. After a few weeks however inflamed patches appear
on the skin and the rat suffers from a disease which is closely
analogous to pellagra (q.v.) in man. This disease has long been
known to be of dietetic origin and to be curable by a proper diet.
It is now thought (1927 Goldberg) that it is due to a lack of
vitamin Bz which is abundantly present in the materials found to
have the greatest curative value, such as yeast, which is moreover
effective after having been heated under pressure at 1 20° C, and
Jean meat (see table on page 221).
Little is so far known about the relative amounts of vitamins
BI and B2 in those materials in which they occur together. Judged
by their effect on human pellagra (Goldberg), milk, eggs, wheat-
germ and tomato juice all contain vitamin B2 in smaller amount
than lean meat, which is itself surpassed by yeast. Vegetables
and fruits only contain very little and it is absent from oils
and fats.
. Vitamin C (the Antiscorbutic Vitamin).— The cure for
fccurvy was long recognised to be fresh food but quantitative
experiments iufve shown that the vitamin occurs in very varying
proportions in different food materials. Its richest sources are
green leaves, especially of the cabbage tribe, the juice of citrus
fruits (lemon, orange, and grape fruit), the tomato and certain
roots such as the swede turnip. On the other hand meat and milk,
the potato and many vegetables and fruits usually only contain
the vitamin in comparatively small amount. It is absent from
seeds but is produced on germination (1912, Fiirst). Different
animals vary greatly in their requirements of this vitamin. Thus
guinea pigs (250-300 g.) need 100-150 c.c. of milk or 1-5 c.c. of
orange juice or 1-5 grams of fresh cabbage per day, whilst mon-
keys, ten times their weight, require exactly the same ration; rats
on the other hand require extremely little and can exist for long
periods without it.
Of all the known vitamins, the antiscorbutic is the most readily
inactivated by oxidation. This process is comparatively slow at
air temperature but becomes very rapid when the temperature
is raised. As a result of this a large proportion of the anti-
scorbutic potency of food materials is lost when they are cooked
or dried. In the process of canning there is less exposure to air
and some canned articles e.%. tomatoes, are still potent. Inactiva-
tion by oxidation is greatest in alkaline and least in acid solutions.
In absence of air, materials containing the vitamin may be heated
to a comparatively high temperature without serious loss, espe-
cially in acid solution. On storage after this treatment, however,
the potency disappears much more rapidly than from the
untreated material.
Fat-soluble Vitamins, A, D, and E.— After the discrimina-
tion of the water-soluble B and fat-soluble A vitamins (1915,
McCollum and Davis) much attention was paid to the study of the
latter. A very rich source of it was found to be cod-liver oil
(1921, Zilva and Miura), whilst it occurred in much smaller pro-
portion in the body fat of many mammals and fishes, in egg-
yolk, milk and butter and cereal seed embryos.
In the absence of such food materials from their diet, young
experimental animals ceased to grow, lost weight and finally died.
Frequently a characteristic condition of the eye (xerophthalmia )
developed before death. When this diet was supplemented by
small quantities of material rich in the vitamin, growth was
resumed, the eye symptoms cleared up and the animal became
normal. It was also found (1915-1919 Mellanby) that some of
the foodstuffs containing the fat-soluble vitamin A were effective
in preventing the onset of rickets (Q.V.) in puppies kept on certain
special diets, and in curing the condition both in dogs and man.
Nevertheless, certain discrepancies were soon observed, which
led to the suggestion that two principles were concerned, and it
was finally proved (1922 McCollum) that two fat-soluble vitamins
exist, vitamin A which cures and prevents xerophthalmia, and
vitamin D which cures and prevents rickets by promoting the
proper calcification of bone. This conclusion has since received
striking confirmation in many other ways. The simultaneous pres-
ence of both vitamins is essential for the normal growth and
well being of the animal.
It has also been shown (1922, Evans and Scott) that a third fat-
soluble vitamin exists, the presence of which in the diet is
essential for the fertility of rats.
Vitamin A (the Anti-xerophthalmic Vitamin).— The
richest natural sources of this vitamin are the liver fats of many
mammals and fishes. In some of these (liver oils of salmon and
halibut, cod-liver oil) it is accompanied by vitamin D but in
others not (liver fat of sheep, calf and ox). The liver oils of
salmon and halibut contain 100 times as much vitamin A as cod-
liver oil and the liver fats of sheep, etc., ten times as much,
whereas butter only contains about ^ of the amount present in
cod-liver oil. Almost free from vitamin D it is found in green
VITAMINS
221
plant^, its formation being greatly accelerated by the influence of
light. This is the ultimate source from which mammals and fish
alike derive their store of vitamin A. It is also present in smaller
amount in the body fat of mammals and some fish (but is
exceptionally plentiful in eel oil, where it is accompanied by
vitamin D) and in butter in which its content depends on the
diet of the animal; it is absent from, or only present in low
concentration in, vegetable fats and many fruits. The vitamin is
slowly destroyed by oxidation even at air temperatures, more
rapidly at high temperatures, although in the absence of air fats
containing it can be heated for a considerable time to 120° C
without serious loss. It is not itself a fat, and when the oils in
which it occurs are saponified it is found in the unsaponifiable
matter, which usually amounts to \% of the oil. Green and
Mellanby (Brit. Med. Journ. 1928, i. 691) brought forward im-
portant evidence that vitamin A acts as an anti-infective agent.
Vitamin D (the Antirachitic Vitamin).— Whilst investi-
gators were gradually approaching the conclusion that a special
vitamin was concerned with the prevention and cure of rickets,
knowledge concerning this disease had progressed in a different
direction. It had been found (1919, Huldschinsky), that rickets
could be cured by exposure of the patient to the ultra-violet
rays of the mercury vapour lamp and the use of sunlight as the
source of radiation was afterwards (1921, Hess and linger) found
to be equally successful, not only with human subjects but also
with rats. The connection between radiation and vitamin D has
now been made clear. The remarkable observation was made that
irradiation (with ultra-violet light) of the food of rats conferred
upon it the power of preventing the occurrence of rickets, or, in
other words, produced in it vitamin D (1924, Steenbock and
Black). Inactive vegetable oils also became activated when
treated in a similar manner (1924, Hess and Weinstock, Steen-
bock and Black). Once this was known, it was soon discovered,
independently by a number of observers, that cholesterol, which
accompanies most animal fats, and the analogous constituents of
vegetable oils, became active antirachitically when they were
exposed to ultra-violet radiation (1924).
An intensive study of this effect has shown that the actual
substance to be activated is not cholesterol itself, but a similar
substance known as ergosterol which is found plentifully in
ergot of rye arid in yeast, but is only present in ordinary choles-
terol in the proportion of about i part in 2,000 (1927, Rosenheim
and Webster, Windaus and Hess). When this substance is
irradiated with ultra-violet light of wave length, 2,800-3,000 A, a
preparation is obtained which is intensely active in the cure and
prevention of rickets. Apparently the effect of irradiation on
living animals is to produce vitamin D from ergosterol present in
small amounts along with cholesterol in the skin. This is absorbed
and passes into the general circulation, so that it then acts in the
same, still unknown, manner as the vitamin taken by the mouth
and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary tract.
Vitamin D can thus be supplied in two entirely different ways,
as a constituent of the diet and as a result of irradiation. How
much of the ergosterol is converted into vitamin D by irradiation
is not known, or indeed whether it is the ergosterol itself or some
admixed substance which is the source of the vitamin but the
product is highly active in very small doses. Human rickets is
rapidly cured by daily doses of 2-4 milligrams, whilst rickets in
rats may be cured or prevented by daily doses of ~^ to 20-555
of a milligram, and the effect of as little as ^^ of a milligram
is distinctly perceptible.
The occurrence of vitamin D in food materials is compara-
tively restricted, the only rich sources apparently being fish-liver
oils and the body fat of some fishes. The amounts present in
such common articles of daily food as milk and butter are small
and are largely determined not by the diet of the animal, but by
exposure to irradiation, so that they vary with the season, being
less in winter and greater in summer. It is only present in very
small proportion, if at all, in green leaves, fruits, etc. Attempts
are being made in two different directions to supplement the
natural supply of vitamin D in milk and butter. The first con-
sists in incorporating in margarine, which consists of vegetable
fats, a controlled amount of irradiated ergosterol, with the object
of making this cheap foodstuff equal to butter as regards vitamin
D. At the same time fat from animal livers, or the unsaponifiable
matter of such fats, may be added to provide vitamin A. By the
second method cod-liver oil is administered to the cow and it is
then found (Zilva, Go'ding and Drummond) that the milk fat is
enriched in vitamins A and D.
Vitamin E (the Anti-sterility Vitamin)-— -The loss of
fertility observed in some rats kept on diets freed from vitamins
has led to the discovery (1922, Evans and Scott) that a definite
vitamin exists, in the absence of which both male and female rats
become sterile. This vitamin is fat-soluble like vitamins A and D
and can be extracted without loss by ether and other fat solvents
from the vegetable tissues in which it occurs (see table below).
Its richest sources are wheat germ and lettuce leaves, but it
occurs to some extent in all seeds, in the oils extracted from them,
in green leaves, in which its potency is not impaired by desicca-
tion, and in some fruits. It is also present in animal tissues,
chiefly the muscles and the fat, although even in these it only
occurs in low concentration. It also occurs in small amounts in
egg-yolk and in milk. It is absent from, or only present in very
small amounts in, the liver, spleen, kidney, brain and, rather
remarkably, the testis. A striking fact is that cod-liver oil is
almost entirely free from this vitamin and may indeed be used
as a source of vitamins A and D in the basal diet of animals used
for experiments with vitamin E. It is also almost completely
absent, from yeast, from white flour and from polished rice and
is present only in small amounts in orange juice. Cooking of fresh
tissues, either plant or animal, has no effect on the curative prop-
erties, but the stability in animal tissues is not so great as in
wheat germ oil. The vitamin has been so far concentrated, that a
product from wheat -germ oil has been obtained, of which a dose
of 5 milligrams on the day of mating is effective in producing
fertility.
Vitamins and Diet. — The inclusion of an adequate provision
of the various vitamins in the diet is essential for the health of all,
but is of particular importance for children and for pregnant and
nursing women, since the disturbances due to lack of vitamins in
early childhood have far-reaching and often permanent effects on
the organism. Not only may the well known deficiency diseases —
scurvy, beri-bcri, pellagra, rickets and xerophthalmia — supervene,
but there seems little doubt that the dentition is profoundly
affected by the presence or absence in early years of vitamin
C (191^, Zilva and Wells) and vitamin D (1918, M. Mellanby).
The supply of vitamins to the offspring during gestation and lac-
tation is ultimately dependent on the diet of the mother so that the
provision of a proper diet during these periods is of the greatest
importance both for human beings and in the production of milk
and meat for human consumption. It is moreover possible that
Occurrence of Vitamins
A
D
Bi
B2
C
E
Lean meat
P
c;
low
~P~
Mammalian liver ,
K
G
Fish
Fish-liver oils
R
R
Milk . . . .
1
P
P
P
P
P
Butter . . .
I
P
P
Cheese ....
P
P
Vegetable margarine .
P
Fresh green vegetables
(
<;
low
R
R
Cooked green vegetables
(
G
low
P
R
Legumes
R
P
P
Potatoes
low
P
P
Turnips ...
c;
R
Fresh fruit
low
low
low to
low
R
White bread .
low
Wheat germ .
G
R
P
R
Eggs
R
R
P
R
Yeast ....
V
R
R
R = Rich Source ; G * Good Source ; P = Present ; . . =» Absent or
only present in minute amount; ?» Doubtful; A blank space indicates
that no information is available.
222
VITEBSK— VITOLS
other departures from normality may have a hitherto unsuspected
origin in a deficiency of vitamins.
The brief table on, p. 221 shows in the most general manner
the distribution of the vitamins in some of the commoft foodstuffs
but it must be remembered that the vitamin content of a food is
a variable and not a constant quantity. The table clearly indi-
cates on the one hand how well supplied with vitamins is the nor-
mal mixed diet and on the other hand how seriously a restricted
diet may fail in this respect.
Mode of Action of the Vitamins. — The exact mode of action
of the vitamins is still unknown, but both in their effects and in
the need which exists for a constant supply of them, they present
a striking analogy to the hormones, those chemical messengers,
such as adrenaline and secretin, which are elaborated in the body
and serve to regulate so many of its functions. The animal is not
only entirely dependent on the vegetable kingdom for the organic
materials of its nutriment but also for many definite substances
(e.g., the umino-add tryptophan ) which are essential for its con-
tinued life but which it cannot manufacture for itself. It is not
surprising, therefore, that this dependence should be extended to
substances even of such fundamental importance as the vitamins.
These occur abundantly in the elements of a rational and normal
diet and only such diets are capable of maintaining a healthy
organism,
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Medical Research Council: Special Report Scries,
No. 38. (revised) Report on the present state of knowledge oj Acces-
sory Food Factors (bibl.) (London, 1924) ; Sherman and Smith, The
Vitamins (bibl.) (New York, 1922) ; McCollum and Simmonds, The
Newer Knowledge oj Nutrition (bibl.) (New York, ^rd Ed. 1925) ;
Funk (tr. by Dubin) The Vitamins (bibl.) (Baltimore, 1922) ; Ellis
and Macleod, Vital factors oj foods, vitamins and nutrition (bibl.)
(London, 1923) ; V. G. and R. H. A. Plimmer, Vitamins and the choice
of Food (London, 1922) and Food and Health (London, 1928).
(A. HN.)
VITEBSK, a town of the White Russian S.S.R., situated
on both banks of the western Dwina (Daugava), and on the
railway, in 55° 10' N., 30° 11' E. Pop. (1926), 91,201. Its indus-
tries include the manufacture of glass, agricultural machinery,
boots and shoes, sewn goods, sewing needles, spectacles and
bristles. There is a large Jewish element in the town.
Vitebsk (Dbesk, Vitbesk and Vitepesk) is mentioned for the
first time in 1021, when it belonged to the Polotsk principality.
Eighty years later it became the chief town of a separate princi-
pality, and so continued until 1320, when it came under the
dominion of the Lithuanians. In the i6th century it fell to
Poland. Under the privileges granted to the city by the Polish
sovereigns it flourished, but it soon began to suffer from the wars
between Russia and Poland, during which it was thrice taken by
the Russians and burned. Russia annexed it finally in 1772.
VITELLI, VITELLOZZO ( ?-i502), Italian COH-
dotticre. Together with his father, Niccolo, tyrant of Citta di
Castcllo, and his brothers, who were all soldiers of fortune, he
instituted a new type of infantry armed with sword and pike
to resist the German men-at-arms, and also a corps of mounted
infantry armed with arquebuses. Vitellozzo took service with
Florence against Pisa, and later with the French in Apulia (1496)
and with the Orsini faction against Pope Alexander VI. In 1500
Vitelli and the Orsini made peace with the pope, and Vitelli
entered the service of Ccsare Borgia. But, thwarted by Borgia in
his desire for vengeance on the Florentines, he conspired against
him with other captains. They were captured by Borgia's agents,
and Vitelli was strangled (Dec. 31, 1502).
See vol. iii. of E. Ricotti's Storia delta compagnie di ventura (Turin,
1845), in which DomenichPs ma. Vita di Vitellozzo Vitelli is quoted;
C. Yriarte, Char Borgia (Paris, 1889) ; P. Villari, Life and Times oj
N. Machiavelli (English cd., London, 1892) ; see also under ALEXANDER
VI. and CESARE BORGIA.
VITELLIUS, AULUS, Roman emperor Jan. 2-Dec. 22,
A.D. 69, was born on Sept. 24, A.D. 15. He was the son of Lucius
Vitellius, who had been consul and governor of Syria under
Tiberius. Aulus was consul in 48, and (perhaps in 60-61) pro-
consul of Africa. Under Galba, to the general astonishment, at
the end of 68 he was chosen to command the army of Lower
Germany. His good nature, which was fatal to discipline, made
him popular, but he was not himself ambitious, and was raised to
the throne by Valens and Caecina, two commanders of legions on
the Rhine. They contrived a military revolt, and early in 69
Vitellius was proclaimed Emperor of the armies of Germany at
Cologne. He was accepted by the Senate but never by the whole
Empire. As soon as it was known that the armies of the East,
Dalmatia and Illyricum had declared for Vespasian, Vitellius
would have resigned the title of emperor, but the praetorians re-
fused to allow him to do so. On the entrance of Vespasian's
troops into Rome he was dragged out of some miserable hiding-
place, driven to the fatal Gemonian stairs, and there struck down.
"Yet I was once your emperor," were the last words of Vitellius.
During his brief administration Vitellius showed indications of a
desire to govern wisely. He has a deserved reputation as one of
the greatest eaters and drinkers known to history.
See Tacitus, Histories; Suetonius, Vitellius; Dio Cassius Ixv.; Mcri-
vale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, chs. 56, 57; H. Schiller,
Geschichte der romischen Kaiscrzeit, i. pt. i ; W. A. Spooner's ed. of
the Histories of Tacitus (Introduction)'; B. W. Henderson, Civil War
and Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 69-70 (1908).
VITERBO, a provincial capital and episcopal see of the dis-
trict of Lazio (Latium), Italy, 54 m. by rail N.N.W. of Rome,
1,073 ft- above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 20,471 (town), 25,352
(commune). A line (25 m.) runs north-east to Attigliano, on the
railway from Rome to Florence. It is picturesquely surrounded
by luxuriant gardens, and enclosed by walls and towers, which
date partly from the Lombard period. The streets are paved with
large lava blocks, of which the town is also built. The Piazza S.
Pellegrino is said to be the best example in the country of a i3th
century piazza. The citadel (Rocca) itself, erected by Cardinal
Albornoz in 1345, is now a barrack.
The cathedral, a fine basilica, of the i2th (?) century, with
columns and fantastic capitals of the period, originally flat-roofed
and later vaulted, with 16th-century restorations, contains the
tomb of Pope John XXI., and has a Gothic campanile in black
and white stone. Here Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas Break-
spear) compelled the emperor Frederick I. to hold his stir-
rup as his vassal. The old episcopal palace with a double loggia
built on to it (recently restored to its original form) is a Gothic
building of the i3th century. The church of S. Rosa exhibits the
embalmed body of that saint, a native of Viterbo, who died
in her eighteenth year, after working various miracles and having
distinguished herself by her invectives against Frederick II.
(1251), some ruins of whose palace, destroyed after his death,
exist. S. Francesco, a Gothic church (1236), contains the fine
Gothic tombs of Popes Clement IV. and Adrian V., and has
an external pulpit of the i5th century. S. Maria della Cella is
noteworthy for one of the earliest campanili in Italy (gth cen-
tury). The town hall, with a mediaeval tower and a 15th-century
portico, contains some Etruscan sarcophagi and a few paintings.
Close by is the elegant Gothic facade of S. Maria della Salute,
in white and red marble with sculptures. The Gothic cloisters
of S. Maria in Gradi and of S. Maria della Verita just outside the
town are strikingly beautiful. The latter church contains frescoes
by Lorenzo da Viterbo (1469) and an interesting museum.
Viterbo is by some identified with Surrina nova, which is only
mentioned in inscriptions, while some place this to the west of Vi-
terbo on the line of the Via Cassia, which was joined here by the
Via Ciminia, passing east of the Lacus Ciminius, while a road
branched off to Ferentum. (See, however, MONTEFIASCONE.) It is
not an unlikely assumption that here, as elsewhere, the mediaeval
town occupies an Etruscan site. It was fortified by the Lom-
bard king Desiderius. It is the centre of the territory of the
"patrimony of Peter," which the countess Matilda of Tuscany
gave to the papal see in the i2th century; in the 13th century it
became a favourite papal residence. (T. A.)
VITOLS, JOSEPH (1863- ), professor, Latvian com-
poser and musician. For the last 30 years Vitols has played a
large part in the musical life of Latvia. Although he studied and
lived for a long time in St. Petersburg (from 1886-1918) as pro-
fessor of the composition classes of the local conservatory, he has
always shown a very special interest in his native country. Al-
ready, during the summer of 1918, before the proclamation of
VITORIA— VITRE
223
Latvia's independence, Vitols came back and took over the
administration of the Lettish opera. A year later (1919) he was
given the office of rector of the musical conservatory of Riga, but
still continued the supervision of the theory and composition
classes. Besides his creative and teaching work Vitols has held,
both in Russia and Latvia, numerous posts where he has been
able to make full use of his great musical ability. He has been
member of the prize distributing committee, president of several
musical committees in the Ministry of Education, musical critic,
etc. He is director of the Latvian State Music Conservatory.
VITORIA, an episcopal city of northern Spain, and capital
of the province of Alava; on the Miranda de Ebro-Alsasua
section of the Northern railways, among the southern outliers
of the Cantabrian mountains, and on the left bank of the river
Zadorra, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro. Pop. (1920) 34,785.
Vitoria was founded in 581 by Leovigild, king of the Visigoths;
but its importance dates from Che loth century. In 1181 Sancho
the Wise of Navarre granted it a charter and fortified it. The
city is built on a hill 1,750 ft. high, and overlooks the plain of
Alava. The cathedral of Santa Maria dates from n8x, but has
been considerably spoiled by late additions: the church of San
Miguel also dates from the i2th century; it has a beautiful
altar, carved in wood by J. Velazquez and G. Hernandez, in the
1 6th century. Vitoria, from its favourable position on the main
lines from Madrid to France and to the port of San Sebastian, is
an important centre of trade in wine, wool, horses, mules and
hardware.
Battle of Vitoria. — For the operations which preceded the
battle of Vitoria see PENINSULAR WAR. On June 21, 1813, the
French army in Spain (about 65,000 men with 150 guns), under
King Joseph Bonaparte, held an extended position in the basin
of Vitoria, south (with the exception of the extreme right) of
the river Zadorra. The left rested on the heights of Puebla, north
of the Puebla Pass, and Puebla de Arganzon, through which ran
the Miranda-Vitoria-Bayonne road, Joseph's line of communica-
tion with France. Thence the line stretched to the ridge of Mar-
garita, the troops so far being under General Gazan, with a sec-
ond supporting line under D'Erlon between Arinez and Hermandad
BATTLE OF
VITORIA
2UTJUNI.I8I3,
The general character of the ground between
the After* Zaaorrsand Baw* wsbrohen *nd
wooded. hll(y4nainter>s«ctadby/n*/>y -*
^Vfrffiuebta do Arganzon i
and a reserve behind Arinez. The right under Reille guarded the
Bilbao-Vitoria road.
There were no troops between Hermandad and Ariaga, except
a mass of cavalry near AH, The Zadorra, fordable in certain
spots only, was spanned by bridges at Puebla de Arganzon,
Nanclares, Villodas, Tres Puentes, Mendoza, Abechuco and
Gamarra Mayor, which French guns commanded; but, for some
reason, none of these had been destroyed. The faults of the
French position and their occupation of it were its extension;
that it was in prolongation of and (on the right especially) very
close to their line of retreat, so that if the right were driven back
this line could be at once seized; that the centre was not strongly
held; and that all bridges were left intact.
The Allies (nearly 80,000, with 90 guns), under Wellington,
had moved from the river Bayas at daylight to attack Joseph, in
four columns, the right being under Hill (20,000, including Moril-
los's Spaniards), the right centre and left centre under Welling-
ton (30,000) and the left under Graham (20,000, including
Longa's Spaniards). As the columns marched across the inter-
sected country between the Bayas and Zadorra, extending from
near Puebla de Arganzon to the Bilbao-Vitoria, road, they kept
touch with each other; and as they nearcd the Zadorra the battle
opened all along the line soon after 10 A.M. Wellington's instruc*
tions to Graham were to undertake no manoeuvre which would sep-
arate his column from those on the right; but, with this proviso, to
seize the Vitoria-Bayonne road if the enemy appeared decidedly
in retreat. Hill after a sharp contest gained the Puebla heights,
too weakly held; and pushing through the pass carried the village
of Subijana de Alava. The right centre column having reached
Villodas, was waiting for Hill to gain further ground, when the
bridge at Tres Puentes was observed to be unguarded, probably
because it was commanded from the south bank; and, the French
attention being now turned towards their flanks, it was surprised
and rushed by Wellington with the Light division, supported
quickly by cavalry and other troops, who maintained themselves
on the south bank. Joseph's centre was partially forced, while his
left was hard pressed by Hill; and, fearing that Gazan and D'Erlon
might be cut off from Reille, he ordered them to withdraw to a
ridge farther back, which they did, holding Arinez in front. Here
there was no hard fighting; but, as Wellington had now passed
three divisions, many guns and the cavalry (which, however, from
the nature of the ground could be but little used) across the
Zadorra, Margarita, Hermandad and Arinez soon fell to the Allies.
On the left, Graham, having turned the heights north of the
Zadorra with Longa's Spaniards, seized Gamarra Menor close
to the Bayonne road. He also with heavy loss carried Gamarra
Mayor and Abechuco, but the bridges south of these villages,
though more than once taken, were always recaptured by Reille.
At length, when a brigade from the Allied centre had been pushed
up from Hermandad against Reille's flank, he withdrew from the
obstinately defended bridges, and before this Gazan and D'Erlon
had also fallen back, fighting, to a third position on a ridge be-
tween Armentia and Ali west of Vitoria. Here, at about 6 P.M.,
they made a last stand, being compelled in the end to yield; and
as Graham, having now crossed the bridges, was close to the
Bayonne road, the main body of Joseph's army fled by a bad cross-
road towards Pampeluna, abandoning artillery, vehicles and bag-
gage (of which an enormous quantity was parked near Vitoria j,
Reille afterwards joining it through Bctonia. The Allies then oc-
cupied Vitoria and pursued the French until nightfall. All Jo-
seph's equipages, ammunition and stores, 143 guns, a million
sterling in money, and various trophies fell into Wellington's
hands, the French loss in men being nearly 7,000, that of the
Allies over 5,000, of whom 1,600 were Portuguese and Spaniards.
This decisive victory practically freed Spain from French domi-
nation. (C. W. Ro.)
VinUfe, a town of north-western France, in the department
of Ille-et-Vilaine, on a hill above the left bank of the Vilaine,
24 m. E. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1926) 6,584. Vitre belonged
in the loth century to the younger branch of the counts of Rennes.
In 1295 it passed to Guy IX., baron of Laval, on his marriage
with the heiress, and afterwards successively belonged to the
families of Rieux, Coligny and La Tre*moille. It was seized by
Charles VIII. in 1488. Protestantism spread under the rule of
the houses of Rieux and Coligny; Vitre became a Huguenot
stronghold; and a Protestant church was established, which was
suppressed at the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. The
estates of Brittany, over which the barons of Vitr6 and of Leon
alternately presided, met here several times. The town largely
retains its mediaeval aspect. The ramparts on the north side
and on the west, consisting of a machicolated wall with towers
at intervals, are still standing. Only one gateway remains of the
original nth century castle; the rest was rebuilt in the i4th and
224
VITRIFIED FORTS— VITTORIO VENETO
1 5th centuries and restored in recent times.
VITRIFIED FORTS, the name given to certain hill-forts
of which the defences consist entirely or to some extent of walls
which have been subjected in a greater or less degree to the action
of fire. Their form is determined by the contour of the summits
which they enclose and generally the plan is simple. The walls
vary in size, the vitrified portion being usually confined to a core
extending from the top downwards, though vitrifaction has been
met with on the sides of the wall only, and in one known instance
a narrow wall consolidated by vitrifaction was found in the heart
of an earthen rampart. As a rule the vitrified mass appears to
have been supported by a wall of unverified stone built up on one
or both faces. No lime or cement has been found in any of these
structures, all of them presenting the peculiarity of being consoli-
dated to a greater or less extent by the fusion of the rocks of
which they are built. This fusion, caused by the application of in-
tense heat, is not equally complete in the various forts, or even in
the walls of the same fort. In some cases the stones are only
partially melted and calcined; in others their adjoining edges are
fused so that they are firmly cemented together. In many in-
stances pieces of rock are enveloped in a glassy enamel-like coating
which binds them into a uniform whole; and at times, though
rarely, the entire length of the wall presents one solid mass of
vitreous substance.
Some 50 examples have been discovered in Scotland widely dis-
tributed. They are also found in Ireland, Lusatia, Bohemia,
Silesia, Saxony and Thuringia; in the provinces on the Rhine,
especially in the neighbourhood of the Nahe ; in the Ucker Lake,
in Brandenburg, where the walls are formed of burnt and smelted
bricks; in Hungary; and in several places in France. They have
not been found in England or Wales.
The following facts may be noted: — (r) The idea of
strengthening walls by means of fire is not singular, or confined
to a distinct race or area, as is proved by the burnt-earth enclosure
of Aztalan, in Wisconsin, and the vitrified stone monuments of
the Mississippi valley. (2) Many of the Primary rocks, particu-
larly the schists, gneisses and traps, which contain large quantities
of potash and soda, can be readily fused in the open air by means
of wood fires — the alkali of the wood serving in some measure as
a flux. (3) The walls are chiefly vitrified at the weakest points,
the naturally inaccessible parts being un vitrified. (4) When the
forts have been placed on materials practically infusible, as on the
quartzose conglomerates of the old red sandstone, as at Craig
Phadraic, and on the limestones of Dun Mac Uisneachain, pieces
of fusible rocks have been selected and carried to the top from a
considerable distance. (5) Many of the continental forts are so
constructed that the fire must have been applied internally, and at
the time when the structure was being erected. (6) Daubree, in
an analysis of vitrified materials taken from four Fren "i forts,
which he submitted to the Academy of Paris in Feb. 1881, found
the presence of natron in such abundance that he inferred that
sea-salt was used to facilitate fusion. (7) In Scandinavia, where
there are hundreds of ordinary forts, and where for centuries a
system of signal fires was enforced by law, no trace of vitrifaction
has yet been detected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — John Williams, An Account of some Remarkable
Ancient Ruins (1777) ; J. Anderson, Scotland in Pagan Times (1886) ;
Christison, Early Fortifications in Scotland; Proceedings of Soc. Antiq.
Scot. vols. viii., xxxix., xl., xlviii.; the inventories of the Royal Com-
mission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland;
Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy; R. Munro, Prehistoric Scotland
(1899) ; Leonhard, Archiv fiir Mineralogie, vol. i. ; Virchow, Ztschr.
fur Ethnologic, vols. iii. and iv. ; Schaaffhausen, Verhandlungen der
deutsch. anthrop. Gesellschaft (1881) ; Kohl, Verhand. d. deutsch.
anthrop. Gesellschaft (1883) ; Thuot, La Forteresse vitrijiee du Puy
de Gaudy, etc.; De Nadaillac, Les Premiers Hommes, vol. i. ;
Mtmoires de la Soc. Antiq. de France, vol. xxxviii. ; Hildebrand, De
Jorhistoriska folken i Europa (Stockholm, 1880) ; Bchla, Die vorge-
schichtlichen Rundwdlle im ostlichen Deutschland (Berlin, 1888) ;
Oppermann and Schuchhardt, Atlas vorgeschichtlicher Befestigungen
in Niedersachen (Hanover, 1888-98) ; Zschicsche, Die vorgeschicht-
lichen Bur gen und Wdlle im Thuringer Zentralbecken (Halle, 1889) ;
Bug, Schlesische Heidenschanzen (Grottkau, 1890) ; Gohausen, Die
Befestigungsweisen der Vorzeit und des Mittelatters (Wiesbaden,
1898) ; Transactions of the Buteshire Natural History Society (1914-
15 and 1925).
VITRIOL, a name given to sulphuric acid and to certain sul-
phates. Oil of vitriol is concentrated sulphuric acid, C.O.V. and
B.O.V. being abbreviations for "commercial" and "brown" oil of
vitriol, respectively. Blue or Roman vitriol is copper sulphate;
green vitriol, ferrous sulphate (copperas) ; white vitriol, zinc sul-
phate; and vitriol of Mars is a basic iron sulphate.
VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO), Roman architect
and engineer, author of a celebrated work on architecture. Nothing
is known of him except what can be gathered from his writings.
Owing to the discovery of inscriptions relating to the gens Vitruvia
at Formiae in Campania (Mola di Gaeta), it has been suggested
that he was a native of that city, and he has been less reasonably
connected with Verona on the strength of an arch of the 3rd
century, which is inscribed with the name of a later architect of
the same family name — "Lucius Vitruvius Cerdo, a freedman of
Lucius." Vitruvius himself says that he was appointed, in the
reign of Augustus, a superintendent of halistae and other military
engines (De Architectura, i. pref.). In another passage (v. i) he
describes a basilica and adjacent aedes Augusti, of which he was
the architect. To a great extent the theoretical and historical
parts of his work are compiled from earlier Greek authors, of
whom he gives a list at i. i and viii. 3. The practical portions are
evidently the result of his own professional experience, and are
written with much sagacity, and in a far clearer style. Vitruvius's
name is mentioned by Frontinus in his work on the aqueducts of
Rome; and most of what Pliny says (Hist. Nat. xxxv. and xxxvi.)
about methods of wall-painting and practical details in building is
taken from Vitruvius, though without any acknowledgment.
The treatise De Architectura Libri Decem is dedicated to
Augustus. Lost for a long time, it was rediscovered in the isth
century at St. Gall; the oldest existing ms. dates from the loth
century. Throughout the period of the classical revival Vitruvius
was the chief authority studied by architects, and in every point
his precepts were accepted as final. Bramante, Michelangelo,
Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects were careful students of the
work of Vitruvius.
The best edition of the De Architectura is by Rose (and cd., Leipzig,
1899) ; see also Nohl, Index Vilruvianus (1876) ; Jollcs, Vitruvs
Aesthetik (1906) ; Sontheimcr, Vitruv und seine Zeit (1908). For
translations, see that by Gwilt (1826; reprinted 1874) ,- and by M. H.
Morgan, with illustrations (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1914).
VITRY-LE-FRANCOIS, a town of north-eastern France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Marne, on the
right bank of the Marne, 20 m. S.E. of Chalons, on the railway
from Paris to Strasbourg. Pop. (1926) 8,314. The Marne-Rhine
canal, the Haute-Marne canal, and the lateral canal of the Marne
unite at Vitry. The present town was built in 1545 on a uni-
form plan by Francis I. to replace the older one of Vitry-en-
Pcrthois, 2j m. to the north-east, burned in the previous year
by Charles V. During the early weeks of the World War Joffre
had his headquarters at Vitry-le-frranc.ois, and it was taken and
retaken in the battle of the Marne (1914).
VITTEL, a watering-place of north-eastern France, in the
department of Vosges, 31 m. W. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1926)
2,693. The cold saline and chalybeate waters are bottled and
exported in large quantities. They are prescribed in cases of
arthritis, dyspepsia, etc. Vittel is a fashionable resort.
VITTORIA, a town of Sicily in the province of Ragusa,
95 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail (42 m. djrect), founded in the
1 7th century. It is a prosperous town in the centre of a fertile
district, with the largest wine trade in Sicily. Pop. (1921) 31,249
(town), 31,997 (commune).
VITTORIO VENETO, a town and episcopal residence of
the province of Treviso, Venetia, Italy, 25 m. by rail N. of Treviso,
466 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 16,162 (town), 24,400 (com-
mune). It is a summer resort, with sulphur and saline springs
(51-8° to 59° F), and was formed in 1879 by the union of
Ceneda (the episcopal see) and Serravalle. The cathedral con-
tains paintings by Pomponio Amalteo (a pupil of Pordenone)
and Tiepolo. At Serravalle is a church with a fine altar-piece
(1547) by Titian and a number of Gothic and Renaissance houses.
It is a seat of the silkworm breeding and silk-throwing industries.
To the north are important hydroelectric plants.
VITTORIO VENETO
225
VITTORIO VENETO, BATTLE OF. This is the title
given to the Battle or, more truly, campaign in which the Austrian
forces on the Italian front were finally overthrown in Oct.
1918. Diaz's plan for the bigger offensive finally decided upon was
to concentrate on the Piave front between Pederobba and Fagare
(east of Treviso), to cross the river and break through by way
of Conegliano to Vittorio Veneto, dividing the Austrian V. and VI.
Armies which held the river line from the sea to Valdobbiadene.
The attack was fixed for Oct. 16, but bad weather and a rise of
the Piave caused a delay.
Italian Plans. — It was decided to open the action with an at-
tack by the IV. Army (nine divisions) in the Grappa sector, with
the double object of drawing the enemy reserves from, the Feltre
sector and of breaking through in this direction. The attack on
the Piave was to be carried out by three armies, the XII., VIII.
and X., of which the first and Iqst had been formed specially for
this offensive. The XII. Army (one French division and three
Italian) was commanded by Gen. Graziani, the commander of the
French troops in Italy; and the X. Army (two British divisions
and two Italian) by Lord Cavan.
The main drive was to be made by the VIII. Army (14 divi-
sions), attacking from below Pederobba to Ponte della Priula. The
XII. Army was to advance northward outside the Piave, while the
X. Army was to attack the right wing of the Austrian V. Army
and form "a defensive flank to cover and protect the principal
manoeuvre of the VIII. Army" (Gen. Diaz's report). On the battle
front from the Brenta to Fagare were massed 41 divisions, 22 in
line and 19 in reserve. Against this force the Austrians had 23
divisions in line and immediate reserve, and 10 more divisions
within reach. The Piave-Grappa front was divided between two
army groups: Boroevic's Piave Group (V. and VI. Armies), from
the sea to Valdobbiadene, and the newly formed Bclluno Group,
under Gen. Goglia, from Valdobbiadene to the Brenta. The dispo-
sition of the Austrian troops and guns showed a fear for the
Grappa positions and a failure to divine the direction of the main
Italian attack. In the Grappa sector the Belluno Group had eight
divisions in line and three in immediate reserve, while the infantry
was backed by some 1,200 guns. The Austrian VI. Army, on the
other hand, with seven divisions in line and two in support, had
only about 500 guns against a mass of over 2,000. Opposite Lord
Cavan's X. Army the right wing of the Austrian V. Army had
three divisions in line and one in support.
Allied Attack Opens.-— The Italian IV. Army, under Gen.
Giardino, attacked at dawn on Oct. 24, and though some headway
was made the enemy put up a very stubborn resistance. Already
a very fine piece of work had been carried out by British troops
of the X. Army, who in the early hours of the same day occupied
the northern part of the long shoal island of the Grave di Popo-
dopoli, crossing the main channel in small flat-bottomed boats
punted by Italian specialist troops (pontieri), and driving back
or capturing the enemy outposts. The general attack should have
followed the next night, but a sudden rise in the river, which was
coming down in heavy flood at fm. an hour, counselled delay. It
was not until the night of Oct. 26, when the southern part of the
Grave di Popodopoli had also been occupied by Italian troops of
the X. Army, that the bridges began to be thrown across the river
for the main attack.
The Crossing of the Piave* — Eleven crossing points were se-
lected, one at Pederobba for the right wing of the XII. Army,
seven on the VIII. Army front, and three for the X. Army, at the
Grave di Popodopoli. The XII. and X. Armies threw their bridges
successfully, but on the VIII. Army front only two of the seven
sets of bridges could be established, both on the north of the Mon-
tello. Next day three bridgeheads were established: opposite Pede-
robba, north of the Montello, and opposite the Grave di Popodop-
oli. The most important advance was made in the latter sector,
where the X. Army succeeded in advancing to a depth of over 2m.
on a front of about 4m. The British XIV. Corps took 3,500 prison-
ers and 2,100 were captured by the Italian VI. Corps.
This was the most successful advance of the day. The bridges
of the VIII. and XII. Armies were all destroyed during the day.
At Pederobba some headway was made, and the troops of the
VIII. Army, who attacked towards Sernaglia, gained about a
mile. But the right wing of the Army (VIII. Corps) was unable
to throw its bridges, and only a detachment of storm-troops
reached the left bank. There was a gap of some 6m. between the.
left wing of the VIII. Army and the British XIV. Corps, which
formed the left wing of the X. Army, and the chief move in the
general manoeuvre was checked. The VIII. Corps had been de-
tailed to push straight for Vittorio Veneto, and the fact that it
had been unable even to start its advance threatened to throw
the whole battle out of gear.
No better fortune attended the efforts made on the following
night to bridge the river east of the Montello. The swift current
and the enemy guns defied all attempts to establish the bridges,
and the engineers suffered very heavy casualties. In spite of
the initial successes, the situation was unsatisfactory, but after
the first failure to cross the river east of the Montello, Gen.
Caviglia, who commanded the VIII. Army and had the general
direction of the attack, had detached the XVIII. Corps from
his reserves to pass under the command of Lord Cavan, cross by
the X. Army bridges, push north and clear the front of the troops
who were held up. The move was entirely successful. The XVIII.
Corps under Gen. Basso crossed the river in the early hours of
Oct. 28 and attacked northward, while the rest of the X. Army
continued its advance.
Position on Oct. 29.— At the close of Oct. 28 the XVIII. Corps
had gained nearly 4m. and had crossed the railway north of the
Priula bridges. The British XIV. Corps had gone right through
the Austrian positions and had patrols out on the Monticano,
while the Italian XL Corps was threatening the enemy troops
on the Lower Piave. The bridgehead was lorn, wide and 4m.
deep. The XII. Army and the left wing of the VIII. had also
made good progress, and at last the VIII. Corps was crossing the
river, between Nervesa and Ponte di Priula. The prospects of the
following day were bright, for the separation of the Austrian V.
and VI. Armies was effected ; and the VI. Army, heavily attacked
in front, was seriously threatened on its left by Basso's XVIII.
Corps.
On the evening of Oct. 29 an Italian flying column entered the
town of Vittorio Veneto. The attacking armies had already taken
33,000 prisoners, and the situation of the Austrian troops on the
Piave was hopeless. Next day resistance broke down, and the
general retirement ordered on the sgth became a complete rout.
The troops on Monte Grappa had hitherto held firm against the
repeated attacks of the IV. Army, and had made many counter-
attacks. But here too, on the night of Oct. 30, a retreat began that
was to turn into a flight.
Austrian Collapse and Armistice. — Late on the evening of
Oct. 30 the Austrian command announced that in view of the dis-
cussions regarding an armistice which were being conducted be-
tween Germany and the United States, "our troops fighting on
Italian soil will evacuate the occupied region." On the same day
the order for a general retreat was given, and that evening, in the
Val Lagarina, Gen. Weber von Webernau, commander of the
Austrian VI. Corps, made a formal demand for an armistice. Next
day he and his staff were taken to the Villa Giusti, near Padua,
and discussions were begun. It was, of course, necessary to com-
municate with Versailles, where the Allied War Council was dis-
cussing a reply to Germany's demand for an armistice.
Meanwhile the fighting continued, and the Austrian armies
crumbled away. The Italian VI. and I. Armies attacked in the
Trentino, and the III. Army, which had crossed the Piave two
days before, was already taking part in the pursuit of Boroevic's
broken divisions. On the night of Nov. 2-3, although the Armis-
tice was not yet signed, the Austrian command issued an order
for the cessation of hostilities. It was at first revoked by the
Emperor Charles, but was reissued and reached the front on the
morning of Nov. 3. The terms were only agreed on verbally on
the afternoon of Nov. 3, and signed at 6.30 P.M.
Conclusion. — When hostilities ceased at 3 P.M. on Nov. 4,
Italian troops were far up the Trentino and into Cadore, and to
the east the line of the old frontier was passed and the middle
waters of the Isonzo were reached. On Nov. 3 Trieste had been
226
VITUS— VIVES
occupied from the sea, and half an hour before the expiration of
the term fixed by the Armistice an Italian force was landed at Zara.
More than 300,000 prisoners had already been counted by the
Italians, and the total figure was in the region of 500,000. A num-
ber of troops who had been cut off were allowed to pass the f ron
tier after being disarmed, but not much more than half of the
Austro-Hungarian troops on the Italian front reached the terri-
tory of the crumbling empire. All material was left behind, includ-
ing some 7,000 guns,
The Austro-Hungarian armies, in spite of bad food and growing
depression, began by putting up a stout resistance. The troops in
the Grappa sector in particular not only resisted firmly but
counter-attacked with great vigour, and punished the Italian IV.
Army very heavily. Giardino lost over 23,000 men, more than
three-fifths of the total casualty list, which exceeded 35,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Italian Supreme Command, Report on the Battle
o] Vittorio Veneto (1919) ; Italian Official Papers, Diario Delia Gutrra
d'ltalia (1923); A. Tosti, La Guerra Italo-Austriaca, 1915-18 (1925).
See also WORLD WAR: Bibliography. (W. K. McC.)
VITUS, ST. (German, Veit; French, Guy). According to the
legend, where he is associated with Modestus and Crescentia, by
whom he had been brought up, St. Vitus suffered martyrdom at
a very early age under the emperor Diocletian. Son of a Sicilian
nobleman who was a worshipper of idols, Vitus was converted
to the Christian faith without the knowledge of his father, was
denounced by him and scourged, but resisted all attacks on his
profession. Admonished by an angel, he crossed the sea to Lucania
and went to Rome, where he suffered martyrdom. His festival is
celebrated on June 15. The Passion of St.. Vitus has no historical
value, but his name occurs in the Martyrologium hieronymiannm.
In 836 the abbey of Corvey, in Saxony, received his relics, and
became a very active centre of his cult. In the second half of
the 9th century, the monks of Corvey, according to HclmokTs
Chronica Slavorum, evangelized the island of Rtigen, where they
built a church in honour of St, Vitus. The islanders soon relapsed,
but they kept up the superstitious cult of the saint (whom they
honoured as a god), returning to Christianity three centuries
later. At Prague, too, there are some relics of the saint, who
is the patron of Bohemia and also of Saxony, and one of the four-
teen "protectors'' (Nothhcljer) of the church in Germany. Among
the diseases against which St. Vitus is invoked is chorea, also
known as St. Vitus' Dance.
See Acta sanctorum, June, Hi. 1013-42 and vi. 137-140; Ribliothcca
hagiographica Latina (Brussels, 1899), n. 8711-23; J. H. Kcssel, "St.
Veit, seine Geschichte, Verchruns und bildliche Darstellungen," in
Jahrbilcher des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunden im Rheinlande (1867),
pp. 152-183. (H. DE.)
VIVALDO, UGOLINO and SORLEONE DE (f. 1291-
1315), Genoese explorers, connected with the first known expedi-
tion in search of an ocean way from Europe to India. Ugolino,
with his brother Guido or Vadino Vivaldo, was in command of
this expedition of two galleys, which he had organized in con-
junction with Tedisio Doria, and which left Genoa in May 1291
with the purpose of going to India "by the Ocean Sea" and
bringing back useful things for trade. Planned primarily for
commerce, the enterprise also aimed at proselytism. With two
Franciscan friars and well-armed galleys, Ugolino sailed down
the Morocco coast to Gozora (Cape Nun), in 28° 47' N., after
which nothing more was heard of him. Early in the next (i4th)
century, Sorleone de Vivaldo, son of Ugolino, undertook a search
for his father, and even penetrated, it is said, to Magadoxo on
the Somali coast. In 1455 another Genoese seaman, Antoniotto
Uso di Marc, sailing with Cadamosto in the service of Prince
Henry the Navigator of Portugal, claimed to have met, near the
mouth of the Gambia, the last descendant of the survivors of
the Vivaldo expedition.
See Jacopo Doria, "Annales" (under A.D. 1201) in Pert/, Monu-
ntcnta Gcrmaniae historica. Script ores, xviii. 335 (1863); the
"Cono<;imicnto do todos los Reinos," ed. Marcos Jimenez de la
Espada in the Boletin of the Geographical Society of Madrid, vol ii
No. 2, pp. 111, 113, 117-118 (Madrid, Feb. 1877); Canale, Oegli
antichi navigator! e scopritori Cenovesi (Genoa, 1846) ; G. H. Pertz,
Der dlteste Versnch zur Entdeckung des Seeiveges nack Ostittdien
(1859) ; Annali di Geografia e di Statistica composti .'. . da Giacomo
Grdberg (Genoa, i8oa) ; Belgrano, ". . . Annali . . . di Caffaro,? in
Archiv. Stvr. Ital., 3rd series, ii. 124, etc., and in Atti della Soc. Lie.
di Storia Patria, xv. 320 (1881) ; W. Heyd, Histoire du commerce du
Levant (the improved French edition of the Geschichte des Levante-
handels), ii. 140-143 (1886) ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geogra-
phy, iii. 413-419, 551 (Oxford, 1906).
VIVARINI, the surname of a family of painters of Murano
(Venice), who worked in' Venice in the isth century and played
an important part in the development of the Venetian school. The
family appears to have come to Murano from Padua.
ANTONIO VIVARINI (1415-1484) worked at first in conjunction
with his brother-in-law, Johanes Alamanus, who appears to have
been a German by birth. They were the founders of the school
of Murano. The Venice academy contains their chief joint work,
"The Madonna Enthroned with the Doctors of the Church,"
painted for the Scuola della Carita in 1446. Other works are in
the churches of S. Zaccaria (1443) and S. Pantaleone (1444). In
1447 they worked in Padua on paintings no longer extant, and in
the following year undertook the decoration of the ceiling of the
Ovetari chapel in the Eremitani church in that city. The National
Gallery has two wings with "Saints" of an altarpiece of which the
central panel is now in the Poldi Pezzoli collection, Milan. On the
death of Johanes (c. 1450) Antonio worked with his younger
brother, Bartolommeo on the altarpiece now in the Gallery of
Bologna (1450).
BARTOLOMMEO VIVARINI (active 1450-1499), was a pupil of his
brother Antonio and of Johanes Alamanus. He also studied in
Padua, and Paduan influences appear in the altarpiece at Bologna
mentioned above, which he executed with his brother in 1450.
But he soon outstripped his elder brother and became the head of
the school of Murano. His earliest work extant is "The Virgin
and Child" of the Hugh Lane collection, signed and dated 1448.
The St. John Capistrano of 1459 in the Louvre displays the statu-
esque qualities typical of his style. The ornate character of the set-
tings, the gold work and the festoons which he often introduces,
recall the school of Padua, and in the '6os he seems to have come
under Mantegna's influence (altarpiece in the Venice academy
[1464] and the "Virgin Enthroned" in the Naples museum
[1465]). He reached his height in the stern and majestic "St.
Augustine" (1473) in SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice.
ALVISE VIVARINT (c. 1446-1503) was a pupil of his uncle, Bar-
tolommeo, whose influence is evident in his early work the poly-
ply th of 1475 at Montefiorentino. His style, however, is more
elegant and refined. He learned much from Antonello da Messina,
as is evident in the exceedingly plastic male portraits in the
Carrara collection at Bergamo and in the National Gallery,
London. The most important work of his earlier years is "The
Virgin Enthroned and Saints" (c. 1485) in the Berlin museum.
His later paintings imitate Giovanni Bellini, as for instance the
Madonnas in the Vienna museum (1489) and in the churches of
the Redentore and S. Giovanni in Brugora, Venice. In the latter
church is a "Resurrection," interesting for its unusual and decora-
tive composition.
See L. Testi, Storia della Pittura Veneziana (Bergamo, 1900-15)
(I. A. R.)
VIVERO, a town of north-western Spain, in the province
of Lugo; on the Ria de Vivero, an estuary formed by the river
Landrove, which here enters the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1920)
12,490. Vivero is an old-fashioned town, connected with the
opposite bank of the estuary by a bridge of twelve arches and
a causeway. Its fishing fleet, its coasting trade and the agri-
cultural products of the fertile country around are important.
VIVES, JUAN LUIS (1492-1540), Spanish scholar, was
3orn at Valencia on March 6, 1492. He studied at Paris from
1509 to 1512, and in 1519 was appointed professor of humanities
at Louvain. At the instance of his friend Erasmus he published
in 1522 an elaborate commentary on Augustine's De Civitate Dei
with a dedication to Henry VIII. Soon afterwards he was in-
vited to England, and is said to have acted as tutor to the prin-.
cess Mary, for whom he wrote De ratione studii puerilis epistolae
duae (1523). He resided at Corpus Christi college, Oxford,
where he was made doctor of laws and lectured on philosophy.
Having declared himself against the king's divorce from Catherine
VIVIANI-— VIVISECTION
227
of Aragon, he lost the royal favour and was confined to his house
for six weeks. On his release he withdrew to Bruges, where he
wrote numerous works, chiefly directed against scholasticism and
the preponderant authority of Aristotle. His chief work is the
De Causis corruptarum artium, which has been ranked with
Bacon's Organon. In 1538 Vives published the De aninta et vita,
one of the first modern works on psychology. Neither Descartes
(1596-1650), nor Francis Bacon (1561-1626), were the first
Renaissance writers to give their attention to psychological the-
ory, as is commonly supposed. Bacon, it is true, was the most
influential advocate of the empirical scientific method of the iyth
century, but Vives preceded him in emphasizing induction as a
method of philosophical and psychological discovery. In his pref-
ace to the De anima, Vives accuses the ancients of having in-
volved themselves in great absurdities; and in the first book he
abjures the traditional manner of asking the metaphysical ques-
tion, "What is the soul?" by saving, "What the soul is, is of no
concern for us to know. What its manifestations are, is of great
importance." And in his discussion of the mind he continued his
point of view; he did not refer to the essence of mind but con-
cerned himself with the actions of the mind. His central idea is
that knowledge is of value only when it is put to use. He then
discusses association of ideas, the nature of memory, a proposed
law of forgetfulness, the method of recall of an idea; he explained
the principle of mnemonics, and even touched on animal psy-
chology. In the second book he describes in detail the functions
of the simplex intelligentia (simple apprehension); and in the
third book, he examines the emotions or passions. The De disci-
plinis (1531), and the Linguae latinac exercitatio (1539), are the
great pedagogical works of Vives, the former probably the greatest
Renaissance book on education. Juan Luis Vives died at Bruges
on May 6, 1540.
A complete edition of his works was published by Gregorio Mayans
y Siscar (Valencia, 1782). Aclolfo Bonilla y San Martin's Luis Vives y
la filosofia del renacimiento (Madrid, 1903) is a valuable study with
an exhaustive bibliography. Sec also G. Hoppc, Die Psychologic von
Juan Luis Vives (IQOI).
VIVIANI, RENE (1863-1925), French politician, was born
at Sidi-bel-Abbes, Algeria, on Nov. 8, 1863. While still a young
man, he made a considerable reputation as a lawyer, and in 1893
was elected Socialist deputy for Paris. It was not until the close
of his life that he left the Chamber to enter the Senate. In Oct.
1906 he was placed by Clemenccau at the head of the recently-
created ministry of labour. In the following month he made a
famous speech in the Chamber, in which he affirmed his atheistic
belief. For these views he was often severely criticized subse-
quently. "We have put out the lights of heaven," he said, "and
they will never be lit again." Viviani was responsible for the law
with regard to workmen's pensions. In July 1909 when Briand
succeeded Clemericeau as premier, Viviani continued to be min-
ister of labour. In Oct. 1910, in consequence of the attitude
adopted by the Government in regard to the threatened railway
strike, he tendered his resignation. In Dec. 1913 he became
minister of public instruction in the Doumergue cabinet.
In June 1914 Viviani became premier and minister for foreign
affairs. He was on his way back from Russia with Poincar6
when the Austrian ultimatum was issued against Serbia on July
23. He immediately withdrew the French troops 10 km. behind
the frontier to prove France's pacific attitude. When Germany de-
clared war he made a magnificent speech in the chamber which
had an electrifying effect on his audience. On Oct. 29, 1915 he
was succeeded as premier by Briand, in whose Government he
became minister of justice. After the fall of the Briand cabinet
in March 1917 he lived in retirement, but he accompanied M.
Briand to the Washington Conference in 1921 as one of the
leading French delegates. He died at Clamart (Seine) on Sept.
7, 1925, after a long and painful illness. Viviani's eloquence, with
its wealth of imagery and brilliant metaphor, has seldom if ever
been equalled in the French Parliament. But it was, above all,
the role he played during the tragic events of July and Aug. 1914
which caused his name to go down to history. (P. B.)
VIVIANITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated iron phos-
phate Fe3(P04)2-f~8H20, crystallizing in the monoclinic system.
The crystals possess a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of
symmetry and are usually bladed in habit; they are very soft,
flexible and sectile. When unaltered and containing no ferric
oxide, the mineral is colourless, but on exposure to the light it
very soon becomes of a characteristic indigo-blue colour. Crys-
tals were first found in Cornwall by J. G. Vivian, after whom
the species was named in 1817. The mineral had, however, been
earlier known as a blue powdery substance, called "blue iron-
earth," met with in peat-bogs, in bog iron-ore, or with fossil bones
and shells.
VIVISECTION. The term ix>pularly applied to experiments
on animals (see ANIMALS, EXPERIMENTS ON). Even in the early
days of legislation on the subject when physiology was in its
infancy, the name was only in a measure accurate, as cutting
experiments formed but a portion of the experiments on animals.
Investigations on body temperature, respiration, digestion, the
action of drugs, in many instances involved no cutting operation of
any kind; still they were included under the general name of vivi-
section because they were carried out on living animals. At the
present time, though the number of animal experiments in Great
Britain and the civilized world generally has increased propor-
tionately with the modern greater pursuit of medical knowledge in
all its branches, cutting experiments form an insignificant propor-
tion of the whole. Probably it is true to say that the procedure in
over 90% of so-called vivisection experiments consists in nothing
more formidable than a prick with a hypodermic needle and the
injection of a small quantity of fluid or of solid tissue beneath the
skin of a mouse, rat, guinea-pig or rabbit. That, in some instances,
a disease is thereby conveyed to the animal, is true, but this is
only a stage in the endeavour to elucidate the nature of the dis-
ease in question and to devise a means for combating it whether
the disease be one affecting man or one of the domestic animals.
That experiment in the broadest sense is necessary to the
advancement of knowledge, cogitation alone being insufficient, has
been shown by every branch of science. Indeed, it has been said
that without experiment no substantial advance in knowledge of
the physical sciences has occurred and the example of volcanic
action has been adduced. We know, to-day, little more concerning
volcanoes than was known centuries ago because we cannot
experiment with volcanoes; such additional knowledge as we pos-
sess depends upon experiments on explosives conducted on a small
scale. In the case of medical science living men and animals are
concerned. In the case of human disease an earlier investiga-
tion has almost always been carried out on lower animals. As
examples may be given the antitoxin treatment of diphtheria, the
prophylactic vaccine inoculation for typhoid and paratyphoid
fevers, the insulin treatment of diabetes. By most persons it is
held that the testing of a hypothesis in medicine should, in the
first instance, be carried out on lower animals. By some it is con-
sidered that the attainment of manual dexterity in the perform-
ance of surgical operations should also be carried out by practice
on lower animals, but this is forbidden by law in Great Britain.
The essence of "vivisection" consists in the fact that the experi-
ment is conducted in the pursuit of knowledge and the term
has lost, to a large extent, its etymological meaning of cutting
with a knife and, in general, implies experiments on living animals
carried out for the advancement of medical knowledge. Breeding
and feeding experiments carried out by the farmer for the
improvement of his stock, operations such as gelding, docking
and de-horning are not included under the term.
The extent to which the British law on animal experiment is
applicable is shown by the following example. In the bacterial
treatment of sewage at a certain town the effluent was so clear
that an ornamental pool was made and some goldfish were placed
therein. It was held that this constituted an animal experiment
under the act inasmuch as it was not known that the fish would
not be injured thereby. The example is useful as showing the
vigilance of the authorities over the unquestioned rights of lower
animals as determined by law.
No account of animal experiment would be complete without
reference to the opposition that such experiments have aroused in
228
VIZAGAPATAM— VLACHS
certain countries. In England "anti-vivisectionists" have formed
a society and published a journal. There are two lines of thought,
one that aims at total abolition, another that wishes experiments
on dogs to be prohibited. To combat these views the Research
Defence Society was founded in 1908 and issues literature on the
subject from time to time. The main argument of anti-vivisec-
tionists is that man is not morally justified in profiting by experi-
ments at the expense of lower animals. Arising from this principle
it is contended (i) that the friendship of the dog and the cat for
man and their trustfulness render experiments on them particu-
larly undesirable; (2) that such experiments tend to injure the
moral character of the operator; (3) that many of the beneficial
results ascribed to animal experiments have been dependent upon
other causes than the experiments; (4) that in numerous instances
there is difference of opinion even amongst experimenters; and
(5 ) that lower animals and man differ so greatly that application of
results obtained in lower animals to man is unjustifiable. These
contentions are controverted by the other party. Probably natural
mental attributes ultimately determine whether animal experi-
ment is viewed with approval or disapproval, but either view to be
respected must be based upon extensive and accurate knowledge,
accurate statement and sincerity. Unfortunately these are not
always manifested by protagonists. (W. S. L-B.)
VIZAGAPATAM, a town and district of British India, in
the Madras presidency. The town stretches along the coast, and
has a station on a short branch of the East Coast railway, 484
m. N.E. of Madras. Pop. (1921) 44,711. It lies on a small bay.
The town or fort, as it is called, is separated from the southern
promontory, the Dolphin's Nose, by a small river, which forms
a bar where it enters the sea. The port is growing in importance,
as the only protected harbour on the coast, though large vessels
have to lie i m. off shore. A harbour was in course of construc-
tion in 1929. It will be developed by the Bengal-Nagpur rail-
way company, under government control, to supply an outlet
for the fertile east coast area. An English factory was estab-
lished here early in the i/th century, which was captured by the
French in 1757, but shortly afterwards recovered. The town owes
much to the munificence of the neighbouring raja of Vizianagram.
A water supply has been provided. Waltair at the north end
of the bay is the European quarter and a health resort. The
exports by sea include manganese ore, ground nuts and sugar.
The DISTRICT OP VIZACAPATAM has an area of 4,568 square
miles. It is a picturesque and hilly country, but for the most
part unhealthy. The main portion is occupied by the
Eastern Ghats, whose slopes are clothed with luxuriant vegeta-
tion and forest trees. The drainage on the east is carried by
numerous streams direct to the sea, and that to the west flows
into the Godavari through the Indravati or through the Sabari
and Siller rivers. To the west of the range is situated the greater
portion of the extensive zamindari of Jaipur, which, is for the
most part very hilly and jungly. In the extreme north a remark-
able mass of hills, called the Nimgiris, rise to a height of 5,000
ft. There are great varieties of climate. The average annual rain-
fall at Vizagapatam exceeds 40 inches. Pop. (1921) 2,231,874.
The principal crops are rice, millets, pulses and oil-seeds, with
some sugar-cane, cotton, spices and tobacco. Manganese is largely
mined, and a little bauxite worked.
On the dissolution of the Mogul empire Vizagapatam formed
part of the territory known as the Northern Circars, which were
ceded to the East India Company by treaties in 1765 and 1766.
The Agency, a hilly inland tract which formed more than two-
thirds of the district, has recently been incorporated with the
agencies of Ganjam and Godavari into a new division.
VIZETELLY, HENRY (1820-1894), English publisher,
was born in London on July 30, 1820, the son of a printer. He was
early apprenticed as a wood engraver, and one of his first blocks
was a portrait of "Old Parr." Vizetelly started and conducted sev-
eral illustrated papers, and then acted as correspondent of the
Illustrated London News in Paris and then in Berlin. In 1887 he
established a publishing house in London, issuing numerous
translations of French and Russian authors. In 1888 he was
prosecuted for publishing a translation of Zola's La Terrc, and was
fined £100; and when he reissued Zola's works in 1889 he was
again prosecuted, fined £200 and imprisoned for three months.
He died on Jan. i, 1894.
See his Glances back through Seventy Years (1893).
VIZEU or VISEU, a Portuguese episcopal city at the terminus
of a branch of the Figueira da Foz-Guarda railway. Pop. (1911)
8,167. The city stands near the ruins of the ancient Vacca, or
Cava de Viriato, a Roman military colony founded by Decius
Brutus and captured by Viriathus (2nd century B.C.). The ad-
ministrative district of Vizeu coincides with the central and
northern parts of the ancient province of Beira (q.v.). Pop.
(1920), 404,864; area, 1,937 sq.m.
VIZIANAGRAM, a town of British India, in the Vizagapa-
tam district of Madras, 17 m. from the seaport of Bimlipatam,
on the East Coast railway, 522 m. N.E. of Madras. Pop. (1921)
39,299. It has a small military cantonment. It contains the resi-
dence of a zamindar of the same name, who ranks as the first
Hindu nobleman of Madras. His estate covers about 3,000 sq.m.,
with a population of 900,000.
VIZIER, more correctly VIZIR (Arabic Wazlr), literally "bur-
den-bearer" or "helper," originally the chief minister or repre-
sentative of the Abbasid caliphs (see MOHAMMEDAN INSTITU-
TIONS; CALIPHATE; and BARMECIDES).
VLAARDINGEN, a river port of Holland, in the province
of South Holland, on the Maas, 6 m. W. of Rotterdam by rail.
Pop. (1927), 27,236. A very old town and the seat of a former
margraviatc belonging to the counts of Holland, Vlaardingen is
now chiefly important as the centre of the great herring and cod
fisheries of the North Sea.
VLACHS. The Vlach (Wallach) or Ruman race constitutes
a distinct division of the Latin family of peoples, widely dis-
seminated throughout south-eastern Europe, both north and south
of the Danube, and extending sporadically from the Bug to the
Adriatic. The total numbers of the Vlachs may be approximately
estimated at from 9,000,000 to 11,000,000. Of these the vast
majority reside in the kingdom of Rumania, as enlarged by the
World War. South of the Danube, a now diminishing number are
scattered over northern Greece under the name of Kutzo("lame")-
Vlachs, Tzintzars or Aromani. In Serbia this element is prepon-
derant in the Timok valley, while in Istria it is represented by the
Cici, at present largely Slavonized, as are now entirely the kindred
Morlachs of Dalmatia. In Bulgaria Vlachs are found chiefly in
the western Rhodopes.
A detailed account of the physical, mental and moral charac-
teristics of the Vlachs, their modern civilization and their his-
torical development, will be found under the headings RUMANIA
and MACEDONIA. All divisions of the race, whether inhabitants
of the kingdom of Rumania or not, prefer to style themselves Ro-
mani, Romeni, Rumeni or Aromaw. The name "Vlach" (Slav
Volokh or Woloch, Greek Vlachoi, Magyar Ol6h, Turkish Iffldk),
which is now used by the Rumans themselves, represents a Slavonic
adaptation of a generic term applied by the Teutonic races to all
Roman provincials during the 4th and 5th centuries.
The Vlachs claim to be a Latin race in the same sense as the
Spaniards or Provencals — Latin by language and culture, and,
in a smaller degree, by descent. This claim is generally accepted
by ethnologists. The language of the Vlachs is Latin in structure
and to a great extent in vocabulary; their features and stature
would not render them conspicuous as foreigners in south Italy;
and that their ancestors were Roman provincials is attested not
only by the names "Vlach" and "Ruman" but also by popular
and literary tradition. In their customs and folk-lore both Latin
and Slavonic traditions assert themselves. Of their Roman tra-
ditions the Trajan saga, the celebration of the Latin festivals of
the Rosalia and Kalcndae, the belief in the striga (witch), the
names of the months and days of the week, may be taken a^
typical examples. Some Roman words connected with the Chris-
tian religion, like biserica (basilica) — a, church, botez=baptizo,
duminica— Sunday, preot (presbyter)— priest, point to a continu-
ous tradition of the Illyrian church, though most of their ecclesi-
astical terms, like their liturgy and alphabet, were derived from
the Slavonic. In most that concerns political organization the
VLACHS
229
Slavonic element is also preponderant, though there are words
like imp&rat—imperator, and domn=dominus, which point to
the old stock. Many words relating to kinship are also Latin, some,
like vitrig (vitrictis)— father-in-law, being alone preserved by
this branch of the Romance family.
The centre of gravity of the Vlach race Is at present unques-
tionably north of the Danube in the almost circular territory be-
tween the Danube, Theiss and Dniester ; and corresponds roughly
with the Roman province of Dacia, formed by Trajan in A.D. 106.
From this circumstance the popular idea has arisen that the race
itself represents the descendants of the Romanized population of
Trajan's Dacia, which was assumed to have maintained an un-
broken existence in Walachia, Transylvania and the neighbouring
provinces, under the dominion of a succession of invaders. The
Vlachs of Pindus, and the southern region generally, were re-
garded as later immigrants from the lands north of the Danube.
In 1871, E. R. Rocsler published at Leipzig his Romamsche
Studien, in which he absolutely denied the claim of the Rumanian
Vlachs to be regarded as autochthonous Dacians. He laid stress
on the statements of Vopiscus and others as implying the total
withdrawal of the Roman provincials from Trajan's Dacia by
Aurelian, in A.D. 272, and on the non-mention by historians of a
Latin population in the lands on the left bank of the lower Dan-
ube, during their successive occupation by Goths, Huns, Gepidae,
Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and other barbarian races. He found the
first trace of a Ruman settlement north of the Danube in a
Transylvanian diploma of 1222. His conclusions had to a great
extent been already anticipated by F. J. Sulzer in his Geschichte
des Transalpinischen Daciens, published at Vienna in 1781, and at
a still earlier date by the Dalmatian historian Lucius of Trail
in his work De Regno Dalmatian et Croatiae (Amsterdam, 1666).
They found a determined opponent in Dr. J. Jung, of Innsbruck,
who upheld the continuity of the Roman provincial stock in
Trajan's Dacia, disputing from historic analogies the total with-
drawal of the provincials by Aurelian; and the reaction against
Roesler was carried still farther by J. L. Pic, Prof. A. D. Xenopol
of Jassy, B. P. Hasdeu, D. Onciul and many other Rumanian
writers, who maintain that, while their own race north of the
Danube represents the original Daco-Roman population of this
region, the Vlachs of Greece are similarly descended from the
Moeso-Roman and Illyro-Roman inhabitants of the provinces
lying south of the river. On this theory the entire Vlach race
occupies almost precisely the same territories to-day as in the
3rd century.
On the whole it may be said that the truth lies between the two
extremes. Roesler is no doubt so far right that after 272, and
throughout the early middle ages, the bulk of the Ruman people
lay south of the Danube. But it is reasonable to suppose a Latin-
speaking population continuing to exist in the formerly thickly
colonized area embracing the present Transylvania and Little
Walachia, with adjoining Carpathian regions.
Early Migrations. — We may therefore assume that the Latin
race of eastern Europe never wholly lost touch with its former
trans-Danubian strongholds. It was, however, greatly diminished
there. The open country, the broad plains of what is now Rumania
and the Banat were in barbarian occupation. The centre of gravity
of the Roman or Romance element of Illyricum had now shifted
south of the Danube. By the 6th century a large part of Thrace,
Macedonia and even of Epirus had become Latin-speaking.
What had occurred in Trajan's Dacia in the 3rd century was
consummated in the 6th and 7th throughout the greater part of
the South-Illyrian provinces, and the Slavonic and Avar conquests
severed the official connection with eastern Rome. The Roman
element was swept hither and thither by the barbarian flood.
Nomadism became an essential of independent existence, while
large masses of homeless provincials were dragged as captives to
be distributed in servile colonies. They were thus in many cases
transported by barbarian chiefs — Slav, Avar and Bulgarian — to
trans-Danubian and Pannonian regions. The earliest Hungarian
historians who describe the Magyar invasion of the 9th century
speak of the old inhabitants of the country as Romans, and of the
country they occupied as Pascua Romanorwn\ and the Russian
Nestor, writing about noo, makes the same invaders fight against
Slavs and Vlachs in the Carpathians. So far from the first mention
of the Vlachs north of the Danube occurring only in 1222, it
appears from a passage of Nicetas of Chonae that they were to be
found already in 1164 as far afield as the borders of Galicia; and
a passage in the Nibelungenlied, which mentions the Vlachs, under
their leader Ramunc, in association with the Poles, cannot well be
later than 1200.
Nevertheless, through the early middle ages the bulk of the Ru-
man population lay south of the Danube. It is here that this new
Illyrian Romance race first rises to historic prominence. Already
in the 6th century, as we learn from the place-names, such as
Sceptecasas, Burgualtu, etc., given by Procopius, the Ruman lan-
guage was assuming, so far as its Latin elements were concerned,
its typical form. In the later campaigns of Commentiolus (587)
and Priscus, against the Avars and Slavs, we find the Latin-speak-
ing soldiery of the Eastern emperor making use of such Romance
expressions as tornafratel (turn, brother!), or sculca (out of bed)
applied to a watch (cf. Ruman a se culca= Italian coricarsi-\-
£*-[•?-] privative). Next we find this warlike Ruman population
largely incorporated in the Bulgarian kingdom, and, if we are
to judge from the names Pagan us and Sabinus, already supplying
it with rulers in the 8th century. The blending and close contact
during this period of the surviving Latin population with the
Slavonic settlers of the peninsula impregnated the language with
its large Slavonic ingredient. The presence of an important Latin
element in Albanian, the frequent occurrence of Albanian words
in Rumanian, and the remarkable retention by both languages of
a suffix article, may perhaps imply that both alike took their
characteristic shapes in the same region.
Byzantium, which had ceased to be Roman, and had become
Romanic, renewed its acquaintance with the descendants of the
Latin provincials of Illyricum through a Slavonic medium, and
applied to them the name of Vlach, which the Slav himself had
borrowed from the Goth. The first mention of Vlachs in a Byzan-
tine source is about the year 976, when Ccdrcnus (ii. 439) relates
the murder of the Bulgarian tsar Samuel's brother ''by certain
Vlach wayfarers/' at a spot called the Fair Oaks, between Castoria
and Prespa. From this period onwards the Ruman inhabitants of
the Balkan peninsula are constantly mentioned by this name, and
we find a series of political organizations and territorial divisions
connected with the name of Vlachia. A short synopsis may be
given of the most important of these, outside the limits of
Rumania itself.
Political and Territorial Divisions. — i. The Bulgaro-
Vlach Empire. — After the overthrow of the older Bulgarian
tsardom by Basil "the Bulgar-slayer" (976-1025), the Vlach
population of Thrace, Hacmus and the Moesian lands passed once
more under Byzantine dominion; and in 1185 a heavy tax, levied
in kind on the cattle of these warlike mountain shepherds, stirred
the Vlachs to revolt against the emperor Isaac Angelus, and under
the leadership of two brothers, Peter and Asen, to found a new
Bulgaro-Vlachian empire, which ended with Kaliman II. in 1257.
The dominions of these half-Slavonic half-Ruman emperors ex-
tended north of the Danube over a great deal of what is now
Rumania, and it was during this period that the Vlach population
north of the river seems to have been most largely reinforced. The
13th-century French traveller Rubruquis speaks of all the country
between the Don and Danube as Asen's land or Blakia.
2. Great Walachia (NLty&Xf} BXaxta). — It is from Anna Com-
nena, in the second half of the nth century, that we first hear of
a Vlach settlement, the nucleus of which was the mountainous
region of Thessaly. Benjamin of Tudela, in the succeeding cen-
tury, gives an interesting account of this Great Walachia, then
completely independent. It embraced the southern and central
ranges of Pindus, and extended over part of Macedonia, thus
including the region in which the Roman settlers mentioned in
the Acts of St. Demetrius had fixed their abode. After the Latin
conquest of Constantinople in 1204, Great Walachia was included
in the enlarged despotat of Epirus, but after passing under the
yoke of the Serb emperor Dushan and other Serbian rulers in the
I4th century, was finally conquered by the Turks in 1393. Many
230
VLADIKAVKAZ— VLADIMIR
of their old privileges were accorded to the inhabitants, and their
taxes were limited to an annual tribute.
3. Little Walachia (Mt/cpd BXaxta) was a name applied by
Byzantine writers to the Ruman settlements of Aetolia and Acar-
nania, and with it may be included "Upper Walachia," or 'Ayo>-
fi\a\l(L. Its inhabitants are still represented by the Tzintzars of
the Aspropotamo and the Karaguni (Black Capes) of Acarnania,
4. The Morhichs (Mavrovlachi) of the West. — These are
already mentioned as Nigri Latini by the presbyter of Dioclea
(c. 1150) in the old Dalmatian littoral and the mountains of
Montenegro, Herzegovina and North Albania. Other colonies
extended through a great part of the old Serbian interior, where is
a region still called Stara Vlaska or "Old Walachia." The great
commercial staple of the cast Adriatic shores, the republic of
Ragusa, seems in its origin to have been a Ruman settlement, and
many Vlach traces survived in its later dialect. In the i4th cen-
tury the Mavrovlachi or Morlachs extended themselves towards
the Croatian borders, and a large part of maritime Croatia and
northern Dalmatia began to be known as Morlacchia. A Major
Vlachia was formed about the triple frontier of Bosnia, Croatia
and Dalmatia, and a "Little Walachia" as far north as Pozega. The
Morlachs have now become Slavonized (see DALMATIA).
5. Cici of I stria. — The extreme Ruman offshoot to the north-
west is still represented by the Cici of the Val d'Arsa and adjoin-
ing Istrian districts. They represent a 15th-century Morlach
colony from the isle of Veglia, and had formerly a wider extension
to Trieste and the counties of Gradisca and Gorz. The Cici have
almost entirely abandoned their native tongue, which is the last
remaining representative of the old Morlach, and f6rms a con-
necting link between the Daco-Roman (or Rumanian) and the
Illyro- or Macedo-Roman dialects.
6. Rumans of Tramylvania and Hungary. — As already stated,
a large part of the Hungarian plains were, at the coming of the
Magyars in the Qth century, known as Pascua Romanorum. At a
later period privileged Ruman communities existed at Fogaras,
where was a Silva Vlachorum, at Marmaros, Deva, Hatzeg, Hun-
yad and Lugos, and in the Banat were seven Ruman districts. Two
of the greatest figures in Hungarian history, the 15th-century
rulers John Corvinus of Hunyad and his son King Matthias, were
due to this element. For its later history see TRANSYLVANIA.
See J. L. Pi£, Vber die Abstammung der Rumanen (Leipzig, 1880) ;
A. D. Xenopol, Lcs Rottmains au moyen age (Jassy, 1886) ; B. P.
Hasdeu, "Strata si Substratu: Genealogia poporcloru balcanicc," in
Annalele Acadcmict, scr. u, vol. 14 (Bucharest, 1893) ; D. Onciul,
"Romanii in Dacia Traiana," etc., in Encyclopedia Romana, vol. iii.
(Bucharest, 1902) ; A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, The Nomads
of the Balkans (1914).
VLADIKAVKAZ, a town of Russia in the North Caucasian
area, in 43° 3' N., 44° 42' E. Pop. (1926) 73,603. Its name means
"Key of the Caucasus," and it stands on a plateau 2,345 ft. high
on both sides of the Terek river, where the latter issues from the
Darial gorge. Towering above the town is the famous Kasbek
peak. A small fort was established here in 1784, but the expansion
of the town dates from the completion of the great Georgian mili-
tary road southwards through the gorge to Tiflis, which was begun
in 1811 and opened in 1864. Later a railway link was made
through Beslan to the Rostov-Baku line to the north. The great
gorge has much historic importance for the region; through it
came Persian armies and, later, Timur and his Mongol hordes,
and its military road brought about the pacification of the warring
Caucasian frontier tribes and gave Russia her foothold in the
Caucasus.
VLADIMIR, ST. (c. 956-1015), granc^duke of Kiev and of
all Russia, was the youngest son of Svyatoslav I. and his mistress
Malushka. In 970 he received Great Novgorod as his apanage.
On the death of Svyatoslav in 972, a long civil war took place
between his sons Yaropolk and Cleg, in which Vladimir was in-
volved. From 977 to 984 he was in Scandinavia, collecting as
many of the viking warriors as he could to assist him to recover
Novgorod, and on his return marched against Yaropolk. On his
way to Kiev he sent ambassadors to Ragvald, prince of Polotsk, to
sue for the hand of his daughter Ragnilda. The haughty princess
refused to affiance herself to "the son of a bondswoman," but
Vladimir attacked Polotsk, slew Ragvald and took Ragnilda by
force. Subsequently (980) he captured Kiev also, slew Yaropolk
by treachery, and was proclaimed prince of all Russia. In 981 he
conquered the Chervensk cities, the modern Galicia; in 983 he
subdued the heathen Yatvyags, whose territories lay between
Lithuania and Poland; in 985 he led a fleet along the central rivers
of Russia to conquer the Bulgars of the Kama, planting numerous
fortresses and colonies on his way. At this time Vladimir was a
thoroughgoing pagan. He increased the number of the trebiskclta,
or heathen temples; offered up Christians (Theodore and Ivan,
the protomartyrs of the Russian Church) on his altars; had eight
hundred concubines, besides numerous wives; and spent his whole
leisure in feasting and hunting. He also formed a great council out
of his boyars, and set his twelve sons over his subject principalities.
In the year 987, as the result of a consultation with his boyars,
Vladimir sent envoys to study the religions of the various neigh-
bouring nations whose representatives had been urging him to cm-
brace their respective faiths. The result is amusingly described by
the chronicler Nestor. Of the Muslim Bulgarians of the Volga
the envoys reported "there is no gladness among them; only sor-
row and a great stench; their religion is not a good one." In the
temples of the Germans they saw "no beauty''; but at Constanti-
nople, where the full festival ritual of the Orthodox Church was
set in motion to impress them, they found their ideal. "We no
longer knew whether we were in heaven or on earth, nor such
beauty, and we know not how to tell of it." If Vladimir was im-
pressed by this account of his envoys, he was yet more so by the
offer of the emperor Basil II. to give him his sister Anna in mar-
riage. In 988 he was baptized at Kherson in the Crimea, taking the
Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brother-
in-law; the sacrament was followed by his marriage with the
Roman princess. Returning to Kiev in triumph, he converted his
people to the new faith with no apparent difficulty.
The remainder of the reign of Vladimir was devoted to good
works. He founded numerous churches, including the splendid
Desyatinnuy Sobor or "Cathedral of the Tithes" (989), established
schools, protected the poor and introduced ecclesiastical courts.
With his neighbours he lived at peace, the incursions of the savage
Petchenegs alone disturbing his tranquillity. His nephew Svyat-
polk, son of his brother and victim Yaropolk, he married to the
daughter of Boleslaus of Poland. He died at Berestova, near Kiev,
while on his way to chastise the insolence of his son, Prince Yaro-
slav of Novgorod. The various parts of his dismembered body
were distributed among his numerous sacred foundations and were
venerated as relics.
See Memorials (Rus.) published by the Commission for the examina-
tion of ancient documents (Kiev, 1881, etc.); I. Komanin and M.
Istomin, Collection of Historical Materials (Rus.) (Kiev, i8go etc.) ;
O. Partitsky, Scandinavianism in Ancient Russia (Rus.) (Lcmbcrg,
1897) ; A. Lappo-Danilevsky, Scythian Antiquities (Rus.) (St. Peters-
burp;, 1887) ; J. Macquart, Qsteuropaische u. ostasiatisrhe Streijztige
(Ldpxig, 1903) ; L. C. Goetz, Das Kiever Hohlcnkloster als Kulturzen-
trum des vormongvlischen Russlands (Passau, 1904). (R. N. B.)
VLADIMIR^ a province of the Russian S.F.S.R., surrounded
by those of Moscow, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Nizhegorod
and Ryazan, not coinciding with the pre-igiy province of the same
name. Area 30,104 sq. kilometres. Pop. (1926) 1,319,836. It is
part of the Central Russian plateau (800-950 ft.) and is grooved
by river valleys to a depth of 300 to 450 ft., giving the province
a hilly appearance.
The soil is for the most part unfertile, save in the district of
Yuriev, where are patches of black earth, which have occasioned
a good deal of discussion among Russian geologists. Iron ore is
widely diffused, and china clay and gypsum are met with in several
places. The climate is continental, with 5 months' frost, an aver-
age January temperature of 16° F and July 66-5° F, average rain-
fall 1 8 to 20 inches. The province is drained by the Oka and its
tributary, the Klyazma, which is navigable to Kovrov, and in
some parts of summer to Vladimir. Forest, mainly coniferous,
covers 43-7% of the province, and marshes cover vast areas in the
east. There "are many small lakes. Tver is supplied with elec-
tricity from a peat-using station on the Great Ursov bog.
Ploughed land occupies three times the area under pasture, and
VLADIMIRESCU— VOCATIONAL TRAINING
231
cattle raising and dairying are of less importance than in the sur-
rounding provinces. The chief crops are rye (48-1%), oats
(23-1%), and potatoes (11-6%). Buckwheat, flax, hemp, grass,
orchard fruits, especially cherries and apples, and berries are
cultivated. Flax cultivation, which demands much labour, is
more developed than in Moscow province, where the peasants
leave the soil and drift to the factories, but even in Vladimir it
is not cultivated in the factory areas. There is a great develop-
ment of koustar (peasant) textile industries, including the making
of linen and woollen piece stuff and knitted goods. Leather, sheep
skin and felt are prepared, wooden utensils of every kind, and
lapti or shoes made of lime-tree bark. The painting of sacred
pictures (ikons) still continues, though there is far less demand
for them since the revolution. There are smelting, textile, paper,
glass, dyeing, timber, cardboard and boot factories. There are
boiler-shops and seed-pressing mills.
Vladimir is a region of ancient human settlement. Numbers
of Palaeolithic stone implements intermingled with bones of the
mammoth and the rhinoceros, and still greater numbers of Neo-
lithic stone implements, have been discovered. There are burial-
mounds belonging to the Bronze and Iron periods, and containing
decorations in amber and gold; nearly 2,000 such burial-mounds
are scattered round Lake Pleshcheyevo, some of them belonging
to the pagan period and some to the early Christian.
The descendants of Karelian families, settled by Peter the
Great around Lake Pereyaslavl, still preserve their language and
customs, otherwise the province is entirely Great Russian. During
the 1 2th century the principalities of Vladimir, Suzdal and Rostov
were united under one grand prince. In the i3th century the
Mongols under Batu Khan overran the district and ruled it till
1328, when it was annexed to Moscow.
VLADIMIR, the chief town of the above province, known in
history as Vladimir-on-the-Klyazma, to distinguish it from Vladi-
mir in Volhynia. It is picturesquely situated on the Klyazma and
Lybed, in 56° 8' N., 40° 20' E. Pop. (1926) 35,319. The town
is a trading centre on the railway and river between Moscow and
Nizhniy-Novgorod. There arc factories for knitted goods, fruit
juice and bricks, and there are oil-pressing and saw-milling indus-
tries. Extensive cherry orchards occupy the surrounding slopes,
and in each is a small watch-tower, with cords drawn in all direc-
tions to be shaken by the watcher when birds alight. The citadel
stands on a hill and contains two very old cathedrals — the Uspen-
skiy (1150; restored in 1891), where all the princes of Vladimir
have been buried, and the Dmitrievskiy (1197; restored in 1834-
35). Several churches date from the i2th century.
Vladimir first comes into notice in 1151, when Andrei Bogolyub-
skiy secretly left Vyshgorod — the domain of his father in the
principality of Kiev — and migrated to the newly settled land of
Suzdal, where he became (1157) grand prince of the principali-
ties of Vladimir, Suzdal and Rostov. Although Ivan Kalita (1328-
41) made Moscow the real head of the Rus States, Vladimir re-
mained the coronation city of the grand princes until 1431, and
Simeon the Proud, Ivan the Good, Dmitri of the Don and Vasili
I. were crowned here.
VLADIMIRESCU, TUDOR (?-i82i), Rumanian leader,
is first heard of leading a corps of Rumanian volunteers against
the Turks in the wars of 1812. For his services he received a
Russian decoration and the rank of major. After the war the
privileges of the Pandours whom Vladimirescu had led were an-
nulled; but he retained his influence as a national leader. In 1820
he was approached by Georgaki, the assistant of Prince Alexander
Ypsilanti (q.v.) with a request to organize a rebellion to assist
the Greek rising. Vladimirescu raised a Rumanian irregular force,
and although he led this to join Ypsilanti, he preached a Ruma-
nian national crusade, directed precisely against the Phanariot
Greek priests and boyars. The Rumanian peasantry flocked round
him. By Jan. 1821 he was master of all Oltenia, and marched to
Bucharest. Russia, however, failed to support Ypsilanti; instead,
the Turks moved against him. Ypsilanti, finding that Vladimirescu
was aiming at anything rather than a pro-Greek movement, had
him arrested and allowed him to be assassinated at T&rgoviste.
VLADIMIR VOLHYNSKIY: see WLODZIMIERZ-WOLYN-
SKI, a town in the province of Warsaw, Poland.
VLADIVOSTOK (vlah-de-vos-tok'), a port, of Asiatic Rus-
sia, in 43° n' N., 131° 53' E. It stretches along the northern
shore of the Golden Horn, on the slope of a ridge of hills extending
westwards to the shore of Amur bay. It is the most important town
in the Far Eastern Area, though not the administrative centre, and
its easily accessible harbour 4 m. long by i m. broad, kept open
all the winter by ice breakers, has made it the most important
naval and commercial centre on the Russian Pacific coast. Pop.
(1926) 102,454. The commercial port occupies the western part
of the Golden Horn and there is a stone mole about 5,200 ft.
long for berthing and unloading ships; the pontoon stages are
6,300 ft. long; there is storage capacity for 340,000 tons. The
docks include two dry and a floating one and there are nine floating
cranes (30 to 150 tons), one bridge crane and engineering and
repairing yards for ships. Soya bean oil is an important export,
and a tank oil storehouse (capacity 1,900 tons), with four con-
veyers, each having a capacity of 50 tons per hour, has been
constructed. The cargo turnover of the port is between 2,000,000
and 3,000,000 tons; the exports are mainly soya beans, soya bean
oil, bean cake, seeds, timber and fish. Much of both import and
export trade is of a transit character to and from Manchuria,
notably soya beans, tea and salt. Efforts are being made to develop
the fishing industry and a hydrobioiogical station was established
at Basargin peninsula in 1925. On some islands near Vladi-
vostok breeding grounds for reindeer, elk, roebuck and other
animals have been established recently.
Muraviev selected the site after the Treaty of Aigun (1858)
by which the district was ceded to Russia: a railway via Man-
churia and the Trans-Baikal district reached the town in 1897,
though the final link with the trans-Siberian was not completed
till 1917. The full effects of this link have not yet been felt, owing
to the destruction consequent on the prolonged post-tgiy fighting
along the railway. Wireless stations have been established and
there is cable connection to Japan. The opening of the Odessa to
Vladivostok sea route gave a marked impetus to colonisation,
which still goes on via this route to the eastern parts of Siberia.
VOCATIONAL TRAINING. Logically, the term voca-
tional training should include preparation for the practice of
medicine, law and other professions; but it is convenient to
restrict it to courses of regular instruction intended to fit boys
and girls for commerce, domestic life or some branch of industry.
The rapidly growing complexity of industry and commerce and
the intensity of international competition compelled all the pro-
gressive nations to consider the provision of vocational training,
in this senstj, to replace or to supplement the methods of appren-
ticeship (q.v.) which sufficed in simpler times. It is, moreover,
widely held that under the conditions of modern life, especially
in great cities, some form of education, continued through the
critical years of adolescence, is needed to preserve the physical,
intellectual and moral health of the masses of the people; and
vocational training, with its appeal to the practical interests of
young wage-earners, is regarded as particularly effective.
Administration. — In some countries vocational schools are
administered as part of the general educational system. In Eng-
land, for instance, they are provided by the ordinary local
authorities for education and subsidized through the Board of
Education. In other countries vocational training is treated rather
as a distinct educational function.
Types of Courses. — In the chief countries many large cities
provide vocational schools offering "all-day" courses lasting from
two to four years, sometimes in combination with a modified
form of trade apprenticeship. These prepare pupils for office,
business and other commercial activities, or serve, industries such
as agriculture,- engineering, furniture making, upholstery, dress-
making (see TECHNICAL EDUCATION; CONTINUATION SCHOOLS),
which offer scope for highly trained skill or taste, scientific or
technical knowledge and capacity for leadership. But by far
the greatest amount of vocational training is given everywhere
in part-time continuation classes: i.e., classes which provide a
few hours of instruction per week for boys and girls who have left
the elementary schools and have already entered upon some occu-
232
VODENA— VOGEL
pation. In parts of Germany and Czechoslovakia attendance at
continuation classes, generally in the evening and on Sundays,
was long ago imposed upon elementary school leavers; but the
modern tendency, largely influenced by the pioneer work of
Kerschensteiner at Munich, is to require employers to release
their young employees for instruction during working hours. In
England and Germany laws making this system universal and
compulsory have been adopted since the World War, but financial
difficulties in both countries retarded the development.
In some countries "works schools," maintained by employers
for the training of their employees, are an important supplement
to the public provision for vocational education. They are espe-
cially numerous and well-organized in Germany, but in England
met with some disfavour on political and educational grounds.
Finally, it should be noted that programmes of vocational
training almost always include some teaching intended to con-
tinue and widen the student's general education. Instruction in
the duties of citizenship is common, and in many cases attention
is given to physical training and hygienic teaching. (T. P. N.)
UNITED STATES
Trade and industrial training is secured by workers in various
ways: (i) learning on the job by the pick-up method without
educational supervision, (2) learning in shop-training departments
or vestibule schools maintained by employers, (3) learning as in-
dentured apprentices, (4) learning in trade, technical high, con-
tinuation or evening schools and (5) learning in shops and schools
according to some co-operative arrangement between industrial
establishments and the schools.
Vocational education received its first great stimulation in
1906 when the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial
Education was organized for the purpose of extending vocational
education throughout the United States. This society was very
influential and succeeded within a decade of years in marshalling
sufficient legislative support for a national law (the Smith-Hughes
Act passed Feb. 23, 1917), fostering and aiding vocational educa-
tion. Under the terms of this act, Federal financial aid is granted
to public schools offering approved vocational, agricultural, home
economics and trade and industrial education courses of less
than college grade to pupils 14 years of age and older. Support
is also given to teacher-training institutions preparing vocational
teachers, to civilian rehabilitation training and to special voca-
tional researches. The law gives no aid to commercial education.
The law is administered by a Federal Board for Vocational
Education, which includes representatives of labour, agriculture,
manufacturing and commerce. This board operates through State
boards designated by the respective State legislatures to prepare
and develop vocational education programmes which meet with
Federal approval. The passage of the act greatly extended voca-
tional education throughout the United States as may be noted
from the following table:
Date
Number
of reim-
bursement
units
Number of
teachers
Number
of pupils
enrolled
Federal aid
1927
8,6g6
1 8, goo
784,086
$6,73°>305.25
1918 .
•i>74i
5,257
164,186
832,426.82
Increase .
<>»955
*3i<>43
620,800
5,897,878.43
A significant trend in trade and industrial education is the
growing interest in trade apprenticeship. While the old craft
apprenticeship no longer exists, there is a very marked increase
in the number of indentured apprentices learning trades. Appren-
ticeship conforming to modern conditions has been best devel-
oped in the State of Wisconsin, where it has had a legal status
since 1915. Here a contract must be entered into between the
employer and the apprentice whenever employment of a minor
1 6 to 21 years of age is undertaken with the definite understand-
ing that learning the trade is one of the benefits to be conferred
upon the employee. In such cases the employer agrees to fur-
nish the practical instruction. The contracts always state what
must be taught to the apprentice; how much time is to be given
to each unit of instruction; what compensation and bonus, if
any, are to be paid, and the length of the apprenticeship. The
State industrial commission supervises all apprentice relationships,
and no contracts may be broken except by State consent.
Wisconsin's successful experience with this form of trade train-
ing may be gleaned from the fact that Milwaukee, the metropolis
of the State, with 763 indentured apprentices in Jan. 1922, had
1,532 in Jan. 1926.
The vocational guidance movement has gradually extended until
it is now recognized in the United States as a responsibility by
nearly all the schools and colleges and many organizations such
as the Young Men's and Young Women's Christian Associations,
Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, as well as many business organizations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. R. Allen, The Foreman and His Job (1922) ;
C. A. Prosper and C. R. Allen, Vocational Education in a Democracy
(i925) ; C. A. Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education up
to 1870 (1926). ' (W. F. R.)
VODENA, a city of Greek Macedonia in the province of Pella
on the railway from Salonika to Monastir. Pop. about 25,000,
consisting of 14% Slavs and 86% Greeks. It is the ancient
Edessa (q.v.). The town stands on a rocky height commanding
views of Pindus and Olympus and is the see of an archbishop.
VODEYSHANKAR, GOWRISHANKAR (1805-1892),
native minister of the state of Bhaunagar in Kathiawar, Bombay,
was born on Aug. 21, 1805, of a family of Nagar Brahmans. He
rose from being a revenue officer to be state minister in 1847.
His success in this capacity was such that on the death of the
reigning chief, in 1870, he was appointed joint administrator in
concert with a British official. The experiment was in every re-
spect successful. Gowrishankar received the C.S.I, in 1877. He
helped to establish the Rajkumar College at Rajkot, for the edu-
cation of native princes, and also the Rajasthanik Court, which,
after settling innumerable disputes between the land-owning classes
and the chiefs, has since been abolished. In 1879 Gowrishankar
resigned office, and devoted himself to the study of the Vedanta
philosophy which had been his constant solace and guide. In
1884 he wrote a work called Svarupannsandhan, on the union of
the soul with Deity. He died, much revered, in December 1892.
See Javcrital U. Yajnik, Gowrishankar Udayashankar (Bombay,
1889).
VODKA, VODKI or WODKY, the Russian national spir-
ituous beverage. Originally vodka was made almost entirely from
rye, barley malt to the extent of 15 to 20% being used to effect
saccharification (see SPIRITS), but at. the present day potatoes
and maize are the staple raw materials from which this spirit is
manufactured, and, as a rule, green rye malt is now used instead
of barley. During the World War the sale of vodka was prohibited,
and after the revolution of Nov. 1917, the Soviets made an at-
tempt to enforce general prohibition, but failed.
VOGAN, BORIS ANDREYEVICH: see PILNYAK.
VOGEL, SIR JULIUS (1835-1899), British colonial states-
man, son of Albert Leopold Vogel, was born in London on Feb.
24, 1835, was educated at University College school, London, and
emigrated to Victoria during the exciting years which followed
the discovery of goldfields there. He became editor of a news-
paper at Maryborough, stood for the Legislative Assembly and
was defeated, and in 1861 left Victoria, carried in the mining rush
to Otago, New Zealand, where much gold had just been found.
Settling in Dunedin, he bought a half-share in the Otago Daily
Times, and was soon its editor and a member of the Otago Pro-
vincial Council. He made his paper the most influential in the
colony, and was returned to the House of Representatives. In
1866 he was head of the Otago Provincial Executive; by 1869
he had made his mark in the New Zealand parliament, and was
treasurer in the ministry of Sir William Fox. He brought forward
schemes for the construction of trunk railways and other public
works, the purchase of land from the Maori tribes, and the intro-
duction of immigrants, all to be done with money borrowed in
London. For the next six years he was the most powerful man in
the colony. In 1875 he was knighted.
In 1874 Vogel, until that time a supporter of the Provincial
VOGHERA— VOICE
233
system, decided to abolish it. In this, with the aid of Sir E. W.
Stafford and Sir H. A. Atkinson, he succeeded. In the struggle,
however, he broke with many of his old allies, and in 1876 sud-
denly quitted New Zealand to take the post of agent-general in
London. The last years of his life were spent in England. He died
there, at East Molesey, on March 13, 1899.
VOGHERA (anc. 7ra), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Pa via, and 19 m. by rail S.S.W. of that city, 305 ft.
above sea-level, on the Staffora (a tributary of the Po). Pop.
(1921) 20,810 (town); 26,069 (commune). It is on the old main
line from Genoa to Milan via Novi (though the direct line from
Arquata Scrivia to Tortona does not touch it) and a branch di-
verges here to Piacenza.
VOGLER, GEORG JOSEPH (1740-1814), usually known
as Abbe or Abt (Abbot) Vogler, German organist and composer,
was born at Pleichach in Wurzburg on June 15, 1749. His father,
a violin maker, while educating him in the Jesuit college, en-
couraged his musical talent, and at ten years old he could play
the organ, the violin and other instruments. In 1771 he went
to Mannheim, where he composed a ballet for the elector Karl
Theodor, who sent him to Bologna in 1774 to study under the
Padre Martini. He soon left Martini and went to Valotti and
Padua for five months, after which he proceeded to Rome.
There he became a priest, was admitted to the famous academy
of Arcadia and was made a knight of the Golden Spur.
On his return to Mannheim in 1755 Vogler was appointed
court chaplain and second "maestro di cappella."
In 1778 the elector removed his court to Munich. Vogler
followed in 1780, but presently went to Paris, where his new
system was eventually recognized as a continuation of that
started by Rameau. His organ concerts at St. Sulpice attracted
considerable attention. For the queen, he composed the opera
Le Patriotisme, which was produced before the court at Versailles.
His travels were wide, and extended over Spain, Greece, Armenia,
remote districts of Asia and Africa, and even Greenland, in
search of uncorrupted forms of national melody. In 1786 he
was appointed Kapellmeister to the king of Sweden, founded his
second music school at Stockholm, and attained extraordinary
celebrity by his performances on an instrument called the "or-
chestrion"— a species of organ invented by himself. In 1790
he brought this instrument to London, and performed upon it
with great effect at the Pantheon, for the concert-room of which
he also constructed an organ upon his own principles. The abbe's
pedal-playing excited great attention. His most popular pieces
were a fugue on themes from the "Hallelujah Chorus," composed
after a visit to the Handel festival at Westminster abbey, and A
Musical Picture for the Organ, by Knecht, containing the imita-
tion of a storm. Browning's poem has made his name familiar.
He continued to work hard to the last, and died suddenly of
apoplexy at Darmstadt on May 6, 1814.
VOGT, HANS (1890- ), German inventor, was born on
Sept. 25, 1890, at Worlitz, Bavaria, Germany. He began his
career as an inventor in the sphere of high frequency technology,
telephone research and earth current telegraphy. In 1918 he
began to collaborate with Joseph Massolle and Dr. Engl, and this
Jed to the formation of the Triergon-Arbeitsgemeinschaft, which
aimed at the creation of the speaking film. On Sept. 17, 1922,
the first public exhibition of the speaking film was held at the
Alhambra in Berlin. The voice is photographed directly on to
the film band after conversion of the acoustic oscillations, which
are taken with an inertialess microphone (kathodophone), and
are changed by a photoelectric cell into light pulsations. Repro-
duction is effected by an electrostatic telephone with mica mem-
brane (statophone).
VOGTLAND or VOIGTLAND, a district of Germany,
forming the south-west corner of the Republic of Saxony, and also
embracing parts of Thuringia. It is bounded on the north by the
former principalities of Reuss, on the south-east by Czecho-
slovakia, and on the south-west and west by Bavaria. Its character
is generally mountainous, and geologically it belongs to the Erzge-
birge range. It is extremely rich in mineral ores — silver, copper,
lead and bismuth. The name denoted the country governed for
the emperor by a Vogt (bailiff or steward), and was, in the middle
ages, known as terra advocatorum.
VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848-
1910), French author, was born at Nice on Feb. 25, 1848. He
served in the campaign of 1870, and on the conclusion of the
war entered the diplomatic service, being appointed successively
attache to the legations at Constantinople and Cairo and secre-
tary at St. Petersburg (Leningrad). He was almost the first to
draw French attention to Dostoievski and his successors. He
became a member of the French Academy in 1888. He died in
Paris on March 24, 1910.
His works include: Histoires orientates (1879) ; Portraks du sieele
(1883) ; Le Fits de Pierre le Grand (1884) ; Histoires d'hiver (1885) ;
Le Roman russc (1886) ; Regards historiques et litteraires (1892) ;
Coeurs russes (1894) ; Devant le siecle, (1896) ; Jean d'Agreve (1898) ;
Le Rap pel des ombres (1900) ; Le M nitre, de la mer (1903) ; Maxime
Gorky (1905).
VOICE is the sound produced by the vibrations of the vocal
cords, two ligaments or bands of fibrous elastic tissue situated in
the larynx. It is to be distinguished from speech, which is the
production of articulate sounds intended to express ideas. (See
SINGING; and for speech see PHONETICS.)
Physiological Anatomy.— The larynx is a valve guarding the
entrance to the trachea. In man it is used as the organ of voice.
It is situated in the neck, where it forms a well marked promi-
nence in the middle line (sec details under RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).
It consists of a framework of cartilages, connected by clastic mem-
branes or ligaments, and it contains two important structures
known as vocal cords. The latter, if
brought into apposition can be blown apart
by an expiratory blast of air; there is con-
sequently a fall in pressure in the trachea,
which allows the cords to come into contact
again; repetition of this action allows puffs
of air to escape rhythmically from the
larynx into the pharynx and out by the
mouth or nose with the production of a
note.
The cartilages form the framework of
the larynx. They consist of three single
pieces (the thyroid, the cricoid and the
cartilage of the epiglottis) and of three
pairs (two arytenoids, two cornicula
laryngis or cartilages of Santorini, and two
cuneiform cartilages or cartilages of Wris-
berg), see figs, i and 2. The epiglottis, the
FIG. I.--CARTILAGESAND cornicula iaryngi5, the cuneiform cartil-
and the aPices of the arytenoids are
15
13
SURGEONS
1. Epiglottis; 2. lower composed of yellow or elastic fibro-cartil-
comu of hyoid bone; 3. age, whilst the cartilage of all the others is
°.r±r ™;X.w°'d|i£ of the hyalinc varie!y- resembling that of
ment; 5. oartiiago triticea; the costal or rib cartilages. These cartilages
6. upper comu of thyroid; are bound together by ligaments, some of
m»i?r2rtdV£ whid? arc sccn in figs- * and 2> whilst thc
torini; 9. arytenoid cartii- remainder arc represented in fig. 3. The
ages; lo. left lamina of .structures specially concerned in the pro-
thyroid; 11. muscular proc- , .. f • jf • , • ,,
ess of arytenoid cartilage; duction of voice are the inferior thyro-
12. inferior oornu of thy- arytenoid folds, or true vocal cords. These
£cL;i'4. £U!rB!L£ are composed of fine clastic fibres attached
branout wall of trachea; behind to the anterior projection of thc
15. lamina of cricotd car- base of the arytenoid cartilages, processus
1 afle vocalis, see fig. 3, and in front to the mid-
dle of the angle between the wings or laminae of the thyroid
cartilage. They are continuous with the lateral cricothyroid liga-
ments which form the conus elasticus, see fig. 3.
The cavity of the larynx is divided into an upper and lower
portion by the narrow aperture of the glottis or chink between the
edges of the true vocal cords, the rima glottidis. Immediately
above the true vocal cords, between these and the false vocal
cords, there is on each side a recess or pouch termed the ventricle
of Morgagni, and opening from each ventricle there is a still
smaller recess, the laryngeal saccnle, which passes for the space
of half an inch between the superior vocal cords inside and the
234
VOICE
thyroid cartilage outside, reaching as high as the upper border of
that cartilage at the side of the epiglottis. The upper aperture of
the larynx is bounded in front by the epiglottis, behind by the
summits of the arytenoid cartilages and on the sides by two folds
of mucous membrane, the aryteno-epiglottic folds.
The rima glottidis f between the true vocal cords, in the adult
male measures about 23 mm., or
nearly an inch from before back-
wards, and from 6 to 12 mm.
across its widest part, according
to the degree of (Illation. In fe-
males and in males before pu-
berty the antero-posterior diame-
ter is about 1 7 mm. and its trans-
verse diameter about 4 mm. The
vocal cords of the adult male are
in length about 15 mm., and of
the adult female about n mm.
The larynx is lined with a layer of
epithelium, which is closely ad-
herent to underlying structures,
more especially over the true vo-
cal cords. The cells of the epithe-
lium, in the greater portion of the
larynx, are of the columnar cili-
ated variety, and by the vibra-
tory action of the cilia mucus
is driven upwards, but over the
true vocal cords the epithelium FIG.
is squamous. Numerous mu-
cous glands exist in the lining
membrane of the larynx, more
especially in the epiglottis. In
BY COURTESY OF THI CONSERVATOR OP THE
THYROID
2, — CARTILAGES AND LIGA-
MENTS OF THE LARYNX
(Front), (A) epiglottis; (B) hyoid
bone; (C) small oornu of hyoid bone;
(D) middle thyro-hyoid ligament;
(E) great cornu of hyoid bone; (F)
•• , i i i.i small nodules of cartilage (cartilago
each laryngeai pouch there are lrltloet). (Q) ,llert, thyro-hyoid
from sixty to seventy SUCh glands, ligament; <H) left lamina of thyroid-
The Muscles Of the Larynx, cartilage; (!) crloold cartilage; (J)
... . ... lower cornu of thyroid-cartilage; (K)
—We are now in a position to part of crloojc, un,ted to thyroid by
understand the action Of the mitt- middle crico-thyrold ligament; (L)
cles of the larynx by which the 8econd rin° of trachea
vocal cords, forming the rima glottidis, can be tightened or re-
laxed, and by which they can be approximated or separated. Be-
sides certain extrinsic muscles — sterno-hyoid, omohyoid, sterno-
thyroid and thyro-hyoid — which
move the larynx as a whole, there
are intrinsic muscles which move
the cartilages on each other.
These muscles arc (a) the crico-
thyroid, (b) the posterior cri-
co-arytenoid, (c) the lateral
crico-arytenoid, (d) the thyro-
arytcnoid, (c) the arytenoid, and
(/) the aryteno-epiglottidean.
Their actions will be readily un-
derstood with the aid of the dia-
grams in fig. 5. (i) The crico-
thyroid is a short thick triangular
muscle, its fibres passing from
the cricoid cartilage obliquely up-
wards and outwards to be in-
serted into the lower border of
the thyroid cartilage and to the
outer border of its lower horn.
When the muscle contracts,
the cricoid and thyroid cartilages are approximated.
HYOIO BONC
CARTILAGE OF EPIGLOTTIS
.AWY-EPUZLOTTK: FOLD
THVRO-ARYTtNOID
ARtSIMQ FROM
COMUS ELASTIC!*
LICHEN ANATOMIC'
FlG. 3. — RIGHT HALF OF LARYNX
Slightly oblique, vertical section
(2) The
thyro-arytenoid has been divided by anatomists into two parts
—one, the internal, lying close to the true vocal cord, and the
other, external, immediately within the ala of the thyroid
cartilage. Many of the fibres of the anterior portion pass
from the thyroid cartilage with a slight curve (concavity in-
wards) to the processus vocalis at the base of the arytenoid car-
tilage. They are thus parallel with the true vocal cord, and
when they contract the arytenoids are drawn forwards if the
postreus muscles are relaxed; but if the arytenoid cartilages
are braced back contraction of the muscle increases the elasticity
of the margins of the glottis. (3) The posterior and lateral crico-
arytenoid muscles have antagonistic actions, and may be consid-
ered together. The posterior arise from the posterior surface of
the cricoid cartilage, and passing upwards and outwards are at-
tached to the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid. On the
other hand, the lateral arise from the upper border of the cricoid
as far back as the articular surface for the arytenoid, pass back-
wards and upwards, and are also inserted into the outer angle of
the base of the arytenoid before the attachment of the posterior
crico-arytenoid. Imagine the pyramidal form of the arytenoid
cartilages. To the inner angle of the triangular base are attached,
as already described, the true vocal cords; and to the outer angle
the two muscles in question. The posterior crico-arytenoids draw
the outer angles backwards and inwards, thus rotating the inner
angles, or processus vocalis, outwards; the innermost fibres of
the muscles draw the arytenoids away from one another and
widen the rima glottidis. This action is opposed by the lateral
crico-arytenoids, which draw the outer angle forwards and out-
wards, rotate the inner angles inwards, and thus approximate
the cords. (4) The arytenoids pass from the one arytenoid
cartilage to the other, and in action these cartilages will be ap-
proximated and slightly depressed. (5) The aryteno-epiglottidean
muscles arise near the outer angles of the arytenoid; their fibres
pass obliquely upwards, decussate and are inserted partly into the
outer and upper border of the opposite cartilage, partly into tb
FNOM BCAUNIi AND iOUCHAKD, "PRINCIPAUX CLEMCNTS O'ANATOMIC" (•AllUERC 6T CIE)
FlG. 4.— DIAGRAMS OF LARYNX
Dotted lines show position taken by cartilages and true vocal cords, arrows
show general direction in which the muscular fibres act. (A) Action of crico-
thyrold: 1, oriooid cartilage; 2, arytenoid cartilage; 3, thyroid cartilage; 4,
true vocal cord; 5, thyroid cartilage; 6, true vocal cord; (B) Action of
arytenoid: 1, section; 2, arytenoid; 3, posterior border epiglottis; 4, true
vocal cord; 5, direction of muscular fibres; 6, arytenoid; 7, true vocal cord;
(C) Action of lateral crioo-arytenoid : tame description as A and B; 8,
posterior border of epiglottis; 9, arytenoid; (D) Action of posterior crico-
arytenoid; same description
aryteno-epiglottic fold, and partly join the fibres of the thyro-
arytenoids. In action they assist in bringing the arytenoids to-
gether, whilst they also constrict the upper aperture of the larynx.
The Voice Registers*— The voice may be divided into the
lower or chest register, the higher or head register, and the small
or falsetto register. In singing, the voice changes in volume
and in quality in passing from one register into another. There
is remarkable diversity of opinion as to what happens in the
larynx when the voice passes through the various registers.
There has also been much discussion as to the production of
VOICE
235
falsetto tones. In the lower registers the membranous vocal j
cords vibrate, while the arytenoids remain stationary and in appo-
sition. The whole mass of inferior thyro-arytenoids fold — consist-
ing of mucous membrane, fatty elastic connective tissue and under-
lying muscle — vibrates. In the falsetto voice the vocal cords are
blown apart and the rima glottis is of an elliptical shape; only the
margins of the inferior thyro-arytenoid folds vibrate. The small
register is a variant of the falsetto ; in it only a part of the mem-
branous glottis is blown open.
The pitch of the voice appears to depend on the relation of the
elasticity of the global margins — as determined by the degree of
contraction of the thyro-arytenoid muscles — to the pressure of air
expelled from the trachea. The pitch can be raised by an increase
of the former while the latter remains almost unchanged or vice-
versa; probably an increase of elasticity is accompanied by slightly
raised air pressure in the changes of pitch in the chest register.
In the head register it appears that the innermost fibres only of the
thyro-arytenoid muscles are in contraction, rise of pitch being pro-
duced principally by rise of air pressure.
The Laryngoscope. — By means of the laryngoscope it is pos-
sible to see the condition of the rima glottidis and the cords in
passing through all the ranges of the voice. In 1807 Bozzini first
showed that it was possible to see into the dark cavities of the
body by illuminating them with a mirror, and in 1829 W. Babing-
ton first saw the glottis in this way. In 1854 Garcia investigated
his own larynx and that of other singers, and three years later
Turck and especially J. N. Czermak, perfected the construction of
the laryngoscope. In 1883 Lennox Browne and Emil Behnke ob-
tained photographs of the glottis in the living man. By using the
stroboscope Oertel, Musehold, Flatau, Hegener and Panconcelli-
Calzia have in recent years enormously improved the technique
of laryngoscopy. The endoscope devised by Flatau and the auto-
phonoscope originated jointly by Panconcelli-Calzia enable one
to carry out extensive observations on the larynx while the mouth
is closed.
Other apparatus employed for investigating the mechanism of
the voice includes the breathing flask of Gutzmann, the spirometer,
the stethograph and pneumograph (used in connection with the
manometer and the phonetic kymograph), all of which are em-
ployed for investigating breathing. For observing the action of the
vocal cords there are employed, in addition to the laryngoscope,
the strobolaryngoscope and the endoscope, manomctric flames, the
Folsterpfcife of Wethlo, resonators, gramophones, microphones
and oscillographs. For studying the supraglottal resonators radio-
grams are taken.
Action of the Vocal Cords.— The best view of the larynx is
obtained with the tongue flat, while attempting to sing the vowel
"ee," for this opens out the cavity immediately above the larynx.
Now suppose the larynx is examined stroboscopically. The vocal
cords are seen to be alternately opening and closing along the
ligamentous portions in the chest notes. In falsetto the glottis is
permanently open with the edges of the cords vibrating. In whis-
per the space between the arytenoids is open. Should this occur
during phonation, it constitutes a faulty mechanism producing
what is called breathy voice, which is particularly to be avoided
in singing.
J. Wyllic showed in 1865 that the -false vocal cords play the
chief part in the closure of the glottis during expiration. Lauder,
Brunton and Cash confirmed J. Wyllie's results and further thought
that the function of the false vocal cords was to close the glottis
and thus fix the thorax for muscular effort. From the evidence
of comparative anatomy, and from observations made on men, it
has been demonstrated in recent years that in fixation of the
thorax, the vocal cords are the important factor. By means of
their closure air is prevented from entering the lungs and as the
thorax is to a certain extent unable to expand, because of this
obstructive mechanism, the ribs tend to come to rest whereby a
fixed origin is afforded to the various groups of muscles which
move the arms.
The conditions that define the attributes of the human voice
are in essentials similar to those of musical instruments in general.
The source of energy is the lungs. By them the air is forced under
pressure through the glottis causing the vocal cords to move
rhythmically, thereby producing a musical note. This musical note
is a tone-complex of simple harmonic vibrations some of which are
modified by the supraglottal cavities acting as resonators. It is
the train of sound waves thus modified, issuing from the mouth,
which gives rise to those elements of speech termed vowels and
voiced consonants. Such sound waves can be, and sometimes are
produced to a limited extent by an in-drawn current ot air actuat-
ing the vocal cords.
To what extent the infraglottal cavities, e.g., the trachea and
chest cavity, influence the quality of the glottal note has not been
determined, but they certainly do affect it. Investigators are
however agreed that among the supraglottal cavities the effect of
the sinuses, e.g., the maxillary sinus, the ethmoidal cells, sphenoitlal
sinus and frontal sinus, is negligible owing to their small size, un-
favorable positions, and minute openings. The expression "sinus
tone production" would thus appear to be devoid of justification.
Nor can there be any question of directing the voice to a definite
point in the buccal cavity, as the dimensions of the mouth cavity,
in comparison with the wave-length of sound, are too small for
reflexion to be possible.
Attributes of Voice. — Voice may be defined in terms of cer-
tain attributes, i.e., (i) duration, (2) pitch, (3) quality or timbre,
(4) loudness.
Duration. — The duration of voice in vowels varies with the
speed of utterance. In words of two or more syllables, results show
that for English spoken at an average speed, the duration of so-
called short vowels may vary from -047 to -095 of a second, while
that of so-called long vowels may vary from .12 to -255 of a
second.
Pitch. — The pitch of the glottal note, i.e., the lowest tone of
the complex, is determined by the frequency, or number of cycles
the vocal cords execute in one second, frequency and pitch being
physical and sensory aspects of the same thing. The conditions
determining pitch are the mass, length and elasticity of the
cords, and the pressure actuating them. Increase of pressure in the
expiratory current leads to a raising of pitch, but the pitch of the
resonance cavities appears to have no effect on the pitch of the
glottal note.
The vocal cords are tightened if the arytenoid cartilages be
braced back by contraction of the crico-thyroid, and posterior
thyro-arytenoid's will then give elasticity to the margins of the
glottis so that they will recoil after being blown apart. The greater
the degree of contraction the higher will this elasticity become.
All the muscles except the thyro-cricoid (which is inervated by the
superior laryngeal) receive nerve filaments from the inferior
laryngeal branch of the vagus, the fibres being derived from the ac-
cessory roots. Both the abductor and adductor nerves come there-
fore from the inferior laryngeal.
In men, by the development of the larynx the cords become
more elongated than in women, in the ratio of 3 to :, so that the
male voice is of lower pitch and is usually stronger. At the age of
puberty the larynx grows rapidly, and the voice of a boy breaks in
consequence of the lengthening of the cords, generally falUng an
octave or so in pitch. A similar change but less in amount occurs
at the same time in the female.
The pitch compass of the human voice generally ranges from
E to c' (So -to 320^) in Bass voices and c to a" (256^ to 853 ~
in Soprano voices. (The sign - is used to denote the number of
cycles a second. This unit is sometimes called a "hertz" after the
great German physicist.) These limits are greatly exceeded by
many singers. Re*thi and Froschels report the abnormal case of a
singer with a compass of five octaves, i.e., F (42 ~ ) to V"
(1,408-).
Timbre. — As has already been stated above, the voice is com-
posed of a fundamental and a series of over-tones in harmonic
relation to it. The quality or timbre is determined by the relative
strength of these overtones. The phase relationship between them
appears to be of little importance for quality. Difference be-
tween vowels is essentially a difference of quality. Thus when
speaking the vowel [a] certain partials in the region g" (767-*)
and d"" (1,147^) receive preferential treatment from the supra-
236
VOICE SOUNDS
glottal cavities while the prominent partials in [i] are in the region
f (342-) and f"" (x,579~).
The decay in intelligibility of vowels on the suppression of cer-
tain partials, has been investigated by Stumpf and Fletcher. A quo-
tation from the latter relating to this is illuminating. Incidentally
it shows also that the fundamental may be only subjective. "The
vowel 'ah' sung on a pitch d' (145 ~) is affected only slightly in
either pitch or quality when the fundamental and first two over-
tones are eliminated. Even with the fundamental and first six
overtones eliminated, the pitch still very definitely corresponds to
the pitch of a pure tone with the frequency of the fundamental,
namely, 145- . The harmonic analysis of this filtered tone shows
no frequencies below 1,000- . Eliminating all the overtones above
the sixth changes the quality by about the same amount as elimi-
nating the fundamental and first and second overtones. The data
also indicate that if the fundamental and all of the upper and lower
harmonics except the third, fourth and fifth, are eliminated, the re-
maining compound tone has the same pitch as the fundamental,
although the quality of the sound is very different from that of
the sound 'ah.' " A rich baritone or contralto appears to be af-
fected neither in pitch nor in quality by eliminating the fundamen-
tal and first two or three overtones. The filtering out of higher
partials, even of those above the isth, however, noticeably affects
the musical quality of the voice. High harmonics do not appear to
be so essential to good quality in sopranos, as in bass, baritone and
contralto.
Loudness. — Loudness, which is the sensory relation to the
physical property of intensity, depends on the energy in its various
component partials. The rate of energy output in the case
of an ordinary voice is extremely small, being about 125 ergs
per second, i.e., less than a fiftieth of a millionth of a horse-power.
Loudness is a function of pitch and the amplitude of the move-
ments of the vocal cords. If the response of the ear were of a
linear character, the intensity of the auditory impressions would be
proportional to the square of the product of the amplitude and
pitch, to which the term "physiological intensity" has been applied.
But at intensities considerably above minimum audibility, there is
no proportionality between sound pressure and aural response, for
effects are produced in the ear which are not present in the voice
which excites them. This degree of non-linearity varies with dif-
ferent persons. Moreover there occurs a masking of one tone by
another. A loud tone of low pitch can obscure a weak high tone,
but an intense high tone has but little masking effect on low ones.
Methods of Investigation.— Among the methods and appar-
atus for investigating the attributes of voice, the following may be
mentioned. For duration and pitch, a phonetic kymograph with
tambours and an electrically-driven tuning fork of 100- are the
instruments generally employed. Relative loudness can also be in-
vestigated by these, although electric methods of measuring the
energy output are far more effective.
For the investigation of quality, methods may be classified under
three heads according to the apparatus employed, (a) Those
using resonators for picking out the component partials. Helm-
holtz (1862) determined the maximal response (subjectively) by
the ear. Konig (1868) employing his manometric flames in con-
junction with resonators, showed the response objectively. Reso-
nators in conjunction with a hot-wire microphone have been em-
ployed by Tucker and Paris (1921). Garten (1921) used a var-
iable resonator where maximal response was registered on a soap-
film recorder. Stumpf (192:) used tuning forks as resonators,
(b) Those depending on subjective observations on the changes of
quality which the voice undergoes when certain tones are elimin-
ated. Stumpf employed interference tubes, while Fletcher, Cran-
dall, Wcgel, and others, have used the electric wave filter invented
by Dr. Campbell for cutting out frequencies, (c) For objective
measurements of quality, curve-tracings or oscUlograms of air
vibrations produced by the voice are obtained. They are then sub-
mitted to harmonic analysis to obtain the component partials.
Several instruments have been devised. Those used by the Bell
Telephone Laboratories and research laboratories of the American
Telephone Company in their magnificent work on speech should
be first mentioned. F. Trendelenburg used the "condenser micro-
phone" of Riegger. Miller in his "phonodeik" used a glass mem-
brane. The "cathode-ray oscillograph" and "Hilger's audiometer"
should also be mentioned. Hermann and Scripture in their re-
searches enlarged the curves of phonograph and gramophone
records.
"Sonance." — The beauty of the voice is mainly determined by
its quality, but there is another condition which influences the
artistic effectiveness of it. Metfessel, of the University of Iowa,
has examined minutely records of songs sung by some famous
singers, and has found in every case a certain periodic departure
from true pitch, accompanied by a periodic change in amplitude.
There is every reason to suppose that much of the aesthetic value
of a great singer's voice is attributable to these fluctuations, on the
principle that art consists of rhythmic deviations from regularity.
To the perceptive fusion of the successive changes in tone-attrib-
utes, Metfessel has given the name "sonance." Popular apprecia-
tion of voice-quality in singers, denoted by the term "quality," is
as Metfessel states, a combination of "quality or timbre" and "son-
ance" although the two things should not be confused.
Substitutes for the Larynx. — Laryngectomized subjects have
been known to develop a capacity for producing sounds which in
essentials resemble normal voice. Burger and Kaiser of Amster-
dam report a case where a pseudo-larynx has been developed in
the oesophagus. The vicarious lung was the stomach, and the lips
of the pseudo-glottis were actuated by ejecting air which had
previously been swallowed. It is reported that the subject could
sing, speak and use the telephone. Indeed, vocally, he carried
on like a normal person.
Attempts have also been made with more or less success to
supply the voice element in speech by means of vibrating reeds
of rubber or thin metal. The best known of these devices is the
"MacKenty-Western Electric Artificial Larynx." By using it the
subject is able to direct the expiratory current on to a rubber reed
when voicing is required.
BIBLIOGRAPHY — Helmholtz, Sensations of tone (English trans.)
(1885); Konig, Quelquts experiences d'acoiistiqut (1882); Fletcher,
Physical criterion for determining musical pitch (Western Electric Co.
reprint, April 1924) ; Crandall and Sacia, A dynamical study of the
voivel sounds (Western Electric Co. reprint, May 1924) ; Fletcher and
Steinberg, Loudness of a complex sound (Western Electric Co. reprint,
Sept. 1924) ; Fletcher, Physical properties of speech, musict and noise
(Western Electric Co. reprint, Oct. 1924) ; Crandall, The sounds of
speech (Bell Telephone Lab., reprint, Nov. 1925) ; Dayton C. Miller,
The science of musical sounds (1916) ; Richardson, Sound (1927) ; F.
Trendelenburg, Handbuch der Physik (1927) ; Muschold, AUgemeine
Akustik und Mechanik des menschlichen Stimmorgans (1913) ; Pan-
concelli-Calzia, Experimented Phvnetrk (1921) and Die experiment die
Phonetik in ihrer Anwendung auf die Sprachwissenschaft (1924) ; Ferret,
Some questions of phonetic theory (1916, 1919, 1923 and 1924) ; Scrip-
ture, The study of speech curves (1906) ; Stumpf, Die Sprachlaute
(1927) ; Paget, Vowel resonances (1922) and Production of artificial
Vowel Sounds (1923) ; Sonncnschein, Rhythm (1925) ; Metfessel,
Technique for objective studies of vocal art (Psychological Mono-
graphs, 1926) and Sonance as a form of tonal fusion (Psychological
Review, 1926); Seashore, Psychology of musical talent (1919) ; Rethi
and Froschels, Vber einen Sanger (Pflugcrs Archiv., 1922) ; Burger and
Kaiser, "Speech without a Larynx," Ada Oto-Laryngolica (1925);
Negus, Mechanism of the Larynx (1929). (V. E. N.; S. J.)
VOICE SOUNDS, sound made by the human voice, which —
as used in English and other European speech — can be produced
in two different forms, namely (a) unvoiced, i.e., breathed or
whispered speech, and (b) voiced speech.
In unvoiced speech the vocal chords are more or less separated
so that the air from the lungs passes continuously between them.
In voiced speech the vocal chords are brought closely together
so that the forcible passage of the air between them sets up a
rhythmical vibration of the chords which causes the air to enter
the vocal cavities in correspondingly rhythmical puffs.
Vowel Sounds.— Until recently the accepted theory was that
sounds like i as in eat, € as in men, ae as in hat, were each due to
two separate resonances, that a as in calm, was produced in some
voices by a single resonance, and in others by two resonances, and
that o as in all, ou as in no, u as in who, were all due to single
resonance (i). According to Helmholtz's theory (2) the lower
series of double resonances is set up in the cavity behind the
tongue, and the upper in a tubular neck formed by the tongue and
VOILE— VOIRON
237
lips, while in the case of the single resonant sounds, the whole oral
cavity is supposed to act as a single resonator. Graham Bell, the
inventor of the telephone, and K. J. Lloyd, both held that all
vowel sounds were due to double resonance (3).
Recent observations (4) have confirmed the views of Graham
Bell and Lloyd, and shown that all the English vowel sounds
depend primarily on two characteristic resonances — the one
formed in the cavity in front of the tongue — i.e., between the point
of nearest approach of the tongue to the palate and the lips —
and the other in the cavity behind the tongue — i.e., between the
same point and the vocal chords. Both cavities behave as Helm-
holtz resonators connected in scries. Each can be independently
tuned, by varying its capacity or by varying the size of its orifice
to air and (or) to the adjoining resonator. Increase of capacity
lowers the resonant pitch; of orifice raises it.
The following table shows typical resonances observed by ear
in the whispered vowel sounds of the writer's voice, using the
Southern English "Public School" pronunciation.
Vowel Resonances
Vow*
cl
Sym-
bol
As in
Upper
Reso-
nance
Lower
Reso-
nance
Vow-
el
Sym-
bol
As in
Upper
Reso-
nance
Lower
Reso-
nance
i
eat
W '2,434
f 342
A
up
#g'"i,62<;
frl" Q12
t
it
#r/ '2,169
«' 362
a
calm
#d'"i,2i7
#8" 812
ei
hay
$ C 2 j I O()
d" 574
B
not
«c"'i,o84
#K" 812
6
men
c' '2,048
tfd" 608
J
all
br/ g66
^f/r 724
IU
hat
a' 1,7^
#tf" 8f2
ov
know
%&" 912
b' 4»3
?
earth
c" 645
u
who
sr" 7^4
$F ^62
0
sofa
«' 1,534
e'r 645
V
put
tra" QI2
«d' 304
The resonances are given in musical notation and in number
of complete vibrations per second (c' «= middle c on the piano-
forte, about 256 vibrations per second). In the series from * to
v inclusive, an additional high frequency component between
2,169 and 2,732 appears. The upper resonance of i to ov can be
varied over a range of 5 to 8 semitones, and u and v by 10 semi-
tones, while the lower resonances can all be similarly varied over
a range of about 8 semitones (the other resonance, in each case,
being kept nearly constant) without losing the vowel character.
Comparable resonances have been found — using purely instru-
ment methods — by Crandall and Sacia (5).
ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF VOWEL SOUNDS
Potter (6) experimentally reproduced the English vowel sounds
by a reed attached to a spherical indiarubber resonator of suitable
aperture which was appropriately compressed (while sounding the
reed) so as to produce approximately the form of the human
mouth cavity. All the English vowel sounds have recently been
produced by combining two suitably tuned Helmholtz resonators
in series and energising them by a continuous current of air, for
unvoiced sound, or by a pulsating current produced by a vibrating
reed or equivalent for voiced sounds (7). The material of the
resonators does not appreciably affect the vowel character. The
additional high resonances are of secondary importance, since
recognisable reproduction may be made without them. Artificial
vowels have also been produced by J. Q. Stewart (8) and by Dr.
Eccles (9), substituting electrical resonating circuits for acoustic
resonators.
Diphthongs differ only from vowels in that their resonances
change progressively from those of the initial to those of the
terminal vowel which together form the diphthong. They can
be reproduced by resonators of progressively variable pitch. Con-
sonants also are produced in speech by resonance in the vocal cavi-
ties (10) (n). They differ from the vowel in that i. they depend
essentially on more than two resonances— due to the functioning
of more than two cavities; 2. they depend (like the diphthongs)
on characteristic movements of the vocal organs which produce
corresponding changes of resonance and of amplitude (loudness) ;
3. the orifices of the resonators (or some of them) are more con-
stricted than those in the case of the vowels, or are temporarily
closed altogether, and suddenly released as in forming the so-
called plosives, p, b, t, d, k, g and the nasal consonants m, n and rj
(ng) ; 4. the resonators are not always in series with the air current
which energises them. Thus they may be in parallel — as when
the air is passed simultaneously through both mouth and nose; or
a resonator may be lateral to the air current, as when passage
through the mouth is closed by the tongue or lips and the air
passes behind the soft palate into the nasal cavity and out at the
nostrils. In such cases the air current flows past the inner orifice
of a lateral singlc-orificed resonator formed inside the mouth.
Closure of the tongue against the back or the front of the palate
produces a lateral resonator of high or medium pitch characteristic
of the nasal consonants rj (ng as in hung) ; closure of the lips
produces a lateral resonator of the maximum capacity and lowest
pitch, characteristic of m.
The consonants can be artificially produced, like the vowels
and diphthongs, by passing air (vibrating or not as the case may
be) through resonators of variable number and capacity and (or)
orifice (10). In the cheirophone the variable multiple resonator
is formed by the hands of the operator, so as to produce recog-
nisable sentences (12). (See SOUND.) Certain consonants have
also been reproduced by electrical resonance1 (8).
In the natural production of vowel sounds, the soft palate may
be closed against the back of the throat so as to close the passage
to the nasal cavity, or it may be drawn forward so as to open that
passage more or less. The best quality of voice production appears
to be obtained by avoiding nasal resonance, except in connection
with the nasal consonants m, n, and rj (ng). In the French nasal
vowels 2 (pain), a (temps), 5 (bon)7 65 (un) the nasal resonance
is characteristic. The so-called nasal quality heard in English
speech in parts of the North American continent appears mainly to
depend on the formation of an additional resonator of high pitch
by (unconscious) constriction of the pharynx (13). Broadly
speaking, the voice sounds of human speech are due to character-
istic postures (for vowel sounds) and gestures (for diphthongs
and consonants) of the vocal organs — the tongue, lips and soft
palate.
The function of the larynx, in voiced speech, is to increase the
range of audibility (from about 10 to 20 times) by increasing the
resonance of the cavities through or past which the air current
flows. It also gives to speech the power of inflection — i.e., of
variation of the musical pitch of the voice, as in song. The un-
voiced consonants s, / (sh), f, and 0 (th as in thigh) and the
unvoiced aspirate, all of which carry no laryngeal energy and are
incapable of emotional or musical inflexion, arc inferior to all other
voice sounds. (See SINGING.) See also VOICE; PHONETICS;
PHILOLOGY; PHARYNX, and RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY,— (i) D. C. Miller, Science of Musical Sounds, pp.
225-226 (1016) ; (2) H. L. F. Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone.
pp. 105-110 (1885) ; (3) H. L. F. Helmholtz, op. eit., p. 108 (1885) ;
American Jour, of Otology, vol. I (July 1870) ; Lord Rayleigh, Theory
of Sound, vol. 2, p. 477 (1896) ; (4) Sir Richard Paget, Vowel
Resonances (International Phonetic Assoc. iy.'2);.(5) Bell System
Tech. Jour., vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 232-237 (April 1924) ; (6) Proc.
Cambridge, Phil. Soc., vol. 2, p. 306 (1864); (7) Proc. Roy. Soc.t A.,
vol. 102, pp. 752-765 (19*3);, W Nature, vol. no, p. 311 (1922);
(9) Jour. Inst. EUc. Ens., vol. 62, No. 335, p. 965 (Nov. 1924) ; (10)
Proc. Roy. Soc., A., vol. 106 (1924); (ii) Bell System Tech. Jour,,
No. 4, pp. 586-641 (10.25); (12) British Patent No. 237316; (13)
Proc. British Assoc., p. 360 (Toronto, 1924) ; (14) Sir Richard Paget,
"The Origin of Speech" in the Proc. Roy. Soc. (1928). (R. PA.)
VOILE, a term applied to a distinctive type of fabrics com-
prising a variety of different textures produced from wool, cot-
ton and silk, and possessing the same general features. It is char-
acterized by a light, open and net-like structure based essentially
on the principle of the plain calico weave, and produced from
warp and weft yarns with an abnormal degree of twist, irrespec-
tive of the class of material from which it is spun. The yarn em-
ployed may be either single or folded in the warp series or in the
weft series, or in both series of threads; and it may be spun with
a greater or lesser amount of twist. (See also Voile under COTTON :
Varieties of Cotton Fabrics.)
VOIRON, a town of France in the department of the Isere.
Pop. (1926) 8,985. It stands at a height of 950 ft., on the Morge
(a tributary of the Isere). Voiron long formed part of Savoy,
238
VOIVODE— VOLCANO
but in 1355 was exchanged (with the rest of the region between the
Rhone and the Isere, watered by the Guiers Mort) by the count
with France for Faucigny and Gex.
VOIVODE, a title in use among certain Slavonic peoples,
meaning literally "leader of an army" (SI. voi, host, army;
voiditi, to lead) ; also Vaivode, Vaywde, Wayvode, etc., Med. Gr.
boebodos, and so applied at various periods and in various eastern
European countries to rulers, governors or officials of varying
degree. It is best known as the title of the princes of Moldavia
and Walachia. In Poland the title (which appears in history
as palatinus) is still used of certain administrative officials. A
province of northern Yugoslavia is known as the "Voivodina."
VOLAPUK: see UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE.
VOLCAE, an ancient Celtic people in the province of Gallia
Narbonensis, who occupied the district between the Garumna
(Garonne), Cerbenna mons (Cevennrs), and the Rhodanus,
corresponding roughly to the old province of Languedoc. They
were divided into the Arecotnici on the east and the Tectosages
on the west, separated by the river Arauris (Herault). The Vol-
cae were free and independent, had their own laws, and pos-
sessed the ius La tit. The chief town of the Tectosages was
Tolosa (Toulouse); of the Arecomici, Nemausus (Nimes); the
capital of the province was Narbo Martius (Narbonne).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz, i. ii.
(1896, 1904), s.vv. "Arccomici" and "Tectosagi"; T. R. Holmes,
Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899) p. 513.
VOLCANO, an opening in the earth's crust, through which
heated matter is brought to the surface, where it usually forms
a hill, more or less conical in shape, and generally with a hollow
or crater at the top. This hill, though not an essential part of the
volcanic mechanism, is what is commonly called the volcano. The
name sefcms to have been applied originally to Etna and some
of the Lipari Islands, which were regarded as the scats of
Hephaestus, a Greek divinity identified with Vulcan, the god
of fire in Roman mythology. All the phenomena connected with
volcanic activity are comprised under the general designation of
vulcamsm or vulcanicily; whilst, the study of the phenomena
forms a department of natural knowledge known as vulcanvlogy.
Volcanic Phenomena. — A volcanic eruption is usually pre-
ceded by certain symptoms, of which the most common are local
earthquakes, subterranean noises, changes in the How and tempera-
ture of springs and evolution of various gases in and near the
crater. Where a crater has been occupied by water, forming a
crater-lake, the water becomes warm, and may even boil.
Emission of Vapour. — Of all volcanic phenomena the most
constant is the emission of vapour. It is one of the earliest
features of an eruption; it persists during the paroxysms, attain-
ing often to prodigious volume; and it lingers as the last relic
of an outburst. The well-known "pine-tree appendage" of Vesu-
vius (pino vulcanico), noted by the younger Pliny in his first
letter to Tacitus on the eruption in A.D. 79, is a vertical shaft of
vapour terminating upwards in a canopy of cloud, and compared
popularly with the trunk and spreading branches of the stone-
pine. During the eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906 the steam and
dust rose to a height of from 6 to 8 miles, while at Krakatoa
in 1883 the column reached an altitude of nearly 20 miles.
Volcanic Rain and Mud.— The steam given out from the
crater soon condenses to rain which mixes with the ashes and
loose material to form mud, which may rush down the cone
and spread far and wide. Herculaneum was buried beneatn a
flood of mud swept down from Vesuvius during the eruption of
79, and the hard crust which thus sealed up the city came in turn
to be covered by lava-flows from subsequent eruptions.
It sometimes happens that volcanic mud is formed by the
mingling of hot ashes not directly with rain but with water from
streams and lakes, or even, as in Iceland, with melted snow. A
torrent of mud was one of the earliest symptoms of the violent
eruption of Mont Pele"e in Martinique in 1902.
Ejected Blocks. — When a volcano after a long period of re-
pose starts into fresh activity, the materials which have accu-
mulated in the crater are ejected, often mixed with blocks from
the walls of the volcanic pipe, or from the older rocks on which
the volcano stands. Masses of limestone ejected from Somma
are scattered through the tuffs on the slopes of Vesuvius and
contain many interesting minerals due to heating of the lime-
stone. Similarly at Etna blocks of sandstone are changed to
quartzite. A rock consisting of an aggregation of coarse ejected
materials, including many large blocks, is known as a "volcanic
agglomerate."
Cinders, Ashes and Dust. — After the throat of a volcano has
been cleared out and a free exit established, the copious discharge
of vapour is generally accompanied by the ejection of fresh lava
in a fragmentary condition. If the ejected masses bear obvious
resemblance to the products of the hearth and the furnace, they
are known as "cinders" or "scoriae," whilst the small cinders not
larger than walnuts often pass under their Italian name of "lapilli"
(q.v.). When of globular or ellipsoidal form, the ejected masses
are known as "bombs" (r/.i>.) ; if the lava has become granulated
it is termed "volcanic sand"; when in a finer state of division it is
called ash, or if yet more highly comminuted it is classed as dust;
but the latter terms are sometimes used interchangeably. After
an eruption the country for miles around the volcano may be
covered with a coating of fine ash or dust, sometimes nearly
white, like a fall of snow, but often greyish, looking rather like
Portland cement; this dust insinuates itself into every crack and
cranny, reaching the interior of houses even when windows and
doors are closed. A heavy fall of ash or cinders may cause great
structural damage, crushing the roofs of buildings by sheer weight,
as was markedly the case at Ottajano and San Giuseppe during
the eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906. On this occasion the dry
ashes slipped down the sides of the volcanic cone like an ava-
lanche, forming great ash-slides with ridges and furrows rather
like barrancos, or ravines, caused by rain. The burial of Ottajano
and San Giuseppe in 1906 by Vesuvian ejecta, mostly lapilli, has
been compared with that of Pompeii in 79.
Lava. — The volcanic cinders, sand, ashes and dust described
above are but varied forms of solidified lava, which is the most
characteristic product of volcanic activity. It is composed of
various silicates, or their constituents, in a state of mutual solu-
tion, and heavily charged with certain vapours or gases, principally
water-vapour, superheated and under pressure. The lava differs
from the magma before eruption, inasmuch as water and various
volatile substances may be expelled on extrusion.
The rapidity of a lava tlow is determined partly by the slope of
the bed over which it moves and partly by the consistency of the
lava, this being dependent on its chemical composition and on the
conditions of cooling. In an eruption of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii,
in 1855, the lava was estimated to flow at a rate of 40 m. an hour;
and at an eruption of Vesuvius in 1805 a velocity of more than
50 m. an hour, at the moment of emission, was recorded. The
rapidity of flow is, however, rapidly checked as the stream ad-
vances, the retardation being very marked in small flows. Where
lava travels down a steep incline there is naturally a great ten-
dency to form a rugged surface, whilst a quiet flow over a flat
plane favours smoothness. If the lava meet a precipice it may
form a cascade of great beauty.
If, after a stream of lava has become crusted over, the under-
lying magma should flow away, a long cavern or tunnel may be
formed. Should the flow be rapid the roof may collapse and the
fragments, falling on to the stream, may be carried forward or
become absorbed in the fused mass. The walls and roof of a lava-
cave are occasionally adorned with stalactites, whilst the floor
may be covered with stalagmitic deposits of lava. The volcanic
stalactites are slender, tubular bodies, extremely fragile, often
knotted and rippled. Beautiful examples of lava stalactites from
Hawaii have been described by Prof. E. S. Dana.
Physical Structure of Lavas.— An amorphous vitreous mass
may result from the rapid cooling of a lava on its extrusion from
the volcanic vent. The common type of volcanic glass is known
as obsidian (q.v.). In many cases the lava brings up myriads of
crystals that have been developed during slow solidification in the
heart of the volcano. Showers of crystals of leucite have occurred
at Vesuvius, of anorthoclase at Mt. Erebus, of labradorite at
Etna and of pyroxene at Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli. These
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE]
VUJLWXJNU
"intratelluric crystals" were floating in the molten magma, and
had they remained in suspension, this magma would have envel-
oped them as a ground-mass or base. A rock so formed is gener-
ally known as a "porphyry," and the structure as porphyritic. In
such a lava the large crystals, or phenocrysts, represent an early
phase of consolidation and the minerals of the matrix a later
stage. For a discussion of the chemical and mineralogical com-
position of lavas see PETROLOGY.
In the course of the life of a volcano the lava which it emits
may vary within moderate limits, being at one time more acid
at another more basic. Such changes are sometimes connected
with a shifting of the axis of eruption. Thus at Etna the lavas
from the old axis of Trifoglietto in the Val del Bove were andes-
ites, with about 55% of silica, but those rising in the present
conduit are basaltic, with a silica-content of only about 50%.
Other instances could be given.
Capillary Lava.— A filamentous form of lava well known at
Kilauea, in Hawaii, is termed Pete's hair, after Pele, the goddess
of the Hawaiian volcanoes. It resembles the artificial material
known as "slag wool" — a material formed by injecting steam into
molten slag from a blast-furnace.
Pumiceous Lava. — The copious disengagement of vapour in
a glassy lava gives rise to the light cellular or spongy substance,
full of microscopic pores, known as pumice (q.v.). It is usually,
though not invariably, produced from an acid lava, and may be
regarded as the solidified foam of an obsidian. During the
eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 enormous quantities of pumice were
ejected, and were carried by the sea to vast distances, until they
ultimately became water-logged and sank. Professor Judd found
the pumice to consist of a vitreous lava greatly inflated by im-
prisoned vapours.
Water in Lavas. — Whether an eruption is of an explosive or
a tranquil character must depend largely, though not wholly, on
the chemical composition of the magma, especially on the water-
content. By relief of pressure on the rise of the column in the
volcanic channel, or otherwise, more or less steam will be dis-
engaged, and if in large quantity this must become, with other
vapours, a projectile agency of enormous power. The precise
physical condition in which water exists in the magma is a matter
of speculation.
Volcanic Vapours.— It seems not unlikely that the vapours
and gases exist in the volcanic magma in much the same way that
they can exist in molten metal. It appears that many igneous
rocks contain gases locked up in their pores, not set free by
pulverization, yet capable of expulsion by strong heat. The gases
in rocks have been the subject of elaborate study by R. T. Cham-
berlin, whose results appear in publication No. 106 of the Car-
negie Institution of Washington.
After the surface of a lava-stream has become crusted over,
vapour may still be evolved in the interior of the mass, and in
seeking release may elevate or even pierce the crust. Small cones
may thus be thrown up on a lava-flow, and when vapour escapes
from terminal or lateral orifices they are known as "spiracles."
The steam may issue with sufficient force to toss up the lava in
little fountains. When the lava is very liquid, as in the Hawaiian
volcanoes, it may after projection from the blow-hole fall back
in drops and plastic clots, which on consolidation form, by their
union, small cones.
Vapour-vents connected with volcanoes are often known as
fumaroles (q.v.). (See also GEYSER and SOLFATARA.)
In some volcanoes much sulphur, formed by a reaction between
sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide, is deposited. Chlorides
also are sometimes formed in considerable quantity, especially
ammonium chloride and common salt. The presence of various
metallic chlorides and sulphides has often been observed. The pale
flames sometimes seen in craters are due to the burning of hydro-
gen and various hydrocarbons, this being the only true combustion
connected with vulcanidty: it is quite unimportant.
The Dust Cloud of Mt. PeWe.— The eruptions in Martinique
and St. Vincent in the West Indies in 1902 furnished examples of
a type of activity not previously recognized by vulcanologists,
though, as Professor A. Lacroix has pointed out, similar phenom-
239
ena have no doubt occurred elsewhere, especially in the Azores.
By Dr. Tempest Anderson and Sir J. S. Flett, who were com-
missioned by the Royal Society to report on the phenomena, this
type of explosive eruption is distinguished as the "Pel6an type."
Its distinctive character is found in the sudden emission of a
dense black cloud of superheated and suffocating gases, heavily
charged with incandescent dust, moving with great velocity and
accompanied by the discharge of immense volumes of volcanic
sand, which are not rained down in the normal manner but descend
like a hot avalanche. In its typical form, the cloud at Pelee
appeared as a solid bank, opaque and impenetrable, but having
the edge in places hanging like folds of a curtain, and apparently
of brown or purplish colour. Rolling along like an inky, torrent,
it produced in its passage intense darkness, relieved by vivid
lightning. After leaving the crater, it underwent enormous ex-
pansion, and Anderson and Flett were led to suggest that pos-
sibly at the moment of emission it might haye been partly in the#
form of liquid drops, which on solidifying evolved large volumes'
of gas held previously in occlusion. The deadly effect of the blast
seems to have been mostly due to the irritation of the mucous
membrane of the respiratory passages by the fine hot dust — a
serious aggravation of the calamity.
Forms of Volcanoes. — Those volcanic products which are
solid when ejected, or which solidify after extrusion, tend to form
by their accumulation around the eruptive vent a hill, which,
though generally more or less conical, is subject to much variation
in shape. It occasionally happens that the hill is composed wholly
of ejected blocks, not themselves of volcanic origin. This rather
exceptional type is represented in the Eifel by certain monticules
which consist of fragments of altered Devonian slate.
In the ordinary paroxysmal type of eruption, however, cinders
and ashes are shot upwards by the explosion and then descend in
showers, forming around the orifice a mound, in shape rather like
the diminutive cone of sand in the lower lobe of an hour-glass, Lit-
tle cinder-cones of this character may be formed within the crater
of a large volcano during a single eruption ; whilst large cones are
built up by many successive discharges, each sheet of fragmentary
material mantling more or less regularly round the preceding layer.
The symmetry of the hill is not infrequently affected by disturbing
influences — a strong wind, for example, blowing the loose matter
towards one side. The sides of a cinder cone have generally a
steep slope, varying from 30° to 45°, depending on the angle of
repose of the ejectamcnta. Excellent examples of small scoria-
cones are found among the puys of Auvergne in central France,
whilst a magnificent illustration of this type of hill is furnished
by Fuji-san, in Japan, which reaches an altitude of 12,000 ft. How
such a cone may be rapidly built up was well shown by the forma-
tion of Monte Nuovo, near Pozzuoli — a hill 400 ft. high and ii m.
in circumference, which is known from contemporary evidence to
have been formed in the course of a few days in Sept. 1538.
Lava-cones are built up of streams of lava which have consolid-
ated around the funnel of escape. Associated with the lava, how-
ever, there is usually more or less fragmentary matter, so that the
cones are composite in structure and consequently more acute
in shape than if they were composed wholly of lava. As the
streams of lava in a volcano run at different times in different
directions, they radiate from the centre, or flow from lateral or
eccentric orifices, as irregular tongues, and do not generally form
continuous sheets covering the mountain. When lava is the sole
or chief element in the cone, the shape of the hill is determined
to a great extent by the viscosity of the lava, its copiousness and
the rapidity of flow. If the lava be highly basic and very mobile,
it may spread to a great distance before solidifying, and thus
form a hill covering a large area and rising perhaps to a great
height, but remarkably flat in profile. Were the lava perfectly
liquid, it would indeed form a sheet without any perceptible slope
of surface. As a matter of fact, some lavas are so fluent as to
run down an incline of i°, and flat cones of basalt have in some
cases a slope of only 10° or even less. The colossal mass of
Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, forms a remarkably flat broad cone,
spreading over a base of enormous area and rising 13,900 feet.
If the lava be less basic and less fusible, the hill formed by its
VOLCANO
[PHYSICAL STRUCTURE
accumulation instead of being a low dome will take the shape of a
cone with sides of higher gradient ; in the case of andesite cones,
for instance, the slope may vary from 25° to 35°. Acid rocks, or
those rich in silica, such as rhyolites and trachytes, may be
emitted as very viscous lavas tending to form dome-shaped or
bulbous masses.
The Spine of PcWc.— A peculiar volcanic structure appeared at
Mont Pelee in the course of the eruption of 1902, and was the
subject of careful study by Professor A. Lacroix, Dr. E. O. Hovey,
A. Heilprin and other observers. It appears that from fissures in
the floor of the £tang Sec a viscous andcsitic lava, partly quarUif-
erous, was poured forth and rapidly solidified superficially, form-
ing a dome-shaped mass invested by a crust or carapace. Accord-
ing to Lacroix, the crust soon became fractured, partly by
shrinkage on consolidation and partly by internal tension, and the
dome grew rapidly by injection of molten matter. Then there
gradually rose from the dome a huge monolith or needle, forming
a terminal spine, which in the course of its existence varied in
shape and height, having been at its maximum in July 1903, when
its absolute height was about 5,276 ft, above sea-level. The walls
of the spine, inclined at from 75° to 90° to the horizon, were
apparently slickensided, or polished and scratched by friction;
masses were occasionally detached and vapours escaped.
The Crater*— The eruptive orifice in a normal volcano— the
bocca of Italian vulcanologists — is usually situated at the bottom
of a depression or cup, known as the crater. This hollow is formed
and kept open by the explosive force of the elastic vapours, and
when the volcano becomes dormant or extinct it may be closed,
partly by rock falling from its crumbling walls and partly by the
solidification of the lava which it may contain. If a renewed out-
burst occurs, the floor of the old crater may reopen or a new
outlet may be formed at some weak point on the side of the
mountain; hence a crater may, with regard to position, be either
terminal or lateral. The position of the crater will evidently be
also changed on any shifting of the general axis of eruption,
Vesuvius suffered a reduction of several hundred feet during
the great eruption of 1906, the east side of the cone having lost,
according to V. R. Matteucci, nearly 400 feet.
Whilst in many cases the crater is a comparatively small circular
hollow around the orifice of discharge, it forms in others a large
bopl-like cavity, such as is termed in some localities a "caldera."
In Hawaii the craters are wide pits bounded by nearly vertical
walls, showing stratified and terraced lavas and floored by a great
plain of black basalt, sometimes with lakes of molten lava. Prof.
W. H. Pickering compares the lava-pits of Hawaii to the crater-
rings in the moon. Some of the pit-craters here are of great size,
but none comparable with the greatest of the lunar craters. Dr.
G. K. Gilbert, however, has suggested that the ring-shaped pits
on the moon are not of volcanic origin, but are depressions formed
by the impact of meteorites. Similarly the "crater" of Coon
Butte, near Canyon Diablo, in Arizona, which is 4,000 ft. in
diameter and 500 ft. deep, has been regarded as a vast pit due
to collision of a meteorite of prodigious size. Probably the largest
terrestrial volcanic crater is that of Aso-san, in the isle of Kiushiu
(Japan), which is a huge oval depression estimated by some ob-
servers to have an area of at least 100 sq.m.
On the floor of the crater ejected matter may accumulate as a
conoidal pile; and if such action be repeated in the crater of the
new cone, a succession of concentric cones will ultimately be
formed. The walls of a perfect crater form a ring, giving the cone
a truncated appearance, but the ring may suffer more or less de-
struction in the course of the history of the mountain. A familiar
instance of such change is afforded by Vesuvius. The mountain
now so called, using the term in a restricted sense, is a huge com-
posite cone built up within an old crateral hollow, the walls of
which still rise as an encircling rampart on the N. and N.E. sides,
and are known as Monte Somma; but the S. and S.W. sides of the
ancient crater have disappeared, having been blown away during
some former outburst, probably .the eruption of 79.
Much of the fragmental matter ejected from a volcano rolls
down the inside of the crater, forming beds of tuff which incline
towards the central axis, or have a centroclinal dip. On- the con-
trary, the sheets of cinder and lava which form the bulk of the
cone slope away from the axis, or have a dip that is sometimes
described as peri-centric. After the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883
a magnificent natural section of the great cone of Rakata, at
the S. end of the island, was exposed— the northern half having
been blown away—and it was then evident that this mountain was
a solid cone, which was built up of a great succession of irregular
beds of tuff and lava, braced together by intersecting dykes.
Parasitic Cones. — In the case of a lofty volcano the column of
lava may not have sufficient ascensional force to reach the crater
at the summit, or at any rate it finds easier means of egress at
some weak spot, often along radial cracks, on the flanks of the
mountain. Thus at Etna, which rises to a height of more than
10,800 ft,, the eruptions usually proceed from lateral fissures,
sometimes at least half-way down the mountain-side. When frag-
mental materials are ejected from a lateral vent a cinder-cone is
formed, and by frequent repetition of such ejections the flanks of
Etna have become dotted over with hundreds of scoria-cones
much like the puys of Auvergne, the largest (Monte Minardo)
rising to a height of as much as 750 ft. Hills of this character,
seated on the parent mountain, are known as parasitic cones,
minor cones, lateral cones, etc. Such subordinate cones often show
a tendency to a linear arrangement, rising from vents or bocche
along the floor of a line of fissure. Thus in 1892 a chain of five
cones arose from a rift on the S. side of Etna, running in a N.
and S. direction, and the hills became known as the Monti
Silvestri, after Professor Orazio Silvestri of Catania. This rift,
however, was but a continuation of a fissure from which there
arose in 1886 the series of cones called the Monti Gemmellaro,
while this in turn was a prolongation of a rent opened in 1883,
Fissure and Plateau Eruptions. — In certain parts of the
world there are vast tracts of basaltic lava with little or no evi-
dence of cones or of pyroclastic accompaniment. To explain their
formation von Richthofcn suggested that they represent great
floods of lava which were poured forth not from ordinary volcanic
craters with more or less explosive violence, but from great
fissures in the earth's crust, whence they may have quietly welled
forth and spread as a deluge over the surface of the country. The
eruptions were effusive rather than explosive. At the present day
true fissure eruptions seem to be of rather limited occurrence,
but excellent examples are furnished by Iceland. Here there are
vast fields of black basalt, formed of sheets of lava which have
issued from long chasms, studded in most cases with rows of
small cones, but these generally so insignificant that they make no
scenic features and might be readily obliterated by denudation.
It is believed that fissure eruptions must have played a far
more important part in the history of the earth than eruptions of
the familiar cone-and-crater type, the latter representing indeed
only a declining phase of vulcanism. Sir Archibald Geikie, who
specially studied the subject of fissure eruptions, regarded the
Tertiary basaltic plateaux of N.E. Ireland and the Inner Hebrides
as outflows from fissures, which are represented by the gigantic
system of dykes that form so marked a feature in the geological
structure of the northern part of Britain and Ireland. These dykes
extend over an area of something like 40,000 sq.m., while the
outflows form an aggregate of about 3,000 ft. in thickness. In
parts of Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and Washington, sheets of late
Tertiary basalt from fissure eruptions occupy an area of about
200,000 sq.m., and constitute a pile at least 2,000 ft. thick. In
India the "Deccan traps" represent enormous masses of volcanic
matter, probably of like origin but of Cretaceous date, whilst .
South Africa furnishes other examples of similar outflows.
Professor J* W. Gregory recognized in the Kapte plains of East
Africa evidence of a type of vulcanism, which he distinguished as
that of "plateau eruptions"; according to him a number of vents
opened at the points of intersection of lines of weakness in a high
plateau, giving rise to many small cones, and the simultaneous
flows of lava from these cones united to form a broad sheet.
Submarine Volcanoes*— Since much of the face of the earth
is covered by the sea, it seems likely that volcanic eruptions
must frequently occur on the ocean-floor. When, as occasionally
though not often happens, the effects of a submarine eruption
VOLCANO
PLATE I
VOLCANOES IN ACTION
1. Firepit of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, as it appeared at night during its
active period In 1919 and 1920
2. Another view of the Kilauea volcano firepit. This volcano, situated in
the Hawaii National Park, was very active in 1920
3. Looking down at the boiling bottom of Mt. Vesuvius' crater 500 ft.
below the edge. The central cone of the crater rises to a height of
200 feet
4. Mt. Popocatepetl, near Mexico City, Mexico, in action
5. Eruption of Mt. Pelce near Riviere Blanche, Martinique, W.I.
6. Seething crater of Kilauea volcano
7. Eruption of Mt. Mokuaweoweo in the Hawaiian Islands. Large pieces of
lava covered rocks are being thrown high into the air
XXIII. 240
PLATE II
VOLCANO
BY COURTESY OF (I, 2, 3) THE UNITED STATES ARMY AIR CORPORATION, (4, 6) THE YORKSHIRE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; PHOTOGRAPH, (5) E.N.A.
ACTIVE AND INACTIVE VOLCANOES
4. Great mass of corded lava in the crater of Kilauea volcano in Hawaii
1. Lava stream from erupting Mauna Loa approaching fishing village of
Hoopulou, Hawaii. Later the village was destroyed despite prayers
and offerings of sacrifices to Pele, goddess of fire
2. Mauna Loa lava flowing into the ocean at Hoopulou Landing. Clouds of
steam rise high in the air
3. Stream of molten lava from Mauna Loa flowing down the mountainside
in a path of cooled and hardened lava. Spectators were able to
approach to the very edge of the molten stream
5. "Phantom Ship." a small island in Crater Lake, Oregon, supposed to
resemble a salting vessel. Owing to atmospheric changes it fre-
quently seems to disappear from view against the background of
Dutton Cliff
6. Corded lava at Mt. Vesuvius following the eruption of 1898. Mt. Somma
may be seen in the distance to the left
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION]
VOLCANO
241
are observed during the disturbance, it is seen that the surface
of the sea is violently agitated, with copious discharge of steam;
the water passes into a state of ebullition, perhaps throwing up
huge fountains; shoals of dead fishes, with volcanic cinders,
bombs and fragments of pumice, float around the centre of
eruption, and ultimately a little island may appear above sea-
level. This new land is the peak of a volcanic cone which is
based on the sea-floor, and if in deep water the submarine moun-
tain must evidently be of great magnitude. Christmas Island in
the Indian Ocean, described by Dr. C. W. Andrews, appears to
be a volcanic mountain, with Tertiary limestones, standing in
water more than 14,000 ft. deep. Many volcanic islands, such as
those abundantly scattered over the Pacific, must have started as
submarine volcanoes which reached the surface either by con-
tinued upward growth or by upheaval of the sea-bottom, Etna
began its long geological history by submarine eruptions in a
.bay of the Mediterranean, and Vesuvius in like manner repre-
sents what was originally a volcano on the sea-floor.
One of the best examples of a submarine eruption resulting in
the formation of a temporary island occurred in 1831 in the
Mediterranean between Sicily and the coast of Africa, where the
water was known to have previously had a depth of 100 fathoms.
After the usual manifestations of volcanic activity an accumula-
tion of black cinders and ashes formed an island which reached
at one point a height of 200 ft., so that the pile of erupted matter
had a thickness of about 800 feet. The new island, which was
studied by Constant Prevost, became known in England as Gra-
ham's Island, in France as lie Julie and in Italy by various names,
among them Isola Ferdinandea. Being merely a loose pile of
scoriae, it rapidly suffered erosion by the sea, and in about three
months was reduced to a shoal called Graham's Reef. In the year
1891 a submarine eruption occurred in the neighbourhood of the
isle of Pantellaria in the same waters, but it gave rise to no island.
A well-known instance of a temporary volcanic island was fur-
nished by Sabrina — an islet of cinders thrown up by submarine
eruptions in 1811, off the coast of St. Michael's, one of the Azores.
The island of Bogosloff, or Castle Island, in Bering Sea, about 40
m. W. of Unalaska Island, is a volcanic mass which was first ob-
served in 1796 after an eruption. In 1883 another eruption in the
neighbouring water threw up a new volcanic cone of black sand
and ashes, known as New Bogosloif or Fire Island, situated about
i m. N.W. of Old Bogosloff, with which it was connected by a low
beach,
Mud Volcanoes, — Two distinct sets of phenomena are thus
described. One type is due to the escape of gas from petroleum-
bearing strata and has nothing to do with vqlcanicity. Many
of the most-quoted examples belong to this group, such as those
of the Crimea, the Caspian and Burma. There are, however,
true volcanic outbursts which yield mostly mud, that is, mix-
tures of water and fine volcanic material. They are closely
related to geysers (q.v,), the chief difference being that the water
is more or less muddy, instead of clear. In some cases the material
emitted is quite pasty. True mud-volcanoes occur in Iceland,
Sicily and in fact in many volcanic areas.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
It is a matter of frequent observation that volcanoes are most
abundant in regions marked by great seismic activity. Although
the volcano and the earthquake are not usually connected in the
direct relation of cause and effect, yet in many cases they seem
referable to a common origin. Both volcanic extrusion and crustal
movement are means of relieving local strains in the earth's crust,
and both are found to occur, as might reasonably be expected,
in many parts of the earth where folding and fracture of the
rocks have frequently happened and where mountain-making
appears to be still in progress. Thus, volcanoes may often be
traced along zones of crustal deformation, or folded mountain-
chains, especially where they run along the oceanic basins.
The most conspicuous example of linear distribution is furnished
by the great belt of volcanoes, which engirdles intermittently
the huge basin of the Pacific; though here, as elsewhere in study-
ing volcanic topography! regard must be paid to dormant and
extinct centres as well as to those that are active at the present
time. As volcanoes are in many cases ranged along what are com*
monly regarded as lines of fracture, it is not surprising that the
centres of most intense vulcanicity are in many cases situated
at the intersection of two or more fracture-lines. On the eastern
side of the Pacific the great volcanic ring may be traced, though
with many interruptions, from Cape Horn to Alaska. In South
America the chain of the Andes between Corcovado in the south
and Tolima in the north is studded at irregular intervals with
volcanoes, some recent and many more extinct, including the
loftiest volcanic mountains in the world. The grandest group
of South American volcanoes, though mostly quiescent, is in
Ecuador. Cotopaxi, seen in activity by E. Whymper in 1880,
has, according to him, a height of 19,613 ft., whilst Sangay is
said to be one of the most active volcanoes in the world, The
volcanic rock called andesite was so named by L. von Buch from
its characteristic occurrence in the Andes. It is notable that the
volcanic rocks throughout the great Pacific belt present much
similarity in composition. The volcanoes of Ecuador have been
described in. detail by A. Stubel and others (see ANDES). Central
America contains a large number of active volcanoes and sol fa-
taras, many of which are located in the mountains parallel to the
western coast; Guatemala is peculiarly rich in volcanoes, as de-
scribed by Dr. Tempest Anderson, who visited the country in
1907; and the plateau of Mexico is the seat of several active
volcanoes which occur in a band stretching across the country
from Colima in the west to Tuxtla near Vera Cruz. The highest
of these is Orizaba (18,200 ft.), which is known to have been
active in the i6th century. Popocatepetl (''the smoking moun-
tain") reaches a height of about 17,880 ft., and from its crater
sulphur was at one time systematically collected. The famous
volcano of Jorullo, near Toluca and about iao m. from the sea,
has been the centre of much scientific discussion since it was re-
garded by Humboldt, who visited it in 1803, as a striking proof of
the elevation theory; it came into existence rapidly during an
eruption which began in Sept. 1759, when it was said by un-
scientific observers that the ground became inflated from below.
In the United States very few volcanoes are active at the
present day, though many have become extinct only in times
that are geologically recent. An eruption occurred in 1857 at Tres
Virgines, in the south of California, and Lassen's Peak (Cali-
fornia) renewed its activity in a mild way a few years ago. The
Mono Valley craters and Mount Shasta, in California, are ex-
tinct. The Cascade range contains numerous volcanic peaks, but
only few show signs of activity. Mount Hood, in Oregon, ex-
hales vapour, as also does Mount Rainier in Washington. Mount
St. Helens (Washington) was in eruption in 1841 and 1842; and
Mount Baker (Washington), the most northern of the volcanoes
connected with the Cascade range, was reported active in 1843.
Volcanic activity is prominent in Alaska, along the Coast range
and in the neighbouring islands. Mount Fairweather has prob-
ably been in recent activity, and the lofty cone of Mount Wran-
gell, on Copper river, is reported to have been in eruption in
1819. In the neighbourhood of Cook's Inlet there are several
volcanoes, including the island of St. Augustine. Unimak Island
has two volcanoes, which have supplied the natives with sulphur
and obsidian. The Aleutian volcanic belt is a narrow, curved chain
of islands, extending from Cook's Inlet westward for nearly 1,600
miles. It is notable that the convexity of the curve faces the ocean,
From the Aleutians the volcanic band of the Pacific changes
its direction, and, passing to- the peninsula of Kamtchntka, where
14 volcanoes are said to be active, turns southward and forms the
festoon of the Kurile Islands. Here again the convexity of the
insular arc is directed towards the ocean. This volcanic archi-
pelago leads on to the great islands of Japan. Of the 54 vol-
canoes recognized as now active or only recently extinct in Japan,
the best known is the graceful cone of the sacred mountain Fuji*
san, but others less pretentious are far more dangerous. The
great eruption of Bandai-san, about 120 m. N. of Tokio, which
occurred in 1888, blew off one side of the peak called Kobandai,
removing, according to Prof, Sekiya's estimate, about 2,983
million tons of material
242
VOLCANO
[CAUSES OF VULCANICITY
South of the Japanese archipelago the train of volcanoes passes
through some small islands in or near the Liu Kiu group and
thence onward by Formosa to the Philippines, where subterranean
activity finds abundant expression in earthquakes and volcanoes.
After leaving this region the linear arrangement of the eruptive
centres becomes less distinctly marked, for almost every island in
the Moluccas and the Sunda archipelago teems with volcanoes,
solfataras and hot springs. Possibly, however, a broken zone
may be traced from the Moluccas through New Guinea and
thence to New Zealand, perhaps through eastern Australia.
The great volcanic district in New Zealand is situated in the
northern part of North Island, memorable for the eruption of
Tarawcra in 1886. This three-peaked mountain on the south
side of Lake Tarawera, not previously known to have been active,
suddenly burst into action; a huge rift opened, and Lake Roto-
mahana subsided, with destruction of the famous sinter terraces.
Far to the south, on Ross Island, off South Victoria Land, in
Antarctica, are the vojcanoes Erebus and Terror, the former
of which is active. These are often regarded as remotely related
to the Pacific zone, but Dr. G. T. Prior has shown that the
Antarctic volcanic rocks which he examined belonged to the
Atlantic and not the Pacific type.
Within the great basin of the Pacific, imperfectly surrounded
by its broken girdle of volcanoes, there is a vast number of scat-
tered islands and groups of islands of volcanic origin, rising from
deep water, and having in many cases active craters. The most
important group is the Hawaiian archipelago, where there is a
chain of at least 15 large volcanic mountains — all extinct, how-
ever, with the exception of three in Hawaii, namely Mauna Loa,
Kilauea and Hualalai; and of these Hualalai has been dormant
since 1811. It is noteworthy that the two present gigantic cen-
tres of activity, though within 20 m. of each other, appear to be
independent in their eruptivity. The volcanic regions of the
Pacific are connected with those of the Indian Ocean by a grand
train of islands rich in volcanoes, stretching from the west of
New Guinea through the Moluccas and the Sunda Islands, where
they form a band extending axially through Java and Sumatra.
Here is situated the principal theatre of terrestrial vulcanicity,
apparently representing an enormous fissure, or system of fissures,
in the earth's crust, sweeping in a bold curve, with its convexity
towards the Indian Ocean. Numerous volcanic peaks occur in
the string of small islands to the east of Java — notably in Flores,
Sumbawa, Lombok and Bali; and one of the most terrific erup-
tions on record in any part of the world occurred in the province
of Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa, in 1815. Java contains
within its small area as many as 49 great volcanic mountains —
active, dormant and extinct. The most famous is Papandayang,
which erupted with great suddenness and violence in 1772.
The little uninhabited island of Krakatoa in the Strait of Sunda
appears to be situated at the intersection of two curved fissures,
and the island itself represents part of the basal wreck of what
was once a volcano of gigantic size. After two centuries of repose,
a violent catastrophe occurred in 1883, whereby part of the island
was blown away. This eruption and its effects were made the
subject of careful study by Verbeek, Breon and Judd.
Through the great island of Sumatra, a chain of volcanoes runs
longitudinally, and may possibly be continued northwards in the
Bay of Bengal by Barren Island and Narcondam — the former an
active and the latter an extinct volcano. On the western side of
the Indian Ocean a small volcanic band may be traced in the
islands of the Mascarene group, several craters in Reunion (Bour-
bon) being still active. Far south in the Indian Ocean are the
volcanic islands of New Amsterdam and St. Paul. The Comoro
Islands in the channel of Mozambique exhibit volcanic activity,
whilst in East and Central Africa there are several centres, mostly
extinct but some partially active, associated with the Rift Val-
leys. The enormous cones of Kenya and Kilimanjaro are extinct,
but on one of the summits of the latter, a crater is still preserved.
The Mfumbiro volcanoes, S. of Lake Edward, rise to a height of
more than 14,700 feet. Kirunga, N. of Lake Kivu, is still par-
tially active. Elgon is an old volcanic peak, but Ruwenzori is
not of volcanic origin. On the west side of Africa, the Cameroon
Peak is a volcano which was active in 1909, and the island of
Fernando Po is also volcanic. Along the Red Sea there are not
wanting several examples of volcanoes, such as Jebel Teir, the
Twelve Apostles islands, and Aden, which is situated on the wreck
of an old volcano.
Passing to the Atlantic, a broken band of volcanoes, recent and
extinct, may be traced longitudinally through certain islands,
some of which rise from the great submarine ridge that divides
the ocean, in part of its length, into an eastern and a western
trough. The northern extremity of the series is found in Jan
Mayen, an island in the Arctic, where an eruption occurred in,
1818. Iceland, however, with its wealth of volcanoes and geysers,
is the most important of all the Atlantic centres: according to
Dr. T. Thoroddsen there are in Iceland about 130 post-glacial
volcanoes, and it is known that from 25 to 30 have been in erup-
tion during the historic period. Many of the Icelandic lava-flows,
such as the immense flood from Laki in 1783, are referable to
fissure eruptions, which are the characteristic though not the
exclusive form of activity in this island. This type was also
responsible for the sheets of old lava in the terraced hills of the
Faroe Islands, and the Tertiary eruptions of the west of Scotland
and the north of Ireland.
An immense gap separates the old volcanic area of Britain
from the volcanic archipelagos of the Azores, the Canaries and
the Cape Verde Islands. The remaining volcanic islands of the
Atlantic chain, all now cold and silent, include Ascension, St.
Helena and Tristan da Cunha.
An interesting volcanic region is found in the West Indies,
where the Lesser Antilles — the scene of the great catastrophes of
1902 — form a string of islands, stretching in a regular arc that
sweeps in a N. and S. direction across the E. end of the Carib-
bean. Subject to frequent seismic disturbance, and rich in vol-
canoes, solfataras and hot springs, these islands seem to form
the summit of a great earth-fold which, rising as a curved ridge
from deep water, separates the Caribbean from the Atlantic.
The volcanoes are situated on the inner border of the curve.
Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe
but in the Mediterranean there are Etna on the coast of Sicily;
the Lipari Islands, with Stromboli and Vulcano in chronic activ-
ity; and farther to the east the archipelago of Santorin, which
has erupted recently. Submarine eruptions have occurred also
between Sicily and the coast of Africa; one in 1831 having — as
we have seen above — given rise temporarily to Graham's Island,
and another in 1891 appearing near Pantellaria, itself a volcanic
isle. Of the extinct European volcanoes, some of the best known
are in Auvergne, the Eifel, Bohemia and Catalonia, whilst the
volcanic land of Italy includes the Euganean hills, the Alban
hills, the Phlegraean Fields, etc.
The number of volcanoes known to be actually active on the
earth is generally estimated at between 300 and 400, but there is
reason to believe that this estimate is far too low. If account be
taken of those volcanic cones which have not been active in his-
toric time, the total will probably rise to several thousands.
THE CAUSES OP VULCANICITY
There is no doubt that the ultimate cause of vulcanicity is the
internal heat of the earth ; perhaps it would be more correct to say
that vulcanicity is merely one of the expressions of the familiar
fact that the interior of the earth is hotter than the exterior. The
source of this heat is strictly not a geological question, and is fully
discussed in the article EARTH, while many of its implications are
dealt with under PETROLOGY.
It is self-evident that at great depths the pressure due to the
weight of overlying rock must be enormous, and since it is known
that magmas are rich in substances that may exist as gases at low
pressures, the vapour-tension in depth must also be enormous,
quite sufficient to drive material to the surface with explosive
violence if a passage is opened for it. In some cases the eruption
may actually be brought about by gas-pressure alone, which opens
its own passage, and this is doubtless the usual procedure in later
eruptions from a vent once established. But in the initiation of
a new centre there is probably, as a rule, some other contributing
VOLCANO ISLANDS— VOLGA
24-3
cause, which, so to speak, pulls the trigger and starts the explosion.
It is now generally held that such a cause is to be looked for
in movements and fractures of the outer crust of the earth, how-
ever these may be brought about, a matter as yet by no means
settled. The common coincidence of mountain-folding and vul-
canicity, both in time and place, is highly significant. Folding
produces lines of weakness and even actual fracture, and points of
special weakness, such as the crossing of two fractures, become the
seats of volcanoes, as has been set forth above.
It has long been noted that the majority of volcanoes are more
or less near the sea, though in many cases the distances are ac-
tually considerable when measured in miles. This association,
taken together with the emission of large quantities of steam dur-
ing eruptions, naturally led to the theory that vulcanicity was due
to the access of sea-water to the heated interior of the earth.
There can be little doubt that the great explosion at Krakatoa in
1883 was actually due to this cause, but the eruption had begun
before the water got in, the explosion being in reality a secondary
effect. Access of water through fractures cannot be accepted as a
general cause, and most volcanic water is probably of magmatic
origin. We can only say that vulcanicity is due to the escape under
pressure of heated material through channels of weakness in the
earth's crust, and that these channels may be formed in several
different ways : by folding and fracture, by compression or by ten-
sion; the character and products of the eruptions also varying
somewhat in accordance with the different types of crust-move-
ment concerned, as explained earlier in this article.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — On general vulcanicity see G. Mercalli, / Vulcani
attivi delta terra (1907) ; T. C. Chambcrlin and R. D. Salisbury, Geol-
ogy, Processes and their Results (1905) ; G. P. Scrope, Volcanoes (2nd
ed., 1872) ; Tempest Anderson, Volcanic Studies in many Lands (1903
and 1917; excellent views) ; H. J. Johnston-Lavis, "The Eruption of
Vesuvius in April 1906," Sci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. (Jan. 1909) ;
The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena, Report of the
Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society ("On the Vokanic Phenom-
ena, etc.," by Prof. J. W. Judd) (1888) ; Royal Society Report on
the Eruption of the. Soufricre, in St. Vincent, in 1002, by Tempest
Anderson and J. S. Flctt, two parts, Phil. Trans., 1903, ser. A. vol. 200,
and 1908, vol. 208; A. Lacroix, La Montague Pelee (1904); E. O.
Hovey, The 1902-03 Eruptions of Mont Pelee and the Sou/Here, Ninth
Internal. Geolog. Congress (Vienna, 1903) ; Am. Jour. Sri. xiv. (1902),
p. 319; Nat. Geog. Mag. xiii. (1902), p. 444; I. C. Russell, Volcanoes
of North America (1897) ; C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Volcanoes
(Honolulu, 1909) . For the chemistry of volcanic phenomena see F. W.
Clarke, "The Data of Geochemistry," Bull. U.S. Geolog. Survey, No.
770 (1924). For other modern views of vulcanism see S. Arrhenius,
"Zur Physik des Vulcanismus" in Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm
Forhandlingar, Band xxii. (1900) (Abstract by R. H. Rastall in the
Geological Magazine, April 1907) ; C. E. Dutton, "Volcanoes and
Radioactivity," Journal of Geology (Chicago, 1906), vol. xiv. p. 259;
G. D. Louderback, "The Relation of Radioactivity to Vulcanism," ibid.
p. 7471 J- Joly, Radioactivity and Geology (1909) ; The Surface His-
tory of the Earth (1925) ; A. Marker, The Natural History of Igneous
Rocks (1909) ; F. v. Wolff, Dcr Vulkanismus, Stuttgart, 1914.
VOLCANO ISLANDS, three small islands in the western
Pacific Ocean, south of the Bonin Islands, forming part of the
Japanese empire (annexed in 1891). They are also known as the
Magellan Archipelago, and in Japan as Kwazan-retto (series of
volcanic islands). They are situated between 24° and 26° N.
and 141° and 142° E. Their names are Kita-iwo-jima (Santo
Alessandro), Iwo-jima (Sulphur) and Minami-iwo-jima (Santo
Agostino). Kita-iwo-jima — which, as its name (kit a) implies, is
the most northerly of the three — rises 2,520 ft. above the water,
and Minami-iwo-jima, the most southerly, to 3,021 ft.
VOLCI:5e0VuLci.
VOLE, a name employed for several genera of rodents allied
to the rats and mice and included in the family Muridae. The
two common English forms are better known as the water-rat
and the short-tailed field-mouse. Voles may be distinguished from
rats and mice by their small eyes, blunt snouts, stouter build,
inconspicuous ears, short limbs and tail and less brisk movements.
They also differ in the structure of the cheek-teeth. The Euro-
pean field-vole (Microtus agreatis) is about the size of a mouse
and does considerable damage to crops and garden-produce. The
water-vole (M. amphibius) is larger, diurnal and aquatic. Largely
vegetarian, it will also eat insects, mice and young birds. It is
absent from Ireland, but extends from England to China. Numer-
ous other species occur in Europe, north Asia and North America,
while fossil voles occur in the European Pliocene. (See RODENTIA.)
VOLENDAM, a small fishing village of Holland in the
province of North Holland, adjoining Edam on the shores of
the Zuider Zee. It is remarkable for its quaint buildings and
the picturesque costume of the villagers, who are of a singularly
dark and robust type. Many artists have been attracted to settle
here. Volendam has its origin in the building of the great sea-dam
for the new waterway to Edam in the middle of the I4th century.
On the seaward side of the dike are some houses built on piles
in the style of lake dwellings. The draining of a large part of
the Zuider Zee, in progress in 1929, will change the position and
relations of Volendam very greatly.
VOLGA (Tatar: Etil, Itil or Atel; Finnish: Rau; in ancient
times Rha and Oarus), the longest and most important river of
European Russia, and the longest river of Europe. Its length is
2,325 m.; its drainage area covers 563,300 sq.m. and includes
middle and eastern Russia, as well as part of south-eastern Russia.
The Volga rises on the Valdai plateau at a height of 665 ft., in
a small spring in 57° 15' N., 32° 30' E., west of Lake Seliger,
flows through several small lakes, and after its confluence with the
Runa, enters Lake Volga. Below that lake is a dam storing
10,000 million cu.ft. of water, so as to make possible the deepen-
ing of the channel a,s far as the Sheksna, during dry periods.
After receiving the Sheksna the Volga flows south-east along a
broad valley, consisting of a string of former wide lake beds, with
a depth of 150-200 ft., in Permian and Jurassic deposits. It re-
ceives numerous tributaries from the north including the Unzha
(365 miles). The Oka from the south-west (950 m.) rises in
Orel, near the sources of tributaries of the Don and Dnieper, and
receives the Upa, Zhizdra, Ugra, Moskva and Klyazma (left),
and the Tsna with the Moksha (right).
The Oka and Volga unite at Nizhniy-Novgorod, and the Volga
then enters a broad lacustrine depression which must have com-
municated with the Caspian in post-pliocene times. Its low-
water level in this section is only 190 ft. above sea-level, and its
width ranges from 350 to 1,750 yards. Islands appear and dis-
appear each year after the spring floods. The Sura, bringing
a volume of 2,700 to 22,000 cu.ft. per second enters on the right,
as do the Svyaga and many smaller tributaries. The Volga then
turns south-eastward and descends into another lacustrine depres-
sion, receiving the Kama, volume 52,500 to 144,400 cu.ft. per
second, below Kazan, along which come the products of the Ural
mining region; remains of molluscs still extant in the Caspian
occur in this depression and in the lower Kama. The Volga then
flows south-south-west, making a great bend at Samara to avoid
the Zheguli extension of the Russian plateau. The Volga at
Samara is only 54 ft. above sea-level. Along the whole of the
bend, cliffs fringe the right bank, which the river is constantly
undercutting, while from the left bank extends a great plain in-
tersected by former channels of the river. At Stalingrad (Tsar-
itsyn) the river reaches. its extreme south-western limit and is
only 45 m. from the Don. In 1928 the Soviet government ac-
cepted estimates for the construction of a canal with sluices on
the Don, to link these two rivers; it is hoped that the canal will
be opened in 1935. The river then turns sharply to the south-
east, flowing through the low Caspian steppes. A few miles above
Stalingrad it sends off a branch, the Akhtuba, which accompanies
it to the sea for 330 m. Low hills skirt the right bank, but on
the left it anastomoses freely with the Akhtuba and often floods
the country for 15 to 35 miles.
Efforts are being made to control the Volga here so as to lessen
the annual washing away of fertile alluvial gardens. The delta be-
gins 40 m. above Astrakhan and contains as many as 200 mouths.
The Volga is constantly eroding its banks, especially during the
spring floods, and towns and loading ports have constantly to be
moved back, consequently the volume of suspended matter de-
posited on the Caspian shores is great; the level of that sea rises
during the Volga floods.
Navigation.— There are six sections of the river for naviga-
tion, (i) From the Upper Volga Dam, 75 m. from the source,
to Tver. Here rapids and shallows are numerous, and this part
244
VOLHYNIA— VOLKSRUST
is exclusively used for floating rafts. (2) From Tver to Rybinsk,
which is the real head of Volga navigation. In this section the
main traffic consists of barges for local trade; up to June 20,
vessels drawing 2 ft. may use the river, but after that date i ft.
9 in. is the maximum possible draft, and the river becomes in-
creasingly shallow, so that navigation may cease altogether, The
Influence of the Upper Volga Dam may give an extra 9 in. of
depth. Above Rybinsk the Volga is joined by the Mologa, and
at Rybinsk by the Sheksna, which is navigable and which is linked
by the Marii and Wurttemberg canals with the basins of the Neva
and Northern Dwina respectively. Fifteen thousand vessels enter
the port per annum. (3) From Rybinsk to Nizhniy-Novgorod,
349 m., the normal draught of vessels is 3 ft. 6 in., but in years
of low water, navigation may be completely suspended in July
and August. In this section are 30 commercial landing stages and
20 harbours suitable for wintering vessels. (4) From Nizhniy-
Novgorod to Kazan, 299 m,, the normal draught is 5 feet. There
are 40 commercial landing stages and 40 harbours, only ten of
the latter being really ice-proof. (5) Kazan to Stalingrad, 938 m.,
normal draught 7 feet. There are 37 commercial landing stages
and 28 harbours, six of which are really safe and ice-proof. (6)
Stalingrad to the Caspian is divided into two parts (i.) Stalin-
grad to Astrakhan, 343 m. where the navigation is still of the river
type and (ii.) Astrakhan to the Caspian, 71 m. a stretch of non-
tidal estuary, very difficult for navigation, where continuous
dredging is necessary to ensure even 8 ft. depth.
The great drawbacks to navigation are (i) the long winter frost,
during which the river and its tributaries become sledge routes, the
ice lasting from 90 to 160 days; the average date of break-up of
ice is April n at Tver, the 25th at Kostroma, the i6th at Kazan,
the 7th at Stalingrad and March 17 at Astrakhan (2) the shal-
lowness of the river during late summer and the frequent forma-
tion of islands and their dissolution during flood time.
Fisheries.— The network of shallow and still Umans or "cut-
offs" in the delta of the Volga and the shallow waters of the
northern Caspian, freshened as these are by the water of the
Volga, the Ural, the Kura and the Terek, is exceedingly favour-
able to the breeding of fish, and as a whole constitutes one of the
most productive fishing grounds in the world. As soon as the ice
breaks up in the delta innumerable shoals of roach (Leuciscus
rutilus) and trout (Luciotrntta leucichthys) rush up the river.
They are followed by the great sturgeon (Acipenser huso), the
pike, the bream and the pike perch (Lcuciopcrca sandra). Later
on appears the Caspian herring (Clupca caspia), which formerly
was neglected, but has now become more important than stur-
geon; the sturgeon A. stellatns and "wels" (Silunis glams) follow,
and finally the sturgeon Acipenser guldenstadtii, so much valued
for its caviare. In search of a gravelly spawning-ground the
sturgeon go up the river as far as Sarepta (350 m,). The lamprey,
now extensively pickled, the sterlet (A. mthenus), the tench, the
gudgeon and other fluvial species also appear in immense num-
bers. Destructive exploitation at spawning time has much dimin-
ished the yield of the Volga fisheries, and the discharge of oil
from steamers has also had an adverse effect.
History. — The Volga was probably known to the early Greeks,
though it is not mentioned previous to Ptolemy. According to
him, the Rha is a tributary of an interior sea, formed from the
confluence of two great rivers, the sources of which are separated
by 20 degrees of longitude. The Arab geographers throw little
light on the condition of the Volga during the great migrations
of the 3rd century, or subsequently under the invasion of the
Huns, the growth of the Khazar empire in the southern steppes
and of that of Bulgaria on the middle Volga. In the 9th century
the Volga basin was occupied by Finnish tribes in the north and
by Khzuars and various Turkish races in the south, The Slavs,
driven perhaps to the west, had only the Volkhov and the Dnieper,
while the (Mohammedan) Bulgarian empire, at the confluence of
the Volga with the Kama, was so powerful that for some time it
was an open question whether Islam or Christianity would gain the
upper hand, and Islam is strong in Kazan to-day. But, while the
Russians were driven from the Black 5** by the Khazars, and
later on by a tide of Ugrian migration from the north-east, a stream
of Slavs moved slowly towards the north-east, down the upper
Oka, into the borderland between the Finnish and Turkish regions.
After two centuries of struggle the Russians succeeded in colonizing
the fertile valleys of the Oka basin; in the lath century they built
a series of fortified towns on the Oka and Klyazma; and finally
they reached the mouth of the Oka, there founding (in 1222) a
new Novgorod — the Novgorod of the Lowlands, now Nizhniy-
Novgorod. The great lacustrine depression of the middle Volga
was thus reached; and when the Mongol invasion of 1239-42
came, it encountered in the Oka basin a dense agricultural popu-
lation with many fortified and wealthy towns — a population which
the Mongols found they could conquer, but were unable to drive
before them as they had done so many of the Turkish tribes.
This invasion checked, but did not stop, the advance of the Rus-
sians down the Volga. Two centuries elapsed before the Russians
covered the 300 m. which separate the mouths of the Oka and
the Kama and took possession of Kazan.
With the capture of Kazan (1552) the Russians found the
lower Volga open to their boats, and eight years afterwards they
were masters of the mouth of the river at Astrakhan. Two cen-
turies more elapsed before the Russians secured a free passage to
the Black Sea and became masters of the Sea of Azov and the
Crimea; the Volga, however, was their route.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— P, P. Scmcnov's Geographical and Statistical Dic-
tionary (5 vols., St. Petersburg, 1863-85) contains a full bibliography
of the Volga and tributaries. See also V. Ragozin's Volga (3 vols., St.
Petersburg, 1880-81, with atlas: in Russian) ; N. Bogolyubov, The
Volea from Tver to Astrakhan (Russian, 1876) ; H. Roskoschny, Die
Wolga und ihre Zufltissc (Leipzig, 1887, vol. i.), history, ethnography,
hydrography and biography, with rich bibliographical information;
N. Boguslavskiy, The Volga as a Means of Communication (Russian,
1887), with detailed profile and maps; Perctyatkovich, Volga region in
the i<>th and i6lh Centuries (1877); and Lender, Die Wolga (1889).
The Don and Volga Basins (iQ2o) . Foreign Office Historical Handbook
No. 53 (English).
VOLHYNIA, a province of Poland, having on the north
the province of Polesie, on the west Lublin, on the south Tarnopol
provinces, and on the east Russia. It is only half the old region
of Volhynia, which, after belonging in turn to Russia, Poland and
Russia again, has now been divided between the two. Area,
11,693 sq. miles. Pop. (1921) 1,438,000, of whom 68-4% are
Ruthenians or Ukrainians, 16-8% Poles, 10-6% Jews and 4*2%
other nationalities, so that Polish Volhynia, like Russian Volhynia,
is almost entirely an Ukrainian country. It is thickly populated in
most parts and has always been covered with large estates owned
by Polish landowners, many of whom were descended from Rus-
sian and Lithuanian princes. It is a plain, washed by the Bug
and the tributaries of the Prypet, viz., the Turija, Stochod, Styr,
Goryn and Slucz, flowing north from the southern uplands. The
north is part of the Polesian forest area, the rest is fertile soil.
The chief towns are Luck, Ostrog, Rowno, Dubno, Kowel and
Krzemieniec.
VOLHYNIA, a former Government of Russia, now in the
Ukrainian S.S.R. (gf.r.).
VOLITION, in psychology. See CONATION and PSYCHOLOGY.
VOLK, LEONARD WELLS (1828-1895), American
sculptor, was born at Wellstown (now Wells), Hamilton county,
New York, on Nov. 7, 1828. He first followed the trade of a
marble cutter with his father at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1848 he
opened a studio at St. Louis, Mo., and in 1855 was sent by his
wife's cousin, Stephen A. Douglas, to Rome to study. Returning
to America in 1857, he settled in Chicago, where he helped to es-
tablish an academy of design and was for eight years its head.
Among his principal works are the Douglas monument at Chicago
and the Soldiers' and Sailors' monument at Rochester, N.Y.;
and statues of President Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas in the
Illinois State capitol at Springfield, III. In 1860 he made a
life-mask (now in the National Museum, Washington) of Lincoln,
of whom only one other, by Clark Mills in 1865, was ever made.
VOLKSRUST, a town of the Transvaal, near the Natal bor-
der, situated 5,429 ft, above sea-level, and 320 m. N.N.W. of
Durban by rail. It was founded by the Boer Government in
1888 and was of some importance as a customs port of entry.
It lost this function at the Union in 1910. It is now a market
VOLLENHOVEN-—VOLOGDA
centre for a pastoral district. Pop, (1921) 3,317 (2,218 whites).
VOLLENHOVEN, CORNELIS VAN (1874- ),
Dutch jurist, was in 1901 appointed professor of colonial law in
the University of Leyden. He had a wide reputation as an author-
ity on the common law of the Dutch East Indies and on inter-
national law. His chief work is Hetadatrecht van Nederlandsch*
Indie (The Common Law of the Dutch East Indies, 1906-18).
VOLNEY, CONSTANTIN FRANCOIS CHASSE-
BOEUF, COMTK DE (1757-1820), French savant f was born at
Craon (Maine-et-Loire) on Feb. 3, 1757, of good family; he was
at first surnamed Boisgirais from his father's estate, but after-
wards assumed the name of Volney. He spent some four years in
Egypt and Syria, and published his Voyage en EgypU et en Syrie
in 1787, and Considerations sur la guerre des Turcs et de la
Russie in 1788. He was a member both of the States-General
and of the Constituent Assembly. In 1791 appeared Les Ruines,
ou meditations sur les revolutions des empires, an essay on the
philosophy of history. Volney tried to put his politico-economic
theories into practice in Corsica, where in 1792 he bought an
estate and made an attempt to cultivate colonial produce. He
was thrown into prison during the Jacobin triumph, but escaped
the guillotine. He was some time professor of history at the
newly founded £cole Normale. In 1795 he undertook a journey
to the United States, where he was accused in 1797 of being a
French spy sent to prepare for the reoccupation of Louisiana by
France. He was obliged to return to France in 1798. The results
of his travels took form in his Tableau du climat et du sol des
£tats-Unis (1803). He was not a partisan of Napoleon, but, being
a moderate man, a savant and a Liberal, was impressed into
service by the emperor, who made him a count and put him into
the senate. At the restoration he was made a peer of France,
He became a member of the Institute in 1795. He died in Paris
on April 25, 1820.
See G. Chinard, Volney et VAmerique (1923).
VOLO, a seaport of Greece, on the E. coast of Thessaly, at
the head of the gulf to which it gives its name. Pop. (1924)
41,275. It is connected by rail with the main Athens-Salonika
railway at Larissa. The anchorage is safe, vessels loading and dis-
charging by means of lighters. The port has a depth of 23 to 25 ft.
The Kastro (citadel) marks the site of Pagasae, whence the
gulf took the name of Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasicus. Hence the
Argonautic Expedition was said to have sailed. In the fourth cen-
tury it flourished under the tyrant Jason of Pherae. Two miles
farther S. stand the ruins of Dcmetrias, one of the "Fetters of
Greece," founded 290 B.C. by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a fa-
vourite residence of Macedonian kings.
VOLOGAESES, the name of five Parthian kings.
•• (i) VOLOGAESES I., son of Vonones II. by a Greek concubine
(Tac. Ann. xii. 44), succeeded his father in A.D. 50 (Tac. Ann.
xii. 14; cf. Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4). He gave the kingdom of Media
Atropatene to his brother Pacorus, and occupied Armenia for
another brother, Tiridates (Tac. Ann. xii. 50, xv. a; Joseph, Ant.
xx. 3, 4). This led to a long war with Rome (54-63), which was
ably conducted by the Roman general Corbulo. The power of
Vologaeses was weakened by an attack of the Dahan and Sacan
nomads, a rebellion of the Hyrcanians, and the usurpation of
Vardanes II. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 7, 37; xiv. 25; xv. i ; cf. Joseph. Ant.
xx. 4, 2, where he is prevented from attacking the vassal king of
Adiabene by an invasion of the eastern nomads). At last a peace
was concluded, by which Tiridates was acknowledged aa king of
Armenia, but had to become a vassal of the Romans; he went to
Rome, where Nero gave him back the diadem (Tac. Ann. xv. i ff. ;
Dio Cass. Ixii. 19 ff., Ixiii. i ff.); from that time an Arsacid
dynasty ruled in Armenia under Roman supremacy. Vologaeses
was satisfied with this result, and honoured the memory of Nero
(Suet. Nero, 57), though he stood in good relations with Vespasian
also, to whom he offered an army of 40,000 archers in the war
against Vitellius (Tac. Hist. iv. 51; Suet. Vespas. 6; cf. Joseph.
Ant. vii. 5, a, 7, 3; Dio Cass. Ixvi. 11). Soon afterwards the Alani,
a great nomadic tribe beyond the Caucasus, invaded Media and
Armenia (Joseph. Bell, vii, 7, 4) ; Vologaesei applied in vain for
help to Vespasian (Dio Caw. Ixvi. n; Suet. Domitian, a). It
appears that the Persian losses in the east also could not be
repaired; Hyrcania remained an independent kingdom (Joseph.
Bell. vii. 7, 4; Aurel. Viet. Epit. 15, 4). Vologaeses I. died about
A.O. 77. His reign is marked by a decided reaction against Hellen-
ism; he built Vologesocerta (Bahahkert) in the neighbourhood of
Ctesiphon with the intention of drawing to this new town the
inhabitants of the Greek city Seleuda (Plin. vi. xaa).
(2) VOLOCAESES II., probably the son of Vologacies I,, appears
on coins, which bear his proper name, in 77-79, and again 121-47.
During this time the Parthian kingdom was torn by civil wars
between different pretenders, which reached their height during
the war of Trajan, 114-17. Besides Vologaeses II. we find on
coins and in the authors Pacoru* (78-*. 105), Artabanus III.
(80-81), Osroes (106-29), Mithradates V. (c. 129-47) and some
others; thus the Parthian empire seems during this whole time to
have been divided into two or three different kingdoms.
(3) VOLOGAESES III., 147-91. Under him, the unity of the
empire was restored. But he was attacked by the Romans under
Marcus Aurelius and Verus (162-65). In this war Scleucia was
destroyed and the palace of Ctesiphon burnt down by Avidius
Cassius (164); the Romans even advanced into Media. In the
peace, western Mesopotamia was ceded to the Romans (Dio Cass.
Ixxi. i ff., Capitolin. Marc. Aur. 8 f.; Vcrus 8, etc.). Vologaeaes III.
is probably the king Volgash of the Parsee tradition, preserved
in the Dinkart, who gathered the writings of Zoroaster.
(4) VOLOGAERES IV., 191-209. He was attacked by Septimius
Severus in 195, who advanced into Mesopotamia, occupied Nisibis
and plundered Ctesiphon (199), but attempted in vain to conquer
the Arabic fortress Atra; in 202 peace was restored.
(5) VOLOGAESES V., 209-^. 222, son of Vologaeses IV. Soon
after his accession his brother Artabanus IV/, the last Arsacid
king, rebelled against him, and became master of the greater part
of the empire (Dio Cass. Ixxvii. 12). But Vologaeses V, maintained
himself in a part of Babylonia; his dated coins reach down to
A.D. 222. (Eo. M.)
VOLOGDA, a province of the Russian S.F.S.R., very much
smaller than the prc-i9i7 province of that name. Area 110,365
sq.km. Pop. (1926) 1,052,645. The provinces of North Dwina,
Kostroma, Yaroslavl and Cherepovets fringe it, as does the Lenin-
grad Area and the Karelian A.S.S.R.
Much of it was under ice during the glacial epoch, and it is a
region of boulder clay, marsh, lakes and numerous streams. The
largest lakes are Kubensk and Lacha, and the rivers include the
Sukhona, flowing north-west from Lake Kubensk, and the upper
course of the Onega and of the Vaga, both flowing northward,
the former into the Arctic Ocean and the latter joining the
northern Dwina. Nearly half of the province is covered with
coniferous forest, densest in the north, and there are vast marshes.
The south has been largely cleared of forest and in spite of the
poor soil and difficult climatic conditions, crops are raised. The
climate is continental and the winter long. Average January tem-
perature at Vologda 10-7° F, July 63-5° F. The climate is variable
from year to year, and early autumn frost or unduly prolonged
spring frost may ruin the crops. The rainfall is mainly in July
and August and the dry spring and rainy summer are unfavour-
able to grain crops; i\ varies from 300 to 500 mm. per annum.
The chief crops are winter rye (37*9%) and oats (38-4%).
Barley, flax, potatoes, summer wheat, grasses, peas and hemp
are also grown in small quantities. The poor soil and need for
careful manuring and preparation mean that 50 working days
must go for soil preparation as against i$ days Jn the Kuban —
Black Sea district. Cultivation provide* 30% of the income of
the province, and stock-raising and its dependent industries, 40%.
Dairy cattle, of the Kholmogory breed in the north and the Yaro-
slavl breed in the south, are raised and dairying has developed
rapidly since the railway provided an outlet for butter. There
are about 400 dairy artels which co-operate for the purchase of
separators and butter coolers and for sales, and refrigerators, new
factories and small electric stations are under construction.
Horses, gheep and pigs are alto raised, the latter are increasing;
in dependence on the dairy industry. Poultry keeping Js slowly
developing. The timber industry is not well developed, owing
246
VOLPI— VOLSINII
to lack of capital, though there is some saw-milling. It diminished
markedly in the disturbed conditions of the civil war following
1917, and in 1920 was only 4% of the pre-war product. It is
slowly recovering. In dependence on it there are papqr manufac-
tures and two cellulose and wood pulp factories.
The railway from Moscow to Archangel goes northwards
through Vologda and in 1916 the single track was made double,
thus much increasing its usefulness, and there are railway links
from the town of Vologda to Leningrad and to the Vyatka-Perm
railway. The Sukhona is a navigable water-way linking with
the northern Dwina, and there is a canal linking Lake Kubensk
with the Sheksna, a tributary of the Volga. Except for Vologda
(see below) no town reaches a population of 6,000. The popula-
tion is mainly Russian.
Vologda, the chief town of the above province, situated on
the Vologda river above its confluence with the navigable Suk-
hona river, in 59° 14' N., 39° 43' E. Pop. (1926) 56,816. The
town is a railway junction, and has railway and steamer repair
yards, and manufactures agricultural implements, leather and
beer. Pottery, glass and cement factories are under construction
(1928), and there is a municipal electricity and water supply.
It has grown rapidly as the railway developed, and has numerous
trading enterprises, collecting local products for export to Arch-
angel, Leningrad and Moscow.
Its trade is very ancient; it was founded as a colony of Nov-
gorod in 1147, when the fur trade was at its height. The Tatars,
in alliance with the Prince of Tver, plundered it in 1273, but it
soon recovered. Moscow and Novgorod disputed possession of
it until 1447, when it was definitely annexed to the former. The
opening of Archangel as a port in 1553 made it the chief dep6t for
goods for the north. It was devastated Ly the Poles in 1613
and by plague in 1648. With the foundation in 1703 of St. Peters-
burg (Leningrad) trade went via the Baltic, and Vologda declined,
but developed again after the building of the railway to Archangel.
VOLPI, COUNT GIUSEPPE (1877- ), Italian states-
man, was born at Venice on Nov. 19, 1877. In his youth he
travelled extensively in the Balkans and the East, taking special
note of local economic problems. In 1912 he was employed in the
preliminary negotiations for the Peace of Lausanne, which assured
for Italy the possession of the Dodekanese, and was one of the
Italian delegates at Ouchy. In 1913 he was vice-president of the
Balkan financial conferences. Volpi was a great figure in Italian
industry and finance; he originated the proposal for the develop-
ment of the port of Venice, and executed the hydroelectric scheme
in the Veneto, and in part of Emilia and Venezia Giulia.
During the World War, Volpi, who was a keen interventionist,
served on the Monfalcone front. In 1919 he was a member of the
Supreme Economic Council in Paris, in 1921 governor of Tripoli-
tana, where he remained until 1925. He carried out a successful
campaign in 1922-23, and then established peace and carried out
a bold programme of economic reconstruction. For his services
he was created Count Volpi of Misurata. Volpi was chairman of
the Associazione jra la Socictb Italiana per Azione, and was the
trusted representative of Italian commerce and industry. These
considerations and his success in Tripoli led Mussolini to ap-
point him minister of finance in July 1925, when the dissatisfac-
tion with Stefani's finance administration was acute. Volpi con-
cluded the arrangements for the settlement of the Italian debt to
America (Nov. 12, 1925), and to Great Britain (Jan. 27, 1926).
VOLSCI, ancient Italian people who were prominent in the
history of the first century of the Roman Republic. They then
inhabited the partly hilly, partly marshy district of the S. of
Latium, bounded by the Aurunci and Samnites on the S., the
Hernici on the E., and stretching roughly from Norba and Cora
in the N. to Antium in the S. They were among the most danger-
ous enemies of Rome, and frequently allied with the Aequi (q.v.).
From the little town of Velitrae (Velletri) in the Volscian terri-
tory, the birthplace of Augustus, comes a very interesting though
brief inscription dating probably from early in the 3rd century
B.C. It is cut upon a small bronze plate (now in the Naples Mu-
seum), which must have once been fixed to some votive object.
The language of this inscription shows the very marked peculi-
arities which rank it close beside the language of the Iguvine
Tables (see UMBRIAN). It shows on the one hand the labializa-
tion of the original velar q (Volscian £&=Latin quis), and on
the other hand it palatalizes the guttural c before a following *
(Volscian /a$w=Latin facial). Like Umbrian also, it has de-
graded all the diphthongs into simple vowels.
The name Volsci belongs to the -CO- group of tribal names in
the centre, and mainly on the west coast, of Italy, all of whom
were subdued by the Romani before the end of the 4th century
B.C. ; and many of whom were conquered by the Samnites about
a century or more earlier. They are, from south to north, Osci,
Aurunci, Hernici, Marruci, Palis ci; with these were no doubt
associated the original inhabitants of Aricia and of Sidlci-num, of
Vesoia among the Aurunci, and of Labici close to Hernican terri-
tory. The same formative element appears in the adjective Mons
Massicus, and the names Glanica and Marica belonging to the
Auruncan district, with Gramscae in south Etruria, and a few
other names in central Italy. With these names must clearly be
judged the forms Tusci and Etrusci, the names given to the
Etruscans by the folk among whom they settled. The Samnite
and Roman conquerors tended to impose the form of their own
group-name, namely the suffix -NO-, upon the tribes they con-
quered; hence the Marruci became the Marrucini, the Arid
became Aricini. The conclusion suggested is that these -CO-
tribes occupied the centre and west coast of Italy at the time of
the Etruscan invasion ; whereas the -NO- tribes only reached this
part of Italy, or at least only became dominant there, long after
the Etruscans had settled in the Peninsula.
It remains, therefore, to ask whether any information can be
had about the language of this primitive -CO- folk. If the con-
clusions suggested under SABINI may be accepted as sound we
should expect to find the Volsci speaking a language similar to
that of the Ligures, whose fondness for the suffix -sco~ is marked,
and identical with that spoken by the plebeians of Rome, and that
this branch of Indo-European preserved the original Indo-Euro-
pean Velars from the labialization which befell them in the speech
of the Samnites. The language of the inscription of Velitrae offers
at first sight a difficulty from this point of view, in the conver-
sion which it shows of q to P; but the group-name of Velitrae
i« Veliternus, and the people are called on the inscription itself
Velestrom (genitive plural); so that there is nothing to prevent
our assuming that ws have here a settlement of Sabines among
the Volscian hills, with their language to some extent (e.g., in the
matter of the diphthongs and palatals) corrupted by that of the
people round about them.
In the name Volsci, the older form Volusci clearly contains the
word meaning "marsh," since the change of velos- to volus- is
phonetically regular in Latin. The name Marica ("goddess of
the salt-marshes") among the Aurunci appears also both on the
coast of Piccnum and among the Ligurians ; Stephanus of Byzan-
tium identified the Osci with the Siculi, who, there is reason to
suspect, were kinsmen of the Ligures. In many marshy places
this -co- or -ca- suffix is used. Besides the Aurunci and the dea
Marica and the intcmpestaeque Graviscae (Virg., Aen; x. 184),
we have the Ustica Cubans of Horace (Odes i. 17, n), the Hernici
in the Trerus valley, Satricum and Glanica in the Pomptine
marshes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— For the text and fuller account of the Volscian
inscription, and for other records of the dialect, see R. S. Conway,
Italic Dialects, pp. 267 sqq. See also Camb. Anc. Hist., vol. vii.
VOLSINII, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy. The older
Volsinii occupied in all probability the isolated tufa rock, so
strongly defended by nature, upon which in Roman times stood
the town which Procopius calls Oup/3t/fo>T6s (Urbs vetus, the
modern Orvieto). It had, and needed, no outer walls, being sur-
rounded on all sides except the south-west by abrupt tufa cliffs;
but a massive wall found by excavation on the south-west side
of the town may have belonged to the acropolis. An Etruscan
temple of the 4th cent. B.C. stood near the north-east extremity
of the plateau. It measured 72 by 54 feet and had three cettae;
and at the foot of the hill on the north a large Etruscan necrop-
olis was found dating from the 5th century B.C. The tombs, con-
VOLSTEAD— VOLTAIRE
247
structed of blocks of stone and arranged in rows divided by pas-
sages, often had the name of the deceased on the fagade. Many
painted vases, etc., were found; some are in the Museo Civico
at Orvieto. Tombs with paintings have also been found at
Settecamini to the south-west of the town on the way to Bolsena.
Volsinii was reputed the richest of the twelve cities of Etruria.
Wars between Volsinii and Rome are mentioned in 392, 308 and
294 B.C. Zonaras states that the city was destroyed by Fulvius
Flaccus in 265-264 B.C. and removed elsewhere, though the old
site continued to be inhabited. The new city was certainly situated
on the hills on the north-east bank of the Lake of Bolsena (Lacus
Volsiniensis), 12 m. W.S.W. of Orvieto, where many important
antiquities have been found.
See P. Perali, Orvieto Etrusca (Rome, 1928), who proposes to
identify Orvieto with the ancient Fanum Voltumnae.
VOLSTEAD, ANDREW J. (1860- ), ex-congressman,
born in Goodhue county, Minnesota. He was admitted to the bar
in 1884 and has since been in practice at Granite Falls, Minne-
sota. Mr. Volstead was a member of the sSth to 6yth Congresses
(1903-23), 7th Minnesota district. He was the author of the
Farmers' Co-Operative Act and of the "Volstead Act," the first
step in the struggle to enforce the i8th Amendment to the Con-
stitution regarding the prohibition of intoxicating liquors. The
Volstead Act was passed Oct. 18, 1919, over the President's veto.
Its most drastic feature, and the one most criticized, is the defini-
tion of intoxicating liquors as beverages containing "one-half of
one per centum or more of alcohol by volume." Volstead has been
legal adviser to the^hief of the north-western dry enforcement
district since Oct. 1925.
VOLTA, ALESSANDRO (1745-1827), Italian physicist,
was born at Como on Feb. 18, 1745. He is celebrated as a pioneer
of electrical science, after whom the "volt" is named. He was
successively appointed professor of physics in the gymnasium of
Como (1774) and to the newly founded chair of physics at Pavia
in 1779. In 1777 and again in 1782 he journeyed through Switzer-
land, France, Germany, Holland and England, and became ac-
quainted with many scientific celebrities. In 1791 he received
the Copley medal of the Royal Society. In 1801 Napoleon called
him to Paris, to show his experiments on contact electricity, and
a medal was struck in his honour. He was made a senator of the
kingdom of Lombardy. In 1815 the emperor of Austria made him
director of the philosophical faculty of Padua. In 1819 he retired
and settled in his native town, where he died on March 5, 1827.
A statue was erected to his memory at Como. For Volta's
electrical work, and his place in the history of discovery, see
ELECTRICITY; also VOLTMETER.
VOLTA, the largest river of the coast of Upper Guinea, be-
tween the Gambia and the Niger, with a length of about 900 m.
Its mouth and the greater part of its course are in British territory.
Its lower course had been known since the discoveries of the
Portuguese, from whom it received (isth century) its name on
account of the winding nature of its stream. It was not, however,
until the last fifteen years of the i9th century that the extent of
its basin — extending far north within the bend of the Niger —
was made known.
There are two main upper branches, the Black and the White
Volta. Their sources lie on the grassy plateaux north of the forest
belt of the Guinea coast, the Black Volta rising (as the Baule)
in about 11° N., 4° 50' W. Its course is at first east and north-
east, to 12° 25' N., at which point, after receiving a tributary from
nearly 14° N. — the most northerly point of the basin — it turns
sharply south. From the eleventh to the ninth parallel the river
forms the boundary between the Northern Territories of the Gold
Coast (British) and the French Ivory Coast colony. The
southerly course of the stream ceases at 8° 15' N. where it is
deflected east, and even north, by a mountain range composed of
sandstone and granite, which it finally breaks through by a nar-
row pass, in which its width is only some 60 yards. Elsewhere
it has a general width of 150 to 200 yards. In o° 50' W. it re-
ceives the White Volta, which flows generally south from about
13° N. and likewise breaks through a narrow gap in the plateau es-
carpment. Both rivers shrink greatly in the dry season, reaching
their lowest level at the end of January. Below the junction the
Volta flows south-east and south, but turns east for 40 m. just
north of 6°. In 7° 3/ N. it receives on the left bank a large
tributary, the Oti, coming from 12° N. In its lower course, through
the forest belt, the river has often a width of over half a mile,
with a depth in places of 40 to 50 ft. in the rains, but in 6° 18'
N. it traverses a pass in which its width is narrowed to 30 yards.
Its use as a water-way is limited by a number of rapids, the low-
est of which occur in 6° 7' N., above the trading port of Akuse.
Its mouth is also obstructed during the greater part of the year
by a bar. The river is usually navigable by small vessels from
its mouth for about 60 miles.
See H. Hubert, "Sur un important ph6nomene de capture dans
PAfrique occidcntalc" (Annales de Geographic, 1912).
VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE
(1694-1778), whose real name was Francois Marie Arouet simply,
was born on Nov. 21, 1694 at Paris, and was baptized the next
day. His father was Francois Arouet, a notary; his mother was
Marie Marguerite Daumart or D'Aumard. Both father and mother
were of Poitevin extraction, but the Arouets had been for two
generations established in Paris, the grandfather being a pros-
perous tradesman. He was the fifth child of his parents. Not
very much is known of the mother, who died when Voltaire was
but seven years old. She pretty certainly was the chief cause of
his early introduction to good society, the abbe de Chateauneuf
(his sponsor in more ways than one) having been her friend.
The abbe" instructed him early in belles-lettres and deism, and
he showed when a child an unsurpassed faculty for facile verse-
making. At the age of ten he was sent to the College Louis-le-
Grand, which was under the management of the Jesuits, and re-
mained there till 1711. It was his whim, as part of his general
liberalism, to depreciate the education he received; but it seems to
have been a sound and good education. Nor can there be
much doubt that the great attention bestowed on acting — the
Jesuits kept up the Renaissance practice of turning schools into
theatres for the performance of plays both in Latin and in the
vernacular — had much to do with Voltaire's lifelong devotion to
the stage. It must have been in his very earliest school years that
the celebrated presentation of him by his godfather to Ninon de
Lenclos took place, for Ninon died in 1705. She left him two
thousand francs "to buy books with/'
In August 1711, at the age of seventeen, he came home, and
the usual battle followed between a son who desired no profession
but literature and a father who refused to consider literature a
profession at all. For a time Voltaire submitted, and read law at
least nominally. The abb6 de Chateauneuf died before his godson
left school, but he had already introduced him to the famous and
dissipated coterie of the Temple. His father tried to break him
off from such society by sending him in the suite of the marquis
de Chateauneuf, the abbe's brother, to The Hague. Here he met
a certain Olympe Dunoyer ("Pimpette"), a girl apparently of
respectable character and not bad connections, but a Protestant,
penniless, and daughter of a literary lady whose literary reputa-
tion was not spotless. His father stopped any idea of a match
by procuring a lettre de cachet, which, however, he did not use.
Voltaire, who had been sent home, submitted, and for a time pre-
tended to work in a Parisian lawyer's office; but he again mani-
fested a faculty for getting into trouble — this time in the still
more dangerous way of writing libellous poems — so that his
father was glad to send him to stay for nearly a year (1714-15)
with Louis de Caumartin, marquis de Saint-Ange, in the country.
When he returned to Paris, Voltaire was forthwith introduced
to a less questionable and even more distinguished coterie than
Vend&me's, to the famous "court of Sceaux," the circle of the
beautiful and ambitious duchesse du Maine. It seems that
Voltaire lent himself ta the duchess's frantic hatred of the regent
Orleans, and helped to compose lampoons on that prince. At any
rate, in May 1716 be was exiled, first to Tulle, then to Sully.
Allowed to return, he again fell under suspicion of having been
concerned in the composition of two violent libels and on May 16,
1717 was sent to the Bastille. He there recast Oedipe, began the
Henriade and determined to alter his name. Ever after his exit
24.8
VOLTAIRE
[LIFE
from the Bastille in April 1718 he was known as Arouet de
Voltaire, or simply Voltaire, though legally he never abandoned
his patronymic. Probably the name is an anagram on "Arouet le
jeune," or "Arouet l.'j."
A further "exile" at Chatenay and elsewhere succeeded the
imprisonment, and though Voltaire was admitted to an audience
by the regent and treated graciously he was not trusted. Oedipe
was acted at the Theatre Francois on Nov. 18 of the year of
release. It had a run of forty-five nights, and brought the author
not a little profit. With these gains Voltaire seems to have begun
his long series of successful financial speculations. But in the
spring of next year the production of Lagrange-Chancel's libels,
entitled the Philippiquesf again brought suspicion on him. He was
informally exiled, and spent much time with Marshal Villars,
again increasing his store of "reminiscences." He returned to
Paris In the winter, and his second play, Arttmire, was produced
in February 1720. It was a failure. In December 1721 his father
died, leaving him property (rather more than four thousand livres
a year), which was soon increased by a pension of half the amount
from the regent. In return he offered himself as a secret diplo-
matist to i Dubois.
His visiting espionage, as unkind critics put it — his secret
diplomatic mission, as he would have liked to have it put him-
self— began in the summer of 1722, and he set out for it in
company with a certain Madame de Rupelmonde, to whom he
as usual made love, taught deism and served as an amusing
travelling companion. He stayed at Cambrai for some time,
where European diplomatists were still in full session, journeyed
to Brussels, went on to The Hague, and then returned. The
Henriade had got on considerably during the journey. During
the late autumn and winter of 1722-23 he abode chiefly in Paris,
taking a kind of lodging in the town house of M. de Bernieres,
a nobleman of Rouen, and endeavouring to procure a "privilege''
for his poem. In this he was disappointed, but he had the work
printed at Rouen nevertheless, and spent the summer of 1723
revising it. In November he caught smallpox and was very
seriously ill. The book was privately printed in the spring of
1724. His third tragedy, Marianne was a failure. The regent had
died shortly before, not to Voltaire's advantage ; for he had been
a generous patron. Voltaire had made, however, a useful friend
in another grand seigneur, as profligate and nearly as intelligent,
the duke of Richelieu, and with him he passed 1724 and the next
year chiefly, recasting Mariamne (which was now successful),
writing the comedy of L'Indiscret, and courting the queen, the
ministers, the favourites and all who seemed worth while. The
end of 1725 brought a disastrous close to this period of his life.
He was insulted by the chevalier de Rohan, replied with his usual
sharpness of tongue, and shortly afterwards, when dining with
the duke of Sully, was called out and bastinadoed by the cheva-
lier's hirelings, Rohan himself looking on. Nobody would take
his part, and at last, nearly three months after the outrage, he
challenged Rohan, who accepted the challenge, but on the morn-
ing appointed for the duel Voltaire was arrested and sent for the
second time to the Bastille. He was kept in confinement a fort-
night, and was then packed off to England in accordance with his
own request. Voltaire revenged himself on the duke of Sully
for his conduct towards his guest by cutting Maximilien de
B&hune's name out of the Henriade.
Voltaire's visit to England lasted about three years, from 1726
to 1729. George II., who succeeded soon after his arrival, was not
fond of "boetry," but Queen Caroline was, and international jeal-
ousy was pleased at the thought of welcoming a distinguished exile
from French illiberality. The Walpoles, Bubb Dodington, Boling-
broke, Congreve, Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, Pope, were
among his English friends. He made acquaintance with, and at
least tried to appreciate, Shakespeare. He was much struck by
English manners, was deeply penetrated by English toleration
for personal freethought and eccentricity, and gained some thou-
sands of pounds from an authorized English edition of the
Henriade, dedicated to the queen. But he visited Paris now and
then and gained full licence to return in the spring of 1729.
He was full of literary projects, and immediately after his
return he is said to have increased his fortune immensely by
a lucky lottery speculation. The Henriade was at last licensed
in France; Brutus, a play which he had printed in England, was
accepted for performance, but kept back for a time by the author;
and he began the celebrated poem of the Pucelle, the amusement
and the torment of a great part of his life. At the end of 1730
Brutus did actually get acted. Then in the spring of the next
year he went to Rouen to get Charles XII. surreptitiously printed,
which he accomplished. In 1732 another tragedy, firiphile, ap-
peared, with the same kind of halting success which had distin-
guished the appearance of its elder sisters since Oedipe. But at
last, on the i3th of August 1732, he produced Zaire, the best
(with Merope) of all his plays, and one of the ten or twelve
best plays of the whole French classical school. Its motive was
borrowed to some extent from Othello, but that matters little. In
the following winter the death of the comtesse de Fontaine-
Martel, whose guest he had beeii, turned him out of a comfort-
able abode. He then took lodgings with an agent of his, one
Demoulin, in an out-of-the-way part of Paris, and was, for some
time at least, as much occupied with contracts, speculation and all
sorts of means of gaining money as with literature.
In the middle of this period, however, in 1733, two important
books, the Lettres philosophiques stir les Anglais and the Temple
du gout appeared. Both were likely to make bad blood, for
the latter was, under the mask of easy verse, a satire on con-
temporary French literature, especially on J. B. Rousseau, and
the former was, in the guise of a criticism or rather panegyric
of English ways, an attack on everything established in the
church and state of France. The book was condemned (June
loth, 1734, the copies seized and burnt, a warrant issued against
the author and his dwelling searched. He himself was safe in
the independent duchy of Lorraine with Emilie de Breteuil,
marquise du Chatelet, with whom he began to be intimate in
1733. The chateau of Cirey, a half -dismantled country house
on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, was fitted up with
Voltaire's money and became the headquarters of himself, of his
hostess, and now and then of her accommodating husband. Many
pictures of the life here, some of them not a little malicious,
survive. It was not entirely a bed of roses, for the "respectable
Emily's0 temper was violent, and after a time she sought lovers
who were not so much des ctrtbraux as Voltaire. But it provided
him with a safe and comfortable retreat, and with every oppor-
tunity for literary work. In March 1735 the ban was formally
taken off him, and he was at liberty to return to Paris, a liberty
of which he availed himself sparingly.
At Cirey he wrote indefatigably and did not neglect business.
The principal literary results of his early years here were the
Discours en vers sur I'homme, the play of Alsire and L'Enfant
prodigue (1736), and a long treatise on the Newtonian system
which he and Madame du Chatelet wrote together. In the
first days of his sojourn he had written a pamphlet with the
title of Treatise on Metaphysics. Of metaphysics proper Voltaire
neither then nor at any other time understood anything, and the
subject, like every other, merely served him as a pretext for
laughing at religion with the usual reservation of a tolerably
affirmative deism. In March 1736 he received his first letter
from Frederick of Prussia, then crown prince only. He was soon
again in trouble, this time for the poem of Le Mondain, and he
at once crossed the frontier and then made for Brussels. He
spent about three months in the Low Countries, and in March
1737 returned to Cirey, and continued writing, making experi-
ments in physics (he had at this time a large laboratory), and
busying himself with iron-founding, the chief industry of the
district. The best-known accounts of Cirey life, those of Madame
dc Grafigny, date from the winter of 1738-39; they are somewhat
spiteful but very amusing, depicting the frequent quarrels between
Madame du Chatelet and Voltaire, his intense suffering under
criticism, his constant dread of the surreptitious publication of
the Pucelle (which nevertheless he could not keep his hands from
writing or his tongue from reciting to his visitors), and so forth.
Frederick, now king of Prussia, made not a few efforts to get
Voltaire away from Madame du Chatelet, but unsuccessfully,
LIFE]
VOLTAIRE
249
and the king earned the lady's cordial hatred by persistently
refusing or omitting to invite her. At last, in September 1740,
master and pupil met for the first time at Cleves, an interview
followed three months later by a longer visit. Brussels wa^-again
the headquarters in 1741, by which time Voltaire had finished
the best and the second or third best of his plays, Mtrope and
Mahomet. Mahomet was played first at Lille in that year; it did
not appear in Paris till August next year, and Mirope not till
1743. This last was, and deserved to be, the most successful of
its author's whole theatre. During these years much of the Essai
sur les moeurs and the Slide de Louis XIV. was composed. He
also returned, not too well-advisedly, to the business of courtier-
ship, which he had given up since the death of the regent. He
was much employed, owing to Richelieu's influence, in the fetes
of the dauphin's marriage, and was rewarded, through the influence
of Madame de Pompadour on, New Year's Day 1745 by the
appointment to the post of historiographer-royal, once jointly
held by Racine and Boileau. In the same year he wrote a poem
on Fontenoy, he received medals from the pope and dedicated
Mahomet to him, and he wrote court divertissements and other
things to admiration. But Voltaire, who had been for years
the first writer in France, had been repeatedly passed over in
elections to the Academy. He was at last elected in the spring
of 1746, and received on the gth of May. Then the tide began to
turn. His favour at court had naturally exasperated his enemies.
He had various proofs of the instability of his hold on the king
during 1747 and in 1748. He once lay in hiding for two months
with the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux, where were produced
the comedietta of La Prude and the tragedy of Rome sauvte,
and afterwards for a time lived chiefly at Luneville ; here Madame
du Chatelet had established herself at the court of King Stanis-
laus, and carried on a liaison with Saint-Lambert, an officer in
the king's guard. In 1 749 she died after the birth of a child.
After Madame du Chatelet's death Voltaire had some idea of
settling in Paris, but mischief was the very breath of his
nostrils. He went on writing satiric tales like Zadig. He en-
gaged in a foolish and undignified struggle with Crebillon pere
(not fils), a rival set up against him by Madame de Pompadour,
but a dramatist who, in part of one play, Rhadamiste et Zenobie,
has struck a note of tragedy in the grand Cornelian strain, which
Voltaire could never hope to echo. Semirame (1748), Oreste
(1750) and Rome souvte itself were all products of this rivalry.
All this time Frederick of Prussia had been continuing his
invitations. Voltaire left Paris on June 15, 1751, and reached
Berlin on July 10. It is certain that at first the king behaved
altogether like a king to his guest. He pressed him to remain;
he gave him (the words are Voltaire's own) one of his orders,
twenty thousand francs a year, and four thousand additional for
his niece, Madame Denis, in case she would come and keep house
for her uncle. His residence in Prussia lasted nearly three years.
It was quite impossible that Voltaire and Frederick should get
on together for long. Voltaire was not humble enough to be a
mere butt, as many of Frederick's led poets were; he was not
enough of a gentleman to hold his own place with dignity and
discretion; he was constantly jealous both of his equals in age
and reputation, such as Maupertuis, and of his juniors and in-
feriors, such as Baculard D'Arnaud. He was greedy, restless,
and in a way Bohemian. He tried to get D'Arnaud exiled, and
succeeded. He got into a quite unnecessary quarrel with Lessing.
He had not been in the country six months before he engaged in
a discreditable piece of financial gambling with Hirsch, the Dres-
den Jew. He was accused of something like downright forgery —
that is to say, of altering a paper signed by Hirsch after he had
signed it. The king's disgust at this affair (which came to an open
scandal before the tribunals) was so great that be was on the
point of ordering Voltaire out of Prussia, and Darget the secretary
had no small trouble in arranging the matter (February 1751).
Then it was Voltaire's turn to be disgusted with an occupation
he had undertaken himself—the occupation of "buckwashing"
the king's French verses. However, be succeeded in finishing
and printing the Sttch de Louis XIV. , while the Dktionnair*
phUosophique is said to have been devised and begun at Potsdam,
But Voltaire's restless temper was brewing up for another storm.
In the early autumn of 1751 La Mettrie, one of the king's para-
sites, and a man of much more talent than is generally allowed,
horrified Voltaire by telling him that Frederick had in conversa-
tion applied to him (Voltaire) a proverb about "sucking the
orange and flinging away its skin," and about the same time the
dispute with Maupertuis, which had more than anything else to
do with his exclusion from Prussia, came to a head. Maupertuis
got into a dispute with one Konig. The king took his president's
part; Voltaire took Konig's. But Maupertuis must needs write
his Letters, and thereupon (1752) appeared one of Voltaire's most
famous, though perhaps not one of his most read works, the
Diatribe du Doctettr Akakia. Even Voltaire did not venture to
publish this lampoon on a great official of a prince so touchy
as the king of Prussia without some permission, and if all tales
are true he obtained this by another piece of something like
forgery — getting the king to endorse a totally different pamphlet
on its last leaf, and affixing that last leaf to Akakia. Of this
Frederick was not aware; but he did get some wind of the
Diatribe itself, sent for the author, heard it read to his own
great amusement, and either actually burned the ms. or believed
that it was burnt. In a few days printed copies appeared. Fred-
erick put Voltaire under arrest for a time. After repeated recon-
ciliations followed by fresh difficulties Voltaire at last left Pots-
dam on the 26th of March, 1753. It was nearly three months
afterwards that the famous, ludicrous and brutal arrest was made
at Frankfort, on the persons of himself and his niece, who bad met
him meanwhile. The whole situation was at last put an end to by
the city authorities, who probably felt that they were not playing
a very creditable part. Voltaire left Frankfort on July 7, and
travelled to Colmar.
Voltaire's second stage was now over in his sixtieth year. He
had been, in the first blush of his Frankfort disaster, refused, or
at least not granted, permission even to enter France proper. At
Colmar he was not safe, especially when in January 1754 a pirated
edition of the Essai sur les moeurs, written long before, appeared.
Permission to establish himself in France was now absolutely
refused. Nor did an extremely offensive performance of Vol-
taire's— the solemn partaking of the Eucharist at Colmar after
due confession — at all mollify his enemies. His exclusion from
France, however, really meant exclusion from Paris and its neigh-
bourhood. In the summer he went to Plombieres, and after
returning to Colmar for some time journeyed in the beginning
of winter to Lyons, and thence in the middle of December to
Geneva. Voltaire had no purpose of remaining in the city, and
almost immediately bought a country house just outside the
gates, to which he gave the name Les Delices. He was here
practically at the meeting-point of four distinct jurisdictions —
Geneva, the canton Vaud, Sardinia and France, while other can-
tons were within easy reach; and he bought other houses dotted
about these territories, so as never to be without a refuge close
at hand in case of sudden storms. At Les Delices he get up a
considerable establishment, which his great wealth made him
able easily to afford. He kept open house for visitors; he had
printers close at hand in Geneva; he fitted up a private theatre
in which he could enjoy what was perhaps the greatest pleasure
of his whole life — acting in a play of his own, stage-managed by
himself. His residence at Geneva brought him into correspond-
ence (at first quite amicable) with the most famous of her
citizens, J. J. Rousseau. His OrpheUn de la Chine, performed at
Paris in 1755, was very well received; the notorious La Pucelle
appeared in the same year. The earthquake at Lisbon, which
appalled other people, gave Voltaire an excellent opportunity for
ridiculing the beliefs of the orthodox, first in verse (1756) and
later in the (from a literary point of view) unsurpassable tale
of Candide (1759). All was, however, not yet quite smooth with
him. Geneva had a law expressly forbidding theatrical perform-
ances in any circumstances whatever. Voltaire had infringed this
law already as far as private performances went, and be had
thought of building a regular theatre, not indeed at Geneva but
at Lausanne. He undoubtedly instigated D 'Al ember t to include
a censure of the prohibition in his Encyclopedic article on
250
VOLTAIRE
[WORKS
"Geneva," a proceeding which provoked Rousseau's celebrated
Lettre a D'Alembert sur les spectacles. As for himself, he looked
about for a place where he could combine the social liberty of
France with the political liberty of Geneva, and he found one.
At the end of 1758 he bought the considerable property of
Ferney, on the shore of the lake, about four miles from Geneva,
and on French soil. Many of the most celebrated men of Europe
visited him there. In spite of these interruptions he wrote much
and conducted an immense correspondence, which had for a
long time once more included Frederick, the two getting on
very well when they were not in contact. Above all, he now,
being comparatively secure in position, engaged much more
strongly in public controversies, and resorted less to his old
labyrinthine tricks of disavowal, garbled publication and private
libel The suppression of the Encyclopedic, to which he had been
a considerable contributor, and whose conductors were his inti-
mate friends, drew from him a shower of lampoons directed now
at "rinfame" (see infra) generally, now at literary victims, such
as Le Franc de Pompignan, or Palissot or at Fr£ron, an excellent
critic and a dangerous writer, who had attacked Voltaire from the
conservative side, and at whom the patriarch of Ferney, as he now
began to be called, levelled the farce-lampoon of L'fccossaise.
Here, too, he began that series of interferences on behalf of
the oppressed and the ill-treated which is an honour to his
memory. Volumes and almost libraries have been written on the
Galas affair, and we can but refer here to the only less famous
cases of Sirven (very similar to that of Galas, though no judicial
murder was actually committed), Espinasse (who had been
sentenced to the galleys for harbouring a Protestant minister),
Lally (the son of the unjustly treated but not blameless Irish-
French commander in India), D'fetalonde (the companion of La
Barre), Montbailli and others.
In this way Voltaire, who had been an old man when he estab-
lished himself at Ferney, became a very old one almost without
noticing it. The death of Louis XV. and the accession of Louis
XVI. excited even in his aged breast the hope of re-entering
Paris, but he did not at once receive any encouragement, despite
the reforming ministry of Turgot. A much more solid gain to
his happiness was the adoption, or practical adoption, in 1776 of
Reine Philiberte de Varicourt, a young girl of noble but poor
family, whom Voltaire rescued from the convent, installed in his
house as an adopted daughter, and married to the marquis de
Villette. Her pet name was "Belle et Bonne," and nobody had
more to do with the happiness of the last years of the "patriarch"
than she had. It is doubtful whether his last and fatal visit to
Paris was due to his own wish or to the instigation of his niece,
Madame Denis. At the end of 1777 and the beginning of 1778,
he had been carefully finishing a new tragedy — Irtne — for pro-
duction in the capital. He started on Feb. 5, and five days later
arrived at the city which he had not seen for 28 years.
He was received with immense rejoicings, not indeed directly
by the court, but by the Academy, by society and by all the
more important foreign visitors. About a fortnight after his
arrival, age and fatigue made him seriously ill, and a confessor
was sent for. But he recovered, scoffed at himself as usual, and
prepared more eagerly than ever for the first performance of
Irtne, on March 16. At the end of the month he was able to
attend a performance of it, which was a kind of apotheosis. He
was crowned with laurel in his box, amid the plaudits of the
audience, and did not seem to be the worse for it. He even began
or proceeded with another tragedy — Agathocle — and attended
several Academic meetings. But such proceedings in the case of
a man of eighty-four were impossible. To keep himself up, he
exceeded even his usual excess in coffee, and about the middle
of May he became very ill. On May 30, the priests were once
more sent for — to wit, his nephew, the abb6 Mignot, the abbe
Gaultier, who had officiated on the former occasion, and the
parish priest, the cure" of St. Sulpice. In a state of half-insensi-
bility he petulantly motioned them away, dying in the course of
the night. The result was a difficulty as to burial, which was
compromised by hurried interment at the abbey of Scellieres in
Champagne, anticipating the interdict of the bishop of the diocese
by an hour or two. On July 10, 1791 the body was transferred
to the Pantheon, but during the Hundred Days it was once more,
it is said, disentombed, and stowed away in a piece of waste
ground. His heart, taken from the body when it was embalmed,
and given to Madame Denis and by her to Madame de Villette,
was preserved in a silver case, and when it was proposed (in
1864) to restore it to the other remains, the sarcophagus at Sainte
Genevieve (the Pantheon) was opened and found to be empty.
In person Voltaire was not engaging, even as a young man.
His extraordinary thinness is commemorated, among other things,
by the very poor but well-known epigram attributed to Young,
and identifying him at once with "Satan, Death and Sin." In
old age he was a mere skeleton, with a long nose and eyes of
preternatural brilliancy peering out of his wig. He never seems to
have been addicted to any manly sport, and took little exercise.
He was sober enough (for his (lay and society) in eating and
drinking generally; but drank coffee, as his contemporary, counter-
part and enemy, Johnson, drank tea, in a hardened and inveterate
manner. It may be presumed with some certainty that his atten-
tions to women were for the most part platonic; indeed, both on
the good and the bad side of him, he was all brain. Conversation
and literature were, again as in Johnson's case, gods of his
idolatry. He was good-natured when not crossed, generous to
dependents who made themselves useful to him, and inde-
fatigable in defending the cause of those who were oppressed by
the systems with which he was at war. But he was inordinately
vain, and totally unscrupulous in gaining money, in attacking
an enemy, or in. protecting himself when he was threatened with
danger. Voltaire's works, and especially his private letters, con-
stantly contain the word "1'infame" and the expression (in full
or abbreviated) "ecrasez rinfame." This has been misunder-
stood in many ways — the mistake going so far as in some cases
to suppose that Voltaire meant Christ by this opprobrious ex-
pression. No careful and competent student of his works has
ever failed to correct this gross misapprehension. "L'infame" is
not God; it is not Christ; it is not Christianity; it is not even
Catholicism. Its briefest equivalent may be given as "persecuting
and privileged orthodoxy" in general, and, more particularly, it
is the particular system which Voltaire saw around him, of which
he had felt the effects in his own exiles and the confiscations of
his books, and of which he saw the still worse effects in the
hideous sufferings of Galas and La Barre.
Works, — Vast and various as his work is, its vastness and
variety are of the essence of its writer's peculiar quality. The
divisions of it have long been recognized, and may be treated
regularly.
The first of these divisions in order is the theatre. Between
fifty and sixty pieces (including a few which exist only in frag-
ments or sketches) are included in his writings, and they cover
his literary life. It is at first sight remarkable that Voltaire, whose
comic power was undoubtedly far in excess of his tragic, should
have written many tragedies of no small excellence in their way,
but only one fair second-class comedy, Ndnine. His tragedies,
on the other hand, are works of extraordinary merit in their own
way. Zaire, among those where love is admitted as a principal
motive, and Mir ope, among those where this motive is excluded
and kept in subordination, yield to no plays of their class.
As regards his poems proper, of which there are two long ones,
the Hcnriade and the Pztcelle, besides smaller pieces, of which a
bare catalogue fills fourteen royal octavo columns, their value is
very unequal. The Pucelle is extremely desultory; it is a
libel on religion and history. But it is amusing. The minor
poems are as much above the Pucelle as the Pucelle is above the
Henriade. It is true that there is nothing, or hardly anything, that
properly deserves the name of poetry in them— no passion, no
sense of the beauty of nature, only a narrow "criticism of life,"
only a conventional and restricted choice of language, a cramped
and monotonous prosody, and none of that indefinite suggestion
which has been rightly said to be of the poetic essence. But
there is immense wit, a wonderful command of such metre and
language as the taste of the time allowed to the poet, a singular if
somewhat artificial grace, and great felicity of diction.
VOLTERRA— VOLTMETER
251
The third division of Voltaire's works in a rational order con-
sists of his prose romances or tales. In these admirable works
more than in any others that the peculiar quality of Voltaire —
ironic style without exaggeration — appears. That he learned it
partly from Saint Evremond, still more from Anthony Hamilton,
partly even from his own enemy Le Sage, is perfectly true, but
he gave it perfection and completion. If one especial peculiarity
can be singled out, it is the extreme restraint and simplicity of the
verbal treatment. Voltaire never dwells too long en this point,
stays to laugh at what he has said, elucidates or comments on
his own jokes, guffaws over them or exaggerates their form. The
famous "pour fincourager les autres" is an typical example, and
indeed the whole of Candide shows the style at its perfection.
The fourth division of Voltaire's work, the historical, is the
bulkiest of all except his correspondence, but it is far from
being among the best. The small treatises on Charles XII. and
Peter the Great are indeed models of clear narrative and ingenious
if somewhat superficial grasp and arrangement. The so-called
Sticle de Louis XIV. and Si&cle de Louis XV. (the latter inferior
to the former but still valuable) contain a great miscellany of
interesting matter, treated by a man of great acuteness and un-
surpassed power of writing, who had also had access to much im-
portant private information. But even in these books defects are
present, which appear much more strongly in the singular olla-
podrida entitled Essai sur les mocurs, in the Annales de I'empire
and in the minor historical works. These defects are an almost
total absence of any comprehension' of what has since been called
the philosophy of history, the constant presence of gross prejudice,
frequent inaccuracy of detail, and, above all, a complete in-
capacity to look at anything except from the narfow standpoint
of a half-pessimist and half self-satisfied pkilosophe.
To his own age Voltaire was pre-eminently a poet and a philos-
opher; the unkindness of succeeding ages has sometimes ques-
tioned whether he had any title to either name, and especially to
the latter. His largest philosophical work, at least so called, is
the curious medley entitled Dictiomiaire philosophique, which is
compounded of the articles contributed by him to the great
Encyclopedic and of several minor pieces. No one of Voltaire's
works shows his anti-religious or at least anti-ecclesiastical
animus more strongly. The various title-words of the several
articles are often the merest stalking-horses, under cover of
which to shoot at the Bible or the church, the target being now
and then shifted to the political institutions of the writer's country,
his personal foes, etc., and the whole being largely seasoned with
that acute, rather superficial, common-sense, but also common-
place, ethical and social criticism which the iSth century called
philosophy. The book ranks perhaps second only to the novels
as showing the character, literary and personal, of Voltaire; and
despite its form it is nearly as readable.
In general criticism and miscellaneous writing Voltaire is not
inferior to himself in any of his other functions. Almost all his
more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded
by prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his own
light pungent causerie; and in a vast variety of nondescript
pamphlets and writings he shows himself a perfect journalist.
There remains only the huge division of his correspondence,
which is constantly being augmented by fresh discoveries, and
which, according to Georges Bengesco, has never been fully or
correctly printed, even in some of the parts longest known. In
this great mass Voltaire's personality is of course best shown,
and perhaps his literary qualities not worst. His immense energy
and versatility, his adroit and unhesitating flattery when he chose
to flatter, his ruthless sarcasm when he chose to be sarcastic, his
rather unscrupulous business faculty, his more than rather un-
scrupulous resolve to double and twist in any fashion so as to
escape his enemies, — all these things appear throughout the whole
mass of letters.
When sympathy and dislike are both discarded or allowed for,
he remains one of the most astonishing, if not exactly one of the
most admirable, figures of letters. His great fault was an in-
veterate superficiality. But this superficiality was accompanied
by such wonderful acuteness within A certain range, bv such an
absolutely unsurpassed literary aptitude and sense of style in all
the lighter and some of the graver modes of literature, by such
untiring energy and versatility in enterprise, that he has no
parallel among ready writers anywhere. Not the most elaborate
work of Voltaire is of much value for matter; but not the very
slightest work of Voltaire is devoid of value in form. In literary
craftsmanship, at once versatile and accomplished, he has no
superior and scarcely a rival.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the many editions of Voltaire's works, see G,
Bengcsco, Bibliographic de Voltaire (4 vols., Paris, 1882-0,0). For
Voltaire's life and works, see the essays of Thomas Carlyle and of Lord
Morlcy (1872); M. Dcsnoiresterrcs, Voltaire et la sociiU fran$aise
(1867); F. Espinasse, Voltaire (1882) with bibliography; J. Churton
Collins, Voltaire in England (1886) ; J. R. Lounsbury, Shakespeare and
Voltaire (1902) ; G. Lanson, Voltaire (1906) ; F. Caussy, Voltaire,
seigneur de village (1912) ; A. S, Hum, Voltaire et Bolingbroke (1915) ;
G. M. C. Brandcs, F. de Voltaire (1916); J. M. Robertson, Voltaire
(1922) ; R. Aldington, Voltaire (1925) ; A. Bellesort, Essai sur Voltaire
(1925) ; F. Vezinet, Autour de Voltaire (1925) ;C. B. Chase, The Young
Voltaire (1926); E. Henriot, Voltaire et frtdtric II. (1027). Recent
English versions of Voltaire's shorter writings are: Zadig and othef
romances (trans. A. I. Woolf and W. S. Jackson, 1926) ; Candide and
other romances (trans. R. Aldington, 1927) ; V. Thaddeus, Voltaire,
Genius of Mockery (1928).
VOLTERRA (anc. Volaterrae), a town and episcopal see
of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Pisa, from which it is 51
m. by rail S.E., and 35 by road W.N.W. from Siena. Pop.
(1921) 8,155 (town); 16,597 (commune). It stands on a com-
manding olive-clad eminence 1,785 ft. above sca-levcl, with a
magnificent view over mountains and sea (the latter some 20 m.
distant), and is surrounded by the massive remains of its ancient
walls of large, roughly-rectangular blocks of stone, some 4^ m.
in circuit, enclosing an area which must have been larger than
was actually needed for habitation. Tombs of the later Villanova
period (end of the gth century B.C.) have been found within its
circuit, but only at the north-west extremity. Here the clay of
which the hill is formed is gradually giving way, causing land-
slips and the collapse of buildings, notably of the abbey church
of S, Salvatore (1030) and SS. Giusto e Clement e. The mediaeval
town occupies only the southern portion of this area. The most
important relic of its Etruscan period is the Porta dell' Arco, an
archway 20 ft. high, the corbels of which are adorned with almost
obliterated heads. Volterra contains many picturesque mediaeval
towers and houses. The Palazzo dci Priori (1208-57), contain-
ing the picture gallery, is especially fine, and the Piazza Maggiore
in which it stands most picturesque. The museum contains a
valuable collection of Etruscan antiquities, especially cinerary
urns from ancient tombs of alabaster, with the figure of the de-
ceased on the lid, and reliefs from Greek myths on the front,
They belong to the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. The cathedral, en-
larged and adorned by Pisan artists in 1254, has a fine pulpit
of that period, and on the high altar are sculptures by Mino da
Fiesole; it contains several good pictures. The sacristy has fine
carvings. The baptistery (1283) has a font by Andrea San-
sovino, and a ciborium by Mino da Fiesole. Both these buildings
are in black and white marble. S. Francesco has frescoes of 1410,
and S. Girolamo terra-cottas by Giovanni della Robbia and pic-
tures. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufacture
of vases and other ornaments from alabaster found in the vicinity,
Volaterrae (Etruscan Velathri) was one of the most powerful
of the 12 confederate cities of Etruria. During the war between
Marius and Sulla it withstood the latter's troops for two years in
82-80 B.C. In the i2*h and i3th centuries it enjoyed free institu-
tions; in 1361 it fell under the power of Florence. It rebelled
but was retaken and pillaged in 1472.
See C, Ricci, Volterra (Bergamo, 1905) ; R. Maclver, Villanovam
and Early Etruscans (Oxford, 1924) 63-65. (T. A.)
VOLTMETER, an instrument which indicates the difference
of the electric potential between its terminals on a scale graduated
in volts. Legally, the (international) volt is the electromotive
force which produces a current of one (international) ampere in a
resistance of one (international) ohm. This volt is equal to
i«oo649Xio8 absolute C.G.S. units. Voltmeters are always con-
nected in parallel across the points whose potential difference
is reauired to he measured, and. sinre it is essential nnt tn disturb
252
VOLTURNO— VOLUSENUS
this potential difference, they must have a high resistance so that
they may pass only a very small current. They may be divided
into two classes, (a) electrostatic, (b) electrokinetic. Electrostatic
voltmeters depend for their action on the fact that when two
conductors are at different potentials they attract each other
with a force which varies as the square of the potential difference
between them. Such voltmeters have the advantage of possessing
an infinite resistance, but they are not very suitable for the
measurement of small voltages (e.g., 100 volts). Electrokinetic
voltmeters are simply high resistance galvanometers, and measure
potential differences in terms of the minute currents which pass
through them when they are connected to the points whose
potential differences are required. (See INSTRUMENTS, ELEC-
TRICAL.)
VOLTURNO, a river of central Italy, which rises in the neigh-
bourhood of Alfedena in the central Apennines of Samnium, runs
south as far as Venafro, and then south-east. After a course of
some 75 ra. it receives, about 5 m. E. of Caiazzo, the Calore. The
united stream now flows west-south-west past Capua (anc. Casili-
num), where the Via Appia and Latina joined just to the north
of the bridge over it, and so through the Campanian plain, with
many windings, into the sea. The direct length of the lower course
is about 31 ra., so that the whole is slightly longer than that of the
Liri, and its basin far larger (1,953 sq.m. with a length of 100 m.
in a straight line and a discharge of 40 cubic metres per second at
the mouth). The river has always had considerable military im-
portance, and the colony of Volturnum (no doubt preceded by an
older port of Capua) was founded in 194 B.C. at its mouth on the
south bank by the Romans; it is now about one mile inland. A
fort had already been placed there during the Roman siege of
Capua, in order, with Puteoli, to serve for the provisioning of the
army. The river was navigable as far as Capua.
On Oct. i, 1860, the Neapolitan forces were defeated on the
S. bank of the Volturno, near S. Maria di Capua Vetere, by the
Piedmontese and Garibaldi's troops, a defeat which led to the
fall of Capua.
VOLUNTEERS, a general term for soldiers who are not
professionals nor permanently embodied under arms in peace,
The idea of a large organized Volunteer force seems to have origi-
nated in England at the time of the Militia bill of 1757, which was
amended in 1758 so as to allow the militia captains to accept
volunteers instead of the ordinary militiamen who were com-
pulsorily furnished pro rata by each parish. In 1778 the volun-
teers were still voluntary substitutes for militiamen, though
formed in separate companies of the militia unit, but volunteer
corps soon began to form themselves independently of the militia.
These volunteers, disbanded in 1783, were promptly revived
when the French Revolutionary Wars produced a new enemy.
When the danger of invasion was at its height the force num-
bered 380,000 men, or 3 \% of a population which already kept up
a regular army and a militia. In 1808 the Local Militia was
formed, in which enlistment and training were both stricter and
better defined and the greater part of the volunteers transferred
themselves to this body. By 1812 the Local Militia reached a
strength of 215,000 as against the 70,000 of the remaining volun-
teers. With the general peace of 1814 almost all of these forces
disappeared.
After an interval of nearly half a century the warlike attitude
of France caused British citizens once more to arm for the pro-
tection of their country.
The enrolment of the "Volunteer Force" took place at first under
the old statute (44 Geo. III.). The main provisions of that act,
however, were found inapplicable to the altered conditions under
which invasion was now possible. A new act (Volunteer Act, 1863)
was soon passed, the most important provision of which was
that apprehended invasion should constitute a sufficient reason
for the sovereign to call out the volunteers, in lieu of the old
condition which required the actual appearance of the enemy.
This was modified in 1900 during the South African War by a
further enactment allowing the authorities to call them out at
times of "imminent national danger and great emergency." The
formation of volunteer corps was so rapid that in the course of a
few months in 1859-60 a force of 119,000 was created. The Gov-
ernment, which in the beginning had tolerated rather than en-
couraged the movement, and had required the volunteer to serve
and to equip himself entirely at his own expense, now followed
the lead of a public opinion, and decided on maintaining the
volunteer force as a part of the regular defensive system.
The turning-point in the history of the volunteers was the
South African War. In Jan. 1900, and on several subsequent
occasions, the volunteers were invited to supply service companies
for South Africa, to be incorporated in the regular battalion* to
which the volunteer battalions were affiliated. About one-third of
the whole force volunteered for service in South Africa besides a
great number of volunteers whom the higher pay, easier condi-
tions, and better prospects of active employment in the mounted
guerrilla warfare tempted into the ranks of the yeomanry. Various
partial reorganizations followed in 1902-5 and at least in 1907-8,
the whole force was re-cast, and organized along with the yeo«
manry into the new Territorial force. (See TERRITORIAL ARMY;
GREAT BRITAIN: Army.)
United States^-The United States has always maintained
only a small regular army, and until the World War depended
largely upon volunteers in case of national emergency. In the
War of 1812 volunteers, rangers and militia numbered 458,460
as against 56,000 regulars, The Mexican war was fought by a
larger proportion of regular troops. The President's call for
50,000 volunteers was quickly responded to but food and trans-
portation were not so quickly supplied and thousands of volun-
teers had to be left behind or sent home again. The main de-
pendence of both sides during the Civil War was upon volunteer
troops. The chief difficulties about the volunteer system for the
North were the short enlistment terms and the fact that the law
gave the governors of states the right to appoint the officers of
volunteer regiments. Voluntary enlistment also failed to produce
enough troops for an emergency and a forced draft was resorted
to. In the Spanish-American War the President was authorized
to call out volunteers for a two-year term. Under this act 220,000
volunteers were raised who together with 60,000 regulars formed
the United States army during the War. The Volunteer Army Bill
of Apr. 25, 1914, did away with the old provisions that the officers
of volunteer troops must be appointed by State governors and
stipulated that all officers were to be appointed by the President.
Also no volunteer was to be appointed to any rank above the
grade of colonel.
In the World War the United States definitely abandoned the
volunteer system as the basis of its army and resorted at once to
a selective draft. Nevertheless the Selective Service Act per-
mitted voluntary enlistment by persons between the ages of
1 8 and 40, and at the outset enlistment was freely open to per-
sons registered for the draft, provided that such registrants had
not yet been called up for examination by their local boards.
Regulations issued Dec. 15, 1917, however, prohibited voluntary
enlistment for draft registrants. In August, 1918, further volun-
teering of any kind ceased by order of the War department. Down
to that time voluntary enlistments had numbered 399,874 in the
regular army, 296,978 in the national guard units, 424,424 in the
navy and 51,223 in the marine corps.
VOLUSENUS, FLORENTIUS [FLORENCE WOLSON, or
WOLSEY, in later writers WILSON, though in letters in the vernac-
ular he writes himself VOLVSENE] (c. 1504-^. 1547), Scottish
humanist, was born near Elgin about 1504. He studied philosophy
at Aberdeen, went to Paris, and became tutor to Thomas Wynter,
reputed son of Cardinal Wolscy. He paid repeated visits to
England, where he was well received by the king, and, after
Wolsey's fall, he acted as one of Cromwell's agents in Paris.
In Paris he knew George Buchanan, and found patrons in the
cardinal Jean de Lorraine and Jean du Bellay. He was to have
gone with du Bellay on his mission to Italy in 1535, but illness
kept him in Paris. As soon as he recovered he set out on his
journey, but stopped at Avignon, where Sadolet made him master
in the school at Carpentras. Volusenus paid frequent visits to
Lyons, probably also to Italy, where he had many friends, per*
baps even to Spain. In 1546 he set out to return to Scotland,
VOLUTE— VONNOH
253
but died at Vienne in Dauphini in 1546 or early in 1547.
Volusenus was a great admirer of Erasmus, but he criticised
the purity of his Latin and also his philosophy. His own philos-
ophy is Christian and Biblical rather than classical or scholastic.
He takes a fresh and independent view of Christian ethics, and
he ultimately reaches a doctrine as to the witness of the Spirit
and the assurance of grace which breaks with the traditional
Christianity of his time and is based on ethical motives akin to
those of the German reformers.
Volusenus's linguistic studies embraced Hebrew as well as
Greek and Latin. His reputation, however, rests on the beautiful
dialogue, De Animi Tranquttlitate, first printed by S. Gryphius
at Lyons in 1543. The dialogue shows us Christian humanism at
its best, and it is as a Christian philosopher that he attains dis-
tinction.
Later editions of the dialogue appeared at Edinburgh in 1707 and
1751 (the latter edited by G. Wishart). AH the reissues contain a
short life of the author by Thomas Wilson,
VOLUTE, in architecture, a spiral scroll, especially that at
each end of an Ionic capital and those under the corners of the
abacus of the Corinthian or Composite capital. (S0e ORDER.)
VOLVOX, a well-known genus of organisms claimed by
zoologists to belong to the Protozoa (q.v.), but perhaps more justi-
fiably placed by botanists in the Chlorophyceae, a section of the
Algae (tf.v.). Volvox consists of spherical colonies of cells, all in
protoplasmic connection with their neighbours and each bearing
a pair of cilia. These beat in regular co-ordination, imparting a
rolling motion to the colony. New colonies are formed from
special cells set apart for this purpose and grow within the central
cavity of the mother-colony. Sexual reproduction also occurs. (See
ALGAE; PROTOZOA.)
VONDEL, JOOST VAN DEN (1587-1679), Dutch poet,
was born at Cologne on Nov. 17, 1587. His father, a hatter, was
an exile from Antwerp on account of his Anabaptist opinions; but
he returned to Holland when Joost was about ten years old, and
settled in Amsterdam, where he carried on a hosiery business.
Joost was early introduced to the chamber of the Eglantine, and
devoted most of his time to poetry and study. When the elder
Vondel died he married Maria de Wolff, and seems to have left
the management of his affairs in her capable hands. He read the
French contemporary poets, and was especially influenced by
the Divine Sepmaine of Du Bartas; he made some translations
from the German; he was soon introduced to the circle gathered
in the house of Roemer Visscher, and with these friends began to
make a close study of classical writers. His first play, Het Pascha
(1612) marked the beginning of a long and brilliant literary
career. (See DUTCH LITERATURE.) After the production of his
political drama of Palamcdes, or Murdered Innocence (1625),
which expressed his indignation at the judicial murder of Olden-
barneveldt in 1619, Vondel went into hiding for a time. In the
following years he issued a number of stinging satires against the
extreme Calvinists, and he entered into close relationship with
Hugo Grotius. Vondel had long been attracted by the aesthetic
side of the Roman Catholic Church, and this inclination was
perhaps strengthened by his friendship with Marie Tesselschade
Visscher, for the Visscher household had been Catholic and liberal.
Tesselschade's husband died in 1634; Venders wife died in 1635;
and the ties between the two were strengthened by time. Vondel
eventually showed his revolt against the Caivinist tyranny by
formally embracing the Roman Catholic faith in 1640. The step
was ill-received by many of his friends, and Hooft forbade him
the hospitality of his castle at Muiden. In 1657 his only surviving
son, who was entrusted with the hosiery business, mismanaged
affairs to such an extent that he had to take ship for the East
Indies, leaving his father to face the creditors. Vondel had to
sacrifice the whole of his small fortune, and became a govern-
ment clerk. He was pensioned after ten years' service, and died
on Feb 5, 1679.
The more important of his thirty-two dramas are: Hierusolem
Verwoest ("Jerusalem laid desolate") (1620) ; Palatncdts, of Vcr-
moordc onnooselheyd ("Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence") (1625) ;
Gljsbreght van Aemstel (1637); De Gebroeders (1640), the subject
of which is the ruin of the sons of Saul; Joseph in Egypt en (1640),
Maria Stuart, of gemarielde majesteit (1646) ; the pastoral of DC
Lceuwendalers (1648) ; Lucifer (1654) ; Salmoneus (Solomon) (1657) ;
Jcpktha (1659); Koning David in balUngsckap ("King David in
banishment") , Koning David hersteld ("King David restored") and
Samson (1660) ; Batavischc Gebroeders, the subject of which is the
story of Claudius Civilis (1663) ; Adam in balhngschap ("Adam in
exile") (1664), after the Latin tragedy of Hugo Grotius, He also
wrote translations from the tragedies of Seneca, Euripides and
Sophocles; didactic poems, and much lyrical poetry beside what is
to be found in the choruses of his dramas.
His complete works were edited by van Lennep (12 vols., 1850-69).
A bibliography (1888) was published by J. 11. W. linger, who revised
van Lennep 's edition in 1888-94. Lucifer was translated into English
verse by L. C. van Noppen (New York, 1898). Sec also E. Gosse,
Studies in Northern Literature (1879) > G. Edmundson, Milton and
Vondel (1885), where Milton's supposed indebtedness to Vondel is
discussed; and critical studies by A. Baumgartner, S. J. (Freiburg,
1882) ; C. Looten (Lille, 1889), by J. A. Albcrdingk Thijm (Portrctten
van Joost van den Vondel, 1876) ; the chapters on Vondel (pp.
133-325) in W, J. A, Jonckbloet's Geschiedcnis der nederlandsche
letterkunde (vol. iv. 1890) ; A. J. M. H. Schillings, Vondel tn de
regeerders van Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1917) I J. F. M. Sterck,
Oorkonden over Vondel en zijn kring (Bussum, 1918) ; A. J. Barnouw,
Vondel (N.Y., 1925).
VONDRAK, VACLAV (1859-1925), Czech philologist, was
educated at the University of Vienna, where he studied first
romance philology and afterwards Slavonic languages. In 1893
he became lecturer on Slavonic languages and literature at the
University of Vienna. He wrote works on Church Slavonic and its
literature. Later he devoted himself largely to the study of
comparative Slavonic philology. His chief works are; Alt-
slovenische Studien (Vienna, 1890); Oinluvt Jana Exarcha
Bulharsktho (Prague, 1896); Studie Zoborn Cirkevntslowns*
ktho piscmnictvi (Prague, 1903); Vergleichende Slavische Grant'
matik (Gottingen, 1906-08).
VON HOLST, HERMANN EDUARD (1841-1904),
German-American historian, was born at Fellin in the province
of Livonia, on June 19, 1841. He was educated at the uni-
versities of Dorpat and Heidelberg, receiving his doctor's de-
gree from the latter in 1865. He emigrated to America in 1867,
remaining there until 1872. He was professor of history in the
newly reorganized university of Strasbourg from 1872 to 1874, and
at Freiburg in Baden from 1874 to 1892, and for ten years he
was a member of the Baden Herrenhaus, and vice-president for
four He revisited the United States in 1878-79 and in 1884, and
in 1892 he became head of the department of history at the uni-
versity of Chicago. Retiring on account of ill-health in 1900,
he returned to Germany and died at Freiburg on the 20th of
January 1904. Both through his books and through his lectures
at the university of Chicago, Von Hoist exerted a powerful influ-
ence in encouraging American students to follow more closely
the German methods of historical research. His principal work
is his Constitutional and Political History of the United States
(German ed., 5 vols., 1873-91; English trans, by Lalor and
Mason, 8 vols., 1877-92), which covers the period from 1783
to 1 86 1, though more than half of it. is devoted to the decade
1850-60; it is written from a strongly anti-slavery point of view.
Among his other writings are The Constitutional Law of the
United States of America (German ed., 1885; English trans.,
1887); John C. Calhoun (1882), in the American Statesmen
Series; John Brown (1888), and The French Revolution Tested
by Mirabeatfs Career (1894).
See the Political Science Quarterly, v. 677-678 ; the Nation, Ixxviii.
65-67.
VONNOH, ROBERT WILLIAM (1858- ), American
portrait and landscape painter, was born in Hartford (Conn.),
Sept. 17, 1858. He was a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in
Paris; became an instructor at the Cowlcs Art School, Boston
(1884-85), at the Boston Museum of Fine Art Schools (1885-
87), and in the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine
Arts, Philadelphia (1891-96), and a member of the National
Academy of Design, New York (1906).
He has received the Procter portrait prixe of the National
Academy of Design. He is represented in the Pennsylvania Aca-
demy of Fine Arts, in the Massachusetts Historical Society and
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city. His wife,
254
VONONES— VORONEZH
Bessie Potter Vonnoh (b. 1872), a sculptor, was a pupil of the
Art Institute, Chicago, and became a member of the National
Sculpture Society. She is represented in the Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Art, New York city, in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Wash-
ington (D.C.), and in the Brooklyn Museum.
VONONES (on coins ONONES), the name of two Parthian
kings, (i) VONONES I., eldest son of Phraates IV. After the
assassination of Orodes II. (c. A.D. 7), the Parthians applied to
Augustus for a new king from the house of Arsaces. Augustus
sent them Vonones (Mon. Anc. 5, 9; Tac. Ann. ii. i f.; Joseph.
Ant. xviii. 2, 4), who was living as a hostage in Rome. But Vonones
could not maintain himself; he had been educated as a Roman,
and was despised as a slave of the Romans. Another member of
the Arsacid house, Artabanus II., who was living among the Dahan
nomads, was invited to the throne, and defeated and expelled
Vonones. The coins of Vonones (who always uses his proper
name) date from A.D. 8-12, those of Artabanus II. begin in A.D.
10. Vonones fled into Armenia and became king there. But Arta-
banus demanded his deposition, and as Augustus did not wish to
begin a war with the Parthians he removed Vonones into Syria,
where he was kept in custody (Tac. Ann. ii. 4). When he tried to
escape, A.D. 19, he was killed by his guards (Tac. Ann. ii. 58, 68).
(2) VONONES II., governor of Media, was raised to the throne
after the death of Gotarzes in A.D. 51 (perhaps he was his brother,
cf. Joseph.'Ant. xx. 3, 4). But he died after a few months, and was
succeeded by his son Vologaeses I. (Tac. Ann. xii. 14).
(£D. M.)
VOODOO or VAUDOUX (Creole Fr. vaudoux, a negro sor-
cerer, probably originally a dialectic form of Fr. Vaudois, a Wal-
densian), the name given to certain magical practices, supersti-
tions and secret rites prevalent among the negroes of the West
Indies, notably in the republic of Haiti. Serpent-worship and
obscene rites involving the use of human blood, preferably that of
a white child, were considered features of this religion.
VOORHEES, DANIEL WOLSEY (1827-1897), Ameri-
can lawyer and political leader, was born in Butler county, 0.,
on Sept. 26, 1827, of Dutch and Irish descent. During his infancy
his parents removed to Fountain county, Ind., near Veedersburg.
He graduated at Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) university,
Greencastle, Ind., in 1849; was admitted to the bar in 1850, and
began to practise in Covington, whence in 1857 he removed to
Terre Haute. In 1861-66 and in 1869-73 he was a Democratic
representative in Congress; and in 1877-97 he was a member of
the U.S. Senate. During the Civil War he seems to have been
affiliated with the Knights of the Golden Circle, but he was not
so radical as Vallandigham and others. He was a member of the
committee on finance throughout his service in the Senate, and
his first speech in that body was a defence of the free coinage of
silver and a plea for the preservation of the full legal tender value
of green back currency, though in 1893 he voted to repeal the sil-
ver purchase clause of the Sherman Act. He had an active part
in bringing about the building of the Congressional Library. He
was widely known as an effective lawyer, especially in jury
trials. In allusion to his unusual stature he was called "the Tall
Sycamore of the Wabash." He died in Washington, D.C., on
April 10, 1897.
VORARLBERG, the most westerly province of Austria,
covers an area of 1,005 sq.m. and stretches from the Arlberg
pass to the Rhine and Lake Constance. The southern boundary is
formed by the limestone range of the Rhatikon Alps (Scesaplana,
9,741 ft.) and part of the crystalline Silvretta massif (Piz Buin,
10,880 ft.). The zones of which these are part stretch across the
province from south-west to north-east. North of the Kloster
valley the dolomitic limestone builds the western end of the Lech-
tal Alps, rising above 8,850 ft., which merge, beyond the Walser
valley, into the heights of the Bregenzer Wald. The southern
slopes of these are of dolomite and more than 6,500 ft. in height
but northward the limestone is replaced by the softer sandstones,
marls and conglomerates of the flysch zone with a general soften-
ing of the landscape. In this region, near Bregenz, lignite occurs,
but elsewhere power is obtained from the mountain streams, rich
in falls, and fed by plentiful annual precipitation (80 in.). The
climate in the Rhine valley, sheltered and mild, influenced by
John winds, suits vine and fruit cultivation and its influence
stretches far up the fertile tributary valley of the 111.
Of the total area 88% is productive land but of this 30% is
occupied by forests and only 3^% is cultivated ground, the re-
mainder being natural or artificial pasture. Cattle-rearing and
the production of milk are therefore important and in this respect
Swiss influence is more evident than elsewhere in Austria. So,
too, the industrial development of Vorarlberg reflects Swiss con-
tacts, for the manufacture of textiles, particularly cotton goods,
has grown with the advantage of cheap power in Bludenz, Dorn-
birn and Feldkirch. The working of embroidery for the ware-
houses of St. Galleri is a flourishing home industry.
The population — 139,999 (1923), German in speech, Cath-
olic in faith — shows a tendency to concentration in small towns
along the valleys of the Rhine and the 111, the principal lines of
rail traffic, but no town is large, only two exceeding 10,000 inhab-
itants, viz., Dornbirn, the chief industrial centre, and Bregenz,
the provincial capital.
The name of the district means the "land that is beyond the
Arlberg Pass," that is, as it seems to one looking at it from the
Tirol. This name is modern and is a collective appellation for
the various counties or lordships in the region which the Habs-
burgs (after they secured Tirol in 1363) succeeded in purchasing
or acquiring — Feldkirch (1375, but Hohcnems in 1765 only),
Bludenz with the Montafon valley (1394), Bregenz (in two parts,
1451 and 1523) and Sonnenberg (1455). After the annexation of
Hohenems (its lords having become extinct in 1759), Maria
Theresa united all these lordships into an administrative district
of Hither Austria, under the name Vorarlberg, the governor
residing at Bregenz. In 1782 Joseph II. transferred the region
to the province of Tirol. The lordship of Blumenegg was added in
1804, but in 1805 all these lands were handed over, by virtue of
the peace of Prcssburg, to Bavaria, which in 1814 gave them all
back, save Hoheneck. In 1815 the present administrative arrange-
ments were made. The building of the Arlberg railway (1880-
1884), however, effected a considerable strengthening of the
economic and political interests of Vorarlberg with the remainder
of Austria.
See also under Austria and Tirol, relevant sections in C. Brockhausen,
Osterreich in Wort und Bild. (Berlin, 1924), and J. C. Heer, Vorarl-
berg und Liechtenstein — Land und Leute (Feldkirch, 1906).
VORONEZH, a province of the Russian S.F.S.R., having
the Ukrainian S.S.R. and the North Caucasian area on the south,
Kursk and Orel on the west, Tambov on the north and Stalin-
grad on the east. Area 65,306 sq. kilometres. Pop. (1926) 3,299,-
700. It is now included in the recently created Black Earth Area
(Central) (q.v.). It does not coincide with the pre-i9i7 province
of the same name.
Voronezh occupies the southern slopes of the Central Russian
plateau (450-700 ft.), and its surface is hilly and intersected by
deep ravines in the west, where two ranges of chalk hills sepa-
rated by a broad valley run north and south. East of the Don
river is a low plain. Glacial clays with erratic boulders, and
lacustrine clays and sands cover much of the area, but the De-
vonian rocks crop out in the north and provide good paving and
building stone, while the carboniferous rocks supply millstones
and grindstones. There is an abundant supply of chalk and kaolin
clay for pottery.
The magnetic anomaly existing in Kursk extends into the south-
west of Voronezh and indicates the presence* of deep-seated iron
ore beds. The soils are mainly black earth formed on loess; they
vary in character from the rich black earth with a high humus
content of the southern "feather grass" steppe, through the mead-
ow steppe of the centre to the "lyesso steppe" of the north.
This latter is black earth on which forest spread with moister con-
ditions; the forest has now disappeared, through reckless cutting,
and the black earth here is reduced in humus quantity to 4 to
6%. The forest cutting has had a disastrous effect in the west
and centre for the spring streams, swollen by melting snow, fre-
quently wash away fields and roads. In the last 25 years 135,000
ac. of fertile black earth have been washed away and replaced
VORONOFF— VORONTSOV
255
by river sand. Efforts are being made to cope with this by pro-
hibition of forest cutting in the upper courses of the rivers, and
of cattle driving on ravine slopes; by ploughing across the slopes
and not down them, and by the construction of canals and ditches.
The problem is less acute in the east.
The climate is of the continental type, average January tem-
perature at Voronezh 8-3° F, average July 74-2° F. The rainfall
is variable and not very favourable to agriculture. If the spring
rains (especially in May) fail, as they often do, famine fre-
quently ensues. June and July are months of thunder-storm and
very heavy rainfall, which comes in fierce and often destructive
storms. The snow covering also varies; if it is deep, there is a
chance of a good harvest, e.g., in 1906-07 it remained 3 ft. deep
most of. the winter. In some years there is very little snow and
the harvest is then poor. Autumn is very brief, but winter often
lasts 5^ months, though a duration of two months only has been
recorded. The rivers are frozen as a rule from Nov. 20 in the
north and from Dec. 10, in the south-west. Snow melts as a
rule in April. Winter is dull and cloudy, often with heavy fog.
Another cause of disaster is the dry, cold, south-east winds which
often blow in May and cause great damage to young crops.
These varied risks of disaster due to climate hamper agricul-
ture seriously and famines have been frequent (1891, 1911, 1921)
and severe. Weeds lessen the harvest, and their seeds are fre-
quently not removed from the grain harvest, while rodents, mice,
rats, hamsters, susliks and marmots in the south and south-cast
do great damage. A further drawback is the entirely inadequate
system of communications; roads are often impassable through
mud or deep in dust, and railways are insufficient, so that in years
of abundance there is no outlet for the surplus, and in years of
famine it is impossible to help the population. The 1891 famine
resulted in some improvements of railway conditions.
The three-field system, probably introduced in the i6th cen-
tury, gradually ousted the previous system of sowing till the land
was exhausted, and then letting it lie fallow, sometimes for 20
or 30 years, till it recovered its fertility, and the hunting, fishing
and bee-keeping, formerly wide-spread, has almost disappeared.
By the end of the igth century, a few agricultural specialists had
begun to agitate against the wasteful three-field system and about
3% of the land in 1900 was worked on a many-field system, e.g.,
a fallow year, under manure, rye, oats with clover, two years
grass and clover, a clover fallow without manure, rye, potatoes or
sugar-beet, oats or sunflower seed. A complicated system such as
this, however, demands forethought and a fairly high stage of
culture from the farmer, and the peasants in the Black Earth
region are illiterate. The region is poverty-stricken and in many
villages the peasants live in one-roomed huts infested by lice,
fleas, blackbectles and other vermin. Diet is poor, mainly starchy
foods; eggs and butter are reserved for sale and meat is unob-
tainable in the general poverty-stricken conditions. Sanitation is
absent and there is frequently no town or village provision for
cleaning or repairing the streets, or for supplying water, or medi-
cal and veterinary help. This deplorable social condition is partly
due to the difficulties outlined above, but mainly to historic fac-
tors. The long subjection of the peasants, first to Tatar oppres-
sion and later to serfdom under Russian landlords ended only in
1861, and the so-called "liberation" of the serfs in that year was
followed by an almost as oppressive debt slavery. Between 1896
and 1914 thousands of peasants emigrated to Siberia and the
south, while others wandered seasonally in search of supple-
mentary occupation. From 1914 onwards, mobilization of the
most useful agricultural labour was recklessly enforced and from
1918 to 1920 the region was occupied first by German troops and
then by the conflicting armies of the Civil War. Upon this super-
vened the famine of 1921. Large sums of money were voted by
the All Russian Executive at Moscow in 1925-26 for the supply
of horses, seeds, agricultural implements and agronomic and vet-
erinary help to the region, but it must be many years before con-
ditions are markedly improved.
Of the crops in 1926, rye occupied the first place, followed by
hemp, wheat, millet, sunflower seed, potatoes and oats. Sugar-
beet, melons and pumpkins and aniseed are also grown. Stock-
raising, especially of horses, is carried on in the south-east and
with it goes a leather industry. Poultry keeping has an export
character, and there is still a little bee-keeping. The Voronezh
Agricultural institute was opened in 1913. The University of
Voronezh was founded in 1915, when the Germans occupied
Yuriev (now in Poland) and its university was therefore trans-
ferred to Voronezh.
Forests, which in the time of Peter the Great supplied timber
for ship-building, are now practically all destroyed, especially the
oak forests. The Voronezh river carries the pine forest and marsh
of the north southwards into the region along its sandy, low left
bank, as does the Bityuga. The hedgehog, badger, squirrel, pole-
cat, marsh-otter, otter, weasel, ermine, wolf and fox still exist in
a few places and marmot fur is worked near Bobrov. The musk-
rat is found near the Bityuga and the Khoper rivers. But hunting,
which even in the early iQth century had some importance and
which in the iSth century included the hunting of the wild horse,
is rapidly dying out. Factory industries mainly depend on local
products and include mainly flour-milling, oil-pressing, distilling,
the manufacture of makhorka tobacco, brick-making, leather and
rope works.
The population is mainly Great Russian, with a considerable
amount of Tatar intermixture. The region has been inhabited from
remote times and the east is thickly strewn with kurgans, or
mounds; some contain burial relics, and some are the remains
of earlier fortifications. The chief towns are Voronezh and Butur-
linovka (q.v.). No other town reaches a population of 10,000.
Voronezh, the chief town of the above province and the
administrative centre of the Black Earth Area (Central), situated
on the navigable Voronezh river, 5 m. above its confluence with
the Don, in 51° 42' N., 39° 10' E. Pop. (1926) 98,573. It has
a grain elevator and three railways branching from it and is an
important collecting centre for the surrounding agricultural re-
gion. Its industrial enterprises include machine-making factories,
steam flour-mills, oil-pressing mills and the manufacture of bricks,
wadding, paint and alcoholic drinks. A university and agricultural
institute and museums exist.
The site was occupied in the nth century by a Khazar town,
deserted during the i4th and isth centuries. The Russians built
a fort here in 1586, wliich was burned by the Tatars in 1590, but
rebuilt. Peter the Great in 1695 built here a flotilla of boats for
the conquest of Azov. The town was destroyed by fire in 1703,
1748 and 1773, hut was always rebuilt.
VORONOFF, SERGE (i860- ), Russian surgeon and
physiologist, born on July 10, 1866, was educated in Paris, where
he studied medicine and became chief surgeon in the Russian hos-
pital. In 1917 he became chief surgeon of the Military hospital in
Paris, and after the World War became director of the biological
laboratory of the ficole des Hautcs fitudes. His latest appointment
was to the directorship of experimental surgery of the Station
Physiologique du College de France. He has become widely
known for his extended application of the theory of Brown-
Sequard. Brown-Sequard applied his discovery that gland secre-
tions are the same in animals as in man to practical purpose, by
using animal secretions to supplement deficiencies in human beings.
Voronoff extended the principle to the grafting of healthy animal
glands on the human body. He is also developing by experiment a
theory of the relation of gland secretions to senility. He carried
out a series of experiments on the improvement of live-stock.
His works include treatises on Surgery; Gynaecology; Bone
Grafting; Articulation Grafting; Ovarian Grafting; Thyroid
Grafting; Skin Grafting; Grafting of Interstitial Glands; Life,
The Study of Old Age and My Method of Rejuvenation.
VORONTSOV or WORONZOFF, the name of a Russian family.
various members of which are distinguished in Russian history.
MIKHAIL ILLARIONOVICH VORONTSOV (1714-1767), Russian
imperial chancellor, assisted Elizabeth Petrovna during the coup
d'etat of Dec. 6, 1741, when she seized the Russian throne. In
1742 he married Anna Skavronskaya, the empress's cousin; and
in 1 744 was created a count and vice-chancellor. His jealousy of
Alexis Bestuzhev induced him to participate in Lestocq's conspir-
acy against that statesman, and he lived in retirement during the
VOROSHILOV— VOR6SMARTY
domination of Bestuzhev (1744-1758). On the disgrace of Bes-
tuzhev, Vorontsov was made imperial chancellor. Vorontsov fol-
lowed blindly the policy of the court. Yet he did not lack personal
courage, and endured torture after the Revolution of July 9, 1762,
rather than betray Peter 111. At first he refused to serve under
Catherine II., though she reinstated him in the dignity of chan-
cellor. When he found that the real control of foreign affairs was
in the hands of Nikita Panin, he resigned his office (1763).
Vorontsov was a generous protector of the nascent Russian litera-
ture, and, to judge from his letters, was a highly cultivated man.
ALEXANDER ROMANOVICH VORONTSOV (1741-1805), Russian
imperial chancellor, nephew of the preceding and son of Count
Roman Vorontsov, represented Peter III. for a short time at
the court of St. James. Catherine II. made him a senator and
president of the department of Trade; but she never liked him,
and ultimately (1791) compelled him to retire from public life.
In 1802 Alexander I. summoned him back to office and appointed
him imperial chancellor. The Vorontsovs had always insisted on
the necessity of a close union with Austria and Great Britain,
in opposition to Panin and his followers, who had leaned on France
or Prussia till the outbreak of the Revolution made friendship
with France impossible. Vorontsov was also an implacable oppo-
nent of Napoleon. The rupture with Napoleon in 1803 is mainly
attributable to him. He retired in 1804.
His "Memoirs of my Own Times" (Rus.) is printed in vol. vii. of
the Vorontsov Archives.
SEMEN ROMANOVICH VORONTSOV (1744-1832), Russian diplo-
matist, brother of Alexander Romanovich, distinguished himself
during the first Turkish War of Catherine II. at Larga and Kagula
in 1770. In 1783 he was appointed Russian minister at Vienna,
but in 1785 was transferred to London where he lived for the
rest of his life. During Catherine's second Turkish War he con-
tributed to bring about the disarmament of the auxiliary British
fleet which had been fitted out to assist the Turks, and in 1793
obtained a renewal of the commercial treaty between Great Britain
and Russia. Subsequently, his extreme advocacy of the exiled
Bourbons, his sharp criticism of the Armed Neutrality of the
North, which he considered disadvantageous to Russia, his de-
nunciation of the partitions of Poland as contrary to the first
principles of equity and a shock to the conscience of western
Europe, profoundly irritated the empress. On the accession of
Paul he was raised to the rank of ambassador extraordinary and
minister plenipotentiary, and received immense estates in Finland.
Neither Vorontsov's detention of the Russian squadron under
Makarov in British ports nor his refusal, after the death of Bez-
borodko, to accept the dignity of imperial chancellor could alienate
the favour of Paul. It was only when the emperor himself began
to draw nearer to France that he began to consider Vorontsov as
incompetent to serve Russia in England, and in February 1800
all the count's estates were confiscated. Alexander I. on his
accession at once reinstated him, but ill-health and family affairs
induced him to resign his post in 1806. From that time till his
death in 1832 he continued to live in London.
MIKHAIL SEMENOVICH VORONTSOV (1782-1856) Russian prince
and field-marshal, son of the preceding, spent his childhood and
youth with his father in London. During 1803-04 he served in the
Caucasus under Tsitsianov and Gulyakov, and was nearly killed
in the Zakatahko disaster (January 15, 1804). He served in the
campaigns of 1805-07 against Napoleon, against the Turks in
1809-11, and with Bagration's army in 1812. In 1814, at Craonne,
he brilliantly withstood Napoleon in person. He was the com-
mander of the corps of occupation in France from 1815 to 1818.
In 1823 he was appointed governor-general of New Russia, as
the southern provinces of the empire were then called; he may
be said to have been the creator of Odessa and the benefactor
of the Crimea. He was the first to start steamboats on the Black
Sea (1828). The same year he succeeded the wounded Menshikov
as commander of the forces besieging Varna, which he captured
on Sept. 28. In the campaign of 1829 he took measures to prevent
the spread of the plague from Turkey to Russia. In 1844 Voront-
sov was appointed commander-in-chief and governor of the
Caucasus with plenipotentiary powers. For his brilliant campaign
against Shamyl, and especially for his difficult march through the
dangerous forests of Ichkerinia, he was raised to the dignity of
prince. By 1848 he had captured two-thirds of Daghestan, and
the situation of the Russians in the Caucasus, so long almost
desperate, was steadily improving. In the beginning of 1853
Vorontsov retired. He was made a field-marshal in 1856, and
died the same year at Odessa.
See V. V. Ogarkov, The Vorontsovs (Rus.) (St. Petersburg, 1893) ;
Vorontsov Archives (Rus. and Fr.) (Moscow, 1870, etc.) ; M. P.
Shelverbinin, Biography of Prince M. S. Vorontsov (Rus.) (St. Peters-
burg, 1858).
VOROSHILOV, KLEMENTIY EFREMOVICH (1881-
), Russian soldier and politician, was the son of a work-
man. At the age of seven he began to work in the mines and
only learned to read when he was 12 years old. He became a
revolutionary in 1897; in 1903 he joined the Bolshevik party, and
in 1906 was a delegate to the Stockholm congress of the Bolshe-
viks. In the following year he was sentenced to banishment for
organising strikes and similar activities, and he remained in
banishment, except for escapes and rearrests, until 1914, His
military career began in the Ukraine, where he organised a de-
tachment of partisans and carried on guerrilla warfare against
the German forces of occupation. Shortly afterwards he was
commanding a small army and when it fought its way out, this
army became the nucleus of the X. Red Army, the command
of which was entrusted to Voroshilov. When the Germans left
the Ukraine, Voroshilov became a member of the Ukrainian Soviet
government. He was later associated with Budenny as a mem-
ber of the revolutionary military council of the I. Cavalry Army.
In March 1921, Voroshilov took an active part in the sup-
pression of the revolt at Leningrad. He was elected a member of
the central committee of the Communist party, and in May 1921
was appointed to command the Northern Caucasian military dis-
trict. In 1924 he was appointed commander of the troops in the
Moscow district, and a member of the revolutionary military
council of the Union. After the death of Frunze in 1925, he
became president of the revolutionary military council and com-
missar for military and naval affairs.
VORdSMARTY, MIHALY (1800-1855), Hungarian poet,
was born at Puszta-Nyek on Dec. i, 1800, of a noble Roman
Catholic family. His father was a steward of the Nadasdys.
Mihaly was educated at Szekesfejervar by the Cistercians and at
Pest by the Piarists. The death of the elder Vorosmarty in 1811
left his widow and numerous family extremely poor. As tutor
to the Perczel family, however, Vorosmarty paid his own way
through his academical course at Pest. He had already begun a
drama entitled Salamon when he flung himself recklessly into
public life since he was consumed by a hopeless passion for
Etelka Perczel, who socially was far above him. To his un-
requited love we owe a whole host of exquisite lyrics, while his
patriotism found expression in the heroic epos Zaldn futdsa
(1824), gorgeous in colouring, exquisite in style, one of the gems
of Magyar literature. This new epic marked a transition from the
classical to the romantic school. Henceforth Vorosmarty was
hailed by Kisfaludy and the Hungarian romanticists as one of
themselves. Between 1823 and 1831 he composed four dramas
and eight smaller epics, partly historical, partly fanciful. Of these
epics he always regarded Cserholom (1825) as the best, but mod-
ern criticism has given the preference to K6t szomstd vdr (1831),
a terrible story of hatred and revenge. When the Hungarian
Academy was finally established (Nov. 17, 1830) he was elected
a member of the philological section, and ultimately succeeded
KanSly Kisfaludy as director with an annual pension of 500
florins. He was one of the founders of the Kisfaludy Society, and
in 1837 started the Athenaeum and the Figyelmezo, the first the
chief bellettristic, the second the best critical periodical of
Hungary. From 1830 to 1843 he devoted himself mainly to the
drama, the best of his plays, perhaps, being V6rndsz (1833). He
also published several volumes of poetry, containing some of his
best work. Szdzat (1836), which became a national hymn, Az
elhagyott anya (1837) and Az wi holgyhoz (1841) are all inspired
by a burning patriotism. He represented Jankovics at the diet of
VORTICELLA— VOSGES
257
1848) and in 1849 was made one of the judges of the high court,
The national catastrophe profoundly affected him. For a short
time he was an exile, and when he returned to Hungary in 1850
he was already an old man. A profound melancholy crippled him
for the rest of his life. In 1854 he wrote his last great poem,
the touching A v£n cig&ny. He died at Pest in 1855 *n the same
house where Kar61y Kisfaludy had died twenty-five years before.
His funeral, on Nov. 21, was a day of national mourning.
The best edition of Vorosmarty's collected works is by Pal Gyulai
(Budapest, 1884). Some of them have been translated into German,
e.g., Gedichte (Pest, 1857) ; Ban Marot, by Mih&ly Ring (Pest, 1879) ;
Ausgewaklte Dichte, by Paul Hoffmann (Leipzig, 1895). See Pdl
Gyulai, The Life of Vorosmarty (Hung.) (3rd ed., Budapest, i8go),
one of the noblest biographies in the language; Brajjer, Vorosmarty,
sein Leben und seine Werke (Nagy-Bccskerek, 1882) . (R. N. B.)
VORTICELLA, the bell-animalcule, a Protozoan genus of
the large family V orticellidae belonging to the Peritrichous Infu-
soria (q.v,) characterized by the bell-shaped body, with short oral
disc and collar, attached by a hollow stalk, inside and around
which passes, attached spirally, a contractile bundle of myonemes.
By their contraction the stalk is brought into the form of a
corkscrew, and the animal is jerked back near to the base of
the stalk. As soon as the contraction of the thread ceases, the
elasticity of the stalk extends the animal to its previous position.
On fission, one of the two animals swims off by the development
of the temporary posterior girdle of membranelles, the disc being
retracted and closed over by the collar, so that the cell is ovoid;
on its attachment the posterior girdle of cilia disappears and
a stalk forms. The other cell remains attached to the old stalk.
In the allied genera Carchesiitm and Zoothamnium the two pro-
duced by fission remain united, so that a branching colony is
ultimately produced. The genus is a large one. The gametes in
conjugation differ from one another, one being attached, the other
free. Each pair fuses together completely and permanently.
VORTIGERN (GUORTHIGIRNUS, WYRTGEORN), king of the
Britons at the time of the arrival of the Saxons under Hengest
and Horsa in the 5th century Though many legends have come
down to us, about him, he may probably be safely regarded as an
actual historical figure. Vortigern made use of Hengest and Horsa
to protect his kingdom against the Picts and Scots, and rewarded
them for their services with a grant of land. Later we find the
Britons at war with the new-comers, now established in Kent, and
four battles are fought, in the last of which, according to the
Historia Brittonum, the king's son Vortemir, their leading oppo-
nent, is slain. The Historia Brittonum is our only authority for the
marriage of Vortigern with the daughter of Hengest before the
war. It also records the massacre of the British nobles after the
death of Vortemir and the subsequent grant of Essex and Sussex
to the invaders by Vortigern.
See Historia Brittonum, cd. Th. Mommscn in Mon. Hist. Germ.
xiii.; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899) ;
Bede, Hist. Eccl., ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896).
VOSGES, an upland department of eastern France,, formed
in 1790 chiefly of territory previously belonging to Lorraine, to-
gether with portions of Franche-Comt6 and Champagne, and
bounded north by Meurthe-et-Moselle, north-east by Bas-Rhin,
east by Haut-Rhin, south-east by the territory of Belfort,
south by Haute-Saone, west by Haute-Marne and north-west
by Meuse. Pop. (1926), 382,100; area, 2,303 sq.m. The Vosges
mountains form a natural boundary on the east, their highest
French eminence, the Hohneck, attaining 4,482 ft. The Monts
Faucilles traverse the south of the department in a broad curve
declining on the north into elevated plateaux, on the south en-
circling the upper basin of the Saome. This chain, dividing the
basins of the Rhone and the Rhine, forms part of the European
watershed between the basins of the Mediterranean and Atlantic.
The Moselle and the Meuse, tributaries of the Rhine, have the
largest drainage areas in the department; a small district in the
north-west sends its waters to the Seine, the rest belongs to the
basin of the Rhone. The Moselle rises in the Col de Bussang in the
extreme south-east, and in a north-north-westerly course of about
70 m. in the department receives the Moselotte and the Vologne
on the right; the Mortagne and Meurthe on the right and the
Madon on the left bank also belong to this department though
they join the Moselle outside its borders.
The elevation and the northward exposure of the valleys make
the climate severe, and a constant dampness prevails, owing both
to the abundance of the rainfall and to the impermeability of
the subsoil. The winter average temperature reduced to sea-level
is 34° to 35°, the summer average temperature being 66° to 68°.
The rainfall varies from 28 in. to 60 in., according to the altitude.
Arable farming flourishes in the western districts where wheat,
oats, beetroot, tobacco, hops, potatoes and hemp are largely grown.
The vine is -cultivated on the river banks, to best advantage on
those of the Moselle. Pasture is abundant in the mountainous
region, where cheese-making is carried on to some extent, but the
best grazing is in the central valleys. Forests, which occupy large
tracts on the flanks of the Vosges, cover about one-third of the
department, and are a principal source of its wealth. Sawmills
are numerous in the Vosges and the manufactures of furniture,
sabots, brushes and wood-working in general arc prominent in-
dustries. The department has mines of lignite and stone quarries
of various kinds. There are numerous mineral springs, notably
those of Contrexeville, Plombieres, Vittel, Bains-les-Bains, Mar-
tigny-les-Bains and Bussang. Metal goods are made, but the
manufacture of textiles is the chief industry, comprising the
spinning and weaving of cotton, wool, silk, hemp and flax, and
the manufacture of hosiery and of embroidery and lace, Mirecourt
(pop. 5,161), which also makes musical instruments, being an
important centre for the two last. The department forms the
diocese of St. Di6 (province of Besangon), has its court of
appeal and educational centre at Nancy, and belongs to the dis-
trict of the XX. Army Corps. It is divided into three arrondisse-
ments of Epinal, the capital, Neufchateau and St. Die*, with 29
cantons and 531 communes.
VOSGES, a mountain range stretching along the west side of
the Rhine valley, from Basel to Mainz, a distance of 150 m. They
are similar to and closely associated with the Black Forest. The
ranges are similar in geological formation and are portions of the
same structural unit, for the Rhine valley which separates them
lies in a rift valley of Tertiary age. In addition both have fine
forests on their lower slopes, above which are open pasturages
and rounded summits of a uniform altitude; both have a steep
fall to the Rhine and a gradual descent on the other side. The
Vosges in their southern portion are mainly of granite, with some
porphyritic rocks, and a red sandstone (occasionally 1,640 ft.
thick) which on the western versant is named "gres Vosgien."
Geographically the range is divided into four sections: the
Grandes Vosges (62 m.), extending from Belfort to the Col de
Saalcs; the Central Vosges (31 m.), between the latter and the
Col de Savernc; the Lower Vosges (30 m.) from thence to the
source of the Lauter; and the Hardt Mts. (q.v.). The rounded
summits of the Grandes Vosges arc called "ballons." The depart-
ments of Vosges, Haute Sa6ne, and Haut-Rhin and Belfort ter-
ritory meet at the Ballon d'Alsace (4,100 ft.). Thence northwards
the average height of the range is 3,000 ft., the highest point, the
Ballon de Guebwiller (Gebweiler), or Sultz, rising east of the
main chain to 4,668 ft. The Col de Saales is nearly 1,900 ft. high.
The central section is both lower and narrower than the Grandes
Vosges, Mont Donon (3,307 ft.) being the highest summit. The
Rhine and Marne Canal and the Paris-Strasbourg railway trav-
erse the Col de Saverne. There are motor roads over the
passes of Bussang (Remiremont to Thann), the Schlucht (3,625
ft.) (Geiardmer to Munster), the Bonhomme (St. Di6 to Colmar)
and the pass from St. Di6 to Ste. Marie-aux-Mines. The Lower
Vosges are a sandstone plateau ranging from 1,000 to 1,850 ft.
high, and are crossed by the railway from Hagenau to Sarregue-
mines, defended by the fort of Bitche.
The annual rainfall is much higher and the mean temperature
much lower in the western than in the eastern versants whilst on
the latter the vine ripens to a height of 1,300 ft.; but its only
rivers here are the 111 and other shorter streams. The Moselle,
Meurthe and Sarr all rise on the Lorraine side. Moraines, boulders
and polished rocks testify to the existence of glaciers which for-
merly covered the Vosges. The lakes, surrounded by pines, beeches
258
VOSS— VOTING MACHINES
and maples, the green meadows which provide pasture for large
herds of cows, and the fine views of the Rhine valley, Black Forest
and snow-covered Swiss mountains combine to make the district
picturesque.
VOSS, JOHANN HEINRICH (1751-1826), German poet
and translator, was born at Sommersdorf in Mecklenburg-Strelitz
on Feb. 20, 1751, the son of a farmer. At the invitation of H. C.
Boie, whose attention he had attracted by poems contributed to
the Gb'ttingen Musenalmanach, he went to Gb'ttingcn in 1772.
Here he studied philology and became one of the leading spirits
in the famous Hain or Dichterbund. In 1775 Boie made over to
him the editorship of the Musenalmanach, which he continued to
issue for several years. He married Boie's sister Ernestine in
1777. Voss was rector of the School at Ottcrndorf, Hanover
(1778-82), and at Eutin (1782-1802). He then became a pro-
fessor at Heidelberg, where he died on March 28, 1826.
The best of his works is his idyllic poem Lidse (1795), in
which he sought to apply the style and methods of classical poetry
to the expression of modern German thought and sentiment. But
he is chiefly remembered for his translations of Homer, Hesiod,
Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, Virgil, Horace, Tibullus, Pro-
pertius, and of Shakespeare's plays (9 vols.).
J. II. Voss's Samtliche poethche Wcrke were published by his son
Abraham in 1835; new ed. 1850. A Rood selection is in A. Sauer,
Der Gottinger Dichterbund, vol. i. (Kurschner's Deutsche National-
literatur, vol. 49, 1887). His Letters were also published by his son
in 4 vols. (1829-33). Voss left a short autobiography, Abriss meines
Lebens (1818). See also W. Herbst, /. H. Voss (3 vols., 1872-76);
A. Hcussner, J. H. Voss als Schulmann in Eutin (1882).
VOSS, RICHARD (1851-1918), German dramatist and
novelist, was born at Neugrape, in Pomerania, on Sept. 2, 1851,
the son of a country squire. Though intended for the life of a
country gentleman, he showed no inclination for outdoor life,
and on his return from the war of 1870-71, in which he was
wounded, he studied philosophy at Jena and Munich, and then
settled at Berchtesgaden. In 1884 Voss was appointed by the
grand duke of Weimar librarian of the Wartburg, but, in conse-
quence of illness, he resigned the post. He died at Konigsee,
Thuringia, on July 10, 1918.
Chief among his dramas are Savonarola (1878) ; Magda (1879) ; Die
Patriderin (1880); Der Mohr des Zaren (1883); Unekrlich Volk
(1885) i Alexandra (1886) ; Eva (1889) ; Wehe dem Besiegten (1889) ;
Die neue Zeit (1891); Schuldig (1892). Among his novels may be
mentioned San Sebastian (1883) ; Der Sohn der Volskerin (1885) ; Die
Sabincrin (1888); Der Monch von Berchtesgaden (1891); Der neue
Gott, (1898); Die Racherin (1899); Allerlei Erlebtcs (1902); Die
Leute von Valdare (1902); Die Erldsung (1921); Bergasyl (1922);
Alpentragodie (1923); also the war book Brutus, auch Du (1917).
Vcss wrote his recollections (Er inner ungen) in 1920; see also M. Gold-
mann, Richard Voss, ein literarischcs Charakterbild (1900).
VOSSEVANGEN or Voss, a village and tourist-centre of
Norway, in South Bergenhus ami (county), 67 m. N.W. of
Bergen by rail. Vossevangen is situated on the Vangsvand, in
fertile upland, and has a stone church of the i3th century, and
a fitmeloft or two-storeyed timber church of the i4th century.
VOSSIUS (Voss), GERHARD JOHANN (1577-1649),
German classical scholar and theologian, was the son of Johannes
Voss, a Dutch Calvinist pastor, and was born in a village near
Heidelberg, where his father had found refuge. But Voss was
unwelcome among the Lutherans, and returned with his son to
Holland. Gerhard was educated at the university of Leyden, where
he became the lifelong friend of Hugo Grotius, and studied clas-
sics, Hebrew, church history and theology. He was rector
(1600-14) of the high school at Dort, and then director of the
theological college at Leyden (1614-19). He came under sus-
picion of heresy, and escaped expulsion from his office only by
resignation (1619). In 1618 he had published his history of Pela-
gian controversies, which his enemies considered favoured the
views of the Arminians or Remonstrants. In ^62 2, however, he
was appointed professor of rhetoric and chronology, and subse-
quently of Greek, in the university. He declined invitations from
Cambridge, but accepted from Archbishop Laud a prebend in
Canterbury cathedral without residence, and went to England to
be installed in 1629, when he was made LL.D. at Oxford. In 1632
he left Leyden to become professor of history in the newly
founded Athenaeum at Amsterdam. There he died on March 19,
1649.
Vossius was amongst the first to treat theological dogmas and the
heathen religions from the historical point of view. His principal works
are Historic Pelagiana sive Historiae de controvcrsiis quas Pelagius
eiusque reliquiae moverunt (1618) ; Aristarchus, sive de arte gram-
matica (1635 and 1695; new ed. in 2 vols., 1833-35); Etymologicum
linguae Latinae (1662; new ed. in two vols., 1762-63) ; Commentari-
orum Rhetoricorum oratoriarum institutionum Libri VI. (1606 and
often) ; De Historicis Graecis Libri HI. (1624) ; De Historicis Latinis
Libri III. (1627) ; De Theologia Gentili (1642) ; Dissertationes Tres de
Tribus Symbolis, Apostolico, Athanasiano el Constantino politano
(1642). Collected works published at Amsterdam (6 vols., 1695-1701).
See P. Niceron, Memoir es pour servir d Vhistoire des homines illustres,
vol. xiii. (Paris, 1730); Herzog's Realencyklopadie, art. "Vossius."
VOTE and VOTING. "Vote" is specially employed in the
sense of a registering of one's choice in elections or on matters of
debate, and the political meaning is the only one which requires
comment. In ancient Greece and Italy the institution of suffrage
already existed in a rudimentary form at the outset of the his-
torical period. In the primitive monarchies it was customary for
the king to invite pronouncements of his folk on matters in which
it was prudent to secure its assent beforehand. In these assem-
blies the people recorded their opinion by a shout (a method which
survived in Sparta as late as the fourth century B.C.), or, probably,
by the clashing of spears on shields. With the development of
democracy the taking of votes was effected in the form of a poll
in law courts, councils, general assemblies, etc. The practice of
the Athenians, which is shown by inscriptions to have been widely
followed in the other states of Greece, was to hold a show of
hands (xtiporovi a), except on questions affecting the status of in-
dividuals: these latter, which included all lawsuits and proposals
of ostracism (q.v.), were determined by secret ballot 0^70i(rjua,
so called from the \f/r)(f>oL or pebbles with which the votes were
cast). With the increase of the power of the democratic party,
the lot was substituted for election, for some of the most impor-
tant offices. At Rome the method which prevailed up to the
second century B.C. was that of division (disccssio). But the eco-
nomic and social dependence of many voters on the nobility
caused the system of open suffrage to be vitiated by intimidation
and corruption. Hence a series of laws enacted between 139 and
107 B.C. prescribed the use of the ballot ("tabella," a slip of wood
coated with wax) for all business done in the assemblies of the
people. In federal governments the election of deputies to a central
legislature seems to be attested by the practice of the Achaean
League, where the federal Council was probably elected in the
several constituent towns.
See ARCIION, ECCLESIA, BOULE, OSTRACISM, STRATEGUS, Mu-
NICIPIUM, SENATE, and TRIBUNE. For modern practice see
ELECTORAL SYSTEMS.
VOTING MACHINES. The use of the Australian ballot
system has been attended with many complications which have
seriously handicapped its use. These have resulted in the devel-
opment of voting machines for registering and counting votes.
Every voter under the Australian system uses a separate paper
ballot which causes considerable delay in the counting of votes
and the announcement of results. It also permits fraud. Void and
blank paper ballots are generally 5% of those voting, and some-
times as high as 40% ; lost votes sometimes exceed the majorities
of successful candidates; close elections cause endless legal dis-
putes; contested elections follow with recount costs that exceed
the original cost at the election, and a successful candidate's
rights are sometimes abrogated until the term of office expires.
There are many ways of marking ballots for those on election
boards in collusion with vote buyers outside. Voting machines
remedy many of these ills. On the voting machine one mechanical
ballot is used by all voters, each setting the ballot as he wishes.
The vote is registered on the machine's counters, which shows
votes when cast so that each candidate's total is seen at all times.
The first inventors of voting machines were English. The
earlier machines of Vassie, Chamberlain, Sydserff (1869) and
Davy (1870) all used a ball or equivalent placed in a chosen com-
partment for casting a vote. A number of American inventors
also made machines using balls. All these early machines were
VOTKINSK— VOTYAK AUTONOMOUS AREA
259
only makeshifts because the balls had to be counted. Later, me-
chanical counters replaced balls; a key and a counter was pro-
vided for each candidate, the machine was constructed jto prevent
voters from giving the keys more than one impulse and from
using more keys than those to which they are entitled. The first
of these machines used were the Myers ballot machine at Lock-
port in 1892. About 65 were used in Rochester, N.Y., in 1896.
It was not reliable or convenient enough but proved it practical
for voters to register votes secretly and pointed to the future
developments. The McTammany machine had a separate key for
each candidate. Holes punched in a paper web were counted by
a pneumatical machine. Bardwell, Abbott and Dean machines
registered votes on mechanical counters.
The U.S. Standard, the Empire and the Automatic Registering
machines followed, the latter being the last perfected product.
All three were made by one company or its successors at James-
town, N.Y., past owners of Keiper's roller interlock patent.
This patent, No. 1,031, issued July 2, 1912, expired in 1929, and
opened the voting machine business to competition. This inter-
lock is simple, strong, accurate and .flexible, and was installed
on all these machines. They constitute about 98% of the 16,000
or more machines in the United States. A separate key is pro-
vided for each candidate. The keys, in horizontal party rows
and vertical office lines, are pivoted, swinging from the hori-
zontal and pointing to the candidates' names printed on ballot
labels below the keys. Combined keys, labels, keyboard, etc.,
makes a mechanical Australian ballot. At the left of each party
row are party levers by moving any one of which all pointers on
its party row arc put in voted position. In States not providing for
straight tickets, party levers are omitted or locked. A U-shaped
rail holding a curtain -forms a booth completely enclosing the
voter. By a lever at the top the voter closes the curtain and un-
locks the machine. As a single stroke of a party lever puts all
the keys into position, the voter can turn up the keys of candi-
dates he wants to omit and vote the others. Reversing the curtain
lever counts the votes, resets the keys, opens the curtain, and
exposes the keyboard. Until the curtain cpens the vote is not
counted and the voter can take back or change his vote. Repeat-
ing is prevented by a knob locking the curtain lever against a
second movement by the same voter until it is released by the
election officers.
The counters are inside of the machine and are concealed by a
door in the back. After the election is over the machines must be
locked against voting before this door can be opened. Then the
total vote for each candidate is read off directly from his counter.
These counters are easily reset for another election but they can
only be unlocked for that purpose by the custodian's key. This
custodian's key is not given to the election board, but is held by
the officer charged with the duty of preparing the machine for
the election. The keys and counters on a machine provide for
voting for those candidates that have been regularly nominated
and whose names would be printed on the paper ballot if used.
It is the voters privilege to vote for candidates not nominated
and the machine must provide facilities for voting for them. At
the top of the machine is a horizontal paper roll that runs the
whole length of the machine, on which can be written the names
of these candidates. This roll is concealed by slides, one above
each line of office keys. One of these slides must be lifted for
each office line to expose the paper. The interlocking mechanism
must control all the voting keys on the machine so that the voter
cannot vote more than he is entitled to vote.
Machines have been built large enough to provide for nine
parties of 70 candidates each and for 35 questions or amend-
ments. A machine of such size carries 700 counters besides the
total vote and protective counters. The total vote counter shows
the number of voters voting at each election and can be reset for
each election. Another counter shows the total number of votes
cast during the life of the machine. It is made so that it cannot
be reset and acts as a seal on the machine. Each State that adopts
voting machines enacts a law specifying the requirements that
must be met by the machine. The laws of the various States are
copied largely from the voting machine law of the State of New
York. The laws, in general, require that the machine must give
the voter all the facilities for making his choice which the Aus-
tralian ballot gives him, and further requires that the machine
shall prevent those mistakes or frauds which if made on the
Australian ballot would invalidate it. Many of the States have
special requirements to meet, the solution of which present other
problems, but so far the voting machine has been able to meet
all of them.
The use of the machines secures accuracy both in casting and
counting the vote. It eliminates the interference of the election
officer with the counting of the votes. The machine gives the re-
turns promptly and cuts down the cost of holding election. Where
straight ticket voting is used the vote for each office usually
runs 99% or more of the highest possible vote that could be
registered. In the city of Buffalo with over 218,000 people
voting, the complete vote on a large ticket for the whole city
has been collected, tabulated arid announced within 90 minutes
of the closing of the polls. Although voting machines are used
but one or two days of each year, election expenses are reduced
to such an extent that the machines frequently pay for them-
selves in five or six elections. Where straight ticket voting is pro-
vided over 1,000 voters have frequently voted on one machine in
one election day. Where straight ticket voting is not permitted
as many as 600 voters have voted in one day on one machine.
In the election of Nov. 1928, about 80% of the vote of New
York State was cast and counted on voting machines. Nearly
3,000 voting machines were used in the city of New York alone
and all of the votes of the boroughs of Manhattan, Bronx and
Brooklyn were counted on voting machines. Voting machines
were also extensively used in Connect icut, Michigan, Indiana,
Wisconsin, Iowa, California, Washington, Oregon, Montana and
Maryland, and to a lesser extent in some of the other States.
About one-sixth of all the votes of the presidential election of
1928 were cast on voting machines. (F. KEI.)
VOTKINSK, a town of Russia in the Uralsk area, on a tribu-
tary of the Kama river in 57° 5' N., 53° 55' E. Pop. (1926)
19,479. It manufactures agricultural machinery, and has railway
and shipbuilding yards; it is the terminus of a branch railway.
VOTYAK AUTONOMOUS AREA, an administrative
unit of the Russian S.F.S.R., created in 1920 from part of the
former Vyatka province. Area 30,355 sq.km.; pop. (1926),
756,109. It is surrounded by the Tatar A.S.S.R., the Uralsk Area,
and the province of Vyatka, and lies between 56° and 58° 30' N.
and 51° 30' and 54° 15' E. Geographically it includes a part of the
Ural foothills forming the watershed between the Vyatka and
Kama and the tributaries of the Chcpsa. The soils are not very
productive, consisting mainly of sands and clays and grey forest
soils, and 43% of the area is forest covered, while there are vast
swamps and marshes. The prevailing trees are the fir (76%)
and the pine (12%); birch, ash, elm, maple and oak occur in
small areas in the south. The climate is extreme, winter is long
and severe and summer brief and hot; the rainfall is adequate in
the north, but diminishes markedly in the south.
Agriculture is the chief occupation, but is of an extensive
character; the three-field and even earlier systems are still in
use. Rye and oats are the chief crop, and flax and potato culti-
vation increased markedly between 1925 and 1927. The famine
and epidemics of 1921-22 markedly diminished the population
and lessened the stamina of the survivors.
In spite of the abundance and good quality of the timber, it
is not yet satisfactorily exploited, partly because of deficient
transport and distance from markets and partly because of lack
of skilled workers. The rivers are unfavourable for navigation
and there is no steamer communication, but on many streams it
is possible to float timber after the spring thaws ; in summer they
become very shallow. Mineral wealth includes the iron of the
north-east region, slate, copper, quartz sand, chalk and red clay.
Peat is abundant and has great future importance in view of the
development of peat fuel as a source of electrical energy. The
Varziachinsk district has been a health resort since 1888; its cura-
tive mud and sulphur springs are noted. Agriculture is insufficient
to support the peasants, who supplement their income by a variety
VOUET— VRYHEID
of petty trades.
Many products of these home industries are used locally, but
others are sent to the fair at Nizhniy-Novgorod, where they form
about 9-8% of the turnover of peasant traders.
Factory industry is little developed except at Izhevsk ((/.v.),
the administrative centre, where there are steel works and ammu-
nition factories and where other metal goods, including hunting
guns, are produced. In the north-east there is much iron-smelt-
ing, and glass, pottery and vegetable oils are produced in the
province. There are four saw-mills, and two more are under
construction (1928), as is a rosin-turpentine factory.
The Perm-Vyatka railway goes through the north of the area
and the Kazan-Sverdlovsk, with a branch from Izhevsk to Vot-
kinsk (Uralsk Area), through the south. Roads are poor and
are not being constructed, owing to lack of capital. The literacy
rate is very low, 18% for the whole province and 14% among
the Votyaks. The terrible famine conditions of 1921-22 resulted
in the closing of schools. Education is at present provided for
30-40% only of children of school age.
The region was inhabited by Finnish tribes when Slav pene-
tration and colonization began in the i2th century. For some
time it was under the overlordship of Novgorod, but in the 15th
century passed under that of Moscow. Though colonization
went on continuously, the forest and marsh and the poor soil
conditions did not prove attractive to Russian settlers and the
Finnish tribes preserved their language and customs. The Votyaks
(Otyaks), who call themselves Ot, Ut or Ud, and who are called
Ar by the Tatars, may possibly be akin to the Ars of the Yenisei.
They form 52-3% of the population and are of middle stature,
with light-coloured eyes and fair, often red, hair, and Finnish
skull and facial characters. Their dialect is akin to that of the
Permyaks. They are mainly agricultural, factory and town popu-
lations being Russian, the latter forming 43-3^0 of the population.
VOUET, SIMON (1590-1649), French painter, was born at
Paris on Jan. 9, 1590. He passed many years in Italy, where he
married, and established himself at Rome, enjoying there a high
reputation as a portrait painter. Louis XIII. recalled him to
France and lodged him in the Louvre with the title of First Painter
to the Crown. All royal work for the palaces of the Louvre and
the Luxembourg was placed in his hands. The king became his
pupil and he formed a large school, renewing the traditions of that
of Fontainebleau. Among his scholars was the famous Le Brun.
Vouet was an exceedingly skilful painter, especially in decoration,
and executed important works of this class for Cardinal Richelieu
(Rueii and Palais Royal) and other great nobles. His better easel
pictures bear a curious resemblance to those of Sassofcrrato.
Almost everything he did was engraved by his sons-in-law.
VOUSSOIR, in architecture and building, one of the wedge-
shaped stones, tiles, bricks or blocks of other material of which
an arch (g.v.) is composed. The lowest voussoir on each side of
an arch is known as a springer (q.v.)\ the highest, or central
voussoir, as a keystone (q.v.).
VOW, a transaction between a man and a god, whereby the
former undertakes in the future to render some service or gift
to the god or devotes something valuable now and here to his
use. The god on his part is reckoned to be going to grant or to
have granted already some special favour to his votary in return
for the promise made or service declared. Different formalities
and ceremonies may in different religions attend the taking of a
vow, but in all the wrath of heaven or of hell is visited upon one
who breaks it. A vow has to be distinguished, first, from other
and lower ways of persuading or constraining supernatural pow-
ers to give what man desires and to help him in time of need;
and secondly, from the ordered ritual and regularly recurring
ceremonies of religion.
The term vow does not apply to the uses of imitative magic
in which the supernatural power is, so to speak, mechanically con-
strained to act by the spell or magical rite. The deities to whom
vows are made or discharged are already personal beings, capable
of entering into contracts or covenants with man, of understand-
ing the claims which his vow establishes on their benevolence,
and of valuing his gratitude ; conversely, in the taking of a vow
the petitioner's piety and spiritual attitude outweigh the ritual
details of the ceremony which in magical rites are all-important.
Sometimes the old magical usage survives side by side with the
more developed idea of a personal power to be approached in
prayer. Thus sympathetic rain charms are often combined with
a prayer to the rain viewed as a personal deity. Secondly, the
vow is quite apart from established cults, and is not provided for
in the religious calendar. The Roman vow "was the exception,
not the rule ; it was a promise made by an individual at some crit-
ical moment" (W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals [London,
1899], p. 346). The vow, however, contained so large an element
of ordinary prayer that in the Greek language one and the same
word expressed both. The characteristic of the vow was
that it was a promise either of things to be offered to a god in the
future and at once consecrated to him in view of their being so
offered, or of austerities to be undergone. For offering and aus-
terity, sacrifice and suffering, are equally calculated to appease an
offended deity's wrath or win his goodwill. The Bible affords
many examples of vows. A thing or person vowed to the deity
became holy or tabu, and for it nothing could be substituted.
The prohibition, to one under a vow, of flesh diet and fermented
drinks is due to the belief that by partaking of these a man
might introduce into his body the unclean spirits which inhabited
them. The brute soul which infested meat (especially when the
animal was strangled), and the cardiac demon, as the rabbis called
it, which was harboured in wine, were abhorred. Similar con-
siderations help to explain the custom of votive offerings. Any
popular shrine in Latin countries is hung with wax models of limbs
that have been healed, of ships saved from wreck, or with pictures
representing the votary's escape from perils by land and sea,
which may have had originally another significance than that of
merely recording the votary's salvation and of marking his grati-
tude. The model ship may be a substitute for the entire ship
which is become sacred to the god, but cannot be deposited in the
shrine; the miniature limbs of wax are substitutes for the real
limbs which now belong to the god.
VOZNESENSK, a river port in the Ukrainian S.S.R., on
the left bank of the Bug river, at the head of navigation, and on
the Odessa-Cherkassy railway, in 47° 32' N., 31° 20' E. Pop.
(1926) 20,813.
VRANJA, the capital of the Vranja department of Serbia,
Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921) 7,522, a large proportion being Alba-
nians. The town is picturesquely situated on hilly ground with a
stream running through it spanned by six stone and two wooden
bridges. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the cultivation of
flax and hemp and in the making of ropes, but there are also cloth,
glass, porcelain, iron ware, paper, boot, lamp and oven factories
and leather tanneries in the town, while the fertile land around it
produces wheat, maize, fruit and vegetables, as well as cattle.
Vranja was captured by the Montenegrins in the Russo-Turkish
war of 1877-8, and assigned to Serbia by the Treaty of Berlin
(1878). The gold washing station in the district was abandoned
during the World War (1914-18). Vranyska Banya, 4^ m. E., is
a much frequented summer resort.
VRATSA, the capital of the department of Vratsa, Bulgaria,
on the northern slope of the Stara Planina and on a small sub-
tributary of the Danube. Pop. (1926) 15,509. Vratsa is an archi-
episcopal see. Wine, leather and gold and silver filigree are manu-
factured, and there is a school of sericulture.
VRSAC5 a town of the Banat, in the province of the Voivo-
dina, Yugoslavia (Magyar Versecz). Pop. (1921) 26,975, com-
prising Serbs, Germans and Magyars. It is famous for its red
wines and brandy. Large quantities of maize are grown in the
district and some wheat and oats. There are flour mills and dis-
tilleries in the town, which also manufactures distilling and general
mill machinery. It has a handsome church and is the seat of a
Greek Orthodox bishop. Near the town are the remains of a
Roman castle, and of a rampart and trench which extend for about
60 m. to the north. During the revolution of 1848-9 the Hun-
garians defeated the Serbs here in 1848 and were themielves
defeated and the town occupied by the Austrians in 1849.
VRYHEID, a town in South Africa, 291 m. N. by W. of
V-SHAPED DEPRESSION— VYATKA
261
Durban; 27° 49' S. Int., 30° 44' E, long.; altitude 3,921 ft, Pop.
(1921) 4,0x9 (2,062 white). In the vicinity a considerable num-
ber of important collieries are being worked. The Hlobane coal'
fields are south-east of the town. Vryheid is the chief centre of a
district of the same name, which contains indications of gold,
iron, galena, etc.
V-SHAPED DEPRESSION, in meteorology, used to de-
scribe that form of pressure distribution which is represented by
isobars (q.v.) having the form of a letter V and enclosing an
area of low pressure, The central line, through the apex of the
Vs, is called the trough. The motion of the system is normally
eastwards with the line of the trough remaining parallel to its
earlier direction. If the trough runs north to south the winds
in front of the V are largely from the south, and at the rear of
the V are largely from the north. The change of wind experi-
enced as the trough passes is of.ten destructively sudden, and is
usually accompanied by increased rainfall. (See SQUALL.) In
general the weather sequence resembles that consequent on the
passage of a circular depression and a V may usually be inter-
preted as a steeper gradient projection of a cyclonic system. The
isobaric form contrasting with a V is termed a "wedge."
VULCAN, the Roman god of fire (Volcanns), and more espe-
cially of devouring flame (Virg., Aen. 5. 662). Whether he was
also, like Hephaestus, the deity of smiths, is very doubtful; his
surname Mulciber may rather be referred to his power to allay
conflagrations. In the Comitium was an "area Vokani," also called
"Volcanal"; and there on Aug. 23 (Volcanalia) the Flamen Vol-
canalis sacrificed, and the heads of Roman families threw into
the fire small fish, which the Tiber fishermen sold on the spot.
It is not easy to explain these survivals of an old cult. But in
historical times the association of this god with conflagrations
becomes very apparent; when Augustus organized the city in
regiones and vici to check the constant danger from fires, the
magistri vicornm (officers of administrative districts) worshipped
him as Volcanns quietus an gust us (C. I. L. vi. 80 1 and 802), and
on Aug. 23 there was a sacrifice to him, together with Ops Opifera
and the Nymphae, which suggests the need of water in quenching
the flames. At Ostia, where much of the corn was stored which
fed the Roman population, the cult of this god became famous.
VULCANITE, a useful insulating material, manufactured
by over-vulcanizing rubber, whence its name. Rubber rolled with
a considerable proportion of sulphur and heated to a temperature
of about 150°, becomes hard and capable of taking a high polish.
It can be either moulded in manufacture to any required form
or cut or carved when hard. It is very useful to the electrician,
and, under the name of ebonite, is much used for combs, etc,
VULCANIZATION: see TYRE: RUBBER, PRODUCTION AND
MANUFACTURE.
VULCI, an ancient town of Etruria, some 10 m. N.W. of
Tarquinii. The circuit of the walls measures about 4 in., and
scanty traces of them and of Roman buildings within them still
exist. The Ponte della Badia over the Fiora, a bridge with a main
arch of 66 ft. span, 98 ft. above the stream, is also Roman. An
aqueduct passes over it. About i^ m. above a dam has been built
for a hydro-electric plant to provide at least 6,000 h.p. The
former wealth of the town is mainly proved by the discoveries
made in its extensive necropolis — Greek vases, bronzes, etc. —
many of which are now in the Vatican. In 1828-56 over 15,000
tombs were opened. These were entirely subterranean, but some
of the chamber tombs are being re-examined and cleared. There
is one great tumulus, the Cucumella, and a few smaller ones. The
frescoes from the Francois tomb, illustrating Greek and Etruscan
myths, are now in the Museo Torlonia at Rome. Vulci was one
of the 12 cities of Etruria. Coruncanius triumphed over the
people of Vulsinii and Vulci in 280 B.C.
See S. Gscll, Fouittes dans la nicropole de Vulci (Paris, 1891), for the
excavations of 1889 (with copious references to earlier publications) ;
Bendinelli in Notizie degli Scavi 1921, 342 $qq.
VULGATE, a Latin version of the Bible prepared in the 4th
century by St. Jerome, and so called from its common use in the
Roman Catholic Church (see BIBLE: OLD TESTAMENT: Texts and
Versions).
VULTURE, the name applied to a group of birds whose
best-known characteristic is that of feeding on carrion. The
American forms are quite distinct from the others and include
the condor (q.v.), the Califor-
nian vulture (Gymnogyps Cali-
jornianus), the king vulture (Sar-
coramphus papa), with a gaudily
coloured head, the turkey buz-
zard or turkey vulture (Cat hart es
aura), and the black buzzard,
black vulture or carrion crow
(Catkarista urubu), the last two
being familiar birds in southern
U.S.A. They resemble the Euro-
pean vultures in habits.
The true vultures are confined
to the Old World. The cinere-
THE CINEREOUS VULTURE, (VUL-
TUR MONACHUS), FOUND IN PARTS
OF EUROPE, NORTH AFRICA AND
ASIA
ous vulture (Vultur monachus) inhabits the tropical and sub-
tropical zones from the Straits of Gibraltar to China. The Egyp-
tian vulture or Pharaoh's hen (Neophron percnopterus), which
ranges over most of Africa and thence to India, is a remark-
ably foul feeder. Numerous other species arc known.
Vultures are guided to their food, not by scent, but by sight.
When one circling bird sights a corpse and drops, others see it
descend, and so in a few hours scores, or even hundreds, of birds
will arrive. When gorged with food vultures are often unable to
rise from the ground. In all the head and neck are bare of
feathers.
VYATKA, a province of the Russian S.F.S.R., surrounded
by the Autonomous Komi (Zirian) Areas, the Uralsk Area, the
Tatar A.S.S.R., the Votyak and Marii Aut. Area, and the Nizhe-
gorod and North Dwina provinces. Area 108,393 sq.km. Pop.
(1926) 2,222,792. It is smaller than the pre-i9i4 province of the
same name. It has on its northern boundary the flat water-parting
which separates the basins of the Northern Dwina and the Volga,
and its surface is an undulating plateau 800-1,000 ft. high, deeply
grooved by rivers and assuming a hilly aspect on their banks.
A tongue of higher land causes the Vyatka to make its great
bend to the west. The Kama flows northward along the east of
the province and the Vyatka and its tributaries, the Chepsa and
Molota drain the remainder of the province. The soils are mainly
unproductive clayey and sandy forest soils, with wide expanses
of lake and marsh, the remains of the glacial epoch. The boundary
between the coniferous forest and the deciduous passes through
the centre of the province, and much of the north and east con-
sists of continuous stretches of pine, fir, larch and Siberian
cedar, while there are oak and ash forests in the south.
The chief mineral wealth of the province is the iron ore of the
north-east and the phosphorite of the upper Vyatka, the latter
of which is only just beginning to be exploited. The timber in-
dustry is not developed on a large scale, but the peasants make
every variety of wooden articles, from spoons to sledges and carts,
and sell them at the Nijni-Novgorod fair. Paper manufacture
is being introduced, and the match industry is nourishing, espe-
cially in the town of Vyatka. The climate is extreme, with a
short hot summer and a long, cold winter, during which the
snow covering is often deep. The average January temperature
at Vyatka is 8-2° F, July 67° F; the rainfall is variable, ample
in some years, but deficient in others. Agriculture is insufficient
to support the people, who supplement their income by peasant
industries, especially woodwork, small metal wares and weav-
ing of homespun, while those in the north-east work at the mines
and smelting works, and there is some hunting, especially of
squirrels, in the forest. The chief crops arc winter rye, oats and
flax; and potatoes, barley and buckwheat are grown in lesser quan-
tities. There is some stock-raising, especially of sheep, and pig
breeding is increasing. The population is mainly Great Russian,
much mixed with the Finnish tribes.
Vyatka, the chief town of the above province, is in 58° 36'
N., 49° 40' E., on the Vyatka river. Pop. (1926) 58,619. It is
an ancient trading centre established by merchants from Novgorod
•'- -181, and then known as Khlynov. It was plundered by the
262
VYAZMA— VYSHNTIY-VOLOCHOK
Tatars in 1391 and 1477 and annexed by Moscow in 1489. Its
name was changed to Vyatka in 1780. The town still trades in
furs, wax and grain, as of old, but has a growing industrial im-
portance. It is the chief railway repair shop for the Perm- Vyatka
railway, and has a line going north to Kotlas. Its manufactures
include matches, textiles, metal wares, agricultural implements.
VYAZMA* a town of Russia in the Smolensk province in 55°
n' N., 34° 19' E., at the confluence of the Berba and Vyazma
rivers. Pop. (1926) 17,217. It is a railway junction and has
leather, oil-pressing and match factories. In the nth century
it was a trade centre linked with Narva on the Gulf of Finland.
It was captured by Lithuania in the i$th century, but later be-
came Russian. From 1611-34 it was under Polish rule.
VYCPALEK LADISLAV (1882- ), Czech composer,
was born at Vrsovice near Prague in 1882. He is one of the most
serious and intellectual of modern composers, leaning strongly
towards mysticism and sacrificing both colour and euphony, where
necessary to polyphonic requirements. His most interesting work
is the cantata, Of the Last Things of Man (1920), which may
be described as a spiritual protest against the materialism which
prevailed after the World War. It is based on Moravian folk-
music and consists of choruses and soprano and bass solos. Other
works are: a string quartet op. 3; four sets of songs, Visionen,
Lebensjeste, In Gottes Hut and Erwachen; Moravian folk-songs
and ballads and pianoforte pieces. Vycpalek holds the post of
librarian to Prague university.
VYERNYI (formerly Almaty), now Alma Ata (q.v.).
VYRNWY (Fyrnwy\ an artificial lake or reservoir in the
north-west of Montgomeryshire, North Wales, constructed for
the Liverpool water-supply. It was formed by damming the river
Vyrnwv, wlv'rh joins the Severn above Shrewsbury.
VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK, a town of Russia in the province
of Tver, in 57° 38' N., 34° 33' E., on the Moscow-Leningrad rail-
way, and on the Vyshne-Volotsk navigation system, constructed
by Peter the Great in 1703-9, to connect the upper Volga with
the Neva. The Mariinsk system has now largely superseded it.
Saw-milling is the chief industry in this forested district, but there
are also textile, glass and brewing industries.
W—WACHSMUTH
263
MThis letter, as its name implies, was the letter u
or v, which were identical till comparatively recent
times, doubled and used by the Norman scribes to
represent the English bilabial spirant (modern w),
which had previously been represented in the
Saxon hands by a Runic letter. The sound did not
occur in the Romance languages. Latin had possessed it, but it
had passed in imperial times into the voiced labial spirant (mod-
ern v). A separate symbol was thus required to represent the Eng-
lish sound, and the French preferred the doubling of one of their
own letters to the use of the Rune. (B. F. C. A.)
WA, a tribe inhabiting north-east Burma, between the Salwin
River and the state of Keng-Tung. They claim to be autoch-
thonous and may represent the aborigines of northern Siam and of
Indo China; old records and travellers (e.g., McLeod in 1837)
speak of them as the original inhabitants. Their village sites
are still found covered with jungle. The people are short and dark,
and may have Negrito blood in them, though speaking a Mon-
Khmer language. They are popularly divided into wild and tame.
The wild Wa are head-hunters. Outside every village is an avenue
of huge oaks. Along one side is a line of posts facing towards the
path with skulls fitted into niches, cut sometimes in front some-
times behind the post, when there is a hole in front, through which
the skull is visible. Skulls must be added annually if the crops are
to be good; those of distinguished and pious men are the most
efficacious, and head-hunting (q.v.) takes place during the sowing
season. Villages are high on the slopes of hills, usually on a knoll
or spur. The only entrance is through a tunnel 30 to 100 yards
long, of which there arc usually two at opposite sides of the vil-
lage, about sft. high, and so narrow that two persons cannot pass
freely, sometimes winding slightly to prevent gun-fire; the path
is studded with pegs to prevent a rush. Tattooing is occasional
only; divination is performed with chicken-bones; dogs are eaten;
polygamy is permitted, monogamy prevails and the tame Wa
have five clans presumably exogamous.
See Scott & Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma, etc. (1900).
WAALS, JOHANNES DIDERIK VAN DER (1837-
1923), Dutch physicist, was born at Leyden Nov. 23, 1837.
He was a self-taught man who took advantage of the oppor-
tunities offered by the university of Leyden. He first attracted
notice in 1873 with his treatise Over de continuiteit van den gas-en
vloeistoftoestand (On the continuity of the gaseous and liquid
state), by which he gained his doctor's degree. He taught physics
at various high schools, and in 1877 he was appointed professor of
physics in the university of Amsterdam, a post which he retained
until 1907. Van der Waals built up a kinetic theory of the fluid
state, he combined the determination of cohesion in Laplace's
theory of capillarity with the kinetic theory of gases, and this led
to the conception of the continuity of the liquid and gaseous
states. Using this as a starting point he arrived at an equation of
state which gave an explanation of critical phenomena and fitted
in very well with the experimental observations of Andrews on
carbon dioxide. Continuing this work he tried to arrive at an
equation which would be the same for all substances. He event-
ually did this by using the values of the volume, temperature
and pressure divided by their critical values. This led van der
Waals to his statement of the "law of corresponding stated"
which enabled Dewar and Onnes to determine the necessary data
in the liquefaction of the permanent gases. He also discovered
the law of binary mixtures. In 1910 van der Waals was awarded
the Nobel Prize for physics. He died on March 9, 1923.
WABASH, a city of Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wabash river
and Federal highway 24. Pop. (1920) 9,872 (96% native
white), It is a manufacturing city and the trade centre for a rich
agricultural region. Wabash was settled about 1834 and chartered
as & city in 1866. It was one of the first cities in the world to be
lighted by electricity, a lighting plant being established in Febru-
ary, 1880.
WABASH RAILWAY COMPANY is the oldest trans-
portation system in the Mississippi Valley, U.S.A. The first train
was run on Nov. 8, 1838. At that time the railway was known
as the "Northern Cross," and ran from Meredosia to Morgan
City, Illinois, a distance of 12 miles. It was almost 20 years
later before "Wabash" appeared in the corporate name. The con-
struction of the railroad across Indiana was commenced in 1855.
From this small beginning the Wabash Railway Company has
grown to one of the most important units in the transportation
systems of America. It serves the richest section of the Central
portion of the United States. The company had (1928) 2,524 m.
of track; and operated, besides passenger trains, a fleet of fast
freight trains serving both the industrial and agricultural market.
The par value of capital stock issued to December 31, 1927, was
$138,493,967-17. ' (J- E. TA.)
WACE (?) ROBERT (iioo?-ii75?), Anglo-Norman chron-
icler, was born in Jersey. He studied at Caen; he became per-
sonally known to Henry I., Henry II., and the latter's eldest son,
Prince Henry; from Henry II. he received a prebend at Bayeux
and other gifts. Except for these facts he is known to us only as
the author of two metrical chronicles in the Norman-French lan-
guage. Of these the earlier in date is the Roman de Brut, com-
pleted in 1155, which is said to have been dedicated to Eleanor
of Aquitaine (ed. A. J. V. Le Roux de Lincy, 2 vols., Rouen, 1836-
38). This is a free version of the Latin Historia Britonum
by Geoffrey of Monmouth, in rhyming octosyllables; it was ren-
dered into English, shortly after 1200, by Layamon, a mass-priest
of Worcestershire, and is also largely used in the rhymed English
chronicle of Robert Mannyng. Wace's second work, the Roman
de Ron, written between 1160 and 1174, has a less fabulous char-
acter than the Brut, being a chronicle of the Norman dukes from
Rollo to Robert Curthose. It has been ably dissected by Gustav
Korting (Vber die Quellen des Roman de Rou, Leipzig, 1867),
who shows that it is mainly based upon Dudo and William of
Jumiegcs. There is also reason for thinking that Wace used the
Gesta regum of William of Malmesbury. Where Wace follows
no ascertainable source for the material in his chronicles he must
'be used with caution. Undoubtedly he used oral tradition; but
he also seems in various instances to have given free play to his
imagination.
The Roman de Rou is written in rhyming octosyllabics, varied by
assonanced alexandrines. It has been edited by F. Pluquet (2 vols.
and supplement, Rouen, 1827-29) and more completely by H. Andresen
(2 vols., Heilbronn, 1877-79). (H. W. C. D.)
WACHSMUTH, CHARLES (1829-1896), American palae-
ontologist, born in Hanover, Germany, Sept. 13, 1829. In 1852
he emigrated to America and after two years in New York city
he settled in Burlington, Iowa. Ill health forced him into the
open and he began to collect fossils, especially the crinoids, or
sea lilies, of the Burlington Limestone, and in a few years he
possessed a fine collection. In 1864 he became acquainted with
Agassiz, and in the following year paid a visit to Europe, where he
studied the crinoids in the British Museum and other famous
collections. He decided to devote all his energies to the elucida-
tion of the crinoidea, and did so with signal success. He made
further extensive collections, and supplied specimens to the Har-
vard museum at Cambridge, Mass., and to the British Museum.
Together with Frank Springer (1848- ) of Burlington, he
published a series of important papers on their studies of crinoids,
also an extensive monograph on the Revision of the paleocrinoida
(1879-86). After Wachsmuth's death at Burlington, on Feb. 7,
1896, appeared The North American Crinoidea Camerata (2 vol.
and atlas, 1897).
A complete bibliography of his work is given in the Bulletin of the
CeoL Soc. of America, vol. 8, p. 376.
264
WACKENRODER— WADAI
WACKENRODER, WILHELM HEINRICH (1773-
1798), German writer, the fellow student of Ludwig Tieck (q.v.)
at Erlangen and Gottingcn. Wackenrodcr inspired his friend with
his own enthusiasm for the art of the middle ages. They went
to Berlin in 1794, and after the breach with Nicolai there in 1796,
to Dresden. The relation between mediaeval art and religion is
the theme of Wackenroder's Herzensergiessungen eines Kunstlie-
benden Klosterbrnders (1797). His early death, in 1798, was a
great blow to his friend, who completed Wackenroder's frag-
mentary works.
See Wackenroder's Werke und Briefe, cd., in 2 vols., by F. von
der Leyen (Jena, 1910) ; P. Koldewey, Wackenrodfr und sein fiinfluss
au/ Tieck (1904).
WACO, a city of Texas, U.S.A. Population (1920) 38,500
(75% native white and 20% negroes); estimated locally at
60,000 in 1928, About a third of the cotton crop of Texas is
grown within a radius of 100 m. of Waco. The city is the seat
of Baylor University, founded at Independence in 1845 by the
Texas Union Baptist Association and chartered by the Republic of
Texas; and of Paul Quinn College for Negroes. The city has a
commission-manager form of government, adopted in 1909. Waco
waa settled in 1849 and incorporated as a town in 1856. It was
named after the Hueco Indians, who had a large village here until
1830, when they were nearly exterminated by the Cherokees.
WAD, a black, earthy mineral consisting mainly of hydrated
manganese dioxide ; of import ance as an ore of manganese. Being
an amorphous substance, it varies considerably in chemical com-
position, and contains different impurities often in large amount,
A variety containing much cobalt oxide is called "asbolite," while
"lampadite" is a cupriferous variety. It is very soft, readily soiling
the fingers, and may be considered as an earthy form of psilo-
melane (<7.i>.). It results from the decomposition of other man-
ganese minerals, and is often deposited in marshes ("bog man-
ganese") or by springs. The name wad is of uncertain origin, and
has been applied also to graphite,
WADAI, a country of north central Africa, bounded north by
the Sahara and east by Darfur province of the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan. West and south-west it extended to Kanem and Bagirmi
and south-east to Dar Runga. Formerly an independent Mo-
hammedan sultanate, it was conquered by the French in 1909-10
and now forms part of the Chad colony of French Equatorial
Africa. By the French it has been divided into the circumscrip-
tions of Wadai and Batha. Total area about 80,000 sq.m. Pop,
(1926 estimates) Wadai, 265,362; Batha, 187,836.
Physical Features.— Wadai is for the most part a flat, dreary
plain, some 1,500 ft. in altitude, part of the clay zone which covers
much of the basin of Lake Chad. It is, however, traversed by
ranges of hills which rise another 1,000 ft,, and east and north is
encircled by mountains — part of the ranges which stretch in a
rough semi-circle from Tibcsti to Darfur. In the north-east Dar
Tama rises to a plateau of 2,500 to 3,000 ft., with the peak of
Nier6 reaching 4,700 ft. The plains are mostly bush covered, but
in places this gives way to lonff grass, with park- like regions in the
west. The surface is often sandy, but there are considerable areas
of black-cotton soil. To the south and east the land rises, and
there are large forests, which, northward along the Darfur fron-
tier, thin down to scrub. The northern region, bordering the Sahara
is serai-arid, though much of it, watered by intermittent streams,
affords good pasturage. Here, on the north-west confines of
Wadai, are remarkable sand-ridges of fantastic shape — hollow
mounds, pyramids, crosses, etc., which are characteristic of the
Libyan desert. There are also sandstone rocks of varying colours
— red, blue, pink, white, black — presenting the aspect of ruined
castles, ramparts and churches. In the extreme north-east are
some intermittent streams, with an easterly flow. Here the Wadi
Homr, in 16° N., marks the limit of vegetation — beyond, north-
ward, is absolute desert. South of it are many similar wadis, their
banks covered with thick thorn bush. And 75 m. S. of Wadi Homr
is a lake, 2 rn. long by 500 yd. wide, called Undur. This desert
lake dries up for half the year. Apart from this north-east region,
the country forms part of the Chad drainage area. The supposi-
tion that the Bahr-el-Ghazal (of the Chad system) might afford a
connection with the Nile, owing to the remarkably even level of
the country for a great distance, was disproved by the investiga-
tions of Col. Jean Tilho in 1914-15. The streams which rise on
the western side of the divide in the north-eastern districts, of
which the Batha (over 300 m. long) is the largest, flow west, the
Batha ending in a depression, some 200 m. east of Lake Chad,
called Fittri. Another stream, the Wadi Rime, with a more north-
erly course than the Batha, goes in the direction of Chad, but
ends in swamps in the clayey soil. These rivers are intermittent,
and after seasons of drought Fittri is completely dry. In the dry
season, water is obtained from wells 250 to 300 ft. deep. The
rivers of Dar Runga — a forested district south of Wadai proper —
flow westward towards the Shari, but, save the Bahr Salamat,
none reaches it. They only contain water in the rainy season.
About 100 m. above the Salamat-Shari confluence is Lake Iro,
joined to the Salamat by a short channel.
The flora includes timber trees, numerous dum palms, mimosa,
acacia, the tamarind, and many kinds of grasses. The cotton plant
grows wild, and a species of wild coffee tree reaches 50 to 60 ft.
and yields excellent berries. Among animals arc large herds of
gazelle; baboons are common, and elephants are found in the
forest. Ostriches are found in the north, where the lion is also
occasionally seen. Of birds, the most conspicuous are cranes
(white, black and crested) ; storks are also common in some re-
gions. Of domestic animals, the camel is common in the northern
district, elsewhere the bull is used for transport. Horses, cattle,
sheep and goats arc numerous. Caterpillars arc sometimes a
plague, and there are visitations of locusts.
Inhabitants and Trade. — The inhabitants consist of negroid
and negro tribes, Arabs, Fula, Tibbu and half-castes. The Maba,
the dominant race, are said to be of Nubian origin; they live
chiefly in the north-eastern district, and in the days of the sultan-
ate were allied with the Arab tribes, known in Wadai as Zoruk
(dark) and Homr (red). The Maba had a reputation for pride,
valour, cruelty, drunkenness, and barbaric splendour. The usual
dress of the people is, for men, a long white jibba or shirt and
very baggy trousers of homespun, coarse but strong cotton; for
women, the tobe, usually blue, thrown over head and shoulders,
with another piece of cotton wrapped round the body to form a
tight skirt. Heavy silver bangles round the ankles and silver and
copper rings are worn.
The capital, Abeshr, is in the north-east in about 21° E., 13°
50' N. Abeskr^ which is set in an amphitheatre of hills, is a
town of two-storeyed mud brick buildings with flat, battlemented
roofs and a fine market square. The commandant's quarters are
substantial buildings with barracks and a wireless station, the
whole surrounded by a solid wall. The population of the town,
reputed to be over 30,000 in 1873, had in 1922 dwindled to about
5,000. From Abeshr a caravan route crosses the Sahara via the
Kufra oases to Benghazi in Cyrenaica. Another route, on the
pilgrim way from West Africa to Mecca, goes east through Darfur
to Khartoum. Maize, millet, cotton and indigo are cultivated, and
cloth is woven. There is also an industry in leather goods.1 Ivory
and ostrich feathers used to be taken to Tripoli by the desert
route, together with small quantities of coffee and other produce.
This trade has greatly decreased. There is a trade in cattle,
horses and coffee with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, with the regions
to the south and with Nigeria. Development is much hindered by
the lack of easy transport, but good roads have been made by the
French, rest houses provided, and security for travellers is as-
sured. Until the French conquest, Wadai was a great centre of
the slave trade. Slaves were obtained by raiding and in the form
of tribute from Bagirmi, Kanem and other countries once de-
pendent on Wadai. The slaves were sent north to Bengasi, or
eastward to Darfur. There was also a notorious traffic in eunuchs.
History. — Wadai early became a meeting ground of negro
and Arab culture. Eastern influences and the Mohammedan
religion ultimately obtained predominance, though the sovereignty
of the country reverted to the negro race. It was sometimes trib-
utary to and sometimes the overlord of the neighbouring countries,
such as Bagirmi and Kanem. It was made known to Europe by
the writings of the Arab geographers, but it was not until Nacliti-
WADDINGTON-- WADE
265
gal's visit in 1873 that accurate knowledge of the land and people
was obtained. About 1640 a Maba chief tan named Abd-el-Kerim
conquered the country, driving out the Tunjur, a dynasty of
Arabian origin. Thereafter Wadai, notorious as a great slave-raid-
ing state, suffered from many civil and foreign wars. Mohammed
Sherif, sultan from 1838 to 1858, introduced Senussiism.
In the last decade of the igth century the French advancing
from the Congo made their influence felt in Wadai, and by the
Anglo-French declaration of March 21, 1899 Wadai was recognized
as within the French sphere. That state was then torn by civil
wars, The Sultan Ibrahim was murdered in 1900, and Ahmed
Ghazili became sultan. He ordered one of his rivals, the Emir
Acyl, to be blinded, whereupon Acyl fled westward and entered
into friendly relations with the French. A few months later (Dec,
1901) Ahmed was dethroned. With Doud Murra, who then
became sultan, the French endeavoured to come to an understand-
ing, and in Nov. 1903 the Wadaians agreed to recognize the posses-
sion of Bagirmi, Kanem, etc., by France. However, in the spring
of 1904, acting, it is believed, at the instigation of the Senussites,
the Wadaians attacked French posts in the Shari region and carried
off many slaves. Intermittent fighting continued for years. It
resulted in strengthening the position of the French and of their
ally Acyl,. and in 1908 Doud Murra, again, it is stated, at the
instigation of the Senussites, proclaimed the jihad. His army was
split up under aguids (feudal lords), and was beaten in detail,
By 1912 Wadai had been completely pacified by the French and
the once powerful sultanate was abolished, though the sultans of
the petty states, such as Dar Tama, between Wadai and Darfur
retained their authority under French protection. In the years
1913 and 1914 a terrible famine caused immense loss of life.
Col. Jean Tilho snys "the population of Wadai, put by Nachtigal
at more than 2,000,000 in 1872, had fallen to 300,000 when I went
that way [in 1917.]" Abcshr then "retained few traces of its
ancient splendour"; the governor of the province had just pulled
down the former palace of the sultans. Wadai was but little
affected by Senussi activity during the World War. The occupa-
tion of Darfur by the Sudan government in 1916 led to better
order in the borderlands, and to the demarcation of the frontier
in 1923. The French had rigorously suppressed slave-trading, but
other trade gradually increased, especially with the Sudan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. van Vollcnhoven, "Le Voyage de Nachtigal au
Ouadai," Renseign. colon. (1903) ; Capt. Julien, "Le Dar Ouadai,"
Renseign. colon, comlte dc VAjrique jran^aise (1904) ; Capt. Rcpoux,
"Le Ouadai," B.S.G. Com. Bordeaux (1909) ; A. Fcrrier, "The Work
of Commandant Tilho in Tibcsti and Wadai" Geographical Journal
vol. LI. (1918); Tilho, "The Exploration of Tibesti," Geographical
Journal vol. LVI (1920) ; Sir P. IJrockJchurst "Across Wadai," Geog.
Jnl. vol. LIX. (1922) ; "La Prise d'Abecher," L'Afrique fran$aise
(1909). See also under SENUSSI and FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA.
(F. R. C.)
WADDINGTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1826-1894),
French statesman, was born at St. Remi-sur-l'Avre (Eure-et-Loir)
on Dec. 11, 1826. He was the son of a wealthy Englishman who
had established a large spinning factory in France and had been
naturalized as a French subject. After receiving his early educa-
tion in Paris, he was sent to Rugby, and thence to Trinity College,
Cambridge. He undertook travels in Asia Minor, Greece and
Syria, the fruits of which were published in two Mimoires,
crowned by the Institute, and in his Melanges de numisniatiquc
et de philologle (1861). His other archaeological works include the
Pastes de I'empire romain, and editions of Diocletian's edict and
of Philippe Lebas's Voyage archeologique (1868-1877). He was
elected in 1865 a member of the Acad&nie des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres.
After standing unsuccessfully for the department of the Aisne
in 1865 and 1869, Waddington was returned by that constituency
at the election of 1871. He was minister of public instruction in
the short-lived cabinet of^May 19, 1873, and in 1876, having been
elected senator for the Aisne, he was again entrusted by Dufaure
with the ministry of public instruction. His most important
project, a bill transferring the conferment of degrees to the state,
passed the Chamber, but was thrown out by the Senate. He con-
tinued to hold his office under Jules Simon, with whom he was
overthrown on the famous seize ma$ 1877. (See SIMON, JULES.)
Waddington was minister of foreign affairs under Dufaure and
a French plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress. He obtained,
from Lord Salisbury, a promise that Great Britain in return fot
Cyprus would allow France a free hand in Tunis. Early in 1879
Waddington succeeded Dufaure as prime minister but held office
only by sufferance of Gambetta, and had to retire in December.
In 1883 he accepted the London embassy, which he continued to
hold till 1893, showing an exceptional tenacity in de-
fence of his country's interests. He died on Jan. 13, 1894. His
wife, an American lady, whose maiden name was Mary A. King,
wrote some interesting recollections of their diplomatic ex-
periences— Letters of a Diplomatist's Wife, 1883-1900 (New
York, 1903), and Italian Letters (London, 1905).
WADE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1800-1878), Ameri-
can statesman, was born near Springfield, Mass., on Oct. 27, 1800,
of Puritan ancestry. He was reared on a farm, receiving little
systematic education, and in 1821 he removed with his family to
Andover, in the Western Reserve of Ohio. In 1825 he began the
study of law at Cantield, was admitted to the bar in 1827, and be-
gan practice at Jefferson, Ashtabula county, where from 1831 to
1837 he was a law partner of Joshua R. Giddings, the anti-slavery
leader. From 1851 until 1869 he was a member of the U.S.
Senate, first as an anti-slavery Whig and later as a Republican.
In the Senate Wade was from the first an uncompromising op-
ponent of slavery, his bitter denunciations of that institution and
of the slaveholders receiving added force from his rugged honesty
and sincerity. His blunt, direct style of oratory and his somewhat
rough manners were characteristic. After the outbreak of the
Civil War he was one of the most vigorous critics of the Lincoln
administration. He advocated the immediate emancipation and
arming of the slaves, the execution of prominent southern leaders,
and the wholesale confiscation of Confederate property. In 1864,
with H. W. Davis (q. v.), he secured the passage of the Wade-
Davis Bill (for the reconstruction of the southern States), the
fundamental principle of which was that reconstruction was a
legislative, not an executive, problem. This bill was passed by both
houses of Congress, just before their adjournment, but President
Lincoln withheld his signature. Soon afterward (Aug. 5) Wade
and Davis published in the New York Tribune the famous "Wade-
Davis Manifesto," a vituperative document impugning the Presi-
dent's honesty of purpose and attacking his leadership.
As long as President Johnson promised severe treatment of
the conquered South, Wade supported him, but when the President
definitively adopted the more lenient policy of his predecessor,
Wade became one of his most bitter and uncompromising oppo-
nents. In 1867 'he was elected president pro tern of the Senate,
thus becoming acting vice president. He voted for Johnson's
conviction on his trial for impeachment, and for this was severely
criticised, since, in the event of conviction, he would have become
president; but Wade's whole course before and after the trial
would seem to belie the charge that he was actuated by any such
motive. After leaving the Senate he resumed his law practice.
He died at Jefferson, 0., on March 2, 1878.
See A. G. Riddle, Life of benjamin F. Wade (Cleveland, OM 1886).
WADE. GEORGE (1673-1748), British field-marshal, was
the son of Jerome Wade of Kilavally, Westmeath, and entered the
British army in 1690. He was present at Steinkirk in 1692, and
in 1695 he became captain. In 1702 he served in Marlborough's
army, earning particular distinction at the assault on the citadel
of Lie*ge. After service in Portugal, Minorca, and Spain, Wade, as
major-general, was military governor at home during the Jacobite
rebellion of 1715. He twice detected important Jacobite con-
spiracies, and on the second occasion procured the arrest of the
Swedish ambassador in London, Count Gyllenborg. In 1719 he
was second in command of the land forces in the "conjunct" mili-
tary and naval expedition to Vigo. In 1724 he was sent to the
Highlands where he began the system of metalled roads which is
commemorated in the lines-
Had you seen these roads before they were made,
You would lift up your hands and bless General Wade.
Wade superintended the construction of 40 stone bridges and with
great tact, disarmed the clans. In 1742 he was made a privy coun-
266
WADELAI— WAGES
cillor and lieutenant-general of the ordnance, and in 1743 field-
marshal. In this year he commanded the British contingent in
Flanders, and was associated in the supreme command with the
duke d'Aremberg, the leader of the Austrian contingent. The cam-
paign, as was to be expected when the enemy was of one nation,
superior in numbers and led by Saxe, was a failure, and Wade,
who was seventy years of age and in bad health, resigned the
command in March 1744. George II. promptly made him com-
mandcr-in-cbief in England, and in that capacity Field-Marshal
Wade had to deal with the Jacobite insurrection of 1745, in which
he was utterly baffled by the perplexing rapidity of Prince
Charles Edward's marches. On the appointment of the duke of
Cumberland as comma nder-in-chief of the forces, Wade retired.
He died on March 14, 1748.
WADELAI, a place in the British protectorate of Uganda.
Here the Nile suddenly contracts from a width of over half a
mile to some 500 ft. and on the right (east) bank is hilly coun-
try. Wadclai was first visited by a European, Lieut. H. Chippen-
dall, in 1875, and was named after a chieftain who, when visited
by Gessi Pasha (on the occasion of that officer's circumnaviga-
tion of Albert Nyanza), ruled the surrounding district as a vassal
of Kabarcga, king of Unyoro. The region was annexed to the
Egyptian Sudan and Wadelai's village chosen as a government
post. Here Emin Pasha had his headquarters, evacuating the place
in Dec. 1888. Thereafter, for some years, the district was held
by the Mahdists. In Feb. 1894 the British flag was hoisted at
Wadelai, the aim being to secure control of the headwaters of the
Nile. Some twelve years later the government post was with-
drawn. There is a native village and steamers plying between
Butiaba and Nimule call at Wadelai.
WADHWAN, a town of India, in Western India States
Agency, Bombay, the capital of a petty state of the same name,
and the junction of the Kathiawar railway system with the Bom-
bay and Baroda line, 389 m. N. of Bombay. Pop. (1921), 16,390.
It has considerable trade and manufactures; cotton is imported
and cotton stuffs and grain exported. There is a school for
girasias or subordinate chiefs. The civil station, which is the
headquarters of the agent for the Eastern Kathiawar states, had
a population in 1921 of 11,721. The state of Wadhwan has an
area of 242 sq.m.; pop. (1921), 37,946. Soap is manufactured,
stone quarried, and cotton weaving, pressing, ginning and dyeing
carried on.
WADI HALFA or HALPA, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan on the right bank of the Nile. Some 6 m. above the
town is the second cataract, and on the west bank of the Nile
opposite Haifa are the ruins of the ancient Egyptian city of
Buhen (Bohon). Haifa is the northern terminus of the Sudan
railway and the southern terminus of a steamboat service on the
Nile, which, running to Shellal (Aswan), connects there with the
Egyptian railways.
WAFER. A thin flat cake or biscuit. As articles of stationery,
wafers consist of thin, brittle, adhesive discs, used for securing
papers together, and for forming a basis for impressed official
seals. They are made of a thin paste of very fine flour, baked be-
tween "wafer irons" over a charcoal fire till the thin stratum of
paste becomes dry and brittle and the flour starch is partly trans-
formed into glutinous adhesive dextrin. The cake is cut into
round disks with suitable steel punches.
WAFER ASH (Ptelea trifoliata), a small North American
tree of the rue family (Rutaceae, q.v.\ called also shrubby tretoil
and hop-tree, found from New York and southern Ontario to
Nebraska and south to Florida, Arizona and Mexico, and often
planted for ornament. While often shrubby, it grows sometimes
25 ft. high, and bears strong-smelling, long-stalked leaves of three
leaflets and greenish-white flowers in dense clusters. The some-
what hop-like fruit is a nearly orbicular samara with a mem-
branous, nettcd-veined wing, about -J in. broad.
WAGER : see GAMING AND WAGERING.
WAGES. In a broad sense, wages may be said to include
all forms of income which men are able to get in return for the
expenditure of their own time and energies. In this broad sense
the fees paid to professional men and the royalties received by
authors and inventors are wages. Employers, so far as their profits
depend upon the personal supervision which they give to their
affairs, and capitalists, so far as they have to give time and
thought to the management of their investments, are, in this
broad sense, wage earners. In a more special sense, wages, as
defined by Francis A. Walker, are "the reward of those who are
employed in production with a view to the profit of their em-
ployers and are paid at stipulated rates."
To say that wages may be regarded as the price of labour, and
that, like other prices, wages are determined by supply and de-
mand, is not particularly helpful. The growth of a country's
population generally means an increase of its supply of labour.
It does not follow, however, that labour will be cheaper in the
sense that average real wages (what the labourer can buy with
his money wages) will be smaller. Where there are serious ob-
stacles to industrial development, and where agriculture is of
dominating importance, as in Russia, India, or China, it may,
indeed, be true that the average per capita production of wealth,
and hence, presumably, average real wages as well, would be
larger if the population were smaller. A notable rise of wages fol-
lowed upon the depletion of the population of England by the
Black Death in the middle of the I4th century. But where a
higher stage of industrial development has been reached, it may
well be that the economies of large-scale production and of the
division of labour are so far dependent upon the size of the
domestic market that if there were any considerable reduction of
population the production of wealth per capita would be smaller.
It cannot be assumed, therefore, that an increase of the aggre-
gate supply of labour will normally have the effect of reducing
wages. Nor can it be assumed that a general reduction of real
wages would lead to the increased employment of labour (except
temporarily, or when wages had been disproportionately high) in
the way that a reduction of the price of a particular commodity
will generally lead to larger sales. Little or nothing is to be
gained by looking to the general formula of supply and demand
for an explanation of the determination of wages.
The Wages-Fund Doctrine.--Some of the ablest British politi-
cal economists of the iQth century thought, however, that in
one particular way the general level of wages might be looked
upon as the outcome of the play of the forces of supply and de-
mand. Emphasis was put upon the circumstance that in modern
industry wages are advances, in the sense that they are paid be-
fore, and often long before, the final product to which the labourer
contributes in direct or indirect ways, passes into the hands of
the consumer. Wages are paid out of capital, and the demand
for labour depends upon the amount of capital which is or can
be devoted to that purpose. The amount of capital which is, or
can be, so used was dubbed the wages fund, and was held to
be pre-determined, in the sense that it depended upon how much
and what had been produced in the past. The present demand of
consumers for commodities, it was insisted, is not a demand for
labour, but merely a demand for the products of past labour.
The wages-fund doctrine was not altogether untrue, but it involved
misplaced emphasis, so that it led to untrue or misleading infer-
ences. What is, at most, an important aspect of the way in
which goods arc produced and apportioned, was made to serve
as a fundamental determinant of wages. The doctrine implies a
static conception of what, as its proponents recognized in other
connections, is essentially a dynamic problem. Wages arc paid,
not out of a fixed fund, but out of a continuing flow of wealth.
Changes in the aggregate volume of that flow — changes, that is,
in the magnitude of the total product of industry — have a more
important bearing in the long run upon the amount which labour
receives than can be attributed to variations in the relative demand
for present labour and for finished goods. Through the modern
mechanism of credit, moreover, the future value of part of the
product of present labour is discounted, and the proceeds are
used in paying present wages. A sudden increase in the total
amount of money paid to labourers, such as comes sometimes
after a period of industrial depression, may have the effect at
first, however, of increasing the labourers' own purchases of
finished products more rapidly than the supply can be replenished,
WAGES
267
so that prices will rise, and the increase in the amount of real
wages received will not be proportionate to the increased amount
of money wages paid, An adherent of the wages-fund doctrine
might maintain, and not without point, that this temporary effect
shows how an increase of real wages is dependent upon an in-
crease of the "fund" (the supply of goods of the kinds for
which money wages are expended) from which real wages are
drawn.
Wages and the Standard of Living.— Another theorem re-
specting wages, closely allied historically to the wages-fund doc-
trine, was that wages must conform very closely, in the long
run, to the amount needed to enable the labouring population
to maintain its customary standard of living. An early and more
rigid form of this theorem had made a bare minimum of sub-
sistence the norm to which wages were held to be constrained to
approximate. In this rigid form the doctrine was taken over by
some of the Socialists, named the "Iron Law of Wages," and
made much of as showing the hopeless position of the labouring
classes under the existing economic rcg'me. In developing the
doctrine, however, the Socialists rested it upon the power which
they imputed to the owners of capital, to assign to labour no
larger share of the aggregate product of industry than they
conceived to be in their own interest. The grounds upon which
the economists supposed their standard-of-living theory to rest
were quite different, and, if they were valid, would have retained
both their validity and their significance under a socialistic or
any other regime. These grounds were, first, the Malthusian
theory of population, serving as a basis for the affirmation that
the labouring population would increase as fast as the increase
of the means of maintaining its customary standard of living
would permit; and second, the assumption that the level of wages
must vary inversely with the supply of labour, falling off with
an increase in the number of labourers, and rising with a de-
crease. Granting the premises the conclusions followed logically.
Deviations from the normal level would be self-correcting, for
an advance beyond that level would enable labourers to marry
earlier and to rear larger families, so that the supply of labour
would be increased and wages would be forced down again, while
a fall below the supposed normal level would have the opposite
series of effects. This doctrine naturally led to the pessimistic
conclusion that there could be no permanent improvement of
the economic status of the labouring classes except as the result
of their own voluntary restriction of the growth of their num-
bers. On all this, it is enough to say that during the last century
and a half there has been a notable increase in the level of real
wages, a corresponding advance of the standard of living of wage
earners. That if the rate of population growth had been slower, a
yet higher general level of wages would have been attained is no
more than a doubtful conjecture,
Wages and the Product of Labour.— In modern economic
analysis increased emphasis is put upon the necessarily close
relation between the wages which a labourer can command and
the value of what he produces, and more attention has accord-
ingly been given to the factors which are responsible for changes
in the amount and value of the product of labour. At first sight
it might seem to be impossible to disentangle the product of
labour from the product attributable to capital, land and manage-
ment. The whole product is dependent upon labour, in the sense
that there would be no product if no work were done, but it is
dependent in the same way upon the use of land and other
natural resources, and much of it is equally dependent upon
the use of capital. If there are n labourers, of equal efficiency,
however, the annual product dependent upon the efforts of any
one labourer will not be an 7*th part of the aggregate product of
industry, but something considerably less than that amount. It
is for the specific increments of product which depend upon their
individual co-operation in the work of production that labourers
are paid. The magnitude of the specific individual product at-
tributable to a particular labourer will depend in some part upon
his own skill and energy, but it will depend also upon how well
he is supplied with tools and other appliances, upon the richness
of the natural resources to which he has access, and upon the
efficiency with which industry is organized and managed. If,
while the supply of labour remains unchanged, the supply of
productive capital is increased, if new natural resources are
brought into use, if improvements are effected in either the
technical processes or the general organization of industry, the
increment of product dependent upon the work of any one
labourer will become larger. If, on the other hand, the supply of
labour is increased while the supply of other productive agents
remains constant, and if no improvements are made in produc-
tive methods, the increase of the aggregate product will not be
proportionate to the increase of the expenditure of labour, and
the increment of product attributable to an individual labourer
will shrink. (The "law of diminishing returns," i.e., the theorem
that unless the available supply of land can be increased, as by
the cheapening of transport, or substantial improvements in meth-
ods of cultivation can be effected, the supply of agricultural pro-
duce can be increased only at the expense of a more than pro-
portionately increased outlay of labour, is merely a particular
application of this general principle.) The wages of labour, then,
may be said to depend upon the magnitude of the aggregate per
capita product of industry, and upon the relative scarcity of
labour as compared with the available supply of other scarce and
valuable productive agents. As has already been emphasized, an
increase in the supply of labour is not inconsistent with an in-
crease of the general level of real wages. Even in the absence
of the discovery of new productive methods or of new supplies of
productive resources, an increased supply of labour might lend
itself to a better organization of production and to the accumu-
lation of larger supplies of capital, so that the specific product
of labour would be increased.
Differences in Wages. — These differences are of two kinds;
first, differences in the wages of workmen of a given level of
efficiency in different localities and in different occupations;
second, differences in wages which reflect difference in skill and
efficiency. Although competitive forces exert a constant pressure
in the direction of equalizing the value of the different specific
products which are attributable to labourers of equal efficiency
(in the sense that, with like training and experience, one could
do the work of another and do it equally well), these forces never
completely achieve their ends, for they have to contend not only
with economic inertia but with various disturbing forces. The
factors which make for the persistence of local and regional varia-
tions of wages are plain to sec. Habit, ignorance of better op-
portunities elsewhere, the initial costs of movement, local ties,
political barriers, are some of them. The differences, often very
large, in the general wage levels of different countries, reflect
similar differences in the productivity of labour, and are asso-
ciated with differences in supplies of natural resources, and in
the ways in which production is organized. The international
movement of capital probably counts for more than the migra-
tion of labour as an equalizing factor. Differences in the wages
paid in different occupations, and in different industries where
a common local or national supply of labour can be drawn upon,
arc attributable mostly to the circumstance that variations in the
rates of growth of different industries, and in the demand for
different kinds of work, cannot be met promptly by equal varia-
tions in the apportioning of the labour supply. Adam Smith ob-
served, in a famous passage, that there are certain "normal differ-
ences" in wages, depending upon the agreeableness of the em-
ployment, the difficulty and expense of learning the trade, the
constancy or inconstancy of employment, the degree of trust
and responsibility entailed, and the chance of success and advance-
ment. Such differences are both real and important, but it is to
be observed that the workers who are least able to pick and
choose are often forced to accept a combination of disadvan-
tages, so that the most disagreeable and irregular employments
are often those which afford the smallest opportunity for advance-
ment, and are at the same time the poorest paid. How far the
general level of wages can be advanced by the efforts of trades
unions or by legislation is a debatable question, but it is certain
that control of the labour market, whether by trades unions or
by the Government must have definite effects upon differences in
268 WAGE STATISTICS: INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS
wages. Trade union activities have the effect of increasing the
difference between the wages paid in the well-organized and the
unorganized trades. There is some evidence, on the other hand,
that public control of wages in Australia has had the effect of
diminishing the difference between the wages paid in skilled
and in unskilled employments.
That there is a general relation between the ability, native
and acquired, of individual workers and the wages which they
can command is obvious. Allowing for disturbing factors, such
as have been noted, higher wages are associated with higher de-
grees of ability. This does not mean, however, that wages are
at all closely proportionate to ability. The evidence is far from
being adequate, but such facts as are known indicate that dif-
ferences in wages are more than proportionate to native differ-
ences in capacities, physical and mental. Proceeding from the
lower wage levels to the higher, earning power appears to in-
crease more rapidly than capacity, as measured by some non-
economic standard of attainment. A variety of causes, probably,
rather than any single cause, are responsible. Wages are paid
for efficiency, not for capacity. Efficiency is a matter of educa-
tion and training as well as of native capacity, and education and
training are partly matters of opportunity. The higher wages paid
to the more efficient workers are in some measure a return to
investments in "personal capital," whether by means of education,
in the ordinary sense, or by means of a period of service in
some employment in which wages are small but from which
paths lead upward, in preference to some better-paid employment
with no larger future ahead of it. Every factor which deflects
men from the paths which lead to the better paid employments,
or which impedes their entry into such employments, helps to
swell the numbers of the "hewers of wood and drawers of water"
who compete for the poorer places, and thus operates to increase
the difference between high wages and low. Moreover, in modern
economic life the individual worker is a sharer in a co-operative
effort. The results which he achieves cannot be measured sep-
arately, on a fixed scale of reference, as the results of a test of
his physical or mental capacity might be measured. The product
of industry is not got by merely adding the results of one man's
work to the results of the work of others. The productivity of
the individual worker is in some measure multiplied into, not
merely added to, the productivity of the complex of productive
agents with which he works. One man's efficiency directly affects
the results which others get. More is gained by equipping a good
workman with good tools or a good farmer with good land than
by assigning good tools or good land to a poorer workman or a
poorer farmer. The man best equipped to manage a large indus-
trial undertaking may really earn twice as large a salary, meas-
ured by the results he gets, as a man only slightly inferior in capac-
ity. A good foreman, by getting a maximum product from the
workers under his charge, will not only increase the earnings of
his men, but will earn a larger wage for himself. In short, it is
probable that in many employments, though possibly not in all,
the differences between the increments of product which are de-
pendent upon the labour of a superior workman and of an in-
ferior one are disproportionate to such differences in their skill
or ability as would be revealed by a test which would deal with
them as isolated individuals. It is these larger differences, of
course, which are reflected in differences in the wages which they
can command. (See also ECONOMICS.) (A. Yo.)
WAGE STATISTICS: INTERNATIONAL COM-
PARISONS. Few everyday questions are so complex while
superficially so simple as those which take the form "How do
wages in Germany, France, etc., compare with wages in this coun-
try?" It was to enable some sort of rough answer to be given to
such enquiries that the British Ministry of Labour, in July, 1923,
issued the first of what was to become a regular series of com-
putations of "Comparative Real Wages in London and Certain
Capital Cities Abroad. " In 1924 the monthly collection of this
international information was taken over by the International
Labour Office at Geneva.
The first difficulty was the lack of information. Broadly
speaking, up-to-date particulars of the national level of wages in
any trade or occupation are for most countries either wholly lack-
ing or too imperfect for use, while even where excellent informa-
tion exists it relates in some countries to the time rates of wages
agreed upon by employers and workpeople and in other countries
to the actual earnings taken home by the workpeople.
Basis Chosen.— For these reasons the International Real Wage'
Comparisons are constructed upon what might otherwise seem to
be a narrow basis — upon an average of the agreed time rates of
wages in eighteen occupations in the capital or other large city of
each of the countries in the comparison. These industries are
the principal occupations, skilled and unskilled, in the building,
engineering, furniture and printing trades. It will be obvious that
such industries as agriculture, mining and shipbuilding, however
important in some countries, cannot well be embraced in such an
international comparison.
Some twenty countries contribute to these statistics by furnish-
ing the International Labour Office every month with the standard
time rates of wages ruling for these occupations in one or other
of their great cities. From this information it can be calculated
that the average London rate for 48 hours work would be say,
6o/-, the average Berlin rate, say, 40 marks, the average Paris
rate, say, 200 francs, and so on for each country. But the question
straightway arises: how does 40 marks compare, in value to the
Berlin workman, with 60 shillings to the London workmarf? The
question is an extremely difficult one. It can be answered in a
sort of a way by looking up the rate of foreign exchange and con-
verting marks and francs into shillings at that rate; but that solu-
tion merely tells how many shillings the Berlin workman could
get in exchange for the marks he earns, and it is obvious that the
real issue is not. how many shillings, but how many loaves and boots
and other articles of daily requirement his marks will buy.
The tastes and habits of wage-earners differ greatly as between
country and country. The English worker drinks much tea and
little coffee, the French worker much coffee and little tea; the
English worker is fond of bacon but seldom touches veal, the
French is fond of veal and seldom touches bacon. And so from
country to country. For these reasons the list of commodities on
which the purchasing power of the various wages is to be esti-
mated must be as far as practicable confined to articles which are
consumed, in some quantity at any rate, in all the countries under
comparison. The International Labour Office list comprises bread,
flour and butter; margarine; eight kinds of butchers' meat, bacon,
potatoes, sugar, coffee, tea, cheese, rice, eggs and milk. Even in
this simple list there is hardly an item that does not present diffi-
culties as to kind and quality.
The difficulties of obtaining comparable statistics of rent are
almost insuperable. What is the value, according to some com-
mon standard of value, of the dwelling accommodation the worker
of each country gets in exchange for the money he pays in rent?
The information does not exist; but in view of the wide disparities
due to rent legislation, the International Labour Office offers a
column in which an allowance is made dubious but perhaps better
than none at all, for differences in the level of rents.
Family Budgets.— In all cost of living comparisons the dif-
ferent items of which account is taken must be "weighted" in ac-
cordance with their importance in the normal expenditure. In
other words, a "family budget" is required. Imagine a shopping
basket containing a week's provisions of a typical working-class
family. Take such a basket from capital to capital and ascertain
in each place what the contents cost, and you have a picture of
the operation necessary for establishing the prices part of the real
wage comparisons. The final question is; what articles shall be
put in the basket? Shall one put into it the assortment a London
workman buys, or that a Milan workman buys, or that a Philadel-
phia workman buys? The International Labour Office has found
a way out of this dilemma by making up six baskets of commodi-
ties according to the habits and tastes of workers in six widespread
parts of the world and pricing the contents of each of the six bas-
kets in each industrial centre. The computations of comparative
real wages are then made for every country on the basis of each
of the six baskets and on the average of the contents of the six
baskets. The enquirer is thereby enabled to select a figure cor-
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED KINGDOM
269
Index numbers based primarily on
quantities of food consumption in:
General aver-
age index
numbers
1
.g
5
1
Ct t/)
9
o
fw
City
w
if
gw
•c
i
g|
:an-
dinavia
countrie
versea co
tries
VM
¥
III
OQ
u
o
<8
en
O
M
fc
Amsterdam
HS
83
79
84
93
84
85
85
Berlin
63
77
67
67
82
72
71
66
Brussels .
47
46
46
46
65
46
49
53
Copenhagen
95
116
IOO
99
129
1 IO
108
107
Dublin
97
104
103
98
101
JOI
101
no
Lodz .
3<>
45
30
38
49
43
41
43
London
IOO
IOO
IOO
TOO
IOO
IOO
IOO
TOO
Madrid .
55
5(3
50
54
55
S3
54
Milan
47
48
46
V
53
49
49
48
Ottawa
144
156
157
U7
167
160
155
153
Paris .
53
62
43
56
65
56
56
Phila-
delphia .
169
180
184
175
20Q
J90
185
I8S
Prague
44
51
43
45
50
47
47
51
Rome
42
40
40
47
44
45
Stockholm
80
78
88
87
102
95
88
86
Tallinn .
39
47
41
41
$2
45
44
Vienna
37
49
41
41
55
46
45
51
Warsaw .
36
44
34
3«
45
.10
40
4i
responding to the budget-basis he thinks most appropriate for his
purpose.
Figures for 1928.— The data are given monthly in the Inter-
national Labour Review. The table below is reproduced from the
issue for July 1928.
In certain southern European countries, the relatively low index
numbers of real wages may be accounted for in part by differences
in the items of food consumption in such countries as compared
with those ordinarily consumed in most of the other countries
included in the table. Further, the index numbers do not show
differences in the general level of real wages, even in the cities
included, being based on the wages of a few categories of workers
in four industries only and on the prices of a limited number of
articles of food. In the second scries of general averages given in
the last column of the table, although an allowance is made for
rent, no account is taken of expenditure on heating and lighting,
furniture, clothing and other items of ordinary consumption.
Moreover, it should be noted that differences between the index
numbers for any city at different dates may be due cither to
changes in the level of real wages in that city between those
dates or to changes in the level of real wages in London. The
index numbers thus show only proportionate changes in the levels
Index Numbers of Comparative Real Wages in Various Cities Based
on Cost of Food Unly
(Base: London, July 1924*100)
Pitv
1924
1025
1926
1927
19
28
\^,\\y
July
"~juijr
"juty
July
January
April
Amsterdam .
«o
S3
92
92
84
90
Berlin .
55
63
70
71
68
75
Brussels
59
54
48
5°
47
53
Copenhagen
93
114
112
112
114
Dublin.
IOO
108
104
106
Lisbon .
\2
31
35
33
3i
Lodz .
54
44
44
A&
43
London
100
90
102
106
103
106
Madrid
57
53
57
57
57
57
Milan .
46
46
48
55
52
Ottawa
172
162
J5*
166
166
164
Paris .
73
56
61
Or
Philadelphia
213
iSo
169
189
194
i95
Prague.
S^
4«
51
49
49
Riga .
42
48
Si
Rome .
46
45
44
46
47
45
Stockholm .
85
78
89
98
92
93
Sydney
Tallinn
138
36
133
42
'48
41
4^
Vienna.
47
42
44
43
48
47
Warsaw .
49
46
39
45
4i
of real wages in relation to those in London. In order to avoid the
difficulty in comparison due to changes in the level of real wages
in London, the following table is given showing index numbers of
comparative real wages in various cities on the basis of real wages
in London in July 1924 ( « 100).
Active improvements in the computation are continually going
forward. Three conferences under the auspices of the Interna-
tional Labour Office have discussed comparable data of clothing
prices and rents. The ideal would be a dual series of computations,
one based on time rates of wages and the other on national earn-
ings, but the data for earnings is at present greatly lacking. Sug-
gestions have been made for yet another scries in which family
earnings would be used as the basis, but reliable statistics of fam-
ily earnings are most difficult of all to obtain. (J. H.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The origin of the scries is to be found in an article
by J. Hilton in the Manchester Guardian Commercial Supplement
for Oct. 26, 1922. The basis of the Ministry of Labour series i*
described in the Ministry of Labour Gazette for July, 1923. See also
International Labour Review for October, 1924, for an account of
how the range of the statistics was amplified and subsequent issues
for accounts of various improvements introduced. For the latest
records of the prices and wages used in the tabulations and the index
numbers computed from them see the International Labour Review
passim and the British Ministry of Labour Gazette in which the
index-numbers are reproduced.
WAGES BOARDS: see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED KINGDOM.
This account of wages since 1795 should be read in conjunction
with the articles on COST OF LIVING, INDEX-NUMBERS, PRICES,
UNEMPLOYMENT and HOURS OF WORK. The account is restricted
to estimates of wages obtainable by persons in full employment —
either time-wages or average earnings on piece-rates; it deals prin-
cipally with general movements, the resultant of all changes in
rates, time and piece, the shifting of the numbers engaged in differ-
ent occupations and all other circumstances which affect earnings.
A slow reduction of weekly hours of work took place in the
half-century before the World War, and in 1919-20 hours were
generally reduced to 47 or 48 per week and much greater uni-
formity was reached than before. It will be seen from a study of
the statistics that follow that progress has been nearly continuous,
when viewed broadly, through the past century, sometimes by ad-
vances of money wages, sometimes by reduction of prices, and
especially in the most recent period by reduction of hours of work.
The Period 1795-1850. — The earliest general investigation into
wages in the United Kingdom was made in 1886, and the study of
movements before that date depends on scattered accounts, which
can only be pieced together with great difficulty and some uncer-
tainty, at least till 1850 after which date records are more numer-
ous. Table I. exhibits the wages in some of the occupations for
which records can be traced back to an early date. With the
great rise of prices during the Napoleonic wars wage-rates in-
creased by more than 50%, reaching a maximum in 1815; during
the next 15 or 20 years there was an irregular fall, and then wages
were nearly stationary till about 1850, at a height about one-
third above that of 1790-95. II the movements of money wages
are compared with those of prices, it becomes evident that a con-
siderable advance was made in real wages between 1815 and 1850.
One account gives average weekly wages of men (artisans and
labourers, town and country) as 135. 6d. in 1795, 178. Ui 1807,
i8s. in 1824, 1 6s. in 1833 and 172. in 1850; if these arc trans-
formed into the money values of 1850 they become about 8s. 6d.
in 1795, 8s. 3d. in 1807, I3S. in 1824, 135. 6d. in 1833 and 175. in
1850, that is to say that the average workman could buy nearly
twice as much in 1850 as in 1795. To take a particular case, the
Sussex agricultural labourer's wage was equivalent to 4$ pecks
of wheat a week in 1795 and to 9 pecks in 1850. This is a very
general statement and it may be that real wages rose somewhat
less than is indicated in the 55 years.
The Period 1850-1914,— Soon after 1850 prices began to rise,
and after some fluctuations culminated in 1873 and then fell
rapidly, till in 1880 they were near the 1850 level again. During
these 30 years it is computed that wage-rates in specific occupa-
tions rose about 30%, but owing to the relative increase of num-
bers in the better paid occupations average wages of all men rose
270
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED KINGDOM
TABLE I. Illustrative Movements in Weekly Wages
Year
Brick-
layer
Brick-
layer's
labourer
Com-
positor,
London
Fitter,
London
Cotton
mill-
spinner,
Lanca-
Agri-
cultural
labourer,
Eng. and
time
London summer-
time
rate
rate
snire.
Average
Average
time rates
earnings
earnings
s. d.
s. d.
s.
s.
s. d.
s. d.
17Q8?
1 8 o
12 0
}°
10 6
I800
19 (/
14 3
30
12 6
1805
25 o
18 o
33
25 10
15 6
1810
30 o
20 0
36
30 i
16 o
1815
3° °
20 o
' 36
26 o
'5 <>
1820
28 6
19 o
33
26 o
14 o
1825
33 o
21 0
33
25 8
II 6
1830
30 o
20 0
33
24 9
ii 6
1835
27 o
18 o
33
24 4
ii 6
.1840
30 o
2O 0
33
22 6
12 6
1845
3° o
2O 0
33
?3 5
ii 6
1850
30 o
20 0
33
21 10
11 O
1855
33 o
2O O
33
34
22 O
14 6
1860
33 o
20 0
33
S4
24 4
13 6
1865
35 4
2O 0
33
35
->« 6
14 o
1870
37 8
22 4
36
36
28 6
15 0
1875
39 4
2 5 2
36
3<>
33 6
18 o
1880
39 4
25 2
^>
3'»
30 n
16 o
1885
39 4
26 3
36
3*
31 ]
14 o
1890
39 4
26 3
36
3«
36 o
15 o
1895
30 7
27 i
^8
s8
36 o
15 6
1900
43 9
29 2
38
38
36 o
16 6
1905
43 9
29 2
39
39
41 5
17 o
1910
43 9
29 2
30
40
41 5
17 6
1914
47 ii
33 4
30
40
4T 5
19 o
1920
102 8
91 8
05
60*
49 o
1925
78 10
(>o 6
8g
(11
32 6
1928
77 o
58 8
89
61
32 6
*Plus 12^% on week's earnings.
The first four columns are the trade-union or other agreed rates.
The cotton mill-spinners' earnings are as estimated by G. II. Wood in
the Statistical Journal, p. 135 (1910) with some adjustment of dates.
The agricultural earnings are obtained by adding to the year's money
receipts for weekly wages and occasional earnings the value of payments
in kind, and dividing by 52. (Sec Statistical Journal p. 562 ; 1899.)
more than 40% and reached about 245. weekly. The index-num-
bers in Table II. show the movement year by year. It is probable
that prices more than kept pace with money wages till 1*860, and
that wages gained on prices till 1870, and in the next decade real
wages made rapid progress (at the expense of some unemploy-
ment) as prices fell. Prices continued to fall irregularly till about
1895, fcfld then rose witn some interruptions, till, at the outbreak
of war, the level of 1880 and of 1850 was again approximately
reached.
Money wages rose from 1886 to 1890 and again from 1896 to
1900 and, after a slight fall, from 1911 to 1914. Throughout the
period of falling prices real wages rose considerably, but from 1900
to 1914, or even from 1895 to 1914, it is doubtful whether money
wages were as fast as prices, and some statisticians have computed
that, real wages fell perceptibly in the 15 or 20 years before the
war.
The Period 1914-1928.— This is dealt with in detail below. By
1928 average money earnings were more than 90% above those of
1914 while prices had risen about 70%. The account now given
may be thus summarized:—
Average Weekly Wages of Fully-employed Men in Great Britain
Corrected to value
Actual
wage
of money in:
1914
1928
1795
1850
1880
138. 6d.
176.
243.
8s. 6d.
176.
245.
145. 6d.
295.
4is.
1902
295.
325.
54*.
I9U
1928
32S.
6os.
32S.
35*.
548.
6os.
be certainly computed within a margin of, say, 2s., and the ad-
justment for the change of purchasing power of money is hazard-
ous, even when the dates 1850, 1880 and 1914 are selected, at
which prices were nearly the same; but the statement is consistent
with such evidence as is available. In considering the possibility
of a family living in 1795 on a weekly wage equivalent to only
145. 6d. in our present currency, it is to be remembered that little
was spent except on food, that all members of the family except
the very young and very old worked, and that in the country where
wages were lowest, rent was very little and garden produce and
perquisites were relatively more important than now. Sufficient
detail is available from 1850 onwards to allow at least an approxi-
mate account of the general movement of wages year by year. The
convenient method of making the calculation and exhibiting the
results is by index numbers, by which average wages in each occu-
pation are expressed as percentages of their amount in a particular
year — 1914 is selected as giving the best perspective both for pre-
war and post-war years — and combining the results, with due at-
tention to the relative importance of the industries. In Table II.
the figures in the column headed "A" are intended to represent
the movement of the average weekly earnings (at full time) of all
manual workers (male and female, adults and children) in the
United Kingdom, and are based on all available information.
Under "B" an alternative reckoning is given in which the gradual
shifting of population to the better paid industries is ignored, so
that it indicates the movement of wages for persons who remain
in the same occupation. Column "C" gives the Ministry of La*
bour's statement from 1880 to 1914 of "the General Course of
Rates of Wages," and from 1914 to 1928 of the "estimated aver-
age percentage increase in weekly full-time rates of wages gen-
erally" (TOO being added to convert the percentage increase into
percentages) ; the earlier series depends only on wages of building
and engineering artisans, piece-rate changes in coal-mining and
textiles and cash rates of wages of ordinary agricultural labourers;
the latter scries has a wider basis; but in neither is any weight
given to change of relative numbers, and in both it is assumed
that earnings move proportionately with piece-rates. The wage-
TABLE II. Average Earnings of Manual Workers for a Normal Week in
the United Kingdom Expressed as Percentages of the, Level in 1914
(Index Numbers of Wages']
It must be emphasized that the element of approximation in
these figures is very considerable; in no year can the average
S
o
I*
G. II. Wood's
numbers
8
^
G. H. Wood's
numbers
Minis-
try of
La-
bour
C
3
V*
Ministry of
Labour
A
B
i
A
C
A
B
1850
50
02
l88o
73
81
77
1910
94
94
1851
5°
(J2
i88j
73
81
78
1911
94
Q4
1852
5°
62
1882
75
81
79
1912
96
96
•853
55
68
1883
75
82
80
1913
99
99
1854
57
69
1884
75
82
79
1914
100
100
1855
5«
/i
1885
74
81
78
1915
101 tO 102*
1856
58
71
1886
73
81
77
1916
no 115
1857
56
68
1887
75
81
77
1917
120 125
1858
5S
66
1888
76 -
81
79
1918
155 160
1859
56
66
1889
80
84
81
1919
195 200
1860
57
68
l8r;o
84
87
84
1920
215 220
1861
57
6S
1891
84
87
85
1921
270 280
1862
5S
68
1892
84
87
84
1922
210 215
1863
S8
69
1893
84
86
84
1923
170 175
1864
62
73
1894
84
86
83
1924
195
165 170
1865
63
74
1895
84
85
83
1925
196
170 175
1866
66
76
1806
84
86
83
1926
196
175
1867
65
76
1897
85
87
84
1927
196
175
1868
'65
' 74
1898
87
89
86
1928
194
170 to 175
1869
65
74
1899
90
90
89
1870
66
76
1900
95
94
93
1871
69
79
1901
94
93
92
1872
73
84
1902
92
9i
91
1873
77
88
1903
91
9i
90
1874
78
89
1904
00
9i
00
i8?5
77
87
1905
00
00
90
1876
76
86
1906
91
93
91
1877
75
85
1007
95
94
94
1878
74
83
1908
94
94
94
1879
73
Si
1909
93
93
93
'Beginning of year from 1915 onwards.
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED KINGDOM
271
censuses of 1886, 1906 and 1924 discussed below show con-
clusively that the Ministry of Labour's method fails to register
the whole movement of average earnings.
Table III. shows the movement of average earnings in some of
the industries which are included in the account of Table II. The
figures are taken from G. H. Wood's paper "Real Wages and the
Standard of Comfort since 1850" in the Statistical Journal, p. 93
(1909), the numbers in 1906 being equated to 91 in accordance
with Table II.
TABLE III. The Course of Average Wages in Certain Indtistrics,
1850-1906
0
c£
»0
»o
CO
1
S
co
t--.
oo
-t
r^
OC
i^.
t-*
00
1
c^
CO
%
cO
£
S
&
1
Agriculture,
England
and Wales
58
68
68
72
76
85
86
83
83
82
84
84
90
9*
Scotland .
44
57
53
53
63
75
82
75
73
77
80
84
88
91
Ireland .
50
50
55
59
64
66
69
7i
72
74
77
80
83
9i
53
57
62
68
70
76
82
79
79
79
83
86
91
91
Building
72
72
72
73
76
81
84
84
84
84
87
88
89
91
Printing
59
6s
63
7i
72
78
77
75
84
75
87
86
92
9^
Shipbuilding
60
66
65
69
71
78
78
73
78
74
83
86
89
91
Engineering
63
88
72
94
75
IOI
72
68
73
68
94
82
IOI
91
Coal .
77
104
77
98
9i
120
90
94
82
75
84
76
117
91
Puddling .
46
5i
5«
63
69
72
75
70
74
74
78
82
86
91
Cotton
Wool and
worsted,
Hudders-
field . .
56
63
68
73
75
83
92
86
82
77
78
80
83
91
Worsted,
Bradford.
62
f>3
70
74
89
IOC)
93
83
82
82
82
84
86
91
Gas
60
61
62
65
7i
77
79
78
78
78
86
87
89
91
Furniture .
60
62
65
7i
74
83
85
84
84
83
86
86
9i
91
In the column headed "A", full allowance is made for the rela-
tive changes in numbers in different occupations. Under "B"
some allowance is made for changes within industries, but the
relative importance of industries is assumed not to change.
Under "C" are averaged the changes in time-rates in specific oc-
cupations or of piece-rates, with no allowance for relative changes
in numbers or for the varying relation between piece-rates and
earnings. In all cases the wages are for the normal working week
at each date, and the increase in hourly rates is considerably
greater than that here shown. G. H. Wood's numbers are con-
verted from his account (Statistical Jourrtal [1909], pp. 102-23
and 1912-13 p. 220) by taking the level in 1910 as 94.
It is noticeable in Tables I. and III. that the movement of
wages has differed greatly in different occupations; in some there
has been a steady increase, in others long periods of stationary
wages, in others marked fluctuations.
Official Investigations of 1886, 1906 and 1924.— In 1886
the Board of Trade instituted an enquiry into the actual wages
paid by employers in all the principal industries, and in 1906 the
Labour Department of the Board of Trade made a similar inves-
tigation. The returns were voluntary at both dates, and while in
those industries where the factory system had been long estab-
lished a considerable proportion of employers filled in the sched-
ules, in others, such as clothing industries and the minor metal
trade, returns were sporadic and insufficient. Table IV. exhibits
the results for all cases where the reports in 1886 appear to be
adequate, together with estimates for coal-miners and railways
in 1906 and for agriculture of both dates, which were not included
in the general enquiry. Except in the principal textile and some of
the metal industries, we have no assurance that the classification
was the same at the two dates and detailed comparison can only
be made with considerable reservations. The general averages
for all industries massed together are, however, more depend-
able.
In 1886 the detailed enquiry was not as to actual earnings, but
as to the wages or earnings obtainable by different classes for a
full week. In 1906 there was a double tabulation, one for the
earnings of those who worked for the normal week, without short
time or overtime, the other of the earnings of all persons receiving
TABLE IV. United Kingdom
Men and Boys. Average Weekly Earnings
Industry
(a)
Men
Normal hr.
Boys
Normal hr.
All males
Actual hr.
Col. (g)
as%of
Col (/)
(h)
194
254
226
287
172
208
240
227
1886
(W
1906
M
1886
(d)
W
1906
1924
Textile
Industries
Cotton
Wool and wor-
sted .
Linen, hemp,
jute
Silk .
Lace .
Hosiery .
Bleaching, fin-
ishing .
Others .
Average
s. d.
"5 3
21 0
27 3
-'4 5
22 O
s. d.
ag 6
26 10
22 7
25 »
39 6
3i 5
2(1 4
s. d.
9 4
7 5
0 4
7 2
9 4
9 6
7 10
s. d.
1 1 ()
8 10
8 7
S 2
12 8
9 5
10 4
s. d.
24 2
21 2
18 2
2O 10
3O 4
26 3
23 8
s. d.
47 o
53 10
41 2
59 10
52 i
54 »
5<> 9
50 6
50 7
220
Clothing
Industries
Dressmaking,
tailoring, etc.
Boots
Hats.
Others .
Average
24 3
28 8
S '4
ro 4
-5 4
22 6
28 7
24 o
24 2
57 ^
53 7
57 Ji
53 7
226
238
203
223
55 ll
231
Food, Drink
and Tobacco
Milling .
Bread, biscuits,
etc.
Other food
Brewing and
distilling
Tobacco .
Average
23 1 I
26 o
9 U
10 6
2 i O
23 .S
22 I I
-4 3
24 g
56 9
53 10
5* 7
59 i
60 5
247
232
256
244
280
23 2
57 i
246
Earthenware,
Chemicals, etc.
Earthenware .
Bricks .
Glass
Chemicals
Explosives
Cement .
Others .
Average
22 IO
26 '7
9 0
ir 6
26 7
23 i
26 2
26 10
28 5
26 10
24 6
55 6
51 10
56 i
59 7
54 10
59 0
58 9
209
225
214
222
193
219
240
^5 5
56 10
224
Metal Industries
Iron and steel
manufacture
Tin plate . .
Brasswork
General engin-
eering machin-
ery, cars, etc.
Cutlery .
Wire. .
Screws, etc. .
Railway car-
riages .
Watches, jew-
clcry
Shipbuilding .
Other metal in-
dustries
Average
24 6*
33 5
25 9
34 4
42 o
31 9
3- 5
.^o Q
10 8*
H 3
8 5
9 1
10 6
12 4
TO 3
9 7
11 3
II* 10
32 10
33 8
24 ii
27 4
26 $
26 i
-'5 3
27 2
28 10
3° 8
2* 3
60 5
73 7
50 7
5-2 9
48 9
56 4
45 5
55 o
55 H
51 ii
54 Q
184
218
203
193
216
180
202
194
169
216
2Q 0
54 2
187
Paper,
Printing, etc.
Paper manufac-
ture
Stationery
Printing and
binding .
Cardboard
boxes .
Average
:o i
2 \ g
27 6
22 8
56 10
54 7
75 3
54 7
218
230
274
241
27 9
69 8
251
*Pig-iron only.
272
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED KINGDOM
TABLE IV. United Kingdom — Continued
Men and Boys. Average weekly earnings (continued)
Industry
(1)
Men
Normal hr.
Boys
Normal hr.
All males
Actual hours
Col. (*)
as % of
Col. (/)
(A)
1886
(/>)
1906
(f)
1886
(d)
1906
00
1906
(/)
1924
to
Building
Wood-work
Building and
construction
Wood
Furniture .
Average
s. d.
s, d.
s. d.
s. d.
9 7
s. d.
27 ii
23 i
26 1 1
-'7 3
s. d.
58 2
5-' -1
57 i
208
226
212
29 o
33 o
8 '*
57 3
210
Public Utility
Gas, water,
electricity .
Coal Mines
Railways .
Docks . .
Agriculture
(Eng. and
Wales) . .
General average
22 II
22 5
14 o
'3 6
30 2
24 6
16 2
28 o
10 9
'0 3
8 ii
12 4
ii ii
10 7
29 9
30 2
25 0
33 S
16 2f
6 1 6
58 7
67 4
67 4
2-S of
207
194
269
200
173
24 10
52 10
213
fMcn only.
Women and Girls. Average weekly earnings
Industry
00
Women
Normal hr.
Girls
Normal hr.
All females
Actual hours
Col. (*)
as <;•;, of
Col. (/)
(/O
1886
W
IQ06
(0
i88(>
(d)
1 906
(<••)
1 906
(/)
19:4
(fi)
Textile
Industries
Cotton .
Wool and wor-
sted .
Linen, hemp,
jute .
Silk . .
Lace . .
Hosiery .
Bleaching, fin
ishing, etc.
Others .
Average
s. d.
s. d.
s. d
s. d
s. d.
s. «l
1 75
-53
239
2«7
2T I
2 3 -
2~S
-'50
15 3
12 7
9 *
IO 1
12 8
11 6
10 9
18 8
13 10
ii 4
11 2
13 S
!4 3
12 4
13 3
6 10
6 8
4 ii
5 8
() 2
8 3
5 "
to i
8 4
7 3
6 4
7 i
7 9
8 2
7 3
16 2
12 I
io 5
Q 9
i t 7
12 .\
I I O
IO II
*8 3
30 /
J4 11
2.S 0
24 5
_>8 S
24 9
-"7 3
13 9
27 n
203
Chitons
Indtistrics
Dressmaking,
tailoring, etc.
Boots
Hats
Others .
Average
12 0
J3 7
13 i
r; 8
13 o
5 °
5 3
() IO
8 9
6 7
7 o
<> 7
7 ~
7 S
() 2
II 3
10 fi
IS f»
11 2
27 o
26 5
*5 3
•7 3
240
25*
166
244
II 4-
-'7 5
242
Food, Drink
and Tobacco
Bread, biscuits,
etc.
Cocoa, etc.
Other food
Brewing and
distillery
Tobacco .
Average
TJ 8
II Q
10 5
t> 5
u o
!! .
9 10
10 5
9 <>
9 i
9 4
27 4
25 Q
26 6
^7 7
33 2
278
247
279
304
355
9 8
27 6
284
Eartltenware,
Chemicals, etc.
Pottery .
Chemicals
Explosives
Others .
Average
ir ii
10 8
13 J
ii 6
6 .?
7 4
8 i
7 9
IO I
9 'I
il 7
9 II
22 3
24 5
28 i
25 5
221
246
242
256
10 2
24 8
243
TABLE IV, United Kingdonir-Continucd
Women and Girls. Average weekly earnings (continued)
Women
Girls
All females
Col. (*)
Industry
Normal hr.
Normal hr.
Actual hours
w«. \5/
as%of
1886
iqo6
1886
1906
1906
1924
Col. (/)
(o)
(W
w
(</)
w
(/)
(*)
(«
Metal Industries
General engin-
eering machin-
ery, cars, etc.
13 9
8 7
ii 4
26 ii
237
Cutlery .
ii 7
6 10
10 0
21 8
217
Wire
13 2
7 3
10 5
24 2
232
Screws, etc.
II 2
7 6
9 7
21 I I
229
Brass work
12 O
7 o
10 3
25 o
244
Jewellery, etc .
13 2
6 i
10 7
23 s
22T
Others .
12 2
7 o
10 7
26 8
252
Average
10 8
26 o
244
Paper,
Printing, etc.
Paper manufac-
ture
II II
7 6
II 0
25 6
232
Stationery
II II
6 6
9 9
25 IT
266
Printing and
binding.
12 6
<> 3
y 10
28 8
2Q2
Cardboard
boxes .
12 3
6 i
9 9
25 8
263
Average
IO O
27 7
276
Furniture, etc.
13 I
6 2
I I O
27 3
248
General average
12 8
13 6
6 4
7 3
13 o
27 3
210
Full Time Weekly Earnings of Adult Male Manual Workers
Industries in general, excluding Mining and Agriculture,
showing percentage of whole
Year
Under
2os. and
under
25s. and
under
305. and
under
353. and
under
4os. and
under
Sos.
and
2OS.
255.
305.
35S-
4os.
Sos.
over
1 886
25
30
~M
14
5
2
1906
10
21!
ioi
i6i
i6j
II
S
payment in the selected weeks. The first method is used for
columns (c) and (e) in Table IV., since it agrees more closely with
the method of 1886. In fact in most industries, taken as a whole,
the averages are nearly the same by the two methods, since over-
time nearly balanced short time. The 1924 enquiry, of which a
summary is given in the Ministry of Labour Gazette, July 1927,
was less detailed. No distinction was made by age and conse-
quently comparison with 1906 is only possible for all males and
all females as in columns (/) and (g). The returns relate to actual
earnings, not to estimated earnings in a normal week, and the
second tabulation of the 1906 figures is therefore used for column
(/). Information is, however, given in 1924 about the number of
hours normal in each industry and the hours actually worked in
the weeks for which returns were made. Normal hours in all
industries (excluding railways, mining, docks and agriculture)
average 47-0 weekly, and except for building and construction
where the average was 45-3 there is singular uniformity in the
hours. The hours actually worked (excluding, of course, persons
totally unemployed) averaged 45-6, so that if full time (without
overtime) had been universal, earnings would have risen about 3%.
The averages in Table IV. have all been computed by applying
to the wages the numbers recorded in the different industries in the
Census of Production of 1907 and 1924 or in the Population
Census, or in the reports of numbers of insured persons, and arc
thus independent of the numbers that happened to be included in
the employers' voluntary wage-returns. In comparing the wages
of boys in 1886 and 1906 and of girls at the same dates it is to
be remembered that there were more half-timers at the earlier
date, and in comparison between 1906 and 1924, that half-timers
hardly existed at the second date, and the age of commencing work
had generally risen from 13 to 14. These changes, however, have
very little influence on the general averages. In the 1906 account
not only are averages given but also, for each industry, the num-
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED KINGDOM
273
TABLE V. Rates of Wages in Typical Occupations, 1914 to 1928. Afen
For each occupation the first line gives the number of shillings for a normal week's work, and the second line expresses these amounts as per-
centage of the wage in July 1914.
1914
July
1915
Dec.
IQl6
Dec.
1917
Dec.
IQl8
Dec.
1910
Dec.
1920
Dec.
1921
Dec.
1922
Dec.
1923
Dec.
1924
Dec.
1925
Dec.
1926
Dec.
1927
Dec.
1928
Dec.
Time-rates
Skilled
Carpenters ....
40
4i
44
52
69
81
101
88
7i
69
73
74
74
74
72
IOO
103
in
^31
i/3
202
252
220
178
172
i«3
'«3
r«3
183
179
Engineers' fitters .
39
43
47
67
77
83
QO
77
56
55
56-s
56-s
56-s
S6-S
56-5
TOO
Hi
ri9
172
*95
212
230
196
143
141
MS
145
US
145
H5
Compositors ....
36
36
39
47
65
76
93
88
77
74
74
74
74
74
74
IOO
1 02
no
133
184
213
262
248
216
207
207
207
207
207
207
Engine-drivers, railway
40-5
4S'S
50-6
61-5
73'5
S3
97
89
81
Si
81
81
81
81
3r
IOO
112
125
152
182
205
240
220
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
Semi-skilled
Painters (building)
36
37
40
47
*5
78
IOO
88
71
68
72-5
73
73
73
71
. IOO
IO2
109
129
175
215
275
243
196
1 88
200
201
201
201
196
Tram-drivers ....
31
33
37
44
61
65
74
69
60
59
60
60
IOO
106
116
142
197
209
23«
222
194
190
193
193
Labourers
Building
27
29
32
40
56
67
88
70
53
S2
55'5
55-5
55-5
55-5
53-5
TOO
IOO
119
148
206
271
325
26O
198
191
206
206
206
206
198
Engineering ....
23
27
30
49
58
64
7i
59
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
IOO
116
132
214
2S5
280
3io
260
176
176
176
176
176
176
176
Local authorities .
27
29
32
40
52-5
62-5
75
68
55
51'S
53
53
IOO
109
119
150
107
234
279
254
204
192
log
200
Carters (one-horse)
25-5
29
32
44
56
60
68-5
62
54
51-5
53
53
IOO
"3
126
172
219
235
267
241
211
2OI
208
208
Dockers (5$ days) .
33-5
39'5
46
54
60
73
89
79
64
57
<>7'5
67-5
67:5
67:5
67!5
IOO
118
138
162
207
219
266
236
I go
171
201
201
2OI
201
201
Agriculture (Eng. and Wales)
18
25
30-5
3«
47
37
28
28
28
31'S
31'5
31-5
31-5
TOO
139
169
210
260
205
154
156
156
173
'73
'73
173
Piece-rates
Cotton
IOO
IOO
*05
*33
205
202
250
202
161
161
161
161
161
161
161
Coal mines (5^ shifts)
36
42'S
48
52
68
70
102
70
52
5<>-5
58
57-5
53
100
119
T35
145
191
222
2»5
195
H5
1 68
K>3
I 01
148
General average of %s .
IOO
/ 110
\toiis
1 20
to 125
155
to 160
'OS
tO 2 CO
215
tO 220
270
to 280
210
to 215
170
to 175
165
to 170
170
to 175
)•»
175
/ 170
\toi75
I ''
Index Number of average
earnings, all persons
100
J95
190
197
196
194
Cost of living Index No. .
IOO
135
165
/ 185
ItOIQO
},*,
225
265
192
178
177
1 80
i75
'75
1 68
164
bers at each rate of wages, and less detailed information is shown
for 1886. These detailed figures lead to the following very rough
comparison.
Thus in 1906 the average was 30$. 6d.; the central half earned
between 235. and 275.; four-fifths between 195. 6d. and 465., one-
tenth of all more than 465. The increase in relative numbers in the
higher grades of wages is very noticeable.
Changes from 1914 to 1928.— Wage-rates rose slowly in the
first few months of the World War, and, when the general rise
of prices became evident, were increased at frequent intervals by
such amounts as were considered necessary to balance the in-
creased cost of living. In many cases equal money increases were
given to all men in an industry, skilled or unskilled, with the re-
sult that unskilled wages rose relatively to skilled. Thus in the
building trade labourers' wages had been two-thirds of artisans',
but at the end of the War they were more than four-fifths. A study
of Table V. will show that part, but not all, of this relative gain
has been preserved. Women's wages have similarly gained on
men's and there has been a general levelling up of the lowest
wages. Wage-rates in many cases failed to keep exact pace with
prices in the years 1915-19, but piece-rates and overtime were
prevalent, while unemployment practically disappeared, so that
in fact the standard of living was preserved as far as was possi-
ble under the restrictions of the food-supply. In tbe boom of 1919
wages rose rapidly and continued to rise in 1920 after wholesale
prices had begun to fall in 1920; industry entered suddenly on a
period of depression at the beginning of 1921, and the wages fell
rapidly from March 1921 to Dec. 1922. From the beginning of
1923' till the middle of 1928 wage-rates remained nearly stationary,
but wholesale prices fell appreciably during the year 1925, 1926
and the first half of 1927 and in consequence the Cost of Living
index number was 13 points (7%) lower in Jan. 1928, than in
Jan. 1925.
For reasons already indicated average earnings for all workers
rose more than wage-rates for individual occupations. When we
compare 1928 with 1914 we find that average rates had risen by
70 to 75%, average earnings 90 to 95%, and rates for unskilled
workers and for many women's occupations 100%, while the cost
of living had risen only 64% and the length of the working week
had fallen by some 13%. On the other hand, unemployment was
prevalent, especially in mining, shipbuilding and some other im-
portant industries, and wages in mining and shipbuilding have
risen less than 50%. Though engineering artisans' time-rates have
only risen 45% (see Table V.), actual earnings of all employed in
engineering and machinery and motor-car construction have in-
creased more than 80%, and it is only those wage-earners who
are on pure time-rates without bonus who have realized only the
minimum increase.
Table V., most of which is compiled from the i8th Abstract of
Labour Statistics pp. 116-19, illustrates the changes in rates that
have taken place. The rates are in general the averages of those
in several districts, stated to the nearest shilling or sixpence. It is
to be noticed that when the reduction of hours took place in 1919
or 1920 time-rates were generally unchanged, the same sum being
payable for the shortened week, but piece-rates were generally
increased about 15%. It is probable that piece-workers gained by
this arrangement, and that for example the percentages shown in
the table for cotton, which are the arranged piece-rates without
this 15% increase, underestimate the increase in earnings for those
at full work; certainly in the period 1906 to 1924 during which
piece-rates (apart from this 15%) rose 61%, earnings of males in
the cotton trade rose over 90% and of females about 75%.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The earlier doctrines are reviewed and appraised in
E. Carman, A History of Theories of Production and Distribution in
English Political Economy (^rd ed., 1926) ; C. Ricca Salerno, La
tcoria del Salario nella sloria delle dottrine (1900) ; F. W. Taussig.
Wages and Capital (1896) . See also D. Ricardo, Principles of Political
Economy and Taxation, ch. v. (1817); J. S. Mill, Principles of
Pniitfral Economy, bk. i., ch. v., ch. ii., ch. xi., xii. (1848) ; F. A.
274
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED STATES
Walker, The Wages Question (1876). Representative modern discus-
sions will be found in A. Marshall, Principles of Economics, bk. yi.,
ch. i.-v. (8th ed., 1925) ; F. W. Taussig, Principles of Economicst
vol. ii. (3rd ed., 1921); T. N. Carver, The Distribution of Wealth,
chs. ii.-iv. (1904) ; J. B. Clark, The Distribution of Wealth, chs. vii.,
viii., xi., xii. (1902) ; P. H. Wicksteed, The Common Sense of Political
Economy , bk. i., ch. viii. (1910), G. H. Kleene, Profit and Wages
(1912). (A.L.B.)
WAGES: STATISTICS OF UNITED STATES. During
the World War wage rates in the United States rose appreciably,
but owing to the great rise in prices the real earnings expressed in
purchasing power did not gain materially and some studies show
that the purchasing power actually declined. During the period
following the war, and especially after 1920, a material improve-
ment seems to have taken place. The cost of living has been
declining. In most industries, there has been no marked de-
crease in wages; in some, wages have advanced. The Bureau
of Labor Statistics carries reports on hourly rates of wages in
unionized industries, and cost of living, from which Table I. is
compiled.
TABLE I. Union Wage Rales and Cost of Living, 1010-25
(1913^100)
Year
Index of union
rates of wages
per hour
Index of cost
of living
Relative purchasing
power of wages as
measured in cost
of living
19x0
94'4
93'0
101-5
IQII
g6-o
Q2-O
104-3
IQI2
97-6
97-6
lOO'O
TQI3
100-0
100-0
100-0
IQI4
ioi-g
103-0
Q8-Q
1915
102-8
105-1
Q7-8
I9l6
107-2
1 1 8-3
go- 6
1QI7
114-1
142-4
80- 1
IQl8
132-7
174-4
76-1
1QI9
I54'5
i88-<
82-0
IQ2O
199-0
208-5
95*4
IQ2I
205-3
177-3
115-8
1922
193-1
167-3
115*4
1923
2IO'6
171-0
123-2
IQ24
228-1
170-7
I33'6
1925
237-9
175-7
135-4
1926
250-3
175-2
142-9
1927
259-5
172-7
150'3
Since the wages are hourly rates, they do not take unemploy-
ment into account. They indicate what workers would receive
if their employment were full time and constant through the
year. As yet no study of American yearly earnings has been
made which takes into account unemployment. In 1918 a can-
vass of some 12,000 families living in 92 localities in the United
States was made, and a typical wage-earner's family budget was
drawn up. The index number of cost of living in Table I. shows
TABLK TI. Real Earnings in Three Unorganized Industries 1010-25
Relative purchasing power of wage rates per hour measured
in cost of living
Year
Hoot and shoe
factories
Woollen mills
Cotton mills
IQ10
98-9
96-8
94-6
IQII
IO2-2
98-0
97-8
1912
95*3
104-5
101-4
1913
IOO-O
100-0
100-0
1914
98-1
loo-o
100-0
1915
I9l6
91-3
107-4
101-4
1917
IQI8
80-3
110*7
102-6
1919
I92O
ni-3
170-3
155-4
1921
IQ22
124-3
160-2
132-7
1923
. .
I9H
125-4
176-3
147*0
1925
Z926
125-1
157-8
1 26- 1
IQ27
• •
TABLE III. Money Value and Purchasing Power of Average Annual
Earnings of Employed Workers in Manufacturing and Transportation
(1914=100)
Year
Index of
cost of
Average annual rate
of earnings of
workers actually
employed
Relative purchasing power
of average annual rate of
earnings as measured in
cost of living
living
Manufac-
Transpor-
Manufac-
Transpor-
turing
tation
turing
tation
1910
9.;-o
$ 558
$ 678
104
Q3
1911
04-9
537
702
97
94
1912
9<5*6
550
714
99
95 .
1913
98-5
578
752
101
97
1914
100-0
580
787
100
IOO
1915
98-0
.568
806
IOO
104
1916
107-0
651
858
105
102
1917
129-0
774
972
104
96
1918
157-0
980
i'»379
108
112
1919
179-0
.IS*
1,492
iti
106
1920
205-0
1,785
114
III
1921
176-0
!i8o
1,619
116
117
1922
166-0
,149
l>5^7
1 20
120
1923
169-0
,254
».S75
i *'8
119
1924
i6g-o
,256
1,5/2
128
118
1925*
174-0
,287
1,601
u8
117
1926*
173-0
,308
1,617
130
119
1927*
171-0
,307
1,677
132
1^5
'Approximation arrived at by a method analogous to that used by
Douglas.
the average movement of prices of commodities weighted accord-
ing to Ihis budget. In order to have some idea of the trend of
rates of real wages in unorganized industries, the Bureau of
Labor Statistics has prepared similar figures in several unorganized
or partly organized industries. Table II. indicates the trend in
three of these industries by giving the relative purchasing power
of wages from 1910 to 1926 inclusive.
From these figures it appears that non-union rates of wages
have gained more proportionately than have union rates during
the years following the World War, even though they have lagged
behind since 1924. But it must be remembered that they started
from a considerably lower level, e.g., the average union wage
rate in 1913 was 45-9 cents per hour and $1,09 in 1925; the
average wage rate in cotton mills in 1913 was 14-8 cents per hour
and 37-2 cents in 1924; the average rate in woollen mills in 1913
was 17-7 cents and 53-3 cents in 1924; the average wage rate in
the boot and shoe industry was 24 cents in 1913 and 51-6 cents
in 1924. For the year 1926 the average union rate of wages per
hour was $1.148 (for 1927, $1.19); while the average wage rate
in cotton mills was 32-8 cents, in woollen mills 49-1 cents, and in
the boot and shoe industry 52-8 cents, showing a decline since
1924 in the average wage rate in two of the unorganized industries.
It should also be noted that in the unionized occupations there
TABLE IV. Average Annual Real Earnings of Workers in Manufacturing
(igi4«ioo)
Year
Prof. Doug-
las' relative
average an-
nual earnings
of employed
workers
Relative av-
erage annual
earnings of
manufac-
turing
population
Year
Prof. Doug-
las' relative
average an-
nual earnings
of employed
workers
Relative av-
erage annual
earnings of
manufac-
turing
population
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
104
97
99
IOI
100
IOO
105
104
108
1^5
106
107
105
IOO
IOO
1 20
122
129
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
in
114
116
120
128
128
128
130
132
127
134
105
114
142
129
130
132
127
are practically no women, while in these three industries both
women and men are employed. Upon the basis of these hourly
rates, Prof* Paul H. Dodglas has calculated the average yearly
real earnings of workers in manufactures and transportation as
if employed full time, taking into account the money rates and
WAGE-SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRY
275
the retail prices of commodities included in the cost of living.
This, of course, gives us also a rate of real earnings and not the
total of real earnings, since he does not take unemployment into
account. Table III. summarizes his fendings.
The rates of wages of transportation workers have been higher
than the wages of manufacturing workers throughout the entire
period. But the lower paid manufacturing workers have made
greater proportional gains than have the transportation workers.
The transportation workers are still better off, but their 'differen-
tial over the manufacturing group is smaller than before the war.
This is the same development which was observed above in the
comparison of union and non-union rates. Neither the manu-
facturing nor the transportation workers gained in purchasing
power during the war, owing to the rapid rise of prices. The first
gain came during the closing year of the war and considerable
improvement has occurred since the fall in prices which began
in 1920.
The writer has given another index number of real annual earn-
ings by dividing the total pay rolls by the estimated total labour-
ing population of these industries. This index number is to be
found in column 2 of Table IV. contrasted with Douglas' average
real earnings of those actually on the pay roll. This shows quite a
remarkable difference. For example, in the years 1915 and 1916,
Douglas shows an increase from 100 to 105 while the writer's,
taking into account increased employment, increases from 100 to
1 20. This difference arises from the fact that Douglas' base of
100 for 1914 is $580 while the writer's, taking into account unem-
ployment, is $479. The difference is still more striking in the
years of depression in 1921 and 1922 when Prof. Douglas' index
shows a steady increase of real earnings from 114 to 120 and the
writer's shows a great decrease of real earnings from 134 down to
105, then, with the return of business activity, a slow rise to
114-
Finally, Douglas' index, extended to 1927, shows a steady rise
to 132, whereas the writer's, taking into account total employ-
ment which now becomes practically equal to total pay roll,
reaches 132 in 1926 but falls to 127 in 1927 with the decrease
in employment for this latter year.
A number of factors have probably contributed to the increase
in purchasing power of wages. There has been a great increase in
the total annual production of the country. Not only has the
total production of the country increased, but the amount per
wage-earner has increased. Technological improvements have
been made, processes perfected and efficiency increased. Mr.
Woodlief Thomas of the Federal Reserve Board (Proceedings oj
the American Economics Association, March 1928) has computed
from the census (that the index of output per wage-earner in
manufactures for 1909 stood at no. relative to the output in
1899, while by 1925 it had reached 147, an increase of 36%.
Moreover, there has been a marked decline in the value of
farm products in recent years and this has made for a lower cost
of living. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has calculated the
average purchasing power of farm products in 1919 relative to a
pre-war base as 105. By 1923 it had declined to 78, and in 1927
had risen again to 87. This later rise is reflected in -the increase
in the cost of living since 1923 as shown in Tables I. and III.
Another major factor in well-being is the decline in immigration.
The immigrant has always underbid the American worker, de-
pressed the wage level and been difficult to unionize. This leads
one to ask if trade unionism has had anything to do with this
recent increase in earnings. The membership and funds of trade
unions have declined during the period of the wage increases.
But this is not a conclusive evidence that trade unionism has
been of no value. In the first place, a rise in wages in the union-
ized industries is bound to increase the wages in non-union
industries unless a great surplus of labour prevents it. Further,
there is a growing practice among employers, in unorganized in-
dustries, of paying higher wages in an effort to keep the union
out of their industries, and we must not overlook, as was ex-
plained above, that the non-union wage increases began at a
much lower level than the union wages. In the second place, the
decline of union membership and funds largely represents a
contraction of the inflated war-time membership. (J. R. Co.)
WAGE-SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRY. The normal methods
of payment for the work of persons employed in industry un-
der the capitalist system are wage-payment and salary-payment.
It is not easy to draw an absolute line of distinction between
these two forms of payment. Wages are usually paid weekly
and salaries over a longer period — monthly, or quarterly, for ex-
ample. There are, however, cases of weekly salaries and of wages
paid monthly. Moreover, a good many of the supervisory grades
in various industries are paid what is called an "upstanding
wage," which in many of its conditions approximates rather to
the salary basis of payment than to the wage as ordinarily un-
derstood. Usually the salary-earner possesses a higher status
and a slightly greater measure of security than the wage-earner.
Wages are, as a rule, paid only for hours actually worked, sub-
ject to the conditions mentioned below, and any period of illness
or suspension of work for any cause, whether under the worker's
control or not, involves the cessation of the payment of wages.
Salary-earners, on the other hand, are in many cases paid dur-
ing periods of sickness, and are usually paid for a full week, or
month, even if some spells of enforced absence from work or
failure of work due to some other cause are included. There are,
however, very many intermediate varieties between the continu-
ous salary paid throughout the whole year and the wage paid
only for hours actually worked. The salary-earner, it should
be remarked, is usually entitled to a longer period of notice,
from a month upward, than the wage-earner, who can usually
be dismissed or suspended on a week's notice or less. The period
adopted as a basis for the calculation of wages differs from trade
to trade and even from district to district or factory to factory
within the same trade. In some cases the basis is hourly, in
others a weekly rate of wages is laid down. In either case, there
may be, but. in the majority of cases is not, what is termed the
"guaranteed week," that is, a guaranteed minimum weekly pay-
ment, irrespective of the number of hours of employment which
the employed person is actually able to secure. In certain other
cases, notably that of the dockers, there is the "guaranteed day/1
but not the "guaranteed week." The demand for a greater meas-
ure of security than is afforded by hourly payment, without any
guarantee by the week or the day, has increased, and a number
of trades have secured concessions giving them guarantees of
one sort or another.
Broadly speaking, the methods of remunerating the wage-
earner under the wage-system can be divided into two main
groups: (i) time-payments, and (2) systems of "payment by
results," although there are many intermediate varieties, and
disputes often arise on the question whether a particular system
is or is not to be regarded as "payment by results."
(i) Under the time-work (or "day-work") system, the work-
er's remuneration varies with the time which he actually spends
on the employer's business. Thus, carpenters and joiners in
certain districts in, the building industry in Great Britain have a
time-rate of 1/88. an hour, and the majority of grades on the
railways have time-rates varying from 46/- per week upward.
These time-rates are practically always fixed in relation to a
definite number of hours in the week, and if a larger number of
hours has to be worked, the hours in excess of the standard week
are termed overtime, and are usually remunerated on a slightly
higher hourly rate — "time and a quarter,'* "time and a third,"
"time and a half" or "double time," for example. Extra pay-
ment is also frequently made for work done during the week-end
or at night ("night-shift"). The time-work system operates
throughout a large number of trades, including the greater part
of the building industry and the railway and road transport
services, and almost the whole range of non-manual employment.
In many other industries it is found side by side with various
systems of "payment by results." In almost every time-work
industry there are some piece-workers; and in almost every piece-
work industry some time-workers. A particularly obnoxious form
of time-work is that known as "task-work,'* under which the
worker is required to perform a definite amount of labour in
return for a time wage, but receives no additional remuneration
276
WAGE-SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRY
for higher output. This is strongly opposed by trade unions and
does not prevail at all in organized industries in Great Britain.
(2) Under the term "payment by results" are comprehended
many different methods of wage payment, the common factor
among them being that, to a greater or less extent, the worker's
earnings under them vary with the amount of output which he,
either individually, or in conjunction with a group of his fellow-
workers, is able to produce. The amount of work produced may
not be the sole factor determining his remuneration under a
system of "payment by results"; for such systems are very fre-
quently, and in the organized trades usually, accompanied by
guaranteed minimum or standard time-rates, which the worker
is entitled to receive irrespective of the actual output which he
produces. Strongly organized trade unions in many British in-
dustries have consented to accept "payment by results" only on
the condition that the standard time-rates of wages shall be
guaranteed irrespective of output (e.g., engineering).
The simplest form of "payment by results" is that known
as "piece-work." Under this system, a price is fixed for each
unit of the commodity upon the production of which the worker
is engaged, e.R., if the worker is turning out screws, a price will
be fixed per hundred, or per gross of screws, this price being
calculated, in theory at least, according to the time which is
estimated to be necessary for the performance of the operation
in question. Sometimes, as in the "time logs" in the tailoring
trade, the piece-work price is expressed not in terms of money,
but in terms of hours, and the worker is paid for so many hours
at the standard rate, irrespective of the time actually occupied
on the job. "Straight" piece-work systems vary very much in
complexity. Where the operations are simple, and the character
of the goods produced uniform, piece-work prices can be laid
down with almost mathematical accuracy; but as soon as pro-
vision has to be made for a wide range of different products
complications almost inevitably arise. These complications are
of two kinds. The cotton industry in Great Britain is almost
entirely a piece-work industry; but, despite the immense variety
in the types of cotton goods produced and the variation in the
times required for the spinning and weaving of different types of
goods, piece-work rates can be devised to correspond with prac-
tically mathematical accuracy to the time required for the job
because of the high degree of standardization at which the in-
dustry has arrived. The piece-work lists agreed to by the weav-
ing trade unions and the cotton manufacturers are immensely
complicated, and only skilled technicians are able to understand
them. The universal acceptance of piece-work in the cotton
industry is mainly accounted for by the fact that, under the
system which has been adopted, a given amount of effort can be
approximately relied upon under normal conditions to produce
equivalent earnings.
This is much more difficult to secure in such an industry as
engineering, where the products are far less uniform and where
also the machinery which the worker is called upon to manipu-
late is far less standardized, so that it may take very different
times to do the same job on two different machines. The fixing
of piece-work prices in the engineering industry in Great Britain
is therefore a constant source of friction, and it has been found
impossible to express, in any tables corresponding to the cotton
piece-work lists, the fair remuneration for most forms of work on
engineering products. Piece-work prices in the engineering in-
dustry are a constant subject of workshop and trade-union
bargaining, and there is a strong resistance in many sections
of the industry to the introduction of piece-work, largely because
there is not, as in the cotton industry, any simple method of
arriving at a fair price, and the system thus produces constant
allegations of "speeding up" and "price-cutting" on the one
side, and of "speeding down" and "restriction of output" on
the other. Where, owing to special circumstances, it is regarded
as impossible to fix in advance a piece-work price for a particular
job, the worker, especially in the engineering and shipbuilding
industries, is sometimes paid what is called a "lieu rate," e,g.,
"time and a third" or "time and a half" for the hours actually
occupied on the job in lieu of a fixed piece-work price.
Bonus Syitems. — The other main system of payment by re-
sults is the system of "bonus on output." Under this system the
worker is normally paid a time-rate irrespective of output; but,
if the output exceeds a given minimum, an additional bonus,
calculated upon this excess output, is paid. There are literally
hundreds of different methods of calculating this bonus. The
system to which the greatest attention has been attracted in re-
cent years, both in Great Britain and in America, is the "premium
bonus system" in its various forms, of which the two best-
known are the "Halsey" and the "Rowan" premium bonus sys-
tems. Under both these systems, a "basis time" is fixed for the
accomplishment of the piece of work in question. If the work is
done in less than the basis time, the workman is paid, over and
above his time-rate of wages, which is guaranteed, a bonus, pro-
portionate in one way or another to the time saved. The effect
of this method of payment is that, under both the Halsey and the
Rowan system, the labour cost of the job to the employer falls
with every increase in output, while at the same time the earn-
ings of the workman increase, but not in proportion to the in-
crease in output. The simpler of the two best-known premium
bonus systems is the "Halsey" system^ so called after its in-
ventor, F. A. Halsey, an American efficiency engineer. Under
this system, the workman is paid a fraction, usually either a
third or a half, of his time-rate for time saved. Thus supposing
the time allowed for an operation is 12 hours, and a worker,
whose time-rate is a shilling an hour, does it in 9 hours, he will
be paid at his time-rate for the 9 hours and in addition will
receive payment for a further hour or for an hour and a half,
according to the particular variety of the system adopted.
The Rowan system is more complicated. The simplest way
of explaining it is to say that for every 10% that is saved on
the time allowed, the workman receives a 10% increase in earn-
ings. The more complicated way is to quote the quite unneces-
sarily abstruse formula which is usually adopted by those who
desire to explain the system. This formula is as follows: —
Time saved
Bonus =* -. rr 7 X iime taken.
Time allowed
There are all manner of modifications of these two systems,
both in the direction of greater simplicity and in that of greater
complexity. The advocates of "scientific management" have been
especially active in devising fresh variations in the method of
payment, intended to stimulate the workers' productive efficiency
in the fullest degree. Efficiency engineers often contend that it is
necessary to work out a different formula for each type of opera-
tion in order to apply in each case precisely the right stimulus to
increased output. Most of these systems are based in one way or
another on the premium bonus system in one or other of its
two forms, or on the so-called "differential piece-rate" system
advocated by F. W. Taylor, the founder of "scientific manage-
ment." Under this system, two different piece-rates are fixed
for the same job, and at the same time a standard output per
hour is laid down. When the worker reaches or exceeds the stand-
ard output he is paid on the higher piece-rate ; when he falls below
the standard of output he is paid on the lower piece-rate. Day-
work rates are not guaranteed. The object of this system is
stated to bo the elimination from the job of the less efficient
worker by discouraging him with the offer of a lower piece-work
price. It is impossible to attempt to chronicle the many different
bonus and piece-work systems which have been put forward in
Great Britain and America. The Ministry of Munitions in Eng-
land, during the World War, accumulated a list of many hun-
dreds of different systems which were actually in operation in
the British engineering shops alone. It is particularly in the
engineering and kindred industries that this wide diversity of
forms of wage-payment exists.
It should be noted that both the piece-work system and the
various bonus systems and adaptations of them can be operated
on either an individual or a collective basis. Under the in-
dividual system a single worker is remunerated in accordance
with his individual output. Under the collective system a group
of workers is treated as a unit, and the piece-work price or bonus
WAGE-SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRY
277
is paid in respect of the output of the whole group. Collective
systems are most often found where the work itself necessarily
involves collaboration, and where it is therefore difficult or im-
possible to separate the individual contribution of the workers
engaged upon it (e.g., "squad" or "gang" work). It has, how-
ever, been applied also in a large number of cases over a consid-
erably wider area in the form of an output bonus paid on the
work of a whole shop or factory. In these cases, bonus is some-
times paid only to workers directly engaged on production; but
in other cases auxiliary workers, such as foremen, millwrights,
maintenance workers, and even workers on the staff, may share
in the pool. Many such systems were adopted in shell factories
in various countries during the war. There are, moreover, signs
that collective systems are finding increased favour with pro-
gressive employers, as the mechanization of industrial processes
takes the control of the pace of production largely out of the
control of the individual worker, while leaving it largely within
the control of the workshop group as a whole.
A variety of collective "payment by results" is that which is
known as the "fellowship" system. Under this system, the
workers themselves form groups on a voluntary basis, and share
out among themselves, either through the office of the firm, or by
a subsequent re-division of the sums paid through the office,
their collective earnings. This system usually operates among
"fellowships" of skilled workers in a particular craft.
There are many different ways of sharing out the payment
made under collective systems of "payment by results." The
most usual method is that each worker included in the group
shares in the payment in proportion to his time-rate and to the
hours worked on the job. Sometimes, however, the pool, or any
surplus over the time-rates of the workers concerned, is equally
shared, and sometimes regard is paid only to one or other of the
two factors mentioned above. In a few cases a specially large
share in the pool is offered as an inducement to a leading worker,
or to a few leading workers; but the system in this form ap-
proaches the system of "sub-contracting," which is universally
objected to by the trade-union movement.
"Sub-contracting" is usually understood to mean a system
under which one worker undertakes a piece of work which re-
quires the co-ordinated labour of a group of workers. The sub-
contractor receives the whole sum paid for the execution of the
job, making, subject to any limitations that may be laid down
in his contract, his own wage contract with the workers under
him, and retaining any surplus for himself. Often a sub-con-
tractor, himself paid "by results," remunerates the workers
under him on a time-work basis. It is generally recognized that
the sub-contracting system is open to grave abuse, and with the
advance of trade-union organization it has been gradually elimi-
nated from industry, surviving only in a comparatively small
number of cases. The outstanding instances of it in the past
have been the "butty" system in the mining industry, which still
exists in one or two British coalfields, and the methods of pay-
ment which used to be common in the iron and steel industry.
Commission Payments.— Distinct from both the piece-work
system and the various bonus systems is the system of "com-
mission," which is applied in a certain number of occupations.
Under this system the worker receives a commission on "takings"
or on profits either as his sole mode of remuneration, or as an
addition to a minimum wage or salary. This is the position of
most workers in the insurance business, of many commercial
travellers and of a number of managerial and semi -managerial
workers in the distributive trades. It is also found occasionally
in other occupations.
Recently, attention has been concentrated on the endeavours
of employers to introduce systems of "payment by results" into
industries in which time-work systems are at present largely in
operation, e.g., building, engineering, shipbuilding. Usually these
attempts have met with strong trade-union opposition. It
must not, however, be concluded that employers are universally
favourable or trade unions universally opposed to "payment by
results." The position differs from industry to industry. In the
textile industries, and in a number of the less-orcanized occu-
pations, "payment by results" has been introduced and main-
tained not merely with the acquiescence, but often at the instance
of the workers, who have seen in it an opportunity of securing
higher earnings. At the other extreme, the worst forms of
"sweating" in industry are very frequently found in conjunction
with the time-work system of payment. In the past, trade unions
have usually favoured, or at least not opposed, "payment by re-
sults" in those industries in which a standard of measurement
can be found of such a character as to insure that, under normal
conditions, a given amount of effort expended will result in a
given amount of output, and therefore of earnings under the
system. On the other hand, the unions have generally been op-
posed to the introduction of "payment by results" in those in-
dustries in which no such standard can be laid down, as well as
in other cases where it has been contended that "speeding up,"
consequent upon the inducement offered for higher output, would
have the effect of impairing the quality of the work done (e.g.,
building). Where "payment by results" has been accepted in in-
dustries of this latter type, a struggle has often followed over the
question whether the right of the organized workers to bargain
collectively over the fixing of piece-work prices or "basis times"
shall or shall not be recognized. This struggle is still in progress
over a wide range of industries; but the fixing of piece-work
prices and "basis times" is still normally done by the employer
or his representative, subject only to protest by the workers.
It should be noted that the growth of "scientific management"
ha$ given a great impetus to the introduction of "payment by
results," and has also considerably affected the methods adopted
by employers in fixing piece-work prices or "basis times." In
the great majority of factories, other than textile factories, in
which systems of payment by results are in operation, piece-
work prices are still fixed in a very haphazard fashion, and modi-
fied from time to time in accordance with actual experience of
their working. But, where one feature or another of "scientific
management" has been introduced, experiments have been made
with the object of introducing a greater scientific accuracy into
the fixing of prices and times. The methods which have been in-
troduced with this object are mainly those of "time study" and
"motion study.*' "Time study" means an attempt, by actual
observation of the doing of a particular job, either by a selected
worker or in a number of selected cases, to fix the time which
ought to be occupied in the doing of it by a normal worker.
"Motion study" means the observation of the doing of a job
with a view to eliminating all surplus motions, and to the laying
down in detail of the method by which it can be done with the
maximum of efficiency and in the least possible time. The former
method has been adopted by a number of firms in Great Britain,
the latter in comparatively few cases. Both are largely in opera-
tion in America. "Time study" and "motion study" are usually
resented by the workers employed, and are regarded as devices
adopted by the employer with a view of "speeding up." It is also
contended that both, and especially "motion study," result in
making work more monotonous and in taking such variety of
initiative as remains to the worker under modern factory con-
ditions out of his hands and in concentrating control in the hands
of a small body of expert rate-fixers.
Where piece-work or bonus systems are in operation, friction
is very likely to arise because there is a constant suspicion on
the part of the workers that the employer is endeavouring to
"cut" piece-work prices and to "speed up" the slower workers
to the pace of the more rapid. Employers, on the other hand,
allege that workers deliberately slow down with a view to forcing
up piece-work prices. It is difficult to estimate the relative pro-
ductivity of workers under time-work systems and under sys-
tems of "payment by results"; but it may be taken as certain that
no system of "payment by results" which has yet been devised has
succeeded in eliminating friction or the possibility of "price-
cutting" on the one hand and "restriction of output" with a view
to securing higher prices on the other. Perhaps the .nearest ap-
proach to the elimination of these two factors is in the British
cotton industry; but the comparatively smooth working of the
niece-work svstem in this case is mainlv due to the peculiar
WAGGA WAGGA— WAGNER
standardized character both of the product and of the machinery.
The cotton "price-list" system cannot readily be adapted for use
in the majority of industries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There are only two books giving a general survey
of the various wage systems. These are (i) Methods of Industrial
Remuneration by I). F. Scboss (Williams and Norgate), which was
written a good many years ago, and is now in many respects out of
date, and (2) The Payment of Wages by G. D. H. Cole (new edition,
1928) which is the most recent study. See also, for conditions in
England, Industrial Democracy by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, and
The Works Manager To-day by Sidney Webb. There is an immense
literature dealing with scientific management in relation to "payment
by results." Reference may be made especially to Scientific Manage-
ment and Labour by R. F. Hoxic; Scientific Management by C. B.
Thomson; Scientific Management by F. W. Taylor; Scientific Manage-
ment by H. B. Drury; Efficiency and other works by Harrington
Emerson; Work, Wages and Profit by H. L. Gantk and Cooperative
Production by H. Atkinson. For premium bonus systems, see The
Premium System of Paying Wages, published by The Engineer; The
Rowan Premium Bonus System by W. Rowan Thompson; and The
Premium Bonus System, Report of an Enquiry, published by the
British Trades Union Congress. A great deal of information will
also be found in the following reports issued by the Board of Trade,
"Report on Collective Agreements" (1910) and "Report on Standard
Piece-Rates." Unfortunately, however, no new or revised editions of
these have been issued since some years before the war. Sec also the
Final Report of the Commission on Industrial Relations, published
by the U.S. Government in 1915, and the Survey of Industrial
Relations, published by the British Committee on Industry and
Trade in 1926. (G. D. H. C.)
WAGGA WAGGA: see RIVERINA.
WAGNER, RUDOLPH (1805-1864), German anatomist
and physiologist, was born on June 30, 1805, at Bayrcuth, where
his father was a professor in the gymnasium. He began the study
of medicine at Erlangen in 1822, and finished his curriculum in
1826 at Wiirzburg, where he had attached himself mostly to J. L.
Schonlein in medicine and to K. F. Heusinger in comparative
anatomy. Aided by a public stipendium, he spent a year or more
studying in the Jardin des Plantes, under the friendly eye of
Cuvier, and in zoological research at Cagliari and other places
on the Mediterranean. He became prosector at Erlangen and
was (1832-40) professor of zoology and comparative anatomy
th^re. In 1840 he succeeded J. F. Blumenbach at Gottingen,
where he remained till his death (May 13, 1864).
Wagner's activity was enormous, his hard work being done at
Erlangen while his health was good. In 1835 he communicated
to the Munich academy of sciences his researches on the physi-
ology of generation and development, including the famous dis-
covery of the germinal vesicle of the human ovum. These were
republished under the title Prodromus historiae generations
hominis atque animalium (Leipzig, 1836). In 1843, after his
removal to Gottingen, he began his great Handworterbuch der
Physiologic, tnit Rucksicht auf physiologische Pathologic, and
brought out the fifth (supplementary) volume in 1852; the only
contributions of his own in it were on the sympathetic nerve,
nerve-ganglia and nerve-endings, and he modestly disclaimed all
merit except as being the organizer. While resident in Italy for
his health from 1845 to 1847, he occupied himself with researches
on the electrical organ of the torpedo* and on nervous organiza-
tion generally; these he published in 1853-1854 (Neurologische
Untersuchungen, Gottingen). Controversy arose.
He entered the lists boldly against the materialism of "Stoff und
Kraft/' and avowed himself a Christian believer, whereupon he
lost the countenance of a number of his old friends and pupils,
and was unfeelingly told that he was suffering from an "atrophy
of the brain." Jn his later years, Wagner became anthropologist
and archaeologist. His last writings were memoirs on the convolu-
tions of the human brain, on the weight of brains, and on the
brains of idiots (1860-1862).
See memoir by his eldest son in the Gb'ttinger gelehrte Anzeiecn,
'Nachnchten" for 1864. Wagner's works include Beitrage zur
vergleichenden Physiologie des Blutes (Leipzig, 1832-33) ; Lehrbuch
tier vergleichenden Anatomie (Leipzig, 1834-35) \T,rundriss der Encv-
klopddie und Methodologie der medicinischen Wissenschaft'cn
(Erlangen, 1838).
WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD (1813-1883), Ger-
man dramatic composer, poet and essay-writer, was born at Leip-
zig on May 22, 1813. In 1822 he was sent to the Kreuzschule at
Dresden, and in 1828 he was removed to the Nicolaischule at Leip-
zig. His first music master was Gottlieb Muiler, who thought him
self-willed and eccentric; and his first production as a composer
was an overture, performed at the Leipzig theatre in 1830. In
that year he matriculated at the university, and took lessons in
composition from Theodor Weinlig, cantor at the Thomasschule.
A symphony was produced at the Gewandhaus concerts in 1833,
and in the following year he was appointed conductor of the opera
at Magdeburg. He had composed an opera called Die Peen
adapted by himself from Gozzi's La Donna Serpente, and another,
Das Liebcsverbot, founded on Shakespeare's Measure for Measure,
but only Das Liebesverbot obtained a single performance in 1836.
Jn that year Wagner married Wilhelmina Planer, an actress at
the theatre at Konigsberg. He had accepted an engagement there
as conductor; but, the lessee becoming bankrupt, the scheme was
abandoned in favour of a betteY appointment at Riga. Accept-
ing this, he remained actively employed until 1839, when he made
his first visit to Paris, taking with him an unfinished opera based
on Bulwer Lytton's Rienzi, and, like his earlier attempts, on his
own libretto. The venture proved most unfortunate. Wagner
failed to gain a footing, and Rienzi, destined for the Grand Opera,
was rejected. He completed it, however, and in 1842 it was pro-
duced at Dresden, where, with Madame Schroeder Devrient and
Herr Tkhatschck in the principal parts, it achieved a success
which went far to make him famous.
Der fliegende Hollander, for which he designed a libretto quite^
independent of any other treatment of the legend was warmly
received at Dresden on Jan. 2, 1843; but its success was by no
means equal to that of Rienzi. Spohr, however, promptly dis-
covered its merits, and produced it at Cassel some months later.
On Feb. 2, 1843, Wagner was formally installed as Hof kapell-
meister at the Dresden theatre, and he soon set to work on a new
opera. He chose the legend of Tannhauser, collecting his materials
from the ancient Tannhauser -Lied, the Volksbuch, Tieck's poeti-
cal Erzahlting, Hoffmann's story of Der Sangerkrieg, and the
mediaeval poem on Der Wartbttrgkrieg. This last-named legend
introduces the incidental poem of "Loherangrin," and so led Wag-
ner to the study of Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival and
Titurel, with great results later on. On Oct. 19, 1845, he produced
his Tannhauser, with Schroeder Devrient, Johanna Wagner, his
niece, Tichatschck and Mitterwurzer in the principal parts. Not-
withstanding this powerful cast, the success of the new work was
not brilliant, for it carried still further the principles embodied
in Der fliegende Hollander, and the time was not ripe for them.
On the flight of the king, Wagner fled to Paris and thence to
Zurich, where he lived in almost unbroken retirement until the
autumn of 1859. During this period most of his prose works —
including Oper und Drama, Vber das Dirigieren, Das Judentum
in der Mnsik — were given to the world.
The mediaeval studies which Wagner had begun for his work at
the libretto of Tannhauser bore rich fruit in his next opera Lohen-
grin, in which he also developed his principles on a larger scale
and with a riper technique than hitherto,
Lohengrin was, in fact, produced at Weimar under Liszt's direc- ;
tion on Aug. 28, 1850. It was a severe trial to Wagner not to hear '
his own work, but he knew "that it was in good hands, and he
responded to Liszt's appeal for a new creation by studying the
Nibelungenlicd and gradually shaping it into a gigantic tetralogy.
At this time also he first began to lay out the plan of Tristan und
Isolde, and to think over the possibilities of Parsifal.
During his exile Wagner matured his plans and perfected his
musical style; but it was not until some considerable time after
his return that any of the works^he then meditated were placed
upon the stage. In 1855 be accepted an invitation to London,
where he conducted the concerts of the Philharmonic Society
with great success. In 1857 he completed the libretto of Tristan
und Isolde at Venice, adopting the Celtic legend modified by Gott-
fried of Strassburg's mediaeval version. In 1859, Tannhauser was
accepted at the Grand Opera, Paris. Great preparations were
made; it was rehearsed 164 times, 14 times with the full orchestra;
and the scenery and dresses were placed entirely under the coin-
WAGNER
279
poser's direction. More than £8,000 was expended upon the ven-
ture; and the work was performed for the first time in the
French language and with the new Venusberg music on March 13,
1861. But, for political reasons, a powerful clique was determined
to suppress Wagner. A scandalous riot was inaugurated by the
members of the Parisian Jockey Club, who interrupted the per-
formance with howls and dog-whistles ; and after the third repre-
sentation the opera was withdrawn. Wagner was broken-hearted,
but the Princess Metternich continued to befriend him, and by
1861 she had obtained a pardon for his political offences, with
permission to settle in any part of Germany except Saxony. Even
this restriction was removed in 1862.
Wagner now settled for a time in Vienna, where Tristan und
Isolde was accepted, but abandoned after fifty-seven rehearsals,
through the incompetence of the tenor. Lohengrin was, however,
produced on May 15, 1861, when Wagner heard it for the first
time. His circumstances were now extremely straitened; it was
the darkness before dawn. In 1863 he published the libretto of
Der Ring des Nibelungen. King Ludwig of Bavaria was much
struck with it, and in 1864 invited Wagner, who was then at Stutt-
gart, to come to Munich and finish his work there. Wagner
accepted with rapture. The king gave him an annual grant of
1,200 gulden (£120), considerably enlarging it before the end of
the year, and placing a comfortable house in the outskirts of the
city at his disposal. The master expressed his gratitude in a
"Huldigungsmarsch."
On June 10, 1865, at Munich, Tristan und Isolde was produced
for the first time, with Herr and Frau Schnorr in the principal
parts. Die Meister singer von N timber g, first sketched in 1845,
was completed in 1867 and first performed at Munich under the
direction of Hans von Bulow on June 21, 1868. Das Rheingold
and Die Walkure were performed, the one on Sept. 22, 1869, and
the other on June 26, 1870. The scheme for building a new
theatre at Munich having been abandoned, there was no opera-
house in Germany fit for so colossal a work. A project was there-
fore started for the erection of a suitable building at Bayreuth
(q.v.). Wagner laid the first stone of this in 1872, and the edifice
was completed, after almost insuperable difficulties, in 1876.
After this Wagner resided permanently at Bayreuth, in a house
named Wahnfried, in the garden of which he built his tomb.
His first wife, from whom he had parted since 1861, died in 1865;
and in 1870 he was united to Liszt's daughter Cosinia, who had
previously been the wife of von Bulow. Meantime Der Ring des
Nibelungen was rapidly approaching completion, and on Aug. 13,
1876, the introductory portion, Das Rheingold, was performed at
Bayreuth for the first time as part of the great whole, followed
on the 1 4th by Die Walkure, on the i6th by Siegfried and on the '
i /th by Gbtterddmrnerung.
Wagner's next and last work was Parsifal, based upon the legend
of the Holy Grail, as set forth, not in the legend of the Morte
d' Arthur, but in the versions of Chrestien de Troyes and Wolfram
von Eschenbach and other less-known works. The libretto was
complete before his visit to London in 1877. The music was
begun in the following year, and completed at Palermo on Jan.
13, 1882. The first sixteen performances took place at Bayreuth,
in July and August 1882, under Wagner's own directing, and fully
realized all expectations.
Unhappily the exertion of directing so many consecutive per-
formances seems to have been too much for the veteran master's
strength, for towards the close of 1882 his health began to decline
rapidly. He spent the autumn at Venice, and was well enough
on Christmas Eve to conduct his early symphony (composed in
1833) at a private performance given at the Liceo Marcello. But
late in the afternoon of Feb. 13, 1883, his friends were shocked
by his sudden death from heart-failure.
Wagner was buried at Wahnfried in the tomb he had himself
prepared, on Feb. 18; and a few days afterwards King Ludwig
rode to Bayreuth alone, and at dead of night, to pay his last
tribute to the master of his world of dreams.
In the articles on Music and OPERA, Wagner's task in music-
drama is described, and it remains here to discuss his progress in
the operas themselves. This progress has perhaps no parallel in
any art, and certainly none in music, for even Beethoven's progress
was purely an increase in range and power. Wagner's earlier
works have too long been treated as if they represented the pure
and healthy childhood of his later ideal ; as if Lohengrin stood to
Parsifal as Haydn, Mozart and early Beethoven stand to Beetho-
ven's last quartets. But Wagner never thus represented the child-
hood of an ideal, though he attained the manhood of the most
comprehensive ideal yet known in art. To change the metaphor —
the ideal was always in sight, and Wagner never swerved from his
path towards it; but that path began in a blaze of garish false
lights, and it had become very tortuous before the light of day
prevailed. Beethoven was trained in the greatest and most ad-
vanced musical tradition of his time. In spite of all his impa-
tience, his progress was no struggle from out of a squalid environ-
ment; on the contrary, one of his latest discoveries was the
greatness of his master Haydn. Now Wagner's excellent teacher
Weinlig did certainly, as Wagner himself testifies, teach him more
of good music than Beethoven, Haydn and Mozart could have
seen in their youth; for he showed him Beethoven. But this would
not help Wagner to feel that contemporary music was really a
great art; indeed it could only show him that he was growing up
in a pseudo-classical time, in which the approval of persons of
"good taste" was seldom directed to things of vital promise.
Again, he began with far greater facility in literature than in
music, if only because a play can be copied ten times faster than
a full score. Wagner was always an omnivorous reader, and
books were then, as now, both cheaper than music and easier to
read. Moreover, the higher problems of rhythmic movement in
the classical sonata forms are far beyond the scope of academic
teaching, which is compelled to be contented with a practical
plausibility of musical design; and the instrumental music which
was considered the highest style of art in 1830 was as far beyond
Wagner's early command of such plausibility as it was obviously
already becoming a mere academic game. Lastly, the rules of
that game were useless on the stage, and Wagner soon found in
Meyerbeer a master of grand opera who was dazzling the world
by means which merely disgusted the more serious academic
musicians of the day.
In Rienzi Wagner would already have been Meyerbeer's rival,
but that his sincerity, and his initial lack of that musical savoir
faire which is prior to the individual handling of ideas, put him
at a disadvantage. The step from Rienzi to Der fliegende Hol-
lander is without parallel in the history of music, and would be
inexplicable if Rienzi contained nothing good and if Der fliegende
Hollander did not contain many reminiscences of the decline of
Italian opera; but it is noticeable that in this case the lapses into
vulgar music have a distinct dramatic value.
Spohr's appreciation of Der fliegende Hollander is a remarkable
point in musical history; and his criticism that Wagner's style
(in Tannhduser) "lacked rounded periods" shows the best effect
of that style on a well-disposed contemporary mind. Of course,
from Wagner's mature point of view his early style is far too
much cut up by periods and full closes; and its prophetic traits
are so incomparably more striking than its resemblance to any
earlier art that we often feel that only the full closes stand between
it and the true Wagner. With all its defects, Der fliegende
Hollander is the most masterly and the least unequal of Wagner's
early works. As drama it stood immeasurably above any opera
since Cherubini's Medee. As a complete fusion between dramatic
and musical movement, its very crudities point to its immense
advance towards the solution of the problem, propounded chaoti-
cally at the beginning of the i7th century by Monteverde, and
solved in a simple form by Gluck. And as the twofold musical
and dramatic achievement of one mind, it already places Wagner
beyond parallel in the history of art.
Tannhduser is on a grander scale, but its musical execution is
disappointing. The weakest passages in Der fliegende Hollander
are not so helpless as the original recitatives of Venus in the first
act; or TannMuser's song, which was too far involved in the
whole scheme to be ousted by the mature "New Venusberg music"
with which Wagner fifteen years later got rid both of the end
of the overture and what he called his "Palais-Royal" Venus.
280
WAGNER
It is really very difficult to understand Schumann's impression
that the musical technique of Tannhduser shows a remarkable
improvement. Not until the third act does the great Wagner
arbitrate in the struggle between amateurishness and theatricality
in the music, though at all points his epoch-making stagecraft
asserts itself with a force that tempts us to treat the whole work
as if it were on the Wagnerian plane of Tannhauser's account of
his pilgrimage in the third act.
After even the finest things in Tannhduser, the Vorspiel to
Lohengrin comes as a revelation, with its quiet solemnity and
breadth of design, its ethereal purity of tone-colour, and its
complete emancipation from earlier operatic forms. The sus-
pense and climax in the first act is so intense, and the whole
drama is so well designed, that we must have a very vivid idea
of the later Wagner before we can see how far the quality of
musical thought still falls short of his ideals. The elaborate
choral writing sometimes rises to almost Hellenic regions of dra-
matic art; and there is no crudeness in the passages that carry on
the story quietly in reaction from the climaxes — a test far too
severe for Tannhduser and rather severe for even the mature
works of Gluck and Weber.
The crowning complication in the effect of Der fliegende
Hollander, Tannhduser and Lohengrin on the musical thought
of the igth century was that the unprecedented fusion of their
musical with their dramatic contents revealed some of the meaning
of serious music to ears that had been deaf to the classics.
Wagnerism was henceforth proclaimed out of the mouths of
babes and sucklings; learned musicians felt that it had an
unfair advantage; and by the time Wagner's popularity began
to thrive as a persecuted heresy he had left it in the lurch.
Wagner had hardly finished the score of Lohengrin before
he was at work upon the poem of Der Ring des Nibelnngen.
And with this he suddenly became a mature artist. Wagner's
choice of subjects had from the outset shown an imagination far
above that of any earlier librettist ; yet he had begun with stories
which could attract ordinary minds, as he dismally realized when
the libretto of Der fliegende Hollander so pleased the Parisian
wire-pullers that it was promptly set to music by one of their
friends. But with Der Ring des Nibelnngen Wagner devoted him-
self to a story which any ordinary dramatist would find as un-
wieldy as, for instance, most of Shakespeare's subjects; a story
in which ordinary canons of taste and probability were violated
as they are in real life and in great art. Wagner's first inspiration
was for an opera (Siegfrieds Tod, projected in 1848) on the
death of Germany's mythical hero; but he found that the story
needed a preliminary drama to convey its antecedents. This
preliminary drama soon proved to need another to explain it,
which again finally needed a short introductory drama. Thus the
plan of the Ring was sketched in reverse order; and it has been
remarked that Gotterdammcrung shows traces of the fact that
Wagner had begun his scheme in the days when French grand
opera, with its ballets and pageantry, still influenced him. There
is little doubt that some redundant narratives in the Ring were
of earlier conception than the four complete dramas, and that
their survival is due partly to Wagner's natural affection for
work on which he had spent pains, and partly to a dim notion
that (like Browning's method in The Ring and the Book) they
might serve to reveal the story afresh in the light of each char-
acter. Be this as it may, we may confidently date the purification
of Wagner's music at the moment when he set to work on a story
which carried him finally away from that world of stereotyped
operatic passions into which he had already breathed so much
disturbing life.
In Lohengrin we take leave of the early music that obscured
Wagner's ideals, and in the Ring we come to the music which
transcends all other aspects of Wagnerism. Had Wagner been
a man of more urbane literary intellect he might have been less
ambitious of expressing a world-philosophy in music-drama; and
it is just conceivable that the result might have been a less
intermittent dramatic movement in his later works, and a balance
of ethical ideas at once more subtle and more orthodox.
If we wish to know what Wagner means, we must fight our
way through his drama to his music; and we must not expect
to find that each phrase in the mouth of the actor corresponds
word for note with the music. That sort of correspondence
Wagner leaves to his imitators; and his views on "Leit-motif -
hunting," as expressed in his prose writings and conversation,
are contemptuously tolerant. We shall indeed find that his
orchestra interprets the dramatic situations which his poetry
roughly outlines. But we shall also find that, even if we could
conceive the poetry to be a perfect expression of all that can be
given in words and actions, the orchestra will express something
greater; it will not run parallel with the poetry; the Leitmotif
system will not be a collection of labels; the musical expression
of singer and orchestra will not be a mere heightened resource of
dramatic declamation. All that kind of pre-established harmony
Wagner left behind him the moment he deserted the heroes and
villains of romantic opera for the visionary and true tragedy of
gods and demi-gods, giants and gnomes, with beauty, nobility
and love in the wrong, and the forces of destruction and hate
set free by blind justice.
In Wagner's harmonic style we encounter the entire problem
of modern musical texture. Wagner effected vast changes in
almost every branch of his all-embracing art, from theatre-
building and stage-lighting to the musical declamation of words.
Most of his reforms have since been intelligently carried out as
normal principles in more arts than one; but, shocking as the
statement may seem to 20th-century orthodoxy, Wagnerian
harmony is a universe as yet unexplored, except by the few
composers who are so independent of its bewildering effect on
the generation that grew up with it, that they can use Wagner's
resources as discreetly as he used them himself. The last two
examples at the end of the article on HARMONY show almost all
that is new in Wagner's harmonic principles. The peculiar art
therein is that while the discords owe their intelligibility and
softness to the smooth melodic lines by which in "resolving"
they prove themselves but transient rainbow-hues on or below
the surface, they owe their strangeness to the intense vividness
with which at the moment of impact they suggest a mysteriously
remote foreign key. Wagner's orthodox contemporaries regarded
such mixtures of key as sheer nonsense; and it would seem that
the rank and file of his imitators agree with that view, since they
either plagiarize Wagner's actual progressions or else produce
such mixtures with no vividness of key-colour and little attempt
to follow those melodic trains of thought by which Wagner
makes sense of them. There is far more of truly Wagnerian
harmony to be found before his time than since. It was so early
recognized as characteristic of Chopin that a magnificent example
may be seen at the end of Schumann's little tone-portrait of
him in the Carnaval: a very advanced Wagnerian passage on
another principle constitutes the bulk of the development in the
first movement of Beethoven's sonata Les Adieux; while even
in the "Golden Age" of music, and within the limits of pure
diatonic concord, the unexpectedness of many of Palestrina's
chords is hardly less Wagnerian than the perfect smoothness of
the melodic lines which combine to produce them.
Wagnerian harmony is, then, neither a side-issue nor a progress
per saitum, but a leading current in the stream of musical evolu-
tion. That stream is sure sooner or later to carry with it every
reality that has been reached by side-issues and leaps; and of
such things we have important cases in the works of Strauss and
Debussy. Strauss makes a steadily increasing use of avowedly
irrational discords, in order to produce an emotionally apt
physical sensation. Debussy has this in common with Strauss,
that he too regards harmonies as pure physical sensations; but
he differs from Strauss firstly in systematically refusing to regard
them as anything else, and secondly in his extreme sensibility
to harshness. We have seen (in the articles on HARMONY and
Music) how harmonic music originated in just this habit of
regarding combinations of sound as mere sensations, and how
for centuries the habit opposed itself to the intellectual principle:?
of contrapuntal harmony. These intellectual principles are, of
course, not without their own ground in physical sensation;
but it is evident that Debussy appeals beyond them to a more
WAGON— WAGON TIPPLERS
281
primitive instinct; and on it he bases an almost perfectly co-
herent system of which the laws are, like those of 12th-century
music, precisely the opposite of those of classical harmony.
The only illogical point in his system is that the beauty of his
dreamlike chords depends not only on his artful choice of a timbre
that minimizes their harshness, but also on the fact that they
enter the ear with the meaning they have acquired through
centuries of harmonic evolution on classical lines. There is a
special pleasure in the subsidence of that meaning beneath a
soothing sensation; but a system based thereon cannot be
universal. Its phenomena are, however, perfectly real, and can
be observed wherever artistic conditions make the tone of a
mass of harmony more important than the interior threads of
its texture. This is of constant occurrence in classical pianoforte
music, in which thick chords are subjected to polyphonic laws
only in their top and bottom notes, while the inner notes make a
solid mass of sound in which numerous consecutive fifths and
octaves are not only harmless but essential to the balance of tone.
In Debussy's art the top and bottom are also involved in the
antipolyphonic laws of such masses of sound, thus making these
laws paramount.
LIST or WARNER'S WORKS
The following arc Wagner's operas and music-dramas, apart from
the unpublished Die Hochzeit (three numbers only), Die Feen, and
Das Liebesyerbot (Das Liebesverbot was disinterred in 1910).
1. Rienzit der letzte der Tribunen: grosse tragische Oper; 5 acts
(1838-40).
2. Der fliegende Hollander: romantische Oper; i act, afterwards cut
into 3 (1841).
3. Tannh&user und der Sdngerkrieg auf Wartburg: romantische
Oper; 3 acts (libretto, 1843; music, 1844-45; new Venusberg music,
1860-61).
4. Lohengrin: romantische Oper; 3 acts (libretto, 1845; music, 1846-
48). This is the last work Wagner calls by the title of Opera.
5. Das Rheingold, prologue in 4 scenes to Der Ring des Nibelungen;
ein Buhncnfestspiel (poem written last of the series, which was begun
in 1848 and finished in 1851-52; music, 1853-54).
6. Die Walkiire: der Ring de$ Nibelungen, erster Tag; 3 acts (score
finished, 1856).
7. Tristan und Isolde; 3 acts (poem written in 1857; music, 1857-
1859).
8. Siegfried: der Ring des Nibelungen, zweiter Tag; 3 acts, the first
two nearly finished before Tristan, the rest between 1865 and 1869.
9. Die Meistersingtr von Nurnberg; 3 acts (sketch of play, 1845;
poem, 1861-^62; music, 1862-67).
10. Gotterddmmerung: der Ring des Nibelungen, dritter Tag; intro-
duction and 3 acts (Siegfried's Tod already sketched dramatically in
1848; music, 1870-74).
ir. Parsifal: ein Buhnenweihfestspiel (a solemn stage festival play),
3 acts (poem, 1876-77; music, 1877-82, Charfreitagssauber already
sketched in 1857).
As regards other compositions, the early unpublished works include
a symphony, a cantata, some incidental music to a pantomime, and
several overtures, four of which have recently been discovered and pro-
duced. The important small published works are Eine Faust Over-
ture (1839^40; rewritten, 1855) ; the Siegfried Idylle (an exquisite
serenade for small orchestra on themes from the finale of Siegfried,
written as a surprise for Frau Wagner in 1870) ; the Kahermarsch
(1871), the Huldigungsmarsch (1864) for military band (the scoring
of the concert-version finished by Raff) ; Punf Gtdichte (1862), a set
of songs containing two studies for Tristan; and the early quasi-ora-
torio scene for male- voice chorus and full orchestra, Das Liebesmahl
der Apostel (1843). Wagner's retouching of Gluck's Iphigenie en
Aulide and his edition of Palestrina's Stab at Mater demand mention as
important services to music, by no means to be classified (as in some
catalogues) with the hack-work with which he kept off starvation in
Paris.
The collected literary works of Wagner in German fill ten volumes,
and include political speeches, sketches for dramas that did not becoirfe
operas, autobiographical chapters, aesthetic musical treatises and
polemics of vitriolic violence. Their importance will never be com-
parable to that of his music ; but, just as the reaction against Ruskin's
aacendancv as an art-critic has coincided with an increased respect for
his ethical and sociological thought, so the rebellious forces that are
compelling Wagnerism to grant music a constitution coincide with a
growing admiration of his general mental powers. The prose works
have been translated into English by W. A. Ellis (8 vols., 1892-99) •
The translation by F. Jameson (1897) of the text of the Ring (first
published in the pocket edition of the full scores) is the most wonderful
tour de force yet achieved in its line. A careful reading of the score to
this English text reveals not a single false emphasis or loss of rhetorical
pofnt hi the fitting of words to notes, nor a single extra note or halt
ia the music; and wherever the language seem* stilted or absurd the
original will be found to be at least equally so, while the spirit of
Wagner's poetry is faithfully reflected. Such work deserves more
recognition than it is ever likely to- get. Rapidly as the standard of
musical translations was improving before this work appeared, no one
could have foreseen what has now been abundantly verified, that the
Ring can be performed in English without any appreciable loss to
Wagner's art. The same translator has also published a close, purely
literary version.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Wagner literature is too enormous to be dealt
with here. The standard biography is that of Glasenapp (6 vols., of
which five appeared between 1894 and 1909). Of readable English
books we may cite Ernest Newman, A Study of Wagner (1899) ; H. E.
Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama (1891) ; Jessie L. Weston,
Legends of the Wagner Dramas (1906). Th' Perfect Wagnerite, by
G. Bernard Shaw, though concerned mainly with the social philosophy
of the Ring, gives a luminous account of Wagner's mastery of musical
movement. The highest English authority on Wagner is his friend
Dannreuther, whose article in Grove's Dictionary is classical. A new
study of Wagner's participation in the Dresden affair is set forth by
Woldemar Lippert, Richard Wagner's Verbannung und Ruckkehr,
1840-1862 (1929).
See also ARIA, HARMONY, INSTRUMENTATION, Music, OPERA, and
OVERTURE. (D. F. T.; X.)
WAGON or WAGGON, a large four-wheeled vehicle for
the carriage of heavy loads, and drawn by two or more horses.
This is the general English use of the term, where it is more
particularly confined to the large vehicles employed in the carry-
ing of agricultural produce. It is also used of the uncovered heavy
rolling stock for goods on railways. (See RAILWAYS.) In America
the term is applied also to lighter vehicles, such as are used for
express delivery, police work, etc., and to various forms of four*
wheeled vehicles used for driving, to which the English term
"cart" would be given.
WAGONS-LITS, COMPAGNIE INTERNATION-
ALE DES. The International Sleeping Car company was started
in 1876 by M. Georges Nagelmackers who purchased the patent
of the "Mann Railway Sleeping Car Carriage" from America
to provide sleeping car accommodation in Europe. It was only
between 1883 and 1896 that contracts with the main railways in
France were definitely concluded and the company put on a firm
basis. This period saw the inauguration of the Orient express,
the Sud express, the Mediterranean express, and, in 1885, the
extension of the Orient and Ostend-Vienna expresses to Constan-
tinople. In 1896, the inception of the Nord express services took
place, linking Paris and St. Petersburg, and in 1897, the Nord-
Brenner express, uniting Berlin, Milan and Naples. In 1898,
complete sleeping car trains, together with restaurant wagons,
were run throughout Europe, and the Trans-Siberian service from
Moscow to Irkutsk, and finally the service from Vladivostock
to the Pacific first functioned. In 1906, the Simplon Pass being
opened, the company at once started the Simplon express, uniting
Paris, Milan and Venice. The World War in 1914 disorganised
the services, and it was not until 1920 that all these were running
again in full and the famous train, Calais-Mediterranean, known
as the "Blue Train," was first commissioned. From 1923 on-
wards, great strides were made, especially in the Oberland and
Kngadine expresses, also the Pyrenees Cdte-d'Argent. In 1926
the company included Pullman trains similar to those run by the
Pullman company in England, on such trains as the Sud express
between Paris and Madrid, the "Golden Arrow" between Paris
and London, the Edelweiss express, Antwerp-Basle, and the "North
Star," Paris-Amsterdam. The two last mentioned trains have
both first and second class Pullmans.
In 1928, the company acquired the capital of Messrs. Thomas
Cook and Son, thereby extending their amenities to all classes
of travellers and tourists. The Sleeping Car company, as it now
exists, can safely be said to be the most extensive travel bureau in
the world, having numerous agencies in all comers of the globe.
(H. M. S.)
WAGON TIPPLERS. The unloading of mineral wagons
by manual labour is a tedious and expensive operation which has
an adverse economic effect on all industrial undertakings which
employ coal as fuel, and minerals generally as raw product. Or-
dinary standard rolling stock for the conveyance of minerals is
provided with side doors through which a relatively small pro-
portion of the material falls out by gravity, when they are opened,
282
WAGON TIPPLERS
while the remainder has to be raked and shovelled out. In this
way a man can unload at the rate of four to five tons per hour,
and the actual cost of unloading one ton might be taken as 20%
to 25% of his hourly wage.
A better method is to use hopper wagons, or, as they are some-
times called, "self-unloaders." As their name implies, they are
wagons hoppered at the base in four directions, the inverted cone
STEEL FRAMING
CANE CAR END DUMPING
; LINK SILT CO.
FlG. 1. — END TIPPLER BY WHICH THE WAGONS ARE LIFTED FROM THE
REAR BY HOISTING MACHINERY
outlet being closed by a sliding gate, on the opening of which the
whole of the contents runs out by gravity. The drawback to this
otherwise excellent device is that such wagons are useless for
other freight and have therefore to be returned idle, so that it
would not pay railway companies to provide them.
Private owners, however, find these wagons very successful,
particularly in cases where the haulage distance is not great and
where they can be in continuous use between, say, a quarry or
mine and a factory. Such users are, however, few and far between.
End Tipplers. — By the combined efforts of railway companies
and industrials the unloading of railway wagons was mechanized
just before the end of the last century. The railway companies
provided thousands of mineral wagons with hinged end doors in
place of side doors, and the industrials provided pits beneath the
rails, at the points where they wished to unload, for receiving
the coal and accommodating the mechanical lifting devices which
engage, by means of "crutches," with the rear axles of the trucks,
lifting the rear ends sufficiently high for the material to flow out
Washed, coal will not slide out without manual assistance. In
order to get a clean discharge for all materials an angle of 45° to
55° is necessary, and this may be obtained by cutting out a sec-
tion of the rail track a few feet longer than the largest wagon and
developing this into a hinged platform, to the end of which the
lifting ram is swivelled. The wagon to be unloaded is secured to
this platform in such a position that an increase of tilt is possible
without the buffers touching the rails. As an alternative the rails
are kept intact and an independent hinged lifting frame is used.
With all end tipplers it is imperative that the trucks be delivered
on the siding with their end doors foremost, otherwise some
shunting or the use of a turntable becomes necessary. In some
cases it may be undesirable, on account of the ground water, to
make deep excavations for the accommodation of the lifting ram,
its motor and speed reduction gear. This difficulty also has been
overcome by tipplers which can be tipped either way, of which
there is quite a number of types. Generally speaking, end trucks
require from four to five minutes to tip.
Rotary Side Tipplers. — These are recommended for larger
capacities. They are all similar in external appearance but quite
a number of types have been built. In order to reduce manual
labour to a minimum it is essential that the wagons should be held
by automatic means during the tippling process, and that these
should be capable of adaptation to the widely different types of
mineral wagons. For instance, 2O-ton capacity, high-sided wagons,
and those of eight tons, low-sided, have to be handled by the same
means. Moreover, the device must accomplish this without caus-
ing any damage to the wagons. A great variety of such sustain-
ing devices form integral parts of the standard tipplers. Wher
several trucks have to be discharged quickly these devices act
automatically, but for smaller capacities they can be adjusted
by hand. These, like most side tipplers, are of squirrel-cage type
and built in two varieties: one in which the wagon is clamped in
position on the cradle by hand and the other where the operation
is carried out mechanically. The former is slower and therefore
handles fewer wagons per hour than the latter. The great advan-
tage of such tipplers is that any type of wagon can be handled by
them, whether with side doors, end doors or no doors at all. The
operation is as follows. The wagon is simply run into the tippler,
the driving gear is started up and the tippler commences to revolve.
As soon as the framing begins to rotate the wagon is lowered at
one side, by means of a pivoted rocking table, against the side
WINCH DRUM HAULAGE
Rope
FIGS. 2. 3, 4 ft 5. — DIAGRAMS SHOWING OPEN-CRADLE TYPE OF SIDE TIPPLER
through the end doors, while the other pair of wheels remains
on the rails. The lifting device consists either of a hydraulic ram,
a screw-operated ram or one with a tooth-rack and pinion. An
alternative lifting method is a hoisting gear in an overhead posi-
tion, which, with the aid of a wire rope, raises the rear end of the
wagon. In fig. i such an arrangement is shown for unloading
sugar-cane. End tipplers with rams, as described, though in many
ways satisfactory, have one inherent drawback, viz., that the
wagons cannot be raised beyond an angle of 40° to 45°, since the
buffers foul the rails at a steeper incline and small, particularly
chock. The continued rotation of the tippler framing causes
the cradle in which the wagon is contained to slide in the
outer tippler rings until the top of the wagon comes in contact
with the longitudinal sustaining beam at the top of the tippler
framing, and the tippler then continues to revolve until the wagon
is inverted sufficiently to discharge its contents. The process is
now reversed, the cradle containing the wagon gradually sinking
down to the initial position, the empty wagon being pushed out
by a full one. The action of the sliding cradle with the wagon in
it is controlled by means of a dashpot, in order to prevent shock.
WAGRAM
283
Hand labour is almost entirely dispensed with.
In another type an open cradle has been substituted for the
squirrel-cage. The wagon is shown in the initial position in fig.
2. When rotation begins it is tilted gently till it leans against the
longitudinally supporting chock (fig. 3); then it further rotates
through an angle of 90°, at which point the top of the wagon
encounters a longitudinal sustaining beam. As the wagon continues
to turn slowly over, an increasing proportion of its weight is
borne by the beam until, when fully turned, it rests, as it were,
in a V formed by the supporting chock and the sustaining beam,
both of which are covered with hemp, fender-like, where they
touch the wagons (fig. 4). In fig. 5 the wagon is shown in the
unloading position. After emptying, the wagons are returned to
their initial position, when they are absolutely free to be shunted
off the cradle. The advantage of the open cradle over the squirrel
cage is that a shunting engine can pass over the tippler. An objec-
tion to side tipplers is that the oil may run out of the axle boxes.
But the operation is too quick for this to happen, and the latest
arrangement is an "inkwell" type of oil reservoir.
Where wagons of large capacities are in use, as in America,
the end-tipping method is impracticable. In that country rotary
side tipplers only are employed, which, in the majority of in-
stances, are raised to a higher level before reaching the unloading
position. (See LOCOMOTIVE COALING.)
In Germany end tipplers only are employed, since side tipplers
are debarred by the railway authorities. (G. F. Z.)
WAGRAM or DEUTSCH WAGRAM, a village of Austria
situated in the plain of the Marchfeld, n\m. N.E. of Vienna. It
gives its name to the battle of July 5 and 6, 1809, in which the
French army under Napoleon defeated the Austrians commanded
by the archduke Charles. On the failure of his previous attempt
to pass his whole army across the Danube at Aspern (sec NAPOLE-
ONIC CAMPAIGNS and ASPERN), Napoleon set himself to concen-
trate around Vienna and the island of Lobau, not only his own
field forces, but also every man, horse and gun available from
Italy and South Germany for a final effort. Every detachment was
drawn in within 48 hours' call, his rearward communications being
practically denuded of their covering troops. The island of Lobau
itself was converted practically into a fortress, and over 100 guns
were mounted on its banks to command the Austrian side of the
stream. Giving up, in face of this artillery, the direct defence of
the river-side, the Austrians formed in a great arc of about 6m.
radius extending from the Bisamberg, overlooking the Danube, in
the west, to Markgrafneusiedl on the east. From this point to the
Danube below Lobau a gap was left for the deployment of the
archduke Johann's army from Pressburg 35111. distant. This army,
however, arrived too late. Their total front, therefore, was about
1 2m. for 120,000 men, which could be reduced to about 6m. by a
forward march of a couple of hours.
Meanwhile Napoleon replaced the temporary bridges over the
main stream (see ASPERN) by two solid structures, protecting
them by palisades of piles and
floating booms, and organized an
armed flotilla to command the
waterway. On the island itself
preparations were made to throw
three bridges across the Lobau
arm of the stream opposite As-
pern and Essling, and seven more
on the right, facing east between
Gross Enzersdorf and the main PLAN OF THE BATTLE OF WAGRAM.
river. For several days previous JULY 5"~6- t809
to the great battle the French had sent across small detachments,
and hence when, on the afternoon of July 4, an advanced guard
was put over near Gross Enzersdorf, the attention of the Aus-
trians was not particularly attracted and they did not inter-
fere. Under cover of this detachment Napoleon's pontoniers
made the seven bridges. Long before daylight on the 5th the
troops began to stream across, and about 9 A.M. the three corps
destined for the first line (Davout, Oudinot and Masse" na) had
completed their deployment on a front of some 6,oooyd. and
were moving forward to make way for the second line (Eugene
and Bernadotte) and the third line (Marmont, Bessieres's cavalry
and the guard). About noon the general advance began, the
French opening outwards like a fan to obtain space for manoeuvre.
The Austrians held a strong position along the line of the Russ-
bach from Deutsch Wagram to Markgrafneusiedl with their left,
whilst their right waj held ready for a counter-attack intended to
roll up the French attack from left to right when the proper
moment should come. The movements of the great French masses
in the confined space were slow, and although the French left
under Massena pushed the Austrians back beyond Leopoldsau and
Sussenbrunn, the main attack on the line of the Russbach did not
declare itself till 8 P.M. ; the corps did not attack simultaneously,
and failed altogether to make any serious impression on the Aus-
trian position. But, hearing of the success of his left wing on the
Russbach, the archduke determined to anticipate the French next
morning on that side, and four corps were directed upon Massena,
who had bivouacked his troops overnight on the line Leopoldsau-
Siissenbrunn-Aderklaa, the latter, a strongly built village, forming,
as it were, a bridge-head to the passages of the Russbach at
Deutsch Wagram. Another corps with a strong cavalry force was
also directed to pivot round Markgrafneusiedl and to attack
Davout on his right ; on this flank also the arrival of the archduke
Johann was expected later in the day.
The Austrian movements were somewhat ill-connected; never-
theless, by ii A.M. Mass£na's detached left division had been
driven back almost to Aspern, and his right, though aided by
Bernadotte, had failed to recapture Aderklaa, from which the Aus-
trians had driven his advanced posts early in the morning. The
situation for the French looked serious, for their troops were not
fighting with the dash and spirit of former years. But Napoleon
was a master in the psychology of the battlefield, and knew that on
the other side things were much the same. He therefore sent
orders for a great counter-stroke. Davout on the right was to
press his attack on Markgrafneusiedl and roll up the Austrian left
flank; Oudinot, next him, was simply to engage the enemy on the
heights with artillery fire for the time being. The capture of
Markgrafneusiedl was to be the signal for the main blow against
the Austrian centre by Eugene's two corps (under Macdonald and
Grenicr), which were then moving up. Meanwhile Massena was to
move laterally across the front to aid his isolated division in guard-
ing the threatened left flank. The gap thus left was covered
by a line of guns, soon raised to a total of 104, which prepared the
advance of the V. Corps (Macdonald) through the gap on Sus-
senbrunn, followed by the guard and reserve cavalry.
Macdonald formed his 30,000 men in a gigantic hollow square
— two lines, each of four deployed battalions, closed up so that the
whole was six ranks deep, whilst the remainder of the infantry
marched behind in column on either flank, and cavalry closed the
rear. The Austrian round-shot cut swaths through this dense
square — whose trail appeared one mass of dead and dying, creating
a terrible impression on all who saw it. It had shrunk so much
from losses, and still more from stragglers, that it came to a halt
in a sandpit a mile short of Sussenbrunn. When reinforced, both
directly and by divisions launched to attack Aderklaa and Breiten-
lee on its flanks, Macdonald resumed his advance and reached his
objective. At the same time Napoleon had ordered forward Oudi-
not to cross the Russbach between Baumdorf and Wagram and to
strike the joint of the Austrian line at Wagram. The Austrian left
centre had been weakened by reinforcements sent to the left, hard
pressed by Davout, and by stretching to cover the gap on the
other side. This weakening enabled Oudinot to gain Wagram,
while Davout had also made headway. With the penetration near
Wagram, the Austrian army was split, and learning that the arch-
duke Johann could not arrive until evening the archduke Charles
at about 2.30 P.M. ordered a general retreat, the main part west-
ward and the left wing northward.
The French had seen more of the slaughter than their adver-
saries, and except the emperor and Davout all seem to have been
completely shaken. Even in Davout's command, always the steadi-
est in danger, the limit of endurance had been passed, for when
about 5 P.M. the advanced patrols of the archduke Johann's force
appeared on their flank, panic on a scale hitherto unknown in the
284
WAGTAIL— WAKATSUKI
Grande Armte seized the right wing, and Napoleon had to confess
that no further advance was possible for several days.
Berndt (Zakl im Kriege) gives the following figures: French
181,700 (including 29,000 cavalry) and 450 guns engaged, of
whom 23,000 men were killed and wounded, 7,000 missing;
Austrians, 128,600 (including 4,600 cavalry) and 410 guns en-
gaged; losses, 19,110 killed and wounded, and 6,740 missing.
WAGTAIL, the popular name for birds of the subfamily
Motacillinae, which, together with the Anthinae (see PIPIT), form
the passerine family Motacillidae.
The pied wagtail is almost confined as a breeding species to the
British Isles. It constitutes a good example of a species owing its
origin to isolation. It is represented on the Continent by the white
wagtail (M. alba), of which it is a sub-species. Three other
species occur in England, but the subfamily with several genera
and many species ranges over the Old World, except Australia
and Polynesia, whilst Asiatic species reach North-west America.
Wagtails are long-tailed, generally parti-coloured birds, fre-
quenting streams and stagnant water, and feeding on seeds, in-
sects, worms, small molluscs, and crustaceans. The nests are made
of moss, grass, and roots, with a lining of hair and feathers; four
to six eggs are laid, bluish-white or brown, with yellow marks.
WAHHABI, the name of a Puritan movement within Islam.
Wahhabis or Ikhwan (brothers), purport to follow in detail the
practice of the Prophet, and regard as infidels all who do other-
wise. Their enemies are the enemies of the true faith and their
every campaign is therefore a Jihad (holy war), death in which
is a sure passport to Paradise. Another feature of these com-
munities is the complete elimination of all tribal distinctions. The
old pastime of tribal raid and counter-raid is discountenanced.
The blood-feud is no more. In the matter of doctrine the Wah-
habis (Ikhwan) differ from their fellow Muslims in rejecting a
large mass of tradition which they regard as un-authentic. Like
all Muslims they regard the Koran (Quran) as the Word of God
and therefore the foundation of their social code, but there is
admittedly much in the Koran and much not in it which from
the earliest days of Islam required explanation or consideration.
Such matters were freely dealt with by the Prophet in conversa-
tion or in his practice, the records of which were subsequently
collected in the form of "Traditions of the Prophet" which, being
generally handed down by word of mouth, grew in volume as
time progressed. (See ARABIA: History.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and
Wahabys (1831) ; Lady Anne Blunt, A Pilgrimage to Nejd (1881) ; D.
G. Hogarth, Arabia (1922) ; H. St. J. B. Philby, The Heart of Arabia
(1922) ; Amecn Rihani, Ibn Sa'oud of Arabia (1928).
WAHOO (Euonymus atropurpureus) , a small North Ameri-
can tree of the staff-tree family (Celastraceae), known also as
burning-bush, found from New York to Montana and southward
and sometimes planted for ornament. The handsome fruit, ripen-
ing in October and persisting until midwinter, is a deeply lobed
capsule with smooth purple valves which split apart at maturity,
disclosing large seeds covered with a scarlet aril. (See CLIMBING
BITTERSWEET ; SPINDLE-TREE. )
WAIBLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the republic of
Wurttemberg. Pop. (1925) 7,806. Waiblingen is mentioned in the
9th century, when it had a palace of the Carolingian sovereigns.
Subsequently it belonged to the dukes of Franconia, and gave a
surname to the emperor Conrad II. It was in this way that the
Hohenstaufen family, which was descended in the female line
from Conrad, received the name of Waiblingen, corrupted by
the Italians into Ghibelline.
WArNEWRIGHT,THOMASGRIFFITHS(i794-i852),
English journalist and subject-painter, was born at Chiswick in
October 1794. He contributed to various magazines and painted
pictures some of which were exhibited at the Academy. Owing
to his extravagant habits, Wainewright's affairs became deeply
involved. In 1830 he insured the life of his sister-in-law in
various offices for a sum of £18,000, and when she died, in the
December of the same year, payment was refused by the com-
panies on the ground of misrepresentation. Wainewright retired
to France, was seized by the authorities as a suspected person,
and imprisoned for six months. He had in his possession a quan-
tity of strychnine, and it was afterwards found that he had
destroyed, not only his sister-in-law, but also his uncle, his mother-
in-law and a Norfolkshire friend, by this poison. He returned
to London in 1837, but was at once arrested on a charge of
forging, thirteen years before, a transfer of stock, and was sen-
tenced to transportation for life. He died of apoplexy in Hobart
Town hospital in 1852.
The Essays and Criticisms of Wainewright were published in 1880,
with an account of his life, by W. Carew Hazlitt; and the history
of his crimes suggested to Dickens his story of Hunted Down and
to Bulwer Lytton his novel of Lucretia. His personality, as artist
and poisoner, has interested latter-day writers, notably Oscar Wilde
in "Pen, Pencil and Poison*' (Fortnightly Review, Jan. 1889), and
A. G. Allen, in T. Seccombe's Twelve Bad Men (1894).
WAITE, MORRISON REMICK (x8x&-x888), American
jurist, was born at Lyme, Conn., on Nov. 29, 1816. He graduated
at Yale in 1837, and soon afterwards removed to Maumee City,
practised at Maumee City and at Toledo. In 1850 he removed to
Toledo. In politics he was a Whig and later a Republican. In
1871, with William M. Evarts and Caleb Gushing, he represented
the United States as counsel before the "Alabama" Tribunal at
Geneva. In 1874 he was appointed chief-justice of the U.S. Su-
preme Court, and he held this position until his death. In the cases
which grew out of the Civil War and reconstruction, and especially
in those which involved the interpretation of the i3th, i4th and
1 5th amendments, he sympathized with the general tendency of
the court to restrict the further extension of the powers of the
Federal Government. He concurred with the majority in the
Head Money Cases (1884), the Ku-Klux Case (United States v.
Harris, 1882), the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and the Juillard v.
Greenman (legal tender) Case (1883). He died in Washington,
D.C., March 23, 1888.
WAITHMAN, ROBERT (1764-1833), lord mayor of Lon-
don, born at Wrexham, was returned to parliament, as a Liberal,
for the city of London in 1818. He lost his seat at the election of
1820, but regained it in 1826, and retained it till his death, taking
part vigorously in the parliamentary debates, and strenuously sup-
porting reform. In 1823 he was lord mayor of London. Waith-
man died in London on Feb. 6, 1833.
WAITS, the itinerant musicians who parade the streets at
night at Christmas time (A.S. ivacan, to "wake" or "watch").
The waits of the I4th and isth centuries were watchmen who
sounded horns or even played a tune to njark the hours. The
book of household expenses of Edward IV. (1478) provides for
"a wayte, that nyghtely from Mychelmas to Shreve Thorsdaye
pipe the watch within this courte fowere tymes; in the somerc
nightes three tymes." Elaborate orders as to his housing occur.
During his actual attendance at court he was to receive 4 id. a day
or less in the discretion of the steward of the household. He had
a livery given him and during illness an extra allowance of food.
Besides "piping the watch" and guarding the palace against thieves
and fire, this wait had to attend at the installation of knights of
the Bath. London and all the chief boroughs had their corpor-
ation waits from the early i6th century. In 1582 Dudley, earl of
Leicester, writes to the corporation of London asking that a
servant of his should be admitted to the city waits. The London
waits played before the mayor during his annual progress through
the streets and at city dinners, and had a uniform of blue gowns
with red sleeves and caps with silver collars or chains round the
neck. In the i8th and early igth century the ordinary street
watchman serenaded householders at Christmas time, calling
round on Boxing Day to receive a gratuity for their tunefulness.
When in 1829 their place as guardians of the city's safety was
taken by police, private individuals kept up the custom.
WAKATSUKI, REIJIRO (1866- ), Japanese states-
man, graduated in law at the Imperial university of Tokyo in
1892, when he also entered the civil service. He was nominated
crown member of the house of peers in 1911, and was minister of
finance in 1912 and in 1914-1915, and also minister of home af-
fairs in 1924-1926. He succeeded Viscount Kato as prime minister
and leader of the Kensei-kwai party in 1926. He desired to broaden
the basis of his cabinet by including members of the Seiyuhonto
WAKE— WAKEFIELD
285
party, but failed, and was compelled to reconstitute his ministry
(June 1926), exclusively with members of the Kensei-kwai party.
Later on, he succeeded in obtaining the support of the Seiyuhonto
/party, thus securing a majority in the Chamber. During the
autumn of 1926 proceedings against students accused of com-
munism caused considerable unrest. Some of them had been
arrested in December 1925, but no information on the subject
had appeared in the press until September. But the real cause of
his fall on April 16, 1927, was the failure of the Suzuki firm.
Later, the Kensei-kwai and Seiyuhonto united to establish a new
party, Minseito, on June x, 1927. Wakatsuki transferred the
leadership to Hamaguchi, co-operating with Tokonami, the leader
of Seiyuhonto.
WAKE, "waking" or watching round a corpse before burial
(A.S. wacan, to "wake" or "watch") ; in the wider sense a vigil
kept in commemoration of the dedication of the parish church.
This religious wake consisted in an all-night service of prayer
and meditation in the church. These services, officially termed
Vigiliae by the church, appear to have existed from the earliest
days of Anglo-Saxon Christianity. Each parish kept the morrow
of its vigil as a holiday. Wakes soon degenerated into fairs;
people from neighbouring parishes journeyed over to join in the
merry-making, and the revelry and drunkenness became a scan-
dal. The days usually chosen for church dedications being Sun-
days and Saints' days the abuse was the more scandalous. In
1445 Henry VI. attempted to suppress markets and fairs on
Sundays and holy days. Wakes are specially mentioned in the
Book of Sports of James I. and Charles I.
Side by side with these church wakes there existed the custom
of "waking" a corpse. The custom, as far as England was con-
cerned, seems to have been older than Christianity, and to have
been at first essentially Celtic. Doubtless it had a superstitious
origin, the fear of evil spirits hurting or even removing the body.
The Anglo-Saxons called the custom lich-wake or like-wake (A.S.
lie, a corpse). With the introduction of Christianity the offering
of prayer was added to the vigil. As a rule the corpse, with a
plate of salt on its breast, was placed under the table, on which
was liquor for the watchers. These private wakes soon tended to
become drinking orgies. With the Reformation and the conse-
quent disuse of prayers for the dead the custom of "waking"
became obsolete in England, but survived in Ireland. Many
countries and peoples have a custom equivalent to "waking,"
which, however, is distinct from the funeral feasts pure and
simple.
For detailed accounts of Irish wakes see Brand's Antiquities of
Great Britain (W. C. Hazlitt's edition, 1905) under "Irish Wakes."
WAKEFIELD, EDWARD GIBBON (1796-1862), Brit-
ish colonial statesman, was born in London on March 20, 1 796, of
an originally Quaker family. His father, Edward Wakcfield (1774-
1854), author of Ireland, Statistical and Political (1812), was a
surveyor and land agent in extensive practice; his grandmother,
Priscilla Wakefield (1751-1832), was a popular author for the
young, and one of the introducers of savings banks. Wakefield
was for a short time at Westminster school, and was brought up
to his father's profession, but he eloped at 20 with Miss Pattle,
the orphan daughter of an Indian civil servant. Her relatives
became reconciled to the match, and procured him an appointment
as attache* to the British legation at Turin. He resigned this post
in 1820, upon the death of his wife, and then spent some years in
Paris. In 1826 he decoyed Ellen Turner from school by means of
a forged letter, by which she was induced to believe that she could
only save her father from ruin by marrying Wakefield, whom she
accordingly accompanied to Gretna Green. He was tried with
his confederates at Lancaster assizes, March 1827, convicted, and
sentenced to three years' imprisonment in Newgate. The mar-
riage, which had not been consummated, was dissolved by a special
act of parliament.
Wakefield turned his attention while in prison to colonial sub-
jects, and acutely detected the main causes of the slow progress of
the Australian colonies in the enormous size of the landed estates,
and the reckless methods of allocation of land. He proposed the
sale of land in small quantities at a sufficient price, and the em-
ployment of the proceeds as a fund for promoting immigration,
These views were expressed with extraordinary vigour in his Let-
ter from Sydney (1829), published while he was still in prison,
but composed with such graphic power that it has been continually
quoted as if written on the spot. After his release Wakefield pro-
duced a tract on the Punishment of Death, with a terribly graphic
picture of the condemned felons in Newgate, and another on
incendiarism in the rural districts, with an equally powerful exhi-
bition of the degraded condition of the agricultural labourer.
He soon, however, became entirely engrossed with colonial
affairs, and, having impressed John Stuart Mill, Colonel Torrens
(q.v.) and other leading economists with the value of his ideas,
became a manager of the South Australian Company, by which the
colony of South Australia was ultimately founded. In 1833 he
published anonymously England and America, a work primarily
intended to develop his own colonial theory, which is done in the
appendix entitled "The Art of Colonization." The body of the
work, however, is fruitful in seminal ideas, though some state-
ments may be rash and some conclusions extravagant. It con-
tains the proposal that the transport of letters should be wholly
gratuitous — the precursor of subsequent reform — and the proph-
ecy that, under given" circumstances, "the Americans would raise
cheaper corn than has ever been raised." In 1836 Wakefield pub-
lished a volume of an uncompleted edition of Adam Smith.
Colonization of New Zealand. — In 1837 the New Zealand
Association was established, and he became its managing director.
Scarcely, however, was this great undertaking fairly commenced
when he accepted the post of private secretary to Lord Durham
on the latter 's appointment as special commissioner to Canada.
The Durham Report, the charter of constitutional government
in the colonies, though drawn up by Charles Duller, embodied
the ideas of Wakefield, and the latter was the means of its being
given prematurely to the public through The Times, to prevent
its being tampered with by the Government. He acted in the
same spirit a few months later, when (about July 1839), under-
standing that the authorities intended to prevent the despatch
of emigrants to New Zealand, he hurried them off on his own
responsibility, thus compelling the Government to annex the
country just in time to anticipate a similar step on the part of
France. (See NEW ZEALAND: History.) In 1846 Wakefield, ex-
hausted with labour, was struck down by apoplexy, and spent
more than a year in complete retirement, writing during his
gradual recovery his Art of Colonization.
The management of the company had meanwhile passed into
the hands of others, whose sole object was to settle accounts
with the Government, and wind up the undertaking. Wakefield
seceded, and joined Lord Lyttelton and John Robert Godley in
establishing the Canterbury settlement as a Church of England
colony. A portion of his correspondence on this subject was
published by his son as The Founders of Canterbury ( Christ -
church, 1868). In 1854 he appeared in the first New Zealand
parliament as extra-official adviser of the acting governor, a
position which excited great jealousy, and as the mover of a
resolution demanding the appointment of a responsible ministry.
In that year WakefiekTs health broke down. He spent the rest
of his life in retirement, dying at Wellington on May 16, 1862.
Wakefield was a man of large views and lofty aims, and in
private life displayed the warmth of heart which commonly
accompanies these qualities. But he hesitated at nothing neces-
sary to accomplish an object, and the conviction of his untrust-
worthiness gradually alienated his associates, and left him politi-
cally powerless. Excluded from parliament by the fatal error
of his youth, he was compelled to resort to indirect means of
working out his plans by influencing public men. But for a
tendency to paradox, his intellectual powers were of the highest
order, and as a master of nervous English he rivals Cobbett.
For an impartial examination of the Wakefield system, w« Lcroy-
Beaulieu, De la colonisation chez les peoples modernes (ard ed. pp.
562-57$ and 696-700). See also R. Garnctt's Life of Wakefield
(1808) ; and R. C. Mills, The Colonisation of Australia; 1839-4*; the
Wakefield experiment in empire building (1915).
WAKEFIELD, a city in Yorkshire, England. Pop. (1921)
52,891. It lies on the river Calder at the eastern edge of the Pen-
286
WAKEFIELD— WALAFRID STRABO
nines and developed as a market at the meeting place of the
lowlanders with the people of the dales. It was also at the
first easy crossing place in flood time before the age of bridges
and good roads. It is now a focus of rail and road routes from
all parts of Yorkshire and is connected with Leeds, Goole and
Hull by the Aire and Calder Navigation, with towns to the west
of the city and with Lancashire by the Calder and Hebble Navi-
gation, and with Barnsley and the Dearne valley by canal. It is
the headquarters of the county council of the West Riding.
Wakefield (Wachefeld) was the chief place in a large estate
belonging to King Edward the Confessor, and was still a royal
manor in 1086 at the time of the Domesday survey. Shortly
afterwards it became an extensive baronial liberty extending into
the confines of Lancashire and Cheshire. In 1203-04, the lord of
the manor received a grant of a three-days fair at Wakefield, and
as early as 1231 the town seems to have had some form of burghal
organization. In 1331 the king granted the inhabitants pavagc
there for three years and another annual fair of three days dura-
tion. There is no other indication of a borough. An ancient
church existed on the site of the present cathedral church, but only
slight traces remain of buildings previous to the I4th century.
In the early part of that century the church was almost rebuilt
and it was consecrated in 1329. Further great alterations took
place in the i$th century and the general effect of the building as
it stands is perpendicular. A new stone bridge was erected over
the river in 1343, though a bridge had probably existed long
before this date. The river is also crossed by a fine bridge of
eight arches on which stands the chapel of St. Mary, built in the
richest Decorated style. Its endowment is attributed to Edward
IV., in memory of his father Richard, duke of York, who fell in
the battle of Wakefield, in 1460, but both bridge and chapel
existed before the middle of the i4th century, a licence for the
chapel being obtained in 1357. It was completely restored in
1847. The town was attacked and taken by Fairfax in 1643, but
Sandal castle, an extensive stronghold to the south of the river
remained in the hands of the Royalists for another 12 months,
when it was besieged and taken; it was dismantled in 1648.
About 1470, foreign cloth-weavers, chiefly Flemings, began to
settle, and by 1500, Wakefield was the centre of the district.
During the i8th century it became noted for the manufacture of
woollen stuffs, and the Cloth Hall was opened in 1710, but in the
1 9th century it was superseded by Leeds. Today, it possesses mills
for spinning worsted and carpet yarns, coco-nut fibre and China
grass. It has also rag-crushing mills for the manufacture of
"shoddy," chemical works, soap-works and iron industries of vari-
ous kinds, including wire-drawing, engineering and machine tool
works, making of sheet metal working machinery and colliery ma-
chinery, and boiler making. A number of collieries exist in the
neighbourhood.
Wakefield is the chief agricultural town in the West Riding
and its com market is of remote origin. The cattle market held
under charter of 1765, is not less important. The town possesses
agricultural implement and machine works, grain and flour mills,
malt-works and breweries.
Down to 1832, Wakefield was under the superintendence of a
constable appointed by the steward of the lord of the manor, but
in that year, the town was enfranchised and now the borough
returns one member. In 1848 a charter of incorporation was
granted and in 1888 the town was created a city. In the same year
the Bishopric of Wakefield was formed, almost entirely from that
of Ripon. The diocese includes about one-seventh of the parishes
of Yorkshire and covers a small portion of Lancashire. The parish
church of All Saints became the cathedral and was enlarged in
1900 by the construction of the retrochoir. During the restora-
tion of the spire in 1905, records of previous work were discovered
in a sealed receptacle in the weather-vane. The Elizabethan gram-
mar school was founded in 1592.
WAKEFIELD, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
to m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1920) 13,025 (25% foreign-born
white); 1928 local estimate 16,000. The town park (25 ac.),
shaded by fine old elms, extends to Lake Quannapowitt, and op-
posite are Crystal lake and Hart's hill, a park of 30 acres. Rattan
and willow furniture are made. The first settlement here was made
in 1639. In 1812 the southern parish of Reading (which was
strongly Democratic-Republican, while the rest of Reading was
strongly Federalist) was set off and incorporated as the town of\
South Reading, and in 1868 the present name was adopted in hon-
our of Cyrus Wakefield (1811-73), who established the rattan
works and gave the town its town hall.
WAKEFIELD ESTATE, the birthplace of George Wash-
ington, in Westmoreland county, Va., was settled in 1656 by Col.
John Washington, great-grandfather of George Washington. It
was held continuously by the Washington family until 1812 and a
part of it has since continued in the hands of descendants. George
Washington lived there for four years and then moved with his
parents to their estate at Mt. Vernon. The house in which he was
born was burned in 1780, but the Wakefield National Memorial
Association, which has purchased part of the estate, proposes to
rebuild and refurnish it for the bi-centenary of his birth in 1932.
WAKE-ROBIN: see TRILLIUM.
WAKLEY, THOMAS (1795-1862), English medical and
social reformer, was born at Membury in Devonshire on July xi,
1 795. After qualifying as a surgeon he set up in practice in Lon-
don, and in 1823 started the well-known medical weekly paper,
the Lancet, in which he exposed the jobbery and other malprac-
tices among the practitioners of the day, who were accustomed to
treat the medical profession as a close borough. This attack he
carried still further against the whole constitution of the Royal
College of Surgeons. In 1827 a petition to parliament resulted
in a return being ordered of the public money granted to it. But
reform was slow, and Wakley now set himself to rouse the House
of Commons from within. He was a friend of William Cobbett,
and in 1835 was returned to parliament as Radical member for
Finsbury, retaining his seat till 1852. He died on May 16, 1862,
the Lancet remaining in the family.
See S. S. Sprigge, Life and Times of Thomas Wakley (1897).
WALACHIA or WALLACHIA, a former principality of
south-eastern Europe, constituting after its union with Moldavia
on the 9th of November 1859, a part of Rumania (q.v.).
WALAFRID STRABO (or Strabus, i.e., "squint-eyed")
(d. 849), German monk and theological writer, was born about
808 in Swabia. He was educated at the monastery of Reichenau,
near Constance, where he had for his teachers Tatto and Wettin,
to whose visions he devotes one of his poems. Then he went on to
Fulda, where he studied for some time under Hrabanus Maurus
before returning to Reichenau, of which monastery he was made
abbot in 838. There is a story — based, however, on no good evi-
dence— that Walafrid devoted himself so closely to letters as to
neglect the duties of his office, owing to which he was expelled
from his house; but, from his own verses, it seems that the real
cause of his flight to Spires was that he espoused the side of
Lothair (q.v.) on the death of Louis the Pious in 840. He was,
however, restored to his monastery in 842, and died on Aug. 18,
849, on an embassy to his former pupil, Charles the Bald.
Works. — Of his theological works the most famous is the
exegetical compilation which, under the name of Glosa ordinaria
or the Glosa, remained for some 500 years the most widespread
and important quarry of mediaeval biblical science, and even sur-
vived the Reformation, passing into numerous editions as late
as the 1 7th century. (See Hist, litter tire de la France, t. v. p. 59
ff.) The oldest known copy, in four folio volumes, is almost
entirely Walafrid's work and gives us his method. In the middle of
the pages is the Latin text of the Bible; in the margins are the
"glosses," consisting of a very full collection of patristic excerpts
in illustration and explanation of the text. An Expositio quatuor
Evangeliorum is also ascribed to Walafrid.
Of interest also is his De exordiis et increments rerum ecclesi-
asticarum, written between 840 and 842. It deals with ecclesiasti-
cal usages, churches, altars, prayers, bells, pictures, baptism and the
Holy Communion. Walafrid shows no trace of belief in transub-
stantiation as taught by his famous contemporary Radbertus (q.v,).
Walafrid's chief historical works are the rhymed Vita sancti
Galli and a much shorter life of St. Othmar, abbot of St. Gall
(d. 759). A critical edition of them by E. Dummler is in the
WALCOTT— WALDECK-ROUSSE AU
287
Monumenta Germaniae hist. Poetae Latini, ii. (1884), P- 259 #•
Walafrid's poetical works also include a short life of St. Blaith-
maic, a high-born monk of lona, murdered by the Danes in the
first half of the gth century; a life of St. Mammas; and a Liber
de visionibus Wettini. Many of Walafrid's other poems are, or
include, short addresses to kings and queens (Lothair, Charles,
Louis, Pippin, Judith, etc.) and to friends (Einhard, Grimald,
Hrabanus Maurus, Tatto, Ebbo, archbishop of Reims, Drogo,
bishop of Metz, etc.).
His m'ost famous poem is the ffortulus, dedicated to Grimald.
It is an account of a little garden that he used to tend with his
own hands, and is largely made up of descriptions of the various
herbs he grows there and their medicinal and other uses. Sage
holds the place of honour; then comes rue, the antidote of poisons;
and so on through melons, fennel, lilies, poppies and many other
plants, to wind up with the rose, "which in virtue and scent sur-
passes all other herbs, and may* rightly be called the flower of
flowers." The poem De Imagine Tetrici was inspired by an eques-
trian statue of Theodoric the Great which stood in front of
Charlemagne's palace at Aix-la-Chapelle.
For a bibliography of Walafrid's historical works, and of writings
dealing with them, see Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi (Berlin,
1894), p. 1 102 ff. Walafrid's works are published in Migne's Patrologia
Latina, vols. cxiii. and cxiv. For further references see the article by
Eduard Reuss and A. Hauck in Herzog-Hauck, Rcalencyklopddie
(Leipzig, 1908), xx. 790.
WALCOTT, CHARLES DOOLITTLE (1850-1927),
American palaeontologist, born in New York Mills, N.Y., Mar. 31,
1850. To his education in the public schools and Utica Academy
he added special reading and study of his own in geology, and in
1876 became an assistant to James Hall, New York State geolo-
gist and eminent palaeontologist. Three years later he joined the
newly organized U.S. Geological Survey as assistant geologist.
He became director of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1894 and in
the next few years reorganized it and greatly extended its useful-
ness. During the 13 years of his control the Reclamation Service,
the Forestry Service and the Bureau of Mines were all founded
as branches of the Geological Survey, Walcott drawing up the
legislative enactments which created the first two, and shaping
the organization of all of them. He was appointed secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution in 1907 in which capacity he served
20 years (1907-27), directing its researches and broadening its
scope. He secured the addition of the Freer and National art gal-
leries as part of the greater institution. He was one of the founders
of the Carnegie Institute, its first secretary and administrative
officer, 1902-05, and a member of the executive committee until
his death. He was also active in the organization of the Federal
Research Council, serving afterwards as a member of the execu-
tive committee. He was responsible for the establishment of the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and was its chair-
man until his death.
His chief contribution to science lies in his full description and
interpretation of the early Cambrian and Algonkian fauna. With
Arnold Hague he surveyed and worked out the great Paleozoic
region of central Nevada. He examined the Cambrian formation
of the Appalachian belt and eastward, and began a determination
of the Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks of the Western States.
Almost every summer after 1907 he devoted to unearthing the
Cambrian succession in the Rocky Mountains of Canada, where
it is unusually complete. In 1910 he discovered the remarkable
Burgess deposit of Cambrian fossils in British Columbia, the
finest invertebrate fossil field yet known.
He published a series of 38 octavo volumes on Cambrian geology
and palaeontology and two volumes on Cambrian Brachiopoda (1912),
besides about 300 scientific papers. See Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col-
lections, vol. 80 (1928) for complete bibliography and memoir.
WALD, LILLIAN D. (1867- ), American sociologist,
was born at Cincinnati (0.) on March 10, 1867. She graduated
from the New York Hospital training school for nurses. In 1893
she founded the Henry Street Settlement, now internationally
known, and organized the district nursing work in connection
with it. The first municipalization of school nursing anywhere
was due to her when she originated the work of the school nurse
in New York in 1902. The idea of the Federal Children's Bureau
which passed commissions of both houses of Congress, 1908, was
also hers, as well as the foundation of what is known as "public
health nursing" in the United States following Florence Nightin-
gale's conception of "health nursing." She served the cause of
public welfare, on several national and international commissions
and conferences, notably in the 1919 series at Cannes, Zurich and
Washington; was chairman of the American Union against Mili-
tarism; one of the organizers of the National Women's Trade
Union League; represented the public from 1910 on the joint
board of sanitary control of certain trades, and was author of
The House on Henry Street and other writings.
WALDECK, a State of the German Republic, between West-
phalia and Hesse-Nassau. It has an area of 433 sq.m., covered
with hills, which culminate in the Hegekopf (2,775 ft.). The
centre is the plateau of Corbach. The chief rivers are the Eder
and the Diemel, flowing into the Weser. The population in 1925
was 58,641, an average of 135 persons to the square mile. It is
almost wholly Protestant. The lowest area is 540 ft. above the
sea-level — the climate is inclement. The soil is nowhere fertile.
Oats is the principal crop, but rye, potatoes and flax are also
grown, and fruit cultivated. There are mines, slate and stone
quarries. Manufactures are retarded by isolation from railways.
The capital is Arolsen (pop. 3,000 in 1925). Wildungen is a
spa of repute. The inhabitants to the north of the Eder are of
Saxon stock, to the south of Franconian, a difference which is
distinctly marked in dialect, costumes and manners.
The provisional Constitution of Waldeck dates from April
15, 1919. The diet consists of 17 members. The republic is
governed by Prussia, in accordance with the treaty of 1867,
which has lately been denounced on the side of Prussia.
For former political conditions see Curtzc, Gfschichte und Beschreib-
ung des Fiirstentums Waldeck (Arolsen, 1850) ; Lowe, Heimatskunde
von Waldeck (Arolsen, 1887) ; J. C. C. Hoffmeister, Historisch-
genealogisches Handbuch uber alle Grajen und Fiirsten von Waldeck
sett 1228 (Cassel, 1883) ; Bottcher, Das Staatsrecht des Fiirstentums
Waldeck (Freiburg, 1884) ; A. Wagner, Die Geschichte Waldecks und
Pyrmonts (Wildungen, 1888), and the Geschichtsbldtter fur Waldeck
und Pyrmont (Mengeringhausen, 1901, fol.).
WALDECK-ROUSSEAU, PIERRE MARIE RENfc
ERNEST (1846-1904), French statesman, was born at Nantes
on Dec. 2, 1846. He studied law at Poitiers and in Paris and joined
the bar of St. Nazaire. In 1873 he removed to Rennes, and six
years later was returned to the Chamber of Deputies, where he
supported the policy of Gambetta. He made his reputation in the
Chamber by a report which he drew up in 1880 for the committee
appointed to inquire into the French judicial system. He had a
large share in 1884 in securing the recognition of trade unions.
In 1 88 1 he became minister of the interior in Gambetta's grand
ministere, and he held the same portfolio in the Jules Ferry cabi-
net of 1883-1885, when he sought to put down the system by
which civil posts were obtained through the local deputy, and he
made it clear that the central authority could not be defied by local
officials. He had begun to practise at the Paris bar in 1886, and in
1889 he did not seek re-election to the Chamber, but devoted him-
self to his legal work. The most famous of the many noteworthy
cases in which his cold and penetrating intellect and his power of
clear exposition were retained was the defence of M. de Lesseps
in 1893. In 1894 he returned to political life as senator for the
department of the Loire, and next year stood for the presidency
of the republic against Felix Faure and Henri Brisson, being sup-
ported by the Conservatives, who were soon to be his bitter ene-
mies. He received 184 votes, but retired before the second ballot
to allow Faure to receive an absolute majority.
During the political anarchy of the next few years he was rec-
ognized by the moderate republicans as the successor of Jules
Ferry and Gambetta, and at the crisis of 1899 on the fall of the
Dupuy cabinet he was asked by President Loubet to form a gov-
ernment. He formed a coalition cabinet which included M. Mille-
rand and General de Galliffet. He himself took the ministry of
the interior, and set to work to quell the discontent with which the
country was seething, to put an end to the various agitations
against republican institutions, and to restore independence to the
288
WALDEN— WALDENSES
judicial authority. His efforts enabled the government to leave the
second court-martial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes an absolutely
free hand, and then to compromise the affair by granting a pardon
to Dreyfus. Waldeck-Rousseau won a great personal success in
October by his successful intervention in the strikes at Le Creusot,
With the condemnation in January 1900 of Paul D6roulfede and his
monarchist and nationalist followers by the High Court the worst
of the danger was past, and Waldeck-Rousseau kept order in Paris
without having recourse to irritating displays of force. The Senate
was staunch in support of M. Waldeck-Rousseau, and in the
Chamber he displayed remarkable astuteness in winning support
from various groups. The Amnesty Bill, passed on Dec. 19, chiefly
through his unwearied advocacy, alleviated bitterness.
But the most important measure of his later administration was
the Associations Bill of 1901. The royalist bias given to the
pupils in the religious seminaries was undoubtedly a principal
cause of the passing of this bill. His speeches on the religious
question were published in 1901 under the title of Associations et
congregations ^ following a volume of speeches on Questions so-
dales (1900). With the defeat, at the general election of 1902, of
the machinations against the republic M. Waldeck-Rousseau con-
sidered his task ended, and on June 3, 1902, he resigned office,
having proved himself the "strongest personality in French politics
since the death of Gambetta." He emerged from his retirement
to protest in the Senate against the construction put on his Associ-
ations Bill by M. Combes, who refused in mass the applications
of the teaching and preaching congregations for official recogni-
tion. He died on Aug. 10, 1904.
His speeches were published as Discours parlementaires (1880) ;
Pour la ripublique, 1883-1003 (1904), edited by H. Leyret; L'Etot
et la HberU (1906) ; and his Plaidoyers (1906, etc.) were edited by
H. Barboux. See also H. Leyret, Waldeck-Rousseau et la troisieme
rtpubUque (1908), and the article FRANCE: History.
WALDEN, PAUL (1863- ), Russian chemist, was born
at Livland on July 14 (O.S.), 1863; he studied at Riga, Leipzig
and Munich. In 1885 he was appointed assistant in the physics
department of the Riga polytechnic, and he successively held the
posts of assistant in chemistry (1888), dozent (1892), professor
of analytical and physical chemistry (1894) and ordinary pro-
fessor of inorganic and physical chemistry (1896); in addition
in 1902 he was made director of the polytechnic. In 1910 he was
appointed director of the chemistry department of the science
academy at St. Petersburg (Leningrad), then in 1918 was made
professor at the new German Hochsckule in Riga, and finally in
1919 he became professor and director of the chemistry institute
of the University of Rostock.
Walden is probably best known for the curious reaction known
as the "Walden inversion" which he discovered in 1895. (See
CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC.) An optically active compound generally
yields a compound of the same sign as a result of a chemical
change, but Walden discovered exceptions to this rule; further
instances have since been brought to light. His other important
work is on the electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of
organic acids and a comprehensive study of the conductance of
non-aqueous solutions, with particular reference to viscosity. His
m6re recent work deals with dielectric constants and other elec-
trical properties of solutions. He has written Das Leitvermo'xen
der Losungen and Elektrochemie nichtwasscriger Losungen.
WALDENBURG, a town in Silesia. Pop. (1925) 44,023.
Waldenburg, which became a town in 1426, lies in the centre
of the productive coal district of the Waldenburger Gebirge,
a branch of the Sudetic chain. Among other industrial estab-
lishments are machine, brick, wire, furniture, porcelain and
earthenware factories and a china-painting establishment; there
are also numerous flax-spinneries and linen-factories in the neigh-
bourhood. To the south is the village of Oberwaldenburg, pop.
(1925) 4,546, with a chateau and some coal mines.
WALDENSES. The Waldensian valleys lie to the south-west
of Turin, in the direction of Monte Viso, being fertile and well
wooded. The principal town near the valleys is Pinerolo (Pig-
nerol). Just to its south-west there opens the chief Waldensian
valley, the Val Pellice, watered by the stream of that name, with
the capital, Torre Pellice.
SECTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES
The name Waldenses was given to the members of an heretical
Christian sect which arose in the south of France about 1170.
The history of the sects of the middle ages is obscure, because
the earliest accounts of them come from those who were con-
cerned in their suppression. Later apologists of each sect reversed
the process. In early times these sectaries produced little litera-
ture of their own; when they produced a literature at the begin-
ning of the 1 5th century they attempted to claim for it a much
earlier origin. Hence there is confusion on every side. The
polemical conception which has done much to perpetuate this
confusion is that of the historical continuity of Protestantism from
the earliest times. According to this view the church was pure
and uncorrupt till the time of Constantine, when Pope Sylvester
gained the first temporal possession for the papacy, and so began
the system of a rich, powerful and worldly church, with Rome for
its capital. Against this secularized church a body of witnesses
silently protested; they were always persecuted but always sur-
vived, till in the i3th century a desperate attempt was made by
Innocent III. to root them out from their stronghold in southern
France. Persecution gave new vitality to their doctrines, which
passed on to Wycliffe and Huss, and through these leaders pro-
duced the Reformation in Germany and England.
But, so far as can now be discovered the heretical sects of the
middle ages rested upon a system resembling Manichaeism which
was imported into Europe from the East. (See MANICHAEISM.)
The Manichaean system of dualism, with its severe^ asceticism,
and its individualism, which early passed into antinomianism,
was attractive to many minds in the awakening of the nth
century. Its presence in Europe can be traced in Bulgaria soon
after its conversion in 862, where the struggle between the Eastern
and Western churches for the new converts opened a way for
the more hardy speculations of a system which had never entirely
disappeared, and found a home amongst the Paulicians (q.v.)
in Armenia. The name of Cathari (see CATHARS), taken by the
adherents of this new teaching, sufficiently shows the Oriental
origin of their opinions, which spread from Bulgaria amongst
the Slavs, and followed the routes of commerce into central
Europe. The earliest record of their presence there is the con-
demnation of ten canons of Orleans as Manichees in 1022, and
soon after this we find complaints of the prevalence of heresy
in northern Italy and in Germany. The strongholds of these
heretical opinions were the great towns, the centres of civilization,
because there the growing sentiment of municipal independence,
and the rise of a burgher class through commerce, created a
spirit of criticism directed against the worldly lives of the clergy.
The system of Catharism recognized two classes of adherents,
credences and perfecti. The perfecti only were admitted to its
esoteric doctrines and to its superstitious practices. To the
ordinary men it seemed to be a reforming agency, insisting on a
high moral standard, and upholding the words of Scripture against
the traditions of an overgrown and worldly church. It may be
said generally that Catharism formed the abiding background of
mediaeval heresy. Prevailing discontent, in conflict with authority
generally ended by borrowing something from Catharism. The
result was that in the beginning of the i3th century there was a
tendency to class all bodies of heretics together.
WALDENSIAN SECT
Most of these sects were stamped out before the period of the
middle ages came to a close. The Waldenses, under their more
modern name of the Vaudois, survived into the igth century
in the valleys of Piedmont, and have been regarded as at once
the most ancient and the most evangelical of the mediaeval sects.
It is, however, by no means easy to determine their original
tenets, as in the i3th and i4th centuries they were a body of
obscure and unlettered peasants, hiding themselves in a corner,
while in the i6th century they were merged in the Reformation.
Already in the 9th century there were many protests against
the rigidity and want of spirituality of a purely sacerdotal church.
Thus Berengar of Tours (999-1088) upheld the symbolic char-
acter of the Eucharist and the superiority of the Bible over
WALDENSES
289
tradition. The Paterines-in Milan (1045) raised a protest against
simony and other abuses of the clergy, and Pope Gregory VII.
did not hesitate to enlist their Puritanism on the side of the
papacy and make them his allies in imposing clerical celibacy.
In France, at Embrun, Peter de Bruys founded a sect known as
Petrobrusians, who denied infant baptism, the need of consecrated
churches, transubstantiation, and masses for the dead. A follower
of his, a monk, Henry, gave the name to another body known
as Henricians, who centred in Tours. The teachers of these new
opinions were men of high character and holy lives, who in spite
of persecution wandered from place to place, and made many
converts from those who were dissatisfied at the want of clerical
discipline which followed upon the struggle for temporal suprem-
acy into which the reforming projects of Gregory VII. had
carried the church.
It was at this time (1170) that a rich merchant of Lyons,
Peter Waldo, sold his goods and gave them to the poor; then
he went forth as a preacher of voluntary poverty. His followers,
the Waldcnses, or poor men of Lyons, were moved by a religious
feeling which could find no satisfaction within the actual system
of the church, as they saw it before them. Like St. Francis, Waldo
adopted a life of poverty that he might be free to preach. He
had a translation of the New Testament made into Provencal,
and his preachers explained the Scriptures. Pope Alexander
III., who had approved of the poverty of the Waldensians, pro-
hibited them from preaching without the permission of the
bishops (1179). Waldo answered that he must obey God rather
than man. He was excommunicated by Lucius III. in 1184.
DIVISIONS OF WALDENSIAN BELIEF
The earliest definite account given of Waldensian beliefs is
that of the inquisitor Sacconi about 1250. (D'Argentr6, Collcctio
judiciornm de no vis erroribus, i. 50, etc.) He divides them into
two classes; those north of the Alps and those of Lornbardy.
The first class hold (i) that oaths are forbidden by the gospel,
(2) that capital punishment is not allowed to the civil power,
(3) that any laymnn may consecrate the. sacrament of the altar,
and ,(4) that the Roman Church is not the Church of Christ.
The Lombard sect went farther in (3) and (4), holding that
no one in mortal sin could consecrate the sacrament, and that
the Roman Church was the scarlet woman of the Apocalypse,
whose precepts ought not to be obeyed, especially those appoint-
ing fast-days. This account, sufficiently shows the difference of the
Waldenses from the Cathari: they were opposed to asceticism
and had no official priesthood; at the same time their objection
to oaths and to capital punishment are closely related to the
principles of the Cathari.
These opinions were subversive of the system of the mediaeval
church, and were viewed with disfavour by its officials. The
earliest known document proceeding from the Waldensians is an
account of a conference held at Bergamo in 1218 between the
ultramontane and the Lombard divisions, in which the Lom-
bards showed a greater opposition to the recognized priesthood
than did their northern brethren. (Preger, Beitrdge zur Geschichte
der Waldensier.)
ATTEMPTS AT SUPPRESSION
The spread of these heretical sects led to resolute attempts at
their suppression. The crusade against the Albigensians could
destroy prosperous cities and hand over lands from a heedless
lord to one who was obedient to the church; but it could not
get rid of heresy. The revival of preaching, which was the work
of the order of St. Dominic, did more to combat heresy, especially
where its persuasions were enforced by law. The work of in-
quisition into cases of heresy proceeded slowly in the hands of
the bishops, who were too busy with other matters to find much
time for sitting in judgment on theological points about which
they were imperfectly informed. The greatest blow struck against
heresy was the transference of the duty of inquiry into heresy
from the bishops to Dominican inquisitors. The secular power,
which. shared in the proceeds of the confiscation of those who were
found guilty of heresy, was ready to help in carrying out the
judgments of the spiritual courts. Everywhere, and especially in
the district round Toulouse, heretics were keenly prosecuted, and
before the continued zeal of persecution the Waldenses slowly
disappeared from the chief centres of population and took refuge
in the retired valleys of the Alps. There, in the recesses of
Piedmont, where the streams of the Pelice, the Angrogne, the
Clusone and others cleave the sides of the Alps into valleys
which converge at Susa, a settlement of the Waldensians was
made who gave their name to these valleys of the Vaudois. In
the more accessible regions north and south heresy was exposed
to a steady process of persecution, and tended to assume shifting
forms. Among the valleys it was less easily reached, and retained
its old organization and its old contents. Little settlements of
heretics dispersed throughout Italy and Provence looked to the
valleys as a place of refuge, and tacitly regarded them as the
centre of their faith. At times attempts were made to suppress
the sect of the Vaudois, but the nature of the country which they
inhabited, their obscurity and their isolation made the difficulties
of their suppression greater than the advantages to be gained
from it. However, in 1487 Innocent VIII. issued a bull for their
extermination, and Alberto de' Capitanei, archdeacon of Cremona,
put himself at the head of a crusade against them. Attacked in
Dauphine and Piedmont at the same time, the Vaudois were hard
pressed; but luckily their enemies were encircled by a fog when
marching upon their chief refuge in the valley of the Angrogne,
and were repulsed with great loss. After this Charles II. , duke
of Piedmont, interfered to save his territories from further con-
fusion, and promised the Vaudois peace. They were, however,
sorely reduced by the onslaught. Scattered bodies of Waldenses
in Germany influenced, and afterwards joined, the Hussites and
the Bohemian Brethren.
The last step in the development of the Waldensian body was
taken in 1530, when two deputies of the Vaudois in Dauphin6
and Provence, Georges Morel and Pierre Masson, were sent to
confer with the German and Swiss Reformers. A letter addressed
to Oecolampadius gives an account of their practices and beliefs
at that time, and shows us a simple and unlettered community,
which was the survival of an attempt to form an esoteric
religious society within the mediaeval church. It would appear
that its members received the sacraments of baptism and the
holy communion from the regular priesthood, at all events some-
times, but maintained a discipline of their own and held services
for their own edification, largely dependent on the work of
itinerant preachers. After giving an account of themselves they
asked for information about several points in a way which showed
the exigencies of a rude and isolated society, and finally they said
that they had been much disturbed by the Lutheran teaching
about freewill and predestination, for they had held that men did
good works through natural virtue stimulated by God's grace,
and they thought of predestination in no other way than as a
part of God's foreknowledge. Oecolampadius gave them further
instruction, especially emphasizing the wrongfulness of their
outward submission to the ordinances of the church: "God," he
said, "is a jealous God, and does not permit His elect to put
themselves under the yoke of Antichrist." The result of this
intercourse was an alliance between the Vaudois and the Swiss
and German Reformers. A synod was held in 1532 at Chanforans
in the valley of the Angrogne, where a new confession of faith
was adopted, which recognized the doctrine of election, assimilated
the practices of the Vaudois to those of the Swiss congregations,
renounced for the future all recognition of the Roman communion,
and established their own worship no longer as secret meetings
of a faithful few but as public assemblies for the glory of God.
THE VAUDOIS AND PROTESTANTISM
Thus the Vaudois ceased to be relics of the past, and became
absorbed in the general movement of Protestantism. This was
not, however, a source of quiet or security. In France and Italy
alike they were marked out as special objects of persecution,
and the Vaudois church has many records of martyrdom. The
most severe trial to which the Vaudois of Piedmont were sub-
jected occurred in 1655. The Congregation de Propaganda Fide
290
WALDERSEE— WALES
established, in 1650, a local council in Turin, which exercised a
powerful influence on Duke Charles Emmanuel II., who ordered
that the Vaudois should be reduced within the limits of their
ancient territory. Fanaticism took advantage of this order;
and an army, composed partly of French troops of Louis XIV.,
partly of Irish soldiers who had fled before Cromwell, entered the
Vaudois valleys and spread destruction on every side. They
treated the people with horrible barbarity, so that the conscience
of Europe was aroused, and England under Cromwell called on
the Protestant powers to join in remonstrance to the duke of
Savoy and the French king. The pen of Milton was employed
for this purpose, and his famous sonnet is but the condensation
of his state papers. Sir Samuel Morland was sent on a special
mission to Turin, and to him were confided by the* Vaudois leaders
copies of their religious books, which he brought back to England,
and ultimately gave to the university library at Cambridge. Large
sums of money were contributed in England and elsewhere, and
were sent to the suffering Vaudois.
By this demonstration of opinion peace was made for a time
between the Vaudois and their persecutors; but it was a treach-
erous peace, and left the Vaudois with a hostile garrison estab-
lished among them. Their worship was prohibited, and their
chief pastor, Leger, was obliged to flee, and in his exile at Leydcn
wrote his Histoire generate des eglises vaudoises (1684). The
revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 began a new period
of persecution, which aimed at entire extermination. This was
found so difficult that the remnant of the Vaudois, to the number
of 2,600, were at last allowed to withdraw to Geneva. But the
love of their native valleys was strong among the exiles, and in
1689 one of their pastors, Henri Arnaud, led a band of 800 men
to the reconquest of their country. His first attempts against
the French were successful; and the rupture between Victor
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, and Louis XIV. brought a sudden
change of fortune to the Vaudois. They were recognized once
more as citizens of Savoy, and in the war against France which
broke out in 1696 the Vaudois regiment did good service for its
duke. The peace of Utrecht saw the greater part of the French
territory occupied by the Vaudois annexed to Savoy, and, though
there were frequent threatenings of persecution, the idea of toler-
ation slowly prevailed in the policy of the house of Savoy. The
Vaudois, who had undergone all these vicissitudes, were naturally
reduced to poverty, and their ministers were partially maintained
by a subsidy from England, which was granted by Queen Anne.
The 1 8th century, however, was a time of religious decadence
even among the Alpine valleys, and the outbreak of the French
revolution saw the Vaudois made subjects of France. This led to
a loss of the English subsidy, and they applied to Napoleon for
an equivalent. It was granted, and their church was organized
by the state. On the restoration of the house of Savoy in 1816
English influence was used on behalf of the Vaudois, who received
a limited toleration. From that time onwards the Vaudois became
the objects of much interest in Protestant countries. Large sums
of money were collected to build hospitals and churches among
their valleys, and they were looked upon as the possible centre
of a Protestant church in Italy. Especially from England did they
receive sympathy and help. An English clergyman, Dr. Gilly,
visited the valleys in 1823, and by his writings on the Vaudois
church attracted considerable attention, so that he was enabled
to build a college at La Torre. Moreover, Dr. Gilly's book (A
Visit to the Valleys of Piedmont), chancing to fall into the hands
of an officer who had lost his leg at Waterloo, Colonel Beckwith,
suggested an object for the energies of one who was loth at the
age of twenty-six to sink into enforced idleness. Beckwith visited
the valleys, and was painfully struck by the squalor and ignorance
of a people who had so glorious a past. He settled among them,
and for thirty-five years devoted himself to promoting their wel-
fare. During this period he established no fewer than 120 schools;
moreover he brought back the Italian language which had been
displaced by the French in the services of the Vaudois church,
and in 1849 ^u*^ a church for them in Turin. He lived in La Torre
till his death in 1862, and the name of the English benefactor is
still revered by the simple folk of the valleys.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Modern critical study starts with J. J. Dollinger,
Beitrdge zur Secktengeschichte des Mittelalters (1890) and E. Combo,
Histoire des Vaudois (1898). See also H. Lea, History of the Inquisi-
tion in the Middle Ages; J. Chevalier, Mimoires sur Its Heresies en
Daupkine (1890) ; J. A. Chabrand, Vaudois et Protestants des Alpes
(1886) ; W. F. Adeney, art. "Waldenses" in Hastings, Encyclopedia
of Religion and Ethics; W. A. Coolidge, articles in The Guardian for
August 18, 1886, and December 4, 1889.
WALDERSEE, ALFRED, COUNT (1832-1904), Prussian
field marshal, made his first campaign (that of 1866) as aide-
de-camp to General of Artillery Prince Charles of Prussia, with
whom he was present at Koniggratz. In the Franco-German War
he was present at Metz and joined the staff of the grand duke of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who was operating against Chanzy's army
on the Loir. In 1881 Waldersee became Moltke's principal assist-
ant at Berlin. He succeeded Moltke as chief of the general staff
in 1888, and during the Boxer insurrection in China in 1900, he
was placed in command of the joint forces. He arrived, however,
too late for the fighting before Peking. He died on March 5, 1904.
WALDO, SAMUEL LOVETT (1783-1861), American
artist, born in Windham, Connecticut, April 6, 1783. He began
with a studio in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1806 he went
to London, where he painted portraits for some years with success.
In 1809 he returned to New York, and was a conspicuous figure
in the city's art life until his death there on the i6th of February
1861. He became an associate of the National Academy in 1847.
Among his works are a series of portraits of the early mayors of
New York, now in the New York City Hall, a portrait of Peter
Remsen, in possession of the New York Historical Society, and
two portraits of John Trumbull.
WALDSTEIN, FERDINAND, COUNT (1762-1823), the
youngest son of Graf Waldstein und Wartemburg von Lux, was
born on March 24, 1762. At Bonn, Beethoven received encourage-
ment from this young nobleman, whom he immortalized by dedi-
cating to him his opus 53, afterwards known as the "Waldstein"
sonata. A theme of Count Waldstein's also served for a set of 12
variations for piano duet, written by Beethoven in 1791 or 1792.
Waldstein died on Aug. 29, 1823.
WALENSEE, also called the Lake of WALLENSTADT, a Swiss
lake. It is formed by the Seez river, which now enters the lake
at its eastern end. Near its western end the Linth has been di-
verted through the Escher canal (completed in 1811) into the
lake, from which it soon again issues in order, by means of the
Linth canal (completed in 1816), to flow into Lake Zurich. The
Walensee has an area of 9 sq.m. It is 495 ft. deep, and its sur-
face is 1,388 ft. above sea-level. On the northern shore rises the
seven-peaked range of the Kurfursten (7,576 ft.). On the south
side are the crags of Murtschenstock (8,012 ft.).
WALES, PRINCE OF: see EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES.
WALES. The principality of Wales (Cymru, Gwalia, Cam-
bria) in Great Britain has an area of 4,780,470 ac. and a popu-
lation (1921) of 2,205,680. Its maximum length from north to
south is 136 m., while its breadth varies between 92 m. from St.
David's head to the English border near Crickhowell, and 37 m. in
central Wales between Aberystwyth and the Shropshire boundary.
Structure and Physical Features. — Wales is a hill country
composed almost entirely of Palaeozoic rocks much dissected by
deep valleys. The portion of the central highland mass above
2,000 ft. is sharply worn by deep cut cirques and is in marked con-
trast to the more rounded hills below that elevation. Anglesey is
a remnant of a very ancient land mass that formed the nucleus
against which the mountains of Carnarvonshire were thrown up as
Palaeozoic Wales in its turn became the old block against which
the newer geological deposits of England were built up. The worn-
down ribs of the ancient land in Anglesey (Mon) still run as moor-
land between slightly lower lines of marsh. One of these lower
north-east to south-west lines forms the picturesque Menai strait
with Carboniferous layers along its edges. It is, as it were, the
structural trough between the old block and the folds. The great
north-east to south-west mountain line of Carnarvonshire (tf.v.)
culminates in Snowdon (3,560 ft.), the highest mountain in Eng-
land and Wales. Carnedd Dafydd (3,426 ft.) "and Carnedd Llewel-
SETTLEMENT]
WALES
291
lyn (3,484 ft.) is especially marked. The mountain line tapers
out south-westward to the peninsula of Lleyn, which has some hills
of crystalline rock, and ends in the Island of Bardsey (Ynys
Enlli) — the isle of the saints. A low line running north-east to
south-west cuts off the main range from another lofty group cul-
minating in Moel Siabod (2,860 ft.). The Snowdon country is in-
terspersed with lakes : those in the valley bottoms—long and deep
— show evidences of glacial as well as structural factors and con-
trast markedly with the smaller, rounder, darker lakes of the
cirques. To the south in Merionethshire, is the so-called Harlech
dome. The southern section of this volcanic tract is marked off by
a region of faults. The major fault runs from Corwen to Bala
and thence to the sea. It is best known as the Bala Cleft. Cadcr
Idris (2,927 ft.). Aran Mawddwy (2,970) and Arenig (2,800)
are conspicuous peaks.
To the east and south, there stretches a vast plateau of crumpled
grits and shales in an endless succession of rounded hills from
Denbighshire around to north Pembrokeshire. Plynlymon (2468
ft.) is among the higher points of this central moorland. The re-
gion is covered to a great extent by boulder clay giving a cold,
wet subsoil with many bogs and consequently able to support only
a small population.
To the south and east of this crescent plateau of pre-carbon-
iferous rocks lies the country of the Old Red Sandstone and the
coal measures. This region is more varied in relief with out-
standing hills of sandstone like Radnor forest (2,163 ft.) or
the steep scarp of the Brecknock Beacons (2,907 ft), the Black
mountains or the volcanic rocks of the Breidden. The coal
measure country has become very distinct from the rest of
Wales in many respects, whether we consider the belt on the
English border in Flint and Denbigh or the great coalfield of
South Wales. The latter is oval in form, becoming narrower at
its western end in Pembrokeshire. Geologically it is a syncline
within which the hard bands of Pennant grit stand out above
the deeply incised valley-ways. Numerous streams flow right
across the coalfields in long, narrow, steep-sided valleys that
limit possibilities of settlement and communication. Many of
the resulting problems, both industrial and social, have been very
difficult. (See RHONDDA.) The south side of the coalfield known
for the most part as the Vale of Glamorgan has Triassic and
Liassic rocks with much fertile soil.
The south coastal plain of Wales is broken by the sea giving
Carmarthen and Swansea bays. The north Wales coastline is low
westwards from the Dee estuary, but Great Orme's head, a penin-
sula of Carboniferous limestone, stands out, as does the igneous
rock of Penmaenmawr farther west. The coasts of Lleyn are
rocky, as many of the mountain lines die away to the sea. The
former low ridges between the valleys run out to sea as partly sub-
merged causeys. They are known locally as Sarnau.
South-west Wales sends out hard* resistant bands of old rock
to form numerous headlands, the softer rock between being worn
away to form small bays in the coast of north Pembrokeshire.
In south Pembrokeshire we have a coast with the great sub-
merged valley or ria of Milford Haven. There are evidences of
subsidence along the south Wales coast in the west; submerged
forests are recovered from Amroth. The rivers may be said
to fan out to sea from the interior highland mass. In the north
we have the Clwyd and the Conway. On the west the Dwyryd,
Mawddach, Dyfi, Rheidol, Ystwyth, Teifi, and on the south the
eastern and western Cleddau, the Taf, Towy, Loughor, Nedd
(Neath), Taff and Wysg (Usk). It is these radiating valleys,
or rather those of them which are more shut off from the English
influences working along the coastal plains, that are the special
homes of the Welsh heritages. The interior highland mass is
draiued also by rivers which fall to the lowlands of the English
border — the Dee, Severn and Wye, and these valleys have offered
opportunities for contacts between English and Welsh.
Peoples and Settlement-— The earliest traces of man in
Wales are known from Paviland cave in the Gower which seems
to have been inhabited in the later Palaeolithic age. As pine for-
ests spread with the return of a somewhat milder climate after the
Glacial period, Wales was inhospitable to early man, especially
as the only flint available in it was that derived from boulder
clay belonging to an ice sheet that worked its way south from
Scotland down into Cardigan bay. People appear to have drifted
to Wales finding forest free spots on the windswept tops of the
lower moorland and along the shore where in several places occur
flint chipping floors with implements of early type but unknown
date. Among the early drifts there came to Wales survivals of
what appeared to be Aurignacian types of men still to be found
in remote moorland areas such as Plynlymon and the Black moun-
tain region of Carmarthenshire. These people have dark hair and
eyes with long, high-ridged heads, big eyebrows and rather promi-
nent mouths. A very much larger element in the Welsh popula-
tion are the little dark people with dark hair and eyes and rather
long heads and slender build. These represent early drifts from
south-west Europe by land and sea. Wales, with its volcanic rocks
in the north-west and the south-west, was more attractive to peo-
ple who had learnt the art of polishing stone and the principality
has yielded many beautiful examples of polished stone axes. A
proportion of the population on coastal patches in south Gla-
morganshire, north-west Pembrokeshire, Ardudwy and elsewhere,
belongs to a type with broad head, strong jaws, with very dark hair
and often strong, tall build. Similar people occur on many of the
coastal patches of south-west and western Europe and represent
emigrants or traders of the early ages of metal. In several, though
not in all cases, this type occurs in regions with megalithic
monuments, and these are important in the projecting peninsulas
of north-west and south-west Wales.
The stone circle seems to have been of special significance in
west Wales, as recent evidence has shown that the stones of the
inner circle at Stonehenge were originally derived from north-
west Pembrokeshire. (See H. H. Thomas, "The Source of the
Stones of Stonehenge" Antiquaries Jour. Vol. III. p. 239, 1923.)
The arrival of large numbers of Beaker folk at the dawn of the
age of metal in Yorkshire and East Anglia docs not seem to have
influenced Wales to any great extent, although there are evidences
of their culture along the south Wales coastal plain and in the
north. The Bala Cleft has yielded many examples of the broad-
headed, fair tall type with arched skull and deep-set eyes that
is associated with Beaker burials in England and the Continent.
The movement of Bronze swordsmen through western Europe to
Britain and Ireland in the later Bronze age is thought by some to
be responsible for the spread of the Gaelic languages now surviv-
ing in Ireland, the Hebrides and north-west Scotland; it appar-
ently had relatively little influence in Wales. The movement of the
La Tene culture from the Continent to Britain in the last cen-
turies B.C. are usually associated with the spread of Brythonic Cel-
tic speech, the foundation of the Welsh language. This movement
entered Wales very likely just before or during Roman times along
valleys stretching up from the English plain and probably along
the coastal plains as well. The newcomers appear to have
strengthened the Nordic, or tall, fair, long-headed elements in
the population, and it is to this period that we can ascribe many
hill-top fortresses that guard the lower slopes of the Welsh moor-
lands. It is thought that the builders of these hill-top camps were
native peoples in some fairly peaceful relation with the Romans,
and in Cardiganshire their influence was strong where the traces
of Roman work are weak.
In post -Roman centuries Wales, in common with^most of west-
ern Europe, entered difficult times. There were several invasions
of Brythonic tribes many of which have become known as the sons
of Cunedda. Welsh folk tale illustrates culture-clashes between
iron-armed people of the valleys and older populations on the
moorlands and one suspects that these are the clashes of pre-
Roman times coloured by those of post-Roman centuries. The in-
fluence of the sea again became important. Raiders of mixed an-
cestry, but mainly Irish, landed not infrequently on the northern
and western shores, while it is claimed that an invasion of the
Irish Deisi entered south-west Wales in the 3rd century A.D. This
influence was at work in peace as well as in war as is shown by the
Celtic saint movements of the sth and 6th centuries. Old links
with the west — with Ireland, Cornwall, Brittany and north-west
Spain — became again important, resulting among other things in
292
WALES
[RELIGION
focusing the country's ecclesiastical traditions at St. David's
(q.v.). The subsequent centuries saw similar raids from Scandina-
vian peoples who had settled in Ireland and the Western isles.
Many Scandinavian place names are still found on the coastal
patches especially in south Pembrokeshire and south Glamorgan-
shire. New peoples entered Wales, not only from the western seas,
but also along her landward frontier. The ways that led into the
country through the gaps that were guarded by Chester in the
north, Ludlow and Shrewsbury in the centre and Gloucester in the
south, became henceforth the main entries of new cultures. The
Norman conquest provided Wales with new elements in its popula-
tion. Districts in south Pembrokeshire and the Gower peninsula
seem to have been systematically colonized with Flemings by
Henry I. and Henry II.
In subsequent centuries Wales received immigrants from the
Continent to those areas where weaving was important.
Population. — In 1921 the total population of the principality
was 2,205,680. The sparseness of inhabitants on the hill pas-
tures and the crowding of the coalfield has made the distribution
of population very uneven. The density per square mile (1921)
was 1,028-5 in Glamorganshire, while in the hill-pastures it falls to
50 (e.g.) in Radnorshire.
County
Area
in sq.
miles
Popu-
lation
1871
Popu-
lation
IQOI
Popu-
lation
1921
Density
per sq.
mile
1921
Anglesey (Ynys M6n) .
276-0
51,040
50,606
51,744
i87'5
Brcconshire (Hry-
cheiniog)
733-3
59)9° l
54,213
6l,22J
«5'*
Cardiganshire (Aber-
tein) . . . ,
6Q2M
73,441
61,078
60,881
88-0
Carmarthenshire
(Cacrfyrddin) .
918-4
116,710
I35'3<^
175,073
190-3
Carnarvonshire (Arfon)
571'S
106,121
125,649
J30,Q75
229-3
Denbighshire (Din-
bych).
665-7
105,10?
131,58?
154,842
233-0
Flint (sFflint)
254-7
76,312
81,485
106,617
419-0
Glamorganshire (Mor-
ganwg)
792-6
397,^59
359>93i
1,252,481
1,028-5
Merionethshire (Mei-
rionydd)
659M
46,598
48,852
45,o87
68-3
Montgomeryshire
(Drefaldwyn) .
707*0
67,6^
54,001
51,263
64-0
Pembrokeshire (Ben-
fro) ....
613-0
91,008
87,804
91,978
150-0
Radnorshire (Facsyfcd)
470-6
25430
23,^81
23,517
50-0
Total.
7,446-0
1,217,135
1,714,800
2,205,680
Two centres only, namely Cardiff (200,184) and Swansea (157,-
554) have over 100,000 inhabitants, and of the remainder only
two others, Aberdare (55,007) and Merthyr Tydfil (80,116)
have over 50,000 inhabitants. Llanelly, Barry, Caerphilly, Maes-
teg, Mountain Ash and Pontypridd have over 25,000 inhabitants.
All these centres are on the south Wales coalfield.
Religion. — Classical references to religious cults in pre-Roman
Britain have been the pretext for much conjecture as to the na-
ture of the pre-Christian religions of Wales. All that can be said
is that the island of Anglesey seems to have had a tradition of
special sanctity. The post-Roman centuries were characterized
by a revival of prehistoric conditions in the west and although
Christianity reached here very early the salient feature is its
close associations with the previously existing traditions. The
church of Yspytty Cynfyn in north Cardiganshire is built within
what was once a stone circle and observers have recorded many
circular churchyards in Wales. The spread of the Celtic saints or
preachers of Christianity from Ireland to Wales, Cornwall, Brit-
tany and many parts of the Continent helped to make St. David's
(q.v.) important. It stands at the convergence of a number of
routes from little landing places on a storm-washed peninsula.
The itinerant Celtic saints established many small cells or churches
in Wales, many of which still bear the founder's name in their
dedication. From the 7th century onwards the power of the Ro-
man Church grew and the older Welsh traditions were brought
nominally under its sway. The attempts of Giraldus Cambrensis
in the i2th century to gain ecclesiastical independence for Wales
are an echo of the marked individuality of the Celtic traditions.
Among pilgrim routes to Santiago da Compostella (q.v.) the
maritime one from Ireland via Wales, Cornwall and Brittany was
important, and it seems to have been also a survival or revival of a
prehistoric route of trade. By the Renaissance the Roman Church
had gathered into itself and assimilated all the earlier ritual, and
the Anglican Church did not replace it completely in rural Wales.
The strongholds of Anglicanism were in the small castle-towns of
the coastal plains. The mass of the population of moorland Wales
long retained its mediaeval ideas. Early Puritanism appeared in
those regions that had the closest associations with the English
plains and particularly in those regions that had specialized in
weaving. Such districts attracted refugees from the Continent.
Radnorshire became an early centre of the Quakers and Baptists,
Montgomeryshire of the Independents, while in the weaving cen-
tres of the south Wales coastal plains early Puritanism was de-
veloped especially by the Independents and the Baptists who
seem to have been specially selected for persecution and whose
early chapels are in several cases in remote spots. They seem to
have entered regions in south-west Wales (e.g., North-west Pem-
brokeshire) that were sparsely populated in the middle ages, a
movement that seems to have been associated with the intro-
duction of root crops. The Methodist revival of the i8th century,
mainly through the influence of the Welsh language, affected
chiefly the moorland regions of Wales. Henceforth the country
was predominantly Nonconformist. In 1910 it was estimated that
there were 550,280 full members of the Nonconformist Churches
as against 193,081 members of the Anglican Church.
In 1914 the Bill for the Disestablishment and Disendowment
of the Church of England in Wales was passed., It provided that
the secularized portion of the endowment of the Church should
be applied to specified national purposes, mainly educational, and
a financial amendment in the direction of compensation to the
Church was passed in 1919. Under the new Constitution (1922)
the supreme authority of the "Church in Wales" was vested in a
governing body, representative of the clergy and laity. The area
that came under the jurisdiction of this body became known as
the province of Wales, with an archbishopric, established for
the time being at St. Asaph. Two new dioceses were created,
namely Monmouth (1921) and Brecon and Swansea (1923) out of
the older dioceses of Llandaff and St. David's respectively. The
ecclesiastical province of Wales contains (1928) six dioceses;
Bangor in the north-west, St. Asaph in the north-east, St. David's
in the south-west, while the populous area of the south-east is
shared between Swansea and Brecon (including the almost entirely
rural counties of Brecon and Radnor), Llandaff and Monmouth.
Roman Catholicism is still strong here and there in the border
counties, especially Flintshire. In most cases it survives in con-
junction with mediaeval landed families. Since the last half of
the 1 9th century it has flourished exceedingly in the south Wales
industrial regions, especially among the immigrants of Irish de-
scent. Since the expulsion of the religious orders from France in
1903, several communities of French monks and nuns have taken
up their abode in the principality. With the exception of Glamor-
ganshire, the principality is in the diocese of Menevia. There is
a Roman Catholic archbishop at Cardiff, whose diocese includes
Glamorganshire, Monmouthshire and Herefordshire.
The majority of the followers of the Methodist revival move-
ment of the 1 8th century in Wales form the Calvinistic Methodist
Church of Wales which is especially strong in the north and west
of the country. Its churches are usually strongholds of the Welsh
language, although it includes many churches in which English
is used in the services. It is organized under the Cymanfa
Cyfredinol (general assembly) which meets annually and elects
a moderator. There are two synods (Cymdeithasfa) representing
respectively the north and south of the country. The individual
churches are grouped into a Cwrdd Dosparth, and the latter into
a larger unit the Cwrdd Misol. The Calvinistic Methodist Church
is affiliated to the Presbyterian Church of England. Other fol-
lowers of the Methodist revival are members of the Wesleyan
Methodist Church; its churches, with Welsh services, are organ-
ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS]
WALES
293
ized under a conference which is in several points distinct from
the English conference of this Church. The Independents and
Baptists have each a union (Undeb) for Wales, but retain many
connections with the corresponding unions of England. In the last
two organizations each church is a self-governing unit.
(E. G. Bow.)
University. (See UNIVERSITIES.) — The university was
founded by charter in 1893, and re-organised with a supple-
mental charter in 1920. It now consists of the four university
colleges at Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, and Swansea. The
majority of the members of the governing body are elected by
county and county-borough councils in Wales and Monmouth-
shire, which councils support the university by the levy of rates
for the purpose. All the main branches of cultural education arc
provided for, and some special attention is given to Celtic studies
and to music. The National school of medicine is at Cardiff.
During recent years at all the .four centres new buildings for
instruction and research and for the social activities of the
students have been erected. Extramural studies have been strongly
developed throughout Wales, In addition to the regular financial
support mentioned above, since 1910 there have been benefactions
to the extent of a capital value of over £380,000. The total num-
ber of students is nearly 3,000. (A. L. Wi.)
ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS
Wales and Monmouthshire form an area, approximately one-
seventh of England and Wales. One-half of the land reaches an
altitude of 600 ft. above sea-level, while one-half of this exceeds
1,000 ft. This nature of the country enabled its inhabitants
to maintain a distinct political existence for centuries after the
English lowlands had become subject to one authority. It was
not until the igih century that the traditional isolation of Wales
began to be profoundly affected by the development of railways.
World competition is now operative to the embarrassment of
local industries previously protected by the isolation of the local
market. Despite present indications of slackening in the rate
of rural depopulation in Wales, due to the depressed condition
of industry, the movement constitutes a most urgent problem.
The Industrial Revolution in Wales. — In 1801 Wales and
Monmouthshire had a population of 587,245, fairly evenly dis-
tributed over the land as the vast majority of the people were
engaged in agriculture or in related occupations. As the in-
dustrial revolution developed, and particularly after 1841, the
rural exodus, accompanied by the decay of many industries which
had supplemented the earnings of agriculture, led to an enormous
concentration of population in the iron and coal producing valleys
of south-east Wales; eventually nine out of the 13 counties in-
cluded in Wales and Monmouthshire suffered an actual decrease
in population. By reason of the variety and superior quality of
its output and because of its close proximity to tidal waters, the
South Wales coalfield became from 1881 the chief coal-exporting
region of the world.
In the record year 1913 the output of the coalfield was 56,-
830,000 tons and the number of miners was nearly a quarter of
a million. Normally over 70% of the output is carried away by
sea, about 45% passing through Cardiff alone, which has increased
in population since 1841 at the rate of 10,000 for every additional
million tons of coal shipped annually from the port. According
to the latest official returns (1921 census) the population of
Wales and Monmouthshire was 2,657,412, of which well over
50% (1,703,401) was concentrated in the two counties of Glamor-
gan (1,252,701) and Monmouth (450,700).
Welsh Coal Mining. — The mining valleys of South Wales
present difficulties. They are narrow, with swift-running streams
and precipitous mountain slopes; they are in some cases prac-
tically cul-de-sacs deeply trenched in the bleak and infertile
uplands. The level ground is occupied by roads, railways, canals
and the surface works of the collieries, and the hillsides are used
as waste tips. There is little room for houses and the congestion
is often very great. In the Rhondda valleys, where the best steam
coal is mined and which have a population of 162,729, the density
of population in the area actually built upon is about 23,000 per-
sons to the square mile. The same causes, which have given Welsh
coals their superiority, have also made mining in this area more
costly and dangerous than in other parts of Britain. Welsh coal
is dry and fiery and the fine coal dust is a constant source of
danger. Loose- jointed coal and loose or rotten roof, more frequent
in South Wales mines than elsewhere, are responsible for numer-
ous accidents accompanied by loss of life. For these reasons,
the output per man is less than the average for the rest of Britain.
But the superior quality of South Wales coal commands a price
which balances the extra cost of production.
Since there is practically no choice of occupation, chronic
unrest is almost inevitable, especially in times of trade depression.
The rapid development of the fuel resources of all countries
during the war years and the consequent keen competition for
markets, have seriously affected export. Since 1923 unemploy-
ment and "short time" have been prevalent and have entailed
great hardship and suffering. In Dec. 1927 the number of miners
employed in the coalfield was 177,700 as compared with 220,200
at work in 1924. The output of coal in 1927 was 45,500,000 tons
as compared with 56,830,000 tons raised in 1913. In 1927 134
pits were closed down and at times the number of unemployed coal
workers in South Wales has reached 100,000.
In no part of Britain is the need for the "decentralization of.
industry'' more urgent than in the South Wales coalfield. In the
last five years research committees have considered schemes of
large scale town-planning in anticipation of further development
and also with a view to altering the present distribution of the
population. These schemes include the creation of new urban
centres in the coastal region to accommodate a large proportion
of the population of the mining valleys. This would require a
great extension of the means of communication, the development
of cheap and rapid transport and the rise of manufacturing indus-
tries of a general character which would absorb an appreciable
part of the coal output and provide variety in employment.
Iron and Copper. — Prior to 1870 the leading place in the
economic development of South Wales was held by the iron
industry. Along the northern edge of the coalfield plentiful and
readily accessible supplies of coal, iron ore and limestone occurred
in close proximity. Consequently, in the first half of the igth cen-
tury a narrow upland tract, extending for about 20 m. from
Pontypool and Blaenavon to Hirwain, with its chief centre at
Merthyr-Dowlais, became the greatest iron producing region in
the world. The invention of processes for the large scale manu-
facture of steel and the resulting demand for richer and purer
iron ores than those found in the coalfield, caused many of those
works to be closed or to be transferred to the seaboard. Merthyr
Tydfil, once the Largest town in Wales, which in 1831 exceeded
in population the aggregate of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea, is
steadily declining owing to these changes; in some of the old in-
land centres, such as Ebbw Vale, Rhymncy and Dowlais, the manu-
facture of iron in specialized forms is still actively maintained. On
the south-west of the coalfield the hill country extends to the
coast line and in many places coal is mined within a short dis-
tance of tidal water. This is the anthracite region and since 1910
90% of British anthracite, the great bulk of which is exported,
has been raised in South Wales.
The western ports, Llanelly, Swansea and Port Talbot, are not
only centres of the coal export trade but their favourable situ-
ation has enabled them to develop great metallurgical industries
the success of which depends upon supplies of cheap fuel. Of these
the earliest and long the most important was the smelting of
copper; Swansea became the centre of the world production of
copper. Before the end of the i9th century, however, copper ores
came to be generally smelted at the mines but refining processes
are still carried on in the Swansea area which has also continued
to increase the output of metallurgical products originating in the
early copper industry. The refining of nickel, imported in a crude
state from Canada, is a new and flourishing industry.
Tin-plate, Oil Reflnlng^-In the last quarter of the igth
century the manufacture of tin plates and of galvanized iron
became localized very largely in this region. This resulted from
the establishment of steel works in the coastal section of the coal-
294
WALES
[HISTORY
field, aided by the discovery that sheet steel was to be preferred
to iron in the making of tin plates. Over 90% of the export trade
of British tin plates is concentrated in the port of Swansea, which
in 1927 shipped 440,000 tons of tin plates and terne plates valued
at £9,500,000. Owing to their high reputation, Welsh tin plates
are imported into every country in the world, often in spite of high
protective tariffs. More than 90% of the zinc smelted in Britain
is produced in the Swansea district (spelter works). The zinc is
chiefly used in the making of alloys, brass, bronze, etc., but
scarcely less important is the industry of manufacturing galva-
nized iron by coating iron plates with zinc. In 1927 721,000 tons
of galvanized iron sheets were exported from Swansea.
The establishment of the oil refinery of the Anglo-Persian Oil
Company at Skewen, near Swansea, has increased the trade of the
port of Swansea by about 2,250,000 tons annually.
North Wales* — North Wales is more closely related in its
economic life to Lancashire and the Midlands than to South
Wales, for east to west routes are far more practicable than from
north to south in Wales. The North Wales coalfield lies in the
counties of Flint and Denbigh and extends for about 40 m. from
south to north along the Dee valley. Although extensive, it is far
less rich and varied in its output than the South Wales field. The
annual output remains fairly constant at about 3,500,000 tons.
The coal obtained is used chiefly for domestic purposes and for
gas manufacture, the Cannel coal of Flintshire being specially
reputed for its gas producing qualities. Thus, as the North Wales
coal industry depends mainly upon the home market, it has suf-
fered relatively less in recent years than the South Wales coal-
field from the intense depression of the coal export trade. How-
ever, owing to excellent transport facilities by road, rail and
canal, and the proximity of tidal water a great variety of indus-
tries has developed in this region and new ones are continually
rising. In the inter-censal period 1911-1921 the proportional in-
crease of population was higher in Flintshire (14-8%) than in any
county of England and Wfales, being i % higher than that of Mon-
mouthshire, which came second, and 2% higher than Glamorgan-
shire which was in the third place.
It is noteworthy that the rapid development of road transport
in the same period has effectually checked the tendency towards
the concentration of the workers. Large numbers of them are
conveyed by road from their homes in the villages and rural areas
to the factories and works. The first iron works in Wales was
established at Bersham near Wrexham (1701) and the metal in-
dustries of the area continue to be of great importance ; the manu-
facture of iron and steel, of galvanized iron and tin plates is
carried on at several centres. There are shipyards and engineering
works while the chief centre of the fine chemical industry in
Wales is at Ruabon which is also famous for the production of
terra cotta. Woollen, paper and artificial silk mills, having the
most modern equipment, are found at Holywell and Flint.
North-west Wales (Carnarvon and Merioneth) is the principal
seat of the Welsh slate-quarrying industry, of which the chief
centres are Bethesda, Llanberis, Nantlle and Festiniog. This indus-
try is steadily reviving after the depression of the war years
through the extensive use of modern machinery and of electric
power and the utilization of the waste dumps for the production
of commodities of commercial value. The annual output of Welsh
slate is about 250,000 tons, valued at £2,000,000. The minerals
of North Wales, excluding coal, give employment to about 33,000
workers and are valued approximately at £4,000,000 a year.
There is a rapid growth of hydro-electric enterprise. In 1907
the Aluminium Corporation laid down plant for the manufacture
of aluminium at Dolgarrog and eventually combined with the
North Wales Power company to provide electric power and light
for North Wales. With Government support, schemes were un-
dertaken which were estimated to cost £2,000,000 and already
three great power stations have been established. The power
will tend to revive languishing local industries and to check rural
depopulation. Large towns outside Wales, notably Liverpool, Birk-
enhead^and Birmingham, derive water from the Welsh hills.
Agriculture* — About 120,000 persons are engaged in agricul-
ture. Owing to the mountainous character of the land and the
heavy rainfall, which in some districts reaches 120 in. agricul-
tural Wales is mainly devoted to the production of milk and meat.
About one-third of the agricultural land consists of heath land,
rough pasture and bog. It is devoted to extensive sheep walks.
The cultivation of wheat, which is particularly risky owing to
the heavy rainfall, is confined entirely to the deeper river valleys
and accounts for only 5% of the arable land. The greatest pro-
duction is in the Vale of Glamorgan, in the valleys of the Wye
and the Usk in Monmouthshire. Barley and oats are grown fairly
generally, the latter cereal being sufficiently hardy to return a
good yield at a height of 1,000 to 1,500 ft. above sea level. Root
crops for the feeding of store cattle occupy the remainder of the
arable land. Cattle reared on the upland pastures of Wales are
sold in great numbers to English graziers; they fatten rapidly
on the richer lowland pastures. Wales maintains about 4,000,000
sheep, including the hardy native mountain breed, and these
are likewise sold for the English market. In the past 30 years
agriculture in Wales has made marked progress through the
application of more scientific methods to all branches of farm-
ing in which the University colleges at Bangor and Aberystwyth,
with the support of the Board of Agriculture, have rendered
invaluable service. The extension of organization and co-opera-
tion have materially aided the farmers in tiding over the period
of depression which followed the factitious prosperity of the
war years. Agricultural co-operative societies, first established
in Wales in 1901, multiplied rapidly and in 1922 a Welsh agri-
cultural organization society was founded.
Small mixed holdings of the average size of 47 ac. are char-
acteristic of Wales and the small holders were quick to grasp the
advantages provided by the co-operative purchasing of foodstuffs,
implements, etc. The independent Welsh Farmers' Union, founded
in 1918, has recently been merged in the National Farmers' Union.
The Government proposals of 1928 for rating relief in the case
of agricultural land and for the provision of agricultural credit
should produce, when carried into effect, a stimulating influence
upon this vital industry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. L. Dobbins, South Wales as the Chief Industrial
Centre of the United Kingdom (1922) ; Sir J. Rhys and Sir D. B.
Jones, The Welsh People (1923) ; N. Edwards, The Industrial Revolu-
tion in South Wales (1924) ; Sir O. M. Edwards, Wales (1925).
(E. E. Hu.)
HISTORY: I. 1 TO 1485
Wales was won for the Roman Empire by Frontinus and Agri-
cola. The former was legate in Britain from A.D. 74 to 78 and in
the" course of his term of office crushed the Silures, the warlike
tribesmen of south-eastern Wales. Further to the west were the
Demetae, of the country round Carmarthen; they were probably
subdued at the same time. Agricola's first act, upon his arrival
in 78, was to conquer the Ordovices of mid-Wales; in the same
campaign, he attacked the tribes of the north-west, crossed the
Menai Straits and completed the conquest of Anglesey, from
which Suetonius had been recalled eighteen years earlier. The
island had been the stronghold of the Druids and throughout its
history has held an exceptional position as an area of great fer-
tility (hence known as "Mon mam Cymru," i.e., Mona, the
mother of Wales), defended from attack by a rampart of moun-
tains. Wales was effectively held throughout the period of the
Roman occupation of Britain, but always as a part of the im-
perial frontier, and by purely military measures. Two of the three
legions quartered in the island after 120 held the portals. The
Twentieth was stationed at Deva, the modern Chester, known -to
the Welsh ever since as Caerlleon, the Second Augustan at Isca,
also known to later times as Caerllion and Caerleon. From the
two legionary stations roads ran west to smaller forts such as
Segontium (Caernarvon), Conovium (Caerhun), Cardiff and Gel-
ligaer; roads and forts of the same type were built in the interior.
Some of these forts, perhaps, served only a temporary purpose,
but it is clear from, the absence in Wales (save around Cardiff
and Newport) of Roman towns and country houses that the region ,
had no settled civil life of the type found in Eastern Britain.
Recent excavations, notably at Dinorben, near Abergele, show that
the natives, while not uninfluenced by Roman culture, lived for
HISTORY]
WALES
295
the most part an independent1 and semi-barbarous life and still
occupied the rude stone and earthen hill-forts of their ancestors.
The survival of Welsh, a Celtic language akin to Gaulish, sup-
ports this conclusion and that it should contain a large number
of Latin loan-words is natural. (See BRITAIN, ROMAN.)
Irish and Saxon in Wales-— In the age following the aban-
donment of Britain by the Empire, the two outstanding features
are the conflict between the Brythonic and the Goidelic elements
and the rapid conversion of the country to the Christian faith.
It is beyond doubt that, in the fifth century, western Wales was
occupied by an Irish-speaking people; the traditions on the sub-
ject have been confirmed by the discovery of Ogham inscriptions,
especially in Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire. Whether these
Goidels were aboriginal or invaders from Ireland is still an
open question; in either case, they were overborne by Brythonic
conquerors from the east and their language became extinct. Tra-
dition ascribed the Brythonic triumph in Gwyncdd (northwest
Wales) to a leader from North Britain named Cunedda, whose
posterity became kings of various districts from Cardigan to
Denbigh. As to the coming of Christianity, there is nothing to
associate it with Roman rule in Wales. Yet, in the middle of the
sixth century, it is to be gathered from the De Excidio of Gildas
(the one British work of this epoch which has survived) that the
British princes who had risen to power on the ruins of the old
order were Christians, and, if lawless and licentious, yet amenable
to the influence of the Church. He mentions especially Maglo-
cunus, the Maelgwn Gwynedd of Welsh tradition, lord of Ang-
lesey and Snowdonia, and great grandson of Cunedda, as having
at one time forsworn his realm and become a monk. Monasticism,
in fact, was the movement which wrought the transformation;
Wales was converted by the monks, the "sancti" of Gildas, to
which company belonged Dewi, became in Norman times the
patron saint of Wales.
While these events were taking place, the eastern side of Brit-
ain was being occupied by English settlers. Wales was not, at
first, greatly affected, for the flight of the defeated Britons into
the mountains of the west is legend, and not history. But at the
beginning of the yth century a new problem arose, which was
directly due to the Saxon conquests. When Augustine, after the
conversion of Kent, strove to establish relations with the British
clergy, he met with unexpected opposition and failed in his pur-
pose. The differences were merely the result of the long separa-
tion between the Celtic and the Continental churches; they did
not affect doctrine, but concerned such practical questions as the
true date of Easter. Nevertheless, they were sufficient to bring
about a schism, which was still violent in the time of Bede; the
Welsh Church did not accept the Roman Easter until 768, when
it finally gave way at the instance of Elfodd, who was bishop in
North Wales. By this time, secular life in Wales had also come
to feel the full force of the English impact. The victories of
Wessex, notably that of Deorham in 577, had parted the Welsh
of Gwent and Glamorgan from their brethren in Somerset, Devon
and Cornwall ; in the north, the efforts of Cadwallon of Gwynedd,
who fell in 634 in battle with Oswald of Northumbria, did not
avail to maintain British ascendancy in that region, with the re-
sult that, in the eighth century, having lost Chester, Shrewsbury
and Hereford to the Mercians, the Welsh were confined to the
mountainous tract in the. west which has ever since been their
home. It was Offa (757-796) who definitely marked the boundary
by the dyke which bears his name, a ''travelling" earthwork con-
necting the mouth of the Clwyd with the Wye above Hereford
and shown by place names to have been for centuries the actual
frontier between the two races.
Wales bore the full brunt of the attacks of the Northmen, Her
monasteries, distributed along the coast and often set, as was the
manner of the Celts, on lonely islands, suffered grievously. St.
David's was often in peril, but contrived to keep up a tradition
of learning, of which the leading representative in the ninth cen-
tury was Asser, the friend and biographer of Alfred of Wessex.
It does not appear, however, that the pirates made any substan-
tial settlement on Welsh soil; they were held at bay by the gal-
lant Rhodri the Great (844-878), founder of the princely houses
of Gwynedd and Deheubarth (South Wales) and ruler of all
Wales save Dyfed (the land of the Demetae), Brecknock, Gwent
and Glamorgan. Through all the confusion of the next hundred
and fifty years, a time of conflict with the Northmen and with the
Mercians, as well as of internal strife, the line of Rhodri main-
tained itself in its two branches in North and in South Wales. It
produced one remarkable- man in Hywel the Good (910-950), a
scion of the southern line, who married the heiress of Dyfed,
journeyed to Rome in 928 and is styled "King of all the Welsh."
His position enabled him to undertake a reform of Welsh law, for
which posterity gratefully remembered him; the representative
gathering which met at Whitland (Y Ty Gwyn ar Daf ) to receive
the new code is without a parallel in the early annals of Wales, and
"the law of Hywel," amplified and re-edited by generation after
generation of Welsh legists, became the standard of tribal and
personal relations throughout the country. In its precision and
subtlety, it has been held (by Loth) to be the greatest intellectual
achievement of mediaeval Wales.
The Norman Conquest.— On the eve of the Norman con-
quest, there was a striking outburst of activity under one of the
ablest of Welsh princes. Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (1039-1063) was
not of the ruling dynasty, yet he succeeded in making himself
master of the whole of Wales — a position never reached by any
Welsh chieftain in later times. He owed his power to his success
against the Mercians, whom he drove out of their villages in the
neighbourhood of Prestatyn, Mold, Wrexham, Oswestry, Mont-
gomery, Knighton and Radnor. Later, he formed an alliance with
Aelfgar and Mercia against the Normans whom Edward the Con-
fessor had posted at Hereford (1055); on Aelfgar's death, he was
exposed to the hostility of Harold Godwinson and by him was
overthrown. His meteoric career made a great impression in
England and led to the question of Wales being envisaged there
as one of national defence. When William I. had completed the
subjugation of the English, he attacked this problem with his
usual insight and, as a first measure, set up the three earldoms
of Chester, Shrewsbury and Hereford to protect the realm from
the ravages of the Welsh. Further, he encouraged his followers to
win land for themselves in North Wales, and to such good pur-
pose that in 1098 the earls of Chester and Shrewsbury had
almost conquered Anglesey. In that year, however, the Normans
discovered their weakness in sea power, without which the island
could not be held; the attempt to subjugate Gwynedd was aban-
doned. Progress in South Wales had been slower; the Conqueror
had here recognized the claims of Rhys ap Tewdwr (1078-1093),
who had stepped into the dominant position in the south through
the signal victory of Mynydd Carn (1081), won in comradeship
with Gruffydd ap Cynan of Gwynedd. On the death of Rhys, how-
ever, the floodgates were opened and Norman adventurers swept
irresistibly over the southern area.
During the reign of Henry I., the Welsh problem appeared to
have been settled. The Norman hold upon South Wales was com-
plete, extending even to the bishopric of St. David's, and the line
of Rhys ap Tewdwr was almost forgotten. Powys, the region be-
tween Chester and Machynllcth, kept its independence under the
posterity of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn (d. 1075), but it was much en-
feebled by the quarrels of the reigning house. The weak spot in
the Norman system was Gwyncdd; here, behind the shelter of
the Snowdonian range, Gruffydd ap Cynan (1081-1137) was able
to rebuild from humble beginnings the edifice overthrown by
Henry's father and brother. No sooner was the King's hand re-
moved by death than a revolt broke out against the foreign power,
in which the leaders were Gruffydd's sons, Owain and Cadwaladr,
backed by the renewed strength of Gwynedd. The reign of Ste-
phen marks a general revival of energy among the Welsh, who
profited to the full by the English civil war; Gwynedd, Powys
and Deheubarth became strong principalities under the respec-
tive leadership of Owain Gwynedd (1137-1170), Madog ap Mare-
dudd (1132-1160) and Rhys ap Gruffydd (1155-1197). It was
thus a hard task which Henry II. had before him when he
strove in Wales, as elsewhere, to re-establish the conditions of his
grandfather's rule; temporary success against Owain in 1157 and
against Rhys in 1163 was followed by virtual defeat in 1165,
296
WALES
[HISTORY
when storms drove him back from the Berwyn moorlands before
he had encountered the united forces of the Welsh. The Becket
quarrel and his Irish schemes induced him to reconsider his pol-
icy; he now resolved upon an alliance with Rhys ap Gruffydd,
whom events had made not only master of most of South Wales,
but also beyond question the leading Welsh prince. The pact be-
tween Henry and Rhys, concluded in September, 1171, was ob-
served until the King's death and bore fruit in the assistance
given by the Welsh to the crown in the rebellion of 1173-74.
Bard and chronicler alike sound the praises of "the Lord Rhys,"
who is also well known from the writings of his relative, Gerald
of Barry (Giraldus Cambrcnsis). The authentic history of the
Eisteddfod begins with the festival he held in Cardigan in 1176;
he was also the liberal patron of the Cistercian movement, and
supported Archbishop Baldwin, when in 1188 he made a tour of
Wales to preach the crusade.
The Power of Gwynedd.— After Rhys's death, the primacy
of Wales reverted to Gwynedd. A grandson of Owain, Llywelyn
ab lorwerth (1194—1240), ousted his rivals in that district and
proved his quality by the capture of Mold from the English
(IIQO). He had two external opponents to fear, the ruler of
Southern Powys and the English king. From Gwenwynwyn
(1195-1216) he wrested his dominions and, with Northern Powys
in vassalage, he remained arbiter of North Wales until his death.
John was, at first, friendly, but the inevitable struggle came in
1 21 1, and, having survived this ordeal, Llywelyn was able to co-
operate, first with the pope and then with the insurgent barons,
in the humiliation of the King. His services were recognised in
the Great Charter and he profited by the situation to carry his
arms into South Wales, where he became overlord of the descend-
ants of the Lord Rhys and aided them in the destruction of Nor-
man castles. Under Henry III., he was one of the magnates of
the English realm, wedded to a half-sister of the King, an ally
of the feudal party, attacked in vain by Hubert de Burgh in 1228.
Llywelyn's son, David (i 240-46), struggled to retain his father's
position, but died before the issue was finally determined. He
left no heir, and Gwynedd passed to his young nephews, against
whom Henry III. had no difficulty in asserting the royal power.
In 1255, however, Llywelyn ap Gruffydd defeated his brothers
at Bryn Derwin and prepared to repeat the triumphs of his grand-
father. Seizing the opportunity afforded by the baronial revolt, he
found himself lord in a few years of as wide a territory as his
great namesake; even the fall of his ally, Earl Simon, did not
check his progress, and by the Treaty of Montgomery (1267) he
was recognized as Prince of Wales (the first official appearance
of the title) and suzerain of the other Welsh chieftains. When
Edward I. succeeded, he was at the height of his power, but,
misjudging the situation, he soon lost all; resistance in 1277 led
to the forfeiture of everything save Western Gwynedd and his
title; a second rebellion in 1282 resulted in total overthrow and
death in a chance encounter not far from Builth (December nth).
The English Conquest.— In both his wars with Llywelyn the
Last, Edward had won his victory by the use of sea power against
Gwynedd. He had realized that it was only thus that Wales could
be crippled, namely by a final blow at the vulnerable danger-spot.
The dynasty was disposed of by the execution of David, Llywelyn's
brother, in 1283. But it was in a quite limited sense that Wales
was conquered at this time. Llywelyn's dominions were brought
by the Statute of Rhuddlan (1284) under the direct rule of the
crown; they were divided into counties, furnished with crown of-
ficials and protected by new castles and boroughs at Caernarvon,
Conway, Beaumaris, Criccieth, and Harlech. But the old marcher
lordships, .baronial preserves where the lords ruled as little kings
and royal writs did not run, were not interfered with; indeed,
their number was increased and new franchises arose around Den-
bigh, Ruthin, W'rexham and Chirk. Even the loyalist princes of
Powys and the Vale of Towy were left undisturbed and among
the smaller Welsh landowners the changes were far fewer than
might have been supposed. Indeed, in many respects the new
Wales differed little from the old. It was still a land of small, in-
dependent states, each governed by its own customs and inhabited
by a Welsh-speaking population, among whom the old Welsh cul-
ture flourished. Edward was no friend to marcher privileges; in
1291 he brought the lords of Brecknock and Glamorgan to book
for exercising the right of private war, and in 1301 he revived
the principality of Wales in the person of his son, seemingly in
order to create a Welsh authority which could bridle the barons.
But tradition was more potent than the royal will; under the weak
rule of Edward II., Wales became the battleground of baronial
factions and, when Edward III. in 1343 again created a Prince
of Wales, it was with a less ambitious purpose; the Black Prince
was hardly more than the chief Welsh landlord, the master of
Welsh archers and lancemen who fought with distinction under
him at Crecy and Poitiers.
There had been revolts of the Welsh under Rhys ap Maredudd
of Dryslwyn (1287), Madog ap Llywelyn of Meirionydd (1294)
and Llywelyn Bren of Senghenydd (1316). But, in the course of
the fourteenth century, resistance died down; even Anglesey, that
ancient focus of liberty, produced defenders of the crown such
as the Penmynydd family, ancestors of the Tudors, and Sir Hywel
of the Horseshoes, men who never forgave the murderers of Ed-
ward II. The country was growing more prosperous; market
towns came into existence, the abundance of wool led to the
making of Welsh frieze, and a thriving trade sprang up at ports
like Rhuddlan, Beaumaris, Haverfordwest and Carmarthen. It
is, therefore, startling to find, at the opening of the fifteenth cen-
tury, Wales convulsed by a new revolt, more formidable and
widespread than any of its predecessors.
Owain Glyn Dwr was the direct male representative of the
line of Northern Powys, with claims through his mother to the
lands of the Lord Rhys. At the accession of Henry IV., he held
a portion of this inheritance on the banks of the Dee and of the
Teify. When in 1400 he broke into rebellion, it was mainly to
vindicate personal wrongs. But Henry underestimated both the
hereditary prestige and the high abilities of this warrior of courage
and genius, with the result that Owain's power grew from year
to year and he was ere long emboldened to proclaim himself in-
dependent prince of Wales. The capture of his enemy Reginald
Grey gave him financial resources, that of Edmund Mortimer a
valuable ally. He concluded a treaty with Charles VI. of France,
won the castles of Harlech and Aberystwyth, held parliaments of
his subjects, and exercised in a large part of Wales the powers of
a ruling prince. The downfall of his friends, the Percys, at
Shrewsbury (1403) was not fatal to the movement; more seri-
ous was the failure of the French at Woodbury Hill (1405) and
the loss of the two castles (1408). As the difficulties of Henry IV.
gradually disappeared, Owain's cause became hopeless and he
died in hiding in 1416. He has never ceased to be the darling
hero of Welsh popular tradition.
The Glyn Dwr movement left Welsh society in ruins and dur-
ing the rest of the century recovery was but slow. Disorder re-
turned with the Wars of the Roses, in which Welshmen such
as Owen Tudor (d. 1461) and William Herbert, earl of Pembroke
(d. 1469), were deeply involved. It was a Tudor who at last
brought peace alike to England and Wales on the field of Bos-
worth, with a large Welsh following who reckoned that they
had avenged in this victory the wrongs of foreign rule.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. Haverfield, Military Aspects of Roman Wales
(1910) ; R. E. M. Wheeler, Prehistoric and Roman Wales, (1925) ;
J. E. Lloyd, History of Wales to the Edwardian Conquest (1912,
bibl.) ; J. E. Morris, Welsh Wars of Edward f. (1901) ; E. A. Lewis,
Mediaeval Boroughs of Snowdonia (1912, bibl.) ; W. Rees, South
Wales and the March, 1284-1415 (1924, bibl.) ; H. T. Evans, Wales
and the Wars of the Roses (1915, bibl.). (J. E. L.)
HISTORY: IL 1485 TO THE PRESENT DAY
Political and Legal Changes. — With the Tudor dynasty
firmly established certain constitutional changes intended to place
Welsh subjects on a complete social and political equality with
Englishmen have to be recorded. The Act of Union 1536 (37
Henry VIII.) converted the whole of the marches of Wales into
shire ground, and also created five new shires: Denbigh, Mont-
gomery, Radnor, Brecknock and Monmouth. At the same time,
remaining lordships were added to the existing Welsh shires of
Cardigan, Carmarthen, Glamorgan and Pembroke, to the further
HISTORY]
WALES
297
enlargement of their boundaries. Clause 26 of the same act like-
wise decreed that the 12 Welsh shires should return 24 members
to the English parliament; one for each shire, and one for the
boroughs in each shire (except Merioneth), and one for the town
and county of Haverf ordwest. It is probable that Welsh members
attended' the parliaments of 1536 and 1539, and it is certain that
they were present at the parliament of 1541 and every parlia-
ment subsequently held. This Act of Union was followed in
1542 by an "Act for certain Ordinances in the King's Majesty's
dominion and Principality of Wales" (34 and 35 Henry VIII. ),
which placed the court of the president and council of Wales and
the marches on a legal footing. This court, with a jurisdiction
akin to that of the Star Chamber, had originally been set up under
Edward IV. with the object of suppressing private feuds and
other illegalities amongst the lords-marcher and their retainers.
The council of Wales, with its headquarters at Ludlow, undoubt-
edly did good service on behalf of law and order under such
capable presidents as Bishop Rowland Lee and William Herbert,
earl of Pembroke ; but it had become an obsolete engine of oppres-
sion by the time of the Commonwealth, although it was not defi-
nitely abolished until the revolution of 1688. The act of 1542 also
enacted that courts of justice under the title of "the king's great
sessions in Wales" should sit twice a year in every county of
Wales, except Monmouth, which was thus formally declared an
English shire. For this purpose four circuits, two for North and
two for South Wales, were created; whilst justices of the peace
and lords-lieutenant for each shire were now appointed. At
the same time, all ancient Welsh laws and customs, which were at
variance with the recognized law of England, were now declared
illegal, and the old Cymric tenure by gavelkind, which had been
respected by Edward I., was expressly abolished and its place
taken by primogeniture. It was also enacted that all legal pro-
cedure must henceforth be conducted in English, an arrangement
that fell very heavily on poor monoglot Welshmen and a curiously
ungracious measure from a Welsh-born sovereign. Under this
system of the great sessions justice was administered throughout
the 12 shires of Wales for nearly 300 years, and it was not until
1830 that these Welsh sessions were abolished (not without some
protest from Welsh members at Westminster), and the existing
North and South Wales circuits were brought into being.
The Welsh Bible.— With the peaceful absorption of the
principality into the realm of the Tudors, the subsequent course
of Welsh history assumes mainly a religious and educational
character. As early as the reign of Henry VIII. there were to be
found at court and in the universities a number of ardent and
talented young Welshmen, adherents mostly of the reforming
party in Church and State, who were destined to bring about a
brilliant literary revival in their native land. Of this distinguished
band the two most memorable names are those of Bishop Richard
Davies (c. 1501-1581), and of William Salesbury, the scholar-
squire of Llanrwst (c. 1520-1600) in Denbighshire, who is com-
monly accounted the author of the first printed book in the Welsh
language, a small volume of proverbs with the title "Oil Synnwyr
pen Kembero," printed in London in or about 1545. With the
accession of Elizabeth a vigorous ecclesiastical policy on truly
national lines was now started in Wales itself, chiefly through the
influence of Richard Davies, then bishop of St. Davids, who was
doubtless responsible for the act of parliament of 1563 which
charged the bishops of St. Davids, Bangor, Llandaff, St. Asaph
and Hereford to prepare with all speed for public use Welsh
translations of the Scriptures and the Book of Common Prayer.
Of the five prelates thus named, Davies alone was competent to
perform the allotted task, and for assistance in his work of trans-
lation he summoned his old friend and former neighbour, William
Salesbury. The pair laboured together at Abergwili palace, near
Carmarthen, with such diligence that before the close of 1567 the
Welsh translations of the Liturgy and the New Testament were
published in London; the Liturgy being the exclusive work of
Bishop Davies, whilst the New Testament was translated by
Salesbury, with the exception of certain epistles from the pen of
the bishop and the Book of Revelation, which was contributed by
Thomas Huet (d. I5orV nrecentor of St. David's cathedral Rut
the honour of presenting his countrymen with a complete Welsh
translation of the Bible was reserved for William Morgan (c.
1547-1604), vicar of Llanrhaidar-yn-Mochnant in Denbighshire,
and afterwards bishop successively of Llandaff and of St. Asaph.
For eight years Morgan was busied with his self-imposed task,
being greatly helped and encouraged thereto by Archbishop Whit-
gift, by Bishop William Hughes (d. 1600) of St. Asaph, and by
other leading dignitaries of the Church. In Dec. 1588 the first
complete Welsh Bible was issued from the royal press at West-
minster under the patronage of queen and primate, some 800 to
1,000 copies being supplied for distribution, to be read in all the
parish churches of Wales. This famous editio princeps of the
Welsh Bible was supplanted later under James I. by the Author-
ized Version, translated by Bishop Richard Parry (1560-1623)
of St. Asaph, with the help of Dr. John Davies of Mallwyd (1570-
1644), the first great Welsh lexicographer. At the tercentenary
of "Bishop Morgan's Bible," in 1888, a memorial cross was
erected in the cathedral close of St. Asaph in order to perpetuate
the names and services of the eight leading Welsh translators:
Bishops Davies, Morgan and Parry; William Salesbury; Thomas
Huet; Dr. John Davies of Mallwyd; Archdeacon Edmund Prys
(1541-1624), author of a popular Welsh metrical version of the
Psalms; and Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster (1528-1601;,
a native of Ruthin, who had greatly assisted Bishop Morgan in
the work of printing and editing.
These translations of the Bible and Liturgy definitely fixed
the standard of classical Welsh.
Puritanism and the Civil Wars.— The growth of Puritanism
in Wales, where the people still clung largely to Catholic tradition,
was neither strong nor speedy, although the year 1588 (which
saw the publication of Bishop Morgan's Bible) gave birth to two
fierce appeals to parliament, urging a drastic puritanical policy in
Wales, from the pen of the celebrated John Penry, a native of
Brecknock (1559-1593). Far more influential than Penry were
Rhys Prichard (? 1579-1644), the famous vicar of Llandovery,
Carmarthenshire, and William Wroth (d. 1642), the puritan rector
of Llanfaches, Monmouthshire. Of these two divines, Vicar
Prichard, who was essentially orthodox, forms an interesting con-
necting link between the learned Elizabethan translators and the
great revivalists of the i8th century, and his moral rhymes in the
vernacular, collected and printed after his death under the title of
The Welshman's Candle (Canwyll y Cymry), still retain some
degree of popularity. Prichard rose to become chancellor of St.
David's cathedral; but the indiscreet Wroth, "the founder and
father of nonconformity in Wales," being suspended in 1638 by
Bishop Murray of Llandaff, founded a small community of Inde-
pendents at Llanfaches, which is thus commonly accounted the
first dissenting chapel in Wales. The effects, however, of the great
literary revival of Elizabeth's reign were by no means exhausted,
for during this period Wales certainly possessed many native
divines who were at once active parish priests and good scholars,
many of them having been educated at Jesus college, Oxford, the
Welsh college endowed by Dr. Hugh Price (d. 1574) and founded
under Elizabeth's patronage in 1573, So striking was tie devotion
shown throughout the principality to Charles I., who fought his
last disastrous campaigns in the friendly counties of Wales and the
marches, that on the final victory of the Parliament there was
passed within a month of the king's execution (perhaps as a
special measure of punishment) an "Act for the Better Propa-
gation and Preaching of the Gospel in Wales," by the terms of
which a packed body of 70 commissioners was given practically
unlimited powers to deal with all matters ecclesiastical in Wales.
To assist these commissioners in their task of enquiry and eject-
ment, a body of 25 "approvers" was likewise constituted, with the
object of selecting itinerant preachers to replace the dismissed
incumbents. Some 330 out of a possible total of 520 incumbents
were ejected in St. David's and Llandaff, and there is every reason
to suppose that the benefked clergy of Bangor and SL Asaph suf-
fered equally. A monster petition of protest, signed alike by
moderate Puritans and by High Churchmen, was prepared for
presentation to parliament in 1652 by Col. Edward Freeman, the
attornev-ffeneral for South Wales Desnite th* fierce effort* of
298
WALES
[HISTORY
Vavasor Powell and his friends to thwart the reception of this
petition at Westminster, Col. Freeman was able to urge the claims
and complaints of the petitioners, or "anti-propagators'1 as they
were termed, at the bar of the House of Commons, openly
declaring that by the late policy of ejectment and destruction
"the light of the Gospel was almost extinguished in Wales." At
the Restoration all the ejected clergy who survived were rein-
stated in their old benefices under the Act of Uniformity of 1662,
whilst many Puritan incumbents were in their turn dismissed for
refusing to comply with various requirements of that act.
Amongst these latter, Stephen Hughes of Carmarthen (1623-
1688), a devoted follower of Vicar Prichard and an editor of his
works, was ejected from his living of Mydrim in Carmarthenshire,
whereby the valuable services of this eminent divine were gained
by the Nonconformists, whose numbers had increased since the
Civil Wars. The old Church policy on national lines, begun by
Elizabeth and productive of so much good work in Wales, was
now gradually relaxed under the later Stuarts, and definitely
abandoned under their Hanoverian successors. Thus the Church,
which had so long played a valuable and prominent part in the
moral and intellectual progress of the Welsh people, was slowly
forced out of touch with the nation through the inaction of non-
resident and unsympathetic Whig prelates in Wales itself, which
still remained largely High Church and Jacobite in feeling.
Popular Education and the Methodist Revival. — All con-
temporary writers agree that the mass of the Welsh people at the
close of the i;th century were illiterate. English was little under-
stood or spoken amongst the rural population, and there was a
marked dearth of Welsh educational books. Some efforts to
remedy this dark state of things had already been made by
Thomas Gouge, with the assistance of Stephen Hughes, and also
by the newly-founded Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge. But it was Griffith Jones (1683-1761), rector of
Llanddowror in south Carmarthenshire, who was destined to
become the true pioneer of Welsh education, religious and secular.
Early in the reign of George I. this excellent man, whose name
and memory will ever be treasured in Wales, began a system of
catechizing in the vernacular among the children and adults of
his own parish. With the help of Sir John Philipps (d. 1736), of
Picton castle, and Mrs. Bridget Bevan of Laugharne (d. 1779),
who is still affectionately remembered in Wales as the pious
donor of "Madam Bevan's charity," Griffith Jones was enabled
to extend his scheme of popular education throughout South
Wales, where numerous "circulating charity schools," as they
were called, were set up in jural parishes with the approval of
their incumbents. The results obtained by the development of
these schools were speedy and successful beyond the wildest
hopes of their founder. This novel educational system in 1760
numbered 215 schools, with a total number of 8,687 scholars;
and by the date of Jones's death, in 1761, over 150,000 persons
of every age and of either sex — nearly a third of the whole popu-
lation of Wales at that date — had been taught to read the
Scriptures in their own language by means of these circulating
schools. With this newly acquired ability to read the Bible, the
many persons so taught were not slow to express a keen demand
for Cymric literature, which was met by a supply from local
presses in Wales. The success, in fact, of the Welsh circulating
schools created the Welsh vernacular press.
Meanwhile, the writings and personal example of the pious
rector of Llanddowror were stirring other Welshmen in the work
of revival, chief amongst them being Howe 11 Harris of Trevecca
(1713-1773), a layman of brilliant abilities but of erratic tempera-
ment, and Daniel Rowland (1713-1790), curate of Llangeitho in
Cardiganshire, who soon became the most eloquent and popular
preacher in all Wales. Two other clergymen who figure prom-
inently in this Methodist movement and whose influence has
proved lasting were Peter Williams of Carmarthen (1722-1796),
the Welsh Bible commentator, and William Williams of Panty-
celyn (1717-1791), the celebrated Welsh hymn-writer.
The Methodist Secession.— During the lifetime of Griffith
Jones the course of Welsh Methodism had run in orthodox
channels, and had been generally supported by the Welsh clergy
and gentry. But after 1761 the tendency to exceed the bounds
of conventional Church discipline grew so marked as to excite
the alarm of the English bishops in Wales. Yet the bulk of the
Methodists continued to receive the Sacraments from regularly or-
dained parish priests, although a schism was threatened. Towards
the close of tie i8th century the Methodist revival spread to
North Wales, through the influence of the celebrated Thomas
Charles, commonly called Charles of Bala (1755-1814), formerly
curate of Llanymawddwy and founder of Welsh Sunday schools.
Relations rapidly grew strained between the English rulers of the
Church and the Methodists, and in iSn the long-expected schism
took place, much to the regret of Charles himself, who had ever
professed himself a devoted disciple of Griffith Jones. The bulk
of the farming and labouring members of the Church definitely
seceded from their "ancient mother," to whom, however, the
Welsh gentry still adhered.
An honourable exception to the absentee or indifferent English
prelates of this period is to be found in Thomas Burgess, bishop
of St. David's, to whose exertions is mainly due the foundation
of St. David's college at Lampeter, an institution erected to pro-
vide a better and cheaper education for intending young Welsh
clergymen. It was not until 1870 that, by Gladstone's appoint-
ment of Dr. Joshua Hughes to the see of St. Asaph, the special
needs and claims of the Welsh Church were officially recognized.
Thus, between 1811 (the year of the Methodist secession) and
1832 (the date of the Reform bill), the number of dissenting
chapels had risen from 945 to 1,428. As the franchise was low-
ered, radicalism asserted itself. In 1870, the dissenting bodies
were supporting two quarterly, six monthly and ten weekly papers,
all published in the vernacular. A result was the Sunday Closing
Act of 1881 and the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889.
In 1893 Lord Rosebery's cabinet appointed the Welsh Land
Tenure Commission, whose report, published in 1896, did much
to exonerate the squirearchy from charges of extortion and sec-
tarian oppression. Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet ap-
pointed lie Welsh Church Commission (June 21, 1906), to enquire
into the temporalities of the Welsh Dioceses. The report was
published on Dec. 2, 1910.
In 1914, the Church question, which had been the pivot of
Welsh politics ever since 1868, was finally settled by the Act
for the Disestablishment and Disendowment of the Church in
Wales; but owing to the World War, the act itself was not put
into operation until April i, 1920. By that date, a governing
body, formed on elective principles and consisting of the three
orders of the Welsh bishops, clergy and laity, had been called into
being with a carefully drawn constitution, and at its first meeting
at Llandrindod Wells in April 1920 this body unanimously con-
firmed the election, by the Welsh bishops, of Bishop Edwards of
St. Asaph as first archbishop of Wales. Since 1920 two more
Welsh bishoprics have been formed — Monmouth in 1921, and
Swansea-and-Brecon in 1923.
Other Movements.— In the Rebecca Riots (g.v.) of 1843 in
South Wales many toll-gates were destroyed by mobs of country
men disguised in female garb as "the daughters of Rebecca about
to possess the gates of their enemies." In 1885-86 the anti-tithe
agitation — largely traceable to the violent language about clerical
tithe employed by certain organs of the vernacular press — led
to some disorderly scenes between the distraining police and the
country folk, especially in the Cardigan district. That peculiar
movement of religious enthusiasm known as a revival (diwygiad)
has occurred from time to time, notably in 1859 and 1904.
Educational Progress.— The University college of Wales was
founded at Aberystwyth in 1872; that of South Wales at Cardiff
in 1883; of Bangor in 1884; and of Swansea in 1920. In Nov.
1893 the constituent colleges were incorporated by royal charter
as the University of Wales, with Lord Aberdare (d. 1895) for
its first chancellor. In 1907 the creation of a Welsh department
of the Board of Education admitted the special claims of the
Welsh language in the schools. In July 1911, shortly after the
investiture by King George V. of the prince of Wales at Carnar-
von castle with much pomp, the foundation stone of the National
Library of Wales was laid by the King at Aberystwyth; and since
WALEWSKI— WALKER
299
that date the National Library has acquired a world-wide repu-
tation. In April 1927 the splendid buildings of the National
Museum of Wales were formally opened by the King at Cardiff.
A Welsh commission was made responsible for the administra-
tion in Wales of the National Health Insurance Act (1913).
Under the same act the campaign against tuberculosis was en-
trusted to the King Edward VII. (Welsh) National Memorial
Association. Under the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Act
(1913) Wales possesses its own board of representatives.
In the National Eisteddfod (q.v.), revived in the middle of last
century and held every August at some important centre of North
or South Wales alternately, the most fervent element of Welsh
nationalism is to be found; whilst local eisteddfodau are by no
means confined to the Welsh-speaking areas. A departmental
committee to inquire into the question of the Welsh language
issued its report in Aug. 1927.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. E. Lloyd, A History of Wales from the Earliest
Times to the Edwardian Conquest (1911); S. Baring-Gould and
Canon John Fisher, Lives of the British Saints, 4 vols. (London,
Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion, 1914) ; Sir J. Rhys and Sir D. Brynmor
Jones, The Welsh People (1906) ; Sir O. M. Edwards, Wales ("Story
of the Nations" series) ; Archdeacon Thomas, Davies and Salesbury
(Qswestry, 1902); J. Ballinger, The Bible in Wales (1906); J. R.
Phillips, Memoirs of the Civil Wars in Wales and the Marches, 1642-49
(1874); D- Ambrose Jones, History of the Church in Wales (Car-
marthen, 1926) ; Henry Owen, Gerald the Welshman (1889) ; Henry
Owen, The Administration of English Law in Wales and the Marches
(1900) ; Giraldus Cambrensis, The Itinerary of Wales in 1188, trans,
by Sir R. C. Hoare (various editions) ; Calendar of the Wynn (of
Gwydir) Papers (National Library of Wales, 1926) ; Transactions,
Y Cymmrodor and other Publications of the Hon. Society of Cymmro-
dorion of London, edit, by Sir E. Vincent Evans, C.H., LL.D.;
Journal and publications of "Archaeologia Cambrensis" (London).
(H. M. V.)
WALEWSKI, ALEXANDRE FLORIAN JOSEPH
COLONNA, COMTE (1810-1868), French politician and diplo-
matist, was born at Walewice near Warsaw on May 4, 1810, the
son of Napoleon I. and his mistress Marie, Countess Walewski. At
fourteen Walewski refused to enter the Russian army, escaping
to London and thence to Paris, where the French government
refused his extradition to the Russian authorities. Louis Philippe
sent him to Poland in 1830, and he was then entrusted by the
leaders of the Polish revolution with a mission to London. After
the fall of Warsaw he took out letters of naturalization in France
and entered the French army, seeing some service in Algeria. In
1837 he resigned his commission and began to write for the stage
and for the press. The accession of Louis Napoleon to the supreme
power in France guaranteed his career. He was sent as envoy
extraordinary to Florence, to Naples and then to London, where
he announced the coup d'ttat to Palmerston (q.v.). In 1855
Walewski succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as minister of foreign
affairs, and acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of
Paris next year. When he left the Foreign Office in 1860 it was
to become minister of state, an office which he held until 1863.
Senator from 1855 to 1865, he entered the Corps Legislatif in
1865, and was installed, by the emperor's interest, as president
of the Chamber. A revolt against his authority two years later
sent him back to the Senate. He died on Oct. 27, 1868.
WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897), American
soldier and economist, was born in Boston, Mass., on July 2, 1840.
His father, Amasa Walker (1799-1875), was also a distinguished
economist whose principal work, The Science of Wealth, attained
great popularity as a textbook. Francis Walker graduated at
Amherst college in 1860, studied law and fought in the Northern
army during the whole of the Civil War, being a prisoner in
the famous Libby prison, Richmond. After the war he became
editorial writer on the Springfield, Mass., Republican, and in 1869
was made chief of the Government bureau of statistics. He was
superintendent of the ninth and tenth censuses (those of 1870 and
1880), and (1871-72) commissioner of Indian affairs. From 1873
to his death bis work was educational, first as professor (1873-
81) of political economy in the Sheffield scientific school at Yale,
and then as president of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Boston. In other fields he promoted common-school edu-
cation (especially in manual training), the Boston park system,
and the work of the public library, and took an active part in
the discussion of monetary, economic, statistical and other public
questions. As an author he wrote on governmental treatment of
the Indians, The Wages Question (1876), Money (1878), Land
and its Rent (1883), General Political Economy (1883-84), and
various other works. As an economist, from the time of the
appearance of his book on the subject, he so effectively combated
the old theory of the "wage-fund" as to lead to its abandonment
or material modification by American students; while in his writ-
ings on finance, from 1878 to the end of his life, he advocated
international bimetallism. He died in Boston Jan. 5, 1897.
See James Phinney Munroe, A Life of Francis Amasa Walker
(1923).
WALKER, FREDERICK (1840-1875), English subject
painter, the son of a designer of jewellery, was born in Maryle-
bone, London, on May 24, 1840. His earliest book illustrations
appeared in 1860 in Once a Week. In the Cornhill Magazine, his
illustrations to Thackeray's Adventures of Philip and Denis
Duval, are spirited works. He was elected an associate of the
Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1864 and a full member
in 1866; and in 1871 he became an associate of the Royal Acad-
emy and an honorary member of the Belgian Society of Painters
in Water Colours. His first oil picture, 'The Lost Path," was
exhibited in the Royal Academy in 1863. In 1871 he exhibited
his tragic life-sized figure of UA Female Prisoner at the Bar," a
subject which now exists only in a finished oil study, for the
painter afterwards effaced the head and was prevented by death
from again completing the picture. On June 5, 1875 ^e died
of consumption at St. Fillan's, Perthshire.
Sec G. Marks Life and Letters of Frederick Walker, A.R.A., (1896) ;
Frederick Walker and his Works, by Claude Phillips (1897).
WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-1690), hero of the siege of
Londonderry, son of George Walker, rector of Kilmore and
chancellor of Armagh (d. 1677). In the Irish war of 1688,
Walker, though in Holy Orders and advanced in years, raised a
regiment and endeavoured to concert measures with Robert
Lundy, the acting governor of Londonderry, for the defence of
Dungannon who, however, ordered the abandonment of the
place on March 14, 1689.
On the approach of the enemy (April 13) Walker hurried
to Londonderry to inform Lundy, but was unable to convince him
of his danger. He returned to his men at Lifford, where, on the
i4<h, he took part in a brush with the enemy, afterwards follow-
ing the retreat of the army to 'Londonderry. The town was in
great confusion, and WTalker found the gates shut against him and
his regiment. He was forced to pass the night outside, and only
entered the next day "with much difficulty and «ome violence upon
the Gentry." Immediately on his arrival he urged Lundy to take
the field and refused the demand to disband his own soldiers.
On the i/th of April Lundy determined to give up the town to
James, and called a council from which Walker and others were .
especially excluded; but the next day the king and his troops,
who had advanced to receive the surrender, were fired upon from
the walls contrary to Lundy's orders, and the arrival of Captain
Adam Murray with a troop of horse saved the situation. Lundy
was deprived, and allowed to escape in disguise. On April 19
Walker and Baker were chosen joint-governors. Walker com-
manded fifteen companies, amounting to 900 men, and to him
was also entrusted the supervision of the commissariat. He
showed great energy, courage and resource throughout the siege,
and led several successful sallies. At the close of the siege, which
lasted 150 days, the town was at the last extremity; but at length,
on July 30, Walker preached the last of the sermons by which
he had helped to inspire its defence. An hour afterwards the
ships were seen approaching, and the town was relieved.
Walker was received by William and Mary at Hampton court
on Aug. 9, and presented with £5,000, part of which he appears
to have given to Baker's widow. He was nominated to the bishop-
ric of Londonderry, but was shot at the Boyne (July i, 1690).
While in London Walker had published A True Account of the
Siege of Londonderry (1689), dedicated to the king, which went
through several editions and was translated for perusal abroad.
In the Siege of Derry (1893) the Rev. Philip Dwyer has collected
300
WALKER
the most essential facts and materials relating to Walker and the
siege, and has reprinted in his volume Walker's True Account and
Vindication, together with Walker's sermons, various other documents
and valuable notes.
WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843-1928), American
artist, was born at Boston (Mass,) on May 14, 1843. He was a
pupil of Leon Bonnat, Paris, and painted the figure and occasional
portraits, but later devoted himself almost exclusively to mural
decoration. His paintings, symbolizing lyric poetry, for the Con-
gressional library, Washington, and his decorations for the Ap-
pellate Court house, New York city, the enlarged State house,
Boston, the Court house, Newark (N.J.) and the Capitol at St.
Paul (Minn.), are among his most important works. He died in
Belmont (Mass.) on Jan. 14, 1928.
WALKER, HORATIO (1858- ), American artist, was
born at Listowel, Ontario, Canada, May 12, 1858. When he was
a child his family settled at Rochester, N.Y. Although entirely
self-taught, he became a distinguished painter of animals, the
figure and landscape. His pictures, principally of Canadian peasant
life and scenes, show the influence of Troyon and Millet, mainly
in their feeling for largeness of composition, in solidity of paint-
ing and in the choice of themes. He became a member of the
National Academy of Design, New York, in 1891; of the Amer-
ican Water Color Society, and of the Royal Institute of Painters
in Water Colours, London.
WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699), master of University
College, Oxford, born at Darfield near Barnsley, Yorkshire, was
educated at University College. Oxford, becoming a fellow and
tutor. In 1648 he was deprived of his academic appointments,
but he returned to Oxford at the restoration of 1660. In June
1676 he was elected to the headship of this foundation. After
the accession of James II. he declared himself a Catholic,
being partly responsible for the tactless conduct of James in
forcing a quarrel with the fellows of Magdalen College. Mass
was said in his residence, and later a chapel was opened in the
college for Roman worship. He died on Jan. 21, 1699.
WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658), British painter, was a
contemporary and to a slight extent a follower of Van Dyck.
The date of his birth is uncertain, and no details are known of
his early life. His greatest vogue was at the time of the Common-
wealth, for in addition to several portraits of Cromwell he painted
others of Lambert, Ireton, Fleetwood, and many more members
of the Parliamentarian party. In 1652 he was given rooms in
Arundel House in the Strand, London, where he resided for the
rest of his life. He died either in 1658 or in 1660, the authority
for the earlier date being an inscription on an engraved portrait
by Lombart. His work was vigorous and showed sound study of
character. Several of his paintings, among them the portrait of
William Faithorne the elder, are in the National Portrait Gallery,
and there are others of notable importance at Hampton Court and
in the University galleries at Oxford. One of his portraits of
Cromwell Is in the Pitt! Palace, where It is ascribed to Lely. An-
other is at Warwick castle.
WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1860), an American
lawyer, economist, statesman and financial expert, probably ren-
dered his greatest public service when as secretary of the Treas-
ury under President Polk he proposed, during the summer of 1845
while the Oregon question endangered Anglo-American relations,
a reduction of the American tariff in anticipation of the repeal of
the British Corn Laws. His treasury report of Dec. 3 was a
masterly presentation of the situation, and has been regarded as
the most powerful attack upon the protective system ever made
in an American State paper. He practically formulated and
secured the passage of the "revenue" Walker Tariff Act of 1846
in conjunction with the repeal of the Corn Laws in Great Britain,
while the Oregon question, which had thus been forced into a
position of secondary importance, was "amicably" settled. Con-
sequently, during the next 15 years before the outbreak of the
Civil War (1861), Anglo-American commercial and investment
and political and social relations grew into a bond rivalling that
which had already developed between Lancashire and the cotton-
growing South, while the grain-growing North-west became an
element of strength in the struggle for the Union.
After the close of Folk's administration (1849), Mr. Walker
became an agent in England for the Illinois Central railroad, a
company in which Richard Cobden and some of his friends
became deeply interested; and during the Civil War, as the agent
of S. P. Chase, secretary of the Treasury, did valuable work in
Great Britain and Germany, destroying the credit of the Con-
federate States in the former, and borrowing $250,000,000 in the
latter. Mr. Walker's political career had begun during the nulli-
fication excitement of 1832—33, when at Natchez, Miss., on the
first Monday of Jan. 1833, he delivered an able Union speech
which attracted President Jackson's support and led to his elec-
tion to the U.S. Senate on Jan. 8, 1836. As an ardent expansion-
ist, he advocated the recognition of the republic of Texas (1837),
took a leading part in the movement for annexation, and at one
time during the war with Mexico wanted to acquire all of that
country; but in the case of Oregon, while ostensibly supporting
President Polk in a bold stand, he took the action mentioned above
and offered no opposition to acceptance of the 4Qth parallel.
In 1867-68 he rounded out his expansionist career by assisting
with great profit to himself in the Russian sale of Alaska to the
United States. As a constructive statesman, he was an important
factor in the reorganization of the American treasury system dur-
ing the 'forties, financed the war with Mexico, and advocated and
drafted the bill (1849) for the establishment of the Department
of the Interior. He was appointed territorial governor of Kansas
in the spring of 1857 by President Buchanan, but in November of
the same year resigned in disgust over the Lecompton constitu-
tion. From the beginning of his career he had been consistently
opposed to slavery, but favoured gradual rather than immediate
emancipation and as early as 1838 had freed his own slaves. Mr.
Walker was, indeed, more Northern than Southern in his general
inclinations. He was born, reared and educated in Pennsylvania,
and he graduated with honours in the University of Pennsylvania
(1829).
There is no biography of Robert J. Walker; but see sketches in
The Granite Monthly, XH. 90-01 ; The Green Bag, XV. 101-106;
and the detailed American histories covering the period of his life.
WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860), American adventurer,
was born in Nashville, Tenn,, on May 8, 1824. He graduated at
the University of Nashville in 1838, and in 1843 received his
M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. Later he studied law
and was admitted to the bar in New Orleans. On Oct. 15, 1853,
he sailed from San Francisco with a filibustering force for the
conquest of Mexican territory. He landed in Lower California,
and on Jan. 18, 1854, he proclaimed this and the neighbouring
State of Sonora an independent republic. Starvation and Mexican
attacks led to the abandonment of this enterprise, and Walker
resumed his journalistic work in California. On May 4, 1855, with
56 followers, Walker sailed for Nicaragua, where he had been
invited by one of the belligerent factions to come to its aid. In
October Walker seized a steamer on Lake Nicaragua belonging
to the Accessory Transit Company, a corporation of Americans
engaged in transporting freight and passengers across the isthmus,
and was thus enabled to surprise and capture Granada and to
make himself master of Nicaragua. Peace was then made;
Patricio Rivas, who had been neutral, was made provisional presi-
dent, and Walker secured the real power as commander of the
troops. At this time two officials of the Accessory Transit Com-
pany determined to use Walker as their tool to get control of
that corporation, then dominated by Cornelius Vanderbilt They
advanced him funds and transported his recruits from the United
States free of charge. In return Walker seized the property of
the company, on the pretext of a violation of its charter, and
turned over its equipment to the men who had befriended him.
On May 20, 1856, the new government was formally recognized at
Washington by President Pierce. Walker managed to maintain
himself against a coalition of Central American States, led by
Costa Rica, which was aided and abetted by agents of Cornelius
Vanderbilt, until May i, 1857, when, to avoid capture by the
natives, he surrendered to Commander Charles Henry Davis, of
the U.S. Navy, and returned to the United States. In Nov. 1857
WALKING— WALKING RACES
301
he sailed from Mobile with another expedition, but soon after
landing at Punta Arenas he was arrested by Commander Hiram
Paulding of the American Navy, and had to return to the United
States as a prisoner on parole. On his arrival he was released by
order of President Buchanan. After several unsuccessful attempts
to return to Central America, Walker finally sailed from Mobile in
Aug. 1860 and landed in Honduras. Here he was taken prisoner
by Capt. Salmon, of the British Navy, and was surrendered to the
Honduran authorities. He was executed Sept. 12, 1860.
See Walker's own narrative, accurate as to details, The War in
Nicaragua (Mobile, 1860) ; also William V. Wells, Walker's Expedition
to Nicaragua (1856) ; Charles William Doubleday, Reminiscences of
the "Filibuster" War in Nicaragua (1886); James Jeffrey Roche,
The Story of the Filibusters (1891), revised and reprinted as Byways
of War (1901) ; and William O. Scroggs, Filibusters and Financiers
(1916). (W. O. S.)
WALKING* the art of progression by setting one foot
methodically before the other, is the most venerable and universal
way of locomotion among mankind, and has been for a million
years. Walking in the nobler sense is a measured progress inspired
by the woods and hills, by rivers and the flowers of the field, a
serene partaking of the enduring sources of joy. Walking con-
duces to meditation. Or perhaps it should be said that only those
of philosophic spirit truly walk, receptive of the beauty which
is everywhere in nature unmarred by man. Walking and medita-
tive thought are bound together in the very name Peripatetic. As
they walked they pondered, and as they pondered they walked.
When the father of Chryseis walked silent along the shore of the
much-resounding sea, he was inspired to seek aid of the lord of
the silver bow, thereby recovering his beloved daughter. In the
Orient, land of innumerable pilgrims, serene walking and worthy
thinking go together. A Sutta tells us how the Buddha, descending
from Vulture peak, came to the verge of the lotus lake where the
peacocks were fed, and walked to and fro taking the air on the
lawn of the peacocks.
Walking in the finest sense is for joy. It is notable that an
early example of one who walked because he preferred to walk is
Paul of Tarsus. He was on his way for the last time to Jerusalem,
having come by boat from Philippi to the Troad. Then he sent
his company by ship around the peninsula to Assos, "for so had he
appointed, minding himself to go afoot."
Walking for love of a noble form of exercise, to enjoy the com-
panionship of natural beauty, is hardly known in the classics.
Xenophon and his companions trudged sturdily, but not for
pleasure. Cicero has much to say, in the dialogue concerning
Old Age, of the happiness of walking in a garden or among trel-
lised vines, but we must await another age for the right celebra-
tion of the Euganean hills. So through the middle ages. There
were roads and men traversed them, but the Canterbury pilgrims
journeyed on horseback. Goldsmith, in The Traveller, records
HEEL-AND-TOE WALKING FORM SHOWN IN SUCCESSIVE MOVEMENTS
an inspiring tour through storied lands, but his mood was melan-
choly and friendless; nor is it recorded that he found solace afoot
among the fields and woods of England. Rousseau is a more con-
vinced walker, "What I most regret/' he says, "is that I kept no
records of my journeyings. Never have I thought so much, existed
so much, lived so much, been so much myself, if I may dare to
say it, as when I went alone and afoot." Long-legged Thomas
Carlyie was a mighty walker, and he often went alone, given up to
reflection in the silence of the moors and hills. Going forth in
the white of the dawn from Muirkirk, where Duneaton water
crosses the border of Ayr, he made his way through the heather
of the Lowther hills, coming by nightfall to Dumfries, a good
four and fifty miles. Wordsworth was untiring. His friend De
Quincey held that with those identical legs Wordsworth must
have traversed a distance that would have taken him seven times
around the world, adding that to this mode of exertion "he was
endebted for a life of unclouded happiness, and we for much of
what is most excellent in his writings. "
Walking merges into mountain climbing. The countrymen of
Wordsworth have scaled notable peaks. James Bryce may stand
as the type of these vigorous islanders, whether he was striding
up Mount Ararat, or gaining a summit of the Basuto hills, or
sturdily threading the trails of the New Hampshire uplands. Hud-
son holds a high place among famous walkers. The uplands and
moors and beech woods of England, the stern reaches of Corn-
wall, live and breathe in his books.
Emerson's Monadnock journey is notable, but Thoreau is the
best of American walkers and the worthiest recorder of the en-
during worth of walking. His wandering through the White moun-
tains, when he saw the pine grosbeaks, breathes the spirit of the
ancient hills. The pilgrimage along Cape Cod is good history and
excellent writing. The ascent of Katahdin carries the fragrance
of primeval woods. Even more characteristic of his spirit are the
walks about his own Concord, for which he has wrought an endur-
ing monument.
WALKING RACES, an athletic sport, on road or track.
These enjoyed a greater popularity in England than in any other
country up to the time of the fourth Olympiad held in London in
1908. When the English championships were instituted in 1866
a 7m. walk was incorporated in the programme, the first title
holder being J. G. Chambers, C.U.A.C., who covered the distance
in 5gmins. 32secs. Despite this initial success of a university
athlete, walking races have never figured in the programme of
the Oxford and Cambridge sports. In 1893 the English cham-
pionship distance was reduced to 401., but in 1901 the programme
was again revised; the 4111. distance was reduced to 2m. and the
7m. walk was reinstated.
When the American championships were instituted in 1876
walking races were included at i, 3 and 7m. The 7m. walk was
dropped in 1878, replaced in 1879, dropped again in 1885, and
again replaced in 1912. The 3m. was dropped in 1897 and resumed
in 1907, while the im. walk survived until 1898, was restored in
1907 and finally abandoned in 1909.
Walking has never attained to any degree of popularity in the
United States and there is no doubt that, once abandoned, the
championship events would not have been revived but for the
circumstance of the inclusion, for the first time, of walking races
in the Olympic Games of London, 1908. This addition having been
decided upon, American sportsmen set out to produce national
champions as potential Olympic points scorers. The British do-
minions overseas, Denmark and Italy also began to take an
interest in this form of athletics. Walking races at 3,500 metres
(3,827yds.), and lorn, formed part of the Olympic programme in
1908. Both events were won by a Brighton policeman, G. E.
Larner, with E. J. Webb, who had been both sailor and soldier,
second. In the 3,500 metres, H. E. Kerr, Australasia, was third;
G. Goulding, Canada, fourth; A. E. M. Rowland, Australasia,
fifth; C. P. M. Westergaard, Denmark, sixth; and E. Rothmanf
Sweden, seventh. At the longer distance all six places were filled
by representatives of Great Britain. The fifth Olympiad at Stock-
holm included only one walk, i.e., 10,000 metres (6m. 376^yds.).
Goulding, Canada, won from Webb, Great Britain, in 46mins.
28§secs. This race was notable by the fact that A. Rasmussen,
Denmark, finished third and F. Altimani, Italy, fourth. Neither
of these men ever won an Olympic contest, but in 1913 Altimani
achieved "noteworthy performances," not accepted as records,
since there were only two time-keepers, at all distances from a
half-mile in 3mins. ysecs., to 8m. in 57mins. 43fsecs., while
Rasmussen in 1918 set up world's records at 3,000 metres, lamins.
53$secs.; 5,000 metres, simins. S9|secs.; 10,000 metres, 4smins.
26|secs.; and 15,000 metres, ihr. lomins. 23secs. At the seventh
Olympiad, Antwerp, 1920, two walks were again included and
302
WALKLEY— WALLACE
the growing fame of Italy was finally established by Ugo Frigerio,
who won the 3,000 metres race from G. L. Parker, Australia, and
R. F. Remer, U.S.A., in i3mins. i^secs., and the 10,000 metres
from J. B. Pearman, U.S.A., and C. E. J. Gunn, Great Britain, in
48mins. 6llsecs, The 10,000 metres walk at Paris, 1924, was again
won by Frigerio in 47mins. 49secs. from G. R. Goodwin, Great
Britain, and C, C. McMaster, South Africa.
At the eighth congress of the I.A.A.F., 1927, America, Australia,
Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Ireland, Italy and South Africa
voted for the retention of walking as an Olympic event, while
Austria, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Norway, Rumania,
Sweden and Switzerland opposed the motion; the representatives
of Belgium and Poland refrained from voting, and walking races
were, therefore, deleted by 9 votes to 8.
In race walking almost all the athlete's muscles are active and
few contests are more trying. Under the rules governing fair
"heel and toe" walking the knee of the grounded leg must be
locked and the walker must not lift the rear toe until the forward
heel has touched the ground. In 1928 the records were: —
Race.
Time.
Winner.
Country.
Date.
hrs. mins. sees.
i in ill-
6 2fy
G. H. Goulding
Canada
IQIO
2 miles
1$ i ' 2 f>
(». K. Larncr
Gt. Britain
1904
3
20 25*5'
,,
»»
1905
4
27 14
>f
,,
1905
5
3<> 0>5
»»
,,
1905
6
43 26,1-5'
ji
, ,
I90S
7
50 4045
G. II. (Wmlding
Canada
I9IS
8
5» i8?5
(i. E. Larncr
(it. Britain
I90S
Q
i 7 37*5
,,
,,
igo8
IO
i 15 5 7 "5
>«
>»
1908
15
i SO i**R
H. V. L. Ross
1QII
2O
* 47 5-1
T. Griffith
»
1870
*5
3 37 »4i
S. C. A. Schofield
»
IQII
i nour
8 mi. s66 vds.
N. Altimani
Italy
1928
2 hours
15 „ 'n«",,
H. V. L. Ross
,,
IQII
5
35 M 48?ft ,,
Ugo Frigerio
7>
*9~5
c> „
•M it y4s M
-
See S. A. Mussabini, The Complete Athletic Trainer (1913) ; Silf-
verstrand and Rasmussen, Illustrated Text Book of Athletics (1926).
(F. A. M. W.)
WALKLEY, ARTHUR BINGHAM (1855-1926), Eng-
lish dramatic critic, son of Arthur Hickman Walklcy, was born
at Bristol on Dec. 17, 1855. He was educated at Warminster
school, Balliol and Corpus Christi colleges, Oxford. In 1877 he
entered the Post Office in a junior capacity, rising to become
assistant secretary in 1911. He was dramatic critic to the Star,
the Speaker and the Times.
His criticism was none the less serious for being shrewd and
witty, and was given greater value by his determination "that his
work was the creative art of letters not the writing of news."
Two volumes have been published of his collected Times articles.
He died at Brightlingsea, on Oct. 7, 1926.
WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778), diplomatist and minister
in the Spanish service, belonged to a family settled in Waterford.
Debarred from public service at home as a Roman Catholic, he
served in an Irish regiment — probably — of the Spanish army
during the expedition to Sicily in 1718. Appointed secretary to
the duke of Liria, his knowledge of languages, his adaptability, his
Irish wit and self-confidence made him a favourite not only with
the duke of Liria, but with other Spanish authorities. He became
known to Jose Patino, minister to Philip V., and was sent by him
on a mission to Spanish America. In 1747 he was employed in the
peace negotiations at Aix-la-Chapelle, and in 1748 was named
minister in London, where he was popular. A partisan of an
English alliance, his views recommended him to the favour of
Ferdinand VI. (1746-59), whose policy was resolutely peaceful.
From 1752-64 he was minister of foreign affairs at Madrid.
Charles III. (1759-88) continued Wall in office, but the king's
close relations with the French branch of the House of Bourbon
made Wall's position very trying: as a foreigner he was suspected
of favour to the English. Charles, however, detested changing
his ministers and Wall only extorted leave in 1764 by feigning a
disease of the eyes. He was given a handsome allowance and a
grant for life of the crown land near Granada, which afterwards
became Godoy's and finally, the duke of Wellington's.
See Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon
(London, 1815) ; Document os intditos para la historia de Espana, vol.
xciii. (Madrid, 1842 et seq.).
WALLABY or BRUSH KANGAROO, names applied to
the members of a section of the genus Macropus, kangaroos with
naked muffle frequenting forests and scrubs. (See KANGAROO.)
WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823-1913), British
naturalist, was born at Usk, Monmouthshire, on Jan. 8, 1823.
After leaving school he worked as a land surveyor and architect.
About 1840 he began to take an interest in botany, and began the
formation of a herbarium. In 1844-1845, while an English master
in the Collegiate School at Leicester, he met II. W. Bates, through
whose influence he became a beetle collector, and with whom he
started in 1848 on an expedition to the Amazon. In March 1850
the two naturalists separated, and each wrote an account of his
travels and observations. Wallace's Travels on the Amazon and
Rio Negro was published in 1853. On his voyage home from
South America the ship was burnt and his collections lost, except
those which he had despatched beforehand. In 1854-62 he made
a tour in the Malay Archipelago. His deeply interesting narra-
tive, The Malay Archipelago, appeared in 1869. The chief parts
of his vast insect collections eventually passed into the Hope
Collection of the university of Oxford and the British Museum,
Wallace divided the Malay Archipelago into a western group of
islands, which in their zoological affinities arc Oriental, and an
eastern, which are Australian. The Oriental Borneo and Bali
are respectively divided from Celebes and Lornbok by a narrow
belt of sea known as "Wallace's Line," on the opposite sides of
which the indigenous mammalia are as widely divergent as in any
two parts of the world. Wallace originated the theory of natural
selection during these travels.
Origin of Species.— In February 1855, staying at Sarawak,
in Borneo, he wrote an essay "On the Law which has regulated
the Introduction of New Species" (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,
J855, p. 184). He states the Jaw as follows: "Every species has
come into existence coincident both in time and space with a
pre-existing closely-allied species." For three years, so he tells us,
"the question of how changes of species could have been
brought about was rarely out of my mind." Finally, in February
1858, during a severe attack of intermittent fever at Ternate, in
the Moluccas, he began to think of Malthus's Essay on Popula-
tion, and, to use his own words, "there suddenly flashed upon me
the idea of the survival of the fittest." The theory was thought
out during the rest of the ague fit, drafted the same evening,
written out in full in the two succeeding evenings, and sent to
Darwin by the next post. Darwin in England at once recognized
his own theory in the manuscript essay sent by the young and
almost unknown naturalist in the tropics, then a stranger to him.
4<I never saw a more striking coincidence," he wrote to Lyell on
the very day, on June 18, when he received the paper: "if
Wallace had my ms. sketch written out in 1842, he could not
have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as
heads of my chapters."
Under the advice of Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph Hooker,
the essay was read, together with an abstract of Darwin's own
views, as a joint paper at the Linnean Society on July i, 1858.
The title of Wallace's section was "On the Tendency of Varieties
to depart indefinitely from the Original Type/' The "struggle
for existence," the rate of multiplication of animals, and the
dependence of their average numbers upon food supply, are very
clearly demonstrated, and the following conclusion was reached:
"Those that prolong their existence can only be the most perfect
in health and vigour; ... the weakest and least perfectly or-
ganized must always succumb."
The difference between Lamarck's theory and natural selection
is very clearly pointed out. "The powerful retractile talons of
the falcon and the cat tribes have not been produced or in-
creased by the volition of those animals; but among the different
WALLACE
303
varieties which occurred in the earlier and less highly organized
forms of these groups, those always survived longest which had
the greatest facilities for seizing their prey. Neither did the
giraffe acquire its long neck by desiring to reach the foliage of
more lofty shrubs, arid constantly stretching its neck for the
purpose, but because any varieties which occurred among its
antitypes with a longer neck than usual at once secured a jresh
range of pasture over the same ground as their shorter-necked
companions, and on the first scarcity of food were thereby enabled
to outlive them.'9 With such clear statements as these in the paper
of July i, 1858, it is remarkable that even well-known natu-
ralists should have failed to comprehend the difference between
Lamarck's and the Darwin-Wallace theory. Wallace also alluded
to the resemblance of animals, and more especially of insects, to
their surroundings, and points out that "those races having colours
best adapted to concealment from their enemies would inevitably
survive the longest."
Natural Selection. — In 1870 Wallace's two essays, written at
Sarawak and Ternate, were published with others as a volume,
Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. In the ad-
ditional essays, the new theory is applied to the interpretation
of certain classes of facts. In this and other works, Wallace dif-
fers from Darwin on certain points. Thus the two concluding
essays contend that man has not, like the other animals, been pro-
duced by the unaided operation of natural selection, but that
other forces have also been in operation. We here see the in-
fluence of his convictions on the subject of "spiritualism." He
expressed his dissatisfaction with the hypothesis of "sexual selec-
tion" by which Darwin sought to explain the conspicuous char-
acters which are displayed during the courtship of animals. The
expression of his opinion on both these points of divergence from
Darwin will be found in Darwinism (1889).
Darwin died before the controversy upon the possibility of
the hereditary transmission of acquired characters arose over
the writings of Weismann, but Wallace freely accepted the gen-
eral results of the German zoologist's teaching, and in Darwin-
ism has presented a complete theory of the causes of evolution
unmixed with any trace of Lamarck's use or disuse of inheritance,
or Buffon's hereditary effect of the direct influence of surround-
ings. Tropical Nature and other Essays appeared in 1878, since
republishcd combined with the 1871 Essays, of which it formed
the natural continuation. His Geographical Distribution of Ani-
mals (1876), is a monumental work, which justifies its author's
hope that it may bear "a similar relation to the eleventh and
twelfth chapters of the Origin of Species as Mr. Darwin's Ani-
mals and Plants under Domestication bears to the first." Island
Life, a supplement to the last-named work, appeared in 1880.
Miscellaneous Works.— -Wallace published Miracles and
Modern Spiritualism in 1875 (new ed. 1896). Here is given an
account of the reasons which induced him to accept beliefs which
are shared by so small a proportion of scientific men. These
reasons arc purely experimental, and in no way connected with
Christianity, for he had long before given up all belief in revealed
religion. In 1882 he* published Land Nationalization, in which he
argued the necessity of sta^e ownership of land, a principle which
he had originated long before the appearance of Henry George's
work. In Forty- five Years of Registration Statistics (1885) he
maintained that vaccination is useless and dangerous. Wallace
also published an account of what he held to be the greatest dis-
coveries as well as the failures of the igth century, The Won-
derful Century (1898; new ed. 1903). His later works include
Studies, Scientific and Social (1900), Man's Place in the Universe
(1903) and his Autobiography (1905). Later works were The
World and Life (1910) and Social Environment and Moral Pro-
gress (1912). Possessed of a bold and original mind, his activities
radiated in many directions, apparently rather attracted than re-
pelled by the unpopularity of a subject. A non-theological Atha-
nasius contra mundum, he has the truest missionary spirit.
Wallace was married' in 1866 to the eldest daughter of the
botanist, William Mitten, of Hurstpierpoint, Sussex. In 1871
he built a house at Grays, Essex, in an old chalk-pit, and after
living there five years, moved successively to Croydon (two years)
and Dorking (three years). In 1881 he built a cottage at Go-
dalming near the Charterhouse school, and grew nearly 1,000
species of plants in the garden which he made. In 1889 he moved
to Dorsetshire. After his return to England in 1862 Wallace
visited the continent, especially Switzerland, for rest and change
(1866, 1896) and the study of botany and glacial phenomena
(August 1895). In October 1887 he went for a lecturing tour in
the United States. He delivered six Lowell lectures in Boston.
He saw the Yosemite Valley, the Big Trees, and botanized in the
Sierra Nevada and at Gray's Peak.
The first Darwin medal of the Royal Society was awarded to
A. R. Wallace in 1890, and he had received the Royal medal in
1868. A pension was awarded him by Mr. Gladstone at the
beginning of 1881. In 1910 he received the Order of Merit.
Wallace died at Broadstone, Dorset, on Nov. 7, 1913.
See A. R. Wallace, My Life (new ed., 1908) ; J. Marchant, A. R.
Wallace: letters and reminiscenses (2 vols., 1916) ; L. T. Hogben, A. R.
Wallace (1918) ; B. Petronijevic, C. Darwin and A. R. Wallace (1925).
WALLACE, SIR DONALD MACKENZIE (1841-1919),
British author and journalist, was born on Nov. n, 1841. He was
educated at the universities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Berlin and
Heidelberg and at the Ecole de Droit, Paris. When 28 years of
age he was invited by a friend to visit Russia, and became so
much interested that he remained there for six years. His Russia
(1877) had a great success, and was at once recognized as a classic.
Mackenzie WTallace acted as correspondent of The Times in St.
Petersburg (Leningrad), Berlin and Constantinople, and after the
battle of Tell-el-Kebir (1882) in Egypt. From 1884-89 he was
in India as private secretary to the viceroy, Lord Dufferin, and
to his successor, Lord Lansdowne. From 1891-99 he was director
of the foreign department of The Times. In 1899 he undertook
the editorship of the New Volumes (issued in 1902 as the loth
edition) of The Encyclopedia Britannica, but only remained on
this work a few months. He had been created K.C.I.E. in 1887,
and was made K.C.V.O. in 1901. In addition to his book on
Russia he published Egypt and the Egyptian Question (1883) and
The Web of Empire (1902). Wallace died at Lymington, Hants,
on Jan. 10, 1919.
WALLACE, LEWIS (LEW) (1827-1905), American sol-
dier and author, was born at Brookville (Ind.), April 10, 1827.
He abandoned law in Indianapolis to recruit volunteers for the
Mexican War, and served in 1846-47. In the Civil War he
served in the West Virginia campaign. After the capture of Fort
Donelson as major-general, he was engaged at Shiloh, and com-
manded the Eighth Corps at Baltimore. By delaying the Con-
federate general J. A. Early at Monocacy he saved Washington
from almost certain capture. General Wallace served as presi-
dent of the courts of inquiry which investigated the conduct of
General D. C. Buell and condemned Henry Wirz, commander of
the Confederate prison at Andersonville (Ga.). He was also a
member of the court which tried the alleged conspirators against
President Lincoln. He resigned from the Army in 1865 to return to
the bar. He served as governor of New Mexico Territory (1878-
?*i) and as minister to Turkey (1881-85), but declined the mission
to Brazil under President Harrison. He died at Crawfordsvillr
(Ind.), Feb. 15, 1905. His literary reputation rests upon three
historical romances: The Fair God (1873), a story of the con-
quest of Mexico; The Prince of India (1893), dealing with the
Wandering Jew and the Byzantine empire ; and his greatest popu-
lar success, Ben Hur (1880), an absorbing tale of the coming of
Christ, which was translated into several languages, and provided
spectacular entertainment on the stage and in moving pictures, the
chariot scene being famous. Lew Wallace: An Autobiography was
published in 1906.
WALLACE. SIR RICHARD, BART. (1818-1890), English
art collector and philanthropist, was born in London on July 26,
1818, and died in Paris on July 20, 1890. He was a natural son
of the fourth Marquess of Hertford and Agnes Jackson and was
educated, mainly at Paris under the auspices of his father 'smother,
Maria, wife of the third marquess. At Paris he was well known in
society, and became an assiduous collector of all sorts of valuable
objcts d'art. From 1857 Wallace devoted himself to assisting his
304
WALLACE
father, in Paris, to acquire a magnificent collection of the finest
examples of painting, armour, furniture and bric-a-brac. In 1870
the Marquess of Hertford died unmarried, bequeathing to Wallace
Hertford house and its contents, the house in Paris, and large
Irish estates. Some of the finest things in the collection were
then transferred to Hertford house. In 1871 he was created a
baronet for his services in relief and hospital equipment during
the siege of Paris. From 1873 to 1885 he sat in parliament for
Lisburn, but he lived mostly in Paris among his art treasures. In
1878 he was one of the British commissioners at the Paris Exhibi-
tion, and he was also a trustee of the National Gallery and a
governor of the National Gallery of Ireland. He married in 1871
the daughter of a French officer, and Lady Wallace, who died in
1897, bequeathed his great art collection to the British nation. It
is now housed in Hertford house, Manchester square, London,
which was acquired and adapted by the government.
See biography in Catalogue of the Wallace Collection.
WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305), the popular
national hero of Scotland, is believed to have been the second son
of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie and Auchinbothie, in Ren-
frewshire. The only authority for the events of his early life is
the metrical history of Blind Harry, who lived about two centuries
later than Wallace, during which a considerable body of legend
had probably gathered round the name. At the same time he
professes to follow as his "autour" an account that had been
written in Latin by John Blair, the personal friend and chaplain
of Wallace himself. Blair's account has perished.
In his boyhood, according to the usual accounts, he resided
for some time at Dunipace, in Stirlingshire, with an uncle, who
is styled "parson1* of the place. His education was continued at
Dundee, where he made the acquaintance of John Blair. On ac-
count of an incident that happened at Dundee — his slaughter of
a young Englishman named Selby, for an insult offered to him —
he is said to have been outlawed, and so driven into rebellion
against the English. He gradually gathered round him a body of
desperate men whom he led in various attacks upon the English.
Several of the more patriotic nobles — including the steward of
Scotland, Sir Andrew Moray, Sir John de Graham, Douglas the
Hardy, Wishart, bishop of Glasgow, and others — joined him. An
attack was made upon the English justiciar, Ormsby, who was
holding his court at Scone. The justiciar himself escaped, but
many of his followers were captured or slain. The burning of the
Barns of Ayr, the quarters of English soldiers, in revenge for the
treacherous slaughter of his uncle, Sir Ronald Crawford, and other
Scottish noblemen, followed.
The success of these exploits induced the English king to send
an army, under the command of Sir Henry Percy and Sir Robert
Clifford, against the insurgents. The English came up with Wal-
lace at Irvine, when all Wallace's titled friends left him and made
submission to Edward, except the ever faithful Sir Andrew Moray.
The treaty of Irvine by which these Scottish nobles made submis-
sion, is printed in Rymer's Foedera. It is dated July 9, 1297, and
is the first public document in which the name of Sir William Wal-
lace occurs. Wallace retired to the north, and although deserted
by the barons was soon at the head of a large army. In a short
time he recovered almost all the fortresses held by the English to
the north of the Forth. He had begun the siege of Dundee when
he heard that an English army, led by the earl of Surrey and
Cressingham the treasurer, was on its march northward.
Battle of Stirling. — Leaving the citizens of Dundee to con-
tinue the siege of the castle, he made a rapid march to Stirling.
Encamping in the neighbourhood of the Abbey Craig — on which
now stands the national monument to his memory — he watched
the passage of the Forth. After an unsuccessful attempt to bring
Wallace to terms, the English commander, on the morning of
Sept. 11, 1297, began to cross the bridge. When about one half
of his army had crossed, and while they were still in disorder, they
were attacked with such fury by Wallace, that almost all—
Cressingham among the number — were slain, or driven into the
river and drowned. Those on the south side of the river were
seized with panic and fled tumultuously, having first set fire to
the bridge. The Scots, however, crossed by a ford, and continued
the pursuit as far as Berwick. Sir Andrew Moray was killed.
Its results were important. The English were everywhere driven
from Scotland. To increase the alarm of the English, as well as to
relieve the famine which then prevailed, Wallace organized a great
raid into the north of England, in the course of which he devas-
tated the country to the gates of Newcastle. On his return he was
elected guardian of the kingdom. In this office he set himself to
reorganize the army and to regulate the affairs of the country. His
measures were marked by much wisdom and vigour, and for a
short time succeeded in securing order, even in the face of the
jealousy and opposition of the nobles.
Battle of Falkirk.-- Edward was in Flanders when the news of
this successful revolt reached him. He hastened home, and at the
head of a great army entered Scotland in July 1298. Wallace
slowly retired before the English monarch, driving off all sup-
plies and wasting the country. The nobles as usual for the most
part deserted his standard. Edward, compelled by famine, had al-
ready given orders for a retreat when he received information of
Wallace's position and intentions. The army, then at Kirkliston,
was immediately set in motion, and next morning (July 22, 1298)
Wallace was brought to battle in the vicinity of Falkirk. After an
obstinate fight the Scots were overpowered and defeated with great
loss. Among the slain was Sir John de Graham, the bosom friend
of Wallace, whose death, as Blind Harry tells, threw the hero into
a frenzy of rage and grief. The account of his distress is one of
the finest and most touching passages in the poem. With the re-
mains of his army Wallace found refuge for the night in the Tor-
wood — known to him from his boyish life at Dunipace. tie then
retreated to the north, burning the town and castle of Stirling on
his way. He resigned the office of guardian, and betook himself
again to predatory warfare against the English.
Betrayal. — At this point his history again becomes obscure.
He is known to have paid a visit to France, with the purpose of
obtaining aid for his country from the French king. This visit is
narrated with many untrustworthy details by Blind Harry; but
the fact is established by other and indisputable evidence. When
in the winter of 1303-1304 Edward received the submission of
the Scottish nobles, Wallace was expressly excepted from all terms.
A price was set upon his head, and the English governors and cap-
tains in Scotland had orders to use every means for his capture.
On Aug. 5, 1305 he was taken — as is generally alleged, through
treachery — at Robroyston, near Glasgow, by Sir John Menteith,
carried to the castle of Dumbarton, and thence conveyed in fetters
and strongly guarded to London. He reached London on the 22nd
of August, and next day was taken to Westminster Hall, where
he was impeached as a traitor by Sir Peter Mallorie, the king's
justice. To the accusation Wallace made the simple reply that he
could not be a traitor to the king of England, for he never was his
subject, and never swore fealty to him. He was found guilty and
condemned to death. The sentence was executed the same day
with circumstances of unusual cruelty.
For bibliography see the article in the Diet. Nat. Bio%. The
principal modern lives are James Moir's (1886), and A. F. Murison's
(1898). • (A. F.Hu.jX)
WALLACE. WILLIAM VINCENT (1812-1865), Irish
composer, was born at Waterford, Ireland, on Mar. n, 1812.
He led a roving and adventurous career in Australia, the South
Seas, India, and S. America. In 1845 he settled in London and
in November of that year his opera Maritana was played at
Drury Lane theatre with great success. This was followed by
Matilda of Hungary (1847), Lurtine (1860), The Amber Witch
(1861), Love's Triumph (1862), and The Desert Flower (1863).
He also composed for the piano. He died on Oct. 12, 1865.
WALLACE, a city of Idaho, on the Coeur d'Alene river.
Pop. (1928 estimate) 3,500. The city lies in a cup in the moun-
tains, at an altitude of 2,733 ft., and is the trading centre for the
Coeur d'Alene mining district, which produces 25% of the lead
and 20% of the silver mined in the Unite^ States and had in 1927
a total output valued at $28,574,891. About 25 m. W, is the old
Idaho Mission, built in 1853 without nails by three Jesuit priests,
aided by the Coeur d'Alene Indians. Wallace was settled in 1884
and incorporated in 1892.
WALLACK— WALLENSTEIN
305
WALLACK, JAMES WILLIAM (1795-1864), Anglo-
American actor and manager, born in London Aug. 24, 1795. His
parents and their four children were all actors of merit. From
1807 to 1818 he appeared chiefly at the Drury Lane Theatre in
London. Between 1818 and 1852 he frequently crossed and re-
crossed the Atlantic, playing alternate engagements at London
and New York. He settled in New York permanently in 1852
and opened the first Wallack's Theatre at the corner of Broadway
and Broome streets. Here he remained with a notable company
until 1 86 1 and then removed to the second Wallack's Theatre
which he himself built at i3th Street and Broadway. His was the
best-known house in the city. Thackeray praises his Shylock,
and Joseph Jefferson, his Don Caesar de Bazan. He married the
daughter of John H. Johnstone, a comedian long popular in Eng-
land. Their son, JOHN LESTER WALLACK ,^«p£ bocaJn New York
City Jan. I, 1820. After playing on the Dublin and Lortdon stage
he made his first New York appearance in 1847 at the Broadway
Theatre. He played here two years, then at the Bowery, Niblo's
Garden, Brougham's Lyceum, and finally, beginning in 1852, in
leading parts at his father's theatre. He succeeded to the manage-
ment of Wallack's Theatre in 1861, continuing it in the traditions
of his father. In 1882 he opened the third Wallack's Theatre at
3oth street and Broadway. He afterwards conducted both theatres
with marked success until his death, Sept. 6, 1888, at Stamford,
Conn. He had one of the largest repertoires of any American
actor, and showed particular aptitude for light comedy and roman-
tic parts. He wrote his own Memories of Fifty Years (1889).
WALLAROO, a seaport of South Australia. Pop. 3,200.
It was the port and smelting centre for the once famous copper-
mining area of Moonta and Kadina which, though considerable
ore-reserves are believed still to exist, has at present closed
down.
WALLASEY, county borough, Cheshire, England. Pop.
(1921) 90,809. It is served by the L.M.S. and G.W. railways,
and three ferries connect it with Liverpool. The church of St.
Hilary, a foundation of the loth century, was rebuilt in 1759
and again in 1858 after a fire. The lowest part of the tower is
probably i3th century work and bears a date 1536. In the west
is Leasowe castle, supposed to have been built by the 5th earl of
Derby. The Birkenhead docks (q.v.) were built on Wallasey
Pool, when remains of a submerged forest with animal skeletons
were found. New Brighton in the north is a watering place and
residential area. A promenade traverses the river front and
there are piers at New Brighton and Egremont. The municipal
borough was incorporated in 1910, the county borough in 1913
and the parliamentary borough in 1918.
WALLA WALLA, a city in the southeastern part of Wash-
ington, U.S.A.. The population was 15,503 in 1920, of which
87% was native white. It was estimated locally at 20,000 in
1928. It is the metropolis of the fertile Walla Walla valley,
stretching away to the Blue mountains on the east, which pro-
duces large crops of wheat, alfalfa, vegetables, apples, prunes,
cherries, and melons and large quantities of live stock and poul-
try. It is the seat of Whitman college (chartered 1859) an^
Walla Walla college (Adventist; 1891). A mission of the American
Board at Waiilatpu, 5 m. west, was attacked by Indians in 1847,
who massacred the missionary, Whitman, his wife, and 12 others,
carrying off the rest of the residents as prisoners. In 1857 Ft.
Walla Walla was built by the U.S. Government on the site of the
present city. About the fort in 1857-58 a settlement grew up.
Walla Walla was laid out and organized as a town in 1859 and in
1862 it was chartered as a city. Walla Walla is served by the
Northern Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Co.'s
(Union Pacific) lines. An airport was opened in 1928. The name
is a Nez Perce Indian term, meaning "many waters."
WALL-CREEPER, a bird (Tichodroma muraria) allied to
the tree-creeper (q.v.)t but larger and more brilliantly coloured.
It inhabits central Europe. The wall-creeper belongs to the
passerine family Certhudae.
WALLENBERG, MARCUS (is64- >, Swedish finan-
cier, brother of Knut Agathon Wallenberg, financier and Swedish
foreign minister (1914-18), began his career as a naval officer,
and then studied and practised law. He afterwards became a
member of the managerial board of the Stockholm Enskilda
Bank, being appointed managing director in 1911 and vice-
chairman in 1920. He founded, or reorganized, a number of
industrial undertakings in Sweden, and also, in 1905, the Norsk
Hydro-elektrisk Kvaelstof Aktieselskab in Norway, and was one
of the founders of the Central Bank for Norway and of the
Swedish Industrial Union. In 1916 and 1917, and in 1917-18, he
took part in the negotiations with the Allied Powers concerning
trading matters. He became a member of the neutral Powers'
economic section of the Supreme Economic Council at Paris in
1919, took part in the Amsterdam meeting in 1919, and was
Swedish representative at the Brussels Economic Conference in
1920. He was finance dele^te at the Genoa Conference in 1922,
a member of the Finance Cotnmittee of the League of Nations
in 1924, and chairman of the corftiqittee for arranging the tax on
German industry under the Dawes Pkm.
WALLENSTEIN (properly WALDSTEIN), ALBRECHT
WENZEL EUSEBIUS VON, duke of Friedland, Sagan and
Mecklenburg (1583-1634), German soldier and statesman, was
born of a noble but by no means wealthy or influential family at
Herrmanfep*Mtt«iiir*tin Sept. 15, 1583. His parents were
Lutherans, and in early youth he attended the school of the
Brothers of the Common Life at Koschumberg. After the death
of his parents he was sent by his uncle, Slawata, to the Jesuit
college of nobles at Olmutz, after which he professed, but hardly
accepted, the Roman Catholic faith. In 1599 he went to the uni-
versity of Altdorf , which he had to leave in consequence of some
boyish follies. Afterwards he studied at Bologna and Padua, and
visited many places in southern and western Europe. While in
Padua he gave much attention to astrology, and during the rest
of his life he never wavered in the conviction that he might trust
to the stars for indications as to his destiny. For some time
Wallcnstein served in the army of the emperor Rudolph II. in
Hungary, which was commanded by a methodical professional
soldier, Giorgio Basta. His personal gallantry at the siege of Gran
won for him a company without purchase. In 1606 he returned
to Bohemia, and soon afterwards married an elderly widow,
Lucretia Nikossie von Landeck, whose great estates in Moravia
he inherited after her death in 1614. His new wealth enabled him
to offer two hundred horse, splendidly equipped, to the archduke
Ferdinand for his war with Venice in 1617. Wallenstein com-
manded them in person, and from that time he enjoyed both favour
at court and popularity in the army. He made a wealthy marriage
with Isabella Katharina, daughter of Count Harrach.
In the disturbances which broke out in Bohemia in 1618 and
proved to be the beginning of the Thirty Years* War, advances
were made to Wallenstein by the revolutionary party; but he pre-
ferred to associate himself with the imperial cause, and he carried
off the treasure-chest of the Moravian estates to Vienna, part of
its contents being given him for the equipment of a regiment of
cuirassiers. At the head of this regiment Wallenstein won great
distinction under Buquoy in the war against Mansfeld. He was
not present at the battle of the Weisser Berg, but he did brilliant
service as second-in-command of the army which opposed Bethlen
Gabor in Moravia, and recovered his estates which the nationalists
had seized. The battle of the Weisser Berg placed Bohemia at
the mercy of the emperor Ferdinand, and Wallenstein turned the
prevailing confusion to his own advantage. He secured the great
estates belonging to his mother's family, and the emperor sold to
him on easy terms vast tracts of confiscated lands. His possessions
he was allowed to form into a territory called Friedland, and he
was raised in 1622 to the rank of an imperial count palatine, in
1623 to that of a prince. In 1625 he was made duke of Friedland.
Meantime he fought with skill and success against Bethlen Gabor,
and so enhanced his reputation at the dark moment when Vienna
was in peril and the emperor's general Buquoy dead on the field
of battle. He was not only the detached visionary with vast am-
bitions, but also the model ruler of his principality. He placed
the administration of justice on a firm basis, founded schools, and
developed agriculture and mining and manufactures.
When the war against the Bohemians had become a widespread
306
WALLER
conflagration, Ferdinand found he had no forces to oppose to
the Danes and the Northern Protestants other than the Army of
the League, which was not his, but the powerful and independent
Maximilian's, instrument. Wallenstein saw his opportunity and
early in 1626 he offered to raise not a regiment or two, but a whole
army for the imperial service. After some negotiations the offer
was accepted, the understanding being that the troops were to
be maintained at the cost of the countries they might occupy.
Wallcnstein's popularity soon brought great numbers of recruits
to his standard. He soon found himself at the head of 30,000
(not long afterwards of 50,000) men. For the campaigns of this
army in 1625, 1626 and 1627, against Mansfeld, the Northern
Protestants and Bethlen Gabor see THIRTY YEARS' WAR,
Having established peace in Hungary, Wallenstein proceeded,
in 1627, to clear Silesia of some remnants of Mansf eld's army;
and at this time he bought from the emperor the duchy of Sagan,
his outlay in the conduct of the war being taken into account in
the conclusion of the bargain. He then joined Tilly in the struggle
with Christian IV., and afterwards took possession of the duchy
of Mecklenburg, which was granted to him in reward for his
services, the hereditary dukes being displaced on the ground that
(hey had helped the Danish king. He failed to capture Stralsund,
which he besieged for several months in 1628. This important
reverse caused him bitter disappointment, for he had hoped that
by obtaining free access to the Baltic he might be able to make
the emperor as supreme at sea as he seemed to be on land. It
was a part of Wallenstein's scheme of German unity that he should
obtain possession of the Hanseatic towns, and through them
destroy or at least defy the naval power of the Scandinavian
kingdom, the Netherlands and England. This plan was com-
pletely frustrated by the resistance of Stralsund, and even more
by the emperor's "Edict of Restitution," which not only rallied
against him all the Protestants but brought in a great soldier and
a model army, Gustavus and the Swedes.
At the same time the victory of the principles of the League
involved the fall of Wallenstein's influence. By his ambitions, his
high dreams of unity and the incessant exactions of his army, he
had made for himself a host of enemies. He was reported to have
spoken of the arrogance of the princes, and it appeared probable
that he would try to bring them, Catholics and Protestants alike,
into rigid subjection to the crown. Again and again the emperor
was advised to dismiss him. Ferdinand was very unwilling to
part with one who had served him so well; but the demand was
pressed so urgently in 1630 that he had no alternative, and in
September Wallenstein was removed.
Wallenstein accepted the decision calmly, gave his army to
Tilly, and retired to Gitschin, the capital of his duchy of Fried-
land. There, and at his palace in Prague, he lived in an atmos-
phere of mysterious magnificence, the rumours of which penetrated
all Germany.
Gustavus Adolphus had landed in Germany, and it soon became
obvious that he was formidable. Tilly was defeated at Breitenfeld
and on the Lech, where he received a mortal wound, and Gustavus
advanced to Munich, while Bohemia was occupied by his allies the
Saxons. The emperor entreated Wallenstein to come once more
to his aid. Wallenstein at first declined; he had, indeed, been
secretly negotiating with Gustavus Adolphus, in the hope of de-
stroying the League and its projects and of building his new Ger-
many without French assistance. However, he accepted Ferdi-
nand's offers, and in the spring of 1632 he raised a fresh army as
strong as the first within a few weeks and took the field. This
army was placed absolutely under his control, so that he assumed
the position of an independent prince rather than of a subject.
His first aim was to drive the Saxons from Bohemia — an object
which he accomplished without serious difficulty. Then he ad-
vanced against Gustavus Adolphus, whom he opposed near Nurem-
berg and after the battle of the Alte Veste dislodged. In Novem-
ber came the great battle of Liitzen (q.v.)t in which the imperial-
ists were defeated, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed.
To the dismay of Ferdinand, Wallenstein made no use of the
opportunity provided for him by the death of the Swedish king,
but withdrew to winter quarters in Bohemia. In the campaign
of 1633 much astonishment was caused by his apparent unwilling-
ness to attack the enemy. He was in fact preparing to desert the
emperor. In the war against the Saxons he had offered them as
terms of peace the revocation of the Edict. Religious toleration
and the destruction of the separatist regime, as well as not incon-
siderable aggrandisements for his own power, formed his pro-
gramme, so far as historians have been able to reconstruct it, and
becoming convinced from Ferdinand's obstinacy that the Edict
would never be rescinded, he began to prepare to "force a just
peace on the emperor in the interests of united Germany." With
this object he entered into negotiations with Saxony, Brandenburg,
Sweden and France. He had vast and vague schemes for the re-
organization of the entire constitutional system of the empire,
with himself as supreme authority.
Irritated by the distrust excited by his proposals, and anxious
to make his power felt, he at last assumed the offensive against
the Swedes and Saxons, winning his last victory at Steinau on
the Oder in October. He then resumed the negotiations. In
December he retired with his army to Bohemia, fixing his head-
quarters at Pilsen. It had soon been suspected in Vienna that
Wallenstein was playing a double part, and the emperor, en-
couraged by the Spaniards at his court, anxiously sought for
means of getting rid of him. Wallenstein was well aware of the
designs formed against him, but displayed little energy in his
attempts to thwart them. This was due in part, no doubt, to ill-
health, in part to the assurances of his astrologer, Battista Seni.
His principal officers assembled around him at a banquet on
Jan. 12, 1634, when he submitted to them a declaration to the
effect that they would remain true to him. This declaration they
signed. More than a month later a second paper was signed;
but on this occasion the officers' expression of loyalty to their
general was associated with an equally emphatic expression of
loyalty to their emperor. On Jan. 24 the emperor had signed a
secret patent removing him from his command, and imperial
agents had been labouring to undermine Wallenstein's influence.
On the 7th two of his officers, Piccolomini and Aldringer, had
intended to seize him at Pilsen, but finding the troops there loyal
to their general, they had kept quiet. But a patent charging
Wallenstein and two of his officers with high treason, and naming
the generals who were to assume the supreme command of the
army, was signed on Feb. 18, and published in Prague.
Wallenstein realized the danger, and on Feb. 23, accompanied
by his most intimate friends, and guarded by about 1,000 men,
he went from Pilsen to Eger, hoping to meet the Swedes under
Duke Bernhard. After the arrival of the party at Eger, Colonel
Gordon, the commandant, and Colonels Butler and Leslie agreed
to rid the emperor of his enemy. On the evening of Feb.
25, Wallenstein's supporters Illo, Kinsky, Terzky and Neumann
were received at a banquet by the three colonels and then mur-
dered. Butler, Captain Devereux and a number of soldiers hurried
to the house where Wallenstein was staying, and broke into his
room. He was instantly killed by a thrust of Devereux's partisan.
Wallenstein was buried at Gitschin, but in 1732 the remains were
removed to the castle chapel of Munchengratz. The murderers
were handsomely rewarded for their so-called act of justice.
See Forster, Albrecht von Wallenstein (1834) ; Aretin, Wallenstein
(1846) ; Hclbig, Wallenstein und Arnim, 1632-1634 (1850), and Kaiser
Ferdinand und der llerzog von Friedland, 1633-1634 (1853) ; Hurter,
Zur Geschichte Wallensteins (1855); Fiedler, Zur ^Geschichte Wallen-
steins (1860) ; L. von Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins (6th ed. Leipzig,
1910) ; Gindely, Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Kriegs (1869) ; S. R.
Gardiner, Thirty Years' War (1874) ; P. Wicgler, Wallenstein (1920) ;
H. V. Sebik, Wallensteins Ende . . . (Vienna, 1920).
WALLER, AUGUSTUS VOLNEY (1816-1870), English
physiologist, was born at Faversham, Kent, on Dec. 21, 1816, and
died at Geneva on Sept. 18, 1870. He studied in Paris and carried
out researches at Bonn and Paris in neurology. The "Wallerian
theory of degeneration" (see MEDICINE) was propounded by him
in 1850 in a paper in Philosophical Transactions.
WALLER, EDMUND (1606-1687), English poet, was born
on March 9, 1606, the eldest son of Robert Waller of Coleshill
and Anne Hampden, his wife. Early in his childhood his father
moved to Bcaconsfield. Waller was educated at Eton and King's
WALLER— WALLINGFORD
307
College, Cambridge. He left without a degree, and it is believed
that in 1621 he sat as a member for Agmondesham (Amersham)
in the last parliament of James I. Clarendon says that Waller was
"nursed in parliaments.'' In that of 1624 he represented Ilches-
ter, and in the first of Charles I. Chipping Wycombe. The first
act by which Waller distinguished himself, however, was his sur-
reptitious marriage with a wealthy ward of the Court of Alder-
men, in 1631. He was brought before the Star Chamber for this
offence, and heavily fined. After bearing him a son and a daugh-
ter at Beaconsfield, Mrs. Waller died in 1634. It was about this
time that the poet was elected into Falkland's "Club."
It is supposed that about 1635 he met Lady Dorothy Sidney,
eldest daughter of the earl of Leicester, who was then eighteen
years of age.s He formed a romantic passion for this girl, whom
he celebrated under the name of Sacharissa. She rejected him, and
married Lord Spencer in 1639. In 1640 Waller was once more
M.P. for Amersham; later, in the Long Parliament, he represented
St. Ives. Waller had hitherto supported the party of Pym, but
he now left him for the group of Falkland and Hyde. An extraor-
dinary and obscure conspiracy against Parliament, in favour of
the king, which is known as "Waller's Plot," occupied the spring
of 1643, but on May 30 he and his friends were arrested. In the
terror of discovery, Waller was accused of displaying a very mean
poltroonery, and of confessing "whatever he had said, heard,
thought or seen, and all that he knew ... or suspected of others."
Waller was called before the bar of the House in July, and made
an abject speech of recantation. His life was spared and he was
committed to the Tower, whence, on paying a fine of £10,000, he
was released and banished the realm in Nov. 1643. He married a
second wife, Mary Bracey of Thame, and went over to Calais,
afterwards taking up his residence at Rouen.
In 1645 the Poems of Waller were first published in London, in
three editions. Many of the lyrics were already set to music
by Henry Lawes. In 1646 Waller travelled with Evelyn in Switz-
erland and Italy. During the worst period of the exile Waller
managed to "keep a table" for the Royalists in Paris, although in
order to do so he was obliged to sell his wife's jewels. At the
close of 1651 the House of Commons revoked Waller's sentence
of banishment, and he was allowed to return to Beaconsfield,
where he lived very quietly until the Restoration.
In 1655 he published A Panegyric to my Lord Protector, and
was made a Commissioner for Trade a month or two later. He
followed this up, in 1660, by a poem To the King, upon his
Majesty's Happy Return. Being challenged by Charles II. to
explain why this latter piece was inferior to the eulogy of Crom-
well, the poet smartly replied, "Sir, we poets never succeed so well
in writing truth as in fiction." He entered the House of Commons
again in 1661, as M.P. for Hastings, and Burnet has recorded that
for the next quarter of a century "it was no House if Waller was
not there." His sympathies were tolerant and kindly, and he con-
stantly defended the Nonconformists. One famous speech of
Waller's was: "Let us look to our Government, fleet and trade,
'tis the best advice the oldest Parliament man among you can give
you, and so God bless you." After the death of his second wife,
in 1677, Waller retired to his house called Hall Barn at Beacons-
field. In 1 66 1 he had published his poem, St. James* Park; in 1664
he had collected his poetical works; in 1666 appeared his Instruc-
tions to a Painter; and in 1685 his Divine Poems. The final col-
lection of his works is dated 1686, but there were posthumous
additions made in 1690. He died at Hall Barn, with his children
and his grandchildren about him, on Oct. 21, 1687.
Waller's lyrics were at one time admired to excess, but with the
exception of "Go, lovely Rose" and one or two others, they have
greatly lost their charm. His fancy was plain and trite. He made
writing in the serried couplet the habit and the fashion. It was this
regular heroic measure which was carried to so high a perfection
by Dryden and Pope.
The only critical edition of Waller's Poetical Works is that edited,
with a careful biography, by G. Thorn-Drury, in 1893. (E. G.; X.)
WALLER, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1597-1668), English soldier,
son of Sir Thomas Waller, lieutenant of Dover, was educated at
Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and served in the Venetian army and
in the Thirty Years* War. He was knighted in 1622 after taking
part in Vere's expedition to the Palatinate. In 1640, he became
member of parliament for Andover and supported the parliament
when the Civil War broke out in 1642. As colonel, he captured
Portsmouth, Farnham Winchester and other places and in 1643 as
major-general he operated around Gloucester and Bristol (see
GREAT REBELLION), winning a victory at Highnam and capturing
Hereford. He then opposed the advance of Sir Ralph Hopton and
the Royalist western army, and though defeated at Lansdown
(near Bath) he shut up the enemy in Devizes. However, Hopton
and a relieving force from Oxford completely defeated Waller's
army at Roundway Down, many reproaching Essex, the com-
mander-in-chief, for allowing the Oxford royalists to turn against
Waller. The Londoners, who had called him "William the Con-
queror," raised a new army, but the forces were distinctively local,
and resented long marches and hard work far from their own
counties. At the first siege of Basing House, they mutinied in
face of the enemy, and their gallantry at critical moments, such
as the surprise of Alton in December 1643 and the recapture of
Arundel in January 1644, but partially redeemed their general bad
conduct. Waller himself, a general of the highest skill, "the best
shifter and chooser of ground" on either side, was, like Turennc,
at his best at the head of a small and highly-disciplined army.
Though successful in stopping Hopton's second advance at
Cheriton (March 1644), he was defeated by Charles I. in the
war of manoeuvre which ended with the action of Croprcdy
Bridge (June), and in the second battle of Newbury in October
his tactical success at the village of Speen led to nothing. His
last expeditions were made into the west for the relief of Taunton,
and in these he had Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. By this
time the confusion in all the armed forces of the parliament had
reached such a height that reforms were at last taken in hand.
The original suggestion of the celebrated "New Model'' army
came from Waller (July 2, 1644). Simultaneously came the Self-
Denying Ordinance, which required all members of parliament to
lay down their military commands. Waller had already requested
to be relieved — and his active military career came to an end.
Embittered and a Presbyterian, he was constantly engaged in
opposing the Independents and the army politicians, and in sup-
porting the Presbyterian-Royalist opposition to the Common-
wealth.
He was several times imprisoned between 1648 and 1659. He
promoted the final negotiations for the restoration of Charles II.
and sat in the Convention Parliament. He died on the i9th of
September 1668.
See Wood's Athenae Oxonienses, cd. Bliss, iii. 812, and two partial
autobiographies, "Recollections by General Sir William Waller"
(printed in The Poetry of Anna Matilda, 1788), and Vindication of the
Character, etc. (1797).
WALLINGFORD, a town and borough of Berkshire, Eng-
land, on the Thames, 55 m. W. of London by the G.W. railway.
Pop. (1921) 2,726.
The site of Wallingford was occupied by a Romano-British
settlement. Wallingford was a fortified town before the Conquest,
and, though burned by Sweyn in 1006, was the most important
borough in Berkshire at the time of the Domesday Survey. The
town suffered greatly from the Black Death, and its decline was
accelerated by the building, in the early isth century, of two
bridges near Abingdon, which diverted the main road between
London and Gloucester from Wallingford. The earliest charters
were given by Henry I. and Henry II., the latter confirming the
ancient privileges of the borough. These charters were confirmed
and enlarged by Henry III. in 1267 and by Philip and Mary in
1557-53. The governing charter until 1835 was that given by
Charles II. in 1663. Wallingford Castle was one of the last
fortresses to hold out for Charles J. During the Commonwealth
it was demolished by order of the Government. The church of St.
Leonard's retains some Norman work. The ancient castle has left
only its mound and earthworks, and other works may be traced
surrounding the town on the landward side.
I WALLINGFORD, a borough of New Haven county, Ton-
i necticut, U.S.A., 12 m. N.N.E. of New Haven, on the Quinnipiac
WALLIS—WALLOON LITERATURE
river and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad.
'Pop. (1920) 9,648 (29% foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate
15,000. It is the seat of the Gaylord farm tuberculosis sana-
torium, and of a Masonic home, built on property occupied
(1851-80) by a branch of the Oneida community. The manu-
factures are important, and include silverware, brass goods, hard-
ware, fire-arms, rubber goods, insulated wire and edge tools. The
town of Wallingford was settled in 1670. In Jan. 1766, it adopted
resolutions protesting against the Stamp Act, and imposed a
penalty of 2os. on any one who should introduce or use stamped
paper or parchment. Wallingford was incorporated in 1853.
WALLIS, JOHN (1616-1703), English mathematician,
logician and grammarian, was born on Nov. 23, 1616, at Ashford,
Kent, where his father was rector. He went up to Emanuel col-
lege, Cambridge, in 1632, became a fellow of Queen's, and took
holy orders. He gained much credit with the parliamentarians by
his talent in deciphering intercepted Royalist documents, and
was presented in 1643 to the living of St. Gabriel, Fenchurch
street, London, exchanged later for that of St. Martin, Iron-
monger lane. Although he signed the Remonstrance against the
execution of Charles I. he was appointed Savilian professor of
geometry at Oxford in 1649, a chair which he held for over 50
years, until his death at Oxford on Oct. 28, 1703.
Works.— -The works of Wallis relate to a multiplicity of sub-
jects. His Institutio logicae, published in 1687, was very popular,
and his Grammatica linguae Anglicanae indicates an acute and
philosophic intellect. The mathematical works are published, some
of them in a small 4to volume (Oxford, 1657) and a complete
collection in three thick folio volumes (Oxford, 1693-99). The
third volume includes, however, some theological and other ma-
terial. The mathematical works contained in the first and second
volumes occupy about i ,800 pages.
The Arithmetica mfinitorum (1655) is the most important of
his works. It relates chiefly to the quadrature of curves by the
so-called method of indivisibles established by Bonaventura Cava-
lieri in 1629. (See INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.) He extended the
"law of continuity" as stated by Johannes Kepler; regarded the
denominators of fractions as powers with negative exponents;
and deduced from the quadrature of the parabola ;y = *m, where m
is a positive integer, the area of the curves when m is negative
or fractional. As he was unacquainted with the binomial theorem,
he attempted the quadrature of the circle by interpolation, and
arrived at the remarkable expression known as Wallis's Theorem.
(See article on CIRCLE.) In the same work Wallis obtained
an expression for the length of the element of a curve, which
reduced the problem of rectification to that of quadrature.
The Mathesis univcrsalis (1658) a more elementary work, con-
tains dissertations on algebra, arithmetic and geometry.
The De algebra tractatns (Eng. 1685) contains (chapters Ixvi.-
Ixix.) the idea of the interpretation of imaginary quantities in
geometry. This is given somewhat as follows: the distance repre-
sented by the square root of a negative quantity cannot be meas-
ured in the line backwards or forwards, but can be measured in
the same plane above the line, or (as appears elsewhere) at right
angles to the line either in the plane, or in the plane at right angles
thereto. Considered as a history of algebra, this work is scrupu-
lously fair to his predecessors in all cases where he was able to
trace original discoveries.
The two treatises on the cycloid and on the cissoid, etc., and
the Mechanica (three parts 1669-71) contain many results which
were then new and valuable. The latter work contains elaborate
investigations in regard to the centre of gravity, and in it Wallis
employs the principle of virtual velocities.
For the prolonged conflict between Hobbes and Wallis, see HOBBES,
THOMAS.
WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO (UVEA or UEA) : see PACIFIC
ISLANDS.
WALLON, HENRI ALEXANDRE (1812-1904), French
historian and statesman, was born at Valenciennes on Dec. 23,
1812. Wallon succeeded Guizot as professor at the Sorbonne in
1846. Returning to politics in 1871 he immortalized himself by
carrying his proposition for the establishment of the Repub- \
lie with a president elected for seven years, and then eligible
for re-election, which, after violent debates, was adopted by the
Assembly on, Jan. 30, 1875. "Ma proposition," he declared, "ne
proclame pas la R6publique, elle la fait." Upon the definitive
establishment of the Republic, Wallon became Minister of Public
Instruction, and effected many useful reforms, but his views were
too conservative for the majority of the Assembly, and he retired
in May 1876. He had been chosen a life senator in December 1875.
Returning to his historical studies, Wallon produced four works
of great importance, though less from his part in them as author
than from the documents which accompanied them: La Terreur
(1873); Histoire du tribunal rfoolutionnaire de Paris avec le
journal de ses acts (6 vols., 1880-82); La Revolution du 31
mai et le fedtralisme en 1793 (2 vols., 1886); Les Rtpresentants
du peuple en mission et la justice revolutiomwire dans les departe*
ments (5 vols., 1880-1890). Besides these he published a number
of articles in the Journal des savants; for many years he wrote
the history of the Academic des Inscriptions (of which he became
perpetual secretary in 1873) in the collection of Memoirs of this
Academy. He died at Paris on Nov. 13, 1904.
WALLOON LITERATURE. Walloon is a Romance dia-
lect, belonging to the same group as the Picard, Lorrain and
Francian, of which the latter, under the name of French, has
had such a notable development. The several varieties of Wal-
loon are spoken in the southern part of Belgium, in that region
generally called "Wallonie" (from a word coined about 1858),
of which Liege is the chief centre of dialectal literature.
This literature has its historical monuments. To the north-
west belong the cantilena of Eulalie, one of the oldest ^Romance
texts (nth century), Li Ver del Ju'ise (the Last Trial), the Dia-
logues du Pape Gregoire (the Dialogues of Pope Gregory), com-
mentaries on Job, Lent Sermons and the Poeme Moral, a critical
edition of which, prepared by Alph. Bayol, is to be published
shortly. There are also the delightful song-fable of Aucassin and
Nicolette, one of the masterpieces of the middle ages, and the
copious, but somewhat fastidious chronicles of Jean le Bel,
Jacques de Henricourt, Jean d'Outremeuse and Jean de Stavelot.
Lastly, the edition by J. Cohen, in 1920, of the Mysteres et
M or allies du Siecle, has enriched the ancient literary patrimony
of the Walloon country. The two Nativities to be found in
Cohen's edition are undoubtedly the ancestors of Noels W aliens
(edit, by Doutrepont in 1909), which are still alive in the popular
minds. It may be objected that those works were not written
in the dialect spoken by the people at that time, but in a literary
language of Picard rather than of French character. However,
their dialectal features reveal the anonymous origin of the texts.
We must wait till the beginning of the i7th century before we
can find works written in dialect. The three oldest texts written
in the dialect of Liege are an Ode, dated 1620, a Sonnet, dated
1622, and a Morality, dated 1623. They were published in 1921
by Jean Haust. A pasquinade on Women and Marriage (edit.
Jean Haust, 1925) is, unfortunately, undated, but might be as-
signed to about 1600. Of the i7th and i8th centuries we possess,
in all, some 50 lyrical pieces; complaints of peasants about the
devastations caused by foreign soldiers, speeches on the topics
of the time, satires against the affectations of women, pamphlets
about political troubles or religious controversies, humorous com-
pliments on the occasion of a clerical promotion, etc. Their
literary value is, on the whole, rather mediocre. An exception
must be made, however, for the lyrical satire, Les Eues di Tongue
(the Waters of Tongres, 1700), by Lambert Rickmann, perhaps
the best Walloon satire in existence, of astonishing verve, rich
in somewhat gross but striking images.
In the middle of the i8th century, four comic operas were com-
posed. They constitute the so-called Theatre Lttgeois (edit. Bail-
leux, 1854). A literary circle used to meet at Chevalier S. de
Harley's; its members (canons, deans, lords and rich bour-
geois) amused themselves by writing burlesques, and a composer
of great talent, Jean Noel Hamal, provided a lively and pictur-
esque music to the libretti written by his friends. The per-
formance achieved a tremendous success. The four plays in
question are entitled Li Voyedge di Tchaudfontaine (the Journey
WALL PAPER— WALLSEND
309
to Cbaudfontalne), a delightful farce (edit. Haust, 1924); Li
Lid jives Egadgi (the Enlisted Ltegeois), a touching picture of
local customs; Li Fiesse di Houte-s*i-Pld&t (the Festival of H.),
a village idyll with a somewhat weak plot; and above all, the
most original piece of the collection, Les Hypocondes (the Hy-
pochondriacs), a diverting picture of the whims and torments of
imaginary invalids who go to Spa to drink the waters. A farce in
two acts entitled Li Malignant (the Malevolent) closes this first
series, which, although really remarkable for its local colour and
veracity, is naturally deprived of high moral feeling.
The revolution of 1789 and the troubles it brought inspired
numerous patriots of Liege with popular and satirical songs.
Albin Body edited more than 250 of these, but they are now
forgotten, with the exception of a song against The Prussians,
written by the lawyer, J. J. Velez (1817), the popularity of which
was revived by the World War.
Few names deserve notice in 'the first half of the iQth cen-
tury. Among these may be mentioned Li Copareye (1822) by
Ch. N. Sirnonou, which celebrates the ancient clock-tower of the
Cathedral of Saint-Lambert and the glorious deeds of the history
of Li6ge; Li Ktape Manedge (the Disordered Household) 1830,
by H. J. Forir, a lively satire of the confusion produced in the
commonwealth by carelessness and improvidence; Li Pantalon
Traive (the Torn Trousers) 1839, by Ch. Du Vivier, an epos, in
a few stanzas, of the fighter of 1830, the humble soldier who
served under different regimes without any personal profit; Li
Bourgoyne (1846) by Jos. Lamaze, a bacchic song which still
enjoys popularity among the Walloon population.
A touching elegy Leyiz-m'plorer (Let Me Cry), 1854, and a
graceful idyll L'avez-v'-veyou passer? (Did you see her pass?)
1856, revealed in Nicolas Defrecheux a true poet. The Wal-
loon people were delighted to hear their patois express such sin-
cerity so delicately. In 1856 the Societe LUgeoise de Literature
Wallonne was founded. It grouped intellectuals, scholars, writers
and folklorists into a kind of small provincial academy, held
yearly competitions and published "Bulletins" and "Annuaires."
In 1857 it awarded a prize to Li Galant del Servante, a play
written by Andre Delchef, which opens the revival of the
Walloon stage. In 1884, the Sod6te awarded a prize to Tali
li Perigut, by Edouard Remouchamps, a play which, because
of its caustic vein and the admirable manner in which it was
acted, led to a prodigious development of Walloon literature.
But everywhere the spoken dialect is losing ground to French;
the dialect is considered as vulgar, especially in the Hainaut dis-
trict, along the French frontier. However, the written dialect is
used more than ever before. In nearly all villages, dramatic socie-
ties perform Walloon plays. In more important centres, writers are
grouped in societies which award prizes and publish papers and
periodicals: at Tournai, the Theatre of Arthur Hespel, and the
Cabaret Walton; at Mons, the Rop'ieur and its circle; at La
TLouviere, the Monchon d'Aunias; at Charleroi, the Association
Litter aire; at Namur, the society Les Relis and its organ Le Juet-
teur Walton; in Liege, the Societt de Literature Wallonne, the
Caveau Liegeois, the Auteurs Wallons, the Wallonne and many
others; and so at Verviers, at Malmedy, etc. Liege has two
theatres which, every night, perform Walloon plays before a fairly
large audience; humour and wit is their chief feature, except
when such writers as Henri Huard or Louis Laken, helped by
excellent native actors, offer important plays. Poetry includes
joyful songs, satirical pasquinades, sentimental ballads, and de-
scriptive or narrative poems. Such works as Li Pandi Bon Diu
(the Bread of God) by Henri Simon, the somewhat nostalgic
poems of Joseph Vriendts, the love elegies of Emile Wiket, the
lyrics of Martin Lejeune, Louis Lagauche, Marcel Launay, Jean
Wisimus and many others, combine a real respect for style and
prosody with true poetic feeling. Fiction has produced interest-
ing works, such as the Houlot (1888) by D. D. Salme, La Famille
Tassin (1900) by Ad. Tilkin, and the delicate Solia d' Amour
(1928) by Joseph Laubain. Let us also mention Cadet by Jean
Lejeune, who, with wonderful realism, relates incidents in the life
of a rabbit, Li Brak'ni (the Poacher) by Joseph Calozet, a master-
piece that reminds the reader of the rustic stories of George
Sand, and the tales Pou Dire A I'Eschrienne (Hearth Tales), to
mention only a few. Walloon literature to-day is most vivid, and
it is to be hoped that, like Gaelic literature, it will remain popular
in its inspiration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — SoctetS de Litt6raturc wallonne, Bulletin (62 vols.),
Annuaire (32 vol.), Bulletin du Dictionnaire Wallon (15 vol.); J.
Demarteau, Le Wallon (Liege, 1889) ; M. Wilmotte, Lc Walton
(Brussels, 1893) ; "La Literature Wallonne au XIX« siecle," in
Marches de I'Est (1909) ; O. Grojean, "La Litteraturc wallonne," in
Wallonia (1905) ; V. Chauvin, La litterature wallonne a Liege (Lie'ge,
1906) ; Ch. Defrecheux, etc., Anthologie des poetes Wallons (Li6ge,
1895) ; J. Haust, Pages d' Anthologie Wallonne (Brussels, 1924).
WALL PAPER: see INTERIOR DECORATION : Wall Paper.
WALL PAPER MANUFACTURERS LTD. This Brit-
ish joint stock company was formed in 1899 to combine the under-
takings of many of the large wall paper manufacturers of Great
Britain. Later, in 1915, other manufacturers joined the company,
and it became the largest firm of its kind in the world.
The company manufactures not only what are commonly
called wall papers, but ceiling papers, embossed papers, borders
and friezes, leather papers, leatherettes, lincrusta, polychromes,
ingrains and silk fibres. According to the returns the United
Kingdom in 192.7 exported printed and embossed paper hangings
to the extent of I26,i48cwt., value for export f.o.b. at £561,186.
In 1928 the company had a share capital of £5,000,000, made up
of £1,200,000 5% cumulative preference shares of £i, £1,400,000
in ordinary shares of £i each and £2,400,000 in deferred shares of
£i each. (L. C. M.)
WALLQVIST, OLAP (1755-1800), Swedish statesman
and ecclesiastic, was ordained in 1776, became doctor of philos-
ophy in 1779, court preacher to Queen Louisa Ulrica in 1780, and
bishop of Vexio in 1787. He attracted the attention of Gustavus
III. by his eloquent preaching at the fashionable St. Clara church
at Stockholm and he was a bishop at thirty-two.
Gustavus placed him at the head of the newly appointed
commission for reforming the ecclesiastical administration of the
country. His political career began during the mutinous riksdag
of 1786, when he came forward as one of the royalist leaders.
At the stormy riksdag of 1789 it was very largely due to his co-
operation that the king was able to carry through the famous
"Act of Unity and Security" which converted Sweden from a
constitutional into a semi-absolute monarchy. During the brief
riksdag of 1792, as a member of the secret committee, Wallqvist
was at the very centre of affairs and rendered the king essential
services. Indeed it may be safely said that Gustavus III., during
the last six years of his reign, mainly depended upon Wallqvist
and his clerical colleague, Carl Gustaf Nordin (</.v.), who sub-
ordinated their private enmity to the royal service. During the
Reuterholm (q.v.) administration, Wallqvist, like the rest of the
Gustavians, was kept remote from court. In 1800 he was re-
called to the political arena, but died on April 30.
As bishop of Vexio, Wallqvist was remarkable for his extraor-
dinary administrative ability. He did much for education and
for the poorer clergy, and endowed the library of the gymnasium
with 6,000 volumes. As an author also he was more than dis-
tinguished. His Ecclesiastica Samlingar testify to his skill and
diligence as a collector of mss., while his Mintien och Bref, ed.
E. V. Montan (Stockholm, 1878), is one of the most trustworthy
authorities on the Gustavian era.
See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London,
1895, vol. ii.) ; 0. Wallqvists Sjalfiografaka anteckningar (Upsala,
i8«;o) ; and T. Rosengren, Om O. Wallqvist sdsom Biskop och Ejorus
(Vexid, 1901). (R. N. B.)
WALL RIB, in architecture, the rib of a groined vault con-
necting two adjacent piers on the same side of the vaulted area.
Wall ribs seem to have belonged to the vaulting system from
the very beginning, for they exist in what is probably the earliest
ribbed vaulted nave, that of S. Ambrogio at Milan (generally
attributed to the second half of the nth century).
WALLSEND, municipal borough, Northumberland. Pop.
(1921) 42,995. The church of St. Peter dates from 1809. There
are remains of the church of the Holy Cross in transitional Nor-
man style. At an early period Wallsend was famous for its coal,
3io
WALL STREET— WALNUT
but the name is now used for coal that does not go through a
sieve with meshes five-eighths of an inch in size. In addition to
coal mines there are ship-building yards, engineering works, lead
and copper smelting works, cement works and brick and tile
works. There arc two pontoon docks and an immense dry dock.
Wallsend was incorporated in 1901, and in 1918 became a parlia-
mentary borough. Wallsend is at the east end of Hadrian's
Wall.
WALL STREET, a street in the lower part of New York
City on which or near which are concentrated the chief financial
institutions of the United States. It corresponds to the London
financial district in Threadneedle, Throgmorton and Lombard
streets, and is rivalled only by that centre in its importance as an
international money market. The street itself is narrow and short,
extending only some seven blocks from Broadway to East river,
and the financial houses occupy only the upper or western half
of the street. The Wall Street financial district, however, extends
several blocks north and south of the street and also includes an
area west of Broadway. This district in 1920 contained no less
than 90 banks of which 21 were on Wall Street, 25 trust com-
panies, 50 life and 250 marine and fire insurance companies, the
general offices of over 100 railway corporations, 150 steamship
firms, 150 iron, steel, copper and coal companies, and several
hundred other large industrial corporations. Companies with se-
curities listed on the Stock Exchange maintain at least a trans-
fer office conveniently near. Besides the Stock Exchange there
are in the neighborhood the Cotton Exchange, Coffee Exchange,
Metal Exchange, Produce Exchange, the Curb Exchange and lesser
exchanges. The district is the headquarters of most brokerage
firms. Private bankers are also established in the street, the fa-
mous house of J. P. Morgan and Co., occupying its own building
at the corner of Wall and Broad streets.
Wall Street owes its name to Peter Stuyvesant, who, in 1652,
as governor of the little Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam,
ordered a palisade built on the site to protect the town from
feared invasions of the English. The last of the wall was removed
in 1699 and both sides of the street were quickly built up. The
street was famous in the political life of the country after the
Revolution when for a brief period the governmental offices of the
city, state and nation were all located there. At the old Federal
Building, on the site of the present sub-treasury building George
Washington in 1 789 was first inaugurated president and there the
first United States Congress met.
See F. T. Hill, The Story of a Street (1908) for history, and S. S.
Pratt, The Works of Wall Street (jrd cd., 1921) for an analysis of the
financial activities.
WALMER, a watering-place of Kent, England. Pop. of
urban district (1921), 5,350. Lower Walmer, the portion most
frequented by visitors, extends northward along the coast so as
to be contiguous with Deal. Upper Walmer is a short distance
inland, and below it Walmer castle lies close to the sea. This
was a blockhouse built for coast defence by Henry VIII., but
became the official residence of the Lords Warden of the Cinque
Ports. It ceased to be the official residence in 1905, when the
prince of Wales (afterwards George V.) was appointed Lord War-
den, and the public was given access to those rooms which possess
historical associations with former holders of the office, such as the
duke of Wellington, who died here in 1852, William Pitt and
others. Kingsdown, i m. south, is a decayed member of the
Cinque Port of Dover.
WALMISLEY, THOMAS ATTWOOD (1814-1856),
English musician, was born in London on Jan. 21, 1814. He was
the eldest son of Thomas Forbes Walmisley (1783-1866), a
well-known organist and composer of church music and glees.
Thomas Attwood (q.v.), his godfather, taught him composition.
He became organist at Trinity and St. John's colleges, Cambridge,
in 1833, and in 1836 was made professor of music. He died at
Hastings on Jan. 17, 1856. His Cathedral Music was edited after
his death by his father, and published in 1857. Some fine examples
of his work are to be found in the "Service in B flat,1' the Dublin
Prize anthem and the madrigal "Sweete flowers."
See the article by A. D. Coleridge in Grove's Dictionary of Music
and Musicians.
WALNUT, the name of several species of deciduous trees,
The order Juglandaceae includes the three genera Carya, Ptero-
carya and Juglans, the latter comprising the walnuts, of which
about twelve or thirteen species are generally recognized; some
eight or nine are in cultivation. L. A. Dode, who has given special
study to the genus, subdivides it into three main divisions,
Dioscaryon (including the Persian or English walnut, Jnglans
regia, and six allied species, all of the Old World), Car dio car yon
(J. mandshurica, J. cordiformis and ten others indigenous to
Manchuria, China and Japan) and Rhysocaryon (J. nigra and its
allies, twenty-six in all, from the New World). He classifies
J. cinerea, the grey walnut or butternut of Canada and the north-
eastern States separately.
The walnuts are deciduous trees, mostly of forest size (the
black walnut of North America, /. nigra, may attain a height of
up to 150 feet and a girth of 20 ft.) although some few form
shrubby trees only, with large, occasionally very large, alternate,
compound, imparipinnate leaves; leaflets opposite, entire or ser-
rate, two to seventeen pairs. The leaves and fruit in the husk
have a very pleasant aromatic scent in the Persian walnut and
some other species. The flowers are unisexual and borne on the
same tree; the numerous staminate flowers are carried on cylin-
drical catkins 2 to 5 inches long, pendulous when fully developed,
forming singly or in pairs above the leaf scars of the preceding
year's shoots: the pollen is wind-carried in fertilization; the
pistillate flowers, usually few in number and with greenish (in
regia) fringed feathery re-curved stigmas, are borne on a short
inflexible stalk terminating the young shoots of the new. growth.
Fruit a hard-shelled nut, usually oval or globular, enclosed by a
smooth green pericarp which splits irregularly on maturity.
In the Persian walnut the nut is divided interiorly by two thin
dissepiments into four incomplete cells, one separating the two
cotyledons and the other dividing them into two lobes. The large,
fleshy, curiously folded and crumpled cotyledons fill practically
the whole cavity of the seed and do not emerge from the nut in
germination. The hard, woody, corrugated endocarp is divided
into two (very rarely three or four) not easily separable valves.
Lubbock describes in detail the complicated structure of the fruit.
Timber. — The black walnut of North America and the Persian
walnut of the old world furnish two much esteemed timbers for
the cabinet-maker. The dark purplish brown of the former and
the lighter greyish-brown and equally attractive tint of the latter,
veined as it is so frequently with very dark brown or black,
together with their excellent working and lasting properties make
them first class furniture woods. The beautifully mottled and
figured wood obtained from near the roots and from crotches
of both species has a high value for veneer. Walnut burrs which
occur occasionally, although rarely in England, on the trunk of
the Persian walnut in its native countries, as large at times as
six feet or more across, afford one of the most valuable woods in
the world on account of the extraordinary beauty of the wavy,
rippled and variegated figure. Owing to its non-warping property
walnut is largely used for gunstocks, for which it has no equal.
In the Persian walnut the annual rings are marked by sharp
lines without pores; pores moderate-sized, not numerous, some-
times oval and sub-divided, often in oblique lines, somewhat
more numerous and larger in the spring wood, conspicuous on a
longitudinal section. Medullary rays very fine to fine and even
moderately broad, variable in arrangement, silver grain incon-
spicuous, numerous regular, very fine, wavy, concentric bars
joining the medullary rays (Gamble). The seasoned wood weighs
about 45 Ib. to the cubic foot, is moderately hard, compact, even-
grained, easy to work and split, it shrinks very little in seasoning
and does not crack nor warp. It should be allowed a long time
in which to season thoroughly. Timber from walnut grown in
Great Britain is said to be harder and more durable than the
foreign. The walnut is a long-lived tree with a life of up to
200-300 or more years but in this country it is at its best for
timber at about 100 years and is apt to become hollow with age.
The value of walnut in 1925 on the farms in the centre of one
of the principal French walnut districts was from 3/- to 4/- per
cubic foot. Growing walnut timber from first generation hybrid
WALNUT
3ir
trees between the eastern American black walnut (/. nigra) and
the Californian black walnut (/. californica var. Mndsti) or be-
tween either of these blacks and the English walnut (/. regia),
which show exceptional growth vigour much in excess of that of
either parent, has been suggested by A. Henry (Journal, Dept. of
Ag. & Tech. Instr. for Ireland, vol. XV., Oct. 1914) who cites de
Vries* records of these hybrids obtained by Burbank showing a
height of 80 ft. and girth of 6 ft. at 15 years and giving, in
California, annual rings one inch in width. Contrary to popular
belief rapidity of growth does not always connote soft and com-
paratively worthless wood. The sylviculture of walnut has been
studied by Rebmann and others.
Persian Walnut. — The walnut is known to have been grown
in England since 1562 but, from remains of the nut unearthed in
Roman villas, was probably introduced during the period of
Roman occupation. It is the Jovis glans, Juglans, of the Roman
writers and both its nut and timber were highly valued in Roman
times. It is native in Yugoslavia, Greece and the countries on
the Black sea littoral and extends eastwards through the Caucasus,
Persia, Afghanistan, the Himalayas and Bhutan to China, grow-
ing 100 ft. or more in height at its best and with a girth of 10,
15 and 20 ft. — even 28 ft. has been recorded (Brandis). It is
fully at home in Great Britain and the characteristic grey corky
bark of the mature bole, deeply marked with vertical more or less
parallel fissures, is familiar. While preferring a deep well drained
loamy and calcareous soil it grows well in a variety of soils pro-
vided they are not wet.
The walnut suffers comparatively little from serious pest or
disease. Walnut blight, however (Pseudomonas juglandis 9 Pierce)
in California and the allied Anthracnose (Marsoma juglandis)
of the European trees causes considerable damage at times:
the young succulent growth is attacked during the earlier months
of the year, showing black sunken spots or canker, but the disease
is usually checked as it becomes more woody in character and
the parts affected therefore tend to heal. Little or no success
has attended attempted control measures and most promise lies
in finding resistant or immune varieties. The effect of attack by
aphis (Chronutphis juglandicola) and the larva of the codlin
moth (Cydia pomonella) may be serious at times. The so-called
oak root fungus also takes its toll of trees in Europe and America.
Propagation. — After drying lightly the seed may be sown
when ripe, or stratified in sand until about February and then
planted at about its own depth on its side. If put out in the
nursery it may be spaced nine or ten inches apart in rows, pref-
erably in a light early soil to induce early maturity of the shoots
as a protection against frost, to which, during its first years, the
young tree is susceptible; once well away frost is not a serious
danger. The primary root makes its exit from the apex and
forms a long stout woody tapering taproot with a few lateral
fibres during the first year. Transplanting even at one or two
years accordingly requires special care and, where possible, the
tree should be grown from the nut (which may previously be
sprouted slightly with advantage) in its permanent site. Normally
the young tree develops a well-balanced form and requires little
pruning other than to re-form a leader if cut back by frost
or to form the head at the desired height; pruning is best done
about July when sealing of the wound is most rapidly effected.
In common with most fruit -trees the walnut cannot be relied
'upon to yield varieties true to type from seed and, although the
main proportion of the world's walnut crop is still the product
of the seedling, modern walnut culture is wholly centred on
grafted or budded trees. While the seedling tree may come into
bearing at -from 10 to 15 years old (the variety praeparturiem or
fertilis, exceptionally, fruits in a few years) the grafted tree may
be counted upon to do so from a comparatively early age. In
France, where the walnut has long been one of the important
commercial farm crops, grafting has been practiced for many
years and some of the varieties such as Mayette and Franquette
have been grafted on seedling regia stocks for over 100 years.
As pointed out by Loudon the walnut does not graft or bud
easily by any methbd in northern France and in cold countries
generally: in warmer climates like the south of France, Italy
or California, it is readily propagated by vegetative methods.
Knight also refers to this point in the early Transactions of the
Horticultural Society of London (Vol. iii. & Vol. i. 2nd ser.)
and gives methods of overcoming the difficulty. The East
Mailing Research Station, Kent, has published methods suitable
for employment in this country in its Annual Report for the
years 1926-27, Supplement Part ii.
The Nut. — The culture of the walnut for the nut is imme-
morial. In countries where vegetative methods of propagation
are unknown or not practiced upon this species long continued
selection has tended to the evolution of varieties with some de-
gree of fixity of type. This has occurred in parts of China and
the Atlas mountains and has doubtless operated also largely in
Europe. It has always been regarded as a very valuable tree
and Evelyn in his Sylva (1664), records that in the neighbourhood
of Hanau and Frankfort "no young farmer whatsoever is per-
mitted to marry till he bring proof that he hath planted, and
is a father of such a stated number of walnut trees." In Bur-
gundy, they were valued "as great preservers by keeping the
grounds warm; nor do the roots hinder the plough.'* In Czecho-
slovakia the walnut trees grown on the public highways, and
owned by the villages produce most of the total crop; all are
seedlihgs. Although walnut trees in orchard form are found in
central and southern Europe (for example in the Grenoble district
in France) the trees are usually scattered among cultivated crops.
The nut is extensively grown in China which exports to the
United States, as also does Chile where the fruit ripens in March
and April. Southern Europe furnishes large supplies for overseas
trade, notably Rumania, Italy, France and Spain. The estimated
crop in France in 1927, a very good crop year both in Europe and
America, was about 55,000 tons, in Italy 10,000 and in Rumania
12,000. A normal Chinese crop gives, available for export, a
tonnage of about 14,000. Other areas include the Near East,
Persia, and northern India.
The most important expansion in the walnut industry in recent
years is centred in California. Here again the seedling walnut,
probably first introduced by the Franciscan Missions about the
middle of the i8th century, held sway until well into the present
century but latterly California has done much to further more
scientific culture. The selected walnuts are grown in grove or
orchard form with clean cultivation, except for inter-cropping in
early years and green-soiling. The trees arc generally spaced 50
or 60 feet apart, giving a yield of one to two thousand Ib. of
cured nuts per acre. In 1927 the crop amounted to about 36,000
tons. Some 100,000 acres of walnuts were in cultivation in 1924
to which fully 30,000 acres have been added.
Walnuts should be gathered as soon after falling as practicable
as prolonged contact with the husk, which usually breaks away
readily, causes deterioration in colour and favours the develop-
ment of mould. In cases where it is necessary to remove the
walnuts before they fall (rooks arc fond of the nut and consti-
tute a menace to its culture in Great Britain) a rubber covered
hook on a long pole may assist in shaking down the nuts, after
which they should be heaped but not allowed to remain longer
than is absolutely necessary for the removal of the husk. To
give the most attractive colour the nuts are frequently bleached,
either by sulphur fumes or, with greater safety and advantage,
by dilute hypochlorite solution, and are dried either by exposure
to the sun in trays (in France usually in well-ventilated lofts) or
artificially with warm air, a method now largely used in Cali-
fornia. Thereafter the nuts, which have been dried from a mois-
ture content of 25-40% down to about 8%, are mechanically
graded for size. Commercial varieties of importance include
Mayette, Franquette, Parisienne, Meylanaise, Come, Chabertc
and Marbot in France; Sorrento in Italy; Mayette, Franquette,
Ehrhardt, Placentia, Concord, Chase, Eureka, Payne and Grove
in California.
In Great Britain the seedling tree is still wholly dominant.
Under the aegis of the Horticultural Division of the Ministry
of Agriculture and with the help of the East Mailing Research
Station, work is in progress with the object of improving English
walnut culture. The great majority of home-grown walnuts fail
313
WALPOLE
to complete fully the normal processes of ripening and contain
an undue proportion of carbohydrates and moisture and in conse-
quence they are palatable only in a fresh undried condition.
Search is being made for trees yielding nuts of good quality and
especially those which are capable, under English climatic condi-
tions, of developing a full normal oil content, on which keeping
and other desirable qualities are largely dependent.
A good walnut after drying should contain 45-50% of kernel
on the total weight and the kernel should contain 50-60% of
oil. The best Calif ornian varieties weigh from n to 14 grams
(about 33 to 40 to the lb.), they average about i«6 inches in
length by 1-33 inches diameter at right angles to the sutural
ridge and 1-25 inches across the latter and are a little larger than
the corresponding grade of French nuts.
The kernel has about 18% protein and 16% carbohydrates in
addition to the oil content and has a high food value. A good
quality nut should show a combination of the following qualities:
— uniform fairly large size and light colour, regular contour,
moderately stout shell and good sealing; the nuts after drying
by free exposure to living room temperature for 12 or 14 days
should be well filled, plump, non-astringent and have the typical
rich flavour, free from all woodiness, of the best French or Cali-
fornian walnuts. The parent tree should give a reasonably reli-
able and good crop. Many English trees satisfy this latter re-
quirement: crops of i to 4 cwt. are not uncommon from well-
grown trees and 54 bushels have been harvested from a single
tree, but are not of quality to warrant propagation.
Pickling. — It is essential to gather the nuts at a time, about
the end of June or early July, when they may readily be pierced
by a needle : the nuts have ceased to be in a proper condition for
pickling when the shell can be felt. In France green walnuts, at
the same stage of development, are converted into a form of
conserve.
Oil. — Formerly much oil of a very good quality for edible
and other purposes (for example, for paints) was expressed by
growers from the dried walnut kernels, especially in France. The
kernels are crushed to a paste in a simple form of stone mill,
warmed and the oil expressed through sacks in a press, yielding
half their weight, or a little more, of oil. Cold expressed oil gives
a higher quality. In spite of the fact that a large trade has
developed in recent years in walnut kernels, with the effect of
diminishing the production of walnut oil, the value of the annual
production of oil in France in 1914 was estimated to be about
6 million francs. In the areas of production it is held in higher
esteem than olive oil. The husk of the walnut, after turning
black, yields a dark brown very persistent dye on prolonged
boiling in water.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. Lubbock, Baron Avebury, A Contribution to our
Knowledge of Seedlings, vol. ii. (2 vols., 1892) ; "Acorn," English
Timber and its economic conversion (1903) ; H. J. Elwes and
A. Henry, Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. ii. (1906-13) ;
F. Lesourd, Le Noyer (1920). Publications of United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture: — E. R. Lake, The Persian Walnut Industry of
the United States (Bulletin No. 254, 1913) ; G. B. Sudworth and
C. D. Mell, Circassian Walnut (Circular No. 212, 1913) ; F. S. Baker,
Black Walnut, Its Growth and Management (Bull. No. 933, 1921);
W. D. Brush, Utilization of Black Walnut (Bull. No. 909, 1921) ; W. R.
Mattoon, Black Walnut for Timber and Nuts (Farmers' Bulletin,
No. 1392, 1924) ; ^University of California Agricultural Experiment
Station: — Walnut Culture in California (Bull. No. 231, 1912, and
Bull. No. 332, 1921). See also L. A. Dode, Contribution d Vitude du
genre Juglans (Bulletin de la SocietS Dendiologique de France, No. 2,
1906, No. ii, 1909, and No. 13, 1909) ; H. Spcnce, in *hc Journal of
Pomology and Horticultural Sciences (Vol. V,, Maidstone, Oct. 1926) ;
also "Old and Remarkable Walnut Trees in Scotland," in the Transac-
tions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland (4th series,
vol. xvi., 1884) ; article by Rebmann in the Allgemeine Forst-und-
Jagd Zeitung (August, 1912) and article in The Forestry Quarterly
(vol. xi., Washington, 1913). (H. SP.)
WALPOLE, HORATIO or HORACE (1717-1797), English
politician and man of letters, 4th earl of Orford— a title to which
he only succeeded at the end of his life — was born in London, on
Sept. 24, 1717. He was the youngest of the five children of the
ist earl of Orford (Sir Robert Walpole) by Catherine Shorter,
but by some scandal-mongers, Carr, Lord Hervey, has been
called his father. No such suspicion ever entered into the mind
of Horace Walpole, who remained deeply attached to the memory
of his parents throughout his life. He was educated at Eton,
where he formed what was known as the "Quadruple Alliance"
with Thomas Gray, Richard West and Thomas Ashton, and be-
came very intimate with Henry Seymour Conway, George Augus-
tus Selwyn and the two Montagus, and at King's College, Cam-
bridge. Two years (1739-1741) were spent in Gray's company
in the recognized grand tour of France and Italy. They stopped
a few weeks in Paris, and three months at Reims. At Florence
Walpole stayed for a year with Horace Mann, British envoy to
the court of Tuscany. He continued to correspond with Mann
till 1786, and as they never met again, their friendship, unlike
most of Walpole's attachments, remained unbroken. After a short
visit to Rome (March-June 1740), and after a further sojourn
at Florence, Walpole and Gray quarrelled, and parted at Reggio.
Walpole came back to England on Sept. 12, 1741. He had been
returned to parliament in May- 1741 for the Cornish borough of
Callington. He represented three constituencies in succession,
Callington 1741-1754, the family borough of Castle Rising from
1754 to 1757, and King's Lynn, for which his father had long
sat, from 1757 until 1768. In that year he retired, probably be-
cause his success in political life had not equalled his expectations,
but he continued until the end of his days to follow and to
chronicle the acts and the speeches of both houses of parliament.
Through his father's influence he had obtained three lucrative
sinecures in the exchequer, and for many years (1745-1784) he
enjoyed a share, estimated at about £1,500 a year, of a second
family perquisite, the collectorship of customs. He acquired in
1747 the lease and in the next year purchased the reversion of
the villa of Strawberry Hill, near Twickenham, on the banks of
the Thames. Six years later he began a series of alterations in
the Gothic style, not completed for nearly a quarter of a century
later, under which the original cottage became transformed into
a building without parallel in Europe. On the 25th of June 1757
he established a printing-press there, which he called "Offkina
Arbuteana," where many of the first editions of his own works
were printed. Other works printed here were Richard Bentley's
designs for Gray's poems (1753), and reprints of the Life of
Lord Herbert of Cher bury, Memoirs of Grammont, Hentzner's
Journey into England, and Lord Whitworth's Account of Russia.
The rooms were crowded with curiosities of every description,
and the house and its contents were shown, by tickets to the
public. Walpole paid several visits to Paris, where he made the
acquaintance of Madame du Deffand (Q.V.) in 1765, and they
corresponded until her death in 1780. His nephew, the reckless
3rd earl, died on Dec. 5, 1791, and Horace succeeded to the
peerage, but he never took his place in the House of Lords. All
his life long he was a victim of the gout, but he lived to extreme
old age, and died unmarried, in Berkeley Square, London, on
March 2, 1797. All Walpole's printed books and manuscripts
were left to Robert Berry and his two daughters, Mary and Agnes,
and Mary Berry edited the five volumes of Walpole's works which
were published in 1798. Their friendship had been very dear to
the declining days of Walpole, who, it has even been said, wished
to marry Mary Berry. The collections of Strawberry Hill, which
he had spent nearly fifty years in amassing, were sold in 1842.
They are described in a catalogue and in the Gentleman's Maga-
zine.
The pen was ever in Horace Walpole's hands, and his entire,
compositions would fill many volumes. His Castle of Otranto
(1764) is the prototype of the romantic novel. The Mysterious
Mother (1768) is the least bad of tragedies when tragedy was at
its worst.
The antiquarian works merit praise. The volume of Historic
Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third (1760),
one of the earliest attempts to rehabilitate a character previously
stamped with infamy, showed acuteness and research. A work
of more lasting reputation, which has retained its vitality for
more than a century, is entitled Anecdotes of Painting in England,
(4 vols., 1762-1771). It was re-edited with additions by the Rev.
James Dallaway in five volumes (1826-1828), and then again
was revised and edited by R. N. Wornum in 1849. A cognate
volume, also based on the materials of Vertue, is entitled the
WALPOLE— WALSH
3*3
Catalogue of Engravers Born and Resident in England (1763),
also often reprinted. As a senator himself, or as a private person
following at a distance the combats of St. Stephen's, Walpoie
recorded in a diary the chief incidents in English politics. If he
was sometimes prejudiced, he rarely distorted the acts of those
whom he disliked; and his prejudices, which lie on the surface,
were mainly against those whom he considered traitors to his
father. These diaries extend from 1750 to 1783, and cover a
period of momentous importance. The Memoirs of the Last Ten
Years of the Reign of George II. was edited by Lord Holland
(1846); its successor, Memoirs of the Reign of King George III.,
was edited by Sir Denis Le Marchant (4 vols., 1845), and re-
edited in 1894 by G. F. Russell Barker; the last volumes of
the series, Journal of the Reign of George III. from 1771 to 1783,
were edited and illustrated by John Doran (2 vols., 1859), and
were edited with an introduction by A. F. Steuart (London, 1909).
To these works should be added the Reminiscences (2 vols.,
1819), which Walpoie wrote in 1788 for the Misses Berry. But
Walpoie was above all a letter-writer. His correspondents were
numerous and widespread, but the chief of them were William
Cole (1714-1782), the clerical antiquary of Milton; Robert
Jephson, the dramatist; William Mason, the poet; Lord Hertford
during his embassy in Paris; the countess of Ossory; Lord Har-
court; George Montagu, his friend at Eton; Henry Seymour
Conway (1721-1795) and Sir Horace Mann. The Letters were
published at different dates, but the standard collection is that
by Mrs. Paget Toynbee (1903-1905), and to it should be added
the volumes of the letters addressed to Walpoie by his old friend
Madame du Deffand (4 vols,, 1810). A selection has been edited
by W. S. Lewis (New York and London, 1926). Walpoie has
been called "the best letter-writer in the English language." His
political estimates are more acute than his literary ones.
Abundant information about Horace Walpoie will be found in the
Memoirs of him and of his contemporaries edited by Eliot Warburton
(1851), J. H. Jesse's George Selwyn and his Contemporaries (4 vols.,
1843-44) and the extracts from the journals and correspondence of
Miss Berry (3 vols., 1866) ; also Horace Walpoie and his World,
by L. B. Seeley (1884) and Austin Dobson, Horace Walpoie (1890).
It would be unpardonable to omit mention of Macaulay's sketch of
Walpole's life and character. See also P. Yvon, Horace Walpole, 1717-
07. Essai de biographie psychologique el liiitmht (1924), and Horace
Walpoie as Poet (Paris, 1924) ; H. B. Wheatley in Cambridge History
of English Literature, vol. 10 (1913) ; D. M. Stuart, Horace Walpoie
in English Men of Letters (1927).
WALPOLE, SIR ROBERT: see ORFORD, ROBERT WAL-
POLE, IST EARL or.
WALPURGIS (WALPURCA or WALBURGA), ST. (d. c. 780),
English missionary to Germany, was born in Sussex at the be-
ginning of the 8th century. She was the sister of Willibald, the
first bishop of Eichstatt in Bavaria, and Wunnibald, first abbot
of Heidenheim. Her father, Richard, is thought to have been a son
of Hlothere, gth king of Kent; her mother, Winna or Wuna, a
sister of St. Boniface. At the instance of Boniface and Willibald
she went about 750 with some other nuns to found religious houses
in Germany. Her first settlement was at Bischofsheim in the
diocese of Mainz, and two years later (754) she became abbess of
the Benedictine nunnery at Heidenheim in the diocese of Eichstatt.
On the death of Wunnibald in 760 she succeeded him in his charge
also, retaining the superintendence of both houses until her death.
Her relics were translated to Eichstatt, where she was laid in a
hollow rock, from which exuded a kind of bituminous oil after-
wards known as Walpurgis oil, and regarded as of miraculous
efficacy against disease. The cave became a place of pilgrimage,
and a church was built over the spot. Walpurgis is commemorated
at various times, but principally on the ist of May, her day taking
the place of an earlier heathen festival which was characterized
by various rites marking the beginning of summer. She is re-
garded as the protectress against magic arts. (C/. the Walpurgis-
Nacht dance in Goethe's Fattst.) In art she is represented with
a crozier, and bearing in her hand a flask of balsam.
Her life was written by the presbyter Wolfhard and dedicated to
Erkenbald, bishop of Eichstatt (884-916). See the Bollandist Acta
sanctorum, vol. iii. February 25. On Walpurgis, Willibald and
Wunnibald see G. F. Browne, Boniface of Credit on and his Com-
panions (London, 1910), vii,
WALRUS or MORSE (Odobaenus rosmarus), a large ma-
rine mammal allied to the seals. Characterized by the prolonga-
tion, in both sexes, of the upper canine teeth into tusks, which
may reach a length of 2ft., the adult walrus measures some 10
or nft. and is a heavily -built animal. The head is rounded, the
eyes small, external ears absent.
The short broad muzzle bears
on each side a group of stiff,
bristly whiskers. The tail scarce-
ly projects beyond the skin. The
fore-limbs are only free from the
elbow and the fore-flipper is
broad, flat and webbed. The
WALRUS OR WHALE HORSE <TRICH. hind-limbs, free from the heel,
ECHUS), FOUND ONLY IN THE are fan.shaped. The skin IS COV-
NORTH ered with short, rufous hair,
which becomes very scanty in old animals. There are deep folds
on the shoulder.
The walrus inhabits the northern circumpolar region in small
herds. It prefers the coastal portions or ice-floes and feeds largely
on bivalve molluscs which it digs up from the bottom of the sea
with its tusks. Normally inoffensive and affectionate, when
attacked the walrus can use its tusks with terrible effect and the
herd usually combine against an enemy. Its principal foe, apart
from man, is the polar bear, and its flesh is an important article
of food to the Eskimo and Chukchi. Commercially the walrus
is valuable for its oil, its hide and its ivory. The Pacific walrus,
with longer and more slender tusks, has been separated as 0.
obesns. Like the Atlantic form, its numbers have been much re-
duced within recent years. Fossil walruses arc known from the
late Tertiary of the U.S.A., England, France and Belgium.
WALSALL, market town, Staffordshire, England, in the
"Black Country." Pop. (1921) 96,926. The town stands high on
a ridge on which is also the isth century church of St. Matthew,
now rebuilt.
Queen Mary's Schools are a foundation of 1554 and here were
educated John Hough (1651-1743), the president of Magdalen
College, Oxford, whom James II. sought to eject from office,
afterwards Bishop of Oxford, Lichfield, and Worcester; and
John, Lord Somers (1651-1716), Lord Keeper and Lord Chan-
cellor of England. Walsall was the scene of the charitable work
of Sister Dora (Miss Pattison), whom a statue commemorates.
Coal, limestone and ironstone are mined in the neighbourhood.
Walsall specializes in hardware and leather goods, gloves, elec-
trical appliances, motor fittings. There are also iron and brass
foundries. Three annual fairs are held. The parliamentary
borough returns one member. Walsall (Waleshales, Walshall,
Walsaler) was given in 996 to the church of Wolverhampton,
which, however, did not retain it long. It was granted by Henry
II. to Herbert Ruffus. Later the manor passed to the Bassets and
the Beauchamps, and Warwick the king-maker held it in right
of his wife. Henry VIII. granted it (1538) to Dudley, afterwards
duke of Northumberland. Privileges were granted to the town by
William Ruffus in the reign of John, and charters by Henry IV.,
Charles I. (1627) and Charles II. (1661) by which latter the
town was governed until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. It
was not represented in parliament till 1832. Walsall had a mer-
chant gild in 1390; in the i7th century it was already known for
its manufacture of iron goods and nail-making. In the 1 8th
century the staple industry was the making of chapes and shoe-
buckles. Two fairs were granted in 1399. The Tuesday market,
which is still held and two fairs on October 28 and May 6, were
granted in 1417 to Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick.
WALSH, THOMAS JAMES (1859- ), American law-
yer and senator, was born in Two Rivers, Wis., on June 12, 1859,
and educated at the University of Wisconsin (LL.B., 1884).
In the year 1912 he was elected U.S. senator, going directly to
the Senate chamber from the lawyer's office without previous
experience in public office. He was re-elected in 1918 and in 1924.
He was five times a delegate to the Democratic national conven-
tion previous to 1924, in which year he presided as chairman of
the convention. He was a presidential possibility in 1924, and was
WALSH— WALSINGHAM
offered the vice-presidency on the ticket with John W. Davis,
but he declined. He was even more seriously spoken of in 1928
as the only strong alternative candidate to Alfred E. Smith, but
before the convention met he signified his desire not to be con-
sidered. In the Senate he became an outstanding figure. His
speeches, replete with facts and packed with close reasoning,
made him a formidable adversary in debate. As an expert lawyer
he was constantly called upon for advice. He aided in drafting
the Prohibition and Woman-Suffrage amendments to the Consti-
tution, and was also author of that part of the Federal Reserve
Act which requires national banks to subscribe for stock in the
Federal Reserve banks. He also formulated the case against the
seating of Senator Truman H. Newberry, of Michigan. He is
chiefly noted, however, for the tireless tenacity with which he
prosecuted the investigation of circumstances surrounding the
illegal leasing of Government oil reserves during Harding's
Administration, an investigation which he took up after it pre-
viously had been dropped, and carried it through to overwhelm-
ing success. In 1928 he made a strong fight to have the financial
status of light and power corporations investigated by a com-
mittee of the Senate, but was unsuccessful.
WALSH, WILLIAM JOHN (1841-1921), Roman Catholic
divine, was born in Dublin Jan. 30, 1841. Educated in Dublin
and at St. Patrick's college, Maynooth, in 1867 he was appointed
professor of dogmatic and moral theology at Maynooth. In 1878
he became vice-president of the college and in 1881 succeeded Dr.
Russell as president. Dr. Walsh served on several committees and
commissions. He was partly responsible for the appointment of
the commission to enquire into the working of the Queen's
Colleges, and he became a member of the senate of the university.
In 1885 he was summoned to Rome by the Pope and given the
appointment of archbishop of Dublin. This office he continued to
hold till his death in Dublin, on April 9, 1921. Dr. Walsh was a
commissioner for education in Ireland (1891) and, a member
(1908) of the Dublin statutory commission which established the
Catholic National University, with himself as chancellor. In
politics he was a Nationalist, but he strongly opposed compromise
with the British Government, and after the rebellion of 1916 he
supported the Sinn Feiners.
Dr. Walsh's published works include A Plain Exposition of the Irish
Land Act of iSSi (1881) ; The Queen's Colleges and the Royal Uni-
versity of Ireland (1883-84); The Irish University Question (1890).
WALSINGHAM, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1530-1590), English
statesman, was the only son of William Walsingham, common
Serjeant of London (d. March 1534), by his wife Joyce, daughter
of Sir Edmund Denny of Cheshunt. Francis matriculated as a
fellow-commoner of King's college, Cambridge, of which Sir John
Cheke was provost, iri Nov. 1548; and he studied there amid
strongly Protestant influences until Michaelmas 1550, when he
ippears to have gone abroad to complete his education. Return-
ing in 1552 he was admitted at Gray's Inn on Jan. 28, 1553, but
in 1555-56 he was at Padua, where he was admitted a "con-
siliarius" in the faculty of laws. Walsingham was twice mar-
ried; in Jan. 1562 to Anne (d. 1564), daughter of George Barnes,
lord mayor of London, and to Ursula, daughter of Henry St.
Barbe and widow of Sir Richard Worsley. By his second wife
Walsingham had a daughter who married firstly Sir Philip Sidney,
secondly Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex, and thirdly, Richard
de Burgh, earl of Clanricarde.
Walsingham sat in Elizabeth's first and second parliaments for
Banbury, and was attached to the party of Cecil. In 1567-70 he
was supplying Cecil with information about the movements of
foreign spies in London. Ridolfi, the conspirator, was committed
to his custody in Oct. 1569. In the summer of 1570 he was, in
spite of his protestations, designated to succeed Norris as am-
bassador at Paris. Walsingham was the ablest of the new men
whom Cecil, having triumphed over the older aristocracy, brought
to the front.
Embassy to Paris. — An essential element in the new policy
peas the substitution of an alliance with France for the old Bur-
gundian friendship. The affair of San Juan de Ulua and the
seizure of the Spanish treasure-ships in 1568 had been omens
of the inevitable conflict with Spain; Ridolfi's plot and Philip
II.'s approaches to Mary Stuart indicated the lines upon which
the struggle would be fought; and it was Walsingham's business
to reconcile the Huguenots with the French Government, and
upon this reconciliation to base an Anglo-French alliance which
might lead to a grand attack on Spain, to the liberation of the
Netherlands, to the destruction of Spain's monopoly in the New
World and to making Protestantism the dominant force in
Europe. Walsingham threw himself heart and soul into the move-
ment. He was the anxious fanatic of Elizabeth's advisers; he
lacked the patience of Burghley and the cynical coolness of Eliza-
beth. He supplied the momentum which was necessary to coun-
teract the caution of Burghley and Elizabeth; but it was probably
fortunate that his headstrong counsels were generally overruled
by the circumspection of his sovereign. He would have plunged
England into war with Spain in 1572, when the risks would have
been infinitely greater than in i$88, and when the Huguenot influ-
ence over the French Government, on which he relied for support,
would probably have broken in his hands.
Walsingham, however, was an accomplished diplomatist, and
he reserved these truculent opinions for the ears of his own
Government, incurring frequent rebukes from Elizabeth. In his
professional capacity, his attitude was correct enough; and,
indeed, his anxiety for the French alliance and for the marriage
between Elizabeth and Anjou led him to suggest, concessions to
Anjou's Catholic susceptibilities which came strangely from so
staunch a Puritan. Although a defensive alliance was concluded
between England and France in April 1572, the French* Govern-
ment perceived that public opinion in France would not tolerate
an open breach with Spain in Protestant interests. The massacre
of St. Bartholomew ruined all such hopes.
He was recalled in April 1573, and eight months later he was
admitted to the privy council and made joint secretary of State
with Sir Thomas Smith. He held this office jointly or solely
until his death; in 1577 when Smith died, Dr. Thomas Wilson was
associated with Walsingham ; after Wilson's death in 1581 Walsing-
ham was sole secretary until July 1566, when Davison began
his brief and ill-fated seven months' tenure of the office. After
Davison's disgrace in Feb. 1587 Walsingham remained sole secre-
tary, though Wolley assisted him as Latin secretary from 1588 to
1590. He was also returned to parliament at a by-election in
1576 as knight of the shire for Surrey in succession to Charles
Howard, who had become Lord Howard of Effingham, and he
was re-elected for Surrey in 1584, 1586 and 1588. He was knighted
on Dec. i, 1577, and made chancellor of the order of the Garter
on April 22, 1578.
State Secretary. — As secretary, Walsingham could pursue no
independent policy; he was rather in the position of permanent
under-secretary of the combined home and foreign departments,
and he had to work under the direction of the council, and par-
ticularly of Burghley and the queen. He continued to urge the
necessity of more vigorous intervention on behalf of the Prot-
estants abroad, though now his clients were the Dutch rather than
the Huguenots. In June 1578 he was sent with Lord Cobham to
the Netherlands, mainly to glean reliable information on the
complicated situation. In Aug. 1581 he was sent on a second
and briefer mission to Paris. Its object was to secure a solid
Anglo-French alliance against Spain without the condition upon
which Henry III. insisted, namely a marriage between Elizabeth
and Anjou. The French Government would not yield, and Wal-
singham came back, followed by Anjou, who pressed his claims
in person. Walsingham's last embassy was to the court of James
VI. in 1583, and here his vehement and suspicious Protestantism
led him astray. Elizabeth and Burghley were inclined to try an
alliance with the Scottish king, and the event justified their
policy, which Walsingham did his best to frustrate, although
deserted on this occasion by his chief regular supporter, Leicester.
For the rest of his life Walsingham was mainly occupied in
detecting and frustrating the various plots formed Against Eliza-
beth's life. He raised the English system of secret intelligence to
a high degree of efficiency. At one time he is said to have had
in his pay 53 agents at foreign courts, besides 18 persons whose
WALSINGHAM— WALTER
functions were even more obscure. Some of them were double
spies, sold to both parties, whose real sentiments are still con-
jectural; but Walsingham was more successful in seducing Catholic
spies than his antagonists were in seducing Protestant spies, and
most of his information came from Catholics who betrayed one
another. The most famous of the plots frustrated by Walsingham
was Anthony Babington's, the discovery of which enabled him
to bring pressure to bear upon Elizabeth to ensure Mary's
execution. Walsingham died deeply in debt on April 6, 1590.
See K. Stahlin, Sir Francis Walsingham und seme Zeit (Heidelberg,
1908, etc.) ; and C. Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and ike policy of
Queen Elizabeth (3 vols., 1925).
WALSINGHAM, THOMAS (d. c. 1422), English chron-
icler, was probably educated at the abbey of St. Albans and at
Oxford. He became a monk at St. Albans, where he appears to
have passed the whole of his monastic life except the six years
between 1394 and 1400 during .which he was prior of another
Benedictine house at Wymondham, Norfolk. At St. Albans he was
in charge of the scriptorium, or writing room, and he died about
1422. Walsingham's most important work is his Historia Angli-
cana, covering the period between 1272 and 1422. Some author-
ities hold that Walsingham himself only wrote the section between
1377 and 1392, but this view is controverted by James Gairdner
in his Early Chroniclers of Europe (1879).
His most important works are Historia Angliae brevis, edit, by H. T.
Rilcy (1863-64) ; Chronic on Angliae, edit. Sir E. M. Thompson
( 187*4) ; Gesta Abbatum Monasterii S. Albani, edit, by T. H. Riley
(1867-69); Ypodigma Neustriae, edit, by T. H. Riley (1876). All
these editions are in the Rolls series.
WALTER, BRUNO (1876- ), eminent German con-
ductor, was born in Berlin on Sept. 15, 1876. He received his
training in Berlin at the Stern Konservatorium; studied under
Ehrlich, Buszler and Robert Radecke ; and first appeared as con-
ductor of opera at the Municipal theatre in Cologne. He then
filled the same position in Hamburg, Brcslau, Pressburg (Brati-
slava), Riga and Berlin, while from 1901 to 1912 he conducted the
Court opera in Vienna. From 1913 to 1922, Walter was musical
director at the Munich opera, and from 1925 until May 1929 he
was the general musical director of the three Berlin opera houses.
WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205), ctyef justiciar of England
and archbishop of Canterbury, was a relative of Ranulf de Glan-
vill, the great justiciar of Henry II., and rose under the eye of his
kinsman to an important position in the Curia Regis. In 1184 and
in 1185 he appears as a baron of the exchequer. He was employed,
sometimes as a negotiator, sometimes as a justice, sometimes as
a royal secretary. He received no clerical promotion from Henry
II., but Richard I. appointed him bishop of Salisbury, and by
Richard's command he went with the third crusade to the Holy
Land. He gained the respect of all the crusaders, and acted as
Richard's principal agent in all negotiations with Saladin, being
given a place in the first band of pilgrims that entered Jerusalem.
He led the English army back to England after Richard's de-
parture from Palestine; but in Sicily he heard of the king's cap-
tivity, and hurried to join him in Germany. In 1193 he returned
to England to raise the king's ransom. Soon afterwards he was
elected archbishop of Canterbury and made justiciar. He was
very successful in the government of the kingdom, and after Rich-
ard's last visit he was practically the ruler of England. He had no
light task to keep pace with the king's constant demand for money.
He was compelled to work the administrative machinery to its ut-
most, and indeed to invent new methods of extortion. To pay for
Richard's ransom, he had already been compelled to tax personal
property, the first instance of such taxation for secular purposes.
The main feature of all his measures was the novel and extended
use of representation and election in government.
His chief measures are contained in his instruction to the itiner-
ant justices of 1194 and 1198, in his ordinance of 1195 for the
conservation of the peace, and in his scheme of 1198 for the
assessment of the carucage. The justices of 1194 were to or-
der the election of four coroners by the suitors of each county
court. These new officers were to "keep," i.e., to register, the
pleas of the crown, an important duty hitherto left to the sheriff.
The juries, both for answering the questions asked by the judges
and for trying cases under the grand assize, were to be chosen by
a committee of four knights, also elected by the suitors of each
county court for that purpose. In 1195 Hubert issued an ordi-
nance by which four knights were to be appointed in every hun-
dred to act as guardians of the peace, and from this humble be-
ginning eventually was evolved the office of justice of the peace.
His reliance upon the knights, or middle-class landowners, who
now for the first time appear in the political foreground, is all
the more interesting because it is this class who, either as mem-
bers of parliament or justices of the peace, were to have the
effective rule of England in their hands for so many centuries.
In 1198, to satisfy the king's demand for money, Hubert de-
manded a carucage or plough-tax of five shillings on every plough-
land (carucate) under cultivation. This was the old tax, the
Danegeld, in a new and heavier form and there was great difficulty
in levying it. To make it easier, the justiciar ordered the assess-
ment to be made by a sworn jury in every hundred, and one may
reasonably conjecture that these jurors were also elected. Hubert
negotiated a peace with Scotland in 1195, and in 1197 another
with the Welsh. But the carucage was not a success, and the
Great Council refused to equip a force of knights to serve abroad.
In 1198 Hubert, who had inherited from his predecessors in the
primacy a fierce quarrel with the Canterbury monks, gave these
enemies an opportunity of complaining to the pope, for in arrest-
ing the London demagogue, William Fitz Osbert, he had com-
mitted an act of sacrilege in Bow Church, which belonged to the
monks. The pope asked Richard to free Hubert from all secular
duties, and he did so, thus making the demand an excuse for dis-
missing Hubert from the justiciarship. On May 27, 1199, Hubert
crowned John, making a speech in which the old theory of elec-
tion by the people was enunciated for the last time. He also took
the office of chancellor and cheerfully worked under Geoffrey Fitz
Peter, one of his former subordinates. In 1201 he went on a diplo-
matic mission to Philip Augustus of France, and in 1202 he re-
turned to England to keep the kingdom in peace while John was
losing his continental possessions. In 1205 he died. Hubert was
an ingenious, original and industrious public servant, but he was
grasping and perhaps dishonest.
See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. (1897); Miss K.
Norgate's England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (1887) ; W. Stubbs,
preface to vol. iv. of Roger of Hoveden's Chronicle ("Rolls" scries,
1868-71).
WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-18"), founder of The Times
newspaper, London, was born in 1738/9, probably in London, and
from the death of his father, Richard Walter (about 1755/6),
until 1781 was engaged in a prosperous business as a coal mer-
chant. He played a leading part in establishing a Coal Exchange
in London; but shortly after 1781, when he began to occupy him-
self solely as an underwriter and became a member of Lloyd's,
he over-speculated and failed. In 1782 he bought from one Henry
Johnson a patent for a new method of printing from "logotypes'*
(i.e., founts of words or portions of words, instead of letters), and
made some improvements in it. In 1784 he acquired an old print-
ing office in Blackfriars, which formed the nucleus of the Printing-
house Square of a later date, and established there his "Logo-
graphic Office." At first he only undertook the printing of books,
but on Jan. i, 1785 he started a small newspaper called The Daily
Universal Register, which on reaching its 940th number on Jan. i,
1788 was renamed The Times.
The printing business developed and prospered, but the news-
paper at first had a somewhat chequered career. In 1789 Walter
was tried for a libel in it on the duke of York, and was sentenced
to a fine of £50, a year's imprisonment in Newgate, to stand in
the pillory for an hour and to give surety for good behaviour for
seven years; and for further libels the fine was increased by £100,
and the imprisonment by a second year. On March 9, 1791, how-
ever, he was liberated and pardoned. In 1799 he was again con-
victed for a technical libel, this time on Lord Cowper. He had
then given up the management of the business to his eldest son,
William, and had (1795) retired to Teddington, where he died on
Nov. 16, 1812. la 1759 he had married Frances Landen (died
1798), by whom he had six children. In 1803 William Walter
316
WALTER— WALTHAMSTOW
transferred the sole management to his younger brother, John.
JOHN WALTER (a) (1776-1847), who really established the
>reat newspaper of which his father had sown the seed, was born
DU Feb. 23, 1776, and was educated at Merchant Taylors' School
and Trinity College, Oxford. He found The Times one of a
number of unconsidered journals whose opinions counted for little.
He left it in 1847 a great organ of public opinion, deferred to and
even feared throughout Europe, consulted and courted by cabinet
ministers at home, and in intimate relations with the best sources
of independent information in every European capital. On taking
oyer the management in 1803, he signalized the new spirit of the
direction by his opposition to Pitt, which cost him the withdrawal
of government advertisements and the loss of his appointment as
printer to the Customs, and exposed him to the not too scrupulous
hostility of the official world. He let the government do its
worst and held on his way. From about 1810 he delegated to
others editorial supervision (first to Sir John Stoddart, then to
Thomas Barnes, and in 1841 to J. T. Delane), though never the
supreme direction of policy. In 1832 Mr. Walter, who had pur-
chased an estate called Bear Wood, in Berkshire (where his son
afterwards built the present house), was elected to Parliament for
that county, and retained his seat till 1837. In 1841 he was re-
turned to Parliament for Nottingham, but was unseated next year
on petition. He was twice married, and by his second wife, Mary
Smythe, had a family. He died in London on July 28, 1847.
JOHN WALTER (3) (1818-1894), his eldest son, was born at
Printing-house Square in 1818, and was educated at Eton and
Exeter College, Oxford, being called to the bar in 1847. On leav-
ing Oxford he took part in the business management of The Times,
and on his father's death became sole manager, though he devolved
part of the work on Mowbray Morris. It was under him that the
successive improvements in the printing machinery, begun by his
father in 1814, at last reached the stage of the " Walter Press" in
1869, the pioneer of modern newspaper printing-presses. In 1847
he was elected to parliament for Nottingham as a moderate
Liberal, and was re-elected in 1852 and in 1857. In 1859 he was
returned for Berkshire, and though defeated in 1865, was again
elected in 1868, and held the seat till he retired in 1885. He died
on Nov. 3, 1894. He was twice married, first in 1842 to Emily
Frances Court (d. 1858), and secondly in 1861 to Flora Macnabb.
His eldest son by the first marriage, John, was accidentally
drowned at Bear Wood in 1870; and he was succeeded by Arthur
Fraser Walter (1846-1910), his second son by the first marriage.
A. F. Walter remained chief proprietor of The Times till 1908,
when it was converted into a company. He then became chairman
of the board of directors, and on his death was succeeded in this
position by his son John, who entered the Times office in 1898,
and was chairman of the directors from 1910 to 1923. John
Walter's son, Hubert Walter (b. 1870) joined the staff in 1894
and has acted as special representative in Paris and elsewhere.
(For changes in the management of The Times since 1908 see NEWS-
PAPERS: British.) (H, C.; X.)
WALTER, LUCY (c. 1630-1658), mistress of the English
king Charles II. and mother of the duke of Monmouth (q.v.),
was born at Roch Castle, near Haver ford west. Her home having
been captured and burned by the Parliamentary forces in 1644,
Lucy Walter found shelter first in London and then at The Hague.
There, in 1648, she met Charles, possibly renewing an earlier
acquaintance. Their intimacy lasted with intervals till the autumn
of 1651, and Charles claimed the paternity of a child born in
1649, whom he subsequently created duke of Monmouth.
See Stcinmann, Althorp Memoirs (1869), pp. 77 seq. and Addenda
(1880) ; J. S. Clarke, Life of James //. (2 vols., 1816) ; Clarendon
State Papers, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1869-76) ; John Evelyn, Diary, edited
by W. Bray (1890); and Mme. d'Aulnoy, Memoirs of the Court of
England in 1675, edited by G. D. Gilbert (1913).
WALTER OF COVENTRY (fl. 1290), English monk and
chronicler, who was apparently connected with a religious house
in the province of York, is known to us only through the historical
compilation which bears his name, the Memoriale fratris Walteri
de Coventria. The word Memoriale is usually taken to mean
"commonplace book." Some critics interpret it in the sense of "a
souvenir," and argue that Walter was not the author but merely
the donor of the book; but the weight of authority is against this
view. The author of the Memoriale lived in the reign of Edward
I., and mentions the homage done to Edward as overlord of
Scotland (1291). Since the main narrative extends only to 1225,
the Memoriale is emphatically a second-hand production. But
for the years 1201-1225 it is a faithful transcript of a contem-
porary chronicle, the work of a Barnwell canon. A complete text
of the Barnwell work is preserved in the College of Arms (Heralds'
College, ms. 10), and was collated by Bishop Stubbs for his edition.
The Barnwell annalist, living in Cambridgeshire, was well
situated to observe the events of the barons* war, and is our most
valuable authority for that important crisis. He is less hostile to
John than are Ralph of Coggeshall, Roger of Wendover and
Matthew Paris. He praises the king's management of the Welsh
and Scottish wars ; he is critical in his attitude towards the pope
and the English opposition; he regards the submission of John to
Rome as a skilful stroke of policy, although he notes the fact that
some men called it a humiliation. The constitutional agitation of
1215 does not arouse his enthusiasm; he passes curtly over the
Runnymede conference, barely mentioning Magna Carta. Prob-
ably, the middle classes, whom he represents, regarded the designs
of the feudal baronage with suspicion.
See W. Stubbs's edition of Walter of Coventry ("Rolls" series,
2 vols., 1872-73) ; R. Pauli, in Geschichte von England (Hamburg,
1853), iii. 872. (H. W. C. D.)
WALTHAM, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the Charles river. Pop. in 1920, 30,91^5 (26%
foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate 38,000. The city occu-
pies a series of rugged hills rising on both sides of the river.
Prospect hill (482 ft.), in a park of TOO ac., commands a magnifi-
cent view. There is a large central common, and parts of the
Beaver Brook Reservation (including the "Waverley Oaks") and
the Charles River Reservation are within the limits. Waltham
is the seat of the Massachusetts school for the feeble-minded,
the first institution of its kind in the country (established in
Boston in 1848). Also it has the largest watch factory in the
world (employing over 3,000 persons), large cotton mills and many
other manufacturing industries, with an aggregate output in 1925
valued at $19,672,096. The town was incorporated in 1738,
and in 1884 it was chartered as a city. The first power mill used
in the manufacture of cotton cloth in America was established
here in 1814. Before the establishment of the U.S. observatory
at Washington the watch company maintained an elaborate ob-
servatory for testing and setting its watches.
WALTHAM ABBEY or WALTHAM HOLY CROSS,
a market town in Essex, England, on the Lea, and on the Cam-
bridge branch of the L.N.E.R. Pop, (1921) 6,847. Of the for-
mer magnificent cruciform abbey church the only portion of
importance now remaining is the nave, forming the present
parish church, the two easternmost bays being converted into
the chancel. It is a very fine specimen of ornate Norman. On
the south side of the church is a lady chapel dating from the end
of the reign of Edward II. or the beginning of that of Edward
III, containing some good Decorated work, with a crypt below.
Of the monastic buildings there remain only a bridge and gate-
way and other slight fragments. At Waltham Cross, about i m.
W. of Waltham in Hertfordshire, is the beautiful cross erected
(1291-94) by Edward I. at one of the resting-places of the
corpse of Queen Eleanor on its way to burial in Westminster
Abbey. The royal gun-powder factory is in the immediate
vicinity; government works were built in 1890 at Quinton Hill,
i m. W. of the town, for the manufacture of cordite; and the
town possesses gun-cotton and percussion-cap factories, flour-
mills, malt kilns and breweries. Watercress is extensively grown
in the neighbourhood, and there are market gardens and nurseries.
WALTHAMSTOW, a suburb of London. Population (1921)
129,395. The church of St. Mary existed at a very early period,
but the present building, chiefly of brick, was erected in 1535.
Besides other old brasses it contains in the north aisle the effigies
in brass of Sir George Monoux (d. 1543) and Anne his wife.
There are a number of educational institutions, including a school
WALTHARIUS— WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE 317
of art; Forest school, founded in 1834 in connection with King's
college, now ranks as one of the well-known English public
schools. Brewing is extensively carried on. In the reign of Edward
the Confessor Walthamstow belonged to Waltheof , son of Siward,
earl of Northumberland, who married Judith, niece of William
the Conqueror, who betrayed him to his death in 1075. The estate
subsequently passed in 1309 to Guy de Beauchamp, earl of War-
wick. It is supposed to have been the birthplace of George Gas-
coigne the poet (d. 1577).
WALTHARIUS, a Latin poem founded on German popular
tradition, relates the exploits of the west Gothic hero Walter of
Aquitaine. Our knowledge of the author, Ekkehard, a monk
of St. Gall, is due to a later Ekkehard (Ekkehard IV., d. 1060),
who gives some account of him in the Casus Sancti Gdli (cap.
80). The poem is said to have been by Ekkehard I. (d. 973) in his
schooldays for his master Geraldus. If so, he must have possessed
precocious powers. Waltharius was dedicated by Geraldus to
Erchanbald, bishop of Strasbourg (fl. 965-991), but mss, were in
circulation before that time. Ekkehard IV. stated that he cor-
rected his namesake's Germanisms. The poem was probably based
on epic songs now lost.
Walter was the son of Alphere, ruler of Aquitaine, which in the
5th century was a province of the west Gothic Spanish kingdom.
On Attila's invasion the western princes are represented as offering
tribute and hostages. Gibich, here described as a Prankish king,
gave Hagen as a hostage in place of his son Gunther; the Bur-
gundian Heririh, his daughter Hiltegund; and Alphere, his son
Walter. Hagen and Walter became brothers in arms, fighting for
Attila, while Hiltegund was put over the queen's treasure. Pres-
ently Gunther succeeded his father and,refused the tribute, where-
upon Hagen fled from Attila's court. Walter and Hiltegund, who
had been betrothed in childhood, also escaped, taking with them a
great treasure. The story of their flight forms one of the most
charming pictures of old German story. At WTorms, however, the
treasurer excited the cupidity of Gunther. Taking 12 knights,
among them the reluctant Hagen, he overtook them at the
Wasgenstein (Vosges). Walter engaged the Nibelungs one at. a
time, until all were slain but Hagen, who held aloof and was only
persuaded by Gunther on the second day to attack his comrade.
Luring Walter from the strong position of the day before, Gunther
and Hagen attacked. All three were incapacitated, but their
wounds were bound up by Hiltegund.
The essence of the story is the series of single combats. The
incoherences make it likely that many changes have been intro-
duced in the legend. Thidreks Saga makes the story more prob-
able by representing the pursuers as Huns. Probably Hagen was
originally the father of Hiltegund, and the tale was a variant of
the saga of Hild in Skaldskaparmdl. Hild, daughter of King Hogni,
was carried off by Hedinn. The fight between father and lover
only ceased at sundown, to be renewed on the morrow, since each
evening Hild raised the dead by her incantations. This is obviously
a mediaeval variant of the ancient myth of the struggle between
light and darkness.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Waltharius was first edited by Fischer (Leipzig,
1780). Later and more critical editions are by Jacob Grimm (Lat.
Gedichte des Mittelalters, Gottingen, 1838); R. Peipcr (1873); V.
Scheffel and A. Holder (Stuttgart, 1874) ; German translations by F.
Linnig (Paderborn, 1885), and H. Althof (Leipzig, 1896). See also
Schcffel's novel of Ekkehard (Stuttgart, 1887). The A.S. fragments of
Walderc were first edited by G. Stephens (1860), afterwards by R.
Wulker in Bibl. der an%el-sachs. Poesie (Cassel, 1881) ; by F. Holt-
hauscn in Goteborgs Hogskolas Arsskrift (vol. v., 1899), with autotype
reproductions of the two leaves which have been preserved. See also
A, Ebert, Attg. Gcsch. der Lit. des Mittelalters im Abendlande (Leipzig,
1874-87) ; R. Koegel, Gesch. der deutschcn Liter at ur bis zum Ausgange
des Mittelalters (vol. i., pt. ii., Strasbourg, 1897) ; M. D. Lamed, The
Saga of Walter of Aquitaine (Baltimore, 1892) ; B. Symons, Deutsche
Heldensage (Strasbourg, 1905) . With Waltharius compare the ballads
"Earl Brand" and "Erlinton" (F. J. Child, English and Scottish Popu-
tar Ballads, i. 88 seq.) ; and see R. W. Chambers, Widsith (1912).
WALTHEOF (d. 1076), earl of Northumbria, was a son of
Earl Siward of Northumbria, and, although he was probably
educated for a monastic life, became earl of Huntingdon and
Northampton about 1065. After the battle of Hastings he sub-
mitted to William the Conqueror; but when the Danes invaded
the north of England in 1069 he joined them and took part in
the attack on York, only, however, to make a fresh submission
after their departure in 1070. Then, restored to his earldom, he
married William's niece, Judith, and in 1072 was appointed earl
of Northumbria. In 1075 Waltheof joined the conspiracy against
the king arranged by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford; but
soon repenting of his action he confessed his guilt to Archbishop
Lanfranc, and then to William, who was in Normandy. Return-
ing to England with William he was arrested, and after being
brought twice before the king's court was sentenced to death.
On May 31, 1076, he was beheaded on St. Giles's Hill, near Win-
chester. Weak and unreliable in character, Waltheof, like his
father, is said to have been a man of immense bodily strength.
Devout and charitable, he was regarded by the English as a
martyr, and miracles were said to have been worked at his tomb
at Crowland. The earl left three daughters, the eldest of whom,
Matilda, brought the earldom of Huntingdon to her second hus-
band, David I., king of Scotland. One of Waltheof s grandsons
was Waltheof (d. 1159), abbot of Melrose.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii., iii. and iv.
(1870-76).
WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE (c. XXTCHC.
1230), the most celebrated of mediaeval German lyric poets. For
all his fame, Walther's name is not found in contemporary rec-
ords, with the exception of a solitary mention in the travelling
accounts of Bishop Wolfger of Passau — "Walthero cantori de
Vogelweide pro pellicio V. solidos longos" — "To Walther the singer
of the Vogelweide five shillings to buy a fur coat," and the main
sources of information about him are his own poems and occa-
sional references by contemporary Minnesingers. It is clear from
the title her (Herr, Sir) these give him, that he was of noble
birth; but it is equally clear from his name Vogelweide (Lat.
aviarium, a gathering place or preserve of birds) that he belonged
not to the higher nobility, who took their titles from castles or
villages, but to the nobility of service (Dienstadel) , humble re-
tainers of the great lords, who in wealth and position were little
removed from non-noble free cultivators. For a long time the
place of his birth was a matter of dispute, until Professor Franz
Pfeiffer established beyond reasonable doubt that he was born
in the Wipthal in Tirol, where, not far from the little town of
Sterzing on the Eisak, a wood — called the Vorder- und Hinter-
vogelweide — preserves at least the name of his vanished home.
Tirol was at this time the home of several noted Minne-
singers; and the court of Vienna, under the enlightened duke
Frederick I. of the house of Babenberg, had become a centre of
poetry and art. Here it was that the young poet learned his
craft under the renowne'd master Reinmar the Old, whose death
he afterwards lamented in two of his most beautiful lyrics; and
in the open-handed duke he found his first patron. This happy
period of his life, during which he produced the most charming
and spontaneous of his love-lyrics, came to an end with the death
of Duke Frederick in 1198. Henceforward Walther was a wan-
derer from court to court in many Germanic countries, singing for
his lodging.
For material success in this profession he was hardly calculated.
His criticism of men and manners was scathing; and even when
this did not touch his princely patrons, their underlings often
took measures to rid themselves of so uncomfortable a censor.
Thus he was forced to leave the court of the generous duke Bern-
hard of Carinthia (1202-1256); after an experience of the tu-
multuous household of the landgrave of Thuringia he warns those
who have weak ears to give it a wide berth ; and after three years
at the court of Dietrich I. of Meissen (reigned 1195-1221) he
complains that he had received for his services neither money
nor praise. Walther was, in fact, a man of strong views; and
it is this which gives him his main significance in history, as dis-
tinguished from his place in literature. From the moment when
the death of the emperor Henry VI. (1197) opened the fateful
struggle between empire and papacy, Walther threw himself ar-
dently into the fray on the side of German independence and
unity. Though his religious poems sufficiently prove the sincerity
of his Catholicism, he remained to the end of his days opposed to
the extreme claims of the popes, whom he attacks with a bitterness
WALTON
which can only be justified by the strength of his patriotic feel-
ings. His political poems begin with an appeal to Germany,
written in 1198 at Vienna, against the disruptive ambitions of the
princes : —
Crown Philip with the Kaiser's crown
And bid them vex thy peace no more.
He was present, on Sept. 8, at Philip's coronation at Mainz, and
supported him till his victory was assured. After Philip's murder
in 1209, he "said and sang" in support of Otto of Brunswick
against the papal candidate Frederick of Staufen; and only when
Otto's usefulness to Germany had been shattered by the battle
of Bouvines (1212) did he turn to the rising star of Frederick
II., now the sole representative of German majesty against pope
and princes. From the new emperor his zeal for the empire at
last received recognition; and a small fief in Franconia was be-
stowed upon him, which, though he complained that its value was
little, gave him the home and the fixed position he had so long
desired. That Frederick gave him an even mOre signal mark of
his favour by making him the tutor of his son Henry VII., is
more than doubtful. Walthcr's restless spirit did not suffer him
to remain long on his new property. In 1217 we find him once
more at Vienna, and again in 1219 after the return of Duke
Leopold VI. from the crusade. About 1224 he seems to have
settled on his fief near Wurzburg. He was active in urging the
German princes to take part in the crusade of 1228, and may
have accompanied the crusading army at least as far as his native
Tirol. In a beautiful and pathetic poem he paints the change
that had come over the scenes of his childhood and made his life
seem a thing dreamed. He died about 1230, and was buried at
Wurzburg, after leaving directions, according to the story, that
the birds were to be fed at his tomb daily.
Historically interesting as Walther's political verses are, their
merit has been not a little exaggerated. Of more lasting value are
the beautiful lyrics, mainly dealing with love, which led his
contemporaries to hail him as their master in song (unsers sanges
meister). He is of course unequal. At his worst he does not rise
above the tiresome conventionalities of his school. At his best
he shows a spontaneity, a charm and a facility which his rivals
sought in vain to emulate. His earlier lyrics are full of the joy
of life, of feeling for nature and of the glory of love. Greatly
daring, he even rescues love from the convention which had made
it the prerogative of the nobly born, and puts the most beautiful
of his lyrics — Unter der linden — into the mouth of a simple girl.
A certain seriousness, which is apparent under the joyousness
of his earlier work, grew on him with years. Religious and di-
dactic poems become more frequent; and his verses in praise
of love turn at times to a protest against the laxer standards of
an age demoralized by political unrest. Throughout his attitude
is healthy and sane. He preaches the crusade; but at the same
time he suggests the virtue of toleration, pointing out that in the
worship of God
Christians, Jews and heathen all agree.
He fulminates against "false love"; but pours scorn on those
who maintain that "love is sin." In an age of monastic ideals
and loose morality there was nothing commonplace in the simple
lines in which he sums up the inspiring principle of chivalry at
its best:—
Swer guotcs wSbes liebc hat
Der schamt sich ieder misset&t.1
The Gedichte were edited by Karl Lachmann (1827). This edition
of the great scholar was re-edited by M. Haupt Ord ed., 1853).
Walther v. d. Vogelweide, edited by Franz Pfeiffer, with introduction
and notes (4th edition, by Karl Bartsch, Leipzig, 1873). Glossarium
zu d. Gedichten Washer's, nebst e. Reimyerzeichnis, by C. A. Hornig
(Quedlinburg, 1844). There are translations into modern German by
B. Obcrmann (1886), and into English verse Selected poems of Walter
von der Vogelweide by W. Alison Phillips, with introduction and
notes (London, 1896). The poem Unter der Linden, not included in
the latter, was freely translated by T. L. Beddoes (Works, 1890),
more closely by W. A. Phillips in the Nineteenth Century for July
1896 (ccxxxiii. p. 70). Songs and Sayings contains English translations
of Walther's poems, by F. Belts (1917). Leben u. Dichten Walther's
JHe who has the love of a good woman
Is ashamed of ?very misdeed.
von der Vogelweide, by Wilhelm Wilmanns (Bonn, 1882), is a valu-
able critical study of the poet's life and works. See also £. Gaertner,
Die Epitheta bei 'Walther von der Vogelweide (1901) ; R. Wustman,
Walther von der Vogelweide (1913) ; A. Debrit-Vogel, Die Gedichte
Walt hers von der Vogelweide in neuhochdeutscher Form (1922).
(W. A. P.)
WALTON, IZAAK (1593-1683), English writer, author of
The Compleat Angler, was born at Stafford on Aug. 9, 1593; the
register of his baptism gives his father's name as Jervis, and
nothing more is known of his parentage. He settled in London
as an ironmonger, and at first had one of the small shops, 7^ ft.
by 5 ft., in the upper storey of Gresham's Royal Burse or Ex-
change in Cornhill. In 1614 he had a shop in Fleet Street, two
doors west of Chancery Lane. Here, in the parish of St. Dun-
stan's, he gained the friendship of Dr. John Donne, then vicar
of that church. His first wife, Rachel Floud, great-great-niece of
Archbishop Cranmer, died in 1640. He married again soon after,
his second wife being Anne Ke*n — the pastoral "Kenna" of The
Angler's Wish — step-sister of Thomas Ken, afterwards bishop of
Bath and Wells. After the Royalist defeat at Marston Moor, he
retired from business. He had bought some land near his birth-
place, Stafford, and he went to live there; but, according to Wood,
spent most of his time "in the families of the eminent clergymen
of England, of whom he was much beloved"; and in 1650 he was
again living in Clerkenwell.
In 1653 came out the first edition of his famous book, The
Compleat Angler. His second wife died in 1662, and was buried
in Worcester cathedral church, where there is a monument to her
memory. One of his daughters married Dr. Hawkins, a prebendary
of Winchester. The last forty years of his long life seem to have
been spent in ideal leisure and occupation, the old man travelling
here and there, visiting his "eminent clergymen" and other
brethren of the angle, compiling the biographies of congenial
spirits, and collecting here a little and there a little for the enlarge-
ment of his famous treatise. After 1662 he found a home at
Farnham Castle with George Morley, bishop of Winchester, to
whom he dedicated his Life of George Herbert and also that of
Richard Hooker; and from time to time he visited Charles Cotton
in his fishing house on the Dove. He died in his daughter's house
at Winchester on Dec. 15, 1683, and was buried in the cathedral.
It is characteristic of his kindly nature that he left his property
at Shalford for the benefit of the poor of his native town.
Walton hooked a much bigger fish than he angled for when he
offered his quaint treatise, The Compleat Angler, to the public.
There is hardly a name in English literature, even of the first
rank, whose immortality is more secure, or whose personality is
the subject of a more enthusiastic cult. The Compleat Angler,
dedicated to his friend John Offley, was published in 1653, but
Walton continued to add to its completeness in his leisurely way
for a quarter of a century. Later editions appeared during his
lifetime, in 1655, 1661, 1668 and 1676. In the 1676 edition the
thirteen chapters of the original had grown to twenty-one, and
a second part was added by his brother angler Charles Cotton, who
took up "Venator" where Walton had left him and completed his
instruction in fly-fishing and the making of flics.
Walton did not profess to be an expert with the fly; the fly-
fishing in his first edition was contributed by Thomas Barker, a
retired cook and humorist, who produced a treatise of his own
in 1659; but in the use of the live worm, the grasshopper and the
frog "Piscator" himself could speak as a master. The famous
passage about the frog — often misquoted about the worm — "use
him as though you loved him, that is, harm him as little as you
may possibly, that he may live the longer" — appears in the orig-
inal edition. The additions made as the work grew were not
merely to the technical part; happy quotations, new turns of
phrase, songs, poems and anecdotes were introduced as if the
leisurely author, who wrote it as a recreation, had kept it con-
stantly in his mind and talked it over point by point with his
numerous brethren. There were originally only two interlocutors '
in the opening scene, "Piscator" and "Viator"; but in the second
edition, as if in answer to an objection that "Piscator" had it
too much his own way in praise of angling, he introduced the
falconer, "Auceps," changed "Viator" into "Venator" and made
WALTON-LE-DALE— WAMPUM
the new companions each dilate on the joys of his favourite sport.
Although The Compleat Angler was not Walton's first literary
work, his leisurely labours as a biographer seem to have grown
out of his devotion to angling. It was probably as an angler
that he made the acquaintance of Sir Henry Wotton, but it is
clear that Walton had more than a love of fishing and a humorous
temper to recommend him to the friendship of the accomplished
ambassador. At any rate, Wotton, who had intended to write
the life of John Donne, and had already corresponded with Walton
on the subject, left the task to him. Walton had already con-
tributed an Elegy to the 1633 edition of Donne's poems, and he
completed and published the life, much to the satisfaction of the
most learned critics, in 1640. Sir Henry Wotton dying in 1639,
Walton undertook his life also; it was finished in 1642 and pub-
lished in 1651. His life of Hooker was published in 1662, that
of George Herbert in 1670 and that of Bishop Sanderson in 1678.
The Lives of Dr. John Donne, 'Sir Henry Wotton, Mr. Richard
Hooker, Mr. George Hooker, etc., was published in 1670. This,
together with the life of Robert Sanderson was edited by George
Saintsbury in 1927. All these subjects were endeared to the
biographer by a certain gentleness of disposition and cheerful
piety ; three of them at least — Donne, Wotton and Herbert — were
anglers. Their lives were evidently written with loving pains, in
the same leisurely fashion as his Angler, and like it are of value
less as exact knowledge than as harmonious and complete pictures
of character. Walton also rendered affectionate service to the
memory of his friends Sir John Skeffington and John Chalkhill,
editing with prefatory notices Skeffington 's Hero of Lorenzo in
1652 and Chalkhill's Thealma and Clear chus a few months before
his own death in 1683. His poems and prose fragments were
collected in 1878 under the title of Waltoniana.
The best-known old edition of the Angler is J. Major's (2nd ed.,
1824, repr. 1927). A facsimile of the first edition was reprinted in
1928 by A. and C. Black. The book was edited by Andrew Lang in
1896, and various modern editions have appeared. The standard
biography is that by Sir Harris Nicolas, prefixed to an edition of the
Angler (1836). There are notices also, with additional scraps of fact,
annexed to two American editions, Bethune's (1847) and Bowling's
(1857). An edition of Walton's Lives, by G. Sampson, appeared in
1903. See also T. Westwood, The Chronicle of the "Compleat Angler"
of Izaak Walton and C. Cotton (1864) ; Izaak Walton and his
Friends, by S. Martin (1903); E. Marston, Thomas Ken and Izaak
Walton: etc. (1908) ; R. B. Marston, Walton and some earlier writers
on Fish and Fishing (1909).
WALTON-LE-DALE, urban district, in the Fylde parlia-
mentary division, Lancashire, England. Pop. (1921) 12,156, area
4,656 acres. The church of St. Leonard was originally erected in
the nth century, the earliest portions of the present building
being Perpendicular in style. Cotton-spinning is carried on.
Roman remains have been found here, probably indicating a road-
side post. The manor of Walton was granted by Henry de Lacy
about 1130 to Robert Banastre. It afterwards passed to the
Langtons, and about 1592 to the Hoghtons of Hoghton. Walton
was the principal scene of the great battle of Preston (Aug. 17,
1648). In 1715 the passage of the Ribble was bravely defended
against the Jacobites by Parson Woods and his parishioners of
Atherton (q.v.).
WALTON-ON-THAMES, an urban district in the Chertsey
parliamentary division of Surrey, England, pleasantly situated
on the right bank of the Thames, 17 m. W.S.W. from London by
the S. railway. Pop. (1921), 14,644. The church of St. Mary
has late Norman portions, and contains numerous memorials,
including examples of the work of Chantrey and Roubiliac. A
verse inscribed upon a pillar is reputed to be Queen Elizabeth's
profession of faith as regards transubstantiation. The queen was
a frequent resident at Henry VIII. 's palace of Oatlands park,
which was destroyed during the civil wars of the i7th century.
WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE or WALTON-LE-SOKEN
a watering-place in Essex, 71^ m. E.N.E. from London. Pop.
(1921) 3,664. This portion of the coast has suffered from en-
croachment of the sea, and a part of the old village of Walton,
with the church, was engulfed towards the end of the i8th century.
On the east side of the town is the open North sea, with a fine
stretch of sand and shingle, affording good bathing. To the west
is an irregular inlet studded with low islands, known as Hanford
water. The Naze is a promontory 2 m. N. by E. of the town, and
in the vicinity of Walton are low cliffs exhibiting the fossiliferous
red crag formation.
WALTZ, a popular round dance, introduced from Germany
into France at the end of the i8th century and into England in
1812. Ridiculed at first, it soon achieved unequalled popularity
and survives to the present, with some variations in tempo and
movement. It is written in i time and has enlisted the musical
interest of many composers, the most famous of whom are the
Strauss family of Vienna. (See also DANCE.)
WALVIS BAY, a harbour on the coast of south-west Africa.
When separated politically from the hinterland, practically no de-
velopment took place. South-west Africa, under the former
German rule, relied on Swakopmund. Now that the area is ad-
ministered as part of the mandated territory, the port of Walvis
Bay is beginning to develop. Vessels can now lie alongside a con-
crete wharf, 1,500 ft. long, to which leads a channel, 30 ft. deep.
The wharf is fitted with electric cranes. A cold storage and re-
frigerating plant has been erected, capable of dealing with 150
cattle and 200 or 300 sheep per diem; and considerable quanti-
ties of chilled meat are exported. Whaling and fishing are also
carried on. Walvis Bay is now a regular port of call for mail
steamers of British, Dutch and German lines. In consequence of
the development of Walvis Bay, Swakopmund has been per-
manently closed as a port. The population of Walvis Bay is about
2,000, including about 600 whites.
WAL WORTH, SIR WILLIAM (d. 1385), lord mayor of
London, belonged to a good Durham family. He was appren-
ticed to John Lovekyn, a member of the Fishmongers' Gild, and
succeeded his master as alderman of Bridge ward in 1368, becom-
ing sheriff in 1370 and lord mayor in 1374. He is said to have
suppressed usury in the city during his term of office as mayor.
His name frequently figures as advancing loans to the king, and
he supported John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, in the city,
where there was a strong opposition to the king's uncle. His
most famous exploit was his encounter with Wat Tyler in 1381,
during his second term of office as lord mayor. In June of that
year, when Tyler and his followers entered south London, Wai-
worth defended London Bridge against them ; he was with Richard
II. when he met the insurgents at Smithneld, and assisted in
slaying their leader (see TYLER, WAT), afterwarcls raising the city
bodyguard in the king's defence; for which service he was
rewarded by knighthood and a pension. He subsequently served
on two commissions to restore the peace in the county of Kent.
He died in 1385, and was buried in St. Michael's, Crooked Lane.
See William Herbert, The, History . . . of St. Michael, Crooked
Lane, London . . . (1831) ; W. and R. Woodcock, Lives of Illustrious
Lord Mayors (1846) ; an account of Wat Tyler's rebellion in a frag-
ment printed by G. H. Trevelyan in the Eng. Hist. Review (July 1898) .
WAMPUM or WAMPUM-PEAGE (Amer. Ind. warn/torn,
"white"; peag, "bead"), the shell-money of the North American
Indians. It consisted of beads made from shells, and required a
considerable measure of skill in its manufacture. Wampum was
of two colours, dark purple and white, of cylindrical form, aver-
aging a quarter of an inch in length, and about half that in
diameter. Its colour determined its value. The term wampum
or wampum-peage was apparently applied to the beads only
when strung or woven together. They were ground as smooth
as glass and were strung together by a hole drilled through the
centre. Dark wampum, which was made from a "hard shell"
clam (Venus mercenaria) , popularly called quahang or quahog,
a corruption of the Indian name, was the most valuable. White
wampum was made from the shell of whelks. Wampum was
employed most in New England, but it was common elsewhere.
j By the Dutch settlers of New York it was called seawan or zee-
wand, and roenoke in Virginia, and perhaps farther south, for
shell-money was also known in the Carolinas, but whether the
roenoke of the Virginian Indians was made from the same species
of shell as wampum is not clear. Cylindrical shell-beads similar
to the wampum of the Atlantic coast Indians were made to some
extent by the Indians of the west coast. In the trading between
whites and Indians, wampum so completely took the place of
320
WANA—W ANGARA
ordinary coin that its value was fixed by legal enactment, three
to a penny and five shillings a fathom. The fathom was the name
for a count, and the number of shells varied according to the
accepted standard of exchange. Thus where six wampum went to
the penny, the fathom consisted of 360 beads; but where four
mide a penny, as under the Massachusetts standard of 1640,
then the fathom counted 240. Wampum circulated in the remote
districts of New England through the i;th century, and even
into the beginning of the i8th. It was current with silver in
Connecticut in 1704.
Wampum was also used for personal adornment, and belts
were made by embroidering wampum upon strips of deerskin.
These belts or scarves were symbols of authority and power and
were surrendered on defeat in battle. Wampum also served a
mnemonic use as a tribal history or record. 'The belts that pass
from one nation to another in all treaties, declarations and im-
portant transactions are very carefully preserved in the chiefs'
cabins, and serve not only as a kind of record or history but as a
public treasury. According to the Indian conception, these belts
could tell by means of an interpreter the exact rule, provision or
transaction talked into them at the time and of which they were
the exclusive record. A strand of wampum, consisting of purple
and white shell-beads or a belt woven with figures formed by
beads of different colours, operated on the principle of associating
a particular fact with a particular string or figure, thus giving a
serial arrangement to the facts as well as fidelity to the memory.
These strands and belts were the only visible records of the
Iroquois, but they required the trained interpreters who could
draw from their strings and figures the acts and intentions locked
up in their remembrance" (Major Rogers, Account of North
America, London, 1765).
See Holmes, "Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans" in Annual
Report of Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, for 1880-1881; W. B.
Weeden, Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization
(Baltimore, 1884) ; E. Ingersoll, "Wampum and its History," in
American Naturalist, vol. xyii. (1883) ; Horatio Hale, "On the Origin
and Nature of Wampum," in American Naturalist, vol. xviii. (1884) ;
C. L. Norton, "The Last Wampum Coinage," in American Magazine
for March, 1888; David Ives Bushnell, The Origin of Wampum
(1006) ; New York State Museum, Wampums of the Iroquois Con-
federacy, 6ist Ann. Kept. Pt. I (Albany, N.Y., 1907) ; Nehemiah
Vreeland, "Wampum: The Native Substitute for Currency in North
America," in Numismatist, vol. xxvii. (1914) ; Frank A. Speck, "The
Penn Wampum Belts" (Leaflet of Mus. of Amer. Ind. No. 4, 1925).
WANA, a valley and frontier outpost of Waziristan in the
North- West Frontier Province of India. It lies to the west of the
Mahsud country, and to the north of the Gomal river, and is in-
habited by the Waziri tribe. Lying on the border of Afghanistan,
it is conveniently placed for dominating Waziristan on the north
and the Gomal pass on the south, and occupies very much the
same strategic position as the Zhob valley holds in Baluchistan.
In 1894, wnen the Indo-Afghan boundary commission was de-
limiting the Waziri border, the Mahsud Waziris, thinking their in-
dependence to be threatened, made a night attack on the camp of
the commission at Wana. The result was the Waziristan Expedi-
tion of the same year, and the occupation of Wana by British
troops. On the formation of the North-West Frontier Province in
1901 it was decided to replace the troops by militia, and Wana was
handed over to them in 1904. It was abandoned during the third
Afghan War, and has not been re-occupied.
WANAMAKER, JOHN (1838-1922), American dry goods
merchant, was born in Philadelphia (Pa.), on July n, 1838. He
attended a public school in that city until he was 14, when he be-
came an errand boy for a book store. He was a retail clothing
salesman from 1856 until 1861, when he established with Nathan
Brown (who afterwards became his brother-in-law) the clothing
house of Wanamaker and Brown, in Philadelphia, the partnership
continuing until the death of Brown in 1868. In 1869 Wanamaker
founded the house of John Wanamaker & Co. In 1875 he bought
the Pennsylvania Railroad company's freight depot at i^th and
Market streets, and in the following year opened it as a dry goods
and clothing store. In Sept. 1896 he acquired the former New
York store of A. T. Stewart, of which his partner, R. C. Ogden,
had the management. This and the Philadelphia store are
among the largest department stores in the United States. Wana-
maker was postniaster-general in President Benjamin Harrison's
cabinet in 1889-93, and brought about the establishment of post-
offices on ocean-going vessels. He died in Philadelphia on Dec.
12, 1922. Wanamaker early identified himself with religious works
in Philadelphia; was the first paid secretary, in 1857-61, of that
city's Young Men's Christian Association, of which he was presi-
dent in 1870-83, and in 1858 founded, and thereafter served as
superintendent of, the Bethany (Presbyterian) Sunday school.
He took an active part in the movement which resulted in the
formation of the U.S. Christian commission in 1861.
WANDERU or WANDEROO, the name for langur mon-
keys (Semnopithecus) inhabiting the island of Ceylon; in India,
commonly misapplied to the lion-tailed macaque, Macacus silenus
(see LANGUR; PRIMATES).
WANDSWORTH, a south-western metropolitan borough of
London, England. Population (1921) 328,307; area 9,107 acres.
The name, which occurs in Domesday, indicates the position of the
village on the river Wandle, a small tributary of the Thames.
Wandsworth is the largest in area of the metropolitan boroughs,
including the districts of Putney by the river, part of Clapham
in the north-east, Streatham in the south-east, Balham and Upper
and Lower Tooting in the centre and south. These are mainly
residential districts, and the population has increased greatly dur-
ing the present century with the tendency for more and more
people to reside away from the city. The increase is also asso-
ciated with the rise of industries, chiefly oil-mills, dyeworks,
paperworks, calico-printing and hatmaking. Towards ^the west,
along the Upper Richmond and Kingston roads, there is consider-
able open country. It is to a great extent preserved in the public
grounds of Putney Heath, which adjoins Wimbledon Common,
outside the borough, on the north ; and Richmond Park and Barnes
Common, parts of which are in the borough. Other public grounds
are parts of Wandsworth Common (193 acres) and Clapham Com-
mon, both extending into Battersea, Tooting Bee (147 acres) and
Streatham Common (66 acres), and Wandsworth Park border-
ing the Thames. The borough returns five members to Parlia-
ment.
WANGANUI, seaport and fifth town in New Zealand.
Pop. (1927) 27,180. The town is laid out in rectangular blocks at
the foot of low hills, from the summit of which a splendid pan-
orama is seen, including the snow-clad Mount Ruapehu to the
north-east. The river bar is from 21 ft. to 23 ft. deep at high
water. The district is chiefly pastoral, and wool is exported, as
well as meat and dairy produce, for which there are large refrig-
erating works. The Wanganui Collegiate School (Church of Eng-
land) is one of the largest boarding schools in New Zealand. The
district was the scene of conflicts with the natives in 1847, 1864
and 1868, and in the beautiful Moutoa gardens a monument com-
memorates the battle of that name (May 14, 1864). The settle-
ment was founded in 1842.
WANGARA, the Hausa name for the Mandingo (#.v.), a
people of West Africa; used also as the name of districts in the
western and central Sudan. The Wangara are also known as Wan-
garawa, Wongara, Ungara, Wankore and Wakore. According to
Idrisi (writing in the i2th century), the Wangara country was
renowned for the quantity and the quality of the gold which it
produced. The country formed an island about 300 m. long by
150 in breadth, which the Nile (i.e., Niger) surrounded on all
sides and at all seasons. This description corresponds fairly
accurately with the tract of country between the Niger and its
tributary the Bani. Idrisi's account of the annual inundation of
the land by the rising of the Niger agrees with the facts. He
states that on the fall of the waters natives from all parts of
the Sudan assembled to gather the gold which the subsiding waters
left behind. The discoveries of Hornemann, Mungo Park and
others revived stories of Wangara 's richness in gold. Rennell and
others (early XIX. cent.) shifted the Wangara country far to the
east and confused Idrisi's description with accounts which prob-
ably referred to Lake Chad. The Wangara territory was again
moved westward, and was located within the Niger bend, as
knowledge increased. The name has now disappeared from maps
WANGARATTA— WAR
321
save that a town in the hinterland of Dahomey is named Wangara
(French spelling Ouangara).
WANGARATTA, a town of Victoria, Australia, at the
junction of the Ovens and King rivers, 14 si m. by rail N.E. of
Melbourne. Pop. (1921) 3,689. It is in an agricultural district and
is the see of an Anglican bishop.
WANSTEAD, an urban district in Essex, England, on a
branch of the L.N.E.R. railway, 8 m. N.E. of Liverpool Street
station. Pop. (1921) 15,298. Wanstead Park, 184 acres in extent,
was opened in 1882. Northward extend the broken fragments of
Epping Forest. Wanstead Flats, adjoining the Park, form another
open ground. At Snaresbrook in the parish of Wanstead are the
Infant Orphan Asylum, founded in 1827, and the Royal Merchant
Seamen's Orphan Asylum, established in London in 1817 and re-
founded here in 1861.
Wanstead in Saxon times was owned by the monks of St.
Peter's, Westminster, and afterwards by the bishop of London.
In the reign of Henry VIII. it came into the possession of the
crown, and in 1549 it was bestowed by Edward VI. on Lord
Rich, whose son sold it in 1577 to the earl of Leicester.
WANTAGE, a market town in Berkshire, England. Pop.
(1921) 3,886. The church of St. Peter and St. Paul is Perpen-
dicular and Early English. The grammar school preserves a
Norman door from another church, which formerly stood in the
same churchyard with St. Peter's. In the broad market-place is a
great statue of King Alfred, executed by Count Gleichen and
unveiled in 1877, for Wantage is famous as the birthplace of
the king in 849.
WAPAKONETA, a city of western Ohio, U.S.A.. Pop.
(1920) 5,295 (97% native white). It is in a rich grain-growing
region, which has deposits of gas and oil. The city manufactures
furniture, churns, acetylene gas generators, chains, wheels, steel
wagons, refrigerators and various other articles.
WAPENSHAW (M.E. for "weapon-show"), a periodical
muster or review of troops formerly held in every district in
Scotland, the object having been to satisfy the military chiefs
that the arms of their retainers were in good condition. Scott's
Old Mortality gives a description of one. The name is still given
to rifle meetings held annually in some parts of Scotland.
WAPENTAKE, anciently the principal administrative divi-
sion of the counties of York, Lincoln, Leicester, Nottingham,
Derby, and Rutland, corresponding to the hundred in the southern
counties of England. In many cases, however, ancient wapentakes
are now called hundreds. The word wapentake, of Scandinavian
origin, originally signified the clash of arms by which the folk
assembled in a local court expressed their assent to its decisions.
Wapentakes are not found outside the parts of England which
were settled by the Danes.
See H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905) ;
H. Ellis, General Introduction to Domesday Book (2 vols., 1883) ;
Liebermann, Gesetzc, ii. 729 (1912).
WAPITI, the name applied to several deer of the red-deer
group. The true wapiti is Cervus canadensis of North America,
where it is often called "elk." It is somewhat larger than the red
deer, with big antlers characterized by the large fourth tine. Other
species to which the name wapiti is applied are C. eustephanus
from the Altai, the Manchurian C. luchdorfi and the Maral or
Tian Shan wapiti, C. songaricus.
WAQIDI [Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed ibn 'Umar ul-Waqidi]
(747-823), Arabian historian, was born at Medina, where he
became a corn-dealer but was compelled to flee from his creditors
(owing largely to his generosity) to Baghdad. Here the Barme-
cide vizier Yahya b. Khalid (see BARMECIDES) gave him means
and made him cadi in the western district of the city. In 819 he
was transferred to Rosafa (Rusafa) on the east side. His great-
est work is the Kitdb ul-Maghazi, on Mahomet's campaigns.
The first third of the KUab ul-Maghazi (one leaf missing) was
published by A. von Kremer from a Damascus ms. (Calcutta, 1856).
Sprenger in his Leben Muhammad's used a British Museum ms.
containing the first half, all but one leaf. J. Wellhauscn published
an abridged German translation from another British Museum ms.
under the title Muhammad in Medina (Berlin, 1882).
Ascribed to WSqidI, but probably written at the time of the
Crusades to incite the Moslems against the Christians, arc several
further works on the conquests of Islam. See ARABIA, Literature.
(G. W. T.)
WAR. A war is a fight between human societies — in primitive
conditions between savage tribes, in the civilised world between
states. Its explanation involves the analysis of the terms of this
definition and requires the aid of the sciences that treat of its
several elements ; of biology to account for the fight, of sociology
to explain the State, and of the historical sciences to trace the
evolution, in connection with that of the State, of armed forces
and of the modes of their employment.
Fighting appears to be part of the order or disorder of nature.
Life is the self-realising or self-asserting energy of a countless
multitude of organisms, each of which approximates by growth
to the type of its kind, reproduces that type and dies. The con-
dition of growth is nutrition, the assimilation by the organism
of extraneous matter. Reproduction multiplies every species.
There is therefore a perpetual competition for the means of sub-
sistence. Plants in any given area crowd each other out and
organisms capable of movement feed either upon plants or upon
one another. In this competition, through countless generations,
is accomplished the evolution of constantly higher types, which
survive in virtue of increased fitness for the environment.
The environment is always changing, by geological process, by
the incessant accumulation of dead organisms, and by modifica-
tions of the species that survive, whose existence conditions each
other's.
Every higher organism has its systems of nutrition and circula-
tion, regulated by their own nervous system, as well as its limbs,
working under the direction of the brain. It is usually equipped
with organs of attack and of protection or of evasion. Of these
the variety is endless; on the one hand teeth, tusks, paws, claws,
electricity and even poison ; on the other hand, shells, hides, scales
and devices for camouflage. The attack aims at the vital organs,
those of nutrition, circulation and direction; the blows struck
are met by parry and counter-blow. The response to attack is
sometimes counter-attack, sometimes flight or evasion. An injury
to one of the limbs sufficient to paralyse it exposes the vital
organs, which are then liable to damage that must be fatal. The
survival of any given creature in conflict with another depends
on its fighting power; that of a species partly on the evolution
of organs of combat and partly on adaptability to the geographical
environment, climate and land, sea or air. Gregarious animals
rely on co-operation, on the swarm, the herd or the pack.
Man is not only gregarious but social. Everything that is dis-
tinctively human is the product of the common life. The special
characteristic of man is thought, expressed in the spoken word,
and in the work of the constructing hand. Among the oldest
monuments of thought are the flint arrow head, the beginning
of man's ascendancy in the animal world, and the pictures
scratched on bone or stone, his earliest attempts to represent the
environment. Speech conveys the thoughts common to the group, -
and is at once the medium of understanding between the members
of the group and a barrier separat/ng them from other groups
speaking other languages. The armed man is master not only of
the wild beast but of the unarmed man. The group of men who
co-operate is stronger than the same number without the power
of co-operation, which comes from direction, given by the leader's
word of command, of which the name is order. These are the
elements of man's self-realisation, which takes the form not
merely of his adapting himself to his environment but of his effort
to shape it to his own purposes.
All these elements are found in the most primitive societies,
which when they have found a region where they can subsist with-
out wandering about, seek safety by establishing themselves in a
cave, in a lake-dwelling or a high place surrounded by a ring
fence. Eventually the home becomes a walled town with a ruler
and a body of armed men. This is the beginning of the State and
of what is the same thing, civilisation.
A State is a society occupying a definite territory and obeying
the direction of a government. Its purpose is first to provide
that security which enables men to work for their living and
then to render possible to its people, through law, order and co-
322
WAR
[ARMY AS AN ORGANISM
operation, that free exercise of their faculties that makes life
worth living. The division and specialisation of labour produce
capital, which gives scope for the development of men's mental
and spiritual powers. Obedience to law becomes habitual and
spontaneous. The arts and sciences flourish. Within the State
grows up a variety of associations, industrial, commercial, intel-
lectual and religious. The State asserts its supremacy over them
all and admits no rival to the supreme authority of its government.
Growth means expansion. The orderly life of the State brings
with it an increase of population, of wealth and of power and
the multiplication of those wants which the community feels
and endeavours to supply. Expansion means first of all more
space. The growing State seeks to enlarge its boundary. If the
land beyond its borders is unoccupied, all that is required is to
take possession of it; but if it is the property of another State
its occupation will be resisted and there will be war. Every State
therefore has its organs for war, its armed forces.
In the anatomy of the State as of any other organism structure
corresponds to function. The organs of nutrition and circulation,
usually self-controlled, are the agricultural and commercial sys-
tems. The organs of perception and action, controlled by the
Qrgan of direction, the government, are the diplomatic service,
the army and the navy, to which the twentieth century has added
the air force. A full view of war will perhaps best be obtained
by a consideration of the structure and working of the organs
af action, beginning with the army as the oldest and best known,
ind tracing their evolution in connection with that of the State.
The ground will thus be cleared for a retrospective and prospective
view of the relation between war and civilisation,
THE ARMY AS AN ORGANISM
An army is a society within a society, an organism which,
[hough it is a whole with a life of its own, is also a member of
i larger and higher organism, the State whose life it shares. As
i consequence of the development of the State it increases in size,
n the complexity of its structure, and in the specialisation of its
3arts and their functions. The several elements of military
strength depend each of them upon some factor in the national
ife. Superiority in any one of the elements is the outcome of
lational superiority in respect of the corresponding factor. This
s usually due rather to mind and character than to physical
:auses.
The source of discipline is the common life. The recruit finds
limself living in a society, the regiment, pervaded by an order
tfhich in course of time shapes his bearing and enters into his
ronsdousness. Here he receives his lessons in skill at arms and
n evolutions. To these in modern times is added an instruction
tfhich explains to him the purpose of all that he is required to do.
The pleasure that everyone feels when the meaning of what he
s doing first dawns upon him carries with it a regard for the
Derson who has opened his eyes. In a modern army the officer
is at once the teacher and the leader of his men. A body of
roops in which the officers know their work and care for their
nen will not be lacking in discipline, which is the index of the
:haracter and quality of the officers. Very strong is the bond
Between those who have shared the hardships and dangers of a
:ampaign. The cohesion is strongest in an army that its com-
Tiander has led to victory. The spirit of such an army is raised
o a higher power. But incompetence or negligence in the higher
•anks produces mistrust in those below, and an army which has
ost confidence meets defeat half way.
The sanction of discipline is military law, a draconic code,
vhich in war exacts the penalty of death for disobedience, for
:owardice and for lack of vigilance. The military code, like the
:riminal code in civil life, seldom needs to be put into execution.
[t forms a background, a last resort, and fulfils its purpose be-
*ause all concerned know that it is there. The fact that every
State maintains such a code is a proof that most men are well
iware of the connection between the force of the State and the
)rder of life which it secures. This consciousness is patriotism.
Nothing else accounts for the acceptance by a representative
.ssembly of a mutiny bill or an army act and by peaceful citizens
of voluntary enlistment into a force governed by military law.
The numerical strength of an army depends on the size and
wealth of the State and also upon the degree to which it is sub-
ject to the pressure of rivalry, for this determines the mode of
recruiting.
When from the dark age of early Greece the city State emerges,
we have the first glimpse of armies properly so called. Every
citizen as soon as he is of age receives a soldier's training and for
each campaign as many are called out as the need requires.
At first the citizens arm themselves at their own expense accord-
ing to their means. As wealth increases the expense is borne by
the State. In the early Roman constitution the citizens, all of
them soldiers, are classified according to the equipment of which
their means admit. The constant wars of the later Republic
brought with them continuous service with pay, leading under the
Empire to a standing army, to the enrolment of the populace,
and finally of the men of various German tribes. The chaos of
the dark ages was followed by the feudal system. In the absence
of a currency the king's forces consisted of mounted warriors, to
each of whom was given a holding of land sufficient to enable him
to maintain his horses, armour, weapons and retainers. The army
was a collection of fully-armed knights, with their squires and
retainers of inferior equipment and fighting value. The feudal
lord built himself a stronghold and the system tended to become
the anarchy of a multitude of conflicting barons.
With the rise of towns the urban communities could afford
to arm their citizens. The anarchic condition was scarcely modi-
fied by the perpetual conflict between the feudal lord$, relying
on their mounted men at arms and the cities beginning to trust
their citizens fighting on foot. After the discipline of the Swiss
infantry had enabled them to defeat the Burgundian cavalry, there
came up again the system of mercenaries, which had been known
to the Greeks, bodies of troops attached to a leader who hired
himself and his force to any Power that would pay them. The
beginning of the modern military system was the formation in
France of a royal army serving the king for pay. Hence the name
"soldier," that is "paid man." This model was everywhere copied.
Side by side with it subsisted the principle, everywhere admitted
as fundamental, that it is the citizen's duty in case of need to
fight for his country. This was the basis of the militia system,
by which an auxiliary army was raised by royal authority through
local officials levying by ballot a quota of men mustered from time
to time, occasionally trained and called out only in emergencies.
Revolutionary France at bay required every full-grown man
to be a soldier but after a few years relaxed the application of
the principle by admitting conscription with substitutes. After
the collapse of Prussia Napoleon imposed upon her a limitation of
the numbers of her army. She evaded this by dismissing every
year those men whose training was thought to be completed and
replacing them by fresh recruits. When, after the disastrous
campaign in Russia, Prussia joined the coalition, she recalled to
the colours all the trained men who had been sent home and thus
put into the field a force far exceeding the limit prescribed by
Napoleon. After 1815 Prussia made permanent the system of
compulsory short service. Every young man at twenty became a
soldier for three years and was then dismissed with the liability
to be recalled in case of war at any time till the age of thirty-six.
This system was afterwards copied by almost all the European
States except Great Britain.
In 1791 the French Constituent Assembly decreed a levy of
volunteers from the National Guard and the troops thus raised
rendered good service in the campaign of 1792. In 1803 the
assembly of the French army at Boulogne led in England to the
raising of 300,000 volunteers and in 1859 the apprehension of a
French invasion occasioned the formation of volunteer corps which
became permanent and were in 1905 reconstituted as the terri-
torial army.
A national State engaged in a war for an object which its people
regard as vital will devote its whole resources to the conflict
and will, if need be, improvise armies whose numbers will be
limited only by those of its able-bodied male population. In the
American Givil War the Federal Government, which at the outset
had a regular army of less than 100,000 men, found itself at the
TRANSPORT AND FOODS]
WAR
323
conclusion of the struggle disbanding an army of a million. In
the World War, Great Britain, together with the other States of
the Empire, put into the field some 7,000,000 soldiers.
The history of weapons belongs to that of invention and of
the industrial arts. As these arts advance the weapons improve;
where they are undeveloped the weapon will be inferior. The
progress is competitive, for no nation can safely allow its soldiers
to be supplied with weapons inferior to those of a possible ad-
versary. The Stone Age produced the bow and the flint arrow
head; the Bronze Age the spear, the sword, the shield and the
helmet. The Iron Age added the Roman pilum, the javelin which
bent when it struck, and steel brought with it the short Spanish
sword.
In the fourteenth century the Swiss infantry fought with the
halberd, a combination of spear and battle axe which developed
into the pike. In the sixteenth century gunpowder, invented in
the fourteenth century, began to »makc itself felt on the battle-
field, perhaps one-third of the infantry having the arquebus, the
rest being pike-men. In the sixteenth century too cannon began
to play havoc with the masses of infantry. The arquebus gave
place to the match-lock which at the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury became the flint lock. With the invention of the bayonet
pike-men disappeared and infantry were all alike armed with the
flint-lock and bayonet. The eighteenth century produced no
changes in weapons, though the field gun became lighter and
more mobile and the siege gun more powerful. The nineteenth
century produced the percussion-cap, the rifle, the breech-loader,
the magazine rifle and the machine gun and also the breech-loading
rifled cannon and smokeless powder. In the twentieth century,
armour, which had disappeared before the bullet, has been revived
in the shape of the steel helmet and of the tank, a bullet-proof
armour-plated car carrying a quick-firing gun and driven by an
internal combustion engine. The invention of this type of engine
has also produced the aeroplane. The advance of chemistry has
introduced many kinds of high explosives and has also brought
poisonous gas on to the battlefield.
Good weapons have always been costly. The arms of Achilles
were a great prize; a Damascus blade was not to be had for
nothing; a modern heavy gun costs a fortune and one of its
projectiles a mechanic's weekly wage. Thus the up-to-date equip-
ment of an army has never been possible except to a wealthy
community in which the mechanical arts were in the van of
progress.
Soldiers must not only be armed but clothed. In primitive
armies the soldier's dress w^s not different from that of the
ordinary citizen. Uniform was first introduced in the seventeenth
century by Louvois, and since then the State has to incur the con-
siderable cost of clothing its army.
A commander directs his army as a single whole. His action
may be compared with that of the fencer, who, having perfect
control of his weapon, is always watching his opponent's eye. To
facilitate his control the army is organised. Every small group
of men forms a unit with its own leader and two or more such
units are grouped into a larger unit, also with its own leader.
The organisation varies from age to age. in recent times the
units, in ascending order from small to great have been, in the
infantry, the platoon, company, battalion and brigade, in the
cavalry, the squadron, regiment and brigade; in the artillery the
battery of four or more guns and the brigade. An infantry divi-
sion has hitherto been composed of brigades of infantry and
artillery, a squadron or regiment of cavalry together with engi-
neers, ambulances and the transport belonging to all these units.
It is a miniature army complete in itself. Divisions are grouped
into army-corps and these into armies according to the size of
the whole army and the convenience of command.
No army, during peace, can be kept quite ready for war. The
Romans began a war by raising a number of legions. In modern
armies the number of men with their regiments during peace is
only a fraction of those that have been trained as soldiers and
who will be required in case of war. Accordingly, when war is
imminent, the reservists are ordered to join their regiments at
their respective peace stations, where they are supplied with uni-
forms, arms and equipment. Every branch of the army is brought
up to full strength and supplied with ammunition, transport and
all the requisites of a campaign. This proceeding, the business of
putting the army on to a war footing, is called mobilisation. The
arrangements for it are planned and prepared in every detail in
advance in order that no time may be lost in their execution.
The governing principle of war is "whatsoever thy hand findeth
to do, do it with thy might." A State therefore, whether its policy
be aggressive or conservative, does well on going to war to put
into the field at the start as large an army as possible. Yet no
errof is more frequent than beginning a campaign with a portion
of the forces available and keeping back the other portion. This
is apt to lead to the defeat of each portion in turn. In 1859
Austria opposed the French and Sardinian armies with half her
army and, after this half had been defeated at Magenta, the
second half was brought up to be defeated at Solferino. In 1870,
after the bulk of the French regular army had been compelled to
surrender at Sedan and at Metz, France was able to raise fresh
armies of considerable strength. It would have been wiser to
avoid battle, if necessary by retreat, until the ranks of the
original regular army had been swollen by the addition of every
available man.
In order to be able to fight a battle an army must be assembled.
It must be able to move from place to place and must at all
times be kept supplied with food and with munitions of war.
Its fighting power depends on the conditions of its assembly, of
its marching, resting and supply.
The assembling of an army was until recent times a compara-
tively simple matter. A Roman army encamped in an area of
which the sides measured a few hundred yards and protected itself
by a rampart and a ditch. Even an early eighteenth century army
could be assembled in an area every part of which would be within
its commander's view. A modern army is usually as far as pos-
sible lodged in houses, for the transport of tents makes a serious
addition to the baggage train and long experience proves that to
bivouac in the open quickly adds to the sick list. But if the men
are to be housed they must be spread over an area large enough to
accommodate them in its towns or villages. An army of 36,000
men in a fairly populated European country can be billeted in
an area of some sixteen square miles. An army of 100,000 men
will occupy an area of thirty 'square miles. These numbers were
perhaps never exceeded until the close of the eighteenth century.
In 1805 Napoleon entered Germany with 200,000 men, a force
which could hardly be billeted in an area less than 45 square
miles. In the World War armies, numbered by millions, spread
themselves across the country over a belt hundreds of miles long
and twenty or thirty miles broad.
TRANSPORT AND COMMISSARIAT
The movement of a modern army is a complicated business.
A British division in 1914 was composed of 18,000 men, 5,000
horses and 900 vehicles of various kinds. It could be packed for
bivouac into half a square mile, but marching along a road it
would form a column fifteen miles long, suppose it to march by
road from one bivouac to another distant twelve and a half miles
— that is about the length of a normal day's march. The normal
pace of marching is 3 miles an hour, but it is the practice during
every hour to halt for ten minutes, so that the average rate of
progress of the column is 2^ miles an hour. If the first man starts
at 6 A.M. he will reach the new camp at u. As the column is 15
miles long the last man or the last vehicle cannot leave the
original bivouac till noon and cannot reach the new camp till
5 P.M. If a second division had to follow on the same road its
last cart could not reach the new camp before 10 A.M. the next
morning. Accordingly whenever possible each division is given a
road to itself. An army of four divisions. 100,000 men, marching
along a single road would form a column sixty miles long and
the rear division would be three or four marches behind the
front. For the purpose of joining in the same battle the four
divisions would be nearer to each other if marching on four
parallel roads three or four miles apart than if following one
another in one and the same road. Thus the modern principle is
WAR
[WEAPONS AND FORMATIONS
that an army must be spread out for marching and for billeting
but always so that it can be concentrated for battle.
For a modern army good roads have hitherto been a necessity;
:hey have been supplemented by railways and by track vehicles
:apable of going across country. The Roman roads were made
for the Roman armies and formed a very important factor in
:he extension of Roman power and the spread of Roman civilisa-
;ion. After the collapse of the Roman Empire good roads dis-
ippeared from Europe for some twelve centuries. Macadamised
•oads were introduced in the second half of the eighteenth cen-
ury and quickly spread their network over western Europe. It
vas in part to their existence that was due the great rapidity of
Mapoleon's marches compared with those of his predecessors.
The roadmaker is necessarily also a bridgemaker and a surveyor.
rhe accurate surveys of all the great States of Europe, as well
is the maps based upon them, have in every case been produced
>y a department of the army, in the first instance for military
;nds.
Railways were first used for the transport of troops in 1859,
ind during the nineteenth century their employment for this pur-
>ose was confined to the movement of armies from their home
juarters, where they were mobilised, to the places of assembly on
he frontier. A single train may carry perhaps a thousand men;
i division, for its infantry, horse and guns, would need from
wenty to thirty trains, which if they required half an hour each
o load and unload would make the total time 30 hours exclusive
>f the time occupied on the journey. Rail transport, therefore,
esults in no saving of time when the distance is not more than a
:ouple of days' march; the modern development of railways, how-
sver, is so great that for long distances it is very much quicker
han marching. During the last war very large bodies of troops
vere constantly moved by rail from one part of the theatre of
var to another.
The difficulty of feeding an army can best be illustrated by a
imple comparison. One of the groups of army corps into which
, modern army is sub-divided will have a strength of perhaps
100,000 men, equal to the population of a good-sized town. The
own is permanent and stationary. But no one except its com-
lander knows where the army will be to-morjrow or next week.
fet it cannot be allowed to starve even for a day. In the Middle
Lges and long afterwards armies supplemented what they could
arry with them by plundering, and this was possible when the
rmies were small and the population supported itself mainly by
:s own crops. With the rise of regular armies and of the modern
itate, armies were fed from magazines. Great depots of corn
fere collected at fortresses on the frontier where mills were set
o work to grind a part of it, and bakeries to produce biscuit,
"he soldiers were supplied with a five-days' ration which each
lan carried for himself. Sacks of corn were loaded on wagons
r mules and moved to a point five-days' distance from the for-
ress. Here mills and ovens were prepared and biscuits baked to
ive the men another five-days' supply. Cattle were driven with
be army and slaughtered as required. Plunder was forbidden.
lew depots were created at intervals of a few days' march as the
rmy advanced. But this took time. The system imposed limi-
itions on the commander, for the army could not be moved to a
istance of more than ten days' march from its magazines.
The French revolutionary armies had not the resources re*
uired for the creation of magazines. In the enemy's country,
berefore, they lived by plunder. Napoleon made an extensive
se of magazines, which, however, he supplemented by a well
rganized system of plunder, christened by the revolutionary name
Requisition."
In the nineteenth century the Prussian army, imitating Na-
oleon, combined the system of magazines with requisition,
"he British army has always used the system of magazines, sup-
lemented by such resources as could be obtained in the enemy's
ountry, not by plunder, but by purchase. In our own time the
upply of armies has been greatly facilitated by the adoption of
lotor transport, which goes far to relieve or even to supersede
he railways which in the nineteenth century were the principal
leans for the transport of supply.
WEAPONS AND FORMATIONS
All the troops of an army must be trained in the use of their
weapons and in those evolutions required for effective action and
for the co-operation of the various units large and small Forma-
tions and evolutions are handed on by tradition and in modem
armies regulated by official text-books. They must be suited to
the weapons employed and are therefore perpetually modified to
keep pace with the progressive improvement of weapons.
Among weapons the important distinction is between those
which are held in the hand for cutting and thrusting, of which
the types are the sword, the spear and the bayonet, and those
which are thrown from a distance by hand or by machine, the
arrow and the javelin, the stone and the bullet, the grenade and
the shell.
The history of formations and evolutions is that of a continual
argument carried on in the recurring trials of the battlefield be-
tween the hand weapon and the missile, between mass and elas-
ticity of evolution, between the arm and the head. It is the story
of the unwieldy phalanx against the nimble maniples, of the
Roman legionaries hurling their javelins into the mass of spear-
men and rushing with their short swords into a crowd in which
no man had room to wield his spear. It is the story of the legion
helpless against the swarm of mounted Parthian bowmen, of the
long-bow against the man at arms, the bullet against the bayonet.
In the 1 8th century came the dispute of the heavy column
against the flexible column and the line, argued first on paper
between Folard and Guibert. "It is an illusion and a prejudice"
said Guibert "that the force of a body of troops is increased by
augmenting the depth of its formation." It came to trial at the
end of the i8th century between French skirmishers and the
Prussian line and later in the Peninsula and at Waterloo between
the British two-deep line and the French column. The introduc-
tion of the first breech-loader, the needle gun, established the
supremacy of the bullet. But the tradition of "cold steel" and
of the mass died hard. In 1866 the Austrians rushed against the
needle gun and were shot down. At Gravelotte swarms of Prus-
sians, eager to charge, were slaughtered by the bullets of the
Chassepot. Faith in the bullet had not yet overcome the super-
stition of the bayonet; in South Africa it happened too often that
a body of British troops surrounded by a ring of invisible Boers
found their only escape from the bullet in surrender. Yet this
experience did not prevent British troops a dozen years later from
being sent into fields of barbed wire to be massacred by the bul-
lets of the machine gun and magazine rifle. The bullet and the
shell have made an end of all figjiting formations except thin
lines or small clusters of skirmishers. Only out of range are the
old formations of column and of line still possible. They are now
merely formations of assembly or modes of moving troops.
The history of cavalry, apart from that of reconnaissance, leads
up to the charge at full speed of a line of horsemen riding knee
to knee. This was in the i8th and iQth centuries the ideal of
cavalry trainers, who dreamed of the shock of the charge. But
it is doubtful whether the shock has ever been realised in action,
for in practice the opposing ranks pass through one another and
instead of the smashing collision comes the m616e. Against mod-
ern fire-arms the cavalry charge is hopeless, and the role of the
horseman is- restricted to reconnaissance, supplementary to that
which is effected in the air, to the pursuit of demoralised troops
and to the rapid seizure of points to be held by firearms.
The training of an army in peace consists in practice of the
evolutions which are thought to be suitable for war. These as a
rule embody the experience of the last war. Repetition makes
them habitual; they become stereotyped. The habits of any so-
ciety are difficult to change, and the professional soldier of all
ranks becomes so accustomed to traditional forms and modes of
action that he is apt to lose his receptivity to new ideas. The
workings of an army thus tend to run in grooves and usually
after a long period of peace a regular army begins a war by
repeating the methods which tradition has retained from wars
long past. This may lead to painful surprises if those who have
had charge of the opposing army have meantime adopted im-
proved weapons and modes of operation.
TACTICS1
WAR
325
The Greek name for the art of the commander was strategy,
of which the object was defined as victory. The Greek name for
arranging an army in order of battle was tactics. These terms are
still used, with the distinction that tactics is denned as the art
of fighting battles and strategy as the art of so directing all the
operations of the army as to lead to a decisive victory, that is,
to the destruction, in a military sense, of the enemy's forces.
The terms are convenient in theoretical analysis. But in practice
the two forms of activity are inseparably intermingled.
TACTICS
It is convenient to consider first the sphere of tactics— battle.
The dominant factor of battle is the controlling mind and will
of the commander. The process of battle always consists in
killing and wounding, but these are not an end in themselves,
except in so far as they diminish the enemy's numbers. The com-
mander's object is to outwit his antagonist and to demoralise the
opposing army, to produce in it disorder and confusion, and so
to transform it from an organised body into a disorderly crowd.
It is then at his mercy, and he can either disperse it by pursuit,
compel its surrender on the spot, or cut down the survivors where
they stand. A commander therefore tries to detect in the enemy's
order some point where an effective blow will dislocate its system
or structure. To that point he will direct his chief blow, for
which he will prepare by attempts to mislead the enemy as to
the intended direction of the decisive stroke. This is what gives
its importance to surprise. A sudden blow delivered from a direc-
tion in which it was not anticipated may upset his opponent's
plan and throw his army out of joint. In that case the opponent
must retreat, if he can, before his army suffers further damage.
But he may have anticipated the blow and have arranged a
counter-stroke which may take the assailant by surprise, so that
the tables will be turned.
The weak points of an army are its flanks and rear; and bat-
tles have seldom been won except by a turning movement leading
to the attack or envelopment of a flank and a threat or attack
against the rear.
At Rossbach and at Leuthcn Frederick made use of his rapidity
of evolution to strike the enemy in flank. Napoleon's favourite
manoeuvre was, while engaging the enemy in front, to bring a
body of troops from a distance against one of his flanks, causing
him to weaken his front by moving troops to reinforce that flank.
Napoleon then with his reserve attacked and pierced the weakened
front. This was the plan of Castiglione and of Bautzen. It was
the plan that miscarried at Ligny owing to the non-arrival of
D'Erlon.
An army is prepared to be attacked on its front and such at-
tacks have rarely succeeded except when it has been possible for
one army to make such a breach in the enemy's front as to create
two flanks, from which the separated parts can be rolled up.
At Blenheim the French and their allies held a strong position
of which the right flank was protected by the Danube, the left
by forest-clad hills. While Prince Eugene engaged their left
Marlborough first attacked their fortified right and then broke
through their centre with his cavalry.
A good commander uses the several arms in close co-operation.
During all the centuries before firearms had developed their
power cavalry was usually the decisive weapon even where its
numbers were comparatively small. A good general so manoeu-
vred both his infantry and his cavalry that they played into one
another's hands. These were the tactics of Alexander and Hanni-
bal, of Caesar and of Cromwell.
At Marston Moor, while the Royalist foot was getting the
better of the Parliamentary foot, Cromwell with his Ironsides de-
feated in turn the Royalist horse of the right wing and of the
left, and then crashed into the Royalist foot, thus saving his own
side's foot and deciding the battle.
Very effective is the mode by which, while one army engages
the enemy in front, a second army is brought up to attack him
in flank. This was the method of the allies at Waterloo, repeated
by Moltke at Kdniggratz.
A body of troops expecting to be attacked occupies a position
in which it can have the advantage of the protection afforded by
the ground. Troops posted along the top of a slope with open
ground in front of them can stand still to shoot at the enemy as
he comes up, while he has the effort of moving.
A flank attack must be met facing it, that is by forming a new
front to meet it. In the days of hand to hand fighting and of
mass formations the men of the ranks behind the front on the
wing attacked had to turn to their right or left. At Cannae
Hannibal's foot attacked both flanks of the Roman massed le-
gions and, as the Romans on both flanks had to turn to defend
themselves, the front ranks could not continue their onset on
Hannibal's front without leaving gaps between themselves and
the flank men behind them. When Hannibal then brought up his
horse to attack the Roman rear the Roman mass, surrounded,
could not charge in any direction without leaving gaps. The
Roman army, thus confused and paralysed, was cut to pieces.
With the advent of the flint-lock and bayonet a line of in-
fantry with a clear space in front of it could keep off double
its number advancing against it over the open. As firearms im-
proved, the power of such a line increased, while the number of
ranks diminished from three to two and then, with the breech-
loader, to a single rank and with the magazine rifle to a row of
skirmishers with intervals between them. The increase of the
range of the bullet exposes the assailant during a much longer
period to the enemy's fire; and since the introduction of the
machine gun and the automatic rifle a frontal attack by infantry
upon infantry is impracticable, unless the infantry has been deci-
mated and shaken by shells or poisonous gas or by both.
Accordingly the assailant uses his superior numbers to spread
out his force and envelop the enemy's flank or flanks. The oppo-
nent must then bend back the ends of his line so that the two
opposing lines become parallel curves of which the one envelops
the other and this may be continued until they become concentric
circles.
An army enclosed is lost, for its only escape is to break through
the enclosing circle. This means, wherever it is attempted, a
frontal attack against a position without flanks during which the
assailant has both flanks exposed. This is the explanation of the
frequent surrenders in South Africa of British troops when sur-
rounded by a ring of Boer skirmishers, who being mounted could
always surround the British infantry. It is the explanation of
Macmahon's surrender at Sedan.
Strength against attack is increased by fortification, of which
the simplest form is a bank, with a trench or ditch before it, so
placed as to command the ground in front for a space correspond-
ing to the range of the weapons used. The advantage is increased
with the range of the weapons employed and if the open space
is strewn with obstacles to delay the advance of the assailant.
With the aid of the engineer it has always been possible to make
a well chosen position impregnable by direct attack on its front.
But it has also always been possible for a skilful assailant to
turn to his own use the advantage thus conferred. The classical
instance is the siege of Alesia. Vercingetorix occupied a hill which
he turned into a fortress. Caesar surrounded it with a circle of
fortifications which the Gauls found it impossible to break
through. Caesar then surrounded his own army with fortifications
looking outwards which the great relieving army of Gauls attacked
in vain. The modern parallel to this is the capture of Bazaine's
army at Metz.
The elements of fortification are always the same, the chosen
position, the rampart, the obstacle and the projectile. The early
city surrounded its hill with a stone wall from which the citizens
shot their arrows, threw their javelins and hurled stones with cata-
pults. The assailants attacked the wall with rams and mines, and
built for their archers and slingers towers which the besieged
would if possible set on fire. The mediaeval castle surrounded its
wall with a moat and built a keep as a last resort. The wall be*
came a square or oblong having, outside its corners, towers from
which anyone approaching the wall could be shot down.
In due time the gun made an end of the stone wall, which was
replaced by an earth bank with a parapet to shelter the guns and
the musket men. The moat became a deep wide ditch : the square
WAR
[STRATEGY
>r oblong became a straight-sided polygon, with bastions at the
:orners to enfilade the straight sides or curtains. These elements
yere developed in the elaborate systems of Vauban and Coehorn,
>f Brialmont and of the modern forts of concrete and steel plates.
The history of fortification is a part of the long rivalry between
he projectile and the shield. In the World War the projectile, the
ligh explosive shell fired up into the air so as to drop on to the
ampart, proved too much even for walls of concrete and steel, so
hat the rampart is now no more than a trench and the obstacle a
leld of barbed wire.
The purpose of fortification is to gain time by economising
ien. It enables a small number to resist a greatly superior force
or a time which is always limited. In battle it enables the com-
nander to resist attack with a part of his force while keeping the
est in reserve to be used for counter-attack either in another part
>f the field or at a later hour. The attack on a fortress begins by
n vestment. The assailant surrounds it with a ring of fortified
>ositions. It can then hold out only until its supplies of food and
mmunition are exhausted, when it must needs surrender.
If the assailant wishes to shorten the time he must bring up
nough powerful guns to destroy a portion of the rampart and
nust then send troops to attack at the place where a breach has
ieen made. The investment and siege of a fortress require troops
lany times more numerous than those besieged. It thus takes
way from an invading army far more troops than it withdraws
rom the army resisting invasion, to which therefore it is a source
f strength. But it serves this purpose only if attacked, seeing
fiat the garrison of a fortress that no one attacks is withdrawn
D no purpose from the army to which it belongs.
THE STRATEGICAL ASPECT
We can now consider the strategical aspect of the conflict
ctween armies.
The decisive act of war being battle and a commander's aim
ictory, his plan will be to bring on a battle as soon as he can with
tie chances in his favour, yet to put it off as long as he can if the
hances are against him. The issue of a battle is always uncer-
lin. An order may be miscarried or misunderstood and accidents
lay delay or prevent the arrival of troops upon which the com-
lander counts. His opponent may have some new and unfore-
een weapons or devices. He himself may be mistaken or misin-
ormed about the enemy's numbers, positions and movements.
le can know very little of what is going on behind the enemy's
utposts. He is always dealing with a more or less known quan-
ity, his own army, and a more or less unknown quantity, the
nemy. He has to make up his mind and to act upon data of
rhich few are certain. That is why no man can be a great com-
lander without special qualities of character. The essential is not
leverness but a certain greatness of soul. A commander can
Iways obtain advice, but it requires a very strong and high char-
cter to take the responsibility involved in acting on another
mn's judgment,
What then are the elements upon which the chances depend,
ie means by which a commander can load the strategical dice in
is own favour? The first is to have more troops on the spot;
ie second to make the enemy uneasy by threatening to stop his
jpplies or to block his way home. It is assumed of course that the
rmament and training of the troops are much the same on both
des, for strategy can hardly compensate for tactical inferiority,
fumerical superiority is not secured merely by the State's pos-
jssing the larger army, because in a battle the only troops that
punt are those that take part in it. When the consul Nero, leav-
ig part of his army to watch Hannibal's, marched off with the
est of it to reinforce the general who was dealing with Hasdrubal
nd so destroyed Hasdrubal's army, he gave a lesson which has
oo often been forgotten. If an army can place itself between
ivo parts of an enemy army separated from one another by sev-
ral days' march, its commander can repeat Nero's manoeuvre,
lough if he allows them to approach too near, say within a day's
larch of one another, he may be attacked by both at once. One
f Napoleon's favourite plans was this "manoeuvre from a central
osition," which succeeded so brilliantly in 1796 but failed in
1815, as it did in 1866 at Koniggratz.
The first principle, then, is to keep the army together.
The commander whose army is ready and who feels assured of
its superiority wishes to bring on his battle as soon as he can. A
march towards the enemy's capital is pretty sure to bring the
enemy's army into the field, especially if the capital is not only
the centre of the national administration but also an industrial
and commercial city.
His opponent, of less strength, will wish to avoid battle. If he
can find a position strong enough to make up for his inferiority
he may stand and fight there. Otherwise he will wish to put off
the battle till he can be reinforced either by fresh levies or by an
ally, or until his antagonist has been weakened by the fatigues
of campaigning and by detachments made to protect an ever
lengthening line of communications. His object then is to waste
the assailant's time and to gain time for himself.
For many centuries it was exceedingly difficult to force an op-
ponent to fight a battle against his will. When battles were fought
at close quarters with the sword, the spear, or the pike, infantry
were formed in dense masses many ranks deep. Only with such a
mass, the spear points of several ranks projecting beyond the
front, was it possible to resist a cavalry charge. A fight begun
could hardly be broken off, for, once the troops were engaged hand
to hand, those who turned their backs on the enemy were lost. A
small force could hardly engage a large one without the risk of
destruction. Accordingly an army was kept together in a single
mass. Until the order of battle was completed it was not safe to
approach the enemy. But a very long time was required for
changing the order from that of the march to that of the fight.
If therefore a commander, on seeing the enemy approach,
thought it prudent to avoid battle, he could march away while his
opponent was forming for action. Nothing was more difficult
than to force a battle upon an unwilling enemy. After Hannibal
had destroyed three Roman armies the Roman commander Fabius
adopted the plan of wearing him out without risking battle, and
Hannibal spent twelve years marching up and down Italy without
finding a favourable opportunity for a successful attack upon
the Roman army.
These conditions remained unchanged until the eighteenth cen-
tury. WThen, after the introduction of the flint-lock, the bullet
began to exert its power, it was found that infantry in a line of
four or even of three ranks could withstand a cavalry charge.
Then came systematic drill, by which a body of troops was
trained to move simultaneously like a machine at the word of
command. A number of platoons marching one behind another
at a distance equal to the frontage of a platoon could form line in
a few seconds by the wheel of each platoon to the right or left.
The French army copried, improved and simplified the Prussian
drill and cultivated side by side with it the practice of skirmishing,
that is, of putting before their formed bodies a row of sharp-
shooters to harass the enemy. It then became possible to break
off an engagement by the alternate retreat of portions of the line,
one set holding back the enemy by its fire while the other set with-
drew to reform farther back and repeat the operation. A small
body could break off an engagement by'fighting in retreat and a
rear guard could delay an army. It became possible to sub-divide
an army, provided that its several parts were near enough to be
re-united for battle. Accordingly the French army was organised
in permanent divisions of all arms. Napoleon would advance with
a number of divisions or of army corps marching on parallel roads,
so that his army would be spread across an area perhaps a hundred
miles wide, overlapping the enemy's front. Then by a concentric
movement towards a point in the enemy's rear, he would envelop
him so that he must either fight or beat a hasty retreat. This
practice, the alternate expansion and contraction of a large army
sub-divided into independent units — divisions or army corps — was
also that of Moltke. A twentieth century army has numbers so
vast as to be able to form a continuous front along a whole fron-
tier. Battle can no longer be evaded and can be postponed only
by retreat.
The attack or threat of attack on the line of communication
is comparatively modern. As long as armies were small and com-
NAVAL]
WAR
327
pact, living on the country in which they found themselves, they
required no communications and could retreat in any direction.
But with the growth of armies and the rise of the magazine sys-
tem the line of communication became vital. It must be protected
at any cost. If therefore a commander found the enemy moving
in a direction which, if prolonged, would sever his communica-
tions, he must immediately change front to resist the threatened
attack. If he should then be beaten he would be driven across
and away from his line of communication. If the attack were
aimed at a point lying some distance to his rear he must turn back
and fight facing the way home. In either case his position if he
should be beaten would be desperate. But he who attacks the
enemy's communication must be careful in so doing not to expose
his own. This form of operation, the attack on the communica-
tions, became important in the eighteenth century and increasingly
so as a consequence of the spread of metalled roads over western
Europe. It was constantly adopted by Napoleon; and in the
modern theory of strategy, which is based mainly upon the analy-
sis of his campaigns, takes a prominent place.
An army is always much disturbed by finding its communica-
tions threatened or severed or its way home occupied by the
enemy. Napoleon counted on the consternation which the sudden
appearance of his army on the flank or rear of the enemy was sure
to produce.
In the nineteenth century the source from which an army drew
its supplies was no longer a frontier fortress, as it had been in
the eighteenth century, but the whole country from which it
started. The line of communication was formed by the network
of railways behind the army. In the World War when an army was
spread across a whole country in a continuous line, its communi-
cations could be reached only by breaking and piercing its front./
Whatever advantages a commander's strategy has procured him
for the battle he has planned, will be thrown away unless he wins
the battle, and his opponent by victory will wipe out all his own
mistakes. No strategy will compensate for tactical inferiority.
NAVAL WARFARE
A navy owes its special character to the nature of the sea. All
warfare at sea is governed by the law of gravitation. The weight
of every floating body is exactly equal to that of the quantity of
water which its immersed part displaces. Ships of equal displace-
ment are of equal weight. The necessary elements of every ship
are the hull, the means of propulsion, the crew and their food and
water. These therefore represent a constant amount of the ship's
total weight. The remainder can be devoted to the purposes for
which the vessel is intended* In a merchant ship it is available for
cargo but if the ship is intended to fight it can be devoted to sol-
diers, their weapons, their food and water, These conditions are
permanent and unchangeable; they apply equally to the galley,
the sailing ship, the steamer and the oil-propelled ship.
Thus there has always been a distinction between the ship of
war and the merchantman, consisting partly in the greater strength
of structure of the warship and partly in its carrying in addition
to its crew, and instead of a cargo, a large number of armed men
and their food, water and ammunition. Accordingly at all times
the merchant ship has been the easy prey of the warship.
The aim of either side in a sea fight is to destroy or capture
the enemy's fleet. In the infancy of navies the fighting men were
soldiers and the method was to grapple the enemy's ship so as
to enable the soldiers to take it by boarding. The alternative was
to try to sink the enemy's ship by ramming or to set it on fire.
With the advent of the gun the effort to destroy the ship by shot
and shell became more and more predominant. The sailor replaced
the soldier as the fighting man at sea; the soldier on board a
ship be'came the marine, whose original function was to maintain
discipline in the crew.
Suppose a war between two States in which one possesses a
fleet of fighting ships and the other does not. The fighting fleet
cannot be resisted and will use its ships to chase and capture the
enemy's merchant ships. The sea-borne trade of the State without
a navy will shrink and disappear. Moreover the navy will be able
to escort an army embarked ion merchant ships to be landed on
the enemy's shore.
If at the beginning of a war each of the belligerents has a navy
the aim of each of the two commanders will be to destroy or cap-
ture all the enemy's warships. The commander, having this aim,
will set out to find the enemy's fleet, which, if the opposing com-
mander has the same aim, will lead to a battle. Suppose the Blue
Admiral to have sixteen ships and the Red fourteen, that in the
fighting three Blue ships and four Red ones arc sunk and one
Red one disabled, and that one Red ship is compelled to surrender
by an appalling loss of men. Red now has only eight ships left
against Blue's thirteen whiclrwill become fourteen as soon as a
Blue crew has been put on board the captured vessel.
The Red commander has now no prospect of success and to
continue the conflict will probably mean the destruction or cap-
ture of his remaining ships. He must therefore escape, if he can,
to save the rest of his ships; but the Blue fleet will follow him.
His only hope of safety is the land and the protection of an army.
He therefore makes for a fortified harbour where he will be secure
from attack. The Blue commander is baulked of his prey, for
forts are stronger than ships. Blue will cruise near the exit from
the harbour with ten or a dozen ships ready to attack Red if he
should come out, while his remaining ships will capture any Red
merchantmen they can find or may escort a Blue army trans-
ported in merchant ships to land on the enemy's shore and attack
the fortress which protects the Red navy. So long as Red remains
in harbour so much of the Blue navy as is not required to watch
Red will be used to destroy Red's sea trade. But Blue's suprem-
acy at sea will be precarious so long as it is necessary for him to lie
in wait for the Red fleet, which after all may come out and risk
a battle, either with his inferior force or, after a sufficient time,
with that force strengthened by the addition of new ships.
The open sea has no inequalities. Rough or smooth its surface
is the same for both sides, it offers no shelter of which the weaker
force can take advantage. The commander of a fleet cannot pro-
tect himself by advance or flank guards, for a ship or a squadron
once engaged with a much superior force can hardly fight with-
out being destroyed and can avoid fighting only by retreat while
still out of reach of the enemy's weapons. Accordingly the secur-
ity of a fleet against surprise consists in the detachment of swift
ships capable not of engaging battleships but of observation and
evasion. At sea, as on land, the first principle is to concentrate
for battle all the forces that can possibly be made available. An
army or a fleet is concentrated for battle if its various parts are
so near together that the enemy cannot interpose between them
or destroy one portion in isolation. If the divisions of an army
can in a day's march be assembled at any point they are ready
for anything that can be done by an enemy two marches distant.
The squadrons of a fleet cannot safely be so dispersed as to im-
peril their co-operation in battle. The speed with which fleets
approach one another is so great and the speed of the swiftest
cruiser so slightly in excess of that of the capital ships of the
fleet as to impose very narrow limits upon the separation be-
tween squadrons that are to co-operate in battle. The conception
of a battle cruiser appears to be inconsistent with the fundamental
conditions of warfare at sea.
A fleet moves many times as fast as an army. Accordingly in
the absence of an enemy fleet an army can usually be transported
very much faster than an army can be moved by land to oppose
its landing, and it is hard to recall an attempt to land an army
that has been frustrated except at sea.
Ships take a long time to build, which is increased by every
improvement in their construction. Nor can sailors be impro-
vised. The land lubber cannot be transformed into a sailor in the
few weeks or months which suffice to enable a plough boy to take
his place in the ranks of an army. It is therefore exceedingly
difficult for a modern State to replace during the war a navy
that has once been seriously crippled.
From the sixteenth century onwards the gun has been the de-
cisive weapon in naval warfare. The nineteenth century produced
the steamship, which came to be built of iron instead of wood
and requires from time to time the renewal of its stock of fuel,
so that a modern fleet must have access to harbours containing
328
WAR
[ECONOMY OF FORCES
stores of coal or of oil. The improvement of the gun caused the
capital ship to be armoured. Neither the ram nor the torpedo has
proved able to rival the gun. In the World War the submarine,
using the automobile torpedo, seemed at first to be a grave menace
to the battleship, and for some time its ravages among enemy mer-
tfiant ships were appalling. But means were found of attacking
it, and the destroyer armed with quick firing guns and depth
:harges proved more than its match. As soon as merchant ships
vere grouped into convoys and escorted the role of the submarine
ost much of its importance. But if the type should be further
jeveloped and produced in large numbers it might in future again
:>lay a great part.
BELLIGERENTS AND NEUTRALS
Much importance in maritime war attaches to the relation be-
.ween belligerents and neutrals. A neutral State ceases to be neu-
,ral if it assists either belligerent to carry on the war. A neutral,
herefore, is not permitted to supply either belligerent with any-
hing that will assist him to carry on the war. In the i8th century
he "law of nations" in regard to maritime warfare allowed the
:apture of enemy ships and of enemy goods in neutral ships, and
ilso the right of search of every ship in order to ascertain the
juality as enemy or neutral of the ship and its cargo. The search
>f their ships and the right of taking from them enemy goods and
:ontraband of war was always disagreeable to the neutral States
ind they used to propose that enemy goods in a neutral ship
ihould not be liable to capture. In 1856 the British Government
:onsented to the Declaration of Paris, which laid down that enemy
;oods in a neutral ship should be exempt from capture unless they
vere contraband. The principle thus adopted is hardly consistent
vith the nature of maritime war. Some writers have constantly
,dvocated the prohibition of the capture of private property at
ea, under the impression that it would render warfare more
lumane. But in reality there is no such thing in war as private
property at sea, for every ship and cargo is fully insured and the
premiums are paid out of higher charges for freight and higher
nices for goods, so that the loss incurred by the capture of a ship
nd its cargo is borne not by the owners but by the general com-
munity of the nation. Moreover the capture of merchant ships
nd their cargoes was regulated by stringent rules. The ship was
aken by its captors to port where a court of law decided whether
»r not it was lawful prize. If the Court decided that it had been
wrongly taken the enemy owners received compensation. Crew
nd passengers were in all cases protected from injury. The only
ffect of the prohibition of the capture of private property at sea
pould be to cripple the power of the maritime State, which would
ie unable to make use of naval victories to bring to bear upon its
dversary the form of pressure involved in closing the sea to his
ctivities. "
The invention of the dirigible airship by Count Zeppelin and
>f the aeroplane by the brothers Wright has brought into warfare
new element. In the World War airships and aeroplanes
yere employed in conjunction with the army and with the navy.
Their power in reconnaissance was so great as to compel the troops
o adopt means of evading it, marching by night and camouflage.
Lirships were also employed in the bombardment of fortresses,
[arbours, communications and towns for the purpose of weakening
he enemy's resources and of breaking down the resolution of his
lopulation to continue the struggle. This was undertaken first by
he airship and afterwards by the aeroplane, which had very soon
•roved its superiority over the airship. The results obtained, by
ray of damage to workshops for the production of warlike ma"
Mel and by way of intimidation of the population, were far
rom decisive. But the exponents of aerial warfare expect that in
he next war air forces will be employed in the attempt to paralyse
n enemy State, by direct attack on industrial centres, on com-
nunications and on the seat of government, so as to produce
onsternation among the people. Not only high explosive bombs
iut also bombs to spread poison gas are counted upon for this
urpose.
The analogy of warfare by land and sea suggests that the air
orces devoted to these purposes should be attacked by the air
forces of the State assailed, and that the preliminary to direct
attack on towns and workshops would be victory in an air battle.
But to this it is replied that the great speed of aircraft and the
difficulty of finding an enemy moving through space in three
dimensions make it impracticable to compel the enemy to fight;
that the facilities of evasion are too great.
The conception of a war beginning by a sudden great air-raid
which is to devastate the enemy's manufacturing resources and,
by destruction and massacre, to paralyse a whole nation carries
with it the suppression of the distinction between combatants and
non-combatants and implies the preparation during peace of the
whole nation as a fighting organism. From this the only escape
seems to be the development of means of attack upon the raiding
air forces.
The primary use of all armed forces, whether at sea, on land or
in the air, is to destroy by fighting the armed forces of the enemy,
that is to render them incapable of taking further part in the con-
flict. They are also used for the purpose of weakening the enemy
by depriving him of some of his resources. This is accomplished
by the occupation of his territory so that he can draw from it
neither men nor supplies of any kind, and by the destruction of his
sea-borne trade, which will cripple him in proportion to his
dependence upon it. Air forces are also to be employed for this
purpose. But it is not economical to use for these secondary pur-
poses forces which could be employed against the enemy's armed
forces, for when those have been destroyed the enemy is in any
case helpless. The destruction of the enemy's navy will not usually
suffice to bring him to terms; it must be supplemented by that of
his army. In order to dictate peace to Napoleon Trafalgar had
to be followed by Waterloo.
v^From the sketch which has been given of the armed forces it
will be seen that they grow and develop with the growth of the
State of which they are part. Upon the patriotism of the citizens
depends the discipline of its army and navy; upon the develop-
ment of the industrial arts and sciences depends the quality of
the armament and the materiel; upon the extent to which the
advancement of knowledge is cherished depends the intellectual
level of the naval and military leaders. Thus the power of a nation
for war depends, as much as its prosperity in peace, upon its
keeping in the van of civilisation.
An immense effort is needed to maintain the armed forces.
They are among the principal organs of the State and their main-
tenance in peace is usually the chief item of national expenditure
and of the burden of taxation. The cost of a war in money alone
is usually far too great to be met out of current taxation, and in-
volves borrowing on a large scale. It sometimes exhausts the
national credit, and even where this is not the case a serious war
causes a great increase in taxation, of which the burden is felt by
more than one generation.
THE ECONOMY OP FORCES
From these considerations follows the supreme importance in
war of the economy of forces. To waste them by misuse is wan-
tonly to squander not only men's savings but their lives. The
statesman is concerned with the purpose for which the nation goes
to war. Whatever the origin of the quarrel the end he has in view
is peace consistent with the welfare of his nation. It may be the
conquest of the enemy State; it may be merely to induce the
enemy to leave his own State unmolested. These are the two
extremes, between which will be found the conditions of the peace
desired. Whatever those conditions, whatever the statesman's
object, the best way of attaining it is by using the armed forces to
disarm the enemy State. If the enemy agrees to the terms before
he is disarmed so much the better.
The strategist is not directly concerned with the terms of peace ;
his aim is simply to render the enemy's forces helpless. A large
part of the failures in war are due to the mistaken action of gov-
ernments in directing their commanders to use their forces in a
manner inconsistent with their nature or for aims other than the
destruction of the enemy armed forces.
It is a misuse of weapons to require a fleet to fight against an
army, especially against a fortress, for a ship is much more vul-
PEACE PROBLEM]
WAR
329
nerable than a fort and the loss of a battle-ship with its crew
much more serious than that which a fleet can inflict on the
garrison of a fortress. In 1739 the British Government, going to
war with Spain, employed a large part of its navy in expeditions
against the Spanish colonies in South America, with disastrous
results. The right use of the navy would have been to devote its
whole strength to the destruction of the Spanish navy, after which
the Spanish colonies abroad would have been comparatively help-
less. In 1807 a British government sent a fleet under Admiral
Duckworth to attack Constantinople; without an army he found
that he could do nothing, yet in 1915 a British government again
sent out a fleet with the same object; without an army it was
unable to pass the Dardanelles of which it engaged the forts at a
disadvantage.
Nothing is more wasteful than a dispersion of forces caused by
a multiplicity of aims. If hostile forces are acting in more than
one theatre of war it is prudent to place the principal army in that
one where the enemy is most dangerous or where it is practicable
to deliver the most deadly blow against him. In other theatres
no more forces should be employed than are required to parry
the enemy's blows until the decisive stroke in the principal theatre
has had time to produce its effect.
The division of armies is frequently caused by the interference
of statesmen. In 1745 France and Spain being at war with Sar-
dinia: and Austria, a Franco-Spanish army from the Riviera
invaded Piedmont and defeated the Piedmontese army. It then
found itself between that and an Austrian army. The purpose of
the Spanish government in the war was to annex Milan and other
territories. It therefore sent orders to the Spanish commander to
leave his French colleague and to occupy Milan, Thus the French
and Spanish armies were separated at the very moment when their
only hope of success lay in keeping together. The consequence
was that they were beaten each in turn and when eventually united
were attacked by the Piedmontese and the Austrians in concert,
defeated and forced to a disastrous retreat. The occupation of
Milan was a political but not a military measure; it deflected the
Spanish army from its proper use.
The act of war consists in the destruction of men's bodies and
of the work of their hands. There is nothing in the nature of the
act to limit this destruction. In some cases it has ended with the
destruction of one of the States engaged and even the disappear-
ance of its population by massacre or enslavement. In practice
there are limitations to the application of violence. They are
imposed either by the State itself or by its relations with the neu-
tral States. As the very existence of the State depends upon the
discipline of its soldiers and the character of its people it cannot
permit actions which would undermine that discipline or would
be inconsistent with the maintenance of that character.
From the earliest times States at war with one another have
refrained from some of the forms of cruelty practised by savages.
The States of the old Mediterranean world observed a number of
usages in and with regard to war. Declaration of war, truce,
armistice, quarter and the distinction between soldiers and the
unarmed population were recognised. In the Middle Ages the
States of Christendom and those of the Mohammedan world usu-
ally refrained from extreme barbarity. Chivalry, with the idea of
honour, set up standards of conduct in the fight. Since the Renais-
sance, jurists have from time to time formulated principles under-
lying the usages commonly accepted as binding by belligerents.
These form the substance of international law.
Since the middle of the nineteenth century a number of inter-
national agreements formulating them have been drawn up and
accepted by all or almost all of the civilised States.
ARBITRATION
Both in ancient and modern times disagreements between States
have frequently been settled by arbitration, a method evidently
suitable for cases in which the matter in dispute is not of supreme
importance. But a dispute on a matter vital to each side is settled
only by an appeal to force. A Government's mission being to
secure for its people a life worth living, its claim to the allegiance
of its subjects depends on its fulfilment of this task. Nothing else
is vital. If therefore the action of one State, felt by itself to be
necessary to its well-being, interferes with the activity, also felt
to be necessary to its welfare, of another State, no concession is
possible, for in either case it would be felt to be suicidal. There
will then be a war of which the logical outcome would be the
destruction of one of the belligerents.
Each will set out to crush the forces of the other. The effort
will be supreme on each side, and, as the struggle goes on, the
people of each State will again and again consider the sacrifices
required from them in relation to the cause they are asserting. If
the effort is felt to be disproportionate to the end, there will be a
relaxation of energy; and the Government will be obliged to seek
peace at the price of concession. But the other State, if its cause
still seems vital, will renew its exertions again and again. The
State which mistook for vital a cause that was not will find itself
weaker than its adversary and compelled to give way. Accordingly
no State can safely enter into a quarrel except for a cause imposed
upon it by the conditions of its existence. It can afford to fight
a powerful adversary only to preserve its power to carry on its
necessary work.
The decision as to what is vital is primarily the affair of the
Government as trustee for the people to whom it is responsible,
for they must bear the burden and their welfare is at stake. Vic-
tory will strengthen and defeat will weaken the bond between
Government and people. But the final judgment is the event; the
war vras the trial, the victorious State has made good its case. If
the defeated State has not been destroyed its survival proves that
its cause was not vital. Thus the moral responsibility of nations,
as of men, that by their actions they stand or fall, is brought home
to them by war, the supreme test of national life. The significance
of that self-determination which is the watchword of modern
democracy is that it involves the realisation of this responsibility.
Suppose that two States, having agreed in case of any disputes
between them to submit the question at issue to an arbitral tri-
bunal and to accept and abide by its decision, find themselves at
issue upon a question involving consequences vital to each of
them. In that case an adverse decision would mean to either
State that it could no longer fulfil the purpose of its existence. Its
government and its people would feel that to accept the adverse
decision would be fatal to their welfare. They would therefore
either refuse to submit the matter to arbitration or to accept an
adverse decision. In spite of the treaty there would be a war, in
which each side would believe itself to be fighting for its existence.
A State cannot renounce its function of self-preservation, self-
determination or self-assertion. It will exert itself to the utmost
to safeguard and to maintain the necessary activities of its people.
This is admitted even by the extreme advocates of arbitration.
Mr. Kellogg, who on behalf of the United States proposed the
international treaty for "The Outlawry of War," is reported to
have said: "Every nation is free at all times and regardless of
treaty provisions to defend its territory from attack or invasion
and it alone is competent to decide whether the circumstances
require recourse to war in self-defence.1' Self-defence hardly
admits of any interpretation except the assertion of vital interests.
Mr. Kellogg therefore seems to realise that the treaty which he
proposes might be a dead letter in any case of opposition between
the vital interests of the States concerned.
It follows that proposals of disarmament can have only a re-
stricted scope, for no nation can afford to allow its armed forces
to fall below the strength required for the assertion of its vital
interests.
THE IDEA OF PERPETUAL PEACE
After every great European war the sufferings which it has
caused have turned men's minds towards the idea of perpetual
peace. The War of the Spanish Succession was the occasion of the
project of the Abb6 de Saint Pierre. It was a scheme by which the
peace of Europe was to be under the protection of France, and
therefore savoured rather of SuUy's desigjn to secure French
ascendancy in Europe than of a serious contribution to the world's
peace. The French Revolutionary War seems to have suggested
Kant's Essay: "Towards Perpetual Peace." Kant thought that
330
WAR— WARBECK
the first condition was that all the States should become Republics
— in other words that nations should become responsible for their
actions in the sense in which responsibility has here been defined.
The World War has been followed by the formation of the
League of Nations and by treaties for the purpose of preventing
as far as possible the recurrence of war by the substitution for
it of international law. In order to become imperative, interna-
tional law requires behind it the sanction of force, which can only
be that of some kind of super-State or world-State. A world-
State can hardly be imagined except as the outcome either of the
conquest by one State of all the others, after the fashion of the
Roman Empire, or of a federation of all States, brought about
by their agreement, after the model of the United States.
The problem can hardly better be illustrated than by these two
examples. The Roman Empire maintained peace within its
borders with little interruption for some centuries; but it con-
tained two different societies, the products respectively of Greek
and of Roman civilisation, which could not permanently be held
together. The super-State broke down. The history of the Middle
Ages is that of the failure of the attempt to revive it in the dual
form of the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, and the modern
history of Europe is that of the rise of a number of States in
rivalry, leading to a balance of power between the greater States
and the consequent preservation of the small ones.
The British settlements in North America first realised them-
selves in reaction against the authority of the British Government.
They were all substantially British in race, language, institutions
and traditions, and in the impulse of self-government. Their self-
assertion by war compelled them to find strength in union. The
thirteen States evolved a super-State, the Federal Government.
As their people spread westward across the Continent they spon-
taneously formed further States within the super-State. But in
spite of their original unity of race, language and traditions, there
developed among them two types of society, for in the South agri-
culture came to be based upon negro slavery, while in the North
agriculture and industry alike were carried on without slave
labour. The two systems proved incompatible with one another,
and the inevitable result was the War of Secession.
The moral seems to be that war is the outcome of the growth
of societies which can never be uniform, but varies with varying
conditions of climate, land, race, religion and tradition. No super-
State can prevent this diversity nor repress the expansion of a
vigorous community. The establishment of a world-State would
no doubt be the end of international wars, but they would reappear
as civil wars.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— F. W. Riistow and H. A. T. Kochcy, GesMchte
des griechischen Kriegswesens (Aarau, 1852) ; A. von Goler, Caesars
Gallische Krieg (Tubingen, 1860 later ed. 2 vols., 1880) ; J. Kromaycr
and G. Veith, Antike Schlaehtf elder in Griechenland (4 vols., 1903-
22), Schlachten-Atlas zur antiken Kriegsgeschichte (3 vols., Leipzig,
1922-24). The best works concerning mediaeval warfare are the
following: C. W. C. Oman, The Art of War in the Middle Ages (2nd
ed. 1924) ; H. Delbruck, Gfschichte der Kritgskunst im Rahmen der
politisehen Geschichte (1900, etc.) and E. Daniels, Geschichte dcs
Kriegswesens (in Sammlung Goschen, 1911). The development of
modern war can best be followed in: — Machiavelli, Dell' arte delta
Gucrra (1521); A. M. Ramsay, Hhtoirc du Vicomte de Turennr (2
vols., 1735); A. de Pas, Marquis de Feuquicre, Afemoires sur la
Guerre (1730) ; J. F. de Chastenet, Marquis de Puysegur, Art de la
Guerre (1748) ; Frederick II. of Prussia, Oeuvres Militaires (in Oeuvres
de Frederic le Grand 17 vols., 1790; 31 vols., 1846-57); Maurice de
Saxe, Reveries, ou Afemoires sur I' Art de la Guerre (1756-58) ; J. A. H.
He Guibert, Rssai General de Tactique (1773); Defense du systeme
de Guerre Moderne (1799) ; H. H. E. Lloyd, History of the late War
in Germany (The Seven Years' War) (1766) ; A. H. de Jomini, Precis
de Vart de la Guerre (2 pts., 1837-56) ; Archduke Charles, Grundsatzc
der Strategic, erldutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzuges von 1796
in Deutschland (1814) ; C. von Clauscwitz, Vom Kriege (7th ed. 1912;
Eng. trans. J. J. Graham, 1908) ; W. von Willisen, Thcorie des grossen
Krieges (4 vols., 1840-68) ; E. B. Hamley, The Operations of Wat
5th ed., 2 vols., 1900) ; H. von Moltke, Taktisch-strategische Auf-
satze (in his Militdrische Werke, published by German General Staff,
10 vols. 1892-1906) ; C. von der Goltz, Das Volk in Waffen (6th ed.
!925) ; J. L. A. Colin, Les Transformations de la Guerre (1911), trans.
L. H. R. Pope-Hennessy, The Transformations of War (1912); Les
Grandes Batailles de VHistoire (1915), trans. S. Wilkinson, The Great
Battles of History (1915) ; M. Bloch, La Guerre (trans, from Russian,
6 vols., 1898) ; R. N. Custance, A Study of War (2nd ed. 1927). For
speculations on the future of war, consult J. F. C. Fuller, The Reforma-
tion of War (1923) ; On Future Warfare (1928) ; B. H. Liddell-Hart,
Paris, or the Future of War (1925) ; The Re-Making of Modern
Armies (1927). (S. Wi.)
WAR, ARTICLES OF. A code of regulations for the dis-
ciplinary government of armed forces. The terms "Laws and
Ordinances of War," "Military Law," "Military Discipline Act,"
"Mutiny Act" and "Military Penal Code" are synonyms for
"Articles of WTar," although this term is still in use in the United
States. They all denote the system of rules, superadded to the
common law of a country, which regulate the conduct and life of
a citizen in his character as a member of the armed forces of his
country. The "Statutes, Ordinances and Customs" of Richard II.,
issued about 1385, appear to be the earliest complete code — see
the Manual of Military Law (Gt. Britain) and The Journal of
the Society of Army Historical Research, vol. iv.
WAR, LAWS OF: see LAWS OF WAR.
WARANGAL, an ancient town of India, in the Nizam's
Dominions or Hyderabad state, 86 m. N.E. of Hyderabad- city.
It was the capital of a Hindu kingdom in the i2th century, but.
little remains to denote its former grandeur except a fort and
four gateways of a temple of Siva. Warangal has given its name
to a district and a division of the state.
WARBECK, PERKIN (c. 1474-1499), pretender to the
throne of England, was the son of Jehan de Werbecque, a poor
burgess of Tournay in Flanders and of his wife Katherine de Faro.
The exact date of his birth is unknown, but he represented him-
self as having been nine years old in 1483. The names of his father
and other relations whom he mentions have been found in the
muncipal records of Tournay, and the official description of them
agrees with his statements in the confession made at the end of
his life. According to this version, which may be accepted as
substantially true, he was brought up at Antwerp by a cousin
Jehan Stienbecks, and served various employers as a boy servant.
He was for a time with an Englishman John Strewe at Middle-
burg, and then accompanied Lady Brampton, the wife of an exiled
partisan of the House of York, to Portugal. He was for a year
employed by a Portuguese knight whom he described as having
only one eye, and whom he names Vacz de Cogna, In 1491
he was at Cork as the servant of a Breton silk merchant Pre-
gent (Pierre Jean) Meno. Ireland was strongly attached to
the house of York. Perkins says that the people seeing him dressed
in the silks of his master took him for a person of distinction,
and insisted that he must be cither the son of George, duke of
Clarence, or a bastard of Richard III. He was more or less
encouraged by the earls of Desmond and Kildare. At this time
he spoke English badly.
In 1492 he was summoned to Flanders by Margaret, sister of
Edward IV., who was the main support of the Yorkist exiles.
The suppositions that he was the son of Clarence or of Richard
III. were discarded in favour of the more useful idea that he
was Richard, brother of Edward V. Charles VIII., king of
France, the counsellors of the youthful duke of Burgundy. Maxi-
milian, king of the Romans, and James IV. of Scotland, none of
whom can have been really deceived, took up his cause. He was
entertained in France and at Vienna as the lawful king of Eng-
land. The English Government knew his real history, and tried
to seize him.
In July 1495 he was provided with a few ships and men by
Maximilian, now emperor, and he appeared on the coast of Kent.
No movement in his favour took place. A few of his followers
who landed were cut off, and he went to Ireland to join the earl
of Desmond in Munster. After an unsuccessful attack on Water-
ford in August, he fled to Scotland. Here James IV. showed him
favour, and arranged his marriage with Catherine Gordon, daugh-
ter of the earl of Huntly. He made a short inroad into Northum-
berland, but the intervention of the Spanish Government brought
peace between England and Scotland. In 1497 Perkin was sent
on his travels again with two or three small vessels. After some
obscure adventures in Ireland, he landed at Whitesand bay, near
the Land's End, on Sept. 7, and was joined by a crowd of the
country people. He advanced to Exeter, but on the approach of
WARBLER— WARBURTON
331
the royal troops he deserted his followers, and ran to the sanc-
tuaiy of Beaulieu in Hampshire. He then surrendered. His wife
was kindly treated and placed in the household of Henry's queen,
Elizabeth. Perkin was compelled to make two ignominious public
confessions at Westminster, and in Cheapside on June 15 and 19,
1498. On Nov. 23, 1499 he was hanged for endeavouring to escape
from the Tower with the imprisoned earl of Warwick.
See James Gairdner, Richard the Third, and the Story of Perkin
Warbeck (Cambridge, 1898).
WARBLER, the general name for all birds of the Passerine
families Sylviidae and Mniotiltidae, the Mniotiltidae being un-
related to the Sylviidae and being confined to the new world.
The Sylviidae are small birds with weak, slender bills, feeding on
insects and fruit. The song is clear and sweet and often metallic ;
the nest is usually cup-shaped, cohtaining from three to six white
eggs. Apart from the American kinglets and gnat catchers (q.v.)
the family is confined to the old world. The sedge-warbler (Acro-
cephalus schoenobaenus) is one of the commonest British species.
It is a small olive-brown bird, with a yellowish eye-streak and a
chattering song. It inhabits bushes and reed-beds usually close to
water. The nearly allied reed-warbler (A. scirpaceus) lacks the
eye-streak and rarely leaves reed-beds; its nest is built between
and supported by several reed-stems.
The European great reed-warbler (A. arundinaceus) is larger.
The Dartford warbler (Sylvia undata) is one of few warblers
resident in Britain, though migratory on the continent. It is
locally distributed in the south of England, central Europe and
the Mediterranean region. The grasshopper warbler (Locustella
naevia) inhabits tangled and thick herbage; its reeling song
distinguishes it. The allied Savi's warbler (L. luscinoides) is
confined to marshy country and has a higher pitched song. The
icterine warbler (Hypolais icterina) is a straggler to Britain; it
has a loud song, and the eggs are brownish pink, spotted with
purplish black. The wood warbler or wood-wren (Phylloscopus
sibilatrix) haunts woods of oak and beech and has a peculiar
loud song. The willow-warbler or willow-wren (P. trochilus) is
one of the commonest British species. See also GOLDCRKST,
WHITETIIROAT, WRKN, BLACKCAP.
The American or wood warblers are, on the whole, a more
brightly coloured group and arc distributed throughout North and
South America and the Antilles. The yellow warbler (Dendroica
aestiva) breeds throughout North America, wintering in South
and Central America. The Cerulean warbler (D. cendea) is less
abundant and haunts the tree-tops. The Maryland yellow-throat
(Geotlilypsis trichas), in which the male has a black mask, is
another familiar American form. The oven-bird (Seiurus auroca-
pillns) is a common woodland species; its song has been described
as a crescendo repetition of the word "teacher." The shy water-
thrush (S. motacilla) possesses a melodious song. The American
redstart (q.v.) also belongs to this group.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See E. Howard, British Warblers; F. M. Chapman,
The Warblers of North America (1907).
WARBURTON, ELIOT [.BARTHOLOMEW ELLIOTT GEORGE] !
(1810-1852), British traveller and novelist, was born in 1810 near '
Tullamore, Ireland. He was educated at Trinity college, Cam-
bridge, and was called to the Irish bar in 1837. He made a hit with
his first book, The Crescent and the Cross, an account of his
travels in 1843 in Turkey, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. His most
substantial work was a Memoir of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers
(1849), enriched with original documents, and written with
eloquent partiality for the subject. Warburton was on his way to
explore the isthmus of Darien, when the ship in which he sailed
was destroyed by fire (Jan. 4, 1852).
His other works include two historical novels. Reginald Hastings
(1850), and Darien, or the Merchant Prince (1851).
WARBURTON, COLONEL SIR ROBERT (1842-
1899), Anglo-Indian soldier and administrator, was the son of an
artillery officer who had been taken prisoner at Kabul in 1842, and
married an Afghan princess. Warburton entered the Royal Artil-
lery in 1861, took part in the Abyssinian War of 1867-68, and then
joined the Bengal Staff Corps. He served with distinction in
the expedition aeainst the Utman Khel in 1878 and in the Afghan
War of 1878-80. Warburton was political officer in the Khyber
between 1879 and ^82 with intervals of other duty, and con-
tinuously from 1882 until 1890. He turned the rude levies which
formed the Khyber Rifles into a fine corps, made the road
safe, and kept the Afridis friendly. When the Afridis began to
cause anxiety in 1897, Colonel Warburton was sent for by the
government, but he arrived too late to check the rising. He
retired after the campaign. He died at Kensington on April
22, 1899.
See his Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900).
WARBURTON, WILLIAM (1698-1779), English critic
and divine, bishop of Gloucester, was born at Newark Dec. 4,
1698, son of the town clerk of Newark. William was articled an
attorney, left the law and in 1727 was ordained priest by the
bishop of London. At Brant Broughton, Lincolnshire, of which
parish he became incumbent in 1728, Warburton spent eighteen
years in study, the first result of which was his treatise on the
Alliance between Church and State (1736). The book brought
Warburton into favour at court, and he probably only missed
immediate preferment by the death of Queen Caroline. His next
and best-known work, Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on
the Principles of a Religious Deist (2 vols., 1737—1741), preserves
his name as the author of a daring and ingenious theological
paradox. The deists had made the absence of any inculcation of
the doctrine of a future life an objection to the divine authority
of the Mosaic writings. Warburton boldly admitted the fact and
turned it against the adversary by maintaining that no merely
human legislator would have omitted such a sanction of morality.
He now entered on a defence of Pope's Essay on Man against
the Examen of Jean Pierre de Crousaz, in a series of articles
(1738-1739) contributed to The Works of the Learned. These
articles brought him the friendship of Pope, whom he persuaded
to add a fourth book to the Dunciad, and encouraged to sub-
stitute Cibber for Theobald as the hero of the poem in the 1743
edition published under the editorship of Warburton. Pope be-
queathed him the copyright and the editorship of his works, and
introduced him to Murray, afterwards Lord Mansfield, who ob-
tained for him in 1746 the preachership of Lincoln's Inn, and to
Ralph Allen, who, says Johnson, "gave him his niece and his
estate, and, by consequence, a bishopric." After his marriage
Warburton resided principally at his father-in-law's estate at Prior
Park, Gloucestershire, which he inherited on Allen's death in 1764.
In 1747 appeared his edition of Shakespeare, into which, as he
expressed it, Pope's earlier edition wus melted down. He had
previously entrusted notes and emendations on Shakespeare to
Sir Thomas Hanmer, whose unauthorized use of them led to a
heated controversy. As early as 1727 Warburton had corre-
sponded with Theobald on Shakespearean subjects. He now
accused him of stealing his ideas and denied his critical ability.
Theobald's superiority to Warburton as a Shakespearean critic
has long since been acknowledged. Warburton was further kept
busy by the attacks on his Divine Legation from all quarters, by
a dispute with Bolingbrokc respecting Pope's behaviour in the
affair of Bolingbroke's Patriot King, by his edition of Pope's
works (1751) and by a vindication in 1750 of the alleged miracu-
lous interruption of the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem
undertaken by Julian, in answer to Conyers Middleton. War-
burton's manner of dealing with opponents was both insolent and
rancorous, but it did him no disservice. He became prebendary
of Gloucester (1753), chaplain to the king (1754), prebendary
of Durham (i755>> dean of Bristol (1757) and in 1759 bishop
of Gloucester. He toiled to complete the Divine Legation but
failed. He wrote a defence of revealed religion in his View of Lord
Bolingbroke's Philosophy (1754), and Hume's Natural History
of Religion called forth some Remarks . . . "by a gentleman of
Cambridge" from Warburton, in which his friend and biographer,
Richard Kurd, had a share (1757). He made in 1762 a vigorous
attack on Methodism under the title of The Doctrine of Grace.
He died at Gloucester on June 7, 1779.
Warburton's works were edited (7 vols., 1788) by Bishop Kurd
with a biographical preface, and the correspondence between the two
friends— an important contribution to the literary history of the period
— was edited by Dr. Parr in 1808. Warburton's life was also written
332
WAR COLLEGE— WAR CONTROL OF FOOD
by John Selby Watson in 1863, and Mark Pat ti son made him the
subject of an essay in 1889. See also I. D'lsraeli, Quarrels of Authors
(1814); and especially John Nichols, Literary Anecdotes (1812-15),
vol. v., and Illustrations (1817-58), vol. ii., for his correspondence with
William Stukelcy, Peter des Maizeaux, Thomas Birch, John Jortin and
Lewis Theobald.
WAR COLLEGE, an institution for the instruction of offi-
cers in the higher branches of the military art. The French ficole
de Guerre corresponds to our Staff College, and trains prospective
staff officers. First founded in 1821, it was established in 1881 in
its present location in Paris. It trains about one hundred candi-
dates a year. Admission is by competitive examination open to
officers of all arms between the ages of 28 and 38. The period of
the course is two years, and the curriculum includes lectures and
exercises on every branch of the art of war, and on kindred sub-
jects such as politics, economics, naval questions, geography, and
international law, together with war games, visits, tours and staff
rides. At the end of the course officers satisfactorily reported on
become eligible for staff posts.
The United States Army War College at Washington forms part
of the General Service Schools and trains officers in high com-
mand and for General Staff duty in the War Department. The
course forms the fourth and last year of the period of four years
at the Schools and only those officers who have satisfactorily com-
pleted the prior courses are eligible to attend.
WAR CONTROL OP FOOD. During the World War
of 1914-18 practically all the belligerent and neutral countries of
Europe experienced a shortage in the supply of food and other
necessaries. The shortage was traceable to three distinct causes :
first, the diversion of productive power to destruction or to mak-
ing the means of destruction; second, the increased rate of con-
sumption of those who were fighting or were undertaking harder
physical labour than usual in the production of munitions; third,
the deliberate blockades which with varying success the belliger-
ents directed against one another and against neutrals. The
blockades had as one feature a destruction of shipping. Food con-
trol became a feature of the war, and the food controller had
three main problems to consider, namely, the maintenance of sup-
plies, the regulation of prices and the control of consumption by
distribution and rationing. The three problems are naturally con-
nected. A solution of the first of them so complete as to keep
supplies up to or above the pre-war standard would prevent the
other two from arising at all or at least in any serious form; this
happened with bread-stuffs in Great Britain. On the other hand
an attempt to fix prices without controlling supplies would lead
either to a disappearance of supplies or to their distribution in an
unjust and wasteful manner.
I. IN GREAT BRITAIN
For the first two years of the war questions of food control
attained little prominence in Great Britain. The cutting off of the
central European sources of sugar supply led to the anticipation
of a considerable shortage of that particular food, and a royal
commission was established in Aug. 1914, which undertook on
Government account the purchase and importation of all sugar
from that time onwards. A special organization for securing meat
for the army from abroad was also found necessary from the be-
ginning; this involved control of refrigerated tonnage under the
Board of Trade. The use of cereals and sugar for brewing was
limited by an Output of Beer Restriction Act; coming into force
on April i, 1916.
By the autumn of 1916, prices, which had risen more or less
steadily from the beginning of the war, reached a level which be-
gan to evoke acute discontent and the prospects of an intensified
submarine campaign caused anxieties for the future. Two im-
portant steps were taken. The first was the establishment in Oct.
1916 of a royal commission on wheat supplies, parallel to that on
the sugar supplies. This commission almost immediately took on
an international character through the signing in Nov. 1916 of
the "Wheat Executive Agreement" between Great Britain, France
and Italy, under which the purchase, importation, distribution and
shipping not only of wheat but of all cereals was arranged on a
common basis for the three Allies, the administrative work being
undertaken in London. The wheat executive gradually extended
its activities to other Allies and even to neutrals.
The second step was the making on Nov. 1 6 of an Order in
Council under the Defence of the Realm Act which practically
empowered the Board of Trade to introduce a complete system
of food control, by regulating the importation, production, dis-
tribution, prices and quality of all kinds of food or articles neces-
sary for the production of food.
The first holder of the new post, Lord Devonport, who actually
began work on Dec. n, gave valuable support to the wheat com-
mission in securing adequate tonnage and foreign credits, and car-
ried a stage further the policy of conservation of cereals already
embodied in the Output of Beer Restriction Act and a Board of
Trade order lengthening the extraction of flour. To facilitate
this the whole of the flour-mills were taken over and run on
Government account as from April 1917.
Apart from cereals, no substantial extension of food control
took place till the appointment of the second food controller-*
Lord Rhondda — who succeeded Lord Devonport in June 1917,
and at once prepared himself and the Ministry of Food to deal
thoroughly with the three problems of supplies, prices and dis-
tribution. First he attacked prices. In Sept. 1917 the price of
bread was lowered from is. or is. id. to 9d. for the quartern loaf,
the difference being paid by the Government as a subsidy. At
about the same time there was fixed a scale of prices for meat and
for live-stock, descending month by month from 745. per cwt. in
Sept. 1917 to 6os. in the following January. The fixing of meat
and live-stock prices needed to be and was intended tfr be accom-
panied by measures for regulating slaughter and marketing, but
for various reasons the latter measures did not become effective
till the end of 1917. The scale of prices standing by itself gave
the farmers a strong inducement to hurry on their beasts to mar-
ket, so as to profit by the early high prices and avoid the later low
ones; too many beasts were thrown on the market before Christ-
mas and too few were kept for the new year; how the ensuing
shortage, aggravated by large purchases of home-grown meat for
the army and by other circumstances, was dealt with by rationing
in the early part of 1918 is described below.
On the general principle of controlling supplies of all essential
foods as a condition of fixing prices Lord Rhondda never hesi-
tated. This policy was carried out most completely in the case
of imports. Cereals and sugar were already being imported by
the two commissions. Under Lord Rhondda all bacon, ham, lard,
cheese, butter and similar provisions, all oils and fats (edible and
otherwise), condensed milk, canned meat and fish, eggs, tea and
even such extras as apples, oranges, jam and dried fruits, brought
into Great Britain came to be directly imported by the Ministry
of Food or requisitioned on arrival. All home-produced meat and
cheese and most of the butter passed through the hands of the
ministry, as also, through the control of flour-mills, did all the
wheat and most of the barley. Even the whole potato crop of 1918
was taken over under a scheme framed in the time of Lord
Rhondda, though not put into force till after his death. The only
important exceptions were milk, fresh fish and fresh vegetables.
The total turnover of the ministry's trading (including the two
royal commissions) was at the rate of nearly £900,000,000 a year.
A British Food Budget. — Lord Rhondda made a budget of
the food required for the country as a whole, and then took steps
to see that that amount of food was available. This was partly a
matter of securing imports; for there was needed, on the one hand
tonnage, and on the other finance, that is to say, foreign credits.
The Ministry of Food acting through or with the Governments
concerned made bargains with the producers for the whole export-
able surplus of Canadian cheese or Australian wheat or American
bacon. It was partly a matter of encouraging food production -at
home. A vigorous food production campaign was started under
the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Food co-operated
with the agricultural departments, in fixing only such prices as
appeared likely to secure adequate supplies. In effect, in fixing
prices for home produce, it made bargains with the farmers as to
the prices at which, with whatever show of reluctance or grum-
bling, they would be able and willing to produce and to deliver
GREAT BRITAIN]
WAR CONTROL OF FOOD
333
their produce to the ministry or its agents. The legal power of the
ministry to fix any prices it thought good was absolute ; the prices
for home produce were actually fixed only after apparently in-
terminable consultations, and were prices which could be expected
to secure production of the required supplies, and did in fact do so.
The largest single source of imported supplies was the United
States. Here a special department of the ministry was established
(Oct. 1917), to purchase on its behalf all food-stuffs other than
cereals, for which an organization already existed in the Wheat
Export Co.; a branch in Toronto dealt with Canadian supplies.
The department speedily grew into an international organization
of vast scope; the "Allied Export Provisions Commission" pur-
chased between Oct. 1917 and Feb. 1919 nearly 2$ million tons of
food valued at £267,000,000, at a cost for administration amount-
ing to about iV of 1% on this turnover. All these figures ex-
clude cereals and sugar.
The success of this polky of ensuring supplies by direct pur-
chase abroad and consultation at home was unquestionable. Great
Britain came nearer than any other European country to main-
taining during the war a pre-war standard of supplies, and at the
same time achieved a far more equitable distribution.
Control of Prices and Consumption. — Upon control of sup-
plies was founded control of prices. Once goods were in the
hands of the ministry it remained only to fix the margins of
profit to be allowed to the various classes of distributors and
the resulting prices to the public. Ultimately out of everything
consumed in Great Britain by way of food and drink, 94% was
subject to fixed maximum prices. Almost the only articles un-
touched were fresh vegetables, canned fruits, honey, salt, vinegar,
spices, aerated waters and meals in restaurants.
After two years of comparative plenty the sugar commis-
sion in Nov. 1916 cut down the supplies it would issue to any
wholesaler to 60% of the amount issued in 1915, and required
each wholesaler to pass on supplies to retailers, manufacturers and
others in the same proportion. This "datum period" principle of
distribution represented a stage through which not only sugar,
but most other foods (notably meat, bacon, butter and tea) passed
as scarcity developed. For dealing with any acute shortage of
supplies it soon proved unsatisfactory, partly because it made no
allowance for changes in the channels of trade or in the distribu-
tion of the population, but mainly because it gave no assurance at
all of supplies to any individual consumer. That could be given
only by issuing to each consumer a ration book or other document
as authority to purchase a fixed ration, requiring him to register
with a particular retailer and authorizing the retailer in turn to
purchase from his suppliers week by week or month by month
enough to meet the rations of his registered customers. After
prolonged delay, due to changes of policy and the war cabinet's
fear of causing industrial unrest and encouraging Germany to
believe in the success of the submarines, compulsory rationing
was introduced for sugar on Jan. i, 1917, and worked smoothly.
Just before that date acute shortage of butter and margarine and
tea had begun to show itself and led to the formation of "queues"
of would-be purchasers before any shop that was thought to have
supplies. Just after that date the temporary abundance of meat,
caused or intensified by the descending scale of live-stock prices,
ended suddenly and was replaced by something like a famine.
Outside London the problem of the queues was at first dealt with
by giving the food committees described below power to introduce
local rationing schemes under the Food Control Committees
(Local Distribution) Order of Dec. 22, 1917. For London a single
rationing scheme for butter, margarine and meat, covering the
home counties also and a total population of nearly 10,000,000,
was put into force on Feb. 25, 1918.
Success of Food Rationing. — The scheme had an instant and
almost unqualified success. During January and February the
London food queues had attained gigantic proportions; about 500,-
ooo were counted by the police standing in them every Saturday,
and another 1,000,000 on the other days of the week. In the first
week of rationing the numbers fell to about 200,000 and in the
fourth to 14,000, that is to say, they practically vanished. On
April 7, 1918, meat rationing on the London model was applied
successfully to the whole country.
Finally on July 14, 1918, after nearly four years of the war
and less than six months from its end, all the varying schemes
were consolidated. To buy any of the necessities, the consumer
had to have a ration book with coupons for the amounts that he
might buy, to register with a particular shop and to present the
ration book on making a purchase, so that the retailer could detach
the appropriate coupons. The amount represented by each coupon
and also the amount of the ration varied from time to time. Thus
for sugar the weekly ration was usually 8 oz. a head, but was 12 oz.
during most of 1919, and as low as 6 oz. from Jan. to March 1920.
For butchers' meat till the end of 1918 the ration varied from
i4i oz. to about i lb., with half for children.
When Lord Rhondda died (July 3, 1918), British control on a
national basis was practically complete. Soon after, food control
was placed, like shipping and finance, on an international basis by
the setting up in Aug. 1918 of an Allied Food Council consisting
of the four food controllers of Britain, France, Italy and the
United States, with a standing "Committee of Representatives."
There was thus extended to food generally the plan already in
force in respect of cereals (and to a less extent sugar and one or
two other articles).
Effect of Atlantic Concentration.— By the latter part of
1918, the submarine menace had been practically mastered by the
convoy system, and the limits of the food problem had been de-
fined by the success of rationing. The greatest pinch of all, how-
ever, was apparently still to come. Considerations of shipping dic-
tated a concentration of traffic on the shortest route — the North
Atlantic — and the abandonment so far as possible of any attempt
to get supplies from the Far South and the Far East (see ATLAN-
TIC CONCENTRATION OF SHIPPING). Financial considerations by
a natural reaction dictated the exact opposite; the British Treas-
ury had relatively ample sterling credit for purchases in Australia,
very few pesos in South America and hardly a cent to spare in
the United States or Canada. The Ministry of Food, and other
supply departments, constantly found themselves being offered
ships only where they could not get credit, and credit only where
they could not get ships. On top of this difficulty came, in Sept.
1918, the necessity, as it then appeared, of hastening the trans-
port of the American army so as to deliver a decisive blow in the
coming spring. The framing of shipping programmes had by that
time reduced itself to a division of two lions' shares between the
Ministry of Munitions and the Ministry of Food (or their inter-
national extensions), with a few scraps for import of raw cotton
or fertilizers and the like; each of these departments was com-
pelled to accept for the winter of 1918-19 a provisional import
programme totally inadequate for its needs and to hope that the
war would end before its stocks ran out.
This hope was realized. But the Armistice of Nov. 11, 1918,
though it ended for the victorious countries the fear of starvation,
did not bring food shortage or food control to an end, either in
those countries or elsewhere. J. R. Clynes, who from being par-
liamentary secretary had become food controller on Lord Rhond-
da's death in July 1918, resigned when the Labour Party left
Lloyd George's coalition after the Armistice, but the Ministry of
Food continued its work. Cereal prices did not fall to a point
allowing the bread subsidy to be dropped and the control of flour-
mills abandoned till after the harvest of 1920; the wheat com-
mission continued executive work till the autumn of 1921, and
liquidation of accounts till 1925. Sugar prices reached fantastic
heights in the first half of 1920 (on decontrol by the American
Government) and the sugar ration at the same time reached its
lowest point ; sugar rationing continued till the following Novem-
ber and the sugar commission till March 1921.
A reason for not hastening the end of food control in 1919
appeared in the disturbed condition of industry and the perpetual
threat of paralysis in the essential services of coal or transport.
The success with which, during the railway strike of Oct. 1919,
the supplies and distribution even of perishable foods were main-
tained by the Ministry of Food shed lustre on its closing period.
Prior to the crisis, a fresh registration of consumers for
rationing was carried through in Sept. 1919. In the following
334
WAR CONTROL OF FOOD
[UNITED STATE
winter, the ministry was again under attack and after the resig-
nation of the fourth food controller — G. H. Roberts — in Feb.
1920, was left for a month without any controller at all. The
appointment of C. A. McCurdy as the fifth controller marked a
return of the spirit of control. The ministry secured in July the
passage of a Continuance Act, only to be swept out of existence
by a parliamentary storm. It ended formally in March 1921.
Supplies and Prices.— At the end of 1918 the Ministry of
Food issued a short memorandum with tables and diagrams illus-
trating its work under the four main heads of supplies, stocks,
prices and rationing. A comparison is made in the accompany-
ing table of the amounts of the principal food-stuffs available per
head for consumption in 1918, and before the war, in Germany
and Holland: —
Weekly Domestic Consumption of Bread, Meat, Fats and Sugar per
Head per Week in Great Britain, Germany and
Holland. Pre-war and 1918
Food-Stuff
Great Britain
German)'.
Holland.
Pre-
war.
1918.
Pre-
war.
1918.
Pre-
war.
1918.
Lb.
Lb.
Lb.
Lb.
Lb.
Lb.
Bread and flour .
Meats .
Sugar .
Fats .
6-12
2-50
0-51
6-57
i'54
0-50
0-45
6-44
^•25
0-56
4-06
o-4Q
Q-33
0-15
7-25
1-50
0-70
3-06
0-44
0-52
o-37
The consumption during 1918 is based on the rations, except
in the case of bread in Great Britain, where the actual consump-
tion is taken. In the case of sugar no figure of pre-war domestic
consumption is given by the Ministry of Food; it is commonly
estimated at about i Ib. per head per week.
It appears from the table that in 1918 Great Britain "had
half as much bread again as Germany, three times as much meat
and fat and substantially more sugar. As compared with Holland,
Great Britain had twice as much bread, three times as much
meat, more fats and practically the same amount of sugar."
The course of prices is shown in two stages: one from July
1914 to July 1917, when the main development of food control
in Great Britain began, and the other from July 1917 to Oct.
1918.
Rise in Price of Food and Other Necessary Articles in Great Britain.
(Price in July 1914 — too.)
Average monthly
increase between
Classification
July
1()17.
Oct.
1917.
July
1918.
Oct.
1918.
July, IQT4 July, 10.17
and
and
July, 1917.
Oct., 1918.
Principal con-
trolled foods
205
194
202
216
2-92
o-73
Principal con-
trolled foods
assuming no
subsidy on
bread .
205
205
JOS
2 $2
2-92
i -86
Principal un-
controlled
foods .
1 86
229
311
347
2'39
io-73
All principal
foods .
203
198
213
229
2-87
i 73
Textiles, leath-
er, etc.
234
245
2Q4
313
3 ' / 2
5-27
Coal
MS
J35
163
i/7
0-97
2-80
Soap
133
150
233
233
0-92
6-67
Candles .
184
184
329
34*
2*33
10-93
Household oils
215
286
319
31"
3'20
6 '93
The machinery required for "control" was very extensive. The
staff numbered at its maximum over 8,000. In addition the
local food control committees employed varying numbers, ris-
ing at times of exceptional pressure to as many as 25,000 persons.
The printing and stationery bill for a single year exceeded
£1,500,000. Expenditure, however, did not fall on the taxes but
was covered by a trifling percentage on the price of the articles in
which the ministrv dealt. Aoart from the wheat rnmnii«;*inn
which as a matter of policy was compelled to make a loss on th
bread subsidy (amounting to £138,000,000 net) and the suga
commission which also as a matter of policy was not allowed t
raise its prices sufficiently in 1919 and 1920 (so that it endei
£22,000,000 to the bad in 1921 instead of being £6,000,000 to th
good as at the Armistice), the Ministry of Food proper on all it
transactions from 1917 to 1921 made a net profit of abou
£7,000,000 after paying expenses, on its turnover of £i,20o:
000,000. Two minor features may be mentioned as havin;
simplified the British task. One is the concentration of the grea
bulk of flour-milling in Great Britain in a small number of im
portant mills (less than 700), which could be easily controlled
Next, there was the limited power of the British municipa
authorities. In Germany it was the natural thing for the separat
municipal councils to act as independent organs of food control
making their own contracts with neighbouring rural districts fo
the supply of food to their citizens, fixing prices in their market
and rationing when need arose. This made possible competition
confusion and difference of standard between the authorities, an<
made difficult a survey of the nation's needs and resources as ;
whole. In Great Britain, Lord Rhondda, as house-keeper for ;
family of forty millions, made single bargains.
There were about 2,000 food control committees, which wer
technically independent of the ministry, being appointed by th
local sanitary authorities, but their expenses were paid by th
ministry. In building up his own staff Lord Rhondda used men o
outstanding experience in their own trades, as individuals or 01
committees, to deal with each particular food, but ha placed th
experts always under the control of laymen.
The Food Ministry had its own newspaper, the Nationa
Food Journal, placed on sale fortnightly, giving the text of al
the ministry's orders, tables of maximum prices, reports of parlia
mcntary debates and questions and of prosecutions for food of
fences, and everything else that could help the public to knov
what the food controller required of them and why. Lord Rhondd;
was fond of describing himself as "on the side of the consume
and particularly of the poor consumer." An interesting featur
of the ministry was a "consumers' council" established in Jan
1918. This was an advisory body, consisting mainly of representa
tives of trade unions and co-operative societies, which did a grea
deal to keep the ministry in touch with the feelings and grievance
of working-class consumers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, — E. H. Starling, The Feeding of Nations (1919)
H. W. Clemesha, Food Control in the North West Division (Manchcs
ter, 1922) ; E. M. H. Lloyd, Experiments in State Control (1924)
F. H. Collcr, A State Trading Adventure. (1925) ; W. H. Beveridgt
British Food Control (1928). Among official documents see Whea
Commission, First Report (1921 cd. 1544) ; Sugar Commission, Firs
Report (1917 cd. 8728) and Second Report (1921 cd. 1300) ; Repor
of Food (War) Committee of the Royal Society (1916 cd. 8421)
National Food Journal (published by Ministry of Food fortnightl;
or monthly from Sept. 1917 to June 1920). (W. H BEV.)
II. IN THE UNITED STATES
Three years of war in Europe had brought the world's food sup
ply to a crisis when the United States entered the conflict in Aprii
1917. Already the reduced production and increased demand ii
the warring countries was being felt in America. The price inde
of food products at wholesale had risen from 100 in 1913 to 14;
in March, 1917. Wheat, which had averaged $0.91 per bushel ii
1913, was selling at $2 in the Chicago market, and many othe
products had risen in proportion.
Even before declaration of war by Congress, the newly organ
ized Council of National Defense had, at the request of Presiden
Wilson, cabled to Herbert Hoover asking him to assist in drawin)
up plans to protect American food supplies. Hoover at that tim
was in Europe, where he had been directing the work of the corn
mission for the relief of Belgium and northern France. The sue
cess with which the delicate task of feeding nearly 10,000,001
civilians within the enemy lines had been accomplished had madi
him known throughout the world as an authority on internationa
food matters. He delayed his return long enough to make ai
investigation of food control methods in Europe. He returnei
earlv in Mav TOT 7. anri at thf» PrpsiH*»nt's r«»niip«t tv»cran fn 1a<
WAR CONTROL OF SHIPPING
335
the foundation for the future food administration. It was not
until August 10, 1917, that a Food Control Bill was signed by the
President.
On June 10, 1917, President Wilson had authorized Mr. Hoover
to build up a voluntary organization particularly directed toward
the conservation of food. Under this authority a considerable
organization was built up, and plans were perfected for the con-
trol of food commodities as soon as the necessary authority should
be granted by Congress. The Food Control Act of Aug. 10, 1917,
gave the President very broad powers. Among other things it
authorized him to create agencies, to accept voluntary services, to
license all firms engaged in the manufacture, transportation, and
distribution of foodstuffs excepting only common carriers, farmers
and retailers doing less than $100,000 worth of business annually.
It authorized him to provide rules and regulations for licenses,
with drastic penalties for firms which failed or refused to obey
these. It prohibited hoarding or Wasteful destruction of foods. It
authorized the President to requisition supplies needed for the
public welfare, to take over and operate food manufacturing, stor-
age, or distributing plants, to purchase, store, and sell for cash
certain commodities, and to establish a minimum price for wheat,
which for the crop of 1918 must be not less than $2 per bushel.
Immediately after signing the Food Control Act, the president
issued an executive order establishing the United States Food
Administration and appointing Hoover Food Administrator. By
early September, 1917, presidential proclamations had been issued
requiring Food Administration licenses. The rules related to the
prevention of hoarding and guarding against unfair, unjust, or dis-
criminatory margins of profit. The administration of the regula-
tory functions was decentralized as far as possible.
Aside from the regulatory functions which were applied to
practically all food commodities, three classes of foodstuffs—-
cereals, sugar and fats — presented the most important problems.
The Allied supply of cereals, particularly breadstuffs, had been
greatly reduced by inability to secure imports from Russia, the
Balkans, or from the Southern Hemisphere, in the last of which
the difficulty was the shortage of ocean shipping. In the face of
this the United States harvested in 1917 its second successive
short crop of wheat. Prior to the American declaration of war,
the Allies, by bidding against each other, had forced the price of
wheat in the United States to an abnormally high figure. This had
caused much hardship to consumers and resulted in exorbitant
prices by dealers and millers in attempts to protect themselves
against these rapid advances. In the meantime, however, the
Allies pooled their buying in a single hand and were in a position
to dominate the world market.
In order to assure a fair price to the American farmer and at
the same time protect the consumer and provide the Allies with all
the cereals that could be spared, Hoover proposed to President
Wilson that the Government should create a consolidated cereal
selling organization and should determine upon a fair price at
which the Government would purchase wheat. This plan was
accepted by the President and an independent commission was
appointed, with farmer representatives in the majority. This com-
mission recommended a price of $2.20 per bushel for No. i
Northern wheat at Chicago with differentials for other grades and
markets. By executive order the President also created the Food
Administration Grain Corporation with a capital of $50,000,000,
which in July, 1918, was increased to $150,000,000. He directed
the Grain Corporation to purchase all wheat offered to it at the
fair price and to resell at the same price such amounts as were
needed by the American people and to supply to the Allies the
utmost that could be spared.
It was with the greatest difficulty that supplies were obtained
to meet the urgent necessities of the Allies in the spring of 1918.
By calling upon the people to use substitutes to the utmost and to
conserve all the wheat possible, the Food Administration was able
to furnish approximately 138,000,000 bushels to the Allied coun-
tries from the small 1917 crop. This, together with supplies from
Canada and small quantities from the Southern Hemisphere,
proved to be sufficient to carry the Allies through. With a rela-
tively large crop in 1918 the question of supplies was largely
solved. The Grain Corporation then became chiefly an instrument
through which the President's guarantee of a minimum price was
maintained. Before the Armistice was signed, this guarantee was
extended to the 1919 crop, and the Grain Corporation, with its
name changed to the United States Grain Corporation, was desig-
nated as the agency to make this effective. The corporation was
thus in active existence for 33 months (Sept., 1917, to June,
1920), handling the major portion of three wheat crops. During
this time its purchases of wheat and flour were equivalent to about
751 million bushels. It alsa dealt in other cereals and food prod-
ucts for the Allies. The total value of all commodities purchased
during its period of active existence was more than $3,763,000,000,
In the case of sugar, the Allied countries, before the war, were
supplied largely by the beet crops of southern and eastern Europe.
With this supply cut off by the war, the Allies found it necessary
to draw upon Cuban sugar. Cuba had always been the chief
source of sugar for the United States. The unexpected demands
from Europe quickly demoralized the Cuban market and in addi-
tion to a greatly increased price also threatened an acute shortage
in this country. Hoover proposed a separate corporation which
should purchase the whole of the Cuban crop as well as the Ameri-
can sugar beet crop and should then sell this in accordance with
established requirements. In accordance with this plan, the Sugar
Equalization Board, incorporated under the laws of Delaware,
handled the entire sugar supply of the United States during 1918
and furnished large quantities to the Allied governments. The
purchases of sugar by the board amounted to approximately
4,500,000 tons valued at about $712,000,000.
The shortage in fats gave the Allied governments much con-
cern. After some consideration it seemed that the most practical
way of increasing these supplies was to stimulate hog production
in the United States. Under arrangements in connection with the
United States Treasury loans to the Allies, the Food Administra-
tion was able to stipulate the price at which pork products were
sold for export. Hoover also arranged with the Army, the Navy,
the Belgian Relief authorities, and some other buyers to abide by
prices to be determined by the Food Administration. With this
control of a considerable portion of the market, Hoover next
arranged with the packers to pay a fair reflection of these prices
to the farmers for their hogs. In return for this assurance, the
production of hogs was increased very greatly. Exports of pork
products were increased from a pre-war annual average of 930,-
000,000 pounds to 2,251,000,000 pounds in 1918. No serious diffi-
culty was experienced in maintaining these prices until after the
armistice, when the Allies no longer desired such large amounts
but when stimulated production had reached its greatest heights.
By making huge advance purchases of pork through the Food
Administration Grain Corporation and the Commission for the
Relief of Belgium, and by his efforts to open up the neutral mar-
ket, Hoover was able to avert the catastrophe which once threat-
ened the American market. He was later able to dispose of this
surplus pork by sales to Germany in return for gold, by sales to
the neutrals, and by caring for the relief needs of central Europe.
One of the outstanding accomplishments of the Food Adminis-
tration was in connection with the conservation of food. The
whole country was organized to prevent waste in foodstuffs and
to substitute more perishable foods for those which could be
shipped to the Allies. These voluntary efforts were guided by
widespread publicity and in certain commodities were supple-
mented by regulations such as requiring the retailer to sell a
pound of substitute cereals with every pound of flour and limiting
the sugar to two pounds a week for each person. (F. M. Su.)
WAR CONTROL OF SHIPPING. In July, 1914, of
8,000 ocean-going vessels the British Empire owned over 4,000;
France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal together owned about 1,000;
a further 1,000 were owned by Germany and Austria and were
either immobilized or captured; some 2,000 covered the rest of
the world. When therefore the Allied organization was developed,
in the last year of the war, it was natural that it should be built on
the basis of the British system ; and the countries associated in this
organization, which included the United States, ultimately con-
trolled, with the addition of the neutral tonnage which they had
WAR CONTROL OF SHIPPING
chartered or requisitioned, some 90% of all ocean-going tonnage.
The control was thus simple in character by comparison with
those exercised by the Ministries of Munitions or of Food. The
total pre-war value of all ocean-going ships before the war was
not more than £300 million, that is, less than the capital in-
vested in two English railway companies. The total amount of steel
sunk in the ships lost during the war was only some 5 million
tons, that is, not more than 12% of the steel production of Amer-
ica alone in a single year. On the other hand, the allocation of
ships involved choosing between different supply services, giving
a preference to wheat over munitions, or coal over ore or vice
versa. It involved decisions of policy affecting a vastly wider range.
This world fleet must be conceived as in peace time sailing
under private ownership and management, subject only to offi-
cial regulations to secure safety and protect the conditions of the
seamen's employment. Half of the British tonnage was under the
control of less than a score of the big "liner" companies, which
were usually leading members in the International Liner Con-
ferences. The other half, the tramps, were under a much more
varying management; they were owned by several hundreds of
companies and persons ranging from large and wealthy firms to
individual owners of single ships.
The allocation of tonnage was. when the war broke out, effected
by the intricate but automatic process of the freight market. Mer-
chants, estimating the demands of their own particular markets
in wheat, in wool, in coal and cotton, made their purchases and
then looked round for the freight to carry them. Some were able
to wait, others must ship at once. Each gave orders to his agent
in London on freight exchanges of other ports, such as the Baltic
to bid for tonnage within specified quantities, dates and rates.
Similarly the owners of disposable tonnage gave instructions to
their brokers to accept within specified conditions the best offers
available. So the haggle of the market excluded the marginal need
and allotted the available tonnage in exact accordance with the
relative strength of the economic demand.
Before the war two departments of the British administration
were concerned with merchant shipping, the Marine Department
of the Board of Trade and the Transport Department of the
Admiralty. The first named exercised the whole of such general
responsibility as was at that time entrusted to the Government
with regard to merchant ships. The Transport Department
of the Admiralty, was solely responsible for arranging the trans-
port required by the Government itself and for preparing plans
for its more extended requirements in time of war. It chartered
passenger vessels to transport troops to and from South Africa,
India, Egypt and British garrisons elsewhere. It booked passages
for individual officers. It chartered, through local commercial
agents, some three or four hundred colliers a year, mostly on sin-
gle voyage charters, for the supply of the Fleet and the naval
bases. It managed a few vessels, a hospital ship, some colliers
and oil-fuel vessels owned directly by the Admiralty. It was this
little Department, with its limited but varied experience, which
was gradually thrust by circumstances and by the submarine into
the central position in prominence.
When the war broke out shipping was for the moment para-
lysed. The risk was unknown and at first almost prohibitive. But
the early losses were slight, a carefully prepared system of war
insurance was ready and in a short time ordinary business depend-
ent on ocean transport renewed its normal demands, while the new
and rapidly increasing call upon shipping made by direct Govern-
ment requirements forced freights up.
State Requisitions, August, 1914.— -From the first it was
recognized that the Government could not act as it did in the
South African war, and go into the market as an ordinary char-
terer. In August 1914, a proclamation was issued to requisition
ships with compensation to the owner.
The powers were chiefly exercised by the Transport Depart-
ment. They were limited to the transport of troops from Canada,
Australia, India and New Zealand, and to the carriage of supplies
from England to France and the Front. But though the tonnage
requisitioned in the first six months did not exceed some 20% of
the British mercantile marine, it was enough to push freights up.
Other causes were tending to the same result. Losses by enemy
action were indeed more than offset by new building. But a large
mass of enemy tonnage was withdrawn from world tonnage and
the delays inevitably caused by naval precautions reduced the
average amount of transport a vessel could accomplish in a given
time. In July 1914 the normal price for a six-months' charter of
an ordinary tramp steamer was 3 shillings a month on the dead-
weight. By December it had reached 6 shillings. By the end of
the first year, in the summer of 1915 it had reached 15 shillings.
This increase not only made the goods carried more expensive.
It reflected the fact that some goods were shut out altogether for
want of freight carriage. And so far the effect of the submarine
had scarcely been felt.
Blue Book Rates. — These rates did not apply to ships requisi-
tioned by the Government. For these ships standard rates — the
so-called blue book rates — were fixed on the advice of a com-
mittee which met in the first months and, with slight modifica-
tions, were applied throughout the war without regard to the out-
side freight market. They were somewhat in excess of the market
when they were introduced (the rate for an ordinary tramp was
equivalent to about 7 shillings per month on the deadweight) but
they were moderate by comparison with the arrangements made
by the Government in the industries and would have given profits
not exceeding those of a boom year in peace. Shipowners' profits
became in 1916 the subject of severe and legitimate criticism. On a
capital value of some £172 millions in 1914 British shipping had
by the autumn of 1916 made a net profit of some £262 millions
(after deducting all payment of taxes). This resulted however not
from excessive payments by the Government but from competition
in the ordinary freight market for the inadequate tonnage left over
when the Government had taken what it needed. Indeed the
misfortune which the British shipowner feared most was to have
his vessels requisitioned.
Shipping in the Second Year. — The strain upon ship-
ping was constantly increasing. Losses increased, averaging 87,-
ooo tons gross per month as compared with 55,000 in the first
year. Building fell from a million tons in the first year to half a
million in the second. Naval and military demands increased and
the proportion of British tramp tonnage rose steadily from 20%
to 30%. The demands upon the freight market for the raw mate-
rials required for munitions were also serious, and the standard
time charter rate (which had been 3 shillings in July 1914) rose
to 27 shillings in Dec. 1915 and to nearly 40 shillings by the
summer of 1916. The Government was during this year forced
into further measures of control of both supplies and of shipping.
Ship Licensing Committee, Nov. 1916. — In Nov. 1916, a
Ship Licensing Committee was appointed by the Board of
Trade, with the power to exercise a license control over British
tonnage. The intention was to force ships out of employment
that were serving no British or Allied interest, and so make it
easier for more important requirements to find their transport.
The principle was obviously a sound one as far as it could be ap-
plied. But the Committee, which was composed of well-known
shipowners under the chairmanship of an eminent lawyer, were
unable to find, after some months of investigation, more than a
negligible amount of tonnage engaged in work that was obviously
unimportant; and they were unwilling to prohibit any other em-
ployment; therefore they brought no substantial relief to the
general situation. However, ineffective for its original purpose, the
committee soon assumed a role for which it was much better
fitted. It was not qualified either by its authority or its constitu-
tion to measure or judge between the country's needs. But it was
admirably qualified in both respects to apply a policy determined
elsewhere to individual ships. It became the executive for putting
policy into effect as regards all British tonnage not under requisi-
tion. When a "limitation" of freight rates was imposed on the
French coal trade it was the Ship Licensing Committee which
made it effective by refusing licenses to ships trying: to escape
from that trade to more lucrative employment. When the Min-
istry of Munitions was anxious about ore imports from Spain or
South Africa because colliers found it profitable to hasten back in
ballast for another coal cargo, the Committee refused licenses for
WAR CONTROL OF SHIPPING
337
such ballast voyages. When the Cabinet fixed a limit to the ton-
nage to be chartered to the Allies the committee enforced the
decision as regards chartered ships in conjunction with the Trans-
port Department which enforced it as regards requisitioned ships.
This last duty had some importance in the development of Allied
relations. The limitation of charters involved constant and de-
tailed negotiations with Allied representatives in London as to
particular charters.
The second committee established by the Board of Trade at the
same time — the Requisitioning (Carriage of Foodstuffs) Commit-
tee— had a shorter life. The committee had power, under order
in Council, to requisition or direct the employment of British
ships so as to assist the importation of food or other accessories.
In practice it confined its action to the importation of grain
(mainly wheat) and to a novel and limited form of requisition. It
did not take a ship, pay so much for it and run it. It merely re-
quired the owner to charter in a particular market, e.g. (since it
was anxiety about wheat imports which had caused the committee
to be appointed) to bring a cargo of wheat.
The committee began timidly by directing a smaller amount of
tonnage into the wheat trade than the unfettered market was itself
attracting. This action was entirely ineffective, the vessels named
not being additional to, but merely replacing, others which would
have gone if no orders had been given. There were no results upon
cither imports or freight rates.
The committee then directed more vessels than the market by
itself was capable of attracting. The effect was immediate and
dramatic. North Atlantic freight rates dropped in five months
from 1 6 shillings to 8. Weekly imports increased from 510,000
quarters to 665,000 quarters. But at the moment when the com-
mittee was achieving its objects its activities had to be first re-
stricted and then stopped. The reasons are interesting and instruc-
tive. Wheat was getting more than its share of tonnage.
Shipping Control Committees.— Of these the most inter-
esting was the appointment in Jan. 1916 of the Shipping Control
Committee, presided over by Lord Curzon and including two
well-known shipowners and an eminent financier. A survey
led them to the conclusion that, a reduction of 13 million tons
must be made in British imports, and they therefore recommended
the temporary prohibition of all imports, except specified essen-
tials, amounting to a total rate of 13 million tons per annum; the
withdrawal of vessels from naval and military service; and the
limitation of British tonnage allotted to the Allies to the amount
in their service on April i, 1916. Little came of their three recom-
mendations. A scheme of import prohibitions which, even if
fully enforced, would have shut out not 13 million but 4 million
tons was approved but in actual application excluded less than 2
million tons.
Imports Restriction. — In 1917 the Government appointed an
Imports Restriction Committee, presided over by Sir Henry
Babington Smith and consisting of the principal officials of the
Board of Trade, the Ministry of Shipping (into which the Trans-
port Department had now expanded) and the chief departments
demanding tonnage: the War Office, Ministry of Munitions, Food
Commission, etc. The instructions given to the committee were to
reduce the supply programmes by about half a million tons a
month. It is possible that they would have been practicable and
would have met the situation. But just as the committee was be-
ginning its work, the intensive submarine campaign began; ship-
ping losses increased very seriously ; and it became clear that the
reduction now required must be at least a million tons. The task
of selecting commodities for exclusion on this scale was beyond
the capacity of the committee, and once more the hope that pro-
grammes would be reduced within the limits of transport was
deceived.
Shipping in the Third Year.— From the summer of 1916
to that of 1917, the shipping situation was more serious than at
any previous period. Its gravity was reflected in the increas-
ing freight rates and shipowners' profits, which had reached
their maximum. British time-charter rates rose to 407- a ton
d.w. a mark, and even touched so/-, as compared with 3/- im-
mediately before the war. In Feb. 1917, the new submarine
campaign began and met with immediate success. Within a
few months the submarine blockade became a greater danger
to the Allies than the surface blockade was to Germany. It
was countered partly by the convoy system, which had scarcely
however demonstrated its efficacy by the end of this year, and
partly by an improved system of organizing shipping.
Throughout the year the control over commodities was de-
veloping both in range and in character. To sugar and wheat,
which were already controlled by the Sugar and Wheat Commis-
sions, were added all the main articles of food, and the whole
was centralized under a newly established Ministry of Food. The
Ministry of Munitions extended its effective control over all
the raw materials of munitions manufacture and indeed over all
metals required for all purposes, over their purchase, their im-
portation, their allotment within the country for every form of
manufacture. The War Office developed a similar control over
tlax, hemp, jute, leather, wool and other materials. The Board
of Trade, under somewhat less drastic and more commercial
methods, covered the bulk of the remaining imports.
These developments had important consequences on the ship-
ping problem. In the first place, all the imports of the com-
modities so controlled were Government cargoes, and it was
natural that they should be transported in requisitioned tonnage.
The War Office could ask the shipping authority to arrange
to carry wool or flax (for whatever purpose it might be used)
just as it asked for transport of supplies destined direct for
the army. But, in the second place, the incorporation within the
Government machine of the specialists from the business world
who were needed for these intricate and detailed controls, meant
that the Government had, for the first time, in its service the
advice of experts in the activities affected.
The Ministry of Shipping. — The Coalition Government
formed at the end of 1916 established a Ministry of Shipping,
under a Shipping Controller, Sir Joseph (now Lord) Maclay who
had a seat in the Cabinet, with statutory powers. The Transport
Department was absorbed in the new Ministry, while the Ship-
ping Control Committee became an advisory committee to the
Controller.
It was shortly afterwards decided to extend requisition at rates
based upon blue book terms over all British ships. The compara-
tively moderate profits on requisitioned ships only made the
fantastic profits on free ships more of a public scandal.
Liner Requisition. — A new and ingenious system of liner
requisitioning was therefore devised. All liners were formally
requisitioned and paid at blue book rates. But the owners con-
tinued to run them, taking first any Government supplies, then
following any other direction they might receive, and if any space
remained, offering freight on the market, the freight, however,
being henceforth paid to the Government. The liner cargoes thus
became an integral part of the general transport and supply pro-
gramme, and indeed an increasingly important part of it, amount-
ing at the end to four-fifths of the country's imports.
This new system was devised by a well-known liner owner and
was a good instance of the association of the permanent official
and the business man.
An Inter-Allied Shipping Committee was created in Jan. 1917.
It included representatives of Great Britain, France and Italy. It
was unsuccessful. (See ALLIED MARITIME TRANSPORT COUNCIL.)
Tonnage Priority Committee.— -The second committee, the
Tonnage Priority Committee, was of more importance. It
was a national Committee, consisting of the actual executive
officers from the different departments who were handling the
several supply arrangements, and its chairman was the parlia-
mentary secretary of the Ministry of Shipping (Sir Leo Chiozza
Money). It met normally once a week throughout 1917 and a part
of 1918. It brought those who were making competing, and in
their total effect impossible, demands upon the shipping authorities
into direct contact with each other and thus facilitated the
reduction of their demands.
The new and intensive submarine campaign began in Feb.
1917. It converted the shipping difficulties from a serious incon-
venience into a grave menace. The tonnage of the world was
338
WAR CONTROL OF SHIPPING
scarcely less at the end of 1916 than in 1913; the tonnage at
the disposal of the Allies was not very seriously less.
But this situation was immediately and dramatically altered
by the new form of warfare. In the first twelve months 470
ocean-going ships (1,000 if we count all sizes) had been lost.
In a single fortnight in April, 122 ocean-going vessels were lost
(and all the ocean-going vessels in the world did not exceed
8,000). The continuance of loss at this rate would have brought
disaster upon all the Allied campaigns and might well have
involved unconditional surrender. At this stage, after much
hesitation and conflict of opinion, the convoy system was intro-
duced, and found an immediate success. The actual loss already
incurred and the dangers of the future, however, obviously com-
pelled a much more drastic handling of the whole shipping and
supply problem. (See SHIPPING, WAR LOSSES OF.)
It may be well, at this crucial moment, to attempt a bird's-
eye view of the situation from the angl" of one responsible for
requisitioning and allotting British tonnage. In France, in Bel-
gium, in Salonika, in the Dardanelles, in Palestine, British soldiers
were facing the enemy. Their transportation from the United
Kingdom, from Australia, from Canada and from India needed
about 70 ships. To supply them with food, munitions and cloth-
ing; medical attention for invalids and wounded; material for
new railways; timber for trenches and huts, meant another 335
ships. Behind them in England, in Canada and in America the
raw materials of the industries which made their munitions and
their clothes had to be imported (350 ships). At the same time
the British Navy had to be supplemented by auxiliaries (100
ships), to be coaled, fuelled and supplied (300 ships). Meantime
the Allies had corresponding needs for which their own ships did
not suffice (500 ships). And the home population required to
be fed and supplied with other necessities of life (750 ships).
The Fourth Year. — By the autumn the situation had become
less desperate but more immediately difficult. Two great events
had happened. America entered the war. Finance was at
once displaced as the governing consideration in the Allies' policy.
Henceforward the Alliance as a whole, was practically self-suffi-
cient. It was certain henceforth that money would be available
for as many imports as shipping could carry. Shipping became
definitely the limiting factor. Nor did America's entry relieve the
actual shortage of tonnage. Her potential building capacity gave a
different perspective to the future, but it was undeveloped. And
her military effort, so vital a factor in the strategical position,
necessarily increased the strain on shipping. So rapidly indeed
did her military effort develop that it more than absorbed the
ships she could put into service in spite of her amazing building
achievement. At no time during the rest of the war were there
as many American ships in war service as those required to
carry her own men and stores. The second great event was the
striking and dramatic success of the convoy system. From its
first introduction it more than counteracted the effect of the new
submarine method ; and losses were reduced to less than the rate
of 1916. But it could not restore vessels already lost, and new
building only gradually overtook current losses. In spite there-
fore of the much greater hope for the future given by both
America's building capacity and the convoy system, the actual
disparity between the shipping available and the demands upon
it was greater in the autumn of 1917 than it had ever been. 17
million tons deadweight of the world's tonnage had been lost
and less than half had been replaced. Great Britain alone had
lost 10 million tons, and, even allowing for ships she had bought,
built or captured, her net loss was over 4 million tons. France
and Italy had lost about 2 million tons and had built practically
nothing. Nor had America yet begun to build seriously. At the
same time the demands upon shipping were greater than at any
previous period. All the distant expeditions (except the long
abandoned one to the Dardanelles) were fully maintained. The
scale of the war in France was continually increasing. The Navy
was at its maximum strength. Serious food troubles were antici-
pated in Great Britain, France and Italy. The American military
effort, with its great demands on transport, was beginning.
By this time, however, the mechanism for securing economical
compression of the British supply demands on transport, for
selecting only the most essential, for making the utmost use of
shipping available was being rapidly perfected. The ultimate
needs of scores of millions were sifted through a series of sieves
of small and smaller mesh. The big control departments, the
Food and Munitions Ministries and the War Office, examined
and pruned down the demands of their many branches, with the
expert knowledge that had been obtained by the incorporation of
numberless experts from the different trades now brought within
the area of control. The Ship Licensing Committee was (to some
limited extent) pruning off the more obviously useless employ-
ment of ships. The Tonnage Priority Committee was examining
the demands in more detail and contributing to the same end.
Special committees like the Imports Restrictions Committee of
January 1917 and the later Cabinet committees of the same year
were forcing the departments to make reductions and to impose
them on their subordinate organizations. The rationing of neutrals
for blockade reasons ; the system of prohibition and limited license
of certain imports; the diminished purchasing power of most of
the world ; the pressure on neutral ships by the supply of bunker
coal on condition that they should enter employment useful to
the Allies — these were all contributing to the same effect — to
reduce the excessive demands made on the shipping departments.
And in this national system the final authority now consisted
in a Cabinet committee (presided over by Lord Milner) con-
sisting of the Ministers in charge of the great Ministries concerned,
on the one hand of Shipping and on the other of the great supply
departments particularly the War Office and the Ministries of
Munitions and Food, attended by their chief officials.
But by this time the problem was more than national. And
the national system required to be supplemented by an inter-
national organization which could incorporate the needs of France
and Italy and to some extent America, with those of Great
Britain and devise a common shipping policy. Controls similar
in general character and purpose had been established in France
and Italy, but while they remained isolated they afforded no
common measure of comparison. There was nothing to show
whether the standard of compression imposed in the different
commodities was at all equal. A British Cabinet committee could
not judge between British and French or Italian needs of sugar
or of wheat. Nor could a British Shipping department do so.
Obviously the persons best qualified were the sugar and the wheat
experts of the different countries. On this principle the Allied
system was based. "Programme Committees" were formed of
the experts in each main supply (wheat, sugar, meat and fats,
oils and seeds, nitrates, hides, wool, flax, hemp and jute, paper,
etc.). This was not a system parallel, or conflicting, with the
national system ; for the officials were the same as those we have
seen in the national organization. These committees submitted
their demands first severally to Allied Councils of Ministers (food
and munitions), and then all together to a supreme Allied shipping
authority, formed on the same principle (see ALLIED MARITIME
TRANSPORT COUNCIL).
Shipbuilding. — Here Great Britain's supremacy before the
war was unchallenged. She built some 2 million tons gross a
year, twice as much as the rest of the world put together. Claims
on men and material however reduced the figure to 660,000 in
1915 and to 630,000 in 1916. By this time, the losses were
becoming serious and building looked like falling ever lower. It
became necessary for the Government to take vigorous measures.
The responsibility was entrusted at different periods to the
Admiralty, to the Ministry of Shipping, and to an independent^
Controller-General. But throughout the last two years of the war
a consistent and effective policy was pursued. Better supplies
of steel were secured, workmen were withheld, or withdrawn,
from the Army. Private yards were specialized and each yard,
instead of building several types of vessel, concentrated upon
one — twelve types of standard ships being selected and built in
considerable numbers. By these means launchings increased to
1,229,000 tons in 1917 and 1,579,000 in 1918. The figure would
have been much greater but for the immensely increased work of
building and repairing both naval and merchant ships.
WARD
339
But the most notable achievement of shipbuilding during the |
war was North America's. In 1913, her yards had built only |
276,000 tons; and when she declared war she had only 61 yards, j
with 234 shipways. By the armistice she had 223 yards with 1,099
shipways. By the end of 1918 she was building 3 million tons
gross and in 1919 about 4 millions. The rest of the world's build-
ing during the war, outside Great Britain and North America,
needs little comment. It averaged 600,000 tons a year.
Atlantic Concentration. — Concentration of shipping on the
shortest routes was another increasingly important device. We
find a great withdrawal of ships from more distant routes and
their concentration in the Atlantic. Of a total of 68 1 British
vessels loaded as liners in Oct. 1917 no less than 336 were in the
Atlantic (four-fifths of them in the North Atlantic). By Oct.
1918 the proportion had risen even higher, 385 out of a total
of 656.
The convoy was introduced in the spring of 1917, and proved
an instant and surprising success. Losses which before had
averaged over long periods more than 10%, and at times rose to
over 20%, of ocean vessels at risk, fell for the subsequent period
to the end of the war to less than i%. The long contest between
attack and defence was decided conclusively before the war ended
and on its own merits, not as an incidental result of the military
successes of the Allies. By the third quarter in 1918 the losses
were less than the world's increased building, and by September
of that year the world gained even without America's building.
See C. E. Faylc, Sea-borne Trade and Merchant Shipping in the War
(1920-24) ; Sir A. Salter, Allied Shipping Control, an Experiment in
International Administration (1921). (A. SA.)
WARD, ARTEMUS, the pen-name of Charles Farrar
Browne (1834-1867), American humorous writer, who was born in
Waterford (Maine), April 26, 1834. He began life as a com-
positor and became an occasional contributor to the daily and
weekly journals. In 1858 he published in the Cleveland Plain
Dealer the first of the "Artemus Ward" series, which attained
great popularity both in America and England. His works in-
clude: Artemus Ward: his Book (1862); Artemus Ward: his
Travels (1865); Artemus Ward in London (1867); and Artemus
Ward's Lecture (1869). In 1866 he visited England, where he be-
came exceedingly popular. He died of consumption at Southamp-
ton March 6, 1867.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A Rood edition of his works was edited with a
biographical sketch by M. D. Landon in 1876; Artemus Ward's Best
Stories (1912) was edited by Clifton Johnson and Selected Works
(1924) by A. J. Nock. The Letters 0/ Artemus Ward were printed
in 1900. See also E. P. Kingston, The Genial Showman (1870),
and D. C. Seitz, Artemus Ward, A Biography and Bibliography (1919).
WARD, DAME GENEVIEVE (1837-1928) (D.B.E.,
1921), English actress, was born in New York on March 27,
1837, and at the age of 18 married Count Constantine de Guerbel.
She studied singing in Italy and in Paris, and made her first ap-
pearance under the stage name of Ginevra Buerrabella at Bergamo
in tl.e opera Stella di Napoli (1855). After the loss of her voice
in 1862 she taught singing in New York, but in 1873 she came to
London and began a long dramatic career, appearing first at
Manchester as Lady Macbeth.
She published with Richard Whiting a volume of reminiscences,
Before and Behind the Curtain (1918).
WARD, JAMES (1843-1925), English psychologist and
metaphysician, was born at Hull on Jan. 27, 1843. He was edu-
cated at the Liverpool Institute, at Berlin and Gottingen, and at
Trinity 'College, Cambridge; he also worked in the physiological
laboratory at Leipzig. He studied originally for the Congrega-
tional ministry, and for a year was minister of Emmanuel Church,
Cambridge. Subsequently he devoted himself to psychological
research, became fellow of his college in 1875 and university pro-
fessor of mental philosophy in 1897. He was Gifford lecturer at
Aberdeen in 1895-97, and at St. Andrews in 1908-10. His work
shows the influence of Leibnitz and Lotze, as well as of evolution.
His views are further worked out, through criticism of pluralism
and as a theistic interpretation of the world, in his Gifford Lectures
(The Realm of Ends) (1911, 3rd ed. 1920). Ward died on March
4, 192$.
Ward published Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899, 3rd ed. 1907) ;
Heredity and Memory (1913) ; Psychological Principles (1918, 2nd ed.
1920) ; A Study in Kant (1922) ; and Essays in Philosophy ed. W. R.
Sorlcy and G. F. Stout, with memoir by O. W. Campbell (1927);
numerous articles in the Journal of Physiology, in Mind, and in The
British Journal of Psychology.
WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910), Ameri-
can sculptor, born in Urbana, Ohio, June 29, 1830. He studied
under Henry K. Brown, of New York, in 1850-1857, and by
1 86 1, when he opened a studio in New York, he had executed
busts of Joshua R. Giddings, Alexander H. Stephens, and Hannibal
Hamlin, prepared the first sketch for the "Indian Hunter," and
made studies among the Indians themselves for the work. In 1863
he became a member of the National Academy of Design (New
York), and he was its president in 1872-1873. He died in New
York on the ist of May 1910.
WARD, SIR JOSEPH GEORGE, IST BART., cr. 191 1,
(1856- ), New Zealand politician, was born at Emerald Hill,
Melbourne on April 26, 1856, son of a merchant. At 13 he
entered the Post and Telegraph Department. In 1887 he entered
parliament as Liberal member for Awarua. Appointed treasurer in
the Seddon cabinet of 1893, he was the prime minister's chief
lieutenant until Seddon died in 1906, and he then succeeded
to the premiership and the leadership of the Liberal party. He
pioneered several important reforms, such as loans to settlers,
the All-Red cable service, and penny postage for New Zealand.
His ministry was defeated in the February of 1912, but Ward
returned to office as minister of finance in the National (War)
cabinet of 1915-19. In 1917-18 he was a member of the Imperial
war cabinet and in 1919 represented New Zealand at the Peace
Conference. In 1919, after representing Awarua continuously
since 1887, he lost his seat, and in 1923 he was defeated in a by-
election for Tauranga. In 1925 he was elected for Invercargill.
WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841-1913), American geolo-
gist and sociologist, was born in Joliet, 111., on June 1 8, 1841. He
graduated at Columbian (now George Washington) university
in 1869 and from the law school in 1871, his education having
been delayed by his service in the Union army during the Civil
War. In 1865-72 he was employed in the United States Treasury
department, and became assistant geologist in 1881 and geologist
in 1888 to the U. S. geological survey. In 1884-86 he was pro-
fessor of botany in Columbian university. He wrote much on
palaeobotany, including A Sketch of Palaeobotany (1885), The
Geographical Distribution of Fossil Plants (1888) and The Status
of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States (1905). His
more important works are: Dynamic Sociology (1883, 2nd ed.
1897), Psychic Factors of Civilization (1897), Outlines of Sociol-
ogy (1898), Sociology and Economics (1899), Pure Sociology
(1903), and with J. Q. Dealy, Text-Book of Sociology (1905).
He died in Washington, D.C., on April 18, 1913.
WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS. HUMPHRY WARD]
(1851-1920), British novelist, was born on June n 1851, at
Hobart, Tasmania, where her father, Thomas Arnold (1824-
1900, q.v.), was then an inspector of schools. She was brought up
mainly at Oxford, and her early associations with a life of scholar-
ship and religious conflict are deeply marked in her own later
literary career. She was brought into close connection during this
period with Edward Hartopp Cradock, who was principal of
Brasenose college from 1853 till his death in 1886, some of
whose characteristics went to the portrait of the "Squire" in
Robert Elsmere. In 1872 she married Thomas Humphry Ward
(1845-1926), then fellow and tutor of Brasenose, and one of the
authors of the Oxford Spectator.
Mrs. Humphry Ward at first devoted herself to Spanish litera-
ture, and contributed articles on Spanish subjects to the Diction-
ary of Christian Biography, edited by Dr. William Smith and Dr.
Henry Wace. In 1881 she published her first book, Milly and
Oily, a child's story illustrated by Lady (then Mrs.) Alma-
Tadema. This was followed in 1884 by a more ambitious, though
slight, study of modern life, Miss Bretherton, the story of an
actress. In 1885 Mrs. Ward published an admirable translation
of the Journal of the Swiss philosopher Amiel, with a critical
introduction, which showed her delicate appreciation of the
340
WARD— WARDROBE
subtleties of speculative thought. In Feb. 1888 appeared Robert
Elsmere, a powerful novel, tracing the mental evolution of an
English clergyman, of high character and conscience and of in-
tellectual leanings, constrained to surrender his own orthodoxy to
the influence of the "higher criticism." The character of Elsmere
owed much to reminiscences both of T. H. Green, the philosopher,
and of J. R. Green, the historian. The book was reviewed by
W. E. Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century (May 1888, "Robert
Elsmere and the Battle of Belief"), and made its author famous.
Mrs. Ward's next novel, David Grieve, was published in 1892.
In 1895 appeared the short tragedy, the Story of Bessie"
Costrell. Mrs. Ward's next long novel, Helbeck of Bannisdale
(1898), treated of the clash between the ascetic ideal of Roman
Catholicism and modern life. The element of Catholic and
humanistic ideals entered also into Eleanor (1900), in which, how-
ever, the author relied more on the ordinary arts of the novelist.
In Lady Rose's Daughter (1903) — dramatized as Agatha in 1905
— and The Marriage of William Ashe (1905), modern tales
founded on the stories respectively of Mile, de Lespinasse and
Lady Caroline Lamb, she relied entirely and with success upon
social portraiture. Later novels were Fenwick's Career (1906),
Diana Mallory (1908), Daphne (1909), Canadian Born (1910),
The Case of Richard Meynell (1911), Delia Blanch flower (1915),
The War and Elizabeth (1918), etc. Mrs. Ward died in London on
March 24, 1920.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Stephen L. Gwynn, Mrs. Humphry Ward (1917) :
J. Stuart Walters, Mrs. Humphry Ward; her work and influence
(1922) ; Janet P. Trcvclyan, The Life of Mrs. Humphry Ward (1923).
WARD, SETH (1617-1689), bishop, was educated at Sidney
Sussex college, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1640. In
1643 he was chosen university mathematical lecturer, but he was
deprived of his fellowship next year for opposing the Solemn
League and Covenant. In 1649 he became Savilian professor of
astronomy at Oxford, and gained a high reputation by his theory
of planetary motion, propounded in the works entitled In Ismaelis
Bullialdi astronomiae philolaicae fundamenta inqidsitio brevis
(Oxford, 1653), and Astronomia ^eometrica (London, 1656).
About this time he was engaged in a philosophical controversy
with Thomas Hobbes. He was one of the original members of
the Royal Society. In 1659 he was appointed master of Trinity
college, Oxford, but not having the statutory qualifications he
resigned in 1660. Charles II. gave him numerous preferments,
and in 1662 he was consecrated bishop of Exeter. He died at
Knightsbridge Jan. 6, 1689.
WARD, WILFRID PHILIP (1856-1916), British man of
letters, was born at Ware, Hertfordshire, on Jan. 2, 1856, the sec-
ond son of William George Ward. In 1906 he became editor of The
Dublin Review. He died in London on April 8, 1916. His works
include: W. G. Ward and the Oxford Movement (1889); W- G-
Ward and the Catholic Revival (1893); Life and Times of Cardi-
nal Wiseman (1897); Life of John Henry Cardinal Newman
(1912) and several volumes of essays.
WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882), English
Roman Catholic theologian, was born on March 21, 1812. He
was educated at Christ Church and Lincoln College, Oxford, and
became a fellow of Balliol in 1834. He was attracted to the Trac-
tarians by his hatred of what he called "respectability." He re-
garded Newman as a mere antiquary. When he was persuaded
to hear Newman preach, he at once became a disciple. He took
deacon's orders in 1838 and priest's orders in 1840. From that
period Ward and his associates worked for union with the
Church of Rome, and in 1844 he published his Ideal of a
Christian Church, in which he openly contended that the only
hope for the Church of England lay in submission to the
Church of Rome. This publication brought to a height the
storm which had long been gathering. The university of Ox-
ford was invited, on Feb. 13, 1845, to condemn "Tract XC," to
censure the Ideal, and to degrade Ward from his degrees. The
two latter propositions were carried and "Tract XC.'* only escaped
censure by the non placet of the proctors, Guillemard and Church.
The condemnation precipitated an exodus to Rome. Ward left the
Church of England in Sept. 1845, and was followed by many
j others, including Newman himself. In 1868 he became editor of
the Dublin Review. He died on July 6, 1882.
j See William George Ward and the Oxford Movement (1889) and
William George Ward and the Catholic Revival (1893), both by his
son Wilfrid Philip Ward.
| WARD, that which guards or watches, and that which is
guarded or watched. In architecture the inner courts of a forti-
, fied place are called wards, e.g., the upper and lower wards of
I Windsor Castle (see BAILEY, CASTLE). Thfe "ward" in a lock
| is the ridge of metal which fits exactly into the corresponding
j "ward" or slot of the key (see LOCKS). Boroughs, cities and
] parishes may be divided into wards, for the conducting of local
1 elections, etc. In the same way, large establishments, such as
I hospitals, asylums, etc., are divided into wards. In law, "ward"
| is a term for minors, or persons under guardianship (see INFANT,
j MARRIAGE and ROMAN LAW).
I An electoral division in American municipalities is called a
I ward. Prior to the introduction of the commission and city man-
ager form of government the municipal legislative branch was a
city council made up of representatives from the various wards
of the city. The wards were supposed to be of about equal popula-
tion, each ward having either one or two aldermen, chosen by the
qualified voters of the ward, in the city council, for terms of one
or two years. Many cities are still governed by councils so
elected. Each ward is divided into one or more voting precincts
or divisions. See C. C. Maxcy, An Outline of Municipal Govern-
ment (1923).
WAR DEBTS: see INTER-ALLIED DEBTS. ^
WARDEN, a word frequently employed in the ordinary sense
of a watchman or guardian, but more usually in England in the
sense of a chief or head official. The lords wardens of the marches,
for example, were powerful nobles appointed to guard the borders
of Scotland and of Wales; they held their lands per baroniam, the
king's writ not running against them, and they had extensive rights
of administrating justice. The chief officer of the ancient stan-
naries of Cornwall has the title of lord warden (see STANNARIES)
as has also the governor of Dover castle (see CINQUE PORTS).
WAR DEPARTMENT: see GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.
WARDHA, a town and district of British India in the Nagpur
division of the Central Provinces. They take their name from
the Wardha river. The now prosperous town of Wardha was
established on a treeless black soil plain at the old village of
Palakwari in 1866 at the spot where the branch line to Warora
was expected to take off. The population by 1872 had reached
3,560; in 1921 it was 16,044.
The DISTRICT OF WARDHA was carved out of Nagpur in 1862.
The population has increased from 355,000 at the census of
1872 to 463,696 in 1921. There arc cotton mills at Hinganghat
and Pulgaon. The language is Marathi.
WARDLAW, HENRY (d. 1440), son of Sir Andrew
Wardlaw, was educated at Oxford and Paris and nominated
by the papal court at Avignon bishop of St. Andrews (conse-
crated 1403). He was tutor to James I., restored the cathedral,
and, on the return of James from England, became one of his
principal advisers. He persecuted the Wycliffites. Wardlaw issued
the charter of foundation of St. Andrews university, the first in
Scotland, in 1411. It was confirmed by a bull of Benedict XIII.
on Aug. 28, 1413.
WARDROBE, a portable upright cupboard for storing
clothes. The earliest wardrobe was a chest, and it was not until
some degree of luxury was attained in regal palaces and the castles
of powerful nobles that separate accommodation was provided
for the sumptuous apparel of the great. The name of wardrobe
was then given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with
cupboards and lockers. As a "hanging cupboard" it dates back
to the early i7th century. For probably 100 years such pieces,
massive, but often with well-carved fronts, were made in fair
numbers. During the i8th century the tallboy (q.v.) was much
used for clothes. Towards its end, however, the wardrobe began
to develop into its modern form, with a hanging cupboard at each
side, a press in the upper part of the central portion and drawers
below. As a rule it was of mahogany, but so soon as satinwood
WARDROBES
and other finely grained foreign woods began to be obtainable in
considerable quantities, many elaborately and even magnificently
inlaid wardrobes were made. The central doors, which had hither-
to enclosed merely the upper part, were carried to the floor and
were fitted with mirrors.
WARDROBES. THE. Although originally garderoba (ward-
robe) and camera (bedroom) were synonymous, garderoba was
early distinguished as the small room attached to the bedchamber,
where clothes were kept and articles of value stored. Mediaeval
kings and emperors, magnates of church and State, all had a
wardrobe as well as a bedroom. But no Continental vestiarium
(wardrobe) experienced such development as that through which
the garderoba of the kings of England passed. From a place of
deposit, a mere adjunct of the king's chamber (<?.i>.)> the king's
wardrobe in England grew into a third treasury, and, in the
1 3th century, dispossessing the chamber as the financial and
directive agent of the royal household (q.v.), became a full ad-
ministrative department. Not even the wardrobe of the popes,
which enjoyed some measure of authority between the 6th and
the nth centuries, can compare with it, while the wardrobe of the
kings of France was always a subordinate branch of the chamber,
never a separate institution.
The increasing administrative burden of the chamber, relieved
only partially by the growth and independent establishment of the
exchequer (q.v.), imposed further duties upon the garderoba regis
(king's wardrobe). So ably did it discharge them that, by the end
of John's reign, it had developed into a rudimentary office, and
before long took over from the chamber the routine work of the
household. A clerical keeper or treasurer, and a lay steward, were
responsible for its management, their revenue mainly coming from
the exchequer, to which the keeper accounted. His statements
were attested by the controller, his immediate subordinate, also
a clerk, who kept a counter-roll of receipts and expenses. Under
Edward I. the controller became the recognized keeper of the
privy seal (see SEALS), and the cofferer who was the third clerical
officer, obtained definite title and position. Beginning as the
personal clerk of the keeper, he rose to be chief bookkeeper and
cashier, and the usual locum tenens of the keeper. By the close
of the 1 3th century, because public matters claimed more and
more of the attention of the chancery (q,v.), the wardrobe had
become the household secretariat; the domestic chancery as well
as the domestic exchequer. Nor did it fulfil only domestic and
peaceful functions. As the household was the nucleus of the
army when the king waged war in person, the wardrobe not
unnaturally then undertook the financial administration of the
campaigns. The finances of most of Edward I.'s expeditions, of
the Scottish offensives of Edward II. and Edward III., and of a
number of the campaigns of the Hundred Years' War, were ad-
ministered in this way. Thus the king's wardrobe, or wardrobe
of the household, came to have a wider military and a political
importance. The reason lay in its all-round usefulness. Its ma-
chinery was adaptable, and its officers, appointed by word of
mouth, were directly answerable to the king. Its funds could be
augmented or diminished at need, and, although its accounts had
to be submitted to the exchequer for audit, it actually spent the
money. It also had the use of a seal which, though in the first
instance personal to the sovereign, could be and was increasingly
employed in State business. These and similar considerations com-
mended the wardrobe to king, aristocracy and ministers alike.
Yet the jealous and vigilant barons did not hesitate to attack
the wardrobe whenever they felt it was being used as an instru-
ment of prerogative. In the latter part of the reign of Edward I.
and again under Edward II., they persistently tried to curtail its
activities. It was, for example, a result of the baronial ordinances
of 1311, that in 1312 the privy seal was taken away from the
controller and given a keeper all to itself. The exchequer equally
resented wardrobe encroachments, and its ordinances of 1323-26
were almost as much concerned with defining relations with the
wardrobe as with improving internal economy.
The Great Wardrobe. — Differentiation and centralization
were as ceaselessly at work within the wardrobe as without.
Since both chamber and wardrobe accompanied the household
wherever it went, they needed places in which to store their
heavier and bulkier commodities. Rooms in the king's manors
were set apart for this purpose, the wardrobe being held respon-
sible for the custody and replenishment of the stocks kept in them.
A sub-department, the great wardrobe, magna garderoba regis, a
term in use by 1253, constituted itself to direct the necessary
labour. The description "great" referred to the size and quantity
of the goods stored, not to the status of the office, which was
inferior to the king's wardrobe. The clerk of the great wardrobe
was its head, and to begin with, all its officials, excluding the two
or three stationed with the more important stores, followed the
court. Up to 1324 the clerk was financed by the wardrobe, but
from that year he received his revenue from, and accounted to,
the exchequer, except for a brief return to former usage between
1351 and 1360. Owing to the nature and variety of the work,
it was practically impossible for the clerk or his assistants to
reside continually in the household. The great wardrobe was not
simply a depository. Besides collecting, safeguarding and dis-
tributing goods, it also manufactured and repaired them. Cloth
was made into clothes, metal was wrought into armour and
weapons, guns and cannon were cast and assembled, and sulphur,
saltpetre and other ingredients were combined into gunpowder.
The Tower of London was its first centre, but from the begin-
ning of the i4th century, houses in the city of London were also
used. Among them was a house in Bassishaw (Basinghall) ward,
near the weekly cloth markets of Weavers' Hall and Bakewell Hall,
and the house in Lombard street which had once belonged to the
Bardi merchants. Larger and better quarters were bought in
1361, in the parish of St. Andrew's by Baynard's Castle. Here
the office and its staff lived until the Great Fire of 1666. They
then found accommodation in Buckingham street in the Savoy,
but later removed to Great Queen street.
Hardly had the great wardrobe taken shape before the privy
wardrobe, priuata garderoba regis, made its appearance as a
travelling store for chamber, wardrobe and great wardrobe. There
had early been in the household a small wardrobe of robes and
arms for current use, but only towards the end of the i3th cen-
tury did it develop even a modest organization. Its officers were
as much chamber as wardrobe servants, and such money as they
needed was supplied by the wardrobe or the great wardrobe.
Although their work was the care and transport of articles wanted
from day to day, they soon found it advisable to have a central
depository. Between 1323 and 1344 they set up a store in the
Tower of London, chiefly of arms and armour. This, used by
chamber and great wardrobe as well as by the household, came
to be known as the privy wardrobe in the Tower. The keepers
of this wardrobe, also clerks of the chamber until 1356, took their
revenue from the exchequer, which also audited their accounts.
Before 1360 it had separated itself from the household though it
left behind a small privy wardrobe, which survived well into the
1 6th century, to carry on its original work. By 1399 it was as
independent of great wardrobe and chamber as it was of the
household. It was looted by the revolted peasants in 1381.
In consequence of both internal and external differentiation,
and with the adoption of special means for financing war, under
parliamentary control the king's wardrobe, from the latter part
of the i4th century generally described as "the household," slowly
degenerated into a simple office of household accounts. The
process was not materially hindered even when the treasurer of
war was the treasurer of the household. The privy wardrobe in
the Tower lost both name and identity in the isth century with
its transformation into the king's armouries in the Tower. But
the great wardrobe, still the storehouse for the household, came
to be known as "the wardrobe." The cofferer of the household
and the officers of the great wardrobe were suppressed in 1782
by Burke's act for economical reform. Such of their duties as
were retained were divided among the lord chamberlain (q.v.),
the lord steward (q.v.), and the surveyor of the buildings.
See T. F. Tout, The Place of the reign of Edward If. in English
History (1914, bibl.) ; J. C. Davies, The Baronial Opposition to
Edward II. (1918, bibl.) ; T. F. Tout, Chapters m the Administrative
History of Mediaeval England (vols. i.-ii., 1920; vols. iii.-iv., 1928;
vol. v. in preparation: bibl.).
342
WARD ROOM— WAR FINANCE
WARD ROOM: see NAUTICAL TERMS.
WARE, a town of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lea. Pop.
(1921) 5,949. The church of St. Mary is a cruciform Decorated
and Perpendicular building of flint and stone, the tower dating
from Edward III. The famous "Great Bed of Ware," referred
to in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, which formerly was at the
Saracen's Head in Ware, has been removed to Rye House, 2 m.
distant, the scene of the Rye House plot of 1683 against Charles
II. The town possesses breweries and brick-fields.
WARE, a town of Hampshire county, Massachusetts. Pop.
(1920) 8,525 (30% foreign-born white). Its manufactures include
cotton and woollen goods, sport shoes and coated paper. In 1761
Ware-River parish (comprising parts of Brookfield, Palmer and
Western) was established as the district of Ware, which in 1775
was made a town by general act.
WAREHAM, a town of Dorsetshire, England. Its popula-
tion in 1921 was 1,993.
Owing to its situation as a key of Purbeck, the site of Ware-
ham (Werham, War ham) has been occupied from very early
times. There are still remains of earthworks around the town
which are probably of Romano-British age originally and modified
on many subsequent occasions. Wareham's British name was
Durngueir. The early chroniclers declare that St. Aldhelm founded
a church near by about 701, and perhaps the priory, which is
mentioned as existing in 876, when the Danes retired from Cam-
bridge to a strong position in this fort. Their occupation was
not lengthy. Having made terms with Alfred, they broke the
conditions and returned to Cambridge. In the following year
they were again at Wareham, which they made their headquarters.
Beorhtric was buried here. Further incursions made by the Danes
in 998 and in 1015 under Canute probably resulted in the de-
struction of the priory, on the site of which a later house was
founded in the i2th century as a cell of the Norman abbey of
Lysa, and in the decayed condition of Wareham in 1086. The
early castle, which existed before 1086, was important during the
civil wars of Stephen's reign. John fortified it against Louis of
France in 1216, and during the civil wars of the i7th century
it was the scene of much fighting. Wareham was accounted a
borough in Domesday. In 1587 Elizabeth granted certain priv-
ileges to Wareham, but it was not incorporated until 1703. There
are three ancient churches, and the ruins of a priory dedicated to
SS. Mary, Peter and Ethelwood.
WAREHAM, a town of Massachusetts. The resident popu-
lation was 5,594 in 1925 (State census) and there is a summer
population of 15,000. It is an important shipping point for cran-
berries, oysters, clams, scallops and garden truck, and has a horse-
shoe factory and other manufacturing plants. The town was
formed in 1739 from part of Rochester and a plantation of
Plymouth called the Agawam Purchase.
WARENNE. EARLS. The Warennes derived their surname
from the river of Guarenne or Varenne and the little town of the
same name near Arques in Normandy. William de Warenne,
who crossed with William I. in 1066, was a distant cousin of the
Conqueror, his grandmother having been the sister of Gunnora,
wife of Richard I. of Normandy. De Warenne received as his
share of English spoil some 300 manors in Yorkshire, Norfolk,
Surrey and Sussex, including Lewes Castle. He was wounded at
the siege of Pevensey and died in 1089, a year after he had
received the title of earl of Surrey. Both he and his successors
were more commonly styled Earl Warenne than carl of Surrey.
His son William, 2nd earl (c. 1071-1138), was a suitor for
the hand of Matilda of Scotland, afterwards queen of Henry I.
He was temporarily deprived of his earldom in noi for his sup-
port of Robert, duke of Normandy, but he commanded at the
battle of Tenchebrai (1106), and was governor of Rouen in 1135.
William de Warenne, 3rd earl (d. 1148), was, with his half-
brother, Robert de Beaumont, earl of Leicester, present at the
battle of Lincoln, where his flight early in the day contributed
to Stephen's defeat. He remained faithful to the queen during
Stephen's imprisonment, and in 1146 he took the cross, and was
killed near Laodicea in January 1148.
His daughter and heiress, Isabel, married in 1153 William de
Blois, second son of King Stephen and Matilda of Boulogne, and
in 1163 Hamelin Plantagenet, natural son of Geoffrey, count of
Anjou. Both Isabel's husbands appear to have borne the title
of Earl Warenne. Earl Hamelin was one of those who at the
council of Northampton denounced Becket as a traitor; he re-
mained faithful to his half-brother, Henry II., during the trouble
with the king's sons, and in Richard I.'s absence on the crusade
he supported the government against the intrigues of Prince John.
William de Warenne (d. 1240), son of Isabel and Hamelin, who
succeeded to the earldom in 1202, enjoyed the special confidence
of King John. In 1212, when a general rebellion was apprehended,
John committed to him the custody of the northern shires; and
he remained faithful to his master throughout the troubles which
preceded the signing of the Charter. In 1216, as the king's situ-
ation became desperate, the earl repented of his loyalty, and,
shortly before the death of John, made terms with Prince Louis.
He returned, however, to his lawful allegiance immediately upon
the accession of Henry III., and was, during his minority, a loyal
supporter of the crown. He disliked, however, the royal favourites
who came into power after 1227, and used his influence to pro-
tect Hubert de Burgh when the latter had been removed from
office by their efforts (1232). Warenne's relations with the king
became strained in course of time. In 1238 he was evidently re-
garded as a leader of the baronial opposition, for the great council
appointed him as one of the treasurers who were to prevent the
king from squandering the subsidy voted in that year. His son
John de Warenne (c. 1231-1304) succeeded in 1240, and at a
later date bore the style of earl of Surrey and Sussex. In the
battle of Lewes (1264) he fought under Prince Edward, and on
the defeat of the royal army fled with the queen to France. His
estates were confiscated but were subsequently restored. He
served in Edward I.'s Welsh campaigns, and took a still more
prominent part in Scottish affairs, being the king's lieutenant in
Scotland in 1296-1297. In September 1297 he advanced to Stir-
ling, and, giving way to the clamour of his soldiers, was defeated
by William Wallace on the nth. He invaded Scotland early the
next year with a fresh army, and joining Edward in the second
expedition of that year, commanded the rear at Falkirk.
John de Warenne (1286-1347) succeeded his grandfather in
1304, and was knighted along with the prince of Wales in 1306
two days after his marriage with the prince's niece, Joanna
daughter of Eleanor of England, countess of Bar. From that
time onwards he was much engaged in the Scottish wars, in which
he had a personal interest, since John Baliol was his cousin and at
one time his ward. As there were no children of his marriage, his
nephew, Richard Fitzalan II., earl of Arundel (c. 1307-1376),
became heir to his estates and the earldom of Surrey. His north-
ern estates reverted to the crown, and the southern estates held
by Joanna of Bar during her lifetime passed to Fitzalan. The
Warrens of Poynton, barons of Stockport, descended from one of
Earl Warenne's illegitimate sons by Isabella de Holland.
See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896) ; and John
Watson, Memoirs of the Ancient Earls of Warren or Surrey (2 vols.,
Warrington, 1782).
WAR FINANCE (COST OF THE WORLD WAR).
Estimates of the direct cost of the World War, 1914-18, vary
greatly and even ten years after the conclusion of the armistice
it is impossible to give precise figures. The reason of this lies in
the difficulty of clearly determining what part of the national
outlays during the war period can be strictly regarded as war
expenditure, while there is also difficulty in determining the net,
as distinct from the gross, cost. Much of the war expenditure of
the various countries constituted in some respects a source of
fresh income, and, while national treasuries were heavy losers by
war outlays for goods and materials at fabulous war prices, indi-
vidual nationals made large fortunes, which in due course fur-
nished fresh resources of national wealth for use after the war.
The difficulty of determining precise figures is also increased by
the task of deciding when war expenditure really terminated. In
most cases, increased expenditure from the national exchequers,
resulting directly or indirectly from the war, went on for some
time after the armistice, in 1918, and it was only some few
WAR FINANCE (COST OF THE WORLD WAR)
343
years later that anything in the way of statistics was prepared j
giving the cost of the war, although all kinds of hurried estimates
were made during its progress. Thus, in Nov. 1917, the Mechanics
and Metals National Bank of the State of New York prepared a
statement estimating that at that time the money expended was |
more than $100,000,000,000, or about £20,000,000,000, the further
estimate being made that the expenditure was at the rate of
$5,000,000,000 each month, so that, inasmuch as the war per-
sisted for another year, another $60,000,000,000, or £12,000,000,-
ooo, would have to be added. In 1924, however, some six years
after the war, an exhaustive enquiry into the cost was made by
Harvey E. Fisk, of the Bankers' Trust company, in New York,
and, according to that authority, the total cost of the war was
placed at $80,680,000,000 gold, or about £16,000,000,000. That
statement, however, was reached on the basis of endeavouring to
calculate the cost of the war on the price-level basis, the inflated
currencies which characterized the war years, and especially the
latter periods, being adjusted to terms of 1913 prices, which the
authority quoted described as "the gold cost of the war."
Bankers' Trust Company Estimate. — Inasmuch, however,
as not all the countries formally de-valued their currencies after
the war, and while Great Britain, although experiencing, in com-
mon with other nations, a decline in commodity prices, preserved
intact the exchange value of the £, it is perhaps simpler and more
illuminating to give the following estimates, which were put for-
ward in 1924 by the Bankers' Trust company of New York,
where the cost to the various nations is set out in sterling, without
the further calculations based on an adjustment of price-levels.
These figures, as briefly summarized in Whitaker's Almanack for
1928, are as follows:
Nation Total Expenditure
£
British Empire . 13,577,900,000
Great Britain 11,076,000,000
Canada-Newfoundland 762,700,000
Australia 476,700,000
New Zealand 234,400,000
South Africa 159,000,000
India 687,100,000
Other Parts . • 182,000,000
Belgium 411,800,000
France 7,962,200,000
Greece 115,100,000
Italy 4,432,700,000
Japan 419,100,000
Portugal 235,300,000
Rumania 308,800,000
Russia 5,312,700,000
Serbia 119,000,000
United States . . . 7,500,000,000
Austria-Hungary
Bulgaria .
Germany .
Turkey
Total, Allies £40,363,600,000
. 4,068,400,000
261,000,000
. 10,341,100,000
. 451,800,000
Total, Central Powers £15,122,300,000
Grand Total £55,486,000,000
The Basis of Calculation. — A striking example of the
discrepancies in calculations is afforded by the answer given by
the British chancellor of the exchequer to a question in the House
of Commons in May 1919, regarding the cost of the war to Great
Britain. Sir (then Mr.) Austen Chamberlain said that up to March
31, 1919, the net cost might be estimated, in round figures, at
£6,700,000,000. It will be observed, however, that in the table
the figure is given as £11,076,000,000. Not only, however, did the
chancellor of the exchequer's statement exclude all debts due
from dominions and allies, but it is impossible to follow the
allowance made for "normal peace expenditure." Broadly speak-
ing, the basis of calculation in the case of the foregoing figures
may be said to be (a) a calculation based upon the excess of ex-
penditure over the normal figures of the year previous to the war,
while the period taken is not 1914-18 but 1914-20, inclusive, war
expenditure extending certainly to that date and possibly longer.
Thus, in the case of Great Britain alone, expenditure totalled (for
one year) £1,666,000,000 more than a year after the war and was
over £1,000,000,000 two years after the war. In certain respects,
of course, such, for example, as war pensions, war expenditure is
still going on, but no attempt has been made to carry the calcu-
lation beyond 1920. Nor, as already stated, do the calculations
attempt to follow out the American process adopted by the
Bankers Trust company of adjusting the currency cost of the war
to 1913 levels, although, of course, the point is important.
The Bankers' Trust divided the figures for each year by the aver-
age wholesale price index number for the year, thus putting the
statistics for each country on the 1913 price basis. The adjusted
cost figures were then converted into dollars at par of exchange,
and on that basis the real cost of the war in 1913 dollars is esti-
mated at 80,681,000,000 dollars, or in sterling a little more than
£16,000,000,000, which, of course, is a very different figure to the
actual gross currency costs recorded in the foregoing table.
The total expenditure in the case of most of the countries enu-
merated in the table can be regarded as the outside amount, but the
two notable instances where the net cost might be reduced if
allowance were made for loans to allies, are the British empire
and the United States. British loans are over £100,000,000
to dominions and colonies, while at March 31, 1928, loans due
to Great Britain included £706,000,000 from France, £266,000,000
from Italy, £100,000,000 from various smaller European States,
and £887,000,000 from Russia, the last item, however, being
regarded somewhat in the light of a bad debt.
Indirect Cost of the War. — At this point statistics break
down. With the exception, perhaps, of the United States, it may
fairly be said that the figures already given do not begin to express
the real cost of the war. Great Britain alone sustained 676,442
actual fatalities, with 1,648,014 wounded, while French fatalities
totalled 1,400,000 killed, 800,000 maimed, and 3,000,000 wounded.
Previous to 1914 Great Britain, by reason of her seniority among
the big nations resulting in an accumulation of savings and a
prestige in the matter of manufacturing, had the leading place
among the nations in financial lending power and control over
the exchanges, conditions in their turn contributing to her power
as the leading monetary centre of the world. As a consequence
of the war, or, rather, as a consequence of the three years of
neutrality on the part of the United States during the war, the
equipoise of the balance of trade was completely destroyed, and
at the end of the conflagration the belligerent countries of Europe
became debtors to the United States, first, on account of the
colossal trade balance in favour of America, and, second, because
of the actual debts incurred by the belligerent nations to the
United States Government. All this, so far as Europe is con-
cerned, has to be reckoned amongst the indirect costs of the war,
and to express that Qost in figures is impossible. Whether, on the
other hand, an equivalent of the unknown amount to be debited
to the belligerent countries of Europe is to be credited to the
United States is not only debatable but a controversial subject,
because economists in the United States of America often plead
that, as a matter of fact, economic progress in their country was
retarded rather than helped by the four years' war.
It may be mentioned that in a lecture delivered before the
London Institute of Bankers in June 1920 by Edgar Crammond
on "The Real Cost of the \Var," an attempt was made by that
statistician to appraise the real net cost of the war after making
all allowances for revenues or territories gained or lost. The re-
sult was, naturally, to reduce materially the gross cost. Thus he
estimated the net real cost of the war to Great Britain at only
£3,500,000,000; France at £5,400,000,000; Italy at £2,100,000,-
ooo; and so on while for the five years ended 1919 the United
States was reckoned to have gained materially in wealth.
Cost of the War to the United States. — More than in the
case of any other country, big deductions have to be made in the
case of the United States from the gross amount of war expendi-
ture. According to the calculations of the Bankers' Trust com-
pany in 1924, the total cost of the war in currency dollars was
about $37,500,000,000, or about £7,500,000.000. From that total,
however, has obviously to be deducted about $10,000,000,000 or
£2,000,000,000, on account of loans to the Allies, while, although
344
WAR FINANCE (COST OF THE WORLD WAR)
Debts of the Allied and Associated States to the. United States as of October jr, 1927
Debtor state
Funded war debt
Unfunded war
debt*
Relief given on
loan (American
Relief Commission
and United States
Grain Corporation)*
Sales of surplus
war supplies*
Total
£
L
£
£
£
Armenia
2,457,517
2,457,517
Belgium
71,344,686
6,127,143
77,471,829
Czechoslovakia
12,734,392
1,911,232
4,233,761
18,879,385
Estonia ...
2,841,780
2,841,780
Finland ...
1,811,096
1,811,096
France ...
600,646,149!
83,700,235
684,346,384
Great Britain
925,684,032
925,684,932
Greece ...
3,082,192**
3,082,192
Italy ...
417,534,246
417,534,246
Latvia ...
1,186,644
1,186,644
Lithuania
1,266,285
1,266,285
Nicaragua .
59*718
59Ji8
Poland ...
36,690,411
36,690,411
Rumania
13,574,088
I3,574,o88
Russia ...
38,574,606
Oi7o«i§
83,441
39,575,6o8
Yugoslavia .
5,354,767
5,^32,470
10,487,237
Totals
1,400,589,482
731,736,79^
5,286,310
99, 336,768
2,236,949,352
£2,132,326,274
*The United States Government holds Bonds of the Debtor Governments in respect of the sums shown in these columns; the amounts stated are
exclusive of interest accrued and unpaid. fA funding agreement has been signed but has not yet been ratified. **An agreement between the
respective Governments as to this debt was reached in Dec. 1927. JAmerican Relief Administration only.
the point is challenged by many American economists, it would
seem that just as to the direct ascertained cost of the war to the
European belligerents has to be added a large but unknown total
representing indirect cost, so in the case of the United States
the argument is of the reverse order. The United States as well
as the Allies suffered loss through war casualties and also through
war inflation. Nevertheless, just as the cost of the war was in-
creased to the European belligerents by the high prices paid for
foodstuffs and war materials, so the United States was the gainer
by these same prices. Of still greater moment, however, was the
fact that just as the European belligerents lost markets and eco-
nomic strength by the war, so the United States, by reason of her
three years of neutrality, gained in both of these respects. More,
however, than any other country, with the exception of Japan, the
United States met its war expenditure through taxation, though,
equally, and because of its financing of the requirements of the
Allies, no country issued within a brief space of time a larger
amount in loans, something like $23,000,000,000 being raised after
the entry into the war. As the last entrant, however, the United
States benefited greatly by the experience gained from the mis-
takes of other countries, and while a certain measure of inflation
was the inevitable accompaniment of such huge and sudden bor-
rowing, economy and sufficient taxation were the watchwords from
the moment of America taking a hand in the conflict, and a con-
tinuance of that policy has resulted in a greater amount of
debt liquidation since the war than any other country has been
able to achieve. The above table, taken from The Stock Ex-
change Official Intelligence for 1927, sets out the debts of the
Allied and Associated States to the United States of America as of
Oct. 31, 1927, the figures being as shown by the Statement of the
Public Debt of the United States issued by the office of the secre-
tary to the United States Treasury.
How War Expenditure Was Met. — Subject to the difficulties
of calculations and estimates already referred to, the statistics
prepared by the Bankers' Trust showed that on the basis of
currency, not of 1913 values, the entire war expenditure was met
as to about 69% in borrowings at home in one form and another,
as to a further 10% in loans from Allies, and as to about i% in
loans from foreign neutral countries, the balance being obtained
from taxation. In the case of the Continental Central Powers,
however, the percentage of borrowing was greater than in the
case of Great Britain or the United States. In fact, apart from
Japan, the only Governments which had the courage to ask their
nationals to pay very heavy taxes during the greater part of the
war period were Great Britain and the United States. Even in
Great Britain there was a curious reluctance to impose taxation
during the earlier stages of the war, the idea apparently prevail-
ing in all countries that the war must be made popular at all
costs. In Great Britain, indeed, there was the curious experience
of the people actually inviting an increase in taxation, deputations
waiting upon the chancellor of the exchequer at quite an early
stage of the war requesting that there should be an increase in
direct and indirect taxation. Throughout the whole period of six
years covered by the calculations concerning the cost of the war,
Great Britain was the most heavily taxed country, although she
was also during the war itself the largest borrower, having to
finance the greater part of the conflict on behalf of herself and her
Allies. At one time, the income tax of Great Britain rose to 6s. in
the £, while a prolific source of revenue to the exchequer during
the war period was the excess profits duty, a tax which was levied
from 50 up to 80% on all business profits exceeding the pre-war
level. Some idea of the exacting nature of the tax, and incidentally
of the profiteering which went on during the war, may be gathered
from the fact that from this source alone the British Treasury
received within a period of five years no less than well over
£1,000,000,000. Indeed, the tax may be said to have yielded not
far short of 25% of the total war revenue from taxation. Never-
theless, it is generally believed to have brought some evil conse-
quences in its trail and was among the influences leading to de-
mands for higher wages and to inflation both in credit and in
currency. From the outset Great Britain was fortunate in possess-
ing in her income, super tax and death duties, a machine ready to
hand which greatly aided the immediate application of war taxa-
tion, so that in addition to the revenue from excess profits tax,
income and super tax, which had yielded about £47,000,000 in the
pre-war year, rose in 1917 to £250,000,000, in 1918 to £291,000,-
ooo, in 1919 to £359,000,000, and in the following year to £394,-
000,000. In Great Britain, however, as in other countries, a large
percentage of the war expenditure was met by loans, and at the
outset the borrowing method was practically universal with all
the belligerent countries. Moreover, as was natural, the first step
taken in most of the belligerent countries was in the direction of
short-term Treasury bills. In Great Britain these bills, which,
beginning in small amounts, rose at one time to over £1,200,000,-
ooo, were placed in the London money market with the banks and
discount houses through a system of tendering, thus to some
extent minimising their inflationary effect, but in other countries
the usual procedure was for the bills to be taken by the national
or central banks and either held by them or placed gradually in
other quarters. In many cases these bills were converted later
WARGLA— WAR GRAVES
345
into short-term bonds, but the war was not far advanced before
long-dated borrowing became necessary, one of the first instances
being the flotation in Great Britain in Nov. 1914, of a 1 5-year
loan for £350,000,000 in 3i per cents at 95. In spite of the stern
necessities of the case, the loan was not too well applied for, a
part being taken temporarily by the Bank of England, thus involv-
ing at the outset a further stimulus to inflation. At the time of
the flotation, the loan was the largest ever offered at one time,
but it was destined to appear almost a small operation compared
with some which followed, the climax being reached in 1917,
when, including conversions effected at the same time, the total
amount issued was no less than £2,000,000,000. Altogether the
extent of Britain's war borrowings may best be expressed by say-
ing that the total amount of funded and unfunded debt, which
previous to the war totalled about £650,000,000, had risen by the
end of 1920 to £7,830,000,000. To quote figures after that date
would be misleading because debt conversions were often carried
through on lines involving a saving in the service on the debt but
an increase in deadweight debt owing to the loans being issued
at a material discount. In considering Great Britain's methods of
payment for the war, it must also be mentioned that contempo-
raneously with the immediate issue of Treasury bills after the com-
mencement of the conflict, currency or Treasury notes were
authorized for £i and IDS. and these notes at one time attained a
maximum circulation of over £300,000,000. As against the notes,
however, British Treasury bills were issued and must be reckoned
amongst the high total attained by those bills.
In considering the payment by the belligerent countries for the
war, concealed taxation through the effect of inflation upon prices
has to be remembered. It was in the Continental countries that
the full effect of inflation, resulting from excessive borrowing and
insufficient direct taxation, was most strikingly revealed. There-
fore, it is far more difficult in the case of the Continental and
Central Powers to assess in terms of currency the cost of the
war than in the case of Great Britain and the United States. In
most instances, however, the greatest depreciation in currencies
occurred after the war was concluded. In Germany this was due
to the fact that fully 90% of the war expenditure was met by
internal borrowing, Austria also raising about 87% of its war
expenditure in loans either at home or from Allies. In France
over 76% of the expenditure was raised in loans at home, with
fully 17% in loans from Allies and foreign countries, but chiefly
from Allies. In the case of France, war expenditure was naturally
prolonged for a considerable period after peace owing to the re-
building of devastated areas, and although Germany was not in a
similar position, her supplies of foodstuffs, raw materials, manu-
factured goods and machinery were so exhausted that heavy bor-
rowings were necessary to meet the situation.
Speaking broadly, and taking for the most part, the calculations
of the Bankers' Trust company of New York, Belgium raised
practically the whole of her war expenditure in loans from Allies,
Italy raised about 51% of the costs in loans at home and 21%
in loans from Allies, while Portugal and Russia raised about 75%
and 95% respectively in loans.
External Borrowings by the Belligerents.— No feature of
war expenditure was more remarkable than the difficulty ex-
perienced by the belligerent countries in Europe during the first
three years of the war in making payments for goods and services
to the United States and other neutral countries. The problem
was one of exchange, and no description of the methods of paying
for the costs of the war would be complete without a reference
to this particular aspect of war finance. In the paragraph dealing
with the cost of the war to the United States a table is given
showing the indebtedness of various belligerent countries to the
United States Government and the United States nationals. It
is the origin of those loans which, in the main, may be regarded
as one of the concrete expressions of this special difficulty. In
the first three years of the war Great Britain and other belligerent
countries were largely dependent upon the United States and
other neutral countries for foodstuffs and for war materials.
Owing to the effectiveness of the naval blockade by Great Britain
some of these countries were virtually cut off from outside sup-
plies. The problem of the countries purchasing from abroad,
however, was that of making payments in the currencies of the
supplying countries. The greater part of the strain- — especially
during the period of the war — fell upon Great Britain, which
was financing its own necessities and a large part of those of
its Allies. Out of its own resources, which were supplemented
later by amounts taken from the central banks of France and
Russia, many millions of gold were shipped from London to the
United States to save the strain on the exchange. In spite of such
shipments, however, the greatest difficulty was experienced in
preventing the American exchange on London from collapsing al-
together. At that time the nationals of Great Britain were the
holders of about £1,000,000,000 in American securities of various
kinds and the greater part of these securities were finally com-
mandeered at the price of the day by the British Government,
which then made arrangements with Morgans in New York for the
marketing of the securities and for the fixing of the exchange on
London. That is to say, the securities were supplied with sufficient
rapidity to ensure the necessary amount of dollars being in the
hands of Morgans to maintain the exchange. In addition, loans to
the extent of at least £200,000,000 for Great Britain and one or
more loans for Great Britain and France jointly were placed with
American nationals. This was before the entry of the United States
into the war. After that date, which was in April 1917, the financ-
ing of the requirements of the Allies in the United States was ar-
ranged on wholly different lines. America came into the war just
when, in spite of the methods described, the sterling exchange ap-
peared again to be on the eve of breaking down. Under the new
system, however, the U.S. Government gave dollar credits to the
Allies for all goods and services supplied in the United States, and
that process went on not only during the war but for some time
afterwards when the exchanges were still maintained by America
continuing to finance the post-war requirements of the Allies and
of France, in particular, by the credits referred to. The net result
of these loans is shown in the table giving the debts of the Allied
and Associated States to the United States. Thus, in the case of
Great Britain, it will be seen that in addition to parting with some
hundreds of millions of pounds in gold to meet war expenditure for
goods and services supplied from that country, she also remitted
nearly £1,000,000,000 of her holding of American railroad
securities and incurred a debt of nearly the same amount.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Inter Ally Debts, compiled by Bankers' Trust com-
pany of New York; Statistical Abstract of United Kingdom, States-
man's Year Book; the (London) Economist; London Bankers Maga-
zine; Memorandum on Public Finance (League of Nations). See also
The Stock Exchange Official Intelligence. ( A. W. K.)
WAR GRAVES. With a view to ensuring the care and per-
manence of the graves of British soldiers buried in France nego-
tiations took place early in the war between the British military
authorities responsible for the marking and registration of the
graves and the French Government. On Dec. 29, 1915, the latter
passed a law which provided that all Allied graveyards on the
soil of France should be acquired by the Government of the repub-
lic at its own expense, and that the rights of ownership should
be enjoyed in perpetuity by the Allied nations concerned1.
Under this enactment it was possible for an association r£gu-
librement constitute by an Allied Government to be entrusted with
the care of its graves in France. The result was the establishment
in Great Britain (Jan. 1916) of a National Committee for the
Care of Soldiers' Graves, the presidency of which was accepted
by the Prince of Wales.
As the fighting extended it became evident that the care of the
graves after the war and the erection of permanent memorials
would be a task too extensive for a body with the limitations of
the national committee to undertake. Among these limitations was
the lack of direct representation of the dominions and other parts
of the Empire, whose soldiers were falling and being buried side by
side with those of the United Kingdom. In a memorandum ad-
dressed to the prime minister, dated March 15, 1917, the prince
!Later on, the governments of Belgium, Italy, Greece, Egypt and
Palestine followed the lead of France by passing equally generous
WAR GRAVES
of Wales, as president of the national committee, suggested that
the formation of "a joint committee of the governments of the
Empire, or a statutory body of commissioners somewhat on the
lines of the development commission," should be proposed to the
forthcoming Imperial conference. The question was accordingly
laid before the conference on April 13, 1917, when a resolution was
passed praying his majesty to grant a royal charter for the con-
stitution of an Imperial War Graves Commission, which should be
empowered to care for and maintain the graves of those fallen in
the war, to acquire land for the purpose of cemeteries and to erect
permanent memorials in the cemeteries and elsewhere. The charter
was passed under the great seal of May 21, 1917, and the commis-
sion, of which the prince of Wales became president, was estab-
lished. Maj.-Gen. Sir Fabian Ware, who had been in command of
the military organization in the field since 1915, was appointed
permanent vice-chairman.
Constitution of the Commission. — The members of the com-
mission are the secretary of State for war (ex-officio chairman),
the secretary of State for the colonies, the secretary of State for
India, the first commissioner of works and the representatives of
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland.
The charter further provides for eight non-official members
appointed from time to time by the Sovereign. In 1928 the non-
official members were: Mr. Harry Gosling, Mr. Rudyard Kipling,
Lt.-Gen. Sir George Macdonogh, Admiral Sir Morgan Singer,
Sir Henry Maddocks, Gen. Sir Walter Braithwaite, Capt. Lord
Stanley and Maj. Gen. Sir Fabian Ware.
The commission's deliberations during their first year resulted in
the double proposal laid before the next Imperial conference on
June 17, 1918, that £10 per grave should be taken as the probable
cost of the construction of cemeteries, and that the cost of carry-
ing out the decisions of the commission should be borne by the
respective governments in proportion to the numbers of the
graves of their dead. Estimates are presented yearly to each of the
participating governments, the respective parliaments being asked
to vote a proportion of the total in accordance with the decision of
the Imperial conference of 1918 referred to above. The commis-
sion administers the grants in aid thus received through a finance
committee, which meets regularly at short intervals and which is
attended by a representative of the Treasury of the United King-
dom to advise and assist. The principle of complete co-operation
runs through all the work of the commission, the participating gov-
ernments being represented in the administrative personnel, both
in London and abroad, as far as is practicable, on the same pro-
portional basis as has been adopted for the sharing of expenditure.
Policy. — One of the first acts of the commission was to lay
down as a guiding principle that the graves of all ranks should be
treated on a basis of absolute equality. With this principle as a
foundation, the commission, desiring to have an impartial opinion,
invited Sir Frederick Kenyon, director of the British Museum, to
consult representatives of the army, religious bodies and others
interested and to report as to how the commission could discharge
their responsibilities with the greatest satisfaction to all concerned.
His recommendations, which were adopted by the commission,
were briefly as follows : ( i ) The erection of uniform headstones
over all war graves. (2) The erection of two central monuments
in each cemetery where possible.
The principal architects entrusted with the preparation of de-
signs were Sir Edwin Lutyens, Sir Reginald Blomfield, Mr. Her-
bert Baker, Sir Robert Lorimer, Sir John Burnet, Mr. Charles
Holden and Mr. Edward Warren. The headstones are 2ft. Sin. in
height, i ft. 3in. in breadth and 3in. in thickness. Each stone bears
at the top the badge of the regiment or unit. Then follow the
military details with the name of the deceased and the date of
his death, below which is carved the symbol of his faith, while
at the foot of the stone is engraved a personal inscription chosen
by the next-of-kin. Of the two central monuments the great altar-
like stone of remembrance, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, bears ;
the inscription chosen by Rudyard Kipling, "Their name liveth i
for evermore." The other memorial is the great cross of sacrifice
designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield, to the shaft of which is fixed i
a crusader's sword of bronze. I
In addition to the marking and care of the graves, the com-
mission was entrusted with the erection of memorials to record
the names — more than 300,000 in number— of those sailors and
soldiers who have no known graves. Several memorials of this
nature are completed, including the three connected with the
Navy, which stand on prominent sites at Portsmouth, Chatham
and Plymouth, the three ports intimately connected throughout
Britain's naval history with the sea service ; the Gallipoli memorial
at Cape Helles; the Salonika memorial at Lake Doiran; the
memorial at Jerusalem in Palestine; the Indian memorials at
Neuve Chapelle in France and at Port Tewfik on the Suez Canal;
and the Menin Gate at Ypres. The last bears the names of some
60,000 officers and men ". . .who fell in Ypres salient, but to
whom the fortune of war denied the known and honoured burial
given to their comrades in death." The list of the great memorials
will be completed when those at Thiepval, Vimy (for the Cana-
dians), Villicrs-Bretonneux (for the Australians in France), and
Basra are added; but a number of smaller memorials commemo-
rate those ' 'missing" near where they fell.
Cemetery and memorial registers are published by the com-
mission; these when finished will provide a complete record of
the Empire's dead.
The unprecedented nature of the task with which the commis-
sion was charged is obvious; its complexity and magnitude will
be realized when it is remembered that the 725,000 known graves
for which they are responsible are scattered all over the world in
many different countries with different laws and customs, some of
them the enemy countries with whom special provisionsxwere made
in the treaties of peace to ensure the graves being respected; and
there are no less than 15,000 burial places in different parts of
Europe and the East where British sailors and soldiers rest, the
great majority being in civil cemeteries containing small groups
of graves, but some 1,500 of them being cemeteries of consider-
able size, the largest containing 12,000 graves.
Permanent Maintenance. — As a guarantee that the graves
and memorials shall be forever cared for, the various governments
of the empire represented on the commission have undertaken to
provide permanently the income required for maintenance at the
accepted standard of upkeep laid down by the commission. After
discussion it was agreed that an endowment fund amounting to
£5,000,000 should be established for this purpose by the
United Kingdom and Dominion Governments and this fact was
announced to the House of Commons on July 30, 1925, by
Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, at that time chairman of the
commission. Gen. Sir Herbert Lawrence, E. R. Peacock and
Maj -Gen. Sir Fabian Ware were appointed the first trustees of
the endowment fund.
French and American Graves. — France, on whose soil lay
over 3,000,000 allied and enemy dead, was faced with the prob-
lem of honouring her fallen soldiers without clogging the
wheels of industry and agriculture, which were beginning to
revive under peace conditions, even in the devastated areas where
the graves lay thickest. The British helped to solve the difficulty
by concentrating all isolated graves into cemeteries which would
forever mark the British battle-line. The French adopted the
further expedient of giving the. next-of-kin the opportunity of
having their dead re-buried at the State's expense in the church-
yard or burial-ground of their native place, while those who were
left would rest in great national cemeteries constructed by the
State as a lasting monument to the heroism of the soldiers who
died for France.
About 50,000 fallen soldiers of the American Expeditionary
Forces were borne back across the Atlantic to rest in their own
land. The American authorities would no doubt have hesitated
to undertake a task of such difficulty had not a pledge been given
before a single American battalion left the United States that no
American soldier who died fighting for his country and the liber-
ties of nations should be left to lie on foreign soil except at the
express wish of his next-of-kin. There are 30,703 American dead
buried in eight American cemeteries in Europe. Six of the ceme-
teries containing 29,900 graves are situated in France; one, with
366 graves, is situated in Belgium, and one, with 437 graves, is
ALLIED CAUSE]
WAR GUILT
347
situated in England. The cemeteries are planned on the principle
of uniform treatment of the graves, a conception which appears
to have been first put into practice by those who laid out Arlington
national cemetery, a burial place of many of those who fell in
the American Civil and other wars of the United States.
(F. W.)
WAR GUILT. In Germany the question of War Guilt, the
Kriegsschuldfrage, has given rise to an extraordinary agitation
and a vast literature. The convinced vehemence of this national
movement is not generally understood in other countries. Where
understood, it causes more contradiction than acceptance. The
result is amongst the difficult complications of post-war psychol-
ogy. No universal agreement is yet possible about the relative
importance of the known facts and forces leading up to the
World War. Still less possible in our generation is any approach
to agreement upon the inmost motives and calculations of the
principal persons; upon the effects *of different systems of Govern-
ment, more democratic on one side, less democratic on the
other; or upon the comparative ethical values of rival political
ideals — as for instance, old loyalties to historic dynasties and
empires contrasted with new and passionate aspirations to racial
freedom.
Since no common ground for final judgment has been yet
established even with regard to the proportionate importance of
the broadest factors — history, geography, ethnography — while
opinions concerning applied ethics are as much as ever in dispute,
the method adopted here is that of the "Ring and the Book."
It shows the various and opposite ways in which the same facts
may be viewed by equally honest, and thoughtful minds. First,
these introductory words explain the origin and course of the War
Guilt controversy; secondly the French standpoint is stated in
a rigorously judicial temper by Monsieur Pierre Renouvin; thirdly,
Herr Liitz states the German case with the same measured con-
viction and the same mastery of documentary evidence; fourthly,
a concluding examination looks at the subject in quite another
way from the standpoint of a political philosophy now generally
accepted by the calmest thinkers amongst the English-speaking
peoples. Monsieur Renouvin and Herr Liitz differ continually in
their verdicts upon successive pre-war situations. The final sec-
tion shows the deeper origin of conflicting thoughts and forces
and why self-justification seemed equally convincing to all the
antagonists.
The Allies and their great Associate made a far-reaching error
when framing the Treaty of Versailles. In the heat of triumph
and wrath, forgetting that victors in a war never can be accepted
as impartial judges, they introduced into the voluminous clauses
of that instrument two sweeping pronouncements : —
Article 227: — "The Allied and Associated Powers publicly
arraign William II. of Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor,
for a supreme offence against international morality and the
sanctity of treaties. . . . The Allies and Associated Powers will
address a request to the Government of the Netherlands for the
surrender to them of the Ex- Emperor in order that he may be put
on trial."
Article 231: — "The Allied and Associated Governments affirm
and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies
for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Asso-
ciated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as
a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of
Germany and her Allies."
The first of these Articles proved a fiasco. The Ex-kaiser
remained safe in Holland where to all appearance, he lived happy
ever after. The other Article, charging the German nation with
peculiar and almost sole War Guilt (the former Habsburg empire
having disappeared), was a more serious thing. It was a new and
unnecessary humiliation, injecting the one-sided bitterness of
war-passions into the terms of peace. This remains in Germany
and Hungary a source of deep bitterness, delaying European
reconciliation.
Chiefly to combat the accusation of almost exclusive Wrar
Guilt the German Government opened its diplomatic archives
and poured out the invaluable collection of documents ultimately
completed in 40 volumes under the title, Die Grosse Politik der
Europaischen Kabinette, 1871-1914. Powerful associations were
formed, and special publications founded, to vindicate German
action, motives and honour in connection with the World War.
Numerous books by individual authors, endless articles in reviews
and newspapers appeared in the same sense. Apart from a hand-
ful of keen and unpopular German critics, who maintained that
Habsburg blindness and the military over-confidence of the Cen-
tral Empires were in fact mainly responsible for precipitating the
struggle, the almost universal feeling of Germany with increasing
fervour, repudiated the charge of special War Guilt, and put more
and more of the blame on the Allies — especially on Serbia and
Russia, but on French pre-war policy and British vacillation in
the next degrees.
The agitation came to its height in Germany's years of recovery
after the adoption of the Dawes plan and the evacuation of the
Ruhr Valley. The present, situation is a moral deadlock, and
Germany as a whole desires some formal withdrawal of Article
231 in the Treaty of Versailles. As will be seen, this form of
moral triumph is impracticable. It would have a one-sided effect.
It would by itself be interpreted as an admission by the ex-allies
— with or without their former associate — that they were chiefly
in the wrong. This, their peoples do not admit now, and never
will admit hereafter. The separate analyses, by Monsieur Renou-
vin and Herr Liitz follow in succession, below; and closing reflec-
tions by the present writer consider how a reconciling solu-
tion of the moral deadlock may be sought. (J. L. G.>
THE ALLIED CAUSE
If the student wishes to understand the chain of events which
in July 1914 precipitated Europe into the most terrible war of
history, and properly to weigh the respective responsibilities of
Governments and peoples for the outbreak of that war, it is not
enough for him to confine his attention to the crisis occasioned
by the Serajevo murders of June 28, 1914. The nature of the
crisis, and the attitudes of the various powers of Europe to the
Austro-Serbian dispute, can be explained only by a survey of
international politics over the long period which saw the gradual
formation of the opposing groups of 1914.
Bismarck's Policy.— During the whole period from the Treaty
of Frankfurt (1871) to his resignation, nearly 20 years later,
Bismarck was convinced that, if she could obtain the support of
another great Power, France was in a position to attempt a war
of revenge. He accordingly endeavoured to ring Germany with
a system of alliances, the ultimate object of which was to con-
solidate German hegemony in Europe. In 1873 he formed the
Alliance of the three Emperors (Austria, Russia and Germany —
the Dreikaiserbund) , in 1882 the Triple Alliance (Germany,
Austria and Italy). The key-note of his policy was the main-
tenance of a system under which Russia, as well as Austria-
Hungary, would be bound to Germany. A constant menace to
this policy, however, was the rivalry of Austria and Russia in the
Balkans. Nevertheless, even after the Bulgarian crisis of 1886,
the great chancellor succeeded in keeping his hold on Russia, by
means of the secret "re-insurance" treaty. At the same time,
Great Britain took a step towards the Triple Alliance by consent-
ing to guarantee, in Italy's favour, the status quo in the Mediter-
ranean. This was the period of the triumph of Bismarckian policy;
with the exception of France, all the Great Powers of Europe
were bound, more or less directly, to Germany.
No one knew better than Bismarck that the system was pre-
carious. For its maintenance he reckoned on his own activities:
he was the "juggler who could juggle with five bails at once."
But his successors were incapable of maintaining his system.
Scarcely had Bismarck been compelled in March 1890 to re-
linquish power as a result of his quarrel with the Emperor William
II., when the men of the "new regime/' the chancellor Caprivi,
Marschall, the secretary of State, and Holstein, the Eminence
grise of the Wilhelmstrasse, decided to let the re-insurance treaty
lapse. It expired in June 1890. It was this decision which, in
addition to the anticipated renewal of the Triple Alliance in May
1891, determined the tsar of Russia to treat with France. The
Franco-Russian alliance (military convention of Aug. 1892)
marked the end of the German hegemony.
348
WAR GUILT
[1896-1904
Nevertheless, this shifting of the political balance did not
destroy the peace of Europe. The Emperor William knew that
the tsar was inclined to peace; and the German ambassador in
Paris repeatedly declared that France was no less so. Moreover,
after 1895, Russia yielded to the blandishments of German
diplomacy and embarked upon a career of adventure in the Far
East which kept her out of European affairs. It was not until
later that the situation began to turn to the disadvantage of
Germany; and it was largely due to German diplomatic action
that it did so turn.
1896-1904
Two main points are of importance in the development of
European politics during this period — (a) the attitude of Italy;
(b) the attitude of Great Britain.
Italy. — The object of the Italian Government was to find some
outlet for its nationals on colonial territory. The adventure in
Abyssinia, however, resulted in a disaster. Italy had, therefore,
to look nearer home. But in 1896 Great Britain denounced the
"Mediterranean agreement" of 1887. If, therefore, she was to
make headway in the Mediterranean, Italy had to come to some
agreement with the Power whose interests were the most directly
opposed to her own. That Power was France. After 1896 this
new turn in Italian policy became apparent in the colonial agree-
ments of 1898 and 1900. In 1902 the rapprochement was
crowned by a political agreement, in which the Italian Govern-
ment placed its own interpretation on the terms of the Triple
Alliance; it promised that Italy would be neutral in the event
of France being compelled by direct provocation to make war
on Germany. It is true that this agreement did not contradict
the letter of the Triple Alliance, and there was reason in the
contention of the Italian diplomats that Italy was entitled to
conclude it ; but it was difficult to reconcile the political formula
signed in 1902 with the spirit of the Alliance.
Great Britain. — During the same period a profound change
occurred in the general trend of British policy. The most prom-
inent members of Lord Salisbury's Unionist Government of 1895-
1900, and especially Joseph Chamberlain, were thoroughly alive
to the fact that if she wished to maintain her position against the
rivals who were threatening it on every side, Great Britain could
not abide by her traditional policy of "splendid isolation." The
problem for Great Britain was in what quarter should she seek
support. In Asia her interests were opposed to those of Russia,
not only in Persia and Afghanistan, but also in the Far East. In
Equatorial Africa she was in conflict with France. Naturally she
turned first to Germany. On two occasions, in 1898 and in 1901,
the British Government approached the Wilhelmstrasse with an
offer of alliance. On both occasions the German Government re-
fused the offer, in the belief that a refusal was a matter of no
particular moment to Germany. Vainly Chamberlain pointed out
that the consequence would be that Great Britain would be
compelled to seek diplomatic support "elsewhere," i.e., from
France. Von Biilow, the chancellor, and his colleagues persisted
in the view that a combination of this kind was unlikely; sooner
or later, they thought, the Foreign Office would make further
offers to Germany. By the end of 1901 negotiations were aban-
doned; almost immediately afterwards the directors of British
policy had grasped the necessity of a settlement of Great Britain's
outstanding colonial difficulties with France. The famous agree-
ment of April 8, 1904, recognized Great Britain's right to occupy
Egypt, and the special interests of France in Morocco, and put
an end to a whole series of minor bickerings, the chief of which
was that connected with the Newfoundland Fisheries. There was
in the treaty no general undertaking, and no political promise of
any sort. It was, therefore, far from equivalent to the kind of
agreement which Great Britain had endeavoured to conclude with
Germany. Such as it was, however, it was an earnest of the new
drift of British policy.
It remained to be seen whether these political germs would
develop.
1904-1912
During this period the development was incontestable. The
cardinal factor was the defeat of Russia in Manchuria, the result
of which was to throw Russia back on Europe, where she found
herself faced anew with the problems she had neglected since
1895, namely the Balkan Problem and the Straits Question (q.v.).
But Russia was debarred for some years from playing an active
part, owing to the disorganization of her army caused by the
struggle with Japan. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomacy
seized upon the temporary eclipse of Russia as an opportunity for
a series of diplomatic adventures which were big with danger to
the peace of Europe.
Moroccan Crisis. — After the signature of the Franco-British
Agreement of 1904, the German Government was unwilling to
allow France to secure a foothold in Morocco without asking for
German permission and paying the price of German complaisance.
As a matter of fact, German interests in Morocco were negligible;
the question was one of prestige: German diplomacy refused to
allow a matter of such importance to be decided without reference
to Germany. Another object was to test the solidarity of the
Franco-British entente. The policy was put into practice to the
accompaniment of a series of threatening "gestures"; the kaiser's
visit to Tangier (March, 1905); the virtual summons to the
French prime minister, Rouvier, to throw overboard his foreign
minister, Delcasse (June, 1905); and the demand for an inter-
national conference to settle the Moroccan question. On these
points the French Government gave way; but the result was not
in accordance with German expectations. The Algeciras Con-
ference gave France and Spain police rights in Moroccan ports.
Moreover, German methods had given rise to the suspicion that
Germany was seeking a quarrel, with the consequence that the
bonds of friendship between France and Great Britain were
strengthened. Although it did not offer France the military
alliance which Delcasse — prematurely perhaps — thought certain,
the British Government began to consider the possibility of mili-
tary intervention in a European war, and authorized its general
staff to enter into "conversations" with the French general staff.
It avoided, however, any undertaking which might bind it to any
specific action in the future.
Russia. — During the Moroccan crisis, German policy gave
proof of another tendency far more alarming to British sus-
ceptibilities. The Emperor William II. had seized the opportunity
afforded by the Russo-Japanese War, to endeavour to create a
"continental alliance" by means of a Russo-German Treaty, to
which he hoped that France would be compelled to adhere. He
all but succeeded in this design. In July 1905 he obtained the
signature of the secret Treaty of B jorkoe ; but the tsar soon after
repudiated the treaty. It was to be expected, however, that the
atten.pt would be renewed. It was clear that the "continental
alliance" would be aimed at Great Britain, and the Foreign Office
was alive to the danger; to prevent a Russo-German combination,
it began to consider the possibility of removing Russo-British
differences. This was the object of the treaty of Aug. 30, 1907,
which established a compromise solution of outstanding questions
in Afghanistan, Thibet and Persia.
Thus, by 1907, there already existed the framework of the
Triple Entente. True, the only documents so far signed between
Great Britain and Russia, and France and Great Britain, were
concerned with the settlement of outstanding difficulties, and
contained no formula of mutual assistance, nor even any pledge
of friendship for the future. The conditions where energetic and
friendly co-operation between the three Powers would become
possible were far from being realized. No basis had been laid
down for common action. Nevertheless, the German Govern-
ment made no secret of its alarm at a rapprochement of which it
had itself, by both its real and apparent policy, been the main
author.
Bosnia-Hercegovina. — In other ways, German and Austro-
Hungarian policy and action tended to knit closer the bonds of
the Triple Entente.
The Austro-Hungarian Government determined to take advan-
tage of the temporary military weakness of Russia to secure cer-
tain advantages in the Balkans. In Oct. 1908, the annexation of
Bosnia and Hercegovina by Austria-Hungary was announced.
Serbia was alarmed at the prospect of a war with Austria-Hungary.
Russia which had, at the outset, encouraged Count Aerenthal, in
SERAJEVO]
WAR GUILT
349
the hope of securing a counter-balance in an advantageous settle-
ment of the Straits Question, protested when she found herself
deprived of the anticipated compensation. The situation was, thus,
similar to that of 1914: — an Austro-Serbian dispute, involving a
conflict between Austria and Russia. But Russia was in no con-
dition to make war. Faced with an ultimatum from Germany, she
was compelled to recognize the annexation of Bosnia and Herce-
govina, and to abandon the cause of Serbia. Time was to show
that she did not forget this humiliation.
The "Agadir" Incident. — The next crisis was provoked by
the German Government. After endeavouring — at the time of the
Bosnian crisis — to share with France the profits of the economic
development of Morocco (agreement of Feb. 1909), the German
Government complained that this condominium was in practice
operating in a manner unfavourable to its interests, and resolved
to check the growth of French influence in Morocco. The Act of
Algeciras gave Germany the means of doing this. The occasion
seized upon was the entry of the French troops into Fez in the
spring of IQII. The German Government contended that France
was exceeding her rights and demanded compensation. Such com-
pensation was on the point of being granted when, in June 1911,
Jules Cambon, French ambassador at Berlin, let it be understood
that the French Government was not averse to negotiations. But
at this point German diplomacy attempted to force the situation
by the "Agadir coup" (July i, 1911). Once again the policy of
threats failed to give Germany the results expected. She had
demanded the whole of the French Congo. She had to content
herself with a slice of the Congo hinterland, largely because of the
strong stand taken up by Great Britain, and the unmistakable
warning given Germany by British statesmen. The Franco-Ger-
man agreement of Nov. 4, 1911, put an end to the crisis, but did
not efface the memory of Germany's threats.
Naval Competition. — In the meantime, Great Britain was
more and more alarmed. She believed that the attempt of the
Emperor William II. and Admiral von Tirpitz to make Germany
a great naval Power menaced her most vital interest. On several
occasions between 1908 and 1911, the British, who were deter-
mined to maintain their naval supremacy, tried in vain to secure
some limitation of the German naval programme. In Feb. 1912,
a last attempt was made to come to some arrangement, on the
occasion of Haldane's mission to Berlin. Negotiations broke
down because, in return for a reduction — or rather a slowing-
down — of her naval programme, Germany demanded a political
quid-pro-quo in the shape of a promise of British neutrality which
would have been the death-blow of the Entente. By 1912 the con-
sequences of this failure became apparent; to consolidate its naval
position, the British Government increased the concentration of its
capital ships in the North Sea; those taken from the Mediterra-
nean were replaced by French vessels. In return for this service
from the French fleet, Great Britain had to sign a document
formally authorizing "technical conversations" between the gen-
eral staffs of the two countries. But the letters exchanged on Nov.
22, 1912, repeated that these naval and military arrangements did
not bind the respective Governments, and did not constitute any
promise to intervene in a war.
1912-1914
During these years the situation in Europe gradually changed.
In the preceding period the weakness caused by her defeat in Man-
churia had kept Russia quiet, and the first moves calculated to
disturb the peace of Europe had been made by Germany and by
Austria-Hungary. But it was henceforth the object of Russian
policy to repair the consequences of the reverse suffered in 1908-
09, and to re-establish Russian influence in the Balkans. An
opportunity was offered in the Italo-Turkish War of 1912. The
embarrassments of the Turkish Government incited the Balkan
States to unite to liberate Macedonia. In this they were encour-
aged by Russia, who presided over the formation of the Balkan
alliance. Once again the Balkan crisis of Oct. 1912 revived
Austro-Russian antagonism, and threatened anew the peace of
Europe.
It remains to describe the attitude to this crisis of the Great
Powers of Europe.
In the Franco-Russian camp, France exercised a moderating in-
fluence. When Poincare (then prime minister) read the text of the
Bulgaro-Serbian convention, he was amazed and protested. "This,"
he said, "is a convention for war." At the request of the French
Government, Russia tried too late to hold back the Balkan States.
In Nov. 1912, at a moment when the question of a Serbian port
on the Adriatic seemed likely to lead to a war between Austria
and Serbia, Russia vainly tried to secure from France a promise
of unconditional support. Thus, the Russian Government, as it
had done in previous crises, once again advised the Serbians to
give way.
Among the Central Powers, in the autumn of 1912, Austria
could reckon on the support of Germany. But when in the summer
of 1913 Vienna thought of intervening, in the "fratricidal strife"
between the Balkan States and of supporting Bulgaria against
Serbia, at the risk of a general war, she was prevented by Germany
and Italy.
The crisis was ended by the Treaty of Bucharest. The victory
of Serbia was a triumph for Russia and a momentous defeat for
Austria-Hungary. At Vienna there was unanimity that the treaty
must be revised. The new and serious factor in the situation was
that Germany, who had held back her ally in 1913, was now re-
solved to assist her. Germany felt that she had reached "a turn-
ing point in the development of her world-power."
There was thus no respite to the feeling of unrest in Europe.
At the end of 1912, the German great general staff demanded an
increase in Germany's army reserve; France replied with the
Three Years' Service Act of Aug. 1913. Austria also increased her
effectives. Russia was engaged in the execution of an armaments
scheme on a large scale, which it was not expected would be com-
pleted before 1917. The British Government was busy laying
down the conditions of naval and military co-operation with the
British dominions. All the Great Powers were thus fairly em-
barked on the "Race of Armaments." Public opinion became
accustomed to the idea of an inevitable war. It should be noted,
however, that neither Great Britain, nor France, nor Russia had
any interest in provoking a general war at that time: Great
Britain because she deemed it impossible to introduce compulsory
military service; France, because she was deficient in heavy artil-
lery; Russia, because she needed several years more to extend
and complete her new programme. In Germany the situation was
very different. The army was ready. In the spring of 1914, General
von Moltke stated that conditions for Germany were as favour-
able as they were ever likely to be. But of all the Great Powers,
Austria-Hungary alone had prepared a plan of action which she
wished to put into execution as soon as possible. The Serajevo
murders gave her the chance to do so.
Serajevo. — The murder, on June 28, 1914, of the Archduke
Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was the
act of Bosnian students, subjects of Austria-Hungary; but the
murderers came from Belgrade, and their arms were of Serbian
origin. The Austrian Government had not the slightest proof that
the Serbian Government was privy to the murder — in fact, it did
not even presume so; but it considered the murder to be the con-
sequence of nationalist propaganda for which official circles at
Belgrade were indirectly responsible.
As a matter of fact, the Austrian Government was mainly
moved by the fact that it regarded the murder as its long looked-
for opportunity to "settle accounts" with Serbia. Its object was
to send a "punitive expedition" against the Serbian kingdom, and
to "eliminate Serbia as a political factor" in the Balkans. On
July 5 the German Government approved the Austrian plan. It
took the view that Austria must act with energy, if she was to
avoid disruption under the pressure of separatist movements.
This was, in Germany's view, a "vital" Austrian interest. But
Russia had to be reckoned with. Unless Russia was prepared to
submit to a humiliation as deep as that of 1908-09, she could
not afford to leave Serbia to be crushed. True, this was not a
"vital interest" in Russia's case; but her prestige as a Great
Power, and the whole of her influence in the Balkans was at stake.
The German Government coolly weighed the risk to European
peace involved in the policy of Austria-Hungary. War against
Serbia might lead to a general war. Nevertheless the Central
350
WAR GUILT
[GERMAN CASE
Powers did not hesitate to provoke the crisis.
Attempted Mediation. — Af ter long and careful preparations,
in which Germany took a share, Austria-Hungary launched at
Serbia's head an ultimatum (July 23) couched in terms such as
almost necessarily to cause a rupture, and then proceeded to
break off diplomatic relations. The danger at once became
apparent. Instantly the Russian Government declared that it
would stand by Serbia; the diplomats set to work to prevent an
Austro-Serbian from becoming an Austro-Russian quarrel. The
Power best adapted to play a mediatory part was Great Britain,
who was not bound by any alliance. Great Britain proposed a
conference of all the Great Powers, except Austria-Hungary and
Russia. Germany refused to "drag her ally before the bar of
Europe." But since Russia was proposing "direct conversations"
between herself and Austria, and since Great Britain was still
engaged in looking for some formula of conciliation, the Gov-
ernment of Vienna, in order, as it said, to avoid any further
attempt at mediation, hastened to declare war on Serbia (July 28,
1914). From a military point of view the declaration was an
idle gesture, as the army was not ready. But the diplomats of
Austria-Hungary were anxious to give the impression that Austria
was about to take immediate action and that she would not allow
herself to be held back by any pressure from outside. This was
a decision fraught with serious consequences, since it was calcu-
lated to provoke "counter-measures" on the part of Russia. Ger-
many was aware of this; nevertheless, she approved the declara-
tion of war; indeed, her ambassador at Vienna had even gone so
far as to advise Austria to declare it.
Russia. — Next Russia took a hand. How was Russia to prove
her will to defend Serbia, except by military measures? Her reply
to the Austrian declaration of war on Serbia was partial mobiliza-
tion (July 29). The following day, in view of Germany's ex-
pressed resolution of supporting Austria-Hungary, Russia decided
on general mobilization, before any similar step had been taken
by any other Great Power. But Sazonov, the Russian minister
for foreign affairs, stated that his troops could remain "for weeks,
with grounded arms, without crossing the frontier." Sazonov was
still ready to negotiate. But it was uncertain whether the Central
Powers were disposed to compromise. The tsar made a personal
suggestion to the kaiser that the Serbian question should be
referred to the Hague Court. The kaiser did not reply: On the
same day (July 30) the Austro-Hungarian Government decided
to reject a further British offer of mediation, namely, the occu-
pation of Belgrade as a pledge, before the initiation of interna-
tional negotiations. Despite the advice of the German chancellor,
Bethmann-Hollweg (who, since he had received reason to fear
that Great Britain would intervene in a general war, had begun
to fear the consequences of his ally's intransigence), the Emperor
Francis Joseph, Count Berchtold, and General Conrad von Hoet-
zendorff, the chief of the Austrian general staff, came to an agree-
ment to eliminate the possibility of any peaceful solution of the
question. The quarrel with Serbia must be settled by arms, even
at the price of a European war. Thus the negotiations upon
which the Russian Government was still ready to enter were
never begun. But the Russian general mobilization provided an
opportunity of precipitating the crisis. On July 31, Austria-
Hungary decided on general mobilization. The German great
general staff, whose whole war plan was dependent on success at
the outset, was afraid of being anticipated by Russia. On the same
day Germany issued her twofold ultimatum. If France was ready
to remain neutral, it was the intention of the German Govern-
ment to demand the fortresses of Toul and Verdun, as a guarantee
of France's neutrality. This demand would clearly force France
to intervene. While the diplomats were roughing out final attempts
at conciliation, the various general staffs were working at full
pressure. It was too late to find a compromise. "Quick action is
Germany's asset," was the reply of von Jagow (German under-
secretary for foreign affairs) to the British ambassador. On
Aug. 2 German troops violated the neutrality of Belgium, accord-
ing to the plan drawn up by the great general staff. On Aug. 3
the British Government asked parliament for war-credits, at the
very moment when Germany was declaring war on France.
Summary. — The above rapid survey points to two conclusions :
1. In the spring of 1914 Europe was in a dangerous situation.
It is true that the system of alliances, the principle of the balance
of power, and the race of armaments had, even more than the
bitterness of economic competition, developed an attitude of mind
which was already in itself a danger to peace. But on which
nation rests the initial responsibility for this situation? Such
responsibility cannot be laid at the door of all the Powers indis-
criminately. Russia must no doubt bear her share of responsi-
bility. But a survey of the development of international relations
during this period shows clearly that the essential raison d'etre of
this atmosphere of unrest in Europe is to be found in the methods
by which German policy was pursued. It is quite possible that
in 1905, and again h\ 1911, Germany did not deliberately desire
war; but she acted as if she desired it. It was the actions of the
Imperial Government which accustomed Europe to the idea of
war.
2. The Serajevo murders gave the Central Powers the desired
opportunity of "improving their position." Austria-Hungary
seized the opportunity and Germany followed her. Properly to
weigh these responsibilities, it is not only the last phase of the
crisis which should be considered ; by then the Governments were
no longer free as against their respective general staffs. They
were fettered by "technical" considerations. Russia hastily de-
cided to transform her partial mobilization into a general mobiliza-
tion. Germany listened to no advice and precipitately declared
war. But what must be considered is: what was the conscious,
considered action of the various Governments during<he period
when they were still masters of their own decisions? The answer
must be that the Austro-Hungarian Government decided to make
war on Serbia, even at the cost of a European war; it rejected
attempts at mediation; it hastened to declare war in order to
prove its will to withstand Europe. Until July 28, Germany
approved the action of Austria-Hungary and unreservedly sup-
ported her. By that date all the essential preliminary conditions
of a European conflict had been brought about by the action of
the Central Powers. (P. RN.)
THE GERMAN CASE
The question of War Guilt, considered as a moral problem,
has no historical foundation, for in 1914 war was an institution
recognized by international law. Among the general causes of
war are : imperialism, nationalism and Chauvinism ; economic com-
petition with its scramble for colonies and markets; armaments,
arousing mutual fear and suspicion; the pursuit of vital interests
and prestige; the obligations of alliances — in short, the entire
political system as it existed before the war and the responsibility
for which is universal.
In this, by an evolution which had partly been developing for
centuries, four main antagonisms had paved the way for the
World War. These were, Franco-German relations and the Alsace-
Lorraine question; the rivalry of Russia and Austria in the
Balkans and Russia's ambitions towards Constantinople; the naval
rivalry between England and Germany; and Italy's aspirations for
Austro-Hungarian territory.
Prussia's increasing strength and her victory in 1866 (Sadowa)
had roused the jealousy of France; the latter was concerned for
her hegemony and determined to prevent the unity of Germany
and, at the same time, to realize her historic claims to the Rhine
territory. It was this, and not the question of the Spanish succes-
sion or the Ems telegram which was the decisive cause of the war
of 1870-71. Europe shared the view of Gladstone and his col-
leagues that France undertook an "immense responsibility" at that
time. Napoleon III. voluntarily acknowledged himself to be the
aggressor. It was considered reasonable and even just that Ger-
many should take back from him the provinces of Alsace and
Lorraine which had previously belonged to her, and of which the
only non-German speaking portion was Metz and the surrounding
district.
Great Britain, among other States, hailed the birth of the
German empire as a counter-weight to France and Russia. Bis-
marck, from 1871 to 1890, was recognized as a "pillar" of Euro-
GERMAN CASE]
WAR GUILT
pean peace. It was he who succeeded in averting the danger of
war between England and Russia (1877-78), between Russia and
Austria (1886-87) and the war of revenge (Boulanger) which
threatened to break out at the same time. Russia's growing hos-
tility after the Congress of Berlin caused Bismarck to form the
alliance with Austria-Hungary (1879) which was acclaimed by
Lord Salisbury. Driven by the canchemar des coalitions Bis-
marck's sole aim in extending his alliances was to ensure the integ-
rity of Germany. This did not involve any prejudice to France;
on the contrary — aided by Bismarck, in the hope of conciliating
her — France was able at that period to acquire extensive and
valuable colonies.
Bismarck's successors, with the same objects in view, lacked
his masterly skill. The non-renewal of the "re-insurance compact"
with Russia (1890) hastened the Franco-Russian rapprochement.
The alliance (1891-93) was nominally, like the Dual Alliance, a
defensive one; whilst, however, the latter was intended to main-
tain existing conditions, France thought to regain her lost prov-
inces and her hegemony, and Russia had in mind her interest in
the Balkans and the Dardanelles.
1896-1904
The division of Europe into two alliances did not, in itself,
constitute a menace to peace. Moreover, the Triple Alliance was
predominant so long as Italy adhered to it and England did not
join either group. But it was just in this respect that important
changes occurred. Delcasse, the French foreign minister, was
able in 1899 to effect a considerable extension of the Franco-
Russian Alliance, which was directed against Germany and based
on the anticipated breaking up of Austria-Hungary; by setting
off Tripoli against Morocco in 1900 arid thus creating a mutual
interest between Italy and France, he succeeded in 1902 in render-
ing Italy a "dead weight" in the Triple Alliance.
Anglo-German Negotiations.— The change in Anglo-German
relations which occurred about the same time was still more im-
portant. Bismarck himself had repeatedly sought to obtain a
union with England. Now, in 1898, the initiative came from
London. Owing to serious friction with Russia and France, the
competent British ministers considered that the time had come for
Britain to abandon her "splendid isolation." Lord Salisbury en-
deavoured, first of all, to make a comprehensive agreement with
Russia on Far Eastern and Turkish questions. When this attempt
failed, owing to Russia's attitude, the Colonial secretary, Joseph
Chamberlain, turned to Germany. His hostility to Russia was
unconcealed; but Germany held back from a reasonable fear of
provoking a war with Russia which would have meant a war with
France also. The British Navy could not offer protection against
the vast Russian armies ; Germany had no wish to "pull the chest-
nuts out of the fire" for England. Nevertheless several colonial
agreements were made between England and Germany. In 1901
negotiations for an alliance were renewed, and the evidence of
the British Foreign Office shows that the initiative came from
Germany. The British cabinet was split: whilst the foreign
secretary, Lord Lansdowne, and a few of his colleagues were in
favour of rapprochement with Germany, the prime minister, Lord
Salisbury, and the under-secretary of State, Bertie, were strongly
opposed to it, and even Lansdowne was sceptical as to the possi-
bility of a genuine alliance. The German proposal was that the
whole British empire on the one side and the whole Triple
Alliance on the other should be regarded as entities and that the
casus foederis should arise in the case of England or one of the
overseas dominions, or alternatively of any member of the Triple
Alliance, being involved in war with more than one Power. Lans-
downe, in view of the existing opposition and the ill-feeling be-
tween the peoples which had been roused by the Boer War, did not
think it possible to achieve such an agreement, but although the
prime minister's view was not in accord with his, he attempted to
come to separate agreements with Germany. German diplomacy
was undoubtedly wrong in not seeking to follow this path, although
the subjects of negotiation (Morocco; the Mediterranean; the
Persian Gulf, etc.) were certain to aggravate the friction with
France and Russia. It is remarkable that at this time the disputes
of 1884-85 between England and Germany on colonial questions
and the Kruger telegram appeared to be completely forgotten;
that the German naval programme of 1897-98 did not affect the
negotiations, and that German statesmen took the ultimate rap-
prochement of Germany and England for granted. Instead of this
— under the zealous efforts of the French Government — that came
to pass which Joseph Chamberlain had predicted: England's
entente with France and Russia.
After the division of Europe into two groups of alliances
(1893) England's relation to these groups became the deciding
factor; and the fact that from the Serajevo murder of 1914 there
arose a World War, was the result of the gradual development of
the alliance system from 1893 onwards. In order to attribute
responsibility justly, therefore, the nature of these two alliances,
their aims and actions, must be carefully considered. It must be
recollected that Lord Salisbury and Sir Francis Bertie wished to
preserve England's isolation as the balance in the scales, and that
the entente with France was formed, not because of Germany's
aggressive attitude, nor because of her fleet, but because London
wished to eliminate all causes of friction with France.
1904-1912
Moroccan Crisis. — In contrast to the Triple Alliance and to
the German proposals for an alliance made to England in 1901,
which aimed at maintaining the status quo, the Anglo-French
entente of 1904 was an agreement made with a view to acquisi-
tions: Egypt, which still belonged to Turkey, was to be acquired
by England, in spite of repeated promises of evacuation; and inde-
pendent Morocco was to be acquired by France. In regard to
Egypt, Germany had always acted in the interests of Great
Britain, but by virtue of treaties she had interests in Morocco;
moreover, the increasing German trade there was greater than
either Italy's or Spain's. In 1901-02 Delcasse had, during secret
negotiations with Spain, provided for concessions to Germany on
the Atlantic coast of Morocco, and England, too, had repeatedly
recognized the German interests in Morocco. France compensated
Italy, Spain and England, but she ignored Germany's interests and
rights. Contrary to the international compact of Madrid (1880)
and the Anglo-French agreement published in 1904, the secret
clauses of the latter, revealed in 1911, anticipated a division of
Morocco between France and Spain. During the negotiations of
1903 Lord Cromer had correctly prophesied that, before long,
Morocco would be a "French province," which, with the French
system of protective tariffs, meant that the commerce of the other
Powers would be suppressed. France, however, already owned a
large colonial empire, which more than sufficed to supply the needs
of her stationary population of 40 million; Germany, on the other
hand only possessed a few colonies of no great value, and had a
population of 60 million which was increasing year by year and
could not be supplied from her own products. Germany, therefore,
had a vital interest in keeping open the markets of the world.
That was the chief motive for her attitude in 1905, when France's
intentions, in accordance with Lord Cromer's prediction, became
apparent. The reaction to France's provocative behaviour and the
desire to protect Germany's disregarded rights, resulted in the
landing of William II. at Tangier (March 1905) and the demand
for an international conference. All this was accompanied by an
undercurrent of misconceptions and blunders.
In view of the Russo-Japanese War, the time seemed to Ger-
many favourable for an attempt to shatter the entente, and she
worked for the downfall of the admittedly dangerous Delcasse*,
of whom the premier, Rouvier, equally recognizing his danger,
wished to be rid in any case. It would have been wiser if Ger-
many had pursued the negotiations for compensations offered by
Rouvier. However, there was no thought of war with France;
the shortlived treaty of Bjorkoe (1905) envisaged rather a rap-
prochement between France, Germany and Russia. This treaty
was intended to protect the Continental Powers from English
encroachments. At the Conference at Algeciras, which welded the
entente, Germany secured equal commercial rights in Morocco,
whilst France and Spain obtained rights of a political nature.
The Anglo-Russian entente (1907), actively promoted by
352
WAR GUILT
[GERMAN CASE
France, was also acquisitive in character, and was again mainly
formed at the expense of a free, independent country — Persia.
One of the aims of this agreement al$o was to prevent Germany
from gaining any political influence in Persia, and to exclude her
as far as possible from any economic advantages. Germany, iso-
lated with Austria-Hungary, from the Powers, raised no protest.
Bosnia-Hercegovina.— In the middle of Sept. 1908 the Rus-
sian and Austrian foreign ministers came on principle to an agree-
ment in regard to the early annexation of the provinces of Bosnia
and Hercegovina (which the Congress of Berlin, 1878, had placed
under the administration of Austria-Hungary), in return for
Vienna's diplomatic support for the opening of the Dardanelles
to Russian battleships. Iswolski believed that he could gain the
support of the entente for his aims; he failed chiefly in Lon-
don. Berlin had no hand in the affair, but in the crisis which
followed the annexation (1908) she afforded her ally uncon-
ditional support, under the firm conviction that war between the
Powers would not take place. Serbia, which Iswolski had been
prepared to sacrifice to his own interests, egged on by Russia, de-
manded quite unjustified compensation, and mobilized. As the
crisis in 1909 threatened to lead to war between Austria and
Serbia, the German Government put an end to it in the interests of
general peace by an ultimative message to St. Petersburg. Is-
wolski, whose plans had failed mainly through his own fault,
became henceforward an irreconcilable enemy of Austria-Hungary.
Naval Competition. — In the meantime Germany's naval
policy had entered upon a dangerous path. She had the right in
common with the other Great Powers, to provide for the defence
of her overseas interests, which were then developing with im-
petuous energy. But England felt that the Tirpitz programme, the
principal factor in the relations between England and Germany,
was of a threatening nature. The fleet, however, had not been
built for purposes of attack, but in order to deter England from
attacking. Germany's fear of British supremacy on the sea played,
in this case, as important a part as England's fear of a German
invasion, although competent Englishmen regarded this invasion
as impracticable. With the agreement of 1913 fixing the propor-
tions of ships at 16:10, naval rivalry lost most of its acuteness.
Agadir Crisis.— -It is true that Kaiser William II. was a dis-
quieting element in European politics; his personality, however,
was by no means warlike. It was with reason that, at the very
beginning of his reign, those who were closely connected with him
perceived in his blusterings a feeling of uncertainty, even of fear,
and saw in him pathological traits. Besides, apart from the
question of the navy, William II. certainly had no deciding voice
in German policy. The Morocco episodes, for example, were not
in accordance with his views.
After a Franco-German agreement for economic co-operation in
Morocco (1909), the carrying out of which on the part of France
gave Germany the right to complain, France, in the spring of
1911, in spite of Germany's representations, broke the Treaty of
Algeciras by the march on Fez. France recognized that the Ger-
man claims for compensation were justified, but the negotiations
did not progress very fast, so in July, Germany sent a gunboat
to Agadir. This "thumping on the diplomatic table" was a reaction
to previous provocation. France knew that Germany wanted
nothing for herself in Morocco; Germany had no warlike inten-
tion, but wished only, by compensation, to put an end to the
Morocco question once and for all. With the consent of Sir
Edward Grey, who was thoroughly mistrustful cf Germany and
insufficiently informed, Lloyd George delivered a threatening
speech against Germany, which precipitated the crisis. Supported
by England, France received the lion's share in the agreement of
Nov. 1911. The crisis had serious results: the independence of
Morocco being at an end, Italy resolved to seize Tripoli, her share
of the booty, by force also, and the consequent weakening of
Turkey in its turn caused the Balkan States to go to war.
1912-1914
The Balkan Crisis,— The Russian defeat of 1905 and the
entente with England, 1907, had led Russia again towards her
"European aims." The Bosnian crisis was a result of this develop-
ment. Russian diplomacy now aimed at the union of the Balkan
States. When the prime minister, Poincare, at St. Petersburg,
heard of the Serbo-Bulgarian alliance (1912), he at once made
urgent representations against this "war" convention. This, too,
was a treaty of acquisition. Russia was unable to prevent the
Balkan States from attacking Turkey. According to Poincar6
Russia "had started the motor." A remarkable change took place
in Paris on the unexpectedly rapid collapse of Turkey. As lately
as the Bosnian crisis France had declared that she would not let
herself be involved in war because of Russian interests in the
Balkans, but now French experts and statesmen considered the
chances of Russia and France in the case of a general conflict to
be "very optimistic." Paris took the point of view that the
maintenance of the balance of power in the Balkans affected
French interests; henceforward France nourished the Russo-
French alliance by the Austro-Russian rivalry.
In Feb. 1913, the Russian ambassador in London arrived at the
conclusion that of the Powers France alone would see war de-
clared without great regrets. On the other hand, the English and
German Governments were working together for peace. Austria-
Hungary, indeed, joined with Italy in preventing Serbia from
obtaining a footing on the Adriatic, but accepted Serbia's
enormous increase in territory; and when Austria-Hungary wished
to intervene in the "fratricidal" war (of the Balkan States) in
favour of Bulgaria she was prevented by Germany and Italy.
With the Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 1913) which resulted in the
practical withdrawal of Rumania from the Triple Alliance, Aus-
tria-Hungary found herself heavily handicapped. Russia had com-
pletely wiped out her humiliation of 1908-09 and the entente had
acquired predominance over the Central Powers not only diplo-
matically but also materially. The cohesion of these groups of
alliances obviously contained the danger of local conflicts turning
into a world conflagration. Realizing this the Government of the
Reich sought repeatedly to renew good relations with Russia
(Bjb'rkoe, Potsdam) and especially with England. The neutrality
negotiations of the Haldane Mission of 1912 broke down at the
end because of mutual mistrust. But Anglo-German colonial
treaties, which were about to be signed in 1914, loosened the ten-
sion of the relations between the two Powers, after London had
at last withdrawn her objections to the Baghdad railway, in which
in 1903 she had refused to take her fair share. France and Russia
were displeased with these developments; France intervened de-
cidedly in the Anglo-German neutrality negotiations and in 1914
actively promoted closer relations between England and Russia,
for the foreign minister, Sasonov recognized that in a general war
it was the British fleet alone that could be relied upon with cer-
tainty to give Germany her death blow.
Armaments. — The Foreign Office had, as early as the close of
the century, described the situation of Germany between France
and Russia as dangerous, and as critical should England come to
an understanding with France (and Russia). The renewed
shuffling of power in the Balkans forced the German Government
in 1913 largely to increase its army. Simultaneously France re-
introduced three years' service, a burden which could not have
been borne for any length of time. At the Hague Conferences,
Germany's attitude had differed from the others more in appear-
ance than in principle. If German militarism was especially
obvious, France in actual numbers was militarized to a far greater
extent; up to 1913 only 55% and subsequently 68% of the man
power in Germany against 75% in France. But Russia was the
most zealous in arming, having been financed for this purpose by
France to the extent of many milliards. In 1914 the peace
strength of the Central Powers (without Italy) amounted to
1,239,000 men against 2,239,000 (and 2,639,000 in the winter
half-year) for France and Russia; the war strength 3,358,000,
against 5,070,000.
In the winter of 1913-14 the Liman von Sanders affair brought
about a new crisis. Russia considered her interests in the Darda-
nelles to be imperilled; England held aloof; Germany was con-
ciliatory; France, however, accentuated her attitude of 1912-13:
the ambassador Delcass£ assured Russia on behalf of the French
foreign minister "that France would support Russia to whatever
GERMAN CASE]
WAR GUILT
353
extent she required.'* The Russian war minister and the chief of
the general staff declared categorically that "Russia was fully
prepared for a duel with Germany" and Austria-Hungary. In
Feb. 1914, a conference of ministers at St. Petersburg decided
to make preliminary preparations for a later conquest of the
Dardanelles. About this time, Delcasse repeatedly discussed
France's war aim with Sasonov — the Russo-French alliance had
gradually acquired the meaning that Russia should receive Con-
stantinople and France Alsace-Lorraine. In this, Russia counted
for certain on Serbia's support. As early as 1908-09 it had held
out hopes to Serbia of the acquisition of Austro-Hungarian terri-
tory. These promises were renewed in 1912-13, the minister Hart-
wig at Belgrade acting as a dangerous element in this matter.
While Russia was in no way threatened from abroad, Austria-
Hungary's existence was imperilled by Russia's Pan-Slav Balkan
policy which furthered the undermining of Bosnia and Herce-
govina by Serbian societies. Germany herself was greatly alarmed
about Russia's mighty war-preparations and the imminence of an
Anglo-Russian naval convention. In all the chancelleries of
Europe, war was considered to be inevitable. The chiefs of the
general staffs, Moltke and Conrad, anxious about the security of
the Central Powers, spoke of a preventive war. To this Bethmann-
Hollweg — and also the kaiser — was definitely averse. As in Berlin
and Vienna, in St. Petersburg, Paris and London there were highly
placed officers who, confident of victory, desired war, and this not
merely for the maintenance of the status quo. Colonel House
found, in the early summer of 1914, that France and Russia were
ready to take action as soon as England would agree. And in this
war-charged atmosphere the crown prince, Archduke Francis Ferdi-
nand, a pillar of the Danubian monarchy, was murdered on June
28, 1914. It was the spark in the powder magazine of Europe.
Serajevo. — A colonel of the Serbian general staff and a Ser-
bian major had organized the assassination; it was carried out by
Bosnians. The Serbian Government had had knowledge of the
plan, but after a weak effort to prevent it, had let the plot
proceed. Vienna did not know this, but at once established that
Major Tankositsch and the Serbian frontier officials had aided
the murderers in a decisive manner. The Serbian menace was sud-
denly laid bare; the indirect responsibility of Serbia could not be
questioned. From Berlin and other quarters Serbia was repeatedly
urged to investigate the plot, but trusting in Russia's protection,
for weeks Serbia did nothing and was thus guilty of a grave dere-
liction of duty.
In the place of an intended diplomatic action, Vienna decided,
after the murder, on a punitive expedition against Serbia, which
was to be eliminated as a political factor. Berlin agreed to this
on July 5-6, and indeed encouraged quick action, on the assump-
tion that the outraged public opinion of the world would be in
sympathy. The vital interests of Germany's only certain ally
appeared seriously menaced and her own position affected. It
was thought that neither Russia nor France was ready for war
and that their entry into war was improbable, although this was
taken into account. It was believed that England would remain
neutral, and this would restrain France and Russia from extreme
action. This was a gross misunderstanding of the situation.
Even before they were acquainted with Austria's ultimatum
(July 23) Russia and France adopted a common programme for
the preservation of Serbian integrity and sovereignty. But
Vienna's ultimatum and intentions touched both these points.
Already on the afternoon of the 25th the French ambassador in
St. Petersburg gave formal assurance that France placed herself
"unreservedly" on Russia's side. On the same evening Vienna, on
the receipt of an unsatisfactory reply and in view of Serbian
mobilization, which had been begun, broke off relations with
Serbia and ordered the mobilization of eight army corps against
Serbia. Simultaneously, the "war preparation period" began in
Russia. Following Austria's declaration of war on Serbia, which
was issued with Germany's knowledge on July 28, Russia ordered,
on the 29th, a partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary, after
the tsar had first consented to the general mobilization. Yet the
danger of a general war, which had now arisen, might still have
been averted.
Diplomacy.— London was the deciding factor for both sides.
Timely declarations in Berlin and Vienna at an earlier moment
would have led to the giving up of the proposed programme,
warnings in St. Petersburg against too hasty military preparations
would have secured the necessary time ifor the completion of
negotiations. But Anglo-French military and naval conventions,
the whole policy of the entente, had created a moral bond, a
pledge of honour for England towards France. Russia and France
now counted on this. Sir Edward Grey had the fullest confidence
in the desire of France and Russia for peace and had the greatest
mistrust of Germany, whose ostensible plans of hegemony were as
much feared by the Foreign Office as a break with Russia in the
event of support being refused. Instead of warning the Russians,
Grey encouraged them on July 25 in their mobilization against
Austria-Hungary, on the quite groundless assumption that Ger-
man preparations were rfiuch further advanced than the Russian.
Grey, however, did not want war and worked zealously for peace.
But his proposal for a Conference was not practical, for the
crisis demanded a rapid decision. In this respect Rome made
the best proposal : namely that Serbia should offer to Europe the
acceptance of the entire ultimatum in exchange for a European
guarantee for Serbia. Berlin recommended this solution in
Vienna. On the Serbian reply William II. declared (July 28)
that Austria had no further ground for war. Serious reports re-
garding England's attitude furthered this change of policy. Ber-
lin urged Vienna to be satisfied with a "material security"; and
Grey put forward similar proposals at the same time.
Russia. — Berlin further sought to promote the conversations
between Vienna and St. Petersburg that Germany had instigated;
Grey also considered this the best course. A proposal of the
tsar to submit the dispute to The Hague was not accepted even by
Sasonov; he regarded the general war as a fact after the
declaration of war on Serbia and the bombardment of Belgrade
on the 29th. He had, in his own words, from that time lost all
interest in the negotiations — he was in fact entirely for war. It
was otherwise in Berlin; realizing the danger, the Government
was from the 2Qth entirely for peace. It increased the pressure
on Vienna begun on the 28th even to the point of threatening
withdrawal of support. Vienna, which had left Berlin inade-
quately informed on important matters, now agreed on the
3oth-3ist to assure Serbia's integrity and sovereignty. Thus the
Russo-French programme was practically carried out. But at the
same time Russia, by her general mobilization ordered on the
afternoon of the 3Oth on purely technical grounds, precipitated
the general war. For this mobilization, because of Germany's
dangerous situation between two fronts, and even in the opinion
of the experts of the Triple Alliance, made war inevitable. It
was different as regards the general mobilization ordered in Aus-
tria-Hungary on mid-day of the 3ist on the ground of Russia's
partial mobilization; according to the Russo-French military
convention, Russian and French mobilization was to be ordered,
not on Austria's mobilization but only subsequent to that of Ger-
many's, whereas the opposite occurred in 1914, indicating the ag-
gressiveness of Russia's step. In this France did not seriously
restrain Russia; rather Russia was encouraged by the Quai d'Orsay
and by the French minister for war, in the same way as Moltke
intervened in Vienna, where the German ambassador pushed on in
the same way as the French ambassador in St. Petersburg. How-
ever Count Berchtold has certified that he was influenced neither
by von Tschirschky nor by von Moltke. On July 31, the French
Government declared itself determined on war although her alli-
ance with Russia had not come into play.
Sir Edward Grey recognized that the Russian general mobiliza-
tion had precipitated the crisis. If London and Paris had brought
similar pressure to bear on St. Petersburg, as Berlin had on
Vienna from the 28th onwards, the peace of Europe might have
been maintained.
On Russia's decisive action, Germany on the 3ist, declared a
state of war emergency (Kriegsgefahrzustand) to exist and sent
an ultimatum to Russia and France, as French diplomats had
expected; the demand for the surrender of Toul and Verdun
was not presented in Paris. In taking its military measures, Ger-
354
WAR GUILT
[TWO SIDES OF TRUTH
many was always behind France, even in the mobilization on
Aug. i. Germany's declaration of war on Russia on the ist and
on France on the 3rd was, according to the Franco-Italian agree-
ment of 1902, fully justified. As recognized by international ex-
perts, if Germany, in her hemmed-in position, was to have a
chance of success in a war on two fronts, she must first attack
France through Belgium. But before the German ultimatum to
Belgium was known, England had practically been drawn into the
war on Aug. 2, in consequence of the Anglo-French naval conven-
tion. The breach of Belgian neutrality became the ostensible and
popular casus belli. Italy decided on temporary neutrality, in view
of her relations with Austria-Hungary and above all because of
England's attitude.
Summary. — To summarize the deeper causes of the war: so
long as the Triple Alliance was predominant and Russia was
occupied in Asia, peace reigned in Europe. Yet with the partition
of North Africa (Tripoli-Egypt-Morocco) and Persia by the
Entente, together with France's aggression in Morocco and the
pursuit of Russia's European aims, the violent progress of which
was only made possible by France's milliards, crisis followed
crisis (1905, 1908, 1911, 1912/13). Germany, indeed, contributed
her share by her naval development and her misunderstood "Welt-
politik" by her blustering and blunders; but it was not over-
populated and economically restricted Germany which acquired
great and rich territories, but the Entente, already blessed with
colonies.
As regards the crisis of July 1914, it must above all be remem-
bered that Austria-Hungary was on the defensive, whereas Russia
herself was not threatened. In order to draw up a scale for gauging
the responsibility for the war, the following points should be
stated: the first assault on the peace of the world was the murder
at Serajevo (Serbia-Russia; Austria-Hungary); the second the
ultimatum and the declaration of war on Serbia (Austria-Hun-
gary and Germany) ; the third and the decisive assault was the
Russian general mobilization (Russia-France-England). From
this it appears that of the Great Powers, Russia was the most
guilty: then Austria-Hungary. Moreover, all the Great Powers
placed their1 own interests above world peace; yet only France,
Russia and Austria-Hungary had in 1914 definite war aims (Al-
sace-Lorraine, the Dardanelles, Serbia). It is, therefore, clear,
that the Versailles thesis regarding war guilt is entirely untenable.
It was a disaster for Europe, that there was nowhere at the
head of the Great Powers an outstanding statesman, able to
master the crisis of 1914; for the great mass of the peoples had
no desire for war. (H. Lu.)
THE TWO SIDES OF TRUTH
To compare year by year, crisis by crisis, detail by detail, the
preceding narratives would serve no good purpose. Monsieur
Renouvin concludes that the World War when it came, broke out
for two principal reasons. First, because Austria-Hungary was
determined at any risk to reduce Serbia to subjection once for all ;
and to do this in conspicuous defiance of Russia. Second, be-
cause Berlin brought no firm restraining influence to bear upon
Vienna. Herr Lutz decides that in the ominous decade before
the war the Triple Entente obstructed the claims of Germany to
a just share of colonial expansion; and, by its pro-Slav policy in
Eastern Europe, imperilled the integrity and the very existence
of the old Habsburg Double-Monarchy, compelled at last to fight
for its life when its maintenance seemed most vital to the future
safety of Germany as well. As for the more immediate ante-
cedents of the catastrophe in the summer of 1914, Herr Lutz finds
that the Serbian Government was a passive accessory to the
murder of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand ; that the extreme puni-
tive action resolved upon at Vienna was justified in principle ; that
Russia, as the first Power to order general mobilization, incurred
the blame for precipitating inevitably, a general conflict; but
that Austria-Hungary to some lesser extent must be held re-
sponsible because of its previous partial mobilization, its resort
to the first actual declaration of war (against Serbia, July 28),
and its firing of the first shots (July 29) when Belgrade was
bombarded.
Part of the French case is that Britain did not give in time a
decisive warning to Germany. Part of the German case is that
Britain exerted no decisive restraint on Russia. These two deeply
contradictory views are, however, charges of weakness or mis-
judgment against Lord Grey and the Asquith ministry, not charges
of "guilt" for disastrous action like Austria-Hungary's to begin
with and Russia's afterwards. The former Allies as a whole
remain almost unanimously of the opinion that the most fatal
influence of all was the disinclination of Germany to modify
firmly those suicidal counsels at Vienna which led, in fact, to the
total destruction and disappearance of the historic Habsburg
monarchy. But even this opinion, however definite, does not — as
we shall sec — imply any accusation of "guilt," in the sense of
conscious, deliberate wrongdoing against William II. and his
advisers; much less against the mass of the German people under
the conditions of that regime.
Examples of Controversy About Former Wars, — We must
all bend ourselves to realize how questions and their merits ap-
peared at. the time to others; to antagonists as well as to allies. To
bring to bear this just psychology, and equal understanding, is
amongst the chief duties and best offices of impartial history.
After the wars of former centuries and generations, questions of
relative sin and righteousness were the theme of complicated
controversies long since dead. In the middle of the i9th century,
the moral and legal principles at stake in the small Schleswig-
Holstein affair gave rise to a voluminous and now insupportable
literature. At an earlier period most English people regarded
France as a wicked nation and Napoleon as a bad man. Similar
feelings had prevailed in America about George III. — a rigid pat-
tern of intentional virtue — and in France about Mr. Pitt conceived
as an evil manipulator of gold against the purest aspirations of
humanity. For long after 1871 the popular German view was
that France had provoked hostilities by arrogant vanity and ag-
gressive presumption. The ordinary French view was that Bis-
marck with iron immorality had lured France into war; and that
while "old Germany" in its divided state had represented an
amiable and virtuous civilization the spirit of "Prussia" was
essentially malign. Again when we go back to the origins of mod-
ern Europe, we arc confronted with the hundred years of religious
wars springing out of the Reformation. To attempt now with
regard to them a distribution of responsibilities in terms of rela-
tive guilt as between different persons, creeds and States would
be ludicrous. We know that though material self-interests of
all kinds were more and more involved, the deepest motives were
spiritual; born out of irreconcilable differences of conviction
respecting truth and right, life and eternity.
Not "Guilt" but "True Tragedy."— The characteristic
thought of the English-speaking races applies these analogies to
the World War. From this standpoint Article 231 of the Treaty of
Versailles has no moral weight nor judicial validity. The com-
parative error or sagacity of different Governments and systems,
their degrees of worse or better judgment, remain to be weighed;
but the conception of "Guilt," especially as implying a moral
stain upon particular nations, entirely disappears. A line in
Shakespeare considered by many to be the deepest of all applies
singularly to the psychology of nations and races in this sphere:
"There's nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so." Burke
reminds us that we cannot frame an indictment against a whole
people. Hegel said that true tragedy is not a conflict between
right and wrong but "between Right and Right." This is ac-
cepted as a familiar truth in private affairs, and in party-crises
in the same nation such as have sometimes led to civil war.
Only the same principle raised to its highest power can explain
the origins of the World War — the supreme tragedy of European
history.
Five Centuries of Causation.— Let us remember that some
of the remoter causes were centuries earlier than any modern
responsibility. The results particularly of the Turkish invasion
of Europe and of the Reformation wars remained a definite in-
fluence upon the European situation at the ominous beginning of
the 20th century. Again, the new political forces set up by the
French Revolution continued to work by action and reaction.
TWO SIDES OF TRUTH]
WAR GUILT
355
Nationalism became more and more a dominating impulse be-
queathed by the igih century to its successor. Subject races
aspired to freedom and equality; divided races to unity. Older
historic systems, thus threatened with disintegration, strove to
maintain themselves. In the dozen years between 1859 and 1871
— far-reaching indeed in their effect on. the following generations
— repeated wars changed altogether the former aspect of Europe ;
while in the same momentous period occurred the American Civil
War and the Japanese revolution. In Italy began (1859-66),
the long liquidation of the Habsburg imperial system deriving
from mediaeval conditions supplemented later by the partition of
Poland. But Italian unity was not yet completed: the recovery
of the Trentino from Austria remained a further goal. Above all
"by iron and by blood," as Bismarck said, a new German empire
was created in spite of France; and on the plea of right as well
as that of security, Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by the con-
querors.
1871-1890. The Genius of Bismarck's Peace-system and
its Collapse. — With this fateful event in 1871 any closer scrutiny
into modern responsibilities must begin. Tragedy in Hegel's sense
enters here into the soul of European affairs; but there is no
question of guilt. The standpoints of these two great nations
were opposed, partly unintelligible to each other. In what France
thought was a crime, German enthusiasm saw not only historic
justice but racial idealism. And also practical necessity. Moltke
held that in any case, Germany would have to stand on guard
for 50 years. In 1877-78 came a crisis quite equally fateful when
Russia in arms began the final liquidation of the old Turkish
empire in Europe. The larger part of civilized opinion held that
moral right was on the side of Russia as the champion of the
Christian races in revolt. But the Turks believed themselves to
be doing their duty in defending very bravely what for so long
had been their own. This is a typical example of that kind of
conflict between dying systems and rising causes which reached
its culmination some decades later in the World War. For at the
same time, Russian policy, after the victory over Turkey, threat-
ened to open, at no distant remove, a further process of "liquid-
ation" in Austria-Hungary itself. But that process might leave
Germany isolated and menaced all round — "Feinde ringsum."
Bismarck, for this time, had to join in checking Russia at the
Berlin Congress (1878). He had based himself as long as possible
on friendship with the tsardom, but its ultimate hostility in con-
junction with France was now conceivable. Beset henceforth with
reason, by his cauchemar des coalitions, the Iron Chancellor
formed the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy.
Austria-Hungary had occupied Bosnia and Hercegovina. These
Slav provinces were essential to the coming cause of Serbian
nationalism, then young raw and underestimated but to prove
in the sequel one of the most passionate and desperate of all
nationalisms.
In this way within little more than a decade after the annexation
of Alsace-Lorraine most principal motives of the final tragedy
already existed both in the west and east of Europe. But Bis-
marck's aim was peace. He maintained it for another decade with
unparalleled dexterity. Humouring France when he could, he yet
kept her isolated. He prevented colonial friction with Britain
from coming to a breach. Above all, in spite of the Triple Alliance,
he repaired "the wire to Petersburg" by the "Re-insurance
Treaty." This in effect guaranteed Russia absolutely against Aus-
tro-Hungarian aggression in the Balkans, while his earlier instru-
ment guaranteed the integrity of the Habsburg realms against Rus-
sian aggression. Bismarck's dismissal in the spring of 1890 by the
young German emperor, clever and superficial, demonstrative
but weak, bent on a personal r6gime for which he was exception-
ally unfitted — this, in reality, was a more tragic event than the
assassination of the archduke nearly a quarter of a century later.
At once, every trace of the great chancellor's managing and
almost conjuring genius disappeared from the conduct of German
policy. To the astonishment of Petersburg the "Re-in&irance
Treaty" due for renewal at that moment was allowed to lapse.
Then the Franco-Russian alliance was formed at last. The most
characteristic part of the Bismarckian system of security was
thus destroyed. Neither France nor Russia could be blamed at
all for resorting to mutual support in these circumstances. Yet
the new German policy, abandoning the secret and complicated
arrangement with the tsardom, conceived itself as withdrawing
from a double game; and undoubtedly meant to be not less but
more honest though in truth it was only more crude.
Thus the first fatal misjudgment of the Williamite regime was
in a moral sense the reverse of "Guilty."
1890-1907. Anglo-German Antagonism and Diplomatic
Revolution. — Next came by degrees the doubly-fatal breach
with Britain. The details of that process must be excluded here.
The main matter is plain. The new German empire had become
a great industrial and commercial power with vital maritime
interests and colonial possessions which it regarded as unjustly
limited and inadequate by comparison with those of Britain,
France, Belgium and Portugal (not to speak of Russia with its
vast Siberian extension). Germany, in principle, was absolutely
entitled to aim at the creation of a formidable sea-power in
addition to its immense military power. It was a matter not of
morals but of practical judgment. Britain already was dangerously
isolated. Her Government tried through nearly four years (1898-
1901) to remedy this untenable situation by repeated efforts at
alliance with Germany. Berlin preferred to keep a free hand;
but leaned more towards Russia; and unswervingly built up the
new fleet while mutual hostility ceaselessly increased between the
German and the British peoples. Sea-security to the island was
all in all; continued isolation became unthinkable. "Provident
fear is the mother o-f safety." This became a growing thought.
Germany could not realize or appreciate the significance of the
insular spirit of far-sighted precaution and of reluctant but deter-
mined resource.
Between 1903 and 1908 during King Edward's short reign —
though his personal influence was no initiating factor — the former
diplomatic system was revolutionized in Europe and Asia. Britain
allied herself with Japan; then settled all her old controversies
with France; and succeeded next in coming to a better under-
standing with Russia. Thus the Triple Entente of Britain, France
and Russia was founded. Not only so. Italy, in these circum-
stances, could no longer be reckoned upon by Berlin or Vienna.
From 1902 she was fairly, certain not to act against France or
Britain. The destruction of Bismarck's system under his suc-
cessors was already almost total. For different reasons Britain
and Russia were now antagonized as well as France, while Italy
still a nominal ally was in reality detached. But William II. and
his advisers had no criminal consciousness at any point. They
supposed themselves to be acting for the best on behalf of
Germany's life and hope. They were only, in political foresight
and judgment, as inferior as the Iron Chancellor had been
superior.
1908-1913. Fatal Years. Dying Systems and Rising
Forces.— We come to the last half-decade before the World War.
To speak of "guilt" in connection with the rival forces, inspired by
irreconcilable ideas of justification, is an extreme triviality. In
1908 the Young Turk revolution shook the Balkans and altered
all prospects in that quarter. Austria-Hungary under Aehren-
thal's too emphatic guidance formally annexed Bosnia and Herce-
govina occupied without permanent title 30 years before. This
to most of the world seemed only a technical or nominal violation
of the Treaty of Berlin. In its way it was serious as an arbitrary
example. Far worse, Serbian national feeling looking forward to
union with those two provinces (since incorporated in Yugoslavia)
rose in violent and warlike protest. It was supported by Russia —
bitterly disappointed in a recent hope of obtaining by under-
standing with Vienna her historic aim of free naval communi-
cation between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. At the end
of March 1909 Germany's appearance "in shining armour,"
beside Austria-Hungary, compelled Russia and Serbia to yield —
and wait.
This episode was of quite fatal effect. It was not fully under-
stood until the appearance after the war of the memoirs of
the Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff, General Conrad von Hoetzen-
dorff. A new military convention in this spring of 1909 had
fettered Germany to the obsolete Habsburg monarchy in a way
that would have appalled Bismarck. If that monarchy should
356
WAR GUILT
ITWO SIDES OF TRUTH
feel itself compelled for the sake of its existence to move against
Serbia, it was to be supported by Germany at any cost against
Russian interference. From that moment, Vienna — not Berlin —
had the initiative. Thus disappeared the last vestige of Bismarck's
system of control. But the reason was clear. Now, indeed,
it was too plain that the old Chancellor's cauehemar des coalitions
might become in the next few years the grimmest of realities.
The Danubian double-monarchy with its medley of jarring nation-
alities— subject but rising races forming a majority of its popu-
lation— was now Germany's last and indispensable ally amongst
the Powers. Germans feared now that the further weakening and
gradual disintegration of this last ally, Austria-Hungary, would
lead to the utter isolation and perhaps the downfall of the
German Fatherland itself. This gives the key to the rest of
the tragedy.
Events soon took a turn that neither the Wilhclmstrasse nor
the Ballplatz had anticipated for a moment when German policy
became inextricably entangled with that of Vienna. Contrary
to their expectations Turkey was overthrown in 1912 by the
Balkan League of Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. The Serbian
victories and territorial gains were from the Austro-Hungarian
point of view an almost deadly menace. Had not Mazzini said
with a wonderful flash of prophecy more than half a century
before, "The Turkish question will be no sooner solved than the
Austrian question will be raised." When the Balkan confederates
turned their arms against each other in the second Balkan War
(1913) Bulgaria went down under attacks by all her neighbours
and Serbia was strengthened again. Every disruptive force in the
Dual Monarchy was stimulated. Even Rumania ceased to be a
friend and threatened to become an enemy with a view to racial
reunion with Transylvania where a large Rumanian majority
chafed under Magyar rule. When 1914 opened, peace between
the Great Powers had been preserved with difficulty. It lasted
only for a few months more. The Serb racial agitation threat-
ened— legitimately from the standpoint of all rising nationalisms —
the disruption of the Habsburg system. Vienna as inevitably —
holding by tradition and conviction an opposite view of rights,
loyalties and duties — felt that a struggle to suppress the larger
hopes of Serbian nationalism was an approaching necessity of
life and death. "Tragedy is not the conflict of right and wrong
but of Right and Right" — as variously and irreconcilably judged
by mortal seeing before the event,
July 1914. The Explosion of a Continent.— This was the
situation when on June 28, 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand
and his wife were assassinated by young Bosnian-Serb fanatics
at Serajevo, his arrival there for military manoeuvres appearing
as an ostentatious threat to the Serb idea. The crime was
atrocious. There can be little doubt that the Belgrade Govern-
ment had scent of the plot and might possibly have averted the
murders by more energetic action. But this is not quite sure.
Nor does the point touch the real question. Episodes of violent
crime have been the common accompaniment of the struggles
of subject and divided races for freedom and unity. This has
never been held to be a just cause for inflicting the capital
penalty upon any national movement as a whole.
But from the standpoint of Vienna, the Habsburg cause was
supreme by right, criminally jeopardised, and the occasion
uniquely favourable. For the preservation of the Dual Monarchy
— Germany's last ally — independent Serbia was to be reduced to
insignificance. Berlin agreed — not conscious of "guilt" but, on
the contrary, satisfied as to the essential moral justice of the
procedure of the two Central Empires; and even unable for
some weeks to appreciate any wider view. At Berlin the old
dominant Bismarckian spirit of many-sided sagacity and provi-
dential precaution no longer existed. Ignoring Russia, Vienna
launched its terms of annihilating humiliation upon Belgrade.
This unparalleled ultimatum was intensely convinced, but almost
insanely rash as seen from the standpoint of any practical desire
for the maintenance of general peace. The only real hope for
peace was to submit the issue to a European tribunal, such as in
a similar crisis, now, would follow as a matter of course from
the principles of the League of Nations. Lord Grey's proposals
for conference in this spirit were not accepted. Austria-Hungary,
when Serbian submission to the unparalleled ultimatum was
humble enough but not quite complete, mobilized eight army
corps; declared war on Serbia; and on July 29 fired the first shots
of the World War by bombarding Belgrade. This procedure,
though actuated by a conviction of Right, rested upon a deeply
mistaken presumption of Might.
Russia, dreading renewed joint action by the Central Empires,
and prepared to face anything rather than submit again to an
arbitrary summons to stand aside abjectly, took the desperate
course of decreeing general mobilization.
As the world was then arranged, with no accepted international
system of peaceful procedure, the tsardom was within its right as
a Great Power which could not be expected to remain subject
merely to fear. Germany was compelled as a matter of course
to mobilize at once, since her own existence might depend on that
advantage of rapid efficiency which her whole national system
for many years had been organized to gain. No people could be
more convinced than were the Germans at that moment that
they were standing for their life and that of their last ally, and
that they had their quarrel just. France was as fully involved
by her own alliance and situation.
Germany, on the plea, and under the conviction, of stark neces-
sity, forced, in accordance with the Schlieffen plan, a military
passage through neutral Belgium.
Britain, where otherwise divisions of opinion might possibly
have prevented immediate interference, was unavoidably drawn in,
at once, by the violation of Belgium. For her also atid for her
empire the issue of life and death had arisen.
The Moral: "Thinking Made It So."— As has been seen,
full agreement, in different, countries, between equally dispas-
sionate students, of the facts and documents, is still impossible
regarding the relative merits of the causes at stake and the op-
posite policies pursued. There is no objective standard whereby
to measure the inward psychological factors which impelled the
external machinery. For half a century, as we know, the rivalry
of higher convictions and devotions, as well as of interests in
the lower sense, had been tending by a gigantic accumulation of
armaments, to this terrible issue and no other. The process as
Prince Billow said long in advance was that of "pressure, counter-
pressure, explosion." For over 40 years every step in the working
out of the world tragedy led to steps still more ominous. Two
things seem especially clear to the present writer, (i) Amongst
single personal events and influences the most fatal were the
dismissal of Bismarck in 1890; and William II.'s contrasting un-
wisdom. To him as much as to any figure in history applies
Voltaire's word, "fate is temperament." (2) The Habsburg
monarchy, now vanished, worked out its own doom. New national-
isms proved as destructive to it as to its former neighbouring
empire, Turkey in Europe. The archduke's assassination, exciting
universal horror, was a favourable moment for appealing at once
to the European Areopagus as Lord Grey entreated later. Instead,
relying upon the closer military agreements with Germany since
1909, and reckoning doubtless that Russia would again submit
as in that year, Austria-Hungary adopted a one-sided and extreme
policy which — apart from the merits then or now of any plea of
justification in the abstract — was in fact of all courses open the
most likely to lead to a World War and did lead to it. The method
and its miscalculations proved self-annihilating.
"Those whom the gods wish to destroy, they first make blind."
This comment offers itself. But as against it another great con-
sideration is to be remembered. If the World War had not come
when and how it did in 1914 it almost certainly would have broken
out within a very few years later and the fate of the "obsolete
empire," owing to the increasingly discordant elements in its
composition, might well have been the same. Near the heart of
the European tragedy lay the truth that the Habsburg monarchy
with its medley of 50 millions of people could not survive as it
stood; yet could not be transformed except by force from within
or without; and could not attempt in earnest to maintain itself
without imminent risk of dissolution.
The Disarmament of Minds — Thus a charge of peculiar
WARHAM
357
"war guilt" against any one people is null and of no effect. No
individual anywhere looks on individual Germans, Magyars, Bul-
garians and Turks as members of a culpable race. But why then,
it will be asked, should not Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles
be withdrawn formally? This course is for two reasons impossible.
First, it would be interpreted and exaggerated as a damaging
acknowledgment by the Allies and their Associate. Second any
formal proposal to expunge Article 231 would reopen inter-
minable recrimination on war-causes and war-plans—especially
the violation of Belgium, and the original moral rights of the
new nationalities against former dynasties and State-systems.
That controversy, rekindling the fiercest passions, would be the
surest means of throwing back the vital work of reconciliation
and co-operation. Instead Article 231 is already a dead-letter in
the moral sense; and the futility of Article 227 is only remem-
bered with ridicule.
We can say more than this. 'Involved in an unprecedented
world-tragedy arising from thoughts and forces which were in
motion long before, the belligerent nations and races, as we have
seen, were irreconcilable in their ideas of right and justice, of
present safety and future prospects. They were equally disfigured
by passions, prejudices and reciprocal abuse. But they were alike
not only in war-sorrows and war-heroism but in an unconscious
community of service to the future. Mutual slaughter as the
traditional last resort, organized on a stupendous scale as an
attempted means of political settlement, was shown to be more
and more destructive and more and more bestial. Everywhere,
the revolt of human feeling and reason against war is a movement
incomparably more powerful and systematic than civilization has
seen up to now. The magnitude and method of this revolt are
together the dominating political fact of our time. The movement
is assuredly permanent. Already, it has exerted a profound in-
fluence on human institutions and relations. The League of Na-
tions exists. Though its own authority must remain insufficient
while America abstains, the Kellogg Pact has been signed on
American initiative. It is already improbable that war on any
wide scale can break out without conference and prolonged delay.
These remarkable changes largely improve the chances of
compromise and diminish danger. For the first time in human
affairs there is a practical possibility that lasting international
peace may be established; and this gain is one of the greatest
facts in history. But the moral advance of civilized thought is
stronger still than the imperfect machinery so far devised. In
view of the continued development of scientific facilities for pro-
miscuous destruction, all competent thinkers know that — in
Europe at least — civilization will abolish war or war will abolish
civilization. The idea of a United Europe is more than a dream
though as yet only in its beginnings. The best elements in every
great country which was engaged in the war turn towards each
other with sympathy and appreciation; with increasing compre-
hension of each other's difficulties and motives in the past; with
a desire to co-operate in the future; with an effort for closer
understanding in every way. The German people to-day, for
instance, stand higher than ever in the respect of all their former
opponents. Upon this movement for moral reconciliation the
world's hopes depend; for without it, armaments, however tempo-
rarily reduced, would return again. (J. L. G.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Les Affaires du Maroc (French Yellow Book, 1905) ;
A. Tardieu, La Conference d'Algesiras (1909) ; Lf Alliance franco-russe
(1918) ; Die Deutschen Dokumente turn Kriegsausbruch (collected by
K. Kautsky, ed. M. Montgelas and W. Schiicking, 4 vols.; Charlottcn-
burg, 1919), trans, as Outbreak of the World War: German documents
collected by Karl Kautsky (Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, 1924) ; R. Gooss, Das Wiener Kabinett und die Entstehung des
Weltkriegs (Vienna, 1919) ; Diplomatische Aktenstiicke zur Verge-
schichte des Krieges, 1914 (3 pts. Vienna, 1919) ; Les accords franco-
italiens 1900-1902 (French Yellow Book, 1920) ; J. B. Bishop, Th.
Roosevelt and his time (2 vols. 1920) ; F. Pribram, Die Geheimvertrage
Osterreichs-Ungarns (vol. i. Vienna, 1920) ; A. von Tirpitz, Erinner-
ungen (Leipzig, 1920), Der Aufbau der deutschen Weltmacht (Stutt-
gart, 1924) ; Zur Vorgeschichte des Weltkrieges (Beilagen zu den
stenographische Berichten liber pffentl. Verhandlungen des Unter
suchungs aus schusses; vol. i. Schriftliche Auskunfte deutscher Staats-
mtinner, 1920, vol. ii., Militarische Rustungen und Mobilmachungen,
1921) ; F. Conrad von Hoetzendorf, Aus Afeiner Dienstzeit, 1006-1918
(Vienna, 1921-23) ; H. Kanner, Die Katastrophenpolitik Osterreichs-
Ungarns (1921) ; E. Bourgeois and G. Pages, Origines el Responsabilites
de la Guerre (1921) ; B. von Siebert, Diplomatische Aktenstucke zur
Geschichte der Entente politik der Vorkriegsjahre (1921); Les affaires
balkaniques (French Yellow Book, 1922) ; S. Dobrorolski, Die Mobil-
machung der russischen Armee, 1914 (1922); Die Grosse Politik der
Europdischen Kabinette, 1871-1914 (ed. J. Lipsius, A. Mendelssohn-
Bartholdy, and F. Thim,me, 4 vols., 1922-27) ; Un Livre Noir: Diplo-
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Hollweg, Retrachtungen (1923) ; Winston S. Churchill, The World
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WARHAM, WILLIAM (c. 1450-1532), archbishop of Can-
terbury, belonged to a Hampshire family, and was educated at
Winchester and New College, Oxford, afterwards practising and
teaching law both in London and Oxford. Later he took holy or-
ders, held two livings, and became master of the roils in 1494,
while Henry VII. found him a useful and clever diplomatist. He
helped to arrange the marriage between Arthur, and Catherine of
Aragon; and he was partly responsible for negotiating treaties
with Flanders, Burgundy and Maximilian I. In 1502 Warham was
consecrated bishop of London and became keeper of the great
seal, but his tenure of both these offices was short, as in 1504 he
became lord chancellor and archbishop of Canterbury. In 1509
the archbishop married and then crowned Henry VIII. and Cath-
erine of Aragon, but gradually withdrawing into the background he
resigned the office of lord chancellor in 1515, and was succeeded
by Wolsey. This resignation was possibly due to -his dislike of
Henry's foreign policy. He was present at the Field of the Cloth
of Gold in 1520, and assisted Wolsey as assessor during the secret
inquiry into the validity of Henry's marriage with Catherine in
1527. Throughout the divorce proceedings Warham's position was
essentially that of an old and weary man. He was named as one
of the counsellors to assist the queen, but, fearing to incur the
king's displeasure and using his favourite phrase ira prindpis mors
cst, he gave her very little help; and he signed the letter to Cle-
ment VII. which urged the pope to assent to Henry's wish. After-
wards it was proposed that the archbishop himself should try the
case, but this suggestion came to nothing. He presided over the
Convocation of 1531 when the clergy of the province of Canter-
bury voted £100,000 to the king in order to avoid the penalties of
praemwrire, and accepted Henry as supreme head of the church
with the saving clause "so far as the law of Christ allows." In his
concluding years, however, the archbishop showed rather more
358
WARKWORTH— WAR OF 1812
independence. In February 1532 he protested against all acts con-
cerning the church passed by the parliament which met in 1529,
but this did not prevent the important proceedings which
secured the complete submission of the church to the state later
in the same year. Against this further compliance with Henry's
wishes Warham drew up a protest ; he likened the action of Henry
VIII. to that of Henry II., and urged Magna Carta in defence
of the liberties of the church. He died on Aug. 22, 1532 and was
buried in Canterbury cathedral. Warham was chancellor of
Oxford University from 1506 until his death.
See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (vol. vi.
1860-76); J. Gairdncr in Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. lix. (1899) and The
English Church in the i6th Century (1902); J. S. Brewer, Reign of
Henry VIII. (1884) ; and A. F. Pollard, Henry VIII. (1905).
WARKWORTH, town of Northumberland, England. Pop.
(1921) 1,042. It is situated on the river Coquet, i^ m. above its
mouth, where on the south bank is Amble, an urban district (pop.
4,851), with a harbour. An ancient bridge crosses the river, with
a fortified gateway on the road mounting to the castle. The re-
mains of this Norman stronghold include walls, a gateway and hall;
while the Lion tower and the keep are of the i3th and 141)1 cen-
turies. Near by are remains of a Benedictine priory of the i3th
century, and also the Hermitage of Warkworth, which consists of
an outer portion built of stone, and an inner portion hewn from
the steep rock above the river. This inner part comprises a chapel
and a smaller chamber of the i4th century, being late Decorated.
WARLOCK, a word seemingly used in northern English or
Scottish for a wizard, sorcerer or magician (see MAGIC) ; in O.Eng.
w6erloga, literally "a liar against the truth," from wocr, truth,
cognate with Lat. verum (cf. Ger. wahr), and loga, liar, from
teogan, to lie (cf. Ger. lugen). It was used for a traitor, deceiver,
breaker of a truce. In M.Eng. it is a name for the devil (war-
loghe), the arch liar and deceiver.
WARMINSTER, a town in Wiltshire, England. Pop.
(1921) 5,387. Its white stone houses form a long curve between
the uplands of Salisbury plain, which sweep away towards the
north and east, and the tract of park and meadow land lying
south and west. The cruciform church of St. Denys has a 14th-
century south porch and tower.
Warminster appears in Domesday, and was a royal manor.
The meeting of roads from Bath, Frome, Shaftesbury and Salis-
bury made Warminster a busy coaching centre. Eastward, within
2 m., there are two large ancient camps: Battlesbury, almost
impregnable save on the north, where its entrenchments are
double ; and Scratchbury , a line of outworks encircling an area of
some 40 acres, with three entrances and a citadel in the midst.
Barrows are numerous. Longleat, a seat of the marquesses of
Bath, lies 5 m. south-east, dating from the close of the i6th
century.
WARNER, CHARLES DUDLEY (1829-1900), Ameri-
can essayist and novelist, was born of Puritan ancestry, in Plain-
field (Mass.), Sept. 12, 1829. His childhood experiences in
Charlemont (Mass.), after the death of his father, are pictured in
his delightful study Being a Boy (1877). The family removed
thence to Cazenovia (N.Y.); and Warner graduated in 1851 from
Hamilton college, Clinton (N.Y.), through which he had paid
his way by his earnings. Because of ill health, he spent some time
with a surveying party in Missouri.
When he was 40 years old a series of sketches published in the
Courant changed him from an editor with a local reputation to
a nationally known man of letters. They were published in book
form as My Summer in a Garden (1870). Thereafter Warner's
work appeared frequently in the better class magazines. He
travelled widely, and wrote several travel books, the best of which
are My Winter on the Nile (1876), originally called Mummies
and Moslems, and its sequel In the Levant (1876). With his
friend and neighbour, Mark Twain, he collaborated on The Gilded
Age (1873), an uneven novel which was unsatisfactory to both
men. Another story, Their Pilgrimage (1886), had as its purpose
the description of fashionable American resorts; and the making,
fraudulent diversion from its intended object, and final loss of
a great fortune were treated in an ambitious trilogy, A Little
Journey in the World (1889), The Golden House (1894) and
That Fortune (1899). Warner is at his best, however, as an essay-
ist. He also edited the "American Men of Letters" series, which
he opened with a biography of Washington Irving (1881). He
died in Hartford Oct. 20, 1900.
See the biographical sketch by T. R. Lounsbury in the Complete
Writings of Charles Dudley Warner (1904) and Annie Fields's Charles
Dudley Warner (1904).
WARNER, SETH (1743-1784), American Revolutionary
soldier, born in Roxbury, Connecticut, May 17, 1743. He re-
moved with his father to the "New Hampshire Grants" in 1763,
and became prominent among the young men who forcibly resisted
New York's claim to the territory. (See VERMONT.) At the out-
break of the War of Independence, he led the detachment of
''Green Mountain Boys" which captured Crown Point, May n,
1775, a°d took part in the unsuccessful expedition against Quebec
later in the year. In July 1776 he became colonel in the Conti-
nental Army, and served throughout the war. He retired in 1782,
and returned to Roxbury, where he died Dec. 26, 1784.
See Daniel Chipman, Life of Col. Seth Warner (1858).
WARNSDORF, a frontier town in north-east Bohemia,
Czechoslovakia, with large textile manufactures, chiefly cotton
and silks. Pop. (1921) 20,328, of whom 18,237 were Germans.
WAR OF 1812, THE. As early as 1806 much friction arose
over what President Madison characterized as a "sweeping sys-
tem of blockades" adopted by British Orders in Council with the
object of cutting off essential French supplies by sea. This and
similar subsequent war measures greatly hampered lucrative
American commerce with France and produced the customary
deadlock between the inherent interests of belligerent and neutral.
Hostilities. — The American President represented that Brit-
ish blockade methods widely overstepped legal limits, and con-
stantly opposed them through diplomatic channels. In his mes-
sage to Congress in June 1812, urging a declaration of war, he
stated that "British cruisers have also been in the practice of
violating the rights and peace of our coasts. They hover over and
harass our entering and departing commerce . . . under pre-
tended blockades without the presence of an adequate force
[legally required] ... our commerce has been plundered in
every sea." Ill-feeling had been further aggravated by the
forced "impressment" into the British navy of men from the
crews of American ships met on the high seas. These practices
had led to the encounter between the U.S. frigate "Chesapeake"
and H.M.S. "Leopard" in 1807, and to that between the American
frigate "President" and H.M.S. "Little Belt" in 1811.
The war, declared by Congress on June 18, 1812, followed three
distinct phases. Until the spring of 1813 England was hard
pressed in Europe, and endeavoured by diplomatic negotiations
to stop the war in America, where she could not afford to send
reinforcements to her army nor to concentrate large naval forces.
Consequently this was a period when the Americans were free
to undertake an invasion of Canada and when their very small
navy of 16 vessels was able to cruise extensively against British
maritime commerce. The second phase lasted about a year, dur-
ing which England, though still considerably restrained by affairs
in Europe, was able to institute a rigorous commercial blockade
of the United States coast but could not materially increase her
troops in Canada. The third and final phase of the war came after
the downfall of Napoleon in the spring of 1814, when England
could spare considerable army reinforcements for the American
theatre, and further strengthen the naval blockade there.
Three days after the declaration of war, the U.S. squadron
under Commodore Rodgers sailed from New York with the double
object of protecting the great numbers of American merchant
ships then due from overseas, and of preying upon British com-
merce. After chasing the British frigate "Belvidera," which es-
caped into Halifax through throwing overboard much of her
equipment, he made an extensive sweep of the North Atlantic,
almost to the English channel, but captured few prizes. In July
Commodore Hull sailed from Chesapeake bay in the "Constitu-
tion," and reached Boston after a long chase and narrow escape
from a British squadron, through towing the ship with her own
WAR OF 1812
359
boats. Within a few days he was again at sea and on Aug. 19 cap-
tured the British frigate "Guerriere." In October, Rodgers, De-
catur and Bainbridge, sailed from Boston in the "President,"
"United States" and "Constitution" respectively, and made wide
sweeps of the mid-Atlantic. The first named met with little suc-
cess. On the 25th the "United States" captured the British frigate
"Macedonian" in long. 30°, and on Dec. 28 the "Constitution"
captured the frigate "Java" off the coast of Brazil.
Operations in Canada. — In view of the great general su-
periority and prestige of the British navy the American people
were much elated over these results at sea. From a purely mili-
tary-naval point of view they were of little consequence, since
their effects upon British trade and dominating naval power were
negligible. But in upbuilding the American national morale, not-
withstanding distress caused by the blockade, the frigate vic-
tories assumed great importance. Meantime the course of the
war on land, where American forces had been greatly superior in
numbers, was discouraging. The paucity of British military
forces in Canada had led the Americans from the outset to under-
take an early invasion across their northern frontier. But a mere
handful of British regulars, supported by Canadian militia and
Indian allies, and utilizing their initial naval control of Lakes
Erie and Ontario, were sufficient to defeat the invaders.
General Hull's advance into Canada from Detroit proved so
abortive that he soon returned to his base and surrendered it to
Gen. Brock in Aug. 1812. A few months later the energetic and
skilful Brock repulsed weak American attempts to establish them-
selves on the Canadian side of the Niagara river. Meantime a
force under the American Gen. Dearborn had been mobilizing near
Lake Champlain but its operations were apathetic, in part due
to an armistice while fruitless peace negotiations initiated by
the British were in progress.
Naval Operations. — The first year's experience on the Jake
frontier where roads were extremely primitive, clearly empha-
sized the importance of naval control thereon if the armies were
to be supplied and made mobile. During the succeeding winter
and spring both sides were very active in the construction and
equipment of ships. Commodore Chauncey was in general charge
of such American preparations on Lakes Ontario and Erie, assisted
in the latter case by Commodore 0. H. Perry. Comparatively
large naval forces came into being on Lake Ontario. Its control
was fought for, notably on Aug. 10 and Sept. 28, 1813, but never
decisively gained by either side.
In the early spring of 1813 while still in naval control of Lake
Erie, the British military forces in occupation of the vicinity of
Detroit invaded northern Ohio and during the summer pene-
trated as far as the Sandusky river. Their fleet under Capt. Bar-
clay was decisively defeated by Commodore Perry on Sept. 10.
While the American fleet was somewhat stronger, great credit is
due to Perry for his energy in preparing it under much difficulty,
and in conducting the battle with marked spirit and determina-
tion. After his own flagship "Lawrence" had become disabled,
from having borne the brunt of the fighting, and defeat seemed
imminent, Perry went by small boat to the "Niagara," took her
into close action and turned the tide of victory.
The event strikingly demonstrated the value of the naval con-
trol of the lake. The British army, faced with the severance of
its line of supplies, was forced to a hasty evacuation of Ohio and
Michigan, and a retreat up the Thames river towards Lake On-
tario. The American army under Gen. Harrison was taken on
board Perry's ships, so soon as repaired, and landed in Canada,
where it pursued the British and defeated them at the battle of
the Thames, in which Perry led the decisive charge. Thus the
Americans had gained all territory west of the Niagara peninsula.
Meantime, with the advent of 1813, the war had entered its
second phase at sea. Overwhelming British naval forces insti-
tuted such a vigorous commercial blockade of the coast south of
New England, as seriously to affect American commerce, both
coastwise and foreign. Considerable clandestine exporting was
permitted in order to facilitate the supply of British armies in
Spain and Canada, and this also furnished a reason for not extend-
ing the blockade to include New England. Strong British squad-
rons occupied Chesapeake and Delaware bays, and closely guarded
all ports from Maine to Georgia against the passage of war ships.
Commodore Porter in the frigate "Essex" had been operating
in the South Atlantic, and instead of attempting a difficult return
to the United States decided upon a voyage into the Pacific to
raid the valuable British whaling trade, while at the same time
protecting that of the United States. In both objects he was
very successful. After refitting at the Marquesas islands, which
he annexed to the United States by treaty (not confirmed by his
government), he proceeded to Valparaiso to meet a British squad-
ron of whose coming he had received information. Here in March
1814, he was attacked and defeated in Chilean territorial waters
by the more powerful "Phoebe" and "Cherub." Meanwhile during
1813, the "President" and "Congress" had made an all but profit-
less sweep of the Atlantic, the frigate "Chesapeake" had been
captured off Boston by H.M.S. "Shannon," and the U.S. sloop
"Argus" taken by the "Pelican" off the coast of Wales.
The Third Phase.— The fall of Napoleon in the spring 1814
brought the war to its final phase by permitting England to
augment greatly her military and naval forces in America. At the
beginning of the year the Americans still retained the initiative
on land, by virtue of superior numbers on the Canadian frontier.
Moreover the handicap of poorly disciplined troops had been
largely overcome. During a brief campaign against the ill-chosen
objective of the Niagara peninsula Gen. Brown met with consider-
able success at the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. But
the failure of Commodore Chauncey to deny the use of the lake
for carrying supplies and reinforcements to the British army
brought the invasion to a close in July. The constant arrival of
fresh British regulars, together with increased naval forces which
extended and strengthened the blockade and penetrated into all
the large coastal bays, enabled them to jtake the offensive in
several quarters. Northern Maine was occupied by light forces
and held until the end of the war. In August Gen. Prevost, at
the head of a veteran army of about 12,000 men, based at Mon-
treal, invaded New York via Lake Champlain, bound for the
Hudson valley. In the same month a large British squadron
ascended the Patuxent river and landed 4,000 regular troops under
Gen. Ross who, almost without opposition, marched to Washing-
ton and burned the capitol. This raid had little result except to
inflame public hatred against the British. The expedition pro-
ceeded to Baltimore where its attack was repulsed on Sept. 12,
During the attack Francis Scott Key composed the "Star Spanglec
Banner." Gen. Ross was killed. The same forces then sailed foi
the Gulf of Mexico where they undertook the capture of Nev
Orleans in December. Of these operations the advance from Mon-
treal was not only the largest but also threatened the gravest con-
sequences. One of the essential conditions of its success lay ir
control of water communications on Lake Champlain, in order thai
the invaders might be readily supplied from the St. Lawrence river
On this account, the victory of the American squadron undei
Commodore Macdonough, over the British squadron acting in
support of the invading army, was of outstanding strategic im-
portance. This occurred off Plattsburg on Sept. n, 1814, while
the American army at that place was about to be assaulted ir
its works by superior British land forces. The brilliance oi
Macdonough's triumph is heightened by the fact of his fleel
having been somewhat weaker in tactical elements than that oi
his opponent, and by the immediate reversal of events on shore
On learning the outcome of the naval engagement the Britist
Gen. Prevost abandoned his attack on Plattsburg and retreated
During 1814 the increasingly effective blockade together wit!
an American embargo virtually put a stop to American sea-born<
commerce, domestic and foreign, and consequently brought abou
widespread economic depression. The price of salt rose to $5 pei
bu., that of sugar to $26 per cwt., and specie reached a premiun
of 22%. Exports fell to a total of $7,000,000 as compared witl
$45,000,000 in 1811 — a year of restricted commerce. Most of th<
American navy was forced to remain in port and the few ship
which eluded the blockade found that the British system of con
voying trade under naval escort substantially reduced captures
The most notable actions of the year were the previously men
360
WAR OFFICE
tioned loss of the U.S.S. ''Essex," the capture of the British brigs
''Reindeer" and "Avon" by the "Wasp," and the victory of the
American brig "Peacock" over the "Epervier."
The stagnation of American commerce stimulated the employ-
ment of large numbers of merchant ships as privateers, and dur-
ing the last six months of the war their operations constituted the
principal American offensive on the sea. Many prizes were taken
and the alarm created in British shipping circles increased insur-
ance rates to double those prevailing during the Continental wars.
This situation, together with the failure of the projected invasion
of the United States through Lake Champlain, and post-war con-
ditions in Europe, were the primary influences towards causing
a British desire for peace, the treaty for which was signed at
Ghent on Dec. 24, 1814.
Hostilities After Treaty — The slowness of communications
at that period was responsible for the continuation of hostilities
for several months thereafter. Early in December the British mili-
tary-naval expedition bent upon the capture of New Orleans
landed on the Gulf coast at Lake Borgne. They advanced to the
Mississippi river, where Gen. Jackson had erected entrenchments,
which were supported by a naval squadron under Commodore
Patterson. By successive stages the British got within three miles
of the city; but on Jan. 8 their assault was decisively beaten with
a loss of 2,000 troops including Gens. Peckenham and Gibbs. The
victory, though it occurred after the treaty of peace had been
signed, had important consequences in further stimulating the
American national spirit. In Jan. 1815 the frigate "President"
attempted to gain the sea from New York harbour, but was cap-
tured by the blockading fleet. A few weeks previously the "Con-
stitution11 had succeeded in escaping out of Boston, and in Febru-
ary, while off Madeira, she captured the "Cyanc" and "Levant"
together. The final action of the war was the capture of the Brit-
ish sloop of war "Penguin" by the "Hornet" on March 23, 1815.
The British invasions of Michigan, Ohio and New York, which
might have resulted in important territorial gains, failed by
reason of naval defeats on the Lakes, and their threat against the
Louisiana territory was nullified at New Orleans. The issue of
"free trade and sailor's rights" which caused the American dec-
laration of war, did not gain recognition in the treaty of peace. It
nevertheless became an established political doctrine to which the
United States has since firmly adhered. The American attack on
British commerce, except for the privateering operations, was on
too small a scale to influence the course of the war. The frigate
victories, incidental to commerce raiding, had little military effect,
but may be regarded as important political successes, in view of
their elevation of the national morale notwithstanding the wide-
spread economic distress caused by the overpowering British
blockade. To America the War of 1812 brought about a much
needed national unification.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Capt. A. T. Mahan, Sea Power in its Relations to
the War of 1812, a dispassionate and comprehensive account of the
operations ashore and afloat, together with their political relationships.
See also, T. Roosevelt, The Naval War of 1812; Huidekoper, The
Military Unprepartdness of the United States; and C. P. Lucas, The
Canadian War of 1812 (Oxford, 1906). (D. W. K.)
WAR OFFICE1, (a) The building which houses the controll-
ing staff of the army, and (6) the controlling staff itself.
(a) As regards the local habitation of the staff, in Cromwellian
days this was often in the field and was the tent of the secretary
to the commander-in-chief whose official title was Secretary-at-
War. After the Restoration (1660) Monk, as lord general, took
up his residence at a house in Whitehall called the Cockpit (which
had formerly been used for cock-fighting) and this became the
headquarters of the army. Numerous warrants and letters of the
early, days of the present standing army are dated from "the Cock-
pit at Whitehall." About 1684 the headquarters were moved to
the "Horse Guards," that is the barracks of the King's Guards
at Whitehall, and here it remained until 1856 when it moved to
Buckingham House, Pall Mall. In 1907 it finally moved to its
present quarters in Whitehall immediately opposite the Horse
Guards.
JThe permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office has been
obtained to the inclusion of this article-
(6) (i)2 From the Earliest Times to the Crimean War
(1854-56). — The details of the early administrative history
of the army are very obscure. William the Conqueror created the
offices of high constable and marshal and their duties appear to
have been somewhat analogous to those of the present day
adjutant-general and quartermaster-general.
Although the origin of the Board of Ordnance is obscure it
was certainly in existence in the early part of the i4th century,
and it is the oldest military office with a continuous history.
Charles II. created the title master-general of ordnance in 1664
and this still survives. The headquarters of the Board were for
centuries at the Tower of London. In 1855 the Letters Patent
for the Board were revoked and its duties vested in the Secretary
\ of State for War. In the iSth century, the office of master-
! general of the ordnance was held by the chief military leaders
I and generally carried with it cabinet rank. Marlborough was
twice master-general of ordnance.
The office of Secretary of State for War appears to have had
its origin in a Council of War of Charles I. During the Crom-
wellian period the army was managed by a Parliamentary Com-
mittee of the Army. The clerk to Charles' Council was the Sec-
retary-at-War and he had a counterpart, in the New Model. After
the Restoration he became Secretary-at-War to all the Forces in
England and Wales, and was in fact nothing more than the private
secretary of the commander-in-chief. When Monk (duke of
Albemarle) died in 1670 the office of Secretary-at-War grew in
importance owing to the fact that Charles II. did not appoint a
successor as commander-in-chief. Gradually the offtte became
separated from that of the commander-in-chief, arriving at com-
! plete divorcement in 1704, when the office became a political post.
In 1794 was created a new post, the Secretary of State for War,
and in 1801, because the armies were largely employed in the
West Indies, the direction of Colonial affairs was transferred from
the Home Office to the Secretary of State for War who became
Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. In 1855 the office
of Secretary-at-War was merged into that of the Secretary of
State, but it was not finally abolished until 1863.
The office of the Deputy Secretary-at-War appears to have
been created at least before the i8th century. The holder of the
appointment was the senior permanent official in the department
of the Secretary-at-War. When the departments of the Secretary
of State and Secretary-at-War were amalgamated the post was
abolished and in its place that of Permanent Under Secretary of
State created. In 1904 the title was changed to ''Secretary of the
j War Office," but reverted to "Permanent Under Secretary of
State" in 1924.
The office of the Commander-in-Chief dates back to the Res-
toration. At various times the title has been Captain General,
Generalissimo, General on the Staff and Lord General, The first
holder of the appointment was the duke of Albemarle whose
special charge was the care of men while the Board of Ordnance
looked after the material. In the lyth century when the C.-in-C.
was on foreign service, many of his duties were usurped by the
Secretary-at-War.
The office of Adjutant General to the Forces originated in the
Parliamentary Army. After the Restoration the first appointment
was made in 1673. From 1685 there has been a continuous line of
Adjutants-General.
The Quartermaster General first appeared in 1686. Previous to
this his duties had been carried out by the Provost Marshal,
Scout Master General and the Harbinger.
An important office in army administration was that of Com-
missary-General of Musters. His chief duty was to keep up the
establishment and to issue a certificate to the Paymaster-General
for the actual number of men serving. The office was established
just after the Restoration and abolished in 1818.
At the outset of the standing army the medical service was
entirely regimental, but in 1663 was initiated central control
which gradually developed into a directorate in the early part of
the igth century. Originally the provision of barracks was the
business of the Board of Ordnance, but the need for extensive
2Based on information contained in The "War Office List, 1927.
WARP AND WEFT— WAR PENSIONS
361
building in 1793 was responsible for the creation of the office of
Barrack-Master-General. This office was, however, abolished in
1822 and the Board of Ordnance once more assumed the duty of
providing and furnishing barracks.
In 1714 was constituted a Board of General Officers whose duty
was to settle all financial disputes between colonels, officers and
soldiers, and matters of precedence among regiments. With the
creation of the Commander-in-Chiefs office in 1793, the Board was
shorn of much of its power which was now practically confined
to matters concerning clothing. The secretary of -the Board was
the Judge-Advocate-General.
(ii.) From the Crimean War, 1854, to Aug. 1914.— Military
administration underwent great changes during the period follow-
ing the outbreak of the Crimean War. The duties of the Secretary
of State for War were divorced from those of the Colonies: the
Commissariat Office was tiansf erred to the War Department; the
office of Secretary-at-War was merged into that of the Secretary
of State; the Board of General Officers and the Medical Depart-
ment were absorbed by the War Department, and the War Depart-
ment now became known as the War Office.
The military control still remained in the hands of the Com-
mander-in-Chief, while ,thc Secretary of State was responsible to
Parliament. However, under the War Office Act (1870) the final
welding was effected and the Secretary of State became responsible
for every branch of military administration.
The next great, change took place in 1904 by the creation of the
Army Council by Letters Patent, consisting of four military and
three civil members and a secretary. The President of the Army |
Council is the Secretary of State for War; the Chief of the Im- j
perial General Staff is the ist military member, the Adjutant-
General the 2nd, the Quartermaster-General the 3rd and the
Master General of Ordnance the 4th. The other civil members
are the Parliamentary Under-Sccretary of State for War (vice-
president of the Council), the Financial Secretary of the War
Office (finance member) and the Permanent Under-Secretary of
State for War is the secretary of the Council. The creation of
the Army Council abolished the office of the Commander-in-Chief.
The creation of the Territorial Force in 1908 led to the creation
of a Director-General of the Territorial Force.
(iii.) From the Outbreak of the World War, Aug. 1914,
to the Armistice, Nov. 11, 1918.— The rapid expansion of the
forces and their requirements and consequential effects of all
kinds brought into being four separate ministries, viz., the Min-
istry of Munitions, Ministry of Pensions, Air Ministry and Min-
istry of National Service. The latter took over from the Adju-
tant-General the duty of recruiting for the army.
During the war the Army Council was increased by the follow-
ing members: — Military — Deputy Chief of the Imperial General
Staff, Director-General of Military Aeronautics (who ceased to
be a member on the creation of the Air Ministry) and the Per-
manent British Military Representative at the Supreme War
Council, Versailles: Civil — the Director-General of Movements
and Railways and the Surveyor-General of Supply.
(iv.) Since the Armistice. — The cessation of hostilities and
eventual peace, whilst causing a cessation of activity in certain
directions connected with fighting, created activity in matters
connected with demobilization, disposal of prisoners of war, issue
of medals, repatriation, and everything to do with casualties. To
meet the needs of the times the War Office organization was con-
stantly adjusted. The most important change that has taken place
is the transfer to the Master-General of Ordnance from the Quar-
termaster-General all matters connected with research, experi-
ment, design, manufacture, etc., relating to stores, including
mechanically propelled vehicles of all kinds (with a few excep-
tions).
The corresponding government department in the United States
is the War Department, a description of which will be found
under Government Departments, section United States.
(T. J. E.)
WARP AND WEPT. Warp threads are those which run
lengthwise of the fabric; weft threads run transversely. In the
actual manufacturing of practically all kinds of woven tex-
tures, there is a considerable difference between the two: (i)
The raw material from which warp is made is almost invariably
of a higher grade than that used for weft. (2) The number of
turns per inch or the "twist" in warp threads usually exceeds the
twist in the weft threads or picks. (3) Multiple-fold or multiple-
ply yarns (two or more single threads twisted together) are more
often used for warp than for weft. (4) Coloured threads appear
in both, but much more frequently in the warp than in the weft.
(5) The fibrous material from which warp threads are made may
be the same as that used for the weft threads, or the two may be
of entirely different kinds. (6) Warp threads are often starched
or sized, but weft threads are seldom treated in this way.
With the exception of knitted fabrics or other similar struc-
tures in which one series of yarns only is used, the warp and
weft threads interweave together, not only to form the struc-
ture of the fabric but also to adorn it with more or less complex
designs. (See WEAVING.)
WAR PENSIONS. First Period— Prior to 1592-93.
The war pension — which is here taken as covering any grant made
in recognition of disablement sustained in the fighting forces —
first appears as a purely voluntary grant at the goodwill of the
particular war captain or overlord who led a company, or com-
manded a ship. The commonest form of 'grant is thus naturally
a gratuity on discharge, though the territorial system of the feudal
levy obviously provided the means of continued support or assist-
ance in cash or kind where necessary. The monastic houses and
charitable endowments of the Church helped substantially in the
same direction. The dissolution of these establishments and the
dispersal of their endowments, together with the final break up
of the feudal system in the i6th century, left the disabled soldier
entirely dependent on his former commander. Captains of forces
in the Low Countries in Elizabeth's day complained that they
were expected to make provision for the sick and wounded "whose
charge has laid heavily on them'* and the queen "is troubled
whensoever she takes the air by these miserable creatures." Ac-
cordingly in the last ten years of her reign a scries of acts was
passed making definite provision by statute for the first time for
disabled soldiers and seamen.
Second Period 1592-1681.— The first of these acts recognised
the claim of the soldier or seaman maimed "in the service of Her
Majesty and of the State" and provided also for those who,
though not maimed had served for 20 years or were incapacitated.
Building on past precedent, as well as on the newly amended
system of rating for the relief of the poor, the act 'laid on the
locality of the man's enlistment the obligation of providing the
pension. The amount of a pension was not to exceed £10 a year
for a private soldier, nor £15 for an officer, the award to be made
by the justices in Quarter Sessions, and paid out of the pro-
ceeds of rates levied at amounts ranging from a minimum of 2d
a week to a maximum of xod. a week on every householder. A
special county official, the "treasurer for maimed soldiers," was
made the recipient of the rates collected and the paymaster of
pensions. Concurrently with the payment of pensions on these
lines, a substantial number of men were provided for in "alms-
rooms" or almshouses, local charities attached to cathedrals or
the relics of charitable foundations left on the dissolution of the
monastic houses. In London the disused palaces of Ely House
and the Savoy were made to house a substantial number of dis-
abled and discharged men.
This system "can never have been altogether satisfactory. Local
obligations were unequally fulfilled, payments were irregular and
no effective central control existed to make the system work.
But, except for a brief interval during the Protectorate when pen-
sions were made payable from national funds, largely from the
sequestrated property of Royalists, the system lasted until some
years after the Restoration. The recognition of a standing army,
for which parliament annually voted regular supplies, then com-
pelled equal recognition of the claims of the disabled as a mat-
ter for central administration. Whether on the analogy of Louis
XIV.'s Hotel des Invalides, or on the precedent of the local hos-
pitals or hostels which, as we have seen, had been used for the
housing of disabled soldiers and seamen in all parts of the coun-
362
WAR PENSIONS
try, national provision for the disabled took the form of large
central "hospitals" (i.e., in the modern sense, hostels). The re-
sult was the foundation of Chelsea and Kilmainham for ex-
soldiers and Greenwich hospital for ex-seamen.
Army Pensions: 1681-1914. — In 1681 Charles II. announced
his intention to erect a hospital for disabled soldiers and endow
it with revenue. Contributions were invited from the public, the
king himself heading the list with a substantial grant, but re-
course had soon to be had to other means. Funds were found by
deduction from the pay of the troops — poundage as it came to
be known — both for the cost of construction and maintenance of
the hospital and for some part of the cost of pensions, but at a
very early date parliament had to supplement these funds, and
finally, though not till 1831, when all deductions were finally
abolished, took over the entire cost. The control of the hospital
and the administration of pensions to the disabled ex-soldier was
entrusted to commissioners, of whom the Paymaster General of
the Forces is always one, appointed by the Crown under letters
patent. The duty of awarding the pensions both for long service
and disablement to all non-commissioned ranks was, and con-
tinues to be, entrusted to the commission by royal warrants over
the king's signature, awards being made at their discretion sub-
ject to the terms and conditions laid down in the warrants. The
award of pensions to officers, and later to widows and dependants
was retained by the War Office, acting also under warrant.
The pension system contemplated was at the outset essentially
one of maintenance in a hospital, but in 1685 it was provided that
the disabled should receive allowances out of the hospital's funds
until they could be accommodated within it. With the recognition
of the out-pensioner the in-pensioner of the hospital becomes a
special class rather than the normal type. Within a few years,
especially after the campaigns in the Low Countries, the number
of the disabled increased to a point far beyond the accommoda-
tion of the hospital, which originally provided for 476 men and
has never exceeded 558. By 1713 the out-pensioners had increased
to 4,364: and by the middle of the i8th century they numbered
9,700. The early warrants contemplated the grant of pensions
to those only who either (a) wete wholly disabled for further
service by wounds or injuries, those more slightly disabled being
given gratuities, or who (b) had served 20 years. The rates of
pension ranged from 5d. a day for a private to is. 6d. for a corporal
of horse. The disability pensions were at flat rates according to
rank, and without regard to the extent of disablement, the awards
being made by the commissioners without examination of the men
and solely on the strength of certificates from commanding offi-
cers. The natural result was in a few years a heavy pension list,
and increasing demands on parliament, with the result that in
1713 the commissioners made a complete re-examination of all
cases and struck off the pension list all — about one half the whole
number— of whom they were satisfied were wholly able to sup-
port themselves. At the same time the pension rate was re-
duced to a uniform 5d. a day for all ranks. Complaints on the
part of the pensioners and ex-pensioners were general but the
principle of a uniform pension rate was adhered to until 1806.
The warrant of 1806 and the act of that year revolutionized
the system of pensions. Henceforth disability pensions assume
two permanent characteristics. The pension becomes a definite
reward of service, in so far as whatever the degree of disability
the pension may be varied according to the length and distinc-
tion of the man's service and his character as a soldier; at the
same time pensions tend to approximate to civil compensation,
in so far as they are granted, not, as before, simply on the fact
of incapacity for further military service, but on physical dis-
ablement "caused in and by service"; and on the basis, not, as
before, of a flat rate, but at a rate proportionate to the extent of
the injury and to the ability of the man to provide for his own
livelihood. The grant of a pension, and the determination of its
amount are wholly at the discretion of the commissioners within
the minimum and maximum limits set by the warrants.
On these lines the warrants of the iQth century developed,
though, so far as rates of pension are concerned, with extraordi-
narily little change. The maximum rate for disablement rises'
only from 143. a week to 175. 6d. The distinction between the
scales of pension available for disablement due to "wounds or
injuries received in action" and other disabilities — the latter be-
ing compensated at far lower rates — is gradually modified by the
recognition of climatic disease, though not finally removed till
after the South African War. The basis of pension remains dis-
ablement "in and by" service and was very strictly interpreted
until the World War. A widow's claims go unrecognized, except by
the grant of gratuity equal to 1 1 months' pay of her husband until
the Crimean War and then small pensions are only granted out of
the funds raised by the Royal Patriotic Fund Corporation, supple-
mented by the unclaimed residue of the Soldiers Effects Fund
handed over by the War Office. Not until the South African War
are pensions provided for widows out of public funds by the War
Office.
Pre- World War Pensions.— The scale of pensions in broad
outline as it existed immediately prior to the World War may be
stated as follows:
I. Permanent pensions to men discharged as unfit Per week
for service on account of — From To
1. Wounds or injuries or sunstroke received
in action, or in performance of military
duty, or on account of blindness caused
by military service or of disease due di-
rectly and wholly to war service, pen-
sion to be according to degree of injury,
length of service, character, etc. s. d. s. d.
(a) Total disablement . . . . \o 6 17 6
(b) Partial disablement . . . 36 10 6
2. Other disabilities caused by military serv-
ice with at least 14 years' service.
(a) Total disablement . . . . 10 6 176
(b) Partial disablement . . . 3 6 10 6
IE. Temporary pensions for men with less than 14
years' service —
(a) Climatic diseases 36 70
(b) Other disabilities than those referred to
under 1. (i) 36 48
The amount of the pension to be according to
man's capacity to earn a living and the
length and character of his service.
III. Pensions for men found after discharge inca-
pable of earning a livelihood.
At rates not
exceeding
those appli-
cable at date
of discharge
IV. Widows whose husbands were killed in the per-
formance of duty, or died of wounds or in-
juries received in performance of duty within
seven years from receipt of wound or injury;
or died of disease medically certified as con-
tracted or commencing while on active service
within seven years of removal from duty on
account of such disease 105. od.
Children of widow — each child .... 25. od.
Naval Pensions: 1695-1917. — Provision for disabled seamen
was made by William III. on the same lines as had been applied
by his predecessors to ex-soldiers, namely, on the plan of mainte-
nance in a hospital. The plan of Greenwich hospital was initi-
ated in 1695 and the building was opened in 1705 "for the relief
and support of seamen . . . who by reason of age, wounds or
other disabilities shall be incapable of further service at sea and
be unable to maintain themselves and also for the sustentation of
the widows and maintenance and education of the children of
seamen happening to be slain or disabled in such sea service."
The Admiralty adhered to the in-pension system more success-
fully than the Chelsea commissioners and, though the out-pension
system had to be admitted in 1763, the accommodation of the
hospital was continually expanded until, at the beginning of the
1 9th century, in-pensioners numbered 2,710. The out-pensioners
however, once allowed, more than kept pace in numbers with
the development of the hospital and numbered about 12,000 at
the same period. The in-pensioner establishment remained popu-
lar, and until the middle of the i9th century there were few
vacancies. But thereafter the terms of out-pension were im-
WAR PENSIONS
proved and the in-pensioners steadily declined in number, until
it was thought to be more economical to offer out-pensions to
the 'whole establishment and in 1869 the hospital was closed to
fresh admissions.
The out-pension rates for the sea service — which is adminis-
tered by the Admiralty itself, not by the commissioners of the
hospital — followed very closely the terms of army warrants and
it is unnecessary to detail the various stages of their history. The
rates immediately prior to the World War were for total disable-
ment from ios.6d. to i4s.od. a week; and for partial disable-
ment, which was graduated in three stages, from 3/6d. to io/6d.
a week. The widow and child were eligible for the same terms as
in the army service. The naval disability pension like the army
pension was subject to variation according to length and character
of service, but the regulations provided for several additions to
pension for good conduct badges and medals.
Officers of Both Services. — Pensions for disabled officers have,
since their first appearance as a charge upon public funds, been
based on the recognition of the professional status and prospects
of the officer. Pension is thus based on the half of the pay of
the rank held by the officer at retirement subject to variation
in accordance with the length of his service. An additional con-
sideration for severe wounds received in action, known as "wound
pension" (maximum £108 a year) was devised in 1812 and was
maintained up till the end of the World War, being permitted to be
drawn in addition to half pay. The rate of disability pension for
officers up to the rank of major was £200 with a deduction of £10
for each year of service short of 20 years, subject to a minimum
of the half-pay rate (which for a 2nd lieutenant might be £54 a
year). For naval officers a slightly different system obtained. If
the disabled officer was under 40 years of age he received the half-
pay rate; if over 40 a rate graduated according to age and length
of service but not exceeding the pension due to him on voluntary
retirement.
Pension for officers' widows, the provision for which as a pub-
lic charge goes back to the i8th century, varied according to the
circumstances of the husband's death, death in action carrying
a higher rate than injury or illness on duty. The rates in opera-
tion prior to the World War were, for the widow of a 2nd lieu-
tenant, £80 a year in the former case and £40 in the latter.
World War: 1914-1921.— The World War changed the whole
outlook on pensions. Within a few months of its outbreak the
regular forces, even with the addition of the territorial army,
were trebled in numbers by voluntary enlistments and, with the I
enactment of compulsory service in 1916, the army became a
national civilian levy of over five million men. For men whose
war service is but. a temporary interruption of civil life and occu-
pation, the analogy of industrial compensation in known terms and
legally claimable comes naturally to be applied to disability pen-
sions and a constant struggle develops between this and the older
service view of pensions as a discretionary grant.
In the first period the Government tried to keep the existing
structure of administration. A cabinet committee, in the autumn
of 1914, followed by a Select Committee under the chairmanship
of the Rt. Hon. D. Lloyd George, considered the disability pen-
sion scales for both services and recommended substantially in-
creased grants which were speedily embodied in War Office
warrants and Admiralty regulations. The new scale which sub-
sisted till the end of 1916, raised the widow's pension to los. a
week (i2S.6d. at 35 and 15$. at 45 years of age), and raised her
children's allowances : it provided pensions for parents and other
persons so far as they had actually been dependent on the deceased
soldier or seaman: it increased the maximum disability pension
to 255. a week and gave the disabled man's child an allowance
proportionate to his pension rate up to 2s.6d. a week. But the
new warrants and regulations carried two important departures
from former practice in regard to the very basis of disability pen-
sion. They recognized for pension the * 'aggravation" or worsening
of a pre-enlistment injury or disease by service in addition to
direct causation. This was an innovation called for by the mere
fact that enlistments were being made of civilians of all ages up
to 40 and in an emergency that did not admit of minute medical
examination. More important in its consequences was the new
principle of award by reference to capacity to earn a livelihood.
The regulations laid down that the maximum pension was appli-
cable to men "totally incapable of earning a livelihood," or if
partially incapable the pension was to be such amount "as will,
with the wages he may be deemed capable of earning, amount to
255." While the principle itself found support in former service
regulations, the actual wages earned had never been laid down
as a criterion for determining the amount of the pension. The
result was widespread grievance. The new principle as applied in
practice undoubtedly acted as a deterrent to the exercise by the
pensioner of such earning capacity as he had left and created a
genuine grievance on the part of men who had returned to work.
The Government adopted also a further recommendation of
the Select Committee by creating, under the War Pensions Act,
1915, a Statutory Committee of the Royal Patriotic Fund Corpo-
ration. The committee was given the functions, among
others, of (a) supplementing warrant pensions in cases where,
owing to exceptional circumstances, they appeared to be inade-
quate, and (b) providing for all matters involved in the resettle-
ment in civil life of discharged disabled men (their health, train-
ing and employment) and of the widows, children and dependents
of those killed. The committee was also required to cause local
committees to be set up to act as local agent investigating
cases and distributing its grants, and, if they were able to do so,
to make grants of their own. The act gave neither the central
nor the local committees any funds at all, in the view that they
should raise voluntary funds of their own and that existing
voluntary funds would be at once turned over to the new com-
mittees. Not unnaturally this expectation was quickly falsified
and parliament had to vote a capital sum of one million for
the purposes of the statutory committee. At once voluntary
funds dried up and it speedily became apparent that public
opinion expected the new organization, both central and local,
to be financed entirely by public funds.
Pensioners were comparatively few in 1916, and the central
committee was still mainly occupied with the work of supple-
menting the separation allowances of the families of the men still
in service, when it was superseded (May 1917).
The Ministry of Pensions. — 1916. — By the autumn of 1916
the grievances became serious. The Government met them by
the Ministry of Pensions Act, 1916, which set up a new depart-
ment with a responsible minister.
The new minister (the Rt. Hon. G. N. Barnes, M.P.) had to
meet two primary sources of grievance — the chief was the prac-
tice, already mentioned, of determining the amount of the pen-
sion by reference to the man's earnings: the other, hardly less
important, was the apparently arbitrary refusal of pension on the
ground that a disability had no connection with service. The
former grievance was taken up at once by a departmental com-
mittee, which included the minister and parliamentary secretary
(Sir Leo Chiozza Money, succeeded after a short period by Sir
Arthur Griffith Boscawen) and which undertook the task of
revising the principles of assessment. They discarded altogether
the criterion of the individual wages or earning capacity of the
man, and substituted for it, as the only method of securing uni-
formity of compensation for like or similar disabilities, "the
degree of disablement" sustained, on a judgment of "the man's
physical capacity as compared with that of the ordinary healthy
man of the same age" or, as the principle was more precisely
defined by the later Select Committee on Pensions (1919), "the
general disability in comparison with and by reference to indus-
trial conditions as a whole and not in reference to the loss suffered
by the individual disabled soldier." Further, to enable a more
precise adjustment to be made of the extent or the "degree of
disablement" sustained by the man, the former scale of assess-
ment in quarters of disablement was discarded in favour of assess-
; ment by tenths, from 100% representing total disablement to
20%, compensation below the latter figure being awarded in the
form of a gratuity or temporary allowance for a limited period.
A schedule of fixed assessments for certain specific injuries was
attached to the warrant both as a guarantee and an illustration
364
WAR PENSIONS
of the principles of assessment. At the same time to meet the
case of the man whose civil earnings or profits of business
had been so much above the average wage earner's that war dis-
ablement might represent a greater loss than would be fairly
compensated by the ordinary rate of disability pension, the new
ministry devised a new form of pension — the "alternative pen-
sion" by which on an estimate of the actual earning capacity left
to the man the ordinary flat rate pension could be increased, within
certain over-riding limits, so as to compensate more nearly the
actual loss of earning power. The alternative pension was made
available to widows also. New regulations were issued (March
1917) carrying out these principles, together with a slight increase
in the scales of pensions, for all ranks and both services.
On the second of the ex-service men's grievances, the frequent
and apparently arbitrary refusal of all title to compensation on
the ground of want of any connection between the man's invalid-
ing disability and the conditions of his service, the Government
were hard pressed in parliament. The difficulty was met by giving
an appeal to a tribunal under a county court judge, to be ap-
pointed by the minister. There was also a new doctrine that the
benefit of the doubt should be given to the claimant where a
doubt existed as to connection between disability and service.
Finally, cases ineligible for pension were granted gratuities of
varying amounts up to lioo.
Re-settlement. — By the spring of 1917 it had become patent
that the re-settlement of disabled men in civil life would be a
problem as important as pensions. With the breakdown of the
Russian forces, and the prolongation of the war, the numbers
of the disabled — by April 25, 1917, pensions had been granted
to 160,000 disabled officers and men — would obviously increase
beyond anything that had been contemplated in 1915 when the
work of re-settlement was entrusted to the quasi-charitable statu-
tory committee. Legislation (the War Pensions [Transfer of
Powers] Act, 1917) was therefore promoted, transferring its
powers to the ministry, while giving the power of supplementing
pensions in cases of hardship to a new body, the Special Grants
Committee, to be appointed by the minister.
The medical side of re-settlement was at the outset the most
difficult. Accommodation for hospital treatment was scarce be-
cause the civil as well as the military hospitals were already being
largely utilized by the army. In addition, the war was throwing
up in large numbers cases for which but little or no provision had
been made in peace times by voluntary effort. The Red Cross
Society, which had already provided so amply for the needs of
the serving soldier, readily responded to the minister's invitation
to assist in the work of treating the discharged man and, with
their help, additional accommodation was provided for cases
of paralysis, epilepsy, neurasthenia and tuberculosis, and for the
new orthopaedic treatment directed to the restoration of the
function of nerve or muscle in surgical cases. Several special
hospitals were also set up by other voluntary effort, and the civil
hospitals agreed to take cases on terms.
The industrial re-settlement of disabled men, whose condition
prevented their resuming their old occupations, was for the mo-
ment a simpler matter. Employment was abundant. The nucleus
of an organization for the purpose was, however, created. The
first condition of success was the co-operation of trades unions
as well as of employers, so as to obtain union recognition for
trainees in subsequent employment. For this purpose the ministry,
with the help of the Ministry of Labour, formed a central com-
mittee (representing employers and unions) for each of the main
groups of industry, and negotiated with the committee a scheme
of intensive training to occupy usually not more than a year to
1 8 months. At the end of the course every trainee was judged j
by local representatives of the industry and, if he proved to have |
been satisfactorily trained, employment was found for him. Poly-
technics and technical schools and universities, along with private j
employers, were invited and agreed to co-operate in this scheme.
The schemes of medical treatment and training were wisely
linked up closely with the pensions, because the prevailing abun-
dance of work at high pay was a strong temptation to disabled
men to postpone necessary treatment, or provision for their
industrial future. A special monetary inducement to men to
accept any prescribed course of treatment 01 training was pro-
vided in the form of allowances (to take the place of current
pension) at the maximum rate of disability pension, together
with special allowances for wife and children, even if not ordi-
narily pensionable. At the same time men needing treatment
could be penalized, if they refused it by reduction of current pen-
sion by as much as one half, while for trainees an additional
inducement was provided by a bonus of 55. for every week of
training, together with a grant of tools, if the course of train-
ing was satisfactorily completed. The practical working of the
local arrangements for both medical treatment and training, sub-
ject to the regulations and general control of the ministry, was
delegated to the local war pensions committees.
The efforts of the new Ministry of Pensions were successful
in carrying the administration over the remainder of the war.
Medical treatment, with the .stimulus of the special warrant
allowances, was being given by the end of the year 1918 ta some
60,000 men. Vocational training was being given to about 9,000
men. But the new organization had barely settled to its worl
when the Armistice was declared and demobilization began. At
once a task confronted the ministry far beyond anything thai
its machinery was framed to deal with. Demobilization was hur
ried — by March as many as 50,000 men a day were passing
through the dispersal stations — and as many as four million mer
were discharged from the army alone during 1919. Every office]
and man was required to sign a form (£.22) in which he had ar
opportunity of claiming (or of disclaiming) that h^ was suffer
ing from a disability caused by service. Those who claimed dis-
ability were examined at once by service medical officers, anc
their reports referred to the Ministry of Pensions, which made
awards of pension or other grant on the basis of these reports
while the local war pension committees were empowered to deal
provisionally with urgent cases. Later in the year came a fur-
ther volume of claims from men who had been demobilized anc
who found, on returning to work, that they had ailments 01
injuries which they claimed to be due to their service. In the
course of 1919, as many as 840,000 disability claims were made
and 710,000 of them were admitted for compensation. Delay was
inevitable in the settlement of this volume of cases, and the
difficulties of mere machinery were complicated by other factors
The cost of living was rising to more than double (115% in
1919) the pre-war figure, and, although a bonus of 20% hac
been added to the pension rates in Nov. 1918, bringing the
maximum pension for an ex-private to 335. a week, the rate?
were regarded as inadequate, especially when contrasted witl:
the high wage rates then current. The Government met the situ-
ation by the appointment in Jan. 1019, of a new minister ol
Pensions, Sir L. Worthington Evans, with a mandate to re-
organize the administration, and a few weeks later by setting up
another select committee to review the whole scheme of pensions
The new minister at once strengthened and reorganized the stafl
of his department. He disencumbered it of the vocational train-
ing and re-employment of disabled men with which it had not
the technical equipment to cope, and this branch of "re-settle-
ment" was transferred to the Ministry of Labour, working in
conjunction with the Boards of Agriculture and Education. At
the same time he provided the ministry for the first time with
an adequate medical staff both central and local, mainly by
transfer from the recruiting organization of the Ministry of
National Service. But he soon became convinced that the whole
administration needed a more drastic change and decentralization
of pensions administration, except for a central control of policy,
was determined on. Eleven regions with central offices and
staff, medical and lay, under regional directors were constituted,
following the model of the war organization for recruitment. To
each region was attached an outdoor medical staff appointed
directly by the minister, for the examination of pensioners, and
hospitals and clinics for their treatment, and a lay staff to
supervise the work of the local committee staffs. For each region,
moreover, was formed an advisory council, composed of repre-
sentatives of the war pension committees of the district, which
WAR PENSIONS
365
met monthly for the discussion of difficulties that had emerged
in local administration. The regional system of working carried
the* ministry very successfully through the great volume of work
in connection with pension claims and medical treatment, which
was at its maximum in 1919 and 1920. Thereafter the work
declined and the last of the regional offices and advisory councils
was abolished in 1926.
During 1918 three strong associations of ex-service men had
been founded to formulate their grievances and war pensions
committees were in many cases active in seconding their claims.
The committee took a volume of evidence and sifted the whole
working of pensions. Its recommendations, which were in
the main accepted by the Government, were directed partly to
giving greater precision to the rights of the pensioner or claim-
ant and partly to increasing the scales of pension. In the former
direction, the first step was the War Pensions Act, 1919, which
substituted for the informal appeal tribunal appointed by the
ministry in 1918, a new series of appeal tribunals, independent
of the ministry, constituted by the Lord Chancellor and consisting
of a legal chairman, a doctor and an ex-service officer or man,
to hear and determine finally all appeals against a refusal by
the ministry to admit disablement or death as due to, or aggra-
vated by, war service. In the second place, a regular system of
appeal to medical boards within the ministry was instituted for
the benefit of pensioners who might claim to be dissatisfied with
their pensions or to have become worse since they were last
examined for pension. Moreover, pensioners and claimants were
to be freely informed of their new rights of appeal. Finally,
pensioners were by the act of 1919 given a statutory right "to
receive such pension, gratuity or allowance as shall be awarded,
but the award shall be subject to the conditions contained in the
Warrant." These concessions gave a substantial semblance of
civil compensation to war pensions.
With regard to the scales of pension the Government sub-
stantially increased the rates of all classes of pension by an
amount which bore a definite relation to the percentage increase
of the cost of living in 1919 over the cost in 1913-14. No new
class of pensioner was created, except that the disability pension
for non-commissioned ranks carried a new allowance for a wife
(maximum ics.od. a week) married before the man's discharge.
The increased rales of pension were by the terms of the warrant
fixed for three years, but were then to vary annually according
as the cost of living in the previous year had varied, by at least
5%, as compared with the cost in 1919. But though prices have
fallen the rates have been maintained from time to time on
the ground that stability of prices has not been reached. The
Government have recently (July, 1928) announced that the rates
will not be reduced however much the cost of living may fall,
subject to certain conditions designed to safeguard both the
pensioner and the State— namely (a) that the rates of pension
shall still be deemed to be based on the cost of living in 1919,
and therefore liable to increase if (though only if) the cost of
living should ever come to exceed the cost in that year; and (b)
that the maintenance of the present rates is conditional on the
scope of the warrants and war pensions acts, so far as regards the
classes of pensioner admissible, and their existing principles of
working, remaining substantially unchanged. Stability of the
pension list is thus secured along with the rates of pension.
Following the generous increase of World War rates, the claims
of other classes of pension were forced upon the Government, and
substantial increases given to long service pensions, to pre-war
pensioners, both civil and service, and to other classes. Early in
1920, however, the Government deemed it advisable to review and
define its pension obligations. The Ministry of Pensions Act 1916,
passed in the hurry of war time, had made the minister of Pen-
sions for all time the authority for awarding pension for service
disablement, sustained cither in peace or war. The Government
decided that under normal conditions pension was more properly
administered by the service departments who were responsible for
the employment and pay of the man during his service. The result
was the War Pensions Act, 1920, which confined the operations
of the ministry to disabilities or deaths occurring as a result of
The rates of World War pension in force for navy, army and air
force since 1919, and now (192$) stabilized, are as follows:—
Non-commis-
sioned ranks*
Officers
(temporary)
i. Disability pensions.
From To
From To
A. Flat-rate pension: for injury
or disease attributable to or
L L
aggravated by service accord-
8/~ 4o/-a
30 .? ro a
ing to degree of disablement
week
year
from 20% to 100%. Disable-
Pension can be
ment of less than 20% is com-
pensated by a gratuity or al-
lowance.
supplemented
by a grant
from Special
plus allowance for wife
Grants Com-
for children, up to 7/6 for
2/- I0/-
mittee, in cases
first child and 6/- for each
of need where
other child.
there is a
ft. Alternative pension, such ad-
dition to Oat rate pension and
family
allowances as will, together
with remaining earning capac-
ity, bring pension to
IOO/~
450
2. Widow's pension.
A. Flat rate pension:
(i.) Husband's death within
20/- 26/S
90 120
7 years of discharge
Under Over
According to
40 and 40 or
circumstances
without with
of husband's
chil- chil-
death
dren dren
(ii.) Husband's death beyond
One-half late
7 years of discharge, but
husband's pen-
only if husband a pension-
er and died of his war dis-
sion, or full
rates above,
ability.
according to
degree of con-
nection of death
with service
plus allowances for children
io/~, 7/6 and
36
6/- for first,
second and
subsequent
B. Alternative pension for death
children
within 7 years, one half to
two thirds (according to wid-
ow's age or family) of hus-
band's pre-war earnings (in-
creased by 60%) up to
06 ' 8
300
Dependant's pension
4/-' V-
Parent
According to
need and in-
capacity for
self support
and expectation
of support
from deceased
Not exceeding
son
widow's pen-
sion, subject
Other dependant
*>/-
According to
to need and
infirmity
amount of
pre-war de-
pendance and
need
*The rates quoted in each column are those applicable to ex-privates
or ex-seamen and to officers below the rank of major or lieut.-com-
mander respectively. Higher rates are payable for higher ranks.
World War service which was defined as terminating on Aug. 31,
1921.
In 1921 another War Pensions Act completed the reform of
administration by three important amendments of pension law: —
(a) The persistent demand of pensioners that their pensions should
be settled, and that they should be relieved of the frequent medi-
cal examinations which were necessary to establish their condition
from time to time for pension purposes, was met. The act declared
366
WARQLA— WARRANT
every award, i.e. decision in respect of disablement claimed, made
up to the date of the passing of the act (Aug. 21, 1921), if not
stated to be subject to review, to be final; and in the case of all
other pensioners, including those whose claims might hereafter be
admitted, the ministry was directed to make regulations for de-
termining finally the degree, if any, of disablement they were still
to be regarded as suffering. A right of appeal was given within a
year of the award to an independent appeal tribunal (appointed,
like the other tribunals, by the Lord Chancellor, but composed of
two medical men and an ex-service officer or man), but subject
to this, the final award was unalterable. About 600,000 final
awards— of which some 400,000 arc life pensions — have been
made since 1921.
(b) Claims for compensation on the score of disablement were
only to be entertained by the ministry under its warrants if made
within seven years of the man's discharge from service or before
Aug. 31, 1921, which ever might be the earlier, (c) The right of
appeal to one of the appeal tribunals, on a refusal of the ministry
to admit a claim for disablement or death as due to war service,
was declared to be exercisable within one year only of the notifica-
tion of the ministry's decision. The same act also brought about
a drastic alteration in the constitution and powers of the local
committees. The existing committees were abolished and new
areas of local administration created with officers directly responsi-
ble to the minister, and new committees, fewer in number, for
them. The new committees, though composed much on the old
lines, but with one quarter of their members disabled ex-service-
men, were given agency and advisory functions only, the chief of
which were the investigation of complaints by pensioners, and the
representation of them to the ministry, and the supervision of pen-
sioned orphan children.
The subsequent history of World War pensions is one of gradual
quiescence. The only important amendment of pension law in
recent years has been the recognition (warrants of 1924) of claims
to pension by widows and parents whose husbands or sons die more
than seven years from discharge, but it is limited to widows or
dependants of men who are recognized as being disabled at the
time of death by the fact of the receipt of disability pension.
Awards of pension, allowance or gratuity have been made from
the beginning of the war up to the end of March 1929, to over
two million persons. Those in receipt of pension or other grant at
that date numbered about a million, who, together with their
wives and children so far as in receipt of allowances, may be
grouped as follows: disabled officers, nurses and men, 507,000;
widows of officers and men, 143,000; adult dependants of deceased
officers and men, and 15,000 motherless children, 314,000; total
pensioners 978,000; wives and/or children of the foregoing for
whom allowances were payable, 536,000. The total expenditure
on pensions of the World War from its outbreak to the end of
March, 1929 (including that of the service departments before
1917) amounted to £860,000,000, a sum which will probably
represent between one-third and two-fifths of the aggregate pen-
sion liability of the country by the time that the pension list is
exhausted. The annual expenditure was at its maximum in 1920-
21, when it reached £106,000,000. Since that date it has shown a
continuous decline to 1929, when it was estimated at £53,750,000,
and should continue to decrease, though at a slower rate. The
liability in future years is calculated approximately at £51,000,000
in 1930-31, £37,000,000 in 1940-41, £26,000,000 in 1950-51, and
£15,000,000 in 1960-61. (A. Ho.)
See PENSIONS, NAVY, ARMY, AIR FORCE; PENSIONS IN THE
UNITED STATES.
WARQLA, a town of the Algerian Sahara. Pop. 3,251, the
majority of mixed Berber and negro blood. The town is walled
and is entered by six gateways, which are fortified. The French
fort, barracks, hospital and other buildings are south of the native
town. The oasis in which Warqla is situated contains two or three
other small fortified ksurs or villages, the largest and most pic-
turesque being Ruissat. The population of the oasis is about
12,000.
WARRANT, in English law, an authority in writing empower-
ing a person to do an act or to execute an office. The term is
applied to a great variety of documents of very different kinds.
Executive and Administrative.— While the royal preroga-
tive was insufficiently defined and limited, a great many execu-
tive acts were authorized by royal warrant (per speciale manda-
tmrn regis) which now either depend on statute or are dealt with
by departments of State without the need of recourse to the per-
sonal authority of the sovereign. There is hardly any exercise of
the royal will which does not depend on the issue of a warrant at-
tended with the strictest formalities designed to secure the re-
sponsibility of some minister for it, in illustration of the great
constitutional principle that "the King cannot act alone." (See
PREROGATIVE; PRIVY COUNCIL.) Under present constitutional
practice royal warrants are as a general rule countersigned by a
member of the cabinet or other responsible officer of State. By an
act of 1435 (18 Hen. VI. c. i) letters patent under the great seal
must bear the date of the royal warrant delivered to the chancellor
for their issue. This act still applies to all patents, except for
inventions. The form and countersignature of warrants for affix-
ing the great seal is regulated by the Great Seal Act 1884. Par-
don, which was granted for centuries only by letters patent under
the great seal, has since 1827 in England and 1828 in Ireland
been granted in case of felony by warrant under the royal sign
manual countersigned by a secretary of State (7 and 8 Geo. IV.
c. 28, s. 13; 9 Geo. IV. c. 54, s. 33). The prerogative of the crown
with reference to the control of the navy and army is largely ex-
ercised by the issue of warrants. In 1871 the purchase of com-
missions in the army was abolished by royal warrant. The con-
vocation of naval courts-martial and the appointment of judge-
advocate and provost-marshal at such court is by warrant of the
Admiralty or of the officer on foreign or detached service who by
his commission is entitled to convene such a court. (See Naval
Discipline Act 1866, s. 58; Army Act 1881, s. 179.) A general
court-martial for the army is constituted by royal warrant or
convened by an officer authorized to convene such court, or his
lawful delegate (Army Act 1881, s. 48). Appointments to certain
offices under the crown are made by warrant of the king or of the
appropriate department of State. In the navy and army the
officers called warrant officers are so styled because they are
appointed by warrant and do not hold commissions. Certain
tradesmen to the court are described as "warrant holders," because
of the mode of their appointment. Abuses of claims to this dis-
tinction are punishable (Merchandise Marks Act 1887, s. 20;
Patents Act 1883, s. 107). The issue of warrants under the hand
of a secretary of State, so far as they affect personal liberty, de-
pends in every case on statute, e.g., as to the surrender of fugitive
criminals (EXTRADITION), or the deportation of undesirable aliens
(see ALIEN), or the bringing of prisoners as witnesses in courts
of justice. The right of a secretary of State by express warrant
in writing to detain or open letters in the post office was recognized
by orders in council and proclamations in the 1 7th century and by
various acts, and is retained in the Post Office Act 1836 (s. 25).
Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Warrants. — Unless a statute
otherwise provides a judicial warrant must be in writing under
the seal, if any, of the court, or under the hand and (or) seal of the
functionary who grants it. Committal for breach of privilege of
the House of Commons is by warrant of the Speaker. During the
Tudor and Stuart reigns frequent attempts were made by the
crown and great officers of State to interfere with personal liberty,
especially as to offences of State. The legality of these proceedings
was challenged by the judges in Elizabeth's reign. On the aboli-
tion of the Star Chamber it was enacted (16 Car. I. c. 10) that if
any person be imprisoned by warrant of the king in person, of the
council board, or any of the privy council, he is entitled to a writ
of habeas corpus, and the courts may examine into the legality of
the cause of detention. This enactment, and the Habeas Corpus
Act 1679, put an end to the interference of the executive with
matters belonging to the judicature; but until 1763 there survived
a practice by which a secretary of State issued warrants to arrest
individuals for State offences, and to search or seize the books and
papers of the accused. The latter practice was examined and
declared illegal in the famous case of Entick v. Carrington (19
How. St. Tr. 1030) where it was held that a secretary of State is
WARRANT
367
the king's private secretary and has not, as such, the authority of
a magistrate to issue a warrant. Still more important were the
cases of Leach v. Money (19 St. Tr. 1001) and Willus v. Wood
which declared the illegality of "general" or "uncertain" warranty,
i.e., warrants which do not testify the .name of the person to be
arrested. Ail privy councillors are included in the commission of
the peace for every county. The council itself is said to have
power to issue warrants of arrest for high treason, but the power,
if it exists, is in abeyance in England. As a result of the gradual
restriction of the royal prerogative, the term warrant has come
in modern times oftenest to be used of documents issuing from
courts of justice. Few documents issuing from the superior courts
are called warrants. In these courts writs and orders are more
generally used. In courts of record which try indictments a "bench
warrant" is sometimes used for the arrest of an absent defendant,
but the word warrant has for judicial purposes become most closely
associated with the jurisdiction ,of justices of the peace. As a
general rule no one can be arrested for a misdemeanour. But to
this rule there are many statutory exceptions, as in the case of
street offences, gambling, cruelty to animals, offences against the
person, profanity and other misdemeanours, also of a breach
of the peace actually committed in the presence of a constable.
In the case of felonies, no warrant is necessary. At common law a
justice of the peace, a sheriff, a coroner, a constable and even a
private person, may arrest any one without warrant for a treason,
felony or breach of the peace committed, or attempted to be
committed, in his presence. A constable (whether a constable at
common law or a police constable appointed under the Police
Acts) may arrest a person indicted for felony; a constable or a
private person may arrest on reasonable suspicion that he who is
arrested has committed a felony. But in the latter case he does so
at his peril, for he must prove (what the constable need not) that
there has been an actual commission of the crime by some one,
as well as a reasonable ground for suspecting the particular person.
What is a reasonable ground it is of course impossible to define,
but, in the case of a constable, a charge by a person not mani-
festly unworthy of credit is generally regarded as sufficient. An
accused person who has been bailed may be arrested by his bail,
and the police may assist in the arrest. In neither case is a warrant
necessary. Nor is it necessary for the apprehension of one against
whom the hue and cry is raised. The king cannot arrest in person
or by verbal command, as no action would lie against him for
wrongful arrest. In those cases in which arrest without warrant is
illegal or is found inexpedient, information in writing or on oath
is laid before a justice of the peace setting forth the nature of the
offence charged and to some extent the nature of the evidence
implicating the accused; and upon this information, if sufficient
in the opinion of the justice applied to, he issues his warrant for
the arrest of the person incriminated. The warrant, if issued by
a competent court as to a matter over which it has jurisdiction,
becomes a judicial authority to the person who executes it, and
resistance to such a warrant is a criminal offence. The issue of a
warrant by a justice of the peace is a judicial act, and provided
he is acting within his jurisdiction, he cannot be sued for a "false
imprisonment" by the person arrested, even though he has acted
unreasonably in issuing it and the prisoner is acquitted. Speak-
ing generally, a constable to whom a warrant is issued is pro-
tected from any action at law for executing it if it was appar-
ently legal on the face of it, because he is bound to obey it. But
if he arrested the wrong person or arrested without having the
warrant in his possession, he is liable in an action for "false
imprisonment." Entry upon the land or seizure of property can-
not as a rule be justified except under judicial warrant. The only
common law warrant of this kind is the search warrant, which may
be granted for the purpose of searching for stolen goods. Special
powers for issuing such warrants are given by the Army, Merchant
Shipping, Customs, Pawnbrokers and Stamp Acts, and for the
discovery of explosives or appliances for coining and forgery.
The Official Secrets Acts of 1911 to 1920 are remarkable in that
they disperse with the necessity of the intervention of a justice of
the peace in the case of a search for official documents and enable
the constable to make such a search on the order of a superin-
tendent of police if it appears that "immediate action is neces-
sary." The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 allows the issue
of search warrants where it is suspected that a female is unlaw-
fully detained for immoral purposes. Execution of the decisions
of a court of summary jurisdiction is secured by warrants, part
of the process of the court, such as warrants of distress or com-
mitment. A warrant may also issue for the apprehension of a
witness whose attendance cannot be otherwise assured. The forms
of warrants used by justices in indictable cases are scheduled to
the Indictable Offences Act 1848, Those used for summary juris-
diction are contained in the Summary Jurisdiction Rules of 1886.
As a general rule, warrants must be executed within the local
jurisdiction of the officer who issued them. Warrants, etc., issued
by a judge of the High Court run through England, in criminal as
well as in civil cases : and the same rule applies as to courts having
bankruptcy jurisdiction. The warrants of justices of the peace can
be executed on fresh pursuit within 7 m. of the boundary of the
jurisdiction, and if properly backed by a local justice or officer in
any other part of the British Isles. (See SUMMARY JURISDIC-
TION.) There is also a special provision as to executing warrants
in the border counties of England and Scotland. Under the Extra-
dition Acts and Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 provision is made for
the issue of warrants in aid of foreign and colonial justice; but
the foreign and colonial warrants have no force in the United
Kingdom. The word is used as to a few judicial or quasi- judicial
matters of civil concern, e.g., warrant to arrest a ship in an ad-
miralty action in rent; and in the county courts warrants to the
bailiffs of the court are used where in the High Court a writ to the
sheriff would be issued, e.g., for attachment, execution, possession
and delivery.
Financial and Commercial. — Payment out of the Treasury
is generally made upon warrant. Treasury warrants are regulated
by many of the acts dealing with the national debt.
Payment of dividends by trading corporations and companies
is generally made by means of dividend warrants. Mercantile
warrants are instruments giving a right to the delivery of goods.
generally those deposited at a dock or warehouse, and by mercan-
tile custom regarded as documents of title to goods.
Scotland. — By art. xxiv. of the Articles of Union royal war-
rants were to continue to be kept as before the union. The Secre-
tary for Scotland Act 1885 enabled the crown by royal warrant to
appoint the secretary to be vice-president of the Scotch Educa-
tion Department. The lord advocate's warrant runs throughout
the whole of Scotland. Warrants issued by courts of summary
jurisdiction agree in the main with those in use in England, though
their names are not the same. (See SUMMARY JURISDICTION.)
There are many statutory provisions as to other warrants.
(W. F. C.)
UNITED STATES
Judicial warrants can be divided into the two classes of war-
rants of arrest and warrants of search and seizure. The use of
general or John Doe warrants, which did not specify the name of
the person to be arrested nor the place to be searched nor the
character of the goods to be seized, and the use of writs of assis-
tance having a like effect, a practice condemned in 1763 by Lord
Camden in Entick v. Carrington (19 How. St. Tr. 1030) and one
of the abuses complained of by the colonists in the Revolutionary
War, led to the prohibition of the issuance of such warrants by
constitutional provisions. The 4th amendment to the U.S. Consti-
tution thus provides against unreasonable searches and seizures
and prohibits the issuance of any warrant "but upon probable
cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describ-
ing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized."
Though this amendment is only a limitation upon the powers of
the Federal Government, similar restrictions upon the States
are to be found in the State Constitutions.
Warrants of arrest, which are necessary where under the com-
mon law or under statutory provision no power to arrest without
warrant may be exercised, may be issued by those officers desig-
nated by the State or Federal statutes. These ordinarily include
judges, U.S. commissioners, justices of the peace and judicial or
quasi- judicial officers of municipal corporations. A similar power
368
WARRANT OF ATTORNEY— WARRANTY
is conferred upon certain administrative officers in the exercise
of their functions, the commonest example being that of warrants
issued by the Department of Labor in the deportation of aliens.
Under the traditional laws of parliamentary privilege a power to
issue warrants of arrest for breach of privilege resides in the
speaker of a legislative assembly or the president of a senate.
The warrant issues at the behest of the complainant upon a com-
plaint setting forth the facts or information upon which the guilt
of the offender is based. Probable cause must be shown in the
sense that the complainant must make out a prima facie case for
concluding that the person accused was guilty of the crime.
The complaint must be accompanied by the affidavit of the com-
plainant. The forms and requisites governing the issuance of the
warrant must be strictly complied with. The legality of the war-
rant and the arrest thereunder can be contested by a habeas
corpus proceeding (q.v.) or by an action for false imprisonment.
Analogous to the ordinary warrant of arrest is the bench warrant
which is issued by the court itself for arrest for contempt or
after indictment found or against a recalcitrant witness.
The issuance of search warrants is governed generally by the
same limitations surrounding warrants of arrest. The description
of the property to be seized must be so particular that the officer
charged with the execution of the warrant will be left with no dis-
cretion respecting the property to be taken. It may issue for the
recovery of stolen property, for the seizure of property used for
the commission of a crime or in the possession of a person intend-
ing to use it for such a purpose. The warrant should be executed
only during the day-time but the officers when resisted may
forcibly enter the premises. In its execution its limitations must
be strictly observed, and the search confined to the character of
goods enumerated in the warrant. Resistance to its execution is
punishable. The legality of its issuance is in some instances re-
viewable by writ of certiorari to a superior tribunal. In all cases
the legality of its issuance and execution can be contested by an
action of trespass against the officer. In order to make more
effective the constitutional prohibition against unreasonable
searches and seizures the Federal courts refuse to admit any evi-
dence obtained as a result of a search without a warrant or under
an illegal warrant. The majority of the State courts, however,
admit such evidence and leave the complainant to his civil action
against the offending officer. The enforcement of the constitu-
tional protection against unreasonable searches and seizures has
become a matter of intense moment in the prosecution of offenses
against the iSth amendment and legislation under it seeking to
make effective the constitutional prohibition against the sale,
manufacture and transportation of intoxicating liquor. The asser-
tion of these new and penetrating powers of government has, in
communities where their assertion is regarded as an infringement
upon the liberty of the citizens, precipitated issues akin to those
that agitated the citizenry during the controversy over general
warrants and writs of assistance.
Other judicial warrants may be briefly adverted to. The escape
warrant is issued for the recapture of prisoners who have escaped
from custody. The warrant of commitment is the process by
which a court directs a ministerial officer to take a person to prison
either before or after trial. Orders directing the execution of an
offender are known as death warrants, commonly issued by the
governor of the State. In some States their issuance is by statute
a prerequisite to the execution of the death sentence; in others
the pronouncement of the sentence in open court is sufficient
authority for its execution. The landlord's warrant is directed by
a landlord to a constable to levy upon the goods of his tenant
and sell them in order to constrain the latter to pay the rent.
Under the Federal Bankruptcy Act of 1898, Section 69, a judge
may issue a warrant to a marshal authorizing him to seize the
property of a bankrupt upon proof that the latter is neglecting his
property or allowing it to deteriorate. A tax warrant is the au-
thority under which a collector is authorized to collect taxes.
Numerous other warrants of a financial or commercial nature
are also known to the American law. The term warrant is used to
apply to an order or draft for the payment of an indebtedness.
School warrants thus issue for the payment of an indebtedness
incurred by a school board or district. Like a check or draft it is
a conditional payment of the debt. Similarly there are municipal
warrants, treasury warrants, State warrants, reclamation war-
rants, dividend or interest warrants of private corporations. Land
warrants are transferable certificates issued by the Government
entitling the holder to a specific tract of public land. A warrant
of attorney is a writing addressed to one or more attorneys author-
izing them to appear in court in behalf of the person who gives
the warrant and confess judgment in favour of some particular
person named in the warrant. They are commonly used to facili-
tate the collection of negotiable instruments and such a provision
authorizing the confession of judgment on the note is commonly
appended to the negotiable instrument. Some States by statute
prohibit judgments by such confession. (J. M. LA.)
WARRANT OF ATTORNEY. A warrant of attorney
to confess judgment is a security for money (now practically
obsolete) in the form of an authority to a solicitor named by a
creditor, empowering him to sign judgment in an action against
the debtor for the sum due, with a clause that the warrant shall
not be put into force in case of due payment.
WARRANTY, etymologically, another form of GUARANTEE
(q.v.). It is used, however, in a rather different sense. The sense
common to both words is that of the collateral contract. A "war-
ranty" expresses the collateral responsibility of the principal actor,
while "guarantee" expresses that of his surety. It differs from a
condition in that a condition forms the basis of the contract and a
breach of it discharges from the contract, and from a representa-
tion in that the latter does not affect the contract unless made a
part of it expressly, or by implication as in contracts of insurance
and other contracts uberrimae fidei, or unless it be fraudulent.
These distinctions are not always maintained. Thus in the Real
Property Act 1845, s. 4, condition seems to be used for warranty.
Warranty as it affected the law of real property was, before the
passing of the Real Property Limitation Act 1833 and the Fines
and Recoveries Act 1833, a matter of the highest importance. A
warranty in a conveyance was a covenant real annexed to an
estate of freehold, and either expressed in a clause of warranty or
implied in cases where a feudal relation might exist between
feoffor and feoffee. The warranty, as described by Littleton,
s. 364b, 697, was an outgrowth of feudalism, and something very
like it is to be found in the Liber Feudornm. At the time of Glan-
vill the heir was bound to warrant the reasonable donations of his
ancestor. Warranty was one of the elements in Bracton's defini-
tion of homage, 786, "juris vinculum quo quis astringitur ad
warrantizandum defendendum et acquietandum tenentem suum in
seisina versus omnes." For an express warranty the word war-
rantizo or warrant was necessary. The word "give" implied a war-
ranty, as did an exchange and certain kinds of partition. In order
to bind heirs a clause of warranty was required. This was cither
lineal, collateral or commencing by disseisin. The feoffor or his
heirs were bound by voucher to warranty or judgment in a writ of
warrantia chartae to yield other lands to the feoffee in case of the
eviction of the latter. Vouching to warranty was a part of the old
fictitious proceedings in a common recovery in use for the purpose
of barring an entail before the Fines and Recoveries Act. War-
ranty is now superseded by covenants for title. The more usual of
these are now by the Conveyancing Act 1881 deemed to be implied
in conveyances. For the implied warranties of title and quality
see SALE OF GOODS. Vouching to warranty was at one time im-
portant in the law of personalty as well as of realty. Warranty, as
it exists at present in the law of personalty, is either express or
implied. The principal cases of implied warranty occur in the con-
tracts of sale and insurance. There is also an implied warranty in
other kinds of contract, e.g., of seaworthiness by the shipowner in
a contract between him and a charterer for the hire of a ship. In
all cases of implied warranty the warranty may be excluded by the
special terms of the contract. For breach of warranty an action
may be brought directly, or the breach may be used as ground for
a counter claim or for reduction of damages, but the breach will
not in the case of a warranty proper entitle the person suffering by
ft to a rescission of the contract. Thus in a sale the property
passes although the warranty be broken. In some cases warranties
WAR RELIEF WORK
369
on sale are the subject of statutory enactments, as the Merchan-
dise Marks Acts and the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts.
Scotland. — Warranty is a term imported into Scots law in con-
nection with mercantile law. Differing from the English interpre-
tation it signifies a material condition of the contract, breach of
which discharges from the contract in the option of the other
party (see Sale of Goods Act 1893, ss. 53 [5] and 62 [i]). The
term native to Scots law is "warrandice." It occurs in connection
with deeds transferring land or discharging obligations, and is in
the form of a warranty by the grantor that his title is good. War-
randice is either real or personal. Real warrandice is that whereby
warrandice lands are made over, as indemnity for those conveyed,
to assure the person to whom they were conveyed from loss by
the appearance of a superior title. Real warrandice is implied in ex-
cambion or exchange of lands. Its effect is that the excamber, in
case of eviction, may recover possession of his original lands.
Personal warrandice is either express or implied. There is an im-
plied warrandice in every onerous deed. Express warrandice may
be either simple, against the future acts of the grantor; from fact
and deed, against the grantor's own acts whether past or future;
or absolute, i.e., against acts and deeds whether (a) of the grantor
or (b) of a third prior to the date of the deed. A clause of war-
randice is the Scottish equivalent of the English covenants for
title. By the Titles to Land Consolidation (Scotland) Amendment
Act 1869 a clause of warrandice in the form given in the schedule
to the act imports absolute warrandice as regards the lands and
the title-deeds thereof, and warrandice from fact and deed as re-
gards the rents.
United States. — In the United States the common law war-
ranty accompanying the conveyances of real property seems
never to have been known. Personal covenants of title were de-
veloped in its place and with greater vigour than in England inas-
much as purchasers were unaccustomed to examine titles with
the particularity that is common in England. These covenants of
title generally embrace the covenant of seisin or right to convey,
the covenant against incumbrances, the covenant for quiet enjoy-
ment and of warranty. This modern covenant of warranty, which
is not recognized in England, is quite different from the common
law covenant of warranty. Under this covenant the grantor war-
rants that he will defend the grantee against all lawful claims by
third persons. In some States by statute these covenants are
implied from the simple terms granting the estate ; in other States
by statute no such covenants are implied but must be express.
The quit-claim conveyance ordinarily imports no covenants but
as altered by statute in some States it carries with it a covenant
of title. In sales of personal property, warranties are governed
by sections 12-16 of the Uniform Sales Act. Any affirmation of
fact or promise by the seller relating to the goods and inducing
the buyer to purchase them is regarded as an express warranty.
In the absence of express warranties the buyer is protected by the
implication of warranties of title and quality. In contradistinc-
tion to the English law of sale, rescission for breach of warranty
is permitted. The buyer may tender back the goods and recover
the purchase price. (See SALE OF GOODS.) Sections 65 and 66 of
the Uniform Negotiable Instruments Law govern the character of
warranties that accompany the transfer of negotiable instruments
with or without indorsement. Warranty in insurance law operates
to relieve the insurer of liability for breach thereof. Legislation
commonly provides that no statements of fact made by the in-
sured shall be regarded as warranties relieving the insurer of
liability unless made with the intention to deceive or material
to the risk.
WAR RELIEF WORK. Upon the outbreak of the World
War in 1914 relief problems far surpassed the capabilities of pri-
vate charity, involving broad questions of governmental finance,
control of production, purchase and transport of huge quantities
of supplies from one part of the world to another, intervention of
diplomatic agencies, control of shipping and railways, and finally,
after the war, general economic rehabilitation and broadly con
ceived treatment of fundamental social ills. For the first time in
history, virtual world control of production and distribution of
food was attained (see RED CROSS).
CIVILIAN RELIEF IN BELGIUM AND FRANCE
During the occupation of Belgium, inhabitants found them-
selves in desperate straits from interruption of agriculture and the
confiscation of stocks by the occupying forces. Belgium's essen-
tial food imports were cut off, and hordes of refugees fled before
the advancing German armies. Herbert Hoover, an American en-
gineer,, with the backing of the U.S. Government persuaded the
Allied Govts. to open the blockade and to secure guarantees from
Germany against interference and requisitioning of local food
products. The Commission for Relief in Belgium (C.R.B.) estab-
lished by Herbert Hoover as a neutral organization in the midst
of war, possessed recognized diplomatic rights and obligations,
flew its own flag and issued its own passports.
Food had to be supplied to the 9,000,000 inhabitants of Bel-
gium and northern France. It had to be secured in disorganized
markets; supplies had to pass across mine-strewn waters through
the naval blockade, and be towed through I33m. of obstructed
waterways, passing across the German military line. Relief ves-
sels, 2,313 in number, carried in the neighbourhood of 100,000
tons each month for nearly five years.
The commission formed a committee of Germans, Belgians and
Americans which took over harvests of breadstuffs, insuring equi-
table distribution to the civil population. The world's charity was
mobilized through nearly 2,000 committees. Within Belgium and
northern France were set up nearly 10,000 communal committees.
Purchasing and shipping agencies were organized in the principal
world markets and ports. Offices for governmental liaison were
maintained at Brussels, London, Paris and Washington. Upon
America's entry into the war the C.R.B. remained unchanged,
except for the necessary withdrawal of American directors from
within the German lines. The Spanish-Dutch committee for the
protection of the relief in Belgium and northern France took over
diplomatic and other functions within the lines. The national
committees, one Belgian and one French, administered distribu-
tion. These were the Belgian Comite National de Secours et
d'Alimentation and the Comite d 'Alimentation du Nord de la
France under the leadership of Emile Francqui.
During the whole period the commission acquired goods well
over $1,300,000,000 in value, including interchange of native
products. More than 55,000 volunteers gave their services.
Over 5,000,000 tons of supplies were imported. The Belgian
Government granted monthly fixed subsidies to the commis-
sion from loans advanced by the United States, Great Britain
and France. The actual financial resources of the commission
amounted to $894,797,150, the expenditure of the benevolent side
of the relief organization was $615,237,147 of this total. Of the
total funds available to the commission, 47% came from the
United States ($421,153,287); 23% from French Treasury loans
($204,862,854); 14% from British empire sources ($125,686,-
364); and 16% from other sources. The total administrative ex-
penditure of the C.R.B. was kept down to less than one-half of
one per cent. The average prices maintained for staple foods in
the occupied territory during the entire period of the war were
from 15 to 20% less than prices in the Allied countries at the
same periods. The Belgian and French Governments in May
1919 took the responsibility of feeding their people.
RELIEF IN CENTRAL EUROPE
When peace came in November 1918 the Allied and associated
Governments were confronted with the necessity of extending
relief not only to liberated territories in central Europe but also to
their enemies. From the Baltic to the Adriatic and Black seas
hundreds of millions of people desperately needed food until agri-
cultural production could be brought back and until industries
and transportation could be restarted. Herbert Hoover was ap-
pointed director-general of Allied Relief, under the Supreme
Economic Council. Because America was in a better food posi-
tion than any of the nations of Europe, the United States was
destined to play the principal part, supplemented by a substantial
programme of Great Britain. Hoover formed the American Re-
lief Administration (A.R.A.) to carry out the work. The U.S.
Grain Corporation handled finances, purchasing and shipping. To
370
WARREN
assure the success of the complicated arrangements for the mass
feeding of millions of people the director general took temporary
control of railways in central and southern Europe, re-established
or controlled io,ooom. of telegraph and telephone lines, arranged
barge shipments on rivers, initiated food exchanges between States,
re-allocated army supplies suitable for civilian needs, established
a temporary monetary exchange system, furthered import of raw
material, controlled coal production and generally helped strug-
gling Governments to re-establish economic life.
Food from America had to be transported overseas and dis-
tributed in 21 countries or States. American deliveries to Allied
or neutral countries were financed on credit by the U.S. Treasury.
With the exception of Austria, deliveries to ex-enemy countries
were paid for in cash. Deliveries to the new States were either
as outright gifts or long-term loans. The U.S. Congress also ap-
propriated $100,000,000 as a revolving fund for the operations.
Allied and neutral countries supplied by the United States were
Italy, Denmark and Holland; ex-enemy countries supplied against
cash payments were Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and
Turkey. The so-called liberated territories supplied were Finland,
Estonia, north-west Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belgium,
northern France, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Yugoslavia, south
Russia and Armenia.
Notwithstanding its difficult financial position, the British Gov-
ernment was able to appropriate £12,500,000 and to set up other
substantial grants. Great Britain agreed to fill the gaps between
what the United States could provide and what was required for
barest necessities. British assistance was given to Poland, Serbia,
Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Estonia and Austria, relief being ad-
ministered by Sir William Goode.
During the Armistice year relief deliveries to Europe reached
about 4,760,000 tons of food valued at over $1,147,600,000. More
than two-thirds or $870,000,000 worth, came from the United
States. About $120,000,000, or 10%, came from the United
Kingdom; from France and Italy about 2% each; about 4% was
financed jointly by the United States, France and Italy; and
about 5% came from other countries. Inland transportation was
paid for by the Governments aided. Local ministries and volun-
teer committees attended to distribution.
These prompt relief measures undoubtedly saved Europe from
great social cataclysm. The relief operation laid down ua wall
of food" against militant Russian world revolution.
Privately Organized Relief. — With the signing of peace, all
these Allied and American organizations passed out of existence.
Certain stocks given by the American Government for charitable
purposes were turned over to a new private organization formed
by Herbert Hoover, also known as the American Relief Adminis-
tration. Large numbers were still faced by extreme shortage.
Children were the greatest sufferers. The new privately organized
A.R.A. carried on mass child feeding in Finland, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Danzig, Poland, northern France, Czechoslovakia,
Austria, Hungary, Rumania, Yugoslavia and Armenia. American
Quakers co-operated with the A.R.A. in feeding over 1,000,000
children in Germany. The work was carried on until 1923.
During that period about 8,000,000 different children benefited
from this charitable relief. Cooked meals were distributed to as
many as 4,000,000 children daily at one time, to whom a total of
over 1,500 million meals were served. Clothing to the value of
over $8,000,000 was distributed to more than 2,000,000 children.
These governments also donated some foods and financed some
of the foreign imports. National welfare bodies founded and
built up by the A.R.A. were perpetuated in many countries. The
total amount expended for these post-war charitable operations
reached nearly $100,000,000.
Dr. Fridtj of Nansen prevailed upon the League of Nations to
help in repatriation of prisoners of war, bringing more than 427,-
ooo war prisoners out of Russia and Siberia back to their homes
in a dozen countries. Prominent in post-war relief works were
the Save the Children funds of Great Britain and many other
countries which, through Dr. Nansen, brought help to eastern
European countries; the American Jewish Joint Distribution
Committee in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria and other places;
several Irish relief committees ; the American and British Societies
of Friends (Quakers). The French war orphans committee
brought aid to children in devastated France. The Rockefeller
Foundation gave over $22,500,000 for the relief work of the Com-
mission for Relief in Belgium and other charitable purposes.
Russian Famine. — When these post-war relief operations
were closing down, famine in Russia faced 25,000,000 people in
the Volga valley with starvation. Herbert Hoover revived the
A.R.A., secured grants from the U.S. Government, induced the
Soviet Russian Government to purchase seed grains, and rushed
food, grain and medical supplies. Dilapidated ports, broken-
down railways, the general inertia of the broken morale of the
Russian people, and the dissolution of the productive organism,
complicated by suspicions of the Soviet Government against em-
issaries from "capitalist" America made the task of bringing im-
mediate effective relief to the people in an area of 770,000 sq.m.
immense. Every step of operations of transport, and distribution
had to be supervised amid greatest economic disruption and appall-
ing scenes of misery.
This was accomplished by less than 200 persons supervising a
distributing organization of nearly 150,000 Russian workers.
More than 10,000,000 people were fed; medical and sanitary sup-
plies valued at $7,600,000 were distributed to 16,500 hospitals
and other institutions to combat the spread of typhus, cholera,
and other epidemics following in the wake of famine; over 8,000,-
ooo vaccinations or inoculations against smallpox, typhoid and
para-typhoid were given to people in epidemic regions; 200,000
tons of seed grain were distributed; and other relief measures
brought the total value of American relief to the Russian famine
to about $60,000,000. The work was made possible by the contri-
bution of $24,000,000 in cash and medical supplies by the U.S.
Government, of $3,600,000 worth of medical supplies by the
American Red Cross, about $4,000,000 by the American joint dis-
tribution committee, and of $12,000,000 worth of seed grain pur-
chased and transported by the A.R.A. against gold payment by the
Soviet Government. Many other American groups co-operated in
furnishing means to an extent of nearly $3,000,000. These were
the Society of Friends, Mennonite relief, European student relief,
Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America, Knights of
Columbus, National Catholic welfare council, National Lutheran
Council, Volga relief society, Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A. The Rus-
sian operations of the American Relief Administration started in
September 1921, and were brought to a close in July 1923. Al-
though the sums thrown into Russian famine relief by British
agencies and the Nansen relief committee were small in com-
parison with the American relief, the accomplishment was effec-
tive. As High Commissioner for the League of Nations, Dr. Nan-
sen also co-operated with the A.R.A. in care of Russian refugees
in the Balkans, arranging for the transport of some 15,000 of
these refugees to other localities where they could be supported.
(See REFUGEES; FAMINE; ROCKEFELLER BENEFACTIONS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Annual Reports and Bulletins of the A.R.A. and
the other relief associations mentioned in the course of the article;
Sidney Brooks, America and Germany, 1918-25 (1925), and America
and Poland, 1915—25; II. II. Fisher, American Relic) Administration in
the Russian Famine (1926); C. S. Young, Clara Barton (1923);
G. I. Gay, The Commission for Relief in Belgium, Stanford University,
Cal.; Sir William Goode, Economic Conditions in Central Europe
(Cmd. 641, 1920). (G. B. B.)
WARREN, SIR CHARLES (1840-1927), English soldier
and archaeologist, was born at Bangor, Wales, on Feb. 7, 1840.
In 1857 he entered the Royal Engineers. From 1861 to 1865 he
was engaged in a survey of Gibraltar, but then went to Palestine
where he became interested in archaeology. He conducted excava-
tions at Jerusalem until 1870, and made for the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund the first systematic archaeological survey of the Holy
Land. He published The Recovery of Jerusalem (1871), and,
with C. R. Conder, The Survey of Western Palestine (1884).
In 1876 he was appointed commissioner to determine the boundary
line between Orange Free State and Griqualand West. In 1876,
on the outbreak of the Kaffir War, he was given command of the
Diamond Fields Horse. He quelled an uprising in Bechuanaland,
and in 1879, as administrator of Griqualand West he organized a
WARREN— WARRINGTON
371
force to defend the Transvaal. In 1884 he explored in Arabia
Petraea, but before the year was over was again sent to South
Africa to restore order in Bechuanaland. He proclaimed the ter-
ritory south of the Malopo river a crown colony under the name
of British Bechuanaland. He served in the Boer War as lieutenant-
general in command of the Fifth Division but after the British
disaster at the Tugela river was transferred to an administrative
post. He died at Weston-supermare, England on Jan. 21, 1927.
Among the more notable of his later books was On the Veldt in
the Seventies (1902).
WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (1830-1882),
American soldier, was born at Coldspring (N.Y.), on Jan. 8, 1830,
and was graduated from West Point in 1850. He was assigned
to the engineers, and was employed in survey work in the West,
where he took part in some expeditions against the Indians.
In 1859 he was made assistant instructor in mathematics at West
Point. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was made lieutenant
colonel of volunteers and posted to the newly raised 5th New
York volunteer infantry. In August he was promoted to the rank
of colonel. He commanded a brigade of the volunteer corps at
Gaines's Mill, Second Bull Run and Antietam, and was promoted
to the rank of brigadier general of volunteers. During the Fred-
ericksburg campaign he was on the engineer staff of the Army of
the Potomac, but after Chancellorsville he was appointed chief of
engineers, and in that capacity rendered brilliant services at
Gettysburg (q.v.), his reward being promotion to major general
U.S. volunteers and the brevet of colonel in the Regular Army.
When the Army of the Potomac was reorganized in the spring of
1864, Warren returned to the volunteer corps as its commander.
His services in the Wilderness (q.v.) and Petersburg (q.v.)
campaigns proved his fitness for this command, but his lively
imagination and the engineer's habit of caution made him a
brilliant but somewhat unsafe subordinate. At the critical mo-
ment preceding the battle of Five Forks, Sheridan, in charge of
the operations, was authorized by Grant to relieve Warren of his
command if he thought fit. At first the volunteer corps fell into
confusion, which Warren exerted himself to remedy, and the battle
was an important Union victory. But after it had ended Sheri-
dan sent for Warren and relieved him of his command. A court
of inquiry entirely exonerated Warren from the charges of apathy
which Sheridan brought against him. General Warren died Aug. 8,
1882, at Newport (R.I.).
WARREN, JOSEPH (1741-1775), American soldier and
patriot, born at Roxbury (Mass.), June n, 1741. He graduated
at Harvard College in 1759, studied medicine at Boston, and soon
acquired a high reputation in his profession. The passage of the
Stamp Act aroused his patriotic sympathies and brought him in
close connection with Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Josiah
Quincy, Jr., as a leader of the popular party. He drafted the
"Suffolk Resolves," which urged forcible opposition to Great
Britain, if such should be necessary, pledged submission to such
measures as the Continental Congress might recommend, and
favoured the calling of a provincial congress. These "resolves"
were unanimously adopted by a convention at Milton (q.v.) on
Sept. 9, 1774. Warren was a member of the first three provincial
congresses (1774-75), president of the third, and an active mem-
ber of the committee of public safety. On June 14, 1775, he was
commissioned a major general, but three days later, and before his
commission was made out, he took part as a volunteer, under the
orders of Putnam and Prescott, in the battle of Bunker Hill
(Breed's Hill), where he was killed.
WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877), English lawyer and
author, son of Dr. Samuel Warren, rector of All Souls', Ancoats,
Manchester, was born near Wrexham in Denbighshire on May
23, 1807. The elder Samuel Warren (1781-1862) was the founder
of the "Warrenites," seceders from Wesleyan Methodism, who
formed the United Methodist Free Churches.
His son, the younger Samuel Warren, studied medicine but aban-
doned this and entered the Inner Temple in 1828, took silk in
1851, was made recorder of Hull in 1852, represented Midhurst in
parliament for three years (1856-1859) and was rewarded in 1859
with a mastership in lunacy. He was the author of two extraor-
dinarily successful books: Passages from the Diary of a Late
Physician (1838), and Ten Thousand a Year (1881). Warren died
on July 29, 1877. He had collected his Works: Critical and Imag-
inative (4 vols., 1854).
WARREN, WHITNEY (1864- ), American architect,
was born in New York city, on Jan. 29, 1864. After studying at
the ficole des Beaux Arts, Paris, under Daumet and Girault
(1885-94), he began the practice of architecture in New York,
later becoming associated with Charles D. Wetmore in the firm of
Warren and Wetmore. They specialized in railway architecture,
hotels, business buildings and residences and were architects for
the New York Central, Michigan Central, Canadian Northern and
Erie railways. Their numerous structures in New York city
include the Chelsea docks, the Grand Central terminal and the
hotels Belmont (1905), Vanderbilt (1910), Biltmore (1912) and
Commodore (1916). In 1920 he was chosen by the international
committee to reconstruct the library of the University of Louvain,
destroyed by the Germans in 1914.
WARREN, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., on the Mahoning river.
Pop. (1920) 27,050 (80% native white); 1928 local estimate
nearly 44,000. The city occupies 8-6 square miles and was
named after Moses Warren, a surveyor of the Connecticut Land
Company. It was settled in 1799. I*1 ^34 the village was in-
corporated, and in 1839 it became a port on the new canal from
the Ohio river, at the mouth of the Beaver, to Lake Erie. In 1869
it was incorporated as a city.
WARREN, a borough of north-western Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
the county seat of Warren county; on the north bank of the
Allegheny river. Pop. (1920) 14,272 (85% native white); 1928
local estimate 16,000. Warren lies 1,246 ft. above sea-level, at
the southern foot of a high, sheer ridge, in a beautiful and fertile
region, rich in oil and gas. Hydro-electric power from Niagara Falls
and the Clarion river is available, in addition to natural gas from
the local field. In the suburbs is a State hospital for the
insane (1873) with grounds covering 1,288 acres. Warren was
laid out in 1795 by direction of Governor Miftlin, and was named
for Gen. Joseph Warren, the Revolutionary war officer. The bor-
ough was incorporated in icS^j.
WARREN, a town of Bristol county, Rhode Island, U.S.A.,
on the east shore of Narragansett bay, at the mouth of the Warren
river, 10 m. S.E. of Providence. Pop. (1920; 7,841.
WARREN, properly an old term of the English forest law,
applied to one of the three lesser franchises, together with "chase"
and "park," included under the highest franchise, the "forest,"
and ranking last in order of importance. The "beasts of warren"
were the hare, the coney (i.e.. rabbit), the pheasant and the
part ridge. The word thus became used of a piece of ground pre-
served for these beasts of warren. It is now applied loosely to
any piece of ground, whether preserved or not, where rabbits
breed. (See FOREST LAWS.)
WARRINGTON, HENRY BOOTH, IST EARL (1652-
1694). See DELAMERE, GEORGE BOOTH, IST BARON.
WARRINGTON, market town of Lancashire, England, at
the crossing of the river Mersey. Pop. (1921) 76,811.
Warrington is supposed to be of British or earlier origin, and
the Roman road from Chester to the north passed through it.
In Henry I.'s reign Warrington was the head of a barony created
for Pain de Vilars, but both manor and barony passed to the
Botelers or Butlers, who first established their residence on the
mote hill and before 1280 built Bewsey in Burton wood. The
Butlers held both barony and manor till 1586, when the barony
lapsed and the manor passed to the Irelands of Bewsey, then to
the Booths and in 1769 to the Blackburns. In 1277 Edward I.
granted a charter for a weekly market on Friday, and an annual
fair of eight days from the eve of St. Andrew (Nov. 30), and in
1285 another charter confirmed a change of market day from Fri-
day to Wednesday and extended the summer fair to eight days.
The fairs are still held, as well as the Wednesday chartered mar-
ket, besides a Saturday market which is probably customary. In
the 1 8th and early igth centuries the chief industries were hucka-
backs and coarse cloths, canvas, fustians, pins, glass, sugar-re-
fining and copper. During the Civil War the inhabitants were
372
WARRISTON— WARSAW
royalists and the earl of Derby made the town for some time
his headquarters in order to secure the passage of the Mersey.
In April 1643 the parliamentary forces attacked it, but had to
raise the siege. Lord Derby left Colonel Edward Norris in com-
mand and in May the parliamentarians again attacked the town,
which was forced to surrender. In 1648, part of the royal forces
under General Baillie rallied temporarily at Warrington. During
the Rebellion of 1745, on the approach of Prince Charles Edward
from Manchester, the bridge was cut down. A borough was created
by William le Boteler about 1230 by a charter (not preserved);
but its growing strength alarmed the lord who contrived to repress
it before 1300, and for over 500 years Warrington was governed
by the lord's manor court. There was a friary of Augustine or
Hermit Friars here founded apparently about 1280.
The fine church of St. Elphin (Decorated style), has a lofty
central tower and spire. The crypt of a much earlier church re-
mains beneath the chancel. The town hall, a classical building
(i8th century) formerly a residence, was purchased by the corpo-
ration in 1872, the park being opened to the public. The other
chief buildings are the museum and free library, technical insti-
tute and market hall. The educational institutions include a
grammar school (1526), and a blue-coat school (1665). A few
half-timbered houses of the i7th century remain. The Warring-
ton district is an important centre of the tanning industry. There
are also iron bar, hoop and wire works, tool, soap, glass and chemi-
cal works, foundries and cotton mills. The Manchester Ship Canal
is here crossed by five bridges. The town was incorporated in
1847. Area, 3,057 acres.
WARRISTON, ARCHIBALD JOHNSTON, LORD
(1611-1663), Scottish judge and statesman, son of James John-
ston, was baptized on March 28, 1611, educated at Glasgow, and
passed advocate at the Scottish bar in 1633. In 1637 he drew up
the remonstrances of the Covenanting leaders against Charles I.'s
attempt to force the English liturgy upon Scotland, and with
Alexander Henderson, was a principal author of the National
Covenant of 1638. In June 1639 he took part in the negotiations
leading to the Treaty of Berwick, when his firm attitude dis-
pleased the king. He was appointed in 1640 to attend the general
of the army and the committee and on June 23 wrote to Lord
Savile asking for definite support and the acceptance of the
National Covenant by the leading opposition peers in England.
In October he was a commissioner for negotiating the Treaty of
Ripon. In 1641 he led the opposition on the point of control of
State appointments during the king's visit to Scotland.
In accordance with the king's short-lived policy of conciliation
Johnston was appointed a lord of session Nov. 13, 1641, with the
title of Lord Warriston, and was knighted and given a pension. In
the same month the parliament appointed him a commissioner at
Westminster for settling the affairs of Scotland, and he was later
(1643) made a member of the committee of both kingdoms,
which directed the military operations. Early in 1644 he took his
seat in the Assembly of Divines, where he was strongly opposed
to independency and to lay control in ecclesiastical affairs. He was
also member for Edinburgh in the Scottish parliament (1643-47)
and speaker of the barons.
In Oct. 1646, Johnston was made king's advocate after Charles
had surrendered himself to the Scots. In 1648 he became the
leader of the "remonstrants," the party opposed to the "engage-
ment" concluded by the predominant party with Charles at Caris-
brooke. (See ENGLAND: History.) In October, afier the defeat of
the "engagers"' at Preston he met Cromwell at Edinburgh, and
helped to promote the Act of Classes (Jan. 23, 1649), disqualify-
ing royalists; but after the king's execution good relations with
Cromwell were broken off, and Johnston was officially present at
the proclamation of Charles II. as king in 1649 at Edinburgh.
On March 10, he was appointed lord clerk register; in May he
pronounced sentence on Montrose. After the defeat of D unbar
(Sept. 3, 1650) at which Johnston was present, he urged the
removal of David Leslie from the command, and on Sept. 21,
delivered a violent speech in Charles's presence, attributing all
the troubles to the opposition of the Stuarts to the Reformation.
Johnston now committed himself to the faction of the remon-
strants, who desired to exclude the king, and whom he represented
in London in 1656. On July 9, 1657, he was restored by Crom-
well to his office of lord clerk register, and on Nov. 3 was made
a commissioner for the administration of justice in Scotland. He
sat in the upper chamber of Cromwell's parliament (Jan. 1658)
and of Richard Cromwell's parliament; and on the latter's abdi-
cation and the restoration of the Rump, he was chosen a member
of the council of State, and continued in the administration as a
member of the committee of public safety.
At the Restoration he escaped abroad, and was condemned to
death in his absence (May 13, 1661). In 1663 he was discovered
at Rouen, and with the consent of Louis XIV. was brought over
and imprisoned in the Tower. Taken to Edinburgh in June, and
confined in the Tolbooth, he was hanged at the Market Cross on
July 22. His head was exposed on the Netherbow and afterwards
buried with his body in Greyfriars churchyard.
Johnston was a man of energy. His devotion to the Scottish
Church amounted to fanaticism. He had by nature no republican
leanings. When, however, Presbyterianism was attacked, he de-
sired, like Pym, to restrict the royal prerogative. His accept-
ance of office under Cromwell hardly deserves the censure it
has received. But in his dying speech he condemned the act
as a fault which he had committed in order to provide for his
numerous family. Johnston was wanting in consideration for his
opponents. He was hated by Charles I., whose statecraft was
vanquished by his inflexible purpose, and by Charles II., whom
he rebuked for his dissolute conduct.
See W. Morison, Johnston of Warriston (1901) ; Diary x?/ Sir A. J.
Warriston, 1650-54, edit, by D. H. Fleming (Scottish Hist. Soc.,
1919).
WARRNAMBOOL, a seaport of Victoria, Australia. It
has a good artificial harbour formed by a breakwater, pier, etc.
The town (pop. 8,100) is the market centre of a rich agricultural
and dairying district (av. an. rainfall 26-18 in.) and farther inland
lie the sheep-areas of western Victoria, but the policy of railway
concentration upon Melbourne has deprived it of much trade.
WARSAW (Polish IVarszawa) , a province of Poland.
Area, 11,313 sq. miles. Population (1921) without the
city of Warsaw, 2,112,000, of whom 89-8% are Poles, 7-7%
Jews and 2-2% Germans. The province of Warsaw, formerly the
principality of Mazovia, is situated in the great central plain and
drained by the Vistula and its affluents. In the north the Baltic
uplands begin; in the south the province includes part of the
southern plateau. The plain is sandy and not very fertile, and
suffers much from the periodic inundations of the Vistula, particu-
larly near the confluence of the Bug and Narew. But the thrifty
Mazovian peasant has prosecuted the cultivation of the soil with
considerable success. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley,
wheat and potatoes, while beetroot is cultivated for sugar in some
parts of the province. Gardening and bee-keeping are also prac-
tised. There are large forest areas particularly in the north where
there are also wide marshes especially on the Wkra near Mlawa.
The shipping of the Vistula is an important occupation, as are
the agricultural industries: flour milling, distilleries, breweries and
sugar factories. Saw mills and match factories and especially
tanneries are important. There is an important industrial area
including the metal industries, the manufacture of machinery,
locomotives and other goods at Warsaw and the textile manufac-
tures of Zyrardow, forming a link between Warsaw and Lodz.
The chief towns are Warsaw (q.v.), Plock (pop. 25,800),
Wloclawek (pop. 40,300), Zyrard6w, Gostynin, Grojec, Kutno,
Nowo-Minsk, Plonsk, Radzymin, Skierniewice, Ciechan6w, Lipno,
Mlawa, Rypin, Pultusk and Przasnysz.
Mazovia was a semi-independent principality of Poland not
finally united to Poland till 1529, when its numerous gentry
played a great part in the democratic evolution of the Polish
Constitution. The region has sent waves of colonists into East
Prussia, Lithuania and even the Ukraine. The bishops of Plock
originally had all Mazovia as their diocese, but to-day there is
an archbishopric at Warsaw, which -in the i6th century succeeded
Plock as the capital city. Warsaw became the political centre of
Poland when the advance of Germany in the west and Polish
WARSAW
373
colonization of Lithuania and the Ukraine threw the political cen- j
tre of the State eastwards from Poznan and Cracow.
WARSAW, the capital of Poland and chief town of the
province of Warsaw (Polish Warszawa). Area of the administra-
tive district, 46 sq. miles. Pop. (1925) 1,002,196, of whom 33%
were Jews, the rest nearly all Poles. It is beautifully situated on
the left bank of the Vistula, 387 m. by rail E. of Berlin, and 695
m. S.W. of Leningrad. It stands on a terrace 120 to 130 ft.
above the river, to which it descends by steep slopes, leaving a
broad bench at its base. The suburb of Praga on the right bank
of the Vistula, here 450 to 660 yd. broad, is connected with
Warsaw by two bridges.
Situated in a fertile plain, on a great navigable river, below,
its confluence with the Pilica and Wieprz, which drain southern
Poland, and above its confluence with the Narew and Bug, which
tap a wide region in the east, Warsaw became in mediaeval times
(he chief entrepot for the trade, of those fertile and populous
valleys with western Europe. Owing to its position in the
territory of Mazovia, which was neither Polish nor Lithuanian,
and, so to say, remained neutral between the two rival powers
which constituted the united kingdom, it became the capital of
both, and secured advantages over the purely Polish Cracow
and the Lithuanian Vilna. The precise date of the foundation
of the town is net known; but it is supposed that Conrad, duke of
Mazovia, erected a castle on the present site of Warsaw as early
as the Qth century. Casimir the Just is supposed to have fortified
it in the nth century, but Warsaw is not mentioned in annals
before 12:4. Until 1526 it was the residence of the dukes of
Mazovia, but when their dynasty became extinct it was annexed
to Poland. When Poland and Lithuania were united, Warsaw
was chosen as the royal residence. Sigismund Augustus (Wasa)
made it (1550) the real capital of Poland, and from 1572 on-
wards election of the kings of Poland took place on the field of
Wola, on the western outskirts of the city. Charles Gustavus of
Sweden took it in 1655 and kept it for a year; the Poles retook
it in July 1656. Augustus II. and Augustus III. did much for its
embellishment, but it had much to suffer during the war with
Charles XII. of Sweden, who captured it in 1702; but in the
following year peace was made, and it. became free again. The
disorders which followed upon the death of Augustus III. in
1763 opened a field for Russian intrigue, and in 1764 the Russians
took possession of the town and secured the election of Stanislaw
Poniatowski, which led in 1773 to the first partition of Poland.
In Nov. 1794 the Russians took it again, after the bloody assault
on Praga, but next year, in the third partition of Poland, Warsaw
was given to Prussia. In Nov. 1806 the town was occupied by
the troops of Napoleon, and after the peace of Tilsit (1807)
was made the capital of the independent duchy of Warsaw; but
the Austrians seized it on April 21, 1809 and kept possession of
it till June 2, when it once more became independent. The Rus-
sians finally took it on Feb. 8, 1813. On Nov. 29, 1830, Warsaw
gave the signal for the unsuccessful insurrection which lasted
nearly one year; the city was captured after great bloodshed by
Paskevich, on Sept. 7, 1831. Deportations on a large scale, exe-
cutions, and confiscation of the domains of the nobility followed,
and until 1856 Warsaw remained under severe military rule. In
1862 a series of demonstrations began to be made in Warsaw
in favour of the independence of Poland, and after a bloody
repression a general insurrection followed in Jan. 1863, the Rus-
sians remaining, however, masters of the situation. Executions,
banishment to the convict prisons of Siberia, and confiscation of
estates were carried out on an unheard-of -scale. Scientific societies
and high schools were closed; monasteries and nunneries were
emptied. Hundreds of Russian officials were called in to fill
the administrative posts, and to teach in the schools and the
university; the Russian language was made obligatory in all
official acts, in all legal proceedings, and even, to a great extent,
in trade. The very name of Poland was expunged from official
writings, and, while the old institutions were abolished, the Rus-
sian tribunals and administrative institutions were introduced.
The serfs were liberated. Much rioting and lawless bloodshed took
in tfiA ritv in
In 1914 Warsaw became a great base for the supply of the
Russian armies. In 1915 it was occupied by the Germans, who
made it the capital of a Polish State, which possessed no real
power. With the break-up of the German army in 1918 the Poles
made themselves masters of the town and set up a government.
The streets of Warsaw are adorned with many fine buildings,
partly palaces exhibiting the Polish nobility's love of display,
partly churches and cathedrals, and partly public buildings erected
by the municipality or by private bodies. Fine public gardens
and several monuments further embellish the city. The university
founded in 1816 but closed in 1832, was again opened in 1869 as
a Russian institution, and is now again Polish; it has a remark-
able library of more than 500,000 vols., rich natural history col-
lections, a fine botanic garden and an astronomical observatory.
The medical school enjoys high repute in the scientific world.
The school of arts, the academy of agriculture and forestry,
and the conservatory of music arc all high-class institutions. The
Association of the Friends of Science and the Historical and Agri-
cultural societies of Warsaw were once well known, but were
suppressed after the insurrections, though they are revived.
The theatre for Polish drama and the ballet is a fine building,
which includes two theatres under the same roof; but the pride of
Warsaw is its theatre in the Lazienki gardens, which were laid out
(1767-88) in an old bed of the Vistula by King Stanislaw Ponia-
towski, and have beautiful shady alleys, artificial ponds, an ele-
gant little palace with ceilings painted by Bacciarelli, several
imperial villas and a monument (1788) to John Sobieski, king of
Poland, who delivered Vienna from the Turks in 1683. Here an
artificial ruin on an island makes an open-air theatre. Two other
public gardens, with alleys of old chestnut trees, are situated in the
centre of the city. One of these, the ^nski Ogrod, or Saxon garden
(17 acres), which has a summer theatre and line old trees, is one
of the most beautiful in Europe; it is the resort of the Warsaw
aristocracy. The Krasinski garden is the promenade of the Jews.
The central point of the life of Warsaw is the former royal
castle (Zamek Krolewski) on Sigismund square. It was built by
the dukes of Mazovia, enlarged by Sigismund III. (whose me-
morial stands opposite) and Wladyslaw TV"., and embellished by
John Sobieski and Stanislaw Poniaiowski. Most of its pictures
and other art treasures were removed to St. Petersburg and Mos-
cow but have been restored. Four main thoroughfares radiate
from it; one, the Krakowskie Przedmicscie, the best street in
Warsaw, runs southward. It is continued by the Nowy Swiat
and the Ujazdowska Aleja avenue, which leads to the Lazienki
gardens. Many fine buildings are found in and near these two
streets: the church of St. Anne (1454), which belonged formerly
to a Bernardine monastery; the agricultural and industrial mu-
seum, with an ethnographical collection; the monument (1898)
to the national poet Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855); the former
Saxon palace, once the residence of the Polish kings; the Lutheran
church, finished in 1799, one of the most conspicuous in Warsaw;
the buildings of the Art Association, erected in 1898-1900; the
university (see above); the church of the Holy Ghost (1682-96),
with the heart and monument of the musician F. F. Chopin; a
monument (1830) to the astronomer N. Kopcrnik (1473-1543);
the palaces of the Zamoyski family (now the conservatory of
music); the building of the Philharmonic Society (1899-1901);
and the church of St. Alexander, built in 1826 and splendidly
restored in 1891. The Ujazdowska Aleja avenue, planted with
lime-trees and bordered with cafes and places of amusement, is
the Champs Elysees of Warsaw. It leads to the Lazienki park
and to the Belvedere palace (1822), and farther west, to the
Mokotowski parade ground, which is surrounded on the south
and west by the manufacturing district. Another principal street,
the Marszalkowska, runs parallel to the Ujazdowska from the
Saxon garden to this parade ground, on the south-east of which
are the barracks. The above-mentioned streets are crossed by
another series running west and east, the chief of them being the
Senators, which begins at Sigismund square and contains the
best shops. The palace of the archbishop of Warsaw, the Bank of
Poland; the town hall (1725), burned in 1863, but rebuilt in 1870;
th* small Pod Blacha nalace, the theatre (1833); the old mint;
374
WAR STORE SURPLUSES— WART-HOG
the beautiful Reformed church (1882); the Orthodox Greek
cathedral of the Trinity, rebuilt in 1837; the Krasinski palace
(1692), burned in 1782 but rebuilt; the church of the Trans-
figuration, a thank-offering by John Sobieski for his victory of
1683, and containing his heart and that of Stanislaw Poniatowski;
and palaces are on or near Senators' Street and Miodowa Street.
To the west Senators' street is continued by Electors' street,
where is the very elegant church (1849) of St. Charles Bor-
romeo, and the Chlodna Street leading to the suburb of Wola,
with a large field where the kings of Poland used to be elected.
In Leszno street, which branches off from Senators' street,
are the Zelazna Brama, or Iron Gate; in the market-place the
bazaar, the arsenal and the Wiclopolski barracks.
To the north of Sigismund square is the old town — Stare
Miasto — the Jewish quarter, and farther north still the citadel.
The old town very much recalls old Germany by its narrow streets
and antique buildings, the cathedral of St. John, the most ancient
church in Warsaw, having been built in the i3th century and re-
stored in the i7th. The citadel, erected in 1832-1835 as a punish-
ment for the insurrection of 1831, is of an antiquated type.
The suburb of Praga, on the right bank of the Vistula, is
poorly built and often flooded ; but the bloody assaults which led
to its capture in 1794 by the Russians under Suvorov, and in
1831 by Paskevich, give it a name in history.
In the outskirts of Warsaw are various more or less noteworthy
villas, palaces and battlefields. Willanow. the palace of John
Sobieski, afterwards belonging to Count X. Branicki, was partly
built in 1678-1694 by Turkish prisoners in a fine Italian style,
and is now renowned for its historical relics, portraits and pictures.
It is situated to the south of Warsaw, together with the pretty
pilgrimage church of Czerniakow, built by Prince Stanislaw Lubo-
mirski in 1691, and many other fine villas (Morysinek, Natolin,
Krolikarnia, which also has a picture gallery, Wierzbno and
Mokotow). Marymont, an old country residence of the wife of
John Sobieski, and the Kaskada, much visited by the inhabitants
of Warsaw, in the north, the Saska Kempa on the right bank of
the Vistula, and the castle of Jablona down the Vistula are among
others that deserve mention. The castle and forest of Bielany
(4j m. N.), on the bank of the Vistula, are a popular holiday
resort in the spring.
Among the battlefields in the neighbourhood is that of Gro-
chow where the Polish troops were defeated in 1831, and Wawer
in the same quarter (E. of Praga), where Prince Joseph Ponia-
towski defeated the Austrians in the war of 1809; at Maciejowice,
50 m. up the Vistula, Kosciuszko was wounded and taken by the
Russians in 1794; and the whole east bank of the Vistula was
the scene of the great Polish victory over the Soviet armies
in 1920. Warsaw is connected by six trunk lines with Vienna,
Kiev and south-western Russia, Moscow, Leningrad, Danzig
and Berlin. The steel industry has developed and the manufac-
tures of plated silver, carriages, boots ano! shoes (annual turn-
over £8457,000), millinery, hosiery, gloves, tobacco, sugar and
house decorations are of importance, chiefly owing to the skill
of the workers The city has a trade in corn, leather and coal.
The deportations of Warsaw artisans checked industrial progress.
The population, nevertheless, grew rapidly from 161,008 in 1860,
276,000 in 1872 and 436.750 in 1887 to 756,426 in 1901; its
growth since the war state has been remarkable. Warsaw is the
seat of a Roman Catholic Archbishopric and of the Orthodox
Metropolitan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — S Dziewulski, Warszaua (1014) ; A. Beider, 7
Kriegs-Monate in Warschau (Heilbronn, 1915) ; H. Hillgcr, Urn
Warschau (Krieg und Sieg, vol. 28, 1915) ; A. Oppmen, Ksifstwo
W arszaivskif (1917) ; W. Gomulicki, Warschau (Munich, 1918) ; K. von
Eichborn, Warschau Werden und Vergehen seine Raudenkmdler (1920).
WAR STORE SURPLUSES: see DISPOSAL BOARD.
WART, a papillary new-growth of the skin, or mucous mem-
brane. The ordinary flat warts of the skin occur mostly upon the
hands of children and young persons; a long pendulous variety
occurs about the chin or neck, and on the scalp in adults. Warts
are apt to come out in numbers at a time; a crop of them suddenly
appears, to disappear after a time with equal suddenness Hence the
supposed efficacy of charms. A single wart will sometimes remain \
when the general eruption has vanished. In adult life a wart on
the hands or fingers is usually brought on by some irritation, often
repeated, even if it be slight. Warts often occur on the wrists and
knuckles of slaughter-house men and of those much occupied with
anatomical dissection; they are often of tuberculous origin
(butchers' warts). Chimney-sweeps and workers in coal-tar,
petroleum, X-rays, etc., are subject to warts, which often become
cancerous. Warts occur singly in later life on the nose or lips or
other parts of the face, sometimes on the tongue; they are apt
to become malignant especially if subjected to repeated irritation
by attempts at their removal. Towards old age broad and flattened
patches of warts of a greasy consistence and brdwnish colour often
occur on the back and shoulders. They also are apt to become
malignant. Indeed, warts occurring on the lip or tongue, or on
any part of the body of a person advanced in life, should be
suspected of malignant associations and dealt with accordingly.
Venereal warts occur as the result of gonorrhoeal irritation or
syphilitic infection.
The treatment of warts needs very careful consideration, and
rarely, if ever, should be undertaken by a non-medical person,
since, unfortunately, local applications of various kinds to warts
have in many instances been accountable for their passage from a
mere unsightly excrescence to an indubitable cancer.
WARTA, a river of Poland and Germany, and the chief
affluent of the river Oder. It rises in the Carpathian mountains.
Its total length is 445 m. and it is navigable up to Konin in
West Poland, a distance of 265 m. Its banks are mostly low and
flat, its lower course especially running through drained and cul-
tivated marshes. It is connected with the Vistula through its
tributary the Notec and the Bydgoszcz canal. The area of its
drainage basin is 17,400 sq.m.
WARTBURG, THE, a castle near Eisenach in the grand-
duchy of Saxe- Weimar. It is magnificently situated on the top of
a precipitous hill, and is remarkable not only for its historical
associations but as containing one of the few well-preserved
Romanesque palaces in existence. The original castle, of which
sonic parts — including a portion of the above-mentioned palace —
still exist, was built by the Landgrave Louis "the Springer" (d.
1123), and from his time until 1440 it remained the seat of the
Thuringian landgraves. Under the Landgrave Hermann I., the
Wartburg was the home of a boisterous court to which minstrels
and "wandering folk'' of all descriptions streamed; Walther von
der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschcnbach both refer to the
noise and constant crush of crowds passing in and out at the
Wartburg "night and day"; and it was here that in 1207 took
place the minstrels' contest (Sangerkrieg) immortalized in Wag-
ner's Tannhauser. Some years later it became the home of the
saintly Elizabeth of Hungary (q.v.) on her marriage to Louis the
Saint (d. 1227), to whom she was betrothed in 1211 at the age
of four. Wagner, with a poet's licence, has placed the Sangerkrieg
during Elizabeth's residence at the Wartburg. It was to the Wart-
burg, too, that on May 4, 1521, Luther was brought for safety at
the instance of Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, and it was
during his ten months' residence here that he completed his
translation of the New Testa-
ment. From this time the castle
was allowed gradually to decay.
It was restored in the i8th cen-
tury in the questionable taste
of the period; but its subsequent
magnificence it owed to the
Grand-Duke Charles Alexander
of Saxe-Weimar, with whom at
certain seasons of the year it was
a favourite residence.
WARTHE: see WARTA.
WART-HOG, the designa-
AFWCAN WART HOG CPHACOCHOE- ^ of certain jfc^ Afrkan
wild swine {see SWINE), charac-
terized by the presence of large warty protuberances on the face
and the large size of the tusks in both sexes. The adults have
frequently no teeth except those just mentioned, and nearly bare
WARTON— WARWICK
375
akins. Two species are recognized, the southern Phacochocnis
itikiopicus, which formerly ranged as far south as the Cape, and
the northern P. africanus, which extends to the mountains of
Abyssinia. In south and east Africa wart-hogs frequent open
country, near water, and dwell in holes. In Abyssinia, they spend
the day among bushes, or in ravines, feeding at night. They are
active and wary.
WARTON, THOMAS (1728-1790), English poet-laureate
was a son of Thomas Warton, vicar of Basingstoke and professor
of poetry at Oxford. He was born on Jan. 9, 1728. In a poem
written in 1745 he shows the delight in Gothic churches and
ruined castles which inspired so much of his subsequent work in
romantic revival. Most of Warton's poetry, humorous and
serious — and the humorous mock-heroic was better within his
powers than serious verse — was written before the age of twenty-
three, when he took his M.A. degree and became a fellow of his
college (Trinity, Oxford). He did not altogether abandon verse;
his sonnets, especially, which are the best of his poems, were
written later. But his main energies were given to omnivorous
poetical reading and criticism. He was the first to turn to literary
account the mediaeval treasures of the Bodleian Library. It was
through him, in fact, that the mediaeval spirit which always
lingered in Oxford first began to stir after its long inaction, and
to claim an influence in the modern world.
Warton, like his brother, entered the church, and held one after
another, various livings, but he did not marry. He gave little
attention to his clerical duties, and Oxford always remained his
home. In 1749 he published an heroic poem in praise of Oxford,
The Triumph of Isis. He was a very easy and convivial as well
as a very learned don, with a taste for pothouses and crowds as
well as dim aisles and romances in manuscript and black letter.
The first proof that he gave of his extraordinarily wide scholarship
was in his Observations on the Poetry of Spenser (1754). Three
years later he was appointed professor of poetry, and held the
office for ten years, sending round, according to the story, at the
beginning of term to inquire whether anybody wished him to
lecture. The first volume of his monumental work, The History
of English Poetry (3 vols. 1774-1781) is still indispensable to
every student of English literature. A work of such labour could
proceed but slowly, and it was no wonder that Warton flagged in
the execution of it, and stopped to refresh himself with annotating
(1785) the minor poems of Milton, pouring out in this delightful
work the accumulated suggestions of forty years.
In 1785 he became Camden professor of history, and was
made poet-laureate in the same year. His busy and convivial life
was ended by a paralytic stroke in May 1790.
Warton's poems were collected in 1777, and he was engaged at
the time of his death on a corrected edition, which appeared in 1791,
with a memoir by his friend and admirer, Richard Mant. They were
edited in 1822 for the British Poets, by S. W. Singer. Among his
minor works were an edition of Theocritus (1770) ; a selection of
Latin and Greek inscriptions; the humorous Oxford Companion to
the Guide and Guide to the Companion (1762) ; The Oxford Sausage
(1764) ; lives of Sir Thomas Pope and Ralph Bathurst, college bene-
factors; a History of the Antiquities of Kiddington Parish, of which
he held the living (1781) ; and an Inquiry into the Authenticity of the
Poems attributed to Thomas Rowley (1782).
The History of English Poetry from the close of the nth to the
Commencement of the i8th Century, to which are prefixed two Dw-
sertations: I. On the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe; //. On
the Introduction of Learning into England (1774-1781) was only
brought down to the close of the i6th century. There are later edi-
tions, with annotations and corrections, by Richard Price (1824), and
again by W. C. Hazlitt (1871). In both these editions other scholars
collaborated.
See also W, P. Ker, Thomas Warton (1911) ; E. Gosse, Two Pioneers
of Romanticism; Joseph and Thomas Warton (1915) ; C. Rinaker,
Thomas Warton: a biographical and critical study (Illinois, 1916) ;
The Three Wartons; A Choice of their Verse (1928), ed. Eric Part-
ridge; J. Densin, The Wartons; Studies in English Literature (1876).
WAR TRADE ADVISORY COMMITTEE, in the World
War, a British Government committee which advised it on the
blockade. It succeeded and continued the work of the Restriction
of Enemy Supplies committee (q.v.). It was appointed by the
prime minister, H. H. Asquith, in Sept. 1915, with the marquess
Francis Hopwood (afterwards Lord Southborough) became chair-
man on Feb. 25, 1916. It dealt, among other commodities, with
coal, cotton, rubber and tin.
The subjects investigated included contraband, and what
goods should be placed upon the contraband list; the prohibition
of export and re-export from the United Kingdom and the British
empire of goods intended for the enemy or likely to reach the
enemy through neutral channels; agreements with responsible
bodies in neutral countries for the consignment of imported goods
under guarantee for the purpose that such supplies should not be
re-exported to the enemy, e.g., the Netherlands Oversea Trust in
Holland, the Societe de Surveillance Economique in. Switzerland,
and the Danish Merchants Guild in Denmark; recommendations
in respect of the purchase in neutral countries adjacent to the
enemy of native produce which otherwise would be available for
export to the enemy; the surveillance and control of stores of
commodities suspected of having been made for the ultimate
benefit of the enemy. Difficult and intricate subjects were dealt
with by the appointment of sub-committees.
Rationing Neutrals. — One of the most important questions
dealt with by the committee was that of the "rationing" of foreign
countries contiguous to the enemy to prevent them becoming
bases of supply to the Central Powers. This was carried out by
arrangements with responsible bodies in the countries affected,
and provided for the prevention of the import of supplies in
excess of the home requirements of the particular neutral country.
The committee was also interested in matters relating to the prep-
aration and administration of the "black list," and in connection
with this subject special questions arose involving the abrogation
of the Article 57 of the Declaration of London, the definition of
"enemy," marine insurance, bills of lading, "to order," the use or
abuse of facilities for the purpose of covering transactions of
black-listed neutral traders, and consular certificates of origin
given in neutral countries.
The contraband sub-committee was appointed on Sept. 6,
1915. In Aug. 1914, the British Government proclaimed that they
would abide by the terms of the Declaration of London. It soon,
however, became apparent that it would be necessary to enlarge
the contraband list. The most important recommendation made
was that of adding "gold, silver, paper money, securities, negoti-
able instruments, cheques, drafts, orders, warrants, coupons,
letters of credit delegation or advice, credit or debit notes, or
other documents, which in themselves, or if completed or if
acted upon by the recipient, authorize, confirm or give effect to
the transfer of money, credit or securities." A sub-committee
considered oleaginous produce. In due course the Ministry of
Blockade in parts superseded the Committee which, however,
continued to do useful work. In all, the committee held 68
meetings.
See also BLOCKADE, MINISTRY OF: RATIONING (BLOCKADE);
RESTRICTION OF ENEMY SUPPLIES COMMITTEE. (L. C. L.)
WAR TRADE DEPARTMENT. This important depart-
mcnt of the British Government's economic war operations was
formed early in 1915 and directed by the late Lord Emmott. To
it were entrusted many matters connected with the blockade of
Germany and the care of home supplies. It dealt with all appli-
cations for the grant of licences for the export of goods the sub-
ject of any official restriction or prohibition. At one and the same
time it had oversight of the details of the blockade and the cor-
relative supply of British services.
WARWICK, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Warwick was
HENRY DE NEWBURGH (d. 1123), lord of Newbourg in Nor-
mandy and son of Roger de Beaumont. He became constable of
Warwick castle in 1068, and, though there is no proof that he
actually came over with the Conqueror, his elder brother Robert
de Beaumont, comte de Meulan, fought at Hastings. He ap-
parently spent most of his time in Normandy, and was a baron
of the Norman exchequer. He was created earl of Warwick
early in the reign of William II. receiving a grant of the great
estates of the Saxon, Thurkill of Arden, in Warwickshire. He
founded the priory of the Austin Canons, and endowed the church
WARWICK
1297), left no heirs, and was succeeded by his sister Margaret,
countess of Warwick in her own right, who was twice married,
but left no heirs. Her second husband, John du Plessis, assumed
the title of earl of Warwick in 1245, and in 1250 received a grant
of his wife's lands for life. He was succeeded in 1263 by Countess
Margaret's cousin and heir, SIR WILLIAM MAUDUIT (1220-1268),
8th earl of Warwick.
The Beauchamps.-— Mauduit's sister and heiress, Isabel de
Beauchamp, had apparently adopted the religious life at the time
of her brother's death, and her son WILLIAM DE BEAUCHAMP
became Qth carl of Warwick.
His son GUY DE BEAUCHAMP, loth earl of Warwick (1278-
I3I5)» received grants of land in Scotland for his services at
Falkirk, and in 1301 was one of the signatories of the letter to
the pope denying the papal right to interfere in Scottish affairs.
He was one of the lords ordainers of 1310, and was concerned
in the capture of Gaveston, though he declined to countenance
his execution. He died on Aug. 10, 1315. His son, THOMAS DE
BEAUCHAMP, nth carl (1313-1369), marshal of England in 1344,
and of the English army in France in 1346, fought at Crecy and
Poitiers, and was one of the original knights of the Garter.
THOMAS DE BEAUCHAMP, i2th earl (c. 1345-1401), was about
24 years old when he succeeded his father. He served on the
lords' committee of reform in the Good Parliament in 1376, and
again in 1377, and was a member of the commission of inquiry in
1379. Appointed governor to Richard II. in Feb. 1381, he joined
the nobles who sought to impose their authority on the king, and
was one of the lords appellant in 1388. After the overthrow of
his party in 1389 Warwick lived in retirement, but although he
had for the moment escaped Richard's vengeance he was not
forgiven. Being invited with Gloucester and Arundel to a ban-
quet at court on July 10, 1397 he alone of the three was impru-
dent enough to obey the summons. He was immediately arrested
and imprisoned in the Tower of London, in that part of the
fortress since known as the Beauchamp Tower. Warwick made
a full confession in parliament; his honours were forfeited and
he himself banished. He was again in the Tower in 1398, but
was liberated and restored to his honours on the accession of
Henry IV. His son Richard Beauchamp, i3th earl of Warwick,
is separately noticed. HENRY, i4th earl of Warwick (1423-1445),
Earl Richard's son, a descendant, through his mother Constance
le Despenser, of Edmund, duke of York, fifth son of Edward
III., received a patent making him premier earl in 1444. A year
later he was created duke of Warwick with precedence next after
the duke of Norfolk, a rank disputed by the duke of Bucking-
ham. The assertion that he was crowned king of the Isle of
Wight seems to have no foundation in fact. He died in his 22nd
year, leaving a daughter Anne, who died in 1449.
On her death the earldom lapsed to the crown. The estates
passed to Sir Richard Neville (see WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE,
earl of), in right of his wife Anne, sister of Henry Beauchamp,
duke of Warwick. He and his wife were created earl and countess
of Warwick each for life in 1450, with remainder to Anne's heirs,
and, these failing, to Margaret, countess of Shrewsbury, half-
sister of the countess Anne. After the death of her husband, the
Kingmaker, at Barnet in 1471, the rights of the countess, heiress
of the Beauchamp estates, were set aside "as if the seid countes
were nowe naturally dede" (act of 13 Edward IV. 1473) in favour
of her daughters, Isabel, wife of George, duke of Clarence, and
Anne, who, after the murder of her first husband Edward prince
of Wales in 1471, married Richard, duke of Gloucester, after-
wards Richard III. Their mother was allowed to resume her
estates in 1487, but only to settle them on the crown. She was
succeeded in 1493 in the earldom by her grandson Edward Plan-
tagenet, i8th earl of Warwick (1475-1499), son of the duke of
Clarence, and therefore the Yorkist heir to the crown. He was
imprisoned in 1484, his sole offence being his birth, and was
executed in 1499 on a charge of conspiracy with his fellow-
prisoner, Perkin Warbeck. He was the last representative of the
male line of the Plantagenets. His honours were forfeited, and his
estates passed to his sister Margaret, countess of Salisbury in her
own right, the unfortunate lady who was executed in 1541.
The next bearer of the title was John Dudley, Viscount Lisle,
afterwards duke of Northumberland (q.v.)> who was created eafl
of Warwick in 1547, on account of his descent from Margaret,
countess of Shrewsbury, daughter of Richard Beauchamp, earl
of Warwick. The earldom became extinct with his son John
Dudley, 2oth earl of Warwick (c. 1528-1554), who was con-
demned to death for having signed the letters patent making his
sister-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, heir apparent. He was released
from prison in Oct. 1554, but died in the same month. His
brother, Ambrose Dudley (c. 1528-1590), who fought at St.
Quentin in 1557, secured the reversal of the attainder of himself
and his brother consequent on the attempt to place Lady Jane
Grey on the throne, and in 1561 was created Baron Lisle and
earl of Warwick. He was in high favour with Elizabeth, as was
his third wife Anne, daughter of Francis Russell, 2nd earl of
Bedford. His brother Robert, earl of Leicester, having prede-
ceased him his honours became" extinct on his death in 1590.
The earldom was revived in 1618 in favour of Robert Rich,
3rd Baron Rich (c. 1560-1619), grandson of Lord Chancellor
Rich, who died shortly after his elevation. His wife Penelope,
Lady Rich, is separately noticed. He was succeeded in 1619 by
his eldest son Robert Rich, 2nd or 23rd earl of Warwick (q.v.),
whose two sons Robert (1611-1659) and Charles (1619-1673)
succeeded him in the earldom and died leaving no male issue.
The 5th or 26th earl of Warwick was their cousin Robert Rich
(1620-1675), eldest son of Henry, ist earl of Holland. His
grandson, the 7th or 28th earl, left no issue, and the title be-
came extinct on the death, on Sept. 15, 1759, of Itis kinsman
Edward Rich, 8th or 29th earl. It was revived two months later,
when Francis Greville, Baron Brooke of Beauchamps Court
(1719-1773), who had in 1746 been created Earl Brooke of War-
wick Castle, became earl of Warwick. Greville was descended
from Robert Greville, the 2nd baron, who was killed at Lichfield
during the civil war and he represented a cadet branch of the
Beauchamp family. The earldom has remained with his descend-
ants, Francis Richard (b. 1853) becoming the 5th earl in 1893.
His wife, Frances Evelyn, countess of Warwick, daughter of
Colonel the Hon. C. H. Maynard (d. 1865), inherited the estates
of her grandfather, Henry Maynard, 5th and last Viscount May-
nard (1788-1865). She became well known in society, and later
for her interest in social questions.
See F. R. C. G. G. Warwick, 5th Earl of, Memories of Sixty Years
(1917) ; and Countess of Warwick, A Woman and the War (1916).
WARWICK, RICHARD BEAUCHAMP, EARL OF
(1382-1439), son of Thomas Beauchamp, was born at Salwarp in
Worcestershire on Jan. 28, 1382, and succeeded his father in
1401. He had some service in the Welsh War, fought on the
king's side at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403) and at the siege
of Aberystwith (1407). In 1408 he started on a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, visiting on his way Paris and Rome, and fighting
victoriously in a tournament with Pandolfo Malatesta at Verona.
From Venice he took ship to Jaffa, whence he went to Jerusalem,
and set up his arms in the temple. On his return he travelled
through Lithuania, Prussia and Germany, and reached England
in 1410. Two years later he was fighting in command at Calais.
Up to this time Warwick's career had been that of the typical
knight errant. During the reign of Henry V. his chief employ-
ment was as a trusted counsellor and diplomatist. He was an
ambassador to France in September 1413, and the chief English
envoy to the coronation of Sigismund at Aix-la-Chapelle, and to
the council of Constance in the autumn of 1414. During the cam-
paign of Agincourt he was captain of Calais, where in April 1416
he received Sigismund with such courtly magnificence as to earn
from him the title of the "Father of Courtesy."
Warwick's sage experience made it natural that Henry y.
should on his death-bed appoint him to be his son's governor.
For some years to come he was engaged chiefly as a member of
the council in England. In 1428 he received formal charge of the
little king's education. He took Henry to France in 1430, and
whilst at Rouen had the superintendence of the trial of Joan of
Arc. In 1431 he defeated Pothon de Xaintrailles at Savignies.
Next year he returned to England. The king's minority came
WARWICK
377
nominally to an end in 1437. Warwick was then chosen to succeed
Pichard of York in the government of Normandy. He died at
his post there on April 30, 1439. His body was brought home and
buried at Warwick. His tomb in St. Mary's church is one of
the most splendid specimens of English art in the i$th century.
(See also WARWICK/ EARLS OF.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Material is found in contemporary chronicles, and
especially in the Vita Henrici Quinti ascribed to Elmham, Monstrelet;
Chronicles of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford, 1905) and J. Stevenson,
Letters, etc., illustrative of the English Wars in France ("Rolls" series,
1861-64). For modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie, Henry IV. (4
vols., 1884-98); C. L. Kingsford, Henry V. (N.Y., 1901); and Sir
James Ramsay, Lancaster and York (1892) ; see also The Pageants of
R. B.f Earl of Warwick, reproduced in facs. fr. the Cottonian MS.
(1908).
WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (1428-
1471), called "the king-maker/' was eldest son of Richard Neville,
earl of Salisbury, by Alice, only daughter and heiress of Thomas,
the last Montacute earl of Salisbury. He was born on Nov. 22,
1428, and was betrothed in childhood to Anne, daughter of Rich-
ard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick. In 1449 she brought her hus-
band the title and chief share of the Warwick estates. Richard
Neville thus became the premier earl. In 1453 he became a mem-
ber of the king's council. After the king's recovery in 1455 War-
wick and his father took up arms in York's support. Their victory
at St. Albans was due to the fierce energy with which Warwick
assaulted and broke the Lancastrian centre. He was made cap-
tain of Calais; to his position there he owed his strength during
the next five years. He distinguished himself in a great fight
with Spanish ships off Calais on May 28, and in the autumn cap-
tured a German salt-fleet on its way to Lubeck, though England
was at war neither with Castile nor with the Hanse. There was
pretext enough for recalling him to make his defence. Whilst he
was at the court at Westminster a brawl occurred between his re-
tainers and some of the royal household. When a renewal of the
war was imminent, Warwick crossed over to England with his
trained soldiers from Calais under Sir Andrew Trollope. But
at Ludlow on Oct. 12 Trollope and his men deserted, and left
the Yorkists helpless. Warwick, with his father, his cousin the
young Edward of York, and only three followers, made his way
to Barnstaple. There they hired a little fishing vessel. The master
pleaded that he did not know the Channel, and Warwick himself
steered a successful course to Calais. During the winter Warwick
held Calais, and sent out a fleet which seized Sandwich and cap-
tured Lord Rivers. In the spring he went to Ireland to concert
plans with Richard of York. On his return voyage he encountered
a superior Lancastrian fleet in the Channel. But Exeter, the rival
commander, could not trust his crews and dared not fight.
From Calais Warwick, Salisbury and Edward of York crossed
to Sandwich on June 26. A few days later they entered London,
whence Warwick at once marched north. On July 10 he routed
the Lancastrians at Northampton, and took the king prisoner.
For the order to spare the commons and slay the lords War-
wick was resonsible, as also for some later executions at London.
Yet when Richard of York was disposed to claim the crown,
Warwick appears to have decided the discussion in favour of a
compromise, perhaps from loyalty to Henry, or perhaps from the
wish not to change a weak sovereign for a strong. Warwick was
in charge of London at the time when Richard and Salisbury were
defeated and slain at Wakefield. The Lancastrians won a sec-
ond victory at St. Albans on Feb. 17, 1461, possibly through lack
of generalship on Warwick's part. He met Edward of York in
Oxfordshire, brought him in triumph to London, had him pro-
claimed king, and within a month of his defeat at St. Albans was
marching north in pursuit of the Lancastrians. The good general-
ship which won the victory of Towton may have been due to
Edward rather than to Warwick, but the new king was of the
creation of the powerful earl, who now had his reward. For four
years the government was centred undisputedly in the hands of
Warwick and his friends. The first check to the power of the
Nevilles came with the announcement in September 1464 of the
king's secret marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, when Warwick
had just pledged Edward to a French match. Trouble began in
1466, when Edward first made Rivers, the queen's father, treas-
urer, and opposed an intended marriage between Warwick's daugh-
ter Isabel and George of Clarence, his own next brother. Still in
May 1467 Warwick went again with the king's assent to conclude
a treaty with France. He returned to find that in his absence
Edward, under Woodviile's influence, had committed himself defi-
nitely to the Burgundian alliance. Warwick began to plot in
secret for his revenge. In the summer of 1469 he went over to
Calais, where Isabel and Clarence were married without the
king's knowledge. Meantime he had stirred up the rebellion of
Robin of Redesdale in Yorkshire; and when Edward was drawn
north Warwick invaded England in arms. The king, outmarched
and outnumbered, had to yield himself prisoner, whilst Rivers and
his son John were executed. But in March 1470 a rebellion in
Lincolnshire gave Edward an opportunity to gather an army of
his own. When the king alleged proof of Warwick's complicity,
the earl fled with Clarence to France. There he was reconciled
to Margaret of Anjou, and agreed to marry his second daughter
to her son. In September Warwick and Clarence, with the Lan-
castrian lords, landed at Dartmouth. Edward fled oversea, and for
six months Warwick ruled England as lieutenant for Henry VI.,
who was restored from his prison in the Tower to a nominal
throne. But the Lancastrian restoration was unwelcome to Cla-
rence, who joined Edward when he landed at Ravenspur in
March 1471. Warwick was completely outgeneralled, and at
Barnet on April 14 was defeated and slain.
Warwick's only children were his two daughters. Anne, the
younger, was married after his death to Richard of Gloucester,
the future Richard III.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— For data see especially C. W. Oman's brilliant but
enthusiastic Warwick the King-Maker (1891) ; Sir James Ramsay's
Lancaster and York (1892) ; and Stubbs's Constitutional History.
WARWICK, SIR ROBERT RICH, 2ND EARL OF (1587-
1658), colonial administrator and admiral, was the eldest son of
Robert Rich, earl of Warwick (q.v.), and his wife Penelope Rich
(q.v.), and succeeded to the title in 1619. His interest in colonial
ventures involved him in disputes with the East India Company
(1617) and with the Virginia Company, which in 1624 was sup-
pressed through his action. In 1627 he commanded an unsuccess-
ful privateering expedition against the Spaniards. His Puritan
connections and sympathies, while estranging him from the court,
promoted his association with the New England colonies. In 1628
he indirectly procured the patent for the Massachusetts colony,
and in 1631 he granted the "Saybrook" patent in Connecticut.
Compelled the same year to resign the presidency of the New
England Company, he continued to manage the Bermudas Com-
pany, and Providence Company which, founded in 1630, ad-
ministered Old Providence on the Mosquito coast. Meanwhile
in England Warwick opposed the forced loan of 1626, the pay-
ment of ship-money and Laud's church policy, and with his
brother the first Lord Holland (q.v.) came to be recognized as
one of the heads of the Puritans. In March 1642 the Commons, in
spite of the king's veto, appointed him admiral of the fleet, and
in July he gained the whole navy for the parliament. He raised
forces in Norfolk and Essex on the outbreak of the war, and as
lord high admiral (1643-1645) he did good service in intercept-
ing the king's ships and relieving threatened ports. In 1643 he
was appointed head of a commission for the government of the
colonies, which the next year incorporated Providence Plantations,
atferwards Rhode Island, and in this capacity he exerted himself
to secure religious liberty. He died on April 19, 1658.
WARWICK, county town of Warwickshire, England; on the
Avon. Pop. (1921) 12,863.
Warwick (Warwic, Warrewici, Warrewyk) seems to have been
an early settlement fortified later by Aethelflaed, against the
Danes. At Domesday, Warwick was a royal borough, contain-
ing 261 houses, of which 130 were in the king's hands, while 19
belonged to burgesses enjoying the privileges they had had in
the time of Edward the Confessor. The Conqueror granted the
borough to Henry of Newburgh, who was created earl of War-
wick, and in all probability built the castle on the site of Aethel-
flaed's fortification. The Beauchamps, successors of Henry of
WARWICK— WARWICKSHIRE
Newburgh as earls of Warwick, held the borough of the king in
chief. In the vicinity of Warwick is Guy's Cliffe, the hermitage
of the first Guy, earl of Warwick. Although the borough owed its
early importance to the castle of the earls of Warwick as well
as to its position, and received a grant of a fair from John, earl
of Warwick, in 1261, it seems to have developed independently
of them, and received no charter until it was incorporated in
1546 after it had come into the king's hands by the attainder of
Edward, earl of Warwick, in 1499. Other charters were granted
in 1553, 1665, 1684 and 1694, of which that of 1553 allowed the
appointment of assistant burgesses. This was discontinued in
1698. The charter of 1694 conferred the title of "Mayor, Alder-
men and Burgesses" on the corporation.
The castle of the earls of Warwick stands on a rock above the
river and includes a residential portion above the river as well as
ruined towers of the I4th century and several parts of the ancient
walls. There is a famous collection of pictures. The present
church of St. Mary is a rebuilding after a fire in 1 694. It appears
from Domesday that a church existed before the Conquest. It was
made collegiate by Roger de Newburgh, the second Norman earl,
in 1123. At the Dissolution Henry VIII. granted the foundation
to the burgesses of the town. The Beauchamp chapel survived the
fire; it is of Perpendicular work, built between 1443 and 1464.
There are only scanty traces of the old town walls, but the east
and west gates remain, with chapels built above them. The priory
of St. Sepulchre was founded by Henry de Newburgh and com-
pleted in the reign of Henry I., on the site of an ancient church,
for a society of canons regular. It is now a private residence.
Leicester Hospital, established by Robert Dudley, earl of Leices-
ter, is a fine half-timber building. It was originally used as the
hall of the united gilds of the Holy Trinity, the Blessed Virgin and
St. George the Martyr. The earl of Leicester, by an act of incor-
poration obtained in 1571, founded the hospital for the reception
of twelve poor men. Thomas Cartwright was the first master of
this Hospital. St. John's Hospital, a foundation of the time of
Henry II., is represented by a beautiful Jacobean mansion. There
are numerous charities in the town, the principal being those of
Henry VIII., Sir Thomas White and Thomas Oken. The first is
devoted to ecclesiastical and municipal stipends and to the King's
School. By the charity of Sir Thomas White a sum of money is
lent to young tradesmen for a period of years. The King's School
dates from the reign of Edward the Confessor. Warwick re-
turned two members to parliament from 1295, but in 1885 the
number was reduced to one. It has now no independent represen-
tation as a borough.
WARWICK, a town of Kent county, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
Pop. (1920) 13,481 (22% foreign-born white) and 18,273 in 1925
(State census). It embraces several manufacturing villages and
summer resorts. Warwick was settled in 1643 by Samuel Gorton
(q.v.). In 1647 the settlement entered into a union with
Providence, Newport and Portsmouth under the Warwick (or
Williams) charter of 1644. Warwick was the birthplace of Gen.
Nathanael Greene.
WARWICKSHIRE, a midland county of England. The
area is 939-8 square miles. The river Avon, watering a rich valley
on a line from north-east to south-west, divides the county into
two unequal parts. The greater, lying to the north-west, drains
principally to the Trent through the rivers Cole, Blythe, Rea,
Anker and minor streams. Between these valleys, and dividing
the system from that of the Avon, the land rises in gentle undula-
tions. The land is formed for the most part of Keuper marls
and sandstones, the sandstones forming picturesque scarps. The
Bunter rocks are represented only between Birmingham and
Sutton Coldfield. From this side the Avon receives the Swift,
the Sowe and the Alne. An important fault crosses the area from
Kenilworth northwards to Tamworth, and brings up the Coal-
measures on the eastern side. The Upper Coal-measures, with
the so-called Permian Beds, occupy the larger part of the War-
wickshire Coalfield, whilst the productive Middle Coal-measures
crop out in a narrow fringe along the north and east. The esti-
mated reserves of coal are 1,126,981,000 tons. The eastern margin
of the field is marked by an inlier of Cambrian and Pre-Cam-
brian rocks, the Hartshill quartzite (Cambrian) being extensively
quarried. The northern district was distinguished by Camden^a*
the Woodland, as opposed to the southern or Feldon, "a plain
champain." The woodland embraced the ancient forest of Arden.
The finest scenery is found on the banks of the Avon at Guy's
Cliffe and Warwick Castle. It is not difficult to trace the influence
of the scenic characteristics of the county in the writings of its
most famous son, William Shakespeare.
Coal, ironstone, lime and cement are the chief mineral prod-
ucts; manganese ore was formerly got from the Cambrian rocks.
History and Early Settlement. — Warwickshire being the
area once largely occupied by the Forest of Arden is poor in pre-
historic antiquities though one find, of a palaeolithic implement at
Saltley, gave rise to a good deal of discussion some years ago.
(See Evans, Ancient Stone Implements, pp. 522 and 578.) The
Fosse Way cut across the south-east of the county and Wat-
ling street touched it in the north. The earliest English set-
tlers in the district were a tribe of Hwiccas who, pushing up the
Severn valley early in the 6th century, made their way by the
Avon valley and the Roman Fosse Way, the extent of their set-
tlement being indicated by the ancient limits of the diocese of
Worcester. Humphreys' recent (Archacologia, 1922-3, vol.
Ixxiii.) discoveries at Bidford-on-Avon have demonstrated these
points. The vast forest of Arden, from the Avon to modern
Birmingham, barred progress northwards. It was only after the
battle of Cirencester in 628 that the whole of the Hwiccan terri-
tory was comprised in Mercia. In 675 Cosford was included in
the endowment of Peterborough, and in 757 AetbelbaH was slain
at Seckington in a battle with the West Saxons. The shire of
Warwick originated in the loth century about Aethelflaed's new
burgh at Warwick, and appears in the Saxon Chronicle of 1016.
The shire offered little resistance to the Conqueror, who was
at Warwick in 1068, and the Thurkill family kept its lands and
took later on the name of Arden. A fortress built by Thurkill
was entrusted by William to Henry, son of Roger de Beaumont,
afterwards earl of Warwick, and Robert, count of Meulan, Henry's
elder brother. Coventry Minster was richly endowed. The earl-
dom and castle of Warwick subsequently passed to the Beau-
champs, and in the reign of Henry VI. to the Nevilles.
In the i3th century Warwickshire included the deaneries of
Warwick and Kineton within the archdeaconry and diocese of
Worcester; the rest of the county constituting the archdeaconry
of Coventry within the Lichfield diocese. Both Coventry and
Birmingham have been made separate sees in the aoth century.
In the wars of the reign of Henry III. Simon de Montfort
placed Kenilworth Castle in charge of Sir John Giffard, who in
1264 attacked Warwick Castle and took prisoner the earl and
countess of Warwick, who had supported the king. During the
Wars of the Roses the Nevilles, represented by the earl of War-
wick, supported the Yorkist cause, while Coventry was a Lan-
castrian stronghold. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the
1 7th century Warwickshire and Staffordshire were associated for
the parliament under Lord Brooke. The battle of Edgehill was
fought in 1642, and in 1643 Birmingham was sacked by Prince
Rupert, Coventry endured a siege in 1642, and skirmishes took
place at Southam and Warwick.
Warwickshire returned two members to the parliament of
1290, and in 1295 Coventry and Warwick were each represented
by two members. Tamworth returned two members in 1584. Un-
der the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members
in two divisions; Birmingham was represented by two members,
and Tamworth lost its members. Under the Act of 1868 the
representation of Birmingham was increased to three members,
and under the Act of 1918 the county returns four members in
four divisions, Birmingham twelve members and Coventry one.
Architecture. — Of pre-Norman architecture some traces ap-
pear in the fine church of Wootton Wawen in the Arden (western)
district. Saxon remains have been found in several places, as near
Bensford Bridge on Watling street. For ecclesiastical architecture
Coventry with its three spires is famous, and among village
churches there are many fine examples, Of those retaining Nor-
man portions may be mentioned: Wolston, Berkswell, Poles-
WASH—WASHING MACHINES
379
worth, Curdworth, Burton Dassett, a very noteworthy building,
tnd Warmington, where there is a remarkable specimen of an
anchorite's chamber. There are also fine examples of Decorated
work, such as Knowle, Solihull, Temple Balsall and Brailes.
Among the numerous religious houses in the county several have
left remains. Such are the Cistercian foundations of Coombe
Abbey, Merevale and Stoneleigh. This abbey was a 12th-century
foundation, but a majestic gatehouse of the i4th century also
stands. Maxstoke Priory was a foundation for Augustinian canons
of the 1 4th century. Wroxall Abbey was a Benedictine nunnery
of the 1 2th century. Warwick Castle and Kcnilworth Castle, the
one still a splendid residence, the other a no less splendid ruin,
are described under those towns. At Hartshill there is a frag-
ment of a Norman castle. Among fortified mansions Maxstoke
Castle is of the i4th century; Baddesley Clinton Hall is of the
15th; Astiey Castle is another good specimen of the period.
Compton Wynyates, once fortified, is a beautiful Elizabethan
house. Charlecote Park is a modernized Elizabethan hall in an
exquisite situation on the Avon above Stratford.
Agriculture and Industries.— The climate is mild and
healthy. The soil is on the whole good, and consists of various
loams, marls, gravels and clays, well suited for most of the usual
crops. It is rich in pasture-land, and dairy-farming is increasing.
It has excellent orchards and market-gardens, and possesses some
of the finest woodlands in England.
The industrial part of the county is the northern. Warwick-
shire includes the greatest manufacturing centre of the Midlands
—Birmingham, though the suburbs of that city extend into Staf-
fordshire and Worcestershire. Metal-working in all branches is
prosecuted here, besides other industries. Coventry is noted for
motor cars and cycle-making, and, with Bedworth and Nuncaton
and the intervening villages, is a seat of the ribbon- and tape-
makers. A small rich coalfield occurs in the north-east, extending
outside the county northward from Coventry. Clay, limestone
and other stone are quarried at various points, and an appreci-
able amount of iron ore is raised.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 577,462 ac., with a population in 1901 of 897,835 and
in 1921 of 1,389,977, the chief centres of increase lying naturally
in the parts about Birmingham and Coventry. The area of the
administrative county is 605,275 acres. It has one court of
quarter sessions, and is divided into 21 petty sessional divisions.
The boroughs of Birmingham, Coventry and Royal Leamington
Spa have separate commissions of the peace, and the boroughs of
Birmingham and Warwick have separate courts of quarter sessions.
The county is mainly in the Birmingham and Coventry dioceses,
carved largely out of that of Worcester. Warwickshire has four
parliamentary divisions — Tamworth, Nuneaton, Rugby and War-
wick and Leamington, each returning one member. The parliamen-
tary borough of Coventry returns one member and that of Bir-
mingham has twelve divisions, each returning one member.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sir Wm. Dugdale, The Antiquities of Warwickshire,
1656, 2nd edn. 1730; and among recent works:— J. H. Bloom, Story
oj Warwickshire (1914) ; A. G. Bradley, The Avon and Shakespeare's
county^ (1913); J. C. Cox, Warwickshire (1923); W. H. DuiRnan,
Warwickshire Pfoce-names (1912) ; M. D. Harris, Unknown War-
wickshire (1922); and Victoria County History, Warwickshire.
WASH, THE. a shallow bay of the North sea, Lincolnshire 'and
Norfolk coast or England. Roughly square, it has an area of
about 350 sq.m. Through sandbanks which form its bed there
are two main channels into deep water; one, Boston Deeps,
kept open by the waters of the Witham and Welland ; the other,
Lynn Deeps, by the Nene and the Great Ouse. The Wash is the
remnant of a much larger bay, which covered a large part of the
Fens; it is gradually being filled with sediments and from time
to time small portions are reclaimed (see FENS). The flat bor-
dering lands are protected by sea-wall*. The formerly dangerous
passage of the marsh-lands, which were liable to irruptions of
the tide, is illustrated by the accident to Ring John in 1216.
WASHBURN, a city of Wisconsin, U.S.A. Pop. (1920)
3,707. It has a fine site on high land above Lake Superior.
Among the manufactures are powder and dynamite, lumber
and excelsior. There are brownstone quarries near by. In 1665
Father Allouez established the first French mission in Wisconsin
on the shore south of the present city ("La Pointe du Saint
Esprit"), and in 1669 it was placed in charge of Father Marquette.
The fur trader, Le Sueur, built a stockaded post here in 1693; in
1718 the French erected a fort; and about 1820 the American
Fur Company established a post in the neighbourhood. The pres-
ent city (named after Governor C. C. Washburn) was founded
about 1879 and chartered in 1904.
WASHBURNE, ELIHU BENJAMIN (1816-1887),
American statesman, born in Livermore, Me., Sept. 23, 1816. He
was one of seven brothers, of whom four sat in Congress from
as many different States. He graduated at the Harvard Law
school in 1839, and was soon afterwards admitted to the bar. In
1840 he removed to Galena, 111. He was elected to Congress in
1852, where, first as a Whig and afterwards as a Republican,
he represented his district continuously until 1869, taking a
prominent part in debate, and earning the name "watch-dog of
the Treasury" by his consistent and vigorous opposition to
extravagant and unwise appropriations. He contributed much
to aid General Grant during the Civil War, and the latter on
becoming president made Washburne secretary of State. On
account of ill-health, however, he served only 12 days, and was
then appointed minister to France. In 1877 he retired and died in
Chicago, 111., Oct. 22, 1887. He published Recollections of a
Mimster to Frame (1887), and The Edwards Papers (1884).
See Gaillard Hunt, Israel, Elihu and Cadwallader Washburne (1925).
WASHING MACHINES. Although household washing
machines — mechanical devices for washing clothes — have been
used for many years, it was not until the World War that these
devices came into general popularity. Mechanical clothes washers
trace their origin to the first crude tub with corrugated sides and
bottom that revolved on an axis and was propelled by hand and
to the stick with a tin pan or cup attached to one end that was
plunged up and down in a tub full of clothes. Such mechanical
means of washing date back over half a century. Modern me-
chanical clothes washers are of six general types — agitator or
gyrator, cylinder, vacuum cup, oscillator, dolly and flowing or
circulating water-type.
The agitator or gyrator washer employs a rotating and re-
versing disc, usually made of aluminium with one or more fins
mounted on its upper side. This disc is placed in the bottom
of the tub, operates from a driving mechanism placed under-
neath and forces the hot soapy water through the fabric. The
agitator washer is generally acknowledged to be the fastest type
available and the most popular.
The cylinder washer uses a metal or wooden cylinder that ro-
tates in one direction, or rotates in one direction a predetermined
number of revolutions varying from one to six, and then reverses.
The moving cylinder, which is either perforated or constructed
of slats, is contained in an outer shell or tub of metal or wood.
The vacuum-cup washing machine utilizes one or more circular
or square cups— usually two or three — made of copper or alumin-
ium, which are forced up and down in the water with a radial
movement. In this type of machine, washing is accomplished
by air pressure and suction.
In the oscillator type either a perforated container holding the
clothes is rocked back and forth in the tub, or the tub itself is
rocked. The oscillator and cylinder types of washing machine
are the most gentle in their action.
The dotty clothes washer, one of the oldest types, has a rotat-
ing and reversing disc equipped on the bottom with fins or pegs.
This disc is operated through the top of the tub. The dolly disc
catches and holds the clothes while they are being forced through
the water.
In the flowing or circulating water type washing machine, water
is usually introduced into the tub under pressure, and the clothes
are stirred around by the movement of the water.
Wood is still employed for the tubs in washing machines,
although it has largely given way to copper, tinned copper, cop-
per that is nickel-plated, galvanized iron, galvanized steel, alumin-
ium, zinc and vitreous enamel. The tubs, which are made in a
variety of shapes including circular, square and octagon, have a
38o
WASHING SODA— WASHINGTON
capacity ranging from five to ten sheets, the average being six
sheets or nine pounds of clothes. However, there are a number
of small capacity portable washing machines available. There
are also clothes washing machines without tubs.
Wringers or Drycrt^—There are two general types of clothes
wringers or dryers which are used on these clothes washers. Most
washers are equipped with a mechanically-driven metal or wooden
wringer, with two parallel rubber rolls, that revolve in opposite
directions to squeeze the water from the clothes. While most of
these wringers have two hard rubber rolls, there is a tendency to
use one hard and one soft rubber roll, or two soft rolls. The
purpose of the soft rubber roll is to eliminate -the breakage of
buttons. The wringers usually can be swung around to five or
more positions and locked there. The other form of clothes
dryer is the centrifugal dryer, spinner or extractor, which is
similar to the extractors used in commercial laundry work. These
dryers or extractors consist of perforated metal cylinders, driven
at high speed so as to throw off the water contained in the
clothes. This dryer may be in a separate compartment or the
washing may take place in the dryer compartment.
Operation of Machine. — Opinions as to the proper operation
Of mechanical clothes washers differ among household economists.
It is generally agreed, however," that soiled clothes should be
sorted into four major groups and each group washed separately.
White clothes such as table linen, bed linen, towels and body
linen form one group. Clothes with fast colours form the second
group. Coloured fabrics with "fugitive" colours or colours of
doubtful permanence form the third group and require low
temperatures in washing and rinsing and rapid drying. Miscel-
laneous pieces such as silks, woollens, blankets and rugs also
require individual attention. Clothes should be soaked overnight
before being placed in the washer or the washer tub should be
filled with cold water, the clothes inserted and the machine
operated without the use of soap or washing compounds for five
minutes.
For washing, water of from 135° to 140° F is usually employed
with ii to 4 ounces of soap. The kind and form of soap used
depends upon the condition of the clothes and upon the hard-
ness or softness of the water available. The machine should be
operated from ten to fifteen minutes, depending on the type of
machine and the condition of the clothes. The washing operation
should be followed by two scalding rinses in water 160° to 180° F
with the machine operating from ten to fifteen minutes for each
rinse. The hot rinses are followed by a cold rinse of ten minutes'
duration. Bluing the clothes, if desired, follows the cold rinse.
Recent developments (1929) in the washing machine field
include greater application of safety devices, such as the em-
ployment of instant releases on wringers and the enclosure of all
accessible moving parts ; improved gears, bearings and lubricating
means; the use of materials and finishes that are more easily
kept clean by the housewife; and the development of machines
for permanent installation in stationary laundry tubs. Perhaps
the most important development is the two-tub washer, one
compartment housing the washing mechanism and the other
containing the clothes dryer or extractor which replaces the roll
wringer, both mechanisms being operated from the same motor.
In the year 1928 approximately 13,000 water-power clothes
washers, 64,000 hand-power washing machines, 103,000 gas and
power washers, and 810,000 electric motor driven washing
machines were produced in the United States alone. Surveys
show that the electric clothes washing machine is the third most
popular electrical household appliance in America, being ex-
ceeded only by the flatiron and vacuum cleaner. It is estimated
that of the 19,000,000 American homes equipped with electric
service, approximately 5,735,000 own electric clothes washing
machines. (A. P. Hi.)
WASHING SODA. The soda crystals commonly known by
this name, and so largely used in household and laundry work,
consist of sodium carbonate combined with water. (See ALKALI.)
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859-
1915), American negro teacher and reformer, was born on a plan-
tation in Franklin county, Virginia. Soon after the Civil War he
THE BOOKER T. WASHINGTON ME
MORIAL AT TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE
went to Maiden, W.Va., where he worked in a salt furnace and
then in a coal mine. He obtained an elementary education at
night school, and became a house servant in a family where his
ambition for knowledge was encouraged. In 1872 "by walking,
begging rides both in wagons and in the cars" he travelled soom.
to the Hampton (Va.) Normal and Agricultural institute, where
he remained three years, working as janitor for his board, and
graduated in 1875. For two years
he taught at Maiden, his former
home, and studied for eight
months (1878-79) at the Way-
land seminary in Washington,
D.C. In 1879 he became instruc-
tor at the Hampton institute,
where he trained about 75 Ameri-
can Indians with whom Gen. S. C.
•Armstrong was carrying on an
educational experiment, and he
developed the night school, which
became one of the most impor-^
tant features of the institution.*
In 1 88 1 he was appointed organ-
izer and principal of a negro
normal school at Tuskegee, Ala.
(q.v.), for which the State legis-
lature had made an annual appro-
priation of $2,000. Opened in
July, 1 88 1, in a littie shanty and
church, the Tuskegee Normal and
Industrial institute became, un-
der Washington's presidency,
the foremost exponent of indus-
trial education for the negro. In the first 19 years of the school's
existence 40 buildings were erected, all but four largely by student
labour, and student labour also provided other necessities. To
promote the interests of the school and to establish better under-
standing between whites and blacks, Washington delivered many
addresses throughout the United States, notably a speech in 1895
at the opening of the Atlanta Cotton States and International
Exposition. In 1900 at Boston, Mass., he organized the National
Negro Business League. Harvard conferred upon him the honorary
degree of A.M. in 1896, and Dartmouth that of LL.D. in 1901.
He died at Tuskegee on Nov. 14, 1915, as the result of overwork. ,
Among his publications are The Future of the American Negro
(1899); Sowing and Reaping (1900); Up from Slavery (1901),
a strong autobiography; Character Building (1902); Working
with the Hands (1904) ; Tuskegee and its People (1905) ; Putting
the Most into Life (1906); Life of Frederick Douglas (1907);
The Negro in Business (1907); The Story of the Negro (1909);
My Larger Education (1911); and The Man Farthest Down; a
Record of Observation and Study in Europe (1912).
WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829), American
jurist, nephew of George Washington, was born in Westmoreland
county, Va., on June 15, 1762. He graduated in 1778 at the
College of William and Mary, where he was an original member
of the Phi Beta Kappa Society. He served in the House of Dele-
gates in 1787, and in the following year sat in the convention
which ratified for Virginia the Federal Constitution. In 1798 he
was appointed an associate justice of the United States Supreme
Court by President John Adams. He was George Washington's
literary executor, and supervised the preparation of John Mar-
shall's Life of Washington (5 vols., 1804-07); and on Mrs.
Washington's death in 1802 he inherited Mt. Vernon and a part
of the estate. He died in Philadelphia on Nov. 26, 1829.
WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799), general, states-
man and first president of the United States, was born at Bridges
Creek, near Fredericksburg, in Westmoreland county, Va., on Feb.
22 (old style Feb. n), 1732. His father was Augustine Washing-
ton, who had gone to school in England, had tasted seafaring life,
and was now managing his large Virginia estates. On the paternal
side the family traced its lineage to Sulgrave, Northamptonshire,
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
PLATE
GEORGE WASHINGTON (1732-1799)
1. George Washington as president. Painted, 1793, in Philadelphia by
John Trurnbull (1756-1843). In the Gallery of Fine Arts, Yale
University
2. "Tho Washington Family," painted from life In New York and Phila-
delphia between 1789 and 1796 by Edward Savage (1761-1817).
Owned by Thomas B. Clarke and in the Pennsylvania Museum, Fair-
mount Park, Philadelphia, Pa.
3. The Gibbs-Channing-Avery portrait, 1795, painted In Philadelphia by
Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828). In the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York
4. Portrait, 1795, painted from life by Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860).
Owned by Thomas B. Clarke and in the Pennsylvania Museum
5. Mount Vernon, Virginia, the home of Washington on the Potomac River
6. Study for the 1772 portrait by Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827)
7. Washington at 25. Miniature, n.d., attributed to John Singleton Copley
(1737-1815). In the Metropolitan Museum of Art
8. The Washington Monument at the national capital
9. Portrait painted at Valley Forge by Charles WilUon Peale. In
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Philadelphia
the
WASHINGTON
« England, from which Washington's great-grandfather, John Wash-
ington, had emigrated in 1657, settling at Bridges Creek and
becoming a member of the Virginia house of burgesses. Little is
known of any member of the family till the time of Washington's
father, Augustine, who was a man of energy, at one time part
owner of an iron mine and smelter near Fredericksburg, and active
in managing lands both at Hunting Creek (now Mount Vernon)
on the Potomac, and on the Rappahannock. Augustine was married
twice, first to Jane Butler, who bore him four children, and after
her death to Mary Ball, the first of whose six children was George.
Childhood. — Little has been recorded of Washington's child-
hood in the small four-room farm house on the Rappahannock,
a fact which invited Mason L. Weems's absurd fictions regarding
the hatchet and cherry tree, and his repugnance to fighting. Till
the fall of 1747 he irregularly attended school, first with the local
church-sexton, and later with a schoolmaster named Williams.
There is evidence that he studied* a little Latin; his copy-book,
with the moral precepts or Rules of Civility which he transcribed
at fourteen, was carefully preserved. At a later date he taught
himself a good deal of mathematics. His chief education, how-
ever, was received from practical men and outdoor occupations,
not from books. His father owned six different plantations, of
which Washington knew best that at Bridges Creek. Here he rode,
watched the slaves at labour, mastered the routine of tobacco-
growing and stock-raising. He early learned the elements of
surveying, and at the age of 14 was able to plot and measure the
fields of his brothers and neighbours.
Early Activities.— Washington's father, dying when the boy
was n, left him under the guardianship of his half-brother Law-
rence, who with the other surviving son of the first marriage,
Augustine, inherited nearly all of the estate. Thenceforth he lived
chiefly with Lawrence at Mount Vernon, though for a time he was
at Bridges farm with Augustine. The old story that Admiral
Edward Vernon (after whom Mount Vernon was named) offered
him the post of midshipman is apocryphal. His half-brother
Lawrence, who was a gentleman of fashion and education, married
to a daughter of the wealthy and well-born William Fairfax, had
served in the attack upon Cartagena in 1741 with Vernon, and
doubtless knew that admiral well; but there is no evidence that
Vernon interested himself in Washington. The lad turned instead
to surveying as a profession. In 1746 Thomas, Lord Fairfax, a
middle-aged bachelor who owned more than five million acres in
northern Virginia and the Shenandoah valley, came to America to
live with his cousin William at Belvoir on the Potomac, adjoining
Mount Vernon. He was a man of culture, a former associate of
Addison and Steele, and added much to the society of the section.
Wishing to protect his lands, on which squatters from Pennsylvania
were settling, he sent off to the Shenandoah in March, 1748, a
surveying party which Washington accompanied as assistant-
surveyor. On this western journey Washington kept a disjointed,
ill-spelt diary, which contains some lively touches. He describes
the discomfort of sleep under "one thread Bear blanket with
double its Weight of Vermin such as Lice Fleas &c"; an encounter
with a war party of Indians bearing a scalp; the Pennsylvania-
German emigrants, "as ignorant a set of people as the Indians
they would never speak English but when spoken to they speak
all Dutch"; and the serving of roast wild Turkey on "a Large
Chip/' while "as for dishes we had none."
After his return, Washington was assisted by Lord Fairfax to
obtain the position of public surveyor for Fairfax county, his
commission frflm William and Mary college being dated July,
1749; ar»d for more than two years he was kept almost constantly
busy. His surveying trips carried him far beyond the Tidewater
region into the western wilderness, taught him resourcefulness and
endurance, and toughened his character. In addition, they gave
him an interest in western lands, and an appreciation of the im-
portance of western development, which endured throughout his
life. He was always disposed to speculate in western holdings, and
to view favourably projects for opening and colonizing the west.
Lord Fairfax shortly removed into the Shenandoah valley and
built there a log mansion called Greenway court, after his English
estate; here Washington was frequently entertained, and had
access to a large library, including contemporary English novels.
Plantation Life. — The year 1752 marked a turning point in
Washington's life, for that summer his half-brother Lawrence
died at Mount Vernon of tuberculosis, making George the executor
of his will and residuary heir of his estate in the event that his
daughter Mildred died — as she did within ten years — without
issue. At the age of 20 Washington thus became manager of a
large plantation. The previous year he had accompanied Lawrence
on a trip for his health to the Barbados, and had there contracted
smallpox, which left his face permanently pitted. This was the
only occasion upon which Washington left the borders of the
United States. For the next 20 years the main background of his
life was the work and the social life of Mount Vernon. He was
fond of riding, of fox-hunting, of dancing, of such theatrical per-
formances as offered themselves and, despite an unconquerable
awkwardness with the fair sex, of flirtation. Being now fully 6 ft.
tali, and heavily built, with hands and shoulders of unusual size, he
excelled in all outdoor pursuits, from wrestling to horse-breaking.
In 1752 he was made adjutant of one of Virginia's four military
districts, with an annual salary of £100 and not too onerous duties.
He rapidly became prominent in community affairs, was an active
member and later vestryman of the Episcopal Church, and was
known as a strict and sagacious manager of his plantation. As
early as 1 748 he had begun patenting or buying lands, adding farm
after farm to his holdings, till by 1757 he had more than 4,000 ac.
to care for with white and slave labour.
Early Military Career. — Washington's entry into military
life was not long delayed. In 1753 Gov. Dinwiddie of Virginia
found it necessary to warn the French to desist from their en-
croachments on Ohio valley lands claimed by the British Crown,
and after sending one messenger who failed to reach his goal,
determined to despatch Washington. On the day he received
his commission, Oct. 31, 1 753, he set out for the French posts with
a party comprising Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch fencing-master,
as his interpreter, the scout Christopher Gist as guide, two ser-
vants, and two traders. His post of adjutant-general of the colony
gave him the rank of major. The party left what is now Cumber-
land, Mel., the middle of November, and despite wintry weather
reached Ft. Leboeuf, at what is now Waterford, Pa., 20 m. south
of Lake Erie, without delay. The French commander, Legardeur
de St. Pierre, received him with courtesy, but "they told me,"
wrote Washington later, "that, it was their absolute Design to
take possession of the Ohio, and by God, they would do it";
and they gave Washington a letter to Dinwiddie with the same
message. Returning homeward, Washington and Gist met a
party of Indians, who fired at them at 15 paces, but missed;
and in floating down the Allegheny on a raft, the major was jerked
into the ice-filled stream, but "fortunately saved myself by catch-
ing hold of one of the Raft Logs." They were at Williamsburg on
Jan. 1 6, 1754, where Washington wrote a report. Dinwiddie, who
was labouring to convince the Crown of the seriousness of the
French threat, had it printed and sent to London, where it was re-
printed, and he appointed Washington lieutenant-colonel of a pro-
vincial regiment under Col. Joshua Fry. The governor at once
launched into what may be called Dinwiddie's war against the
French, and sent Washington and Fry with several hundred men
against the enemy on the Ohio.
In this preliminary campaign of the French and Indian war
Washington played a brave but by no means brilliant part. He
marched with the advance guard to Cumberland, there learning
that the French had occupied the fort of the Ohio company on
the present site of Pittsburgh, renaming it Ft. Duquesne. Never-
theless he struggled forward hesitantly to within about 40 m. of
the French position, and erected a weak fort at Great Meadows,
near what is now Confluence, Pa. With this as a base, he made a
surprise attack May 28, 1754, upon an advance detachment of 30
French, killing the commander, Coulon de Jumonville, and nine
others, and making the rest prisoners. This brought the whole
French force upon him. They drove Washington's 350 men into
the Great Meadows fort (Ft. Necessity) on July 3, besieged it
with 700 men, and after nine hours compelled him to surrender.
The construction of the fort was a blunder, for it lay in a water-
382
WASHINGTON
logged creek bottom, was commanded on three sides by forested
elevations approaching it closely, and was too far from Washing-
ton's supports. The French agreed to let the disarmed colonials
march back to Virginia with the honours of war, but they com-
pelled Washington to promise that Virginia would not build an-
other fort on the Ohio for a year, and to sign a paper acknowledg-
ing responsibility for "I'assassinat" of M. de Jumonville; a word
which Washington later explained he did not rightly understand.
He returned to Virginia, chagrined but proud, to receive the thanks
of the house of burgesses, to be made a colonel by Dinwiddie
and to find his name mentioned in the London gazettes. His re-
mark in a letter to his brother that "I have heard the bullets
whistle; and believe me, there is something charming in the
sound," was commented on humorously by Horace Walpole and
sarcastically by George II.
An Aide to Braddock. — The arrival of General Edward Brad-
dock and his army in Virginia in Feb. 1755, as part of the triple
plan of campaign which called for his advance on Ft. Duquesne,
Governor Shirley's capture of Niagara, and William Johnson's cap-
ture of Crown Point, brought Washington new opportunities and
responsibilities. He had resigned his commission in Oct. 1754,
in resentment of the slighting treatment and underpayment of
colonial officers, and in especial of an untactful order of the British
War Office that provincial officers of whatever rank should be
subordinate to any officer holding the king's commission. But
he ardently desired a part in the war; "my inclinations/' he wrote
a friend, "are strongly bent to arms." When Braddock showed
appreciation of his merits and invited him to join the expedition
as personal aide-de-camp, with the courtesy title of colonel, he
therefore accepted. His self-reliance, decision and masterful
traits were quickly made as plain as his wilderness experience. At
table he had frequent disputes with Braddock, who when con-
tractors failed to deliver their supplies attacked the colonials as
supine and dishonest, while Washington defended them with
warmth. His freedom of utterance is proof of Braddock's esteem.
Braddock also accepted from him the unwise advice that he divide
his army, leaving half of it to come up with the slow wagons
and cattle-train, and taking the other half forward against Ft.
Duquesne at a rapid pace. Washington was ill with fever during
June, but joined the advance guard in a covered wagon on July
8, begged to lead the march on Ft. Duquesne with his Virginians
and the Indian allies, and was by Braddock's side when on July
9 the army was ambushed and bloodily defeated.
In this defeat Washington displayed the combination of cool-
ness and determination, the alliance of unconquerable energy with
complete poise, which was the secret of so many of his successes.
So ill that he had to use a pillow instead of a saddle, and that
Braddock ordered his body servant to keep special watch over
him, he was everywhere at once. At first he followed Braddock
as the general bravely tried to rally his men to push either forward
or backward, the wisest course the circumstances permitted. Then
he rode back to bring up the Virginians from the rear, and rallied
them with effect on the flank. To him was largely due the escape
of the force. His exposure of his person was as reckless as
Braddock's, who was fatally wounded on his fifth horse; Washing-
ton had two horses shot under him and his clothes cut by four
bullets without being hurt. He was at Braddock's death-bed,
helped bring the troops back, and was repaid by being appointed,
in Aug. 1755, while still only 23 years old, commander
of all the Virginia troops. But no part of his later service was
conspicuous. Finding that a Maryland captain who held a royal
commission would not obey him, he rode north in Feb. 1756, to
Boston, to have the question settled by the commander-in-chief
in America, Gov. William Shirley; and bearing a letter from
Dinwiddie, had no difficulty in carrying his point. On his return
he plunged into a multitude of vexations. He had to protect a
weak, thinly settled frontier nearly 400 m. in length with only
some 700 ill-disciplined colonial troops, to cope with a legislature
unwilling to support him, to meet attacks on the drunkenness and
inefficiency of the soldiers, and to endure constant wilderness
hardships. It is not strange that in 1757 his health failed, aod
in the closing weeks of that year he was so ill of a "bloody flux"
that his physician ordered him home to Mount Vernon. He rey
covered sufficiently to command the advance guard of Gen. Jxihn
Forbes when in 1758 that general marched from Virginia upon
Ft. Duquesne, triumphantly captured it, and renamed it Ft. Pitt;
but this done, near the end of the year he resigned.
His Marriage. — Immediately after the surrender of his com-
mission occurred his marriage Jan. 6, 1759, to Martha Dandridge,
the widow of Col. Daniel Parke Custis. She had been born the
same year as himself, was the mother of two children living and
two dead, and possessed one of the largest fortunes on Virginia.
Washington had met her the previous March, had been attracted
by her brown hair, hazel eyes, and plump figure and had asked
her hand before his campaign with Forbes. She had the qualities
of a good housewife and companion, and the marriage was happy.
But she no more represented his first love than he did hers; he
had been rejected by a Miss Betsy Fauntleroy; tradition states
that he had paid unsuccessful suit to Mary Philipse of New York,
and there is clear evidence that he temporarily felt a romantic
attachment for Sarah, the wife of his friend William Fairfax.
The estimate of John Marshall that Washington's marriage
brought him personally an increase of $75,000 in property, and
of G. Washington Custis that it brought him $100,000, are ex-
cessive; a precise computation shows that the sum was about
$66,000, then of course a handsome fortune. The holdings included
about 15,000 ac., much of it valuable because placed near Wil-
liamsburg, a number of town lots, and 150 slaves, and from this
time Washington added to the cares of Mount Vernon those of
the Custis estate at the White House on the York tiver. From
his marriage to the eve of the Revolution he devoted himself to
the duties and pleasures of a great landowner, varied a few weeks
every year by attendance as member of the house of burgesses.
He was elected to this body in 1758, after standing treat to the
voters a prodigious quantity of rum punch, wine, brandy, beer,
and "cider royal."
A Virginia Planters—In no light does Washington appear
more characteristically than as one of the richest and largest of
Virginia tobacco-planters. He was industrious, punctual, efficient,
and economical. Disliking slavery on economic and social rather
than moral grounds, he made the best of it, carefully clothed and
fed his hands, and employed a doctor for the sick. He practised
crop rotation, diversified his products to raise enough food for
all his people and experimented in breeding horses and cattle.
He had a peach and apple orchard, grafted many cherry, pear
and plum trees, and grew Madeira grapes and the "Mississippi
nut" or pecan. Till after the Revolution the Mount Vernon house
was a small edifice of eight rooms, but he spent much pains on
beautifying the grounds. The health, education and property of
his stepchildren Patsy Custis and John Parke Custis were care-
fully supervised, Washington rendering minute yearly accounts
to the court. He engaged a tutor, made special exertions to cure
Patsy Custis of the epilepsy to which she succumbed in 1772,
and sent John to King's college in New York for a few months.
In the social life of Tidewater, Va., he played a prominent role.
Mount Vernon was usually full of guests, casual travellers,
invited friends and relatives. House-parties were frequent; Wash-
ington mentions many expenditures for arrack, wine and punch at
neighbourhood clubs; he liked afternoon tea, served in summer
on the Mount Vernon verandah; he was fond of picnics, barbecues,
and clam-bakes; and throughout his life he enjoyed dancing, fre-
quently going ten miles to Alexandria to attend balls. On the
frontier he sighed in a letter for "assembly balls" and "routs,"
and at the age of 64 in 1796 he still danced. He went regularly
to the Williamsburg races, where he sometimes ran horses of his
own; and his account books frequently note sums lost at cards,
the Largest being lq 145. In bad weather his diary sometimes states
"at home all day, over cards." At billiards also he frequently
won or lost small sums. At Mount Vernon riding to hounds was
a favourite pastime, to which he devoted generous space in his
diaries, while he took pains to improve the breed of his favourite
hounds. In season he went gunning for ducks, and fished the
Potomac for sturgeon and bass. He missed few opportunities to
see plays at Alexandria or Williamsburg. He was able to quote
WASHINGTON
383
aptly from Shakespeare, Addison and Sterne.
Pre-Revolutionary Politics*— While Washington's associates
marked him, in Col. John L. Peyton's words, as "a young man of
an extraordinary and exalted character/' he gave before 1770 no
signs of greatness and few of interest in affairs of State. He
played a silent part in the house of burgesses. But he was present
when Patrick Henry introduced his resolutions against the Stamp
Act in May, 1765, and shortly thereafter gave token of his adher-
ence to the cause of the colonial Whigs against the Tory ministries
of England. In 1768 he told George Mason at Mount Vernon that
he would take his musket on his shoulder whenever his country
called him. The next spring, April 4, 1769 he sent Mason the
Philadelphia non-importation resolutions with a letter declaring
that it was necessary to resist the strokes of "our lordly masters"
in England, that courteous remonstrances to parliament having
failed, he wholly endorsed the resort to commercial warfare, and
that as a last resort, no man should scruple to use arms in de-
fence of liberty. When, the following May, the royal governor
dissolved the house of burgesses, he shared in the gathering at the
Raleigh tavern which drew up non-importation resolutions, and
he went farther than most of his neighbours in adhering to them.
At this time and later he believed with most Americans that peace
need not be broken. He had been interested since youth in West-
ern lands, and in 1767 had asked Capt. William Crawford to find
for him a fertile tract in western Pennsylvania. Late in 1770 he
himself paid a land-hunting visit to Ft. Pitt, where George
Croghan was maturing his plans for the proposed i4th colony
of Vandalia. Washington directed his agent to locate and' survey
10,000 ac. adjoining the Vandalia tract, and at one time he wished
to share in certain of Croghan's schemes. But the Boston Tea-
party of Dec. 1773, and the bursting at about the same time of the
Vandalia bubble, turned his eyes back to the East and the threaten-
ing state of Anglo-American relations. He was not a member of
the Virginia committee of correspondence formed in 1773 to com-
municate with other colonies, and when the Virginia legislators,
meeting irregularly again at the Raleigh tavern in May, 1774,
called for a Continental Congress, he does not seem to have been
present. But he was a leading member of the first provincial con-
vention or revolutionary legislature late that summer, and to this
body he made a speech which was much praised for its pithy
eloquence, declaring that "I will raise one thousand men, subsist
them at my own expense, and march myself at their head for
the relief of Boston."
The Virginia provincial convention promptly elected Washing-
ton one of the seven delegates to the first Continental Congress.
He was by this time known as a radical rather than a moderate,
and in several letters of the time he opposed a continuance of
petitions to the British Crown, declaring that they would in-
evitably meet with a humiliating rejection. "Shall we after this
whine and cry for relief when we have already tried it in vain?"
he wrote. When the congress met in Philadelphia on Sept. 5, 1774,
he was in his seat in full uniform; and his participation in its
councils marks the beginning of his national career. Later Patrick
Henry, being asked who was the greatest man in Congress, replied :
"If you speak of eloquence, Mr. Rutledge of South Carolina is by
far the greatest orator ; but if you speak of solid information and
sound judgment, Colonel Washington is unquestionably the great-
est man on that floor." His letters of the period show that while
still utterly opposed to the idea of independence, he was deter-
mined never to submit "to the loss of those valuable rights and
privileges, which are essential to the happiness of every free State,
and without which life, liberty, and property are rendered totally
insecure." If the ministry pushed matters to an extremity, he
wrote, "more blood will be spilled on this occasion than ever be-
fore in American history." Though he served on none of the com-
mittees, he was a useful member, his advice being sought on mili-
tary matters, and weight being attached to his advocacy of a non-
exportation as well as non-importation agreement. He also helped
to secure congressional approval of the "Suffolk resolves," which
looked toward armed resistance as a last resort, and which did
much to harden the king's heart against America. Returning to
Virginia in November, he took command of the volunteer com-
panies now drilling there, and also served as chairman of the
committee of safety in Fairfax county. The unanimity with
which the Virginia troops turned to him, though the province
contained many experienced officers and Col. William Byrd of
Westover had succeeded Washington as commander-in-chief , was
a tribute to his reputation and personality; it was understood that
Virginia expected him to be her general.
Head of the Colonial Forces.— Washington's choice as com-
mander-in-cbief of the military forces of all the colonies followed
immediately upon the first fighting, though it was by no means
inevitable and was the product of partly artificial forces. The
Virginia delegates differed upon his appointment. Washington
himself recommended General Andrew Lewis for the place, and
Edmund Pendleton was, according to John Adams, "very full
and clear against it." It was chiefly the fruit of a political bargain
by which New England offered Virginia the chief command as
her price for the adoption and support of the New England army.
This army had gathered hastily and in force about Boston im-
mediately after the clash of British troops and American minute-
men at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. When the
second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, one
of its first tasks was to find a permanent leadership for this force.
On June 15 Washington, whose military counsel had already
proved invaluable on two committees, was nominated by John
Adams, and chosen by unanimous vote. Beyond the considerations
noted, he owed his choice to the fact that Virginia stood with
Massachusetts as one of the two most powerful colonies; that
his appointment would augment the zeal of the Southern people;
that he had made an enduring reputation in the Braddock cam-
paign; and that his poise, sense and resolution had impressed all
the delegates. The scene of his election, with Washington darting
modestly into an adjoining room and John Hancock flushing with
jealous mortification, will always impress the historical imag-
ination. So also will the scene of July 3, 1775, when wheeling
his horse under an elm in front of the troops paraded on Cam-
bridge common he drew his sword and took command of the
army investing Boston. News of Bunker Hill had reached him
before he was a day's journey from Philadelphia, and he had ex-
pressed confidence of victory when told how the militia had
fought. In accepting the command he refused any payment be-
yond his expenses, and called upon "every gentleman in the room"
to bear witness that he disclaimed fitness for it. At once he showed
characteristic decision and energy in organizing the raw volunteers,
collecting provisions and munitions, and rallying Congress and the
colonies to his support.
The first phase of Washington's command covered the period
from July, 1775, to the British evacuation of Boston in March
1776. In these eight months he imparted discipline to the army,
which at maximum strength slightly exceeded 20,000; he dealt
with subordinates who as John Adams says quarrelled 'like
cats and dogs"; and kept the siege vigorously alive. Having him-
self planned an invasion of Canada by Lake Champlain, to be
entrusted to General Philip Schuyler, he heartily approved of
Benedict Arnold's proposal to march north along the Kennebec
river and take Montreal and Quebec. Giving Arnold 1,100 men,
he instructed him to do everything possible to conciliate the Cana-
dians. He was equally active in encouraging privateers to attack
British commerce. As fast as means offered, he strengthened his
army with ammunition and siege-guns, bringing heavy artillery
from Ticonderoga over the frozen roads early in 1776. His posi-
tion was at first precarious, for the Charles river pierced the centre
of his lines investing the town, and if Howe had moved his 20
veteran regiments boldly up the stream he might have pierced
Washington's army and rolled either wing back to destruction.
But all the generalship was on Washington's side. Seeing that
Dorchester heights, just south of Boston, commanded the city
and harbour, and that Howe had unaccountably failed to occupy
it, he seized it on the night of March 4, 1776, placing his Ticon-
deroga guns in position. The British naval commander declared
that he could not remain if the Americans were not dislodged, and
Howe, after a storm disrupted his plans for an assault, evacuated
the city on March 17. He left 200 cannon and invaluable stores
384
WASHINGTON
of small arms and munitions. After stamping out the smallpox
in Boston and collecting his booty, Washington hurried south by
land to take up the defence of New York.
Sources of Military Strength. — Washington had won the
first round, but there remained five years of war, during which
the American cause was repeatedly near complete disaster. It
is unquestionable that Washington's strength of character, his
ability to hold the confidence of army and people and to diffuse
his own courage among them, his unremitting activity and his
strong common sense, constituted the chief factor in achieving
American victory. He was not a great tactician; as Jefferson said
later, he often "failed in the field," he was sometimes guilty of
grave military blunders, the chief being his assumption of a
position on Long Island in 1776 which exposed his army to cap-
ture entire the moment it was defeated. At the outset he was
painfully inexperienced, the wilderness fighting of the French war
having done nothing to teach him the strategy of considerable
armies. One of his chief faults was his tendency to subordinate
his own judgment to that of the generals surrounding him; at
every critical juncture, before Boston, before New York, before
Philadelphia, in New Jersey, he called a council of war, and in
almost every instance accepted its decision. Naturally bold and
dashing, as he proved at Trenton, Princeton and Germantown,
he repeatedly adopted evasive and delaying tactics on the advice
of his associates; however he did succeed in keeping a strong
army in existence and maintaining the flame of national spirit,
and when the auspicious moment arrived, he planned the rapid
movements which ended the war.
One element of Washington's strength was his sternness as a
disciplinarian. The army was continually dwindling and refilling;
politics largely governed the selection of officers by Congress and
the States; and the ill-fed, ill-clothed, ill-paid forces were often
half prostrated by sickness and ripe for mutiny. Troops from
each of the three sections, New England, the Middle States and
the South, showed a deplorable jealousy of the others. Washing-
ton was rigorous in breaking cowardly, inefficient and dishonest
men, and boasted in front of Boston that he had "made a pretty
good sort of slam among such kind of officers." Deserters and
plunderers were flogged, and he once erected a gallows 40 ft. high,
writing that "I am determined if I can be justified in the proceed-
ing, to hang two or three on it, as an example to others/' At the
same time the commander-in-chicf won the devotion of many of
his men by his earnestness in demanding better treatment for
them from Congress. He complained of their short rations, de-
claring once that they were forced to "eat every kind of horse
food but hay."
Campaigns in Middle Colonies.— The darkest chapter in
Washington's military leadership was opened when, reaching
New York on April 23, 1776, he placed half his army, some 9,000
men, under Isaac Putnam, on the perilous position of Brooklyn
heights, Long Island ~ wfiere a British fleet in the East river might
cut off their retreat. He spent a fortnight in May with the conti-
nental congress in Philadelphia, then discussing the question of in-
dependence; and though no record of his utterances exists, there
can be no doubt that he advocated complete separation. His return
to New York preceded but slightly the arrival of the British
army under Howe, which made its main encampment on Staten
Island till its whole strength of nearly 30,000 could be mobilized.
On Aug. 22, 1776, Howe moved about 20,000 men across to
Gravesend bay on Long Island. Four days later, sending the fleet
under command of his brother Lord Howe to make a feint against
New York city, he thrust a crushing force along feebly protected
roads against the American flank. The patriots were out-ma-
noeuvred, defeated, and suffered a total loss of 5,000, of whom
2,000 were captured. Their whole position might have been car-
ried by storm, but fortunately for Washington, Howe delayed.
While the enemy lingered, he succeeded under cover of a dense
fog in ferrying the remaining force across the East river to Man-
hattan, where he took up a fortified position/The British, sud-
denly landing on the lower part of the island, drove back the
Americans in a clash marked by disgraceful cowardice on the
part of Connecticut and other troops. In a series of actions Wash-
ington was forced northward, more than once in danger of cap-
ture, till the loss of his two Hudson river forts, one of thern with
2,600 men, compelled him to retreat from White Plains across
the river into New Jersey. Here he slowly retired toward the
Delaware, and as he went his army melted away, till it seemed
that armed resistance to the British was about to expire.
It was at this darkest hour of the Revolution that Washington
struck his brilliant blows at Trenton and Princeton, reviving the
hopes and energies of the nation. Howe, believing the American
army would soon totally dissolve, retired to New York, leaving
strong forces in Trenton and Burlington. Washington at his camp
west of the Delaware planned a simultaneous attack on both
posts, using his whole command of 6,000 men. But his subordinates
in charge of both wings failed him, and he was left on the night
of Christmas day, 1776, to march on Trenton alone with some
2,400 men. He completely surprised the unprepared Hessians, and
after confused street fighting killed the commander, Rahl, and
captured 1,000 prisoners, with arms and ammunition. The im-
mediate result was that General Cornwallis hastened with 8,000
men to Trenton, where he found Washington strongly posted be-
hind the Assumpink river, skirmished with him, and decided to
wait overnight "to bag the old fox." During the night the wind
shifted, the roads froze hard, and Washington was enabled to
steal away from camp, leaving his fires deceptively burning,
march around Cornwallis's rear, and fall at daybreak upon the
three British regiments at Princeton. These were put to flight
with a loss of 500 men, and Washington escaped with more cap-
tured munitions to a strong position at Morristow*, NJ. The
effect of these victories was threefold; they heartened all Amer-
icans, brought recruits flocking to camp with the spring, and en-
couraged foreign sympathizers with the American cause.
Valley Forge. — Thus far the important successes had been
won by Washington; now they fell to others, while he was left tc
face popular apathy, military cabals, and the disaffection of Con-
gress. The year 1777 was marked by the British capture of Phil-
adelphia and the surrender of Burgoyne's invading army to Gates
at Saratoga, followed by intrigues to displace Washington from
his command. Howe's main British army of 18,000 left New York
by sea on July 23, 1777, and landed on Aug. 25 in Delaware not
far below Philadelphia. Washington, despite his inferiority of force,
for he had only 11,000 men, mostly militia and in Lafayette's
words "badly armed and worse clothed," risked a pitched battle
on Sept. ii at the fords of Brandywine creek, about 13 m. north
of Wilmington. While part of the British force held the Amer-
icans engaged, Cornwallis with the rest made a secret 17 m. de-
tour and fell with crushing effect on the American right and rear,
the result being a complete defeat, from which Washington was
fortunate to extricate his army in fairly good order. For a time ht
hoped to hold the Schuylkill fords, but the British passed them
and on Sept. 26 triumphantly marched into Philadelphia. Con-
gress fled to the interior of Pennsylvania, and Washington, aftei
an unsuccessful effort to repeat his stroke at Trenton against
the British troops posted at Germantown, had to take up winter
quarters at Valley Forge. His army, twice-beaten, ill-housed, and
ill-fed, with thousands of men "barefoot and otherwise naked/
was at the point of exhaustion; it could not keep the field, for in-
side of a month it would have disappeared. Under these circum-
stances, there is nothing which better proves the true fibre oi
Washington's character and the courage of his soul than the un-
yielding persistence with which he held his strong position at
Valley Forge through a winter of semi-starvation, of justifiec
grumbling by his men, of harsh public criticism, and of captious
meddling by a Congress too weak to help him.
Intrigues. — Washington's enemies seized the moment of his
greatest weakness to give vent to an antagonism which had been
nourished by sectional jealousies of North against South, by the
ambition of small rivals, and by baseless accusations that he
showed favouritism to such foreigners as Lafayette. The intrigues
of Thomas Conway, an Irish adventurer who had served in the
French army and had become American inspector-general, enlisted
Thomas Mifflin, Charles Lee, Benjamin Rush and others in an
attempt to displace Washington. Gen. Horatio Gates appears tc
WASHINGTON
385
have been a tool of rather than a party to the plot, expecting that
the chief command would devolve upon himself. A faction of Con-
gress sympathized with the movement and attempted to paralyze
Washington by reorganizing the board of war, a body vested with
the general superintendence of operations, of which Gates became
president, his chief -of-staff, James Wilkinson, the secretary, and
MifHin and Timothy Pickering members. Washington was well
aware of the hostility in Congress, of the slanders spread by Dr.
Rush and James Loveli of Massachusetts, and of the effect of
forgeries published in the American press by adroit British agents.
He realized the intense jealousy of many New Englanders, which
made even John Adams write his wife that he was thankful
Burgoyne had not been captured by Washington, who would then
"have been deified. It is bad enough as it is." But Washington
decisively crushed the cabal when, the loose tongue of Wilkinson
having disclosed Conway's treachery, he sent the latter officer on
Nov. 9, 1777, proof of his knowledge of the whole affair.
With the conclusion of the French alliance in the spring of 1778
the aspect of the war was radically altered ; and the British army
in Philadelphia, fearing that a French fleet would blockade the
Delaware while the militia of New Jersey and Pennsylvania in-
vested the city, hastily retreated upon New York city. Washing-
ton hoped to cut off part of the enemy, and by a hurried march
with six brigades interposed himself at the end of June between
Sir Henry Clinton (who had succeeded Howe) and the Jersey
coast. The result was the battle of Monmouth on June 28, where
a shrewd strategic plan and vigorous assault were brought to
naught by the treachery of Charles Lee. When Lee ruined the at-
tack by a sudden order to retreat, Washington hurried forward,
fiercely denounced him, and restored the line, but the golden op-
portunity had been lost. The British made good their march to
Sandy Hook and Washington took up his quarters at New Bruns-
wick. Lcc was arrested, court-martialed and convicted on all three
of the charges made against him; but. instead of being shot, as he
deserved, he was sentenced to a suspension from command for
one year. The arrival of the French fleet under D'Estaing in
July, 1778, completed the isolation of the British and Clinton
was thenceforth held to New York city and the surrounding area;
Washington making his headquarters in the highlands of the Hud-
son, and distributing his troops in cantonments around the city
and in New Jersey.
Yorktown. — To Washington's vision the final decisive stroke
of the war, the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown, is chiefly
to be credited. With the domestic situation intensely gloomy early
in 1781, he was hampered by the feebleness of Congress, the
popular discouragement, and inability to rely upon prompt and
strong support by the French fleet. A French army under Rocham-
beau having arrived to reinforce him in 1780, he pressed De Grasse
to assist in an attack upon either Cornwallis at the South or Clinton
in New York. In August the French admiral sent definite word
that he preferred the Chesapeake, with its large area and deep
water, as the scene of his operations; and within a week, on
Aug. 19, 1781, Washington marched south with his army, leaving
Heath with 4,000 men to hold West Point. He hurried his troops
through New Jersey, embarked them on transports in Delaware
bay, and landed them at William sburg, Va., where he had himself
arrived on Sept. 14. Cornwallis had retreated to Yorktown and en-
trenched his army of 7,000 British regulars. Their works were
completely invested before the end of the month; the siege was
pressed with vigour by the allied armies under Washington, con-
sisting of 5,500 Continentals, 3,500 Virginia militia, and 5,000
French regulars; and on Oct. 21, Cornwallis surrendered. By this
campaign, probably the finest single display of Washington's gen-
eralship, the war was brought to a virtual close.
Washington remained during the winter of 1781-82 with the
Continental Congress in Philadelphia, exhorting it to maintain
its exertions for liberty and to settle the claims of the army and
officers; exhortations which he continued after he joined his com-
mand at Newburgh on the Hudson in April, 1782. Suggestions
at this time that he found a monarchy were brusquely repelled.
When the discontent of his unpaid men came to a head in the cir-
culation of the "Newburgh address" early in 1783, he issued a
general order censuring the paper, and at a meeting of officers
on March 15 read a speech admonishing the army to obey Con-
gress and promising his best efforts for a redress of grievances.
He was present at the entrance of the American army into New
York on the day of Clinton's evacuation, Nov. 25, 1783, and on
Dec. 4 took leave of his closest officers in an affecting scene
at Fraunces' tavern. Travelling south, on Dec. 23, in a solemn
ceremonial immortalized by the pen of Thackeray, he resigned his
commission to the Continental Congress in the State senate cham-
ber of Maryland in Annapolis, and received the thanks of the
nation. His accounts of personal expenditures during his service,
kept with minute exactness in his own handwriting, and totalling
£14,500, without charge for salary, had been given the controller
of the Treasury to be discharged. Leaving Annapolis at sunrise
of Dec. 24, before nightfall he was at home in Mount Vernon.
In the next four years Washington found sufficient occupation in
his estates, wishing to close his days as a gentleman-farmer and
giving to agriculture as much energy and thought as to the army.
He enlarged the Mount Vernon house in 1786; he laid out the
grounds anew, with sunken walls or ha-has; and he embarked on
experiments with mahogany, palmetto, pepper, and other foreign
trees, English grasses, and grains. His farm manager during the
Revolution, a distant relative named Lund Washington, re-
tired in 1785, and was succeeded by a nephew, Maj. George
Augustine Washington, who resided at Mount Vernon till his
death in 1792. Washington's losses during the war had been
heavy, partly through neglect of his lands, partly through stoppage
of exportation, and partly through a depreciation of paper money
which cost him hardly less than $30,000. He now successfully at-
tempted to repair his fortunes, his annual receipts from all his es-
tates being from $10,000 to $15,000 a year. In 1784 he made a
tour of nearly 700 miles to view the wild lands he owned to the
westward, Congress having made him a generous grant. As a
national figure, he was constrained to offer hospitality to old army
friends, visitors from other States and nations, diplomats, and
Indian delegations, and he and his household seldom sat down
to dinner alone.
A More Perfect Union. — Viewing the chaotic political con-
dition of the United States after 1783 with frank pessimism, and
declaring (May 18, 1786) that ''something must be done, or the
fabric must fall, for it is certainly tottering," Washington re-
peatedly wrote his friends urging steps toward "an indissoluble
union." At first he believed that the Articles of Confederation
might be amended. Later, especially after the shock of Shays's
Rebellion, he took the view that a more radical reform was neces-
sary, but doubted as late as the end of 1786 that the time was
ripe. He earnestly supported the proposal for a Federal impost,
warning the States that their policy must decide "whether the
Revolution must ultimately be considered a blessing or a curse."
His numerous letters to the leading men of the country assisted
greatly to form a sentiment favourable to a more perfect union.
Some understanding being necessary between Virginia and Mary-
land regarding the navigation of the Potomac, commissioners from
the two States met at Mount Vernon in the spring of 1785; and
from this seed sprang the Federal Convention. Washington ap-
proved in advance the call for a gathering of all the States to
meet in Philadelphia in May, 1787, to "render the Constitution of
the Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union."
Though he hoped to be excused, he was chosen one of Virginia's
five delegates, arrived in Philadelphia on May 13, the day before
its opening, and as soon as a quorum was obtained, was unani-
mously chosen its president. For four months Washington pre-
sided over the Constitutional Convention, breaking his silence only
once upon a minor question of Congressional apportionment. But
though he said little in debate no one did more outside the hall
to insist on stern measures. "My wish is," he wrote, "that the
convention may adopt no temporizing expedients, but probe the
defects of the Constitution to the bottom, and provide a radical
cure." His weight of character did more than any other single
force to bring the convention to an agreement and obtain ratifica-
tion of the instrument afterward. He did not believe it perfect,
though his precise criticisms of it are unknown. But his support
WASHINGTON
gave it victory in Virginia, where he sent copies to Patrick Henry
and other leaders with a hint that the alternative to adoption was
anarchy; while a letter of his published in a Boston newspaper,
declaring that "it or dis-union is before us to chuse from," told
powerfully in Massachusetts. He received and personally circu-
lated copies of the Federalist. When once ratification was obtained,
he wrote leaders in the various States urging that men staunchly
favourable to it be elected to Congress. For a time he sincerely
believed that, the new framework completed, he would be allowed
to retire again to privacy. But all eyes immediately turned to him
for the first president. He alone commanded the respect of both
the parties engendered by the struggle over ratification, and he
alone would be able to give prestige to the republic throughout
Europe. In no State was any other name considered. The electors
chosen in the first days of 1789 cast a unanimous vote for him,
and reluctantly — for his love of peace, his distrust of his own abil-
ities, and his fear that his motives in advocating the new govern-
ment might be misconstrued all made him unwilling — he accepted.
On April 16, after receiving congressional notification of the
honour, he set out from Mount Vernon, reaching New York in
tirhe to be inaugurated on April 30. This ceremony was performed
in Wall Street, near the spot now marked by Ward's statue of
Washington, and in the presence of a great crowd which broke into
cheers as, standing on the balcony of Federal Hall, he took the
oath administered by Chancellor Livingston, and retired indoors
to read Congress his inaugural.
President of the United States.— Washington's administra-
tion of the government in the next eight years was marked by the
caution, the methodical precision and the sober judgment which
had always characterized him. He regarded himself as standing
aloof from party divisions, and emphasized his position as presi-
dent of the whole country by a tour first through the Northern
States and later through the Southern. A painstaking inquiry into
all the problems confronting the new nation laid the basis for a
series of judicious recommendations to Congress in his first mes-
sage. In selecting the four members of his first cabinet, Thomas
Jefferson as secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton as secretary of
Treasury, Henry Knox as secretary of War and Edmund Randolph
as attorney-general, Washington balanced the two parties evenly.
But he leaned with especial weight upon Hamilton, supporting his
scheme for the assumption of State debts, taking his view that the
bill establishing the United States Bank was constitutional and in
general strengthening the authority of the Federal Government.
Distressed when the inevitable clash between Jefferson and Hamil-
ton arose, he tried to keep harmony, writing frankly to each and
refusing to accept their resignations. But when war was declared
between France and England in 1793, he again took Hamilton's
view that the United States should completely disregard the
treaty of alliance with France and pursue a course of strict neu-
trality, while he acted decisively to stop the improper operations of
the French Minister, Genet. The sequel was the resignation of
Jefferson at the close of 1793, the two men parting on good terms
and Washington praising Jefferson's "integrity and talents." The
suppression of the \Vhiskey Rebellion in 1794, by Federal troops
whom Hamilton led in person, and the despatch of John Jay to
conclude a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, tended further
to align Washington with the Federalist party. Though the general
voice of the people compelled him to acquiesce reluctantly in a
second term in 1792, and his election that year was again unani-
mous, during his last four years in office he suffered from a fierce
personal and partisan animosity. This culminated when the pub-
lication of the terms of Jay's treaty, which Washington signed on
Aug. 18, 1795, provoked a bitter discussion, and the House of
Representatives called upon the president for the instructions and
correspondence relating to the treaty. These Washington, who had
already clashed with the Senate on foreign affairs, refused to de-
liver, and in the face of an acrimonious debate firmly maintained
his position.
Early in his first term Washington, who by education and natural
inclination was minutely careful of the proprieties of life, estab- j
lished the rules of a virtual republican court. In both New York
and Philadelphia he rented the best houses procurable, refusing
to accept the hospitality of George Clinton, for he believed the
head of the nation should be no man's guest. He returned no calls
and shook hands with no one, acknowledging salutations by a for-
mal bow. He drove in a coach with four or six smart horses, and
outriders and lackeys in rich livery. At receptions he came in a
black velvet suit with gold buckles, yellow gloves, powdered hair,
a cocked hat with an ostrich plume in one hand, and a sword in
a white leather scabbard. After being overpowered by callers, he
announced that except for a weekly levee open to all, persons
desiring to see him must make previous engagements. On Friday
afternoons Mrs. Washington held more informal receptions, at
which the president appeared and chatted gravely with both ladies
and gentlemen. Though the presidents of the Continental Con-
gress had made their tables partly public, Washington, who enter-
tained largely, taking members of Congress in rotation, insisted
that his hospitality be entirely private. He served good wines and
the menus were elaborate, but such visitors as Senator Maclay
complained that the atmosphere was too "solemn." Indeed, his
simple ceremony offended many of the more radical anti-federal-
ists, who did not share his sense of its fitness and accused the
president of conducting himself like a king. But his cold and
reserved manner was due rather to native diffidence than to any
excessive sense of dignity.
Retirement. — Earnestly desiring leisure, feeling a decline of his
physical powers, and wincing under opposition abuse, Washington
refused to yield to the general pressure for a third term. This
refusal was blended with a testament of sagacious advice to his
country in the Farewell Address of Sept. 19, 1796, written largely
by Hamilton but remoulded by Washington and expressing his
ideas. Retiring in March, 1797, to Mount Vernon, he devoted him-
self for the last two and a half years of his life to his family, farm
operations and care of his slaves. In 1798 his seclusion was briefly
threatened when the prospect of war with France caused his ap-
pointment as commander-in-chief of the provisional army, and he
was much worried by the political quarrels over high commis-
sions; but the war cloud passed away. On Dec. 12, 1799, he ex-
posed himself on horseback for several hours to cold and snow, and
returning home exhausted, was attacked late next day with quinsy
or acute laryngitis. He was bled heavily four times, given gargles
of "molasses, vinegar and butter," and a blister of cantharides was
placed on his throat, his strength meanwhile rapidly sinking. The
best modern treatment would probably have been unavailing. He
faced the end with characteristic serenity, saying "I die hard, but
I am not afraid to go," and later: "I feel myself going. I thank
you for your attentions; but I pray you to take no more trouble
about me. Let me go off quietly. I cannot last long." After giving
instructions to his secretary, Tobias Lear, about his burial, he
died at 10 P.M. on Dec. 14 without pain or struggle. The news of
his death placed the entire United States in mourning, and the
sentiment of the country permanently endorsed the famous words
of Henry Lee, ernbodied in resolutions which John Marshall in-
troduced in the House of Representatives, that he was "first in
war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."
When the intelligence reached Europe the British channel fleet
and the armies of Napoleon paid tribute to his memory; and many
of the political and intellectual leaders of the time joined in
according him a preeminent place among the heroes of history.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The earliest known portrait of Washington is that
by Charles Wilson Peale, painted in 1772. A long line of painters and
sculptors followed, and their work may be found criticized in Justin
Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. VU. Wash-
ington himself thought highly of the likeness by Joseph Wright,
painted in 1782. According to Winsor, the favourite profile is Hou-
don's, while Gilbert Stuart's canvas had been popularly preferred for
the full face, and John Trumbull's florid paintings for the whole figure.
Stuart's pictures are somewhat idealized, while all the later portraits
suffer from the fact that the artificial teeth worn by Washington in
later years altered the expression of his face. Houdon's statue hardly
does justice to Washington's imposing stature ; he was 6 ft. 3 in. tall in
his prime, and weighed 220 lb., carrying himself with great dignity
and poise.
A full collection of books upon Washington would fill a large library,
and the list is being steadily extended. The best edition of his writings
is that edited by Worthington C. Ford (1889-93) ; superseding that by
Jarcd Sparks (1837), the latter contains some papers not found else-
WASHINGTON
387
where. Nearly all of the Presidential messages and proclamations are
to be found in J. D. Richardson's Messages and Papers of the Presi-
dents (1896). The best of the earlier biographies are those by John
Marshall (1804-07); Washington Irving (1855-59); Edward Everett
Hale (1888) ; Henry Cabot Lodge (1889) ; Woodrow Wilson (1897) J
Worthington C. Ford (1899); and Norman Hapgood (1901).
These were supplemented in their time by such special works a.s
G. W. P. Custis, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington
(1860); R. Rush, Washington in Domestic Life (1857); H. B. Car-
rinffton, Washington the Soldier (1899); Paul Leicester Ford, The
True George Washington (1896) ; B. T. Johnston, General Washington
(1894). But in recent years large additions have been made to the
store of knowledge of Washington and his times by John C Fitzpatrick,
The Diaries of George Washington, 1748-1799 (1925); Paul Leland
Haworth, George Washington, Farmer (1915) ; Eugene E. Prussing,
The Estate of George Washington (1927) ; Charles Moore, The Family
Life of George Washington (1926); and Archer B. Hulbert, Wash-
ington and the West (1911). An iconoclastic short life, often
inaccurate, has been written by W. E. Woodward, George Washington:
The Image and the Man (1926) and a detailed and scholarly record,
deficient in literary quality, by Rupert Hughes in George Washington
the Human Being and the Hero, 1732-1762, and George Washington
the Rebel and the Patriot, 1762-1777 (1926, 1927). For a treatment of
the military and political background of his times the student must go
to George Otto Trcvelyan's history of the American Revolution, to the
large histories by Bancroft, Winsor, McMaster, Schouler, and Chan-
ning, to William Maclay's Journal, 1789-91 (1890), and to such books
as Henry Jones Ford's Washington and his Colleagues (1918). The
best work on Martha Washington remains Anne Hollingsworth
Wharton's Martha Washington (1897). (A. N.)
WASHINGTON, the "Evergreen State," is the most north-
westerly State of the United States of America. Its extreme
length east and west is 360 m,, its extreme width north and
south is 240 m. and its total area is 69,127 sq.m., of which 2,291
sq.m. is water surface. It was first intended to call the State
Columbia, but from fear that confusion with the District of
Columbia would result, that name was amended in the bill.
Physical Features-— The Cascade Mountain range running
north from the Columbia river to the Canadian border divide
the State into sections commonly known as eastern Washington
and western Washington. The hurrying cascades that have carved
deep valleys between the high serrated summits have given the
range its name. From a width of 100 m. at the northern border,
it narrows to about 50 m. where the Columbia river has carved
its canyon on its way to the ocean. The summits average about
8,000 ft. in altitude, while few passes less than 6,000 ft, can be
found through the chain. Far above the average summits a num-
ber of extinct volcanoes rear their glacier-covered sides, chief
among them being Mt. Rainier (14,408 ft..), Mt. Adams (12,307
MAP OF THE MAIN ROADS OF WASHINGTON
ft.), Mt. Baker (10,730 ft.), Glacier Peak (10,436 ft.), Mt. St.
Helens (9,697 ft.), and Mt. Stuart (9,470 ft.). The forests of the
Cascades, especially on the western slopes, seem almost to attain
as magnificent gestures as the peaks themselves, for cedars, Doug-
las fir and Douglas spruce often reach 200 ft. in height. The for-
ests in season are painted by the pink petals of the rhododendron,
the State flower.
To the least of the Cascades and bounded on the north by the
Okanogan highlands lie the Columbia river plains, a region fast
gaining fame as the "Inland Empire," with Spokane as its capital!
The plains range in altitude from 500 to slightly over 2,000 ft.
with a gentle slope toward the river. Besides the river valleys,
some depressions known as "coulees" and some low hills alter-
nate with vast level stretches or undulating country. The soil
is mainly a decomposed basalt known as volcanic ash, rich in min-
eral food elements, and if nitrogen can be worked into it, ex-
ceedingly fertile under irrigation. The red-cheeked apples of the
Wenatchee have become famous in all the fruit markets of Amer-
ica. The Walla Walla is also a well known grain and fruit raising
valley. The centre portion of these plains, known as the Great
Bend region, is the driest part of Washington, containing a number
of lost rivers and alkaline lakes of which Soap lake, a health resort,
and Moses lake are best known. A number of these lakes occupy
the bed of the Grand Coulee, a depression from 500 to 1,000 ft.
deep, extending for many miles and supposed to be the old bed
of the Columbia river. Toward the south-east the plains are in-
terrupted by an extension from Oregon of the Blue mountains,
rising over 7,000 feet. To the north, He the Okanogan highlands, a
region of gentler slopes with pine timber and fertile valleys.
West of the Cascades lies the Puget sound basin, and between
the basin and the ocean rises another chain of mountains known
as the Coast range. This range increases in height and rugged-
ness toward the north-west, forming the Olympic mountains, a
group of wild beauty rising almost immediately from the sea,
dominating the whole Olympic peninsula, and culminating in Mt.
Olympus, 7,915 ft. in altitude. For nearly the entire year the
summits are snow-capped, and seen from Seattle ur Tacoma across
the sound they form a refreshing and inspiring panorama. Trails
and roads are making the region more accessible, and it is saved
for purposes of public recreation by being enclosed in the Olympic
National forest of 1,460,665 ac.r the heart of which is set aside
as Mt. Olympus National Monument.
The Puget sound basin slopes northward gradually from the
height of land which divides it from the valley of the Cowlitz
river, a tributary of the Columbia. In the north end of the basin
the water has conquered and forms Puget sound itself, which is
connected with the Pacific by the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Around
the shores of the sound are five of Washington's most populous
counties, and four of the five largest cities. Branching from the
sound and lying close to the steep slopes of the Olympics, is the
Hood canal, a narrow fjord penetrating about Co m. inland to the
south-west, and then bending back upon the Kitsap peninsula.
The sound itself is made more interesting by its many islands,
large and small. Whidby, the largest, extends about 50 m. N. and
S., and together with several lesser islands forms Island county.
The other identations are Grays Harbor and Willapa bay, both
famous fishing and lumbering centres.
In no part of the generally inhabited regions of Washington
are there wide extremes of temperature. The summers arc usually
cool and the winters mild. This equability is probably caused
partly by the warm Japan current, and partly by protection af-
forded by the mountains. The climate of eastern Washington is
considerably drier than that west of the Cascades. The precipita-
tion in the Puget sound district is about the same as that in
Chicago, 30-50 in. annually. Irrigation is unnecessary west of
the mountains. Little snow falls in the valleys, and a greater part
of the rainfall comes in the winter months.
Government. — Washington is governed under its original
Constitution, adopted on Oct. i, 1889, and since frequently
amended. Except for the powers of initiative and referendum
which the people possess by virtue of a constitutional amendment
in 1912, the legislative authority of the State is vested in the
legislature, consisting of a senate and a house of representatives.
Its regular meetings occur in January of odd-numbered years at
Olympia, the capital, and are limited by the Constitution to 60
days. Special meetings may be called by the governor at his dis-
cretion. The senate in 1927 numbered 42 members, each elected
for four years (half of the senatorial body retires every two
years), and the house of representatives numbered 96 members,
elected for two years each. Washington also elects two senators
and five representatives (1027) to represent it in congress.
388
WASHINGTON
The State legislature is limited in three ways: (i) by the Con-
stitution, containing a list of 18 cases in which it is forbidden to
enact legislation; (2) by the governor, whose veto of any bill
must be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both houses, or the
bill dies; and (3) by the people, who have the powers of initia-
tive, referendum and recall. Petitions containing a printed copy
of the proposed measure and signed by 10% of ail the voters
must be filed before any initiated measure can be presented at a
general election to be voted upon. To secure a referendum, peti-
tions need contain the signature of but 6% of the voters. Also
the legislature itself can, if it wishes, refer any bill it has passed
to the people for their approval. Any elective officer, with the
exception of judges of county and State courts, is subject to recall.
The executive department consists of a governor, lieutenant
governor, secretary of State, treasurer, auditor, attorney general,
superintendent of public instruction and commissioner of public
lands, all chosen for a term of four years. In 1921, the legislature
passed an act known as the Administrative Code, which abolished
some 70 boards and commissions, which had come into existence
from time to time, and distributed their duties among ten new
departments, namely those of public works, business control, effi-
ciency, taxation and examination, health, conservation and devel-
opment, labour and industry, agriculture, licences, fisheries and
game. Each of these departments is in charge of a director ap-
pointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. Most de-
partments are subdivided into divisions, each headed by a super-
visor. The governor and the directors of the ten departments
constitute the administrative board.
The judicial department is composed of the supreme court of
the State, the superior courts for the counties and courts of jus-
tices of the peace for cities, towns or precincts. The last named
deal with civil cases involving less than $100, and criminal
cases below the rank of felony. While it is intended that ulti-
mately each county shall have a superior court, some of those
most sparsely settled are combined under one court and justice
as yet. In densely populated counties the superior court is di-
vided into departments with one justice for each. Thus King
county has nine judges, Spokane county five, Pierce county four
and several other counties two each. Justices of the superior
courts are elected for four years. The jurisdiction of the supreme
court is almost entirely appellate.
Population. — The population of Washington was 11,594 *n
1860; 23,955 ^ 1870; 75>n6 in 1880; 357,232 in 1890; 518,103
in 1900; 1,141,990 in 1910 and 1,356,621 in 1920. In 1927 it was
estimated by the Federal Census Bureau at 1,562,000. The increase
between 1900 and 1910 (120-4%) was greater than that of any
other State in the United States. Between 1910 and 1920 the in-
crease was but 18-8%. Fourteen
of Washington's 39 counties reg-
istered a decrease, most of them
being in the south-east where dry
land farming had been attempted
with failure in many instances.
Fruit-raising counties registered
a 25-75% increase. The density
per square mile increased from
7-8 in 1900 to 17-1 in 1910 and to
20-3 in 1920. Of the 1,356,621
inhabitants in 1920, 748,735 or
55-2%, lived in cities of over
2,500 population. This showed a
slight cityward trend since 1910, ULAT10N WITH % Of FOREION BORN
when 53% of the population was urban. Of the 607,886 rural
inhabitants in 1920, 283,382 were living on farms. In 1925 the
farm population was 288,673. Of the 748,735 urban population,
315,312 were in Seattle, the largest city, 104,437 in Spokane, the
metropolis of eastern Washington, 96,965 in Tacoma, 27,644 in
Everett and 25,585 in Bellingham. The 1926 estimates for these
cities were approximately the same as the 1920 census figures.
Aberdeen, Hoquiam, Vancouver, Walla Walla and Yakima were
other cities over 10,000 in population. Olympia, the capital, has
a population of 7,795.
INHABITANTS
i i i i i i I
GRAPH SHOWING GROWTH OF POP.
Of the 1920 population 97-3% was white. Indians nurnbered
9,061 (10,997 in 1910), negroes 6,883 (6,058 in 1910), Chinese
2,360 (2,709 in 1910), Japanese 17,387 (12,929 in 1910). Of the
white population in 1920 250,055 (18-9%) were foreign born,
214,618 (16-3%) born of foreign parentage, 143,398 (10-9%)
born of mixed parentage and 711,706 (53-9%) born of native
parentage. The origin of the foreign born was: Canada, 42,988;
United Kingdom and Ireland, 39,659; Sweden, 34,793; Norway,
30,304; Germany, 22,315; Finland, 11,863; Russia, 11,124; and
Italy 10,813. Other countries had less than 10,000 representatives.
Washington in 1924 had a birth rate of 17-4 per thousand popu-
lation. There were 10 deaths per thousand population.
Finance. — The estimated value of all tangible property in the
State was $5,122,000,000 in 1922. The assessed value, in 1925, of
property subject to tax was $1,158,000,000. The net receipts of
the State Government were $61,972,219 for the biennium 1924-
26, and the net expenditure -was $60,300,560. Of the receipts,
$14,495,637 were derived from a direct property tax, and $49,-
885,218 from indirect sources of revenue. Compared with the bi-
ennium 1922-24 these amounts represent a decrease of $5,490,375
in the direct property tax and an increase of $9,669,834 in in-
direct revenue. The gross disbursements of 1924-26, $72,878,645,
may be compared with $66,691,402 for 1922-24; $73,020,173 for
1920-22 and $42,953,824 for 1918-20. Receipts for the general
fund in 1924-26 were $710,923 from the State property tax and
$6,406,634 from indirect revenue sources. Together with the $5,-
143,766 balance on hand at the beginning of the biennium, this
made a total of $12,261,321, of which sum $9,933407 was dis-
bursed, leaving $2,328,216 at the end of the biennium. The larg-
est of the special funds was the motor vehicle fund, for which the
receipts during the biennium were $19,687,650 and the expendi-
tures $18,770,572. Of the receipts, licence fees furnished $5,176,-
286, fuel taxes $6,655,381, and a grant from the Federal Govern-
ment, in aid of road projects, $2,330,036. The State university
fund received $2,505,470 of its total of $3,206,892 from the direct
property tax. Its expenditures were $2,755,570.
The only bonded indebtedness of the State was incurred for a
soldiers' bonus. This debt was reduced in amount from $13,191,-
ooo in 1922 to $10,600,000 in 1926, and provision for refunding
the remainder when due has been made. The debt in 1925 aver-
aged only $7.25 per caput. The debts of the local governments in
Washington, however, are high, those of county governments
amounting to $21,920,000, those of incorporated places, $84,901,-
ooo, and those of other civil divisions, $49,051,000.
In 1926 there were 250 State banks, 107 national banks, five
trust companies and four mutual savings banks in the State. Their
total resources amounted to $567,360,252, as compared with $426,-
321,184 in 1922. Their total deposits were $463,542,706, as com-
pared with $294,094,515 in 1922, and of this $237,568,817 were
savings deposits, as against $131,684,421 in 1922.
Education.— -In 1926 the chief statistician of the United States
Bureau of Education ranked Washington first among {he States
in educational standing according to a ten point scale used in the
survey. The administration of the State's school system is under
the control of a board of education, consisting of' the superintend-
ent of public instruction and seven other members, some ex-
official and some "appointed by the governor. The school census,
including children between the ages of 4 and 20, was 414,373 in
1925, while the school enrolment was 329,288 or 79-36%. At-
tendance is compulsory between the ages 8 and 15. Of the total
enrolment, 98% were enrolled in schools in session nine months
or more. In 1926 21,115 pupils graduated from the eighth grade.
Nine out of every ten of these entered a high school. Since 1912
the high school enrolment has seen an average annual increase of
over 3,000 students, reaching in 1926 a total of 70,474 with a
graduating class of 10,121. There were in 1926 259 high schools,
and 14 private schools fully accredited. There were also 28 junior
high or intermediate schools and the junior high school movement
was gaining momentum. There were 352 consolidated schools in
the State and 448 teachers* cottages. Washington has been a
pioneer in the movement to build such private cottages for the
teachers near to the school, thus eliminating the old ''boarding
WASHINGTON
389
out" feature of rural and small town teaching. The total value
of the 3,045 school buildings in the State in 1926 was estimated at
$60,243,393, and the value of their equipment was $8,160,184.
The school district libraries contained 893,360 reference books
and 2,746,846 free text-books. There were in 1925-26 11,376
teachers employed at salaries aggregating $16,602,679. Of these
2,516 were high school teachers receiving average salaries for
men of $1,873 and for women of $1,404. Grade teachers in village
or city schools numbered 6,080 and received an average salary
for men of $1,462, and for women of $1,371. Rural teachers num-
bered 1,371 and were receiving an average salary of $1,028 for
men, and $994 for women. There were in addition 1,409 superin-
tendents, principals and supervisors employed at an average sal-
ary for men of $2,171 and for women of $1,608.
The State-supported institutions of higher learning are the
University of Washington at Seattle, the State College of Wash-
ington at Pullman and three State normals at Bellingham, Ellens-
burg and Cheney. The enrolment at the university was 7,260 for
the regular term 1925-26, and in June, 1926, 988 degrees were
granted. The State college enrolment was 3,385. Here are lo-
cated both the engineering and agricultural schools, and con-
nected with the latter are six experiment stations distributed over
the State. In the Bellingham Normal there was an enrolment of
2,201 resident students in 1925-26, in the Ellensburg Normal,
1,022, and in the Cheney Normal, 1,802.
Penal and Charitable Institutions. — The Administrative
Code of 1921 placed the administration of the various State
charitable and penal institutions in the hands of the department
of business control, headed by a director appointed by the gover-
nor. These institutions are the Western State hospital for the
insane at Ft. Stcilacoom, the Northern State hospital for the in-
sane at Sedro Woolley, the Eastern State hospital for the insane at
Medical Lake, the State Custodial school for the feeble-minded
at Medical Lake, the State Soldiers' Home at Orting, the Veterans'
Home at Retsil, the State Training school for boys at Chehalis,
the State school for girls at Grand Mound, the State Reforma-
tory at Monroe, the State school for the deaf and for the blind at
Vancouver, and the State Penitentiary at Walla Walla.
Agriculture and Live Stock.— In 1925 the farm lands
amounted to 12,608,000 ac. (29-5% of the area of the State), of
which 6,084,000 ac. was considered crop land. In 1924 3,263,000
ac. were harvested. The remainder was classified mainly as pas-
ture and woodland. The value of farm property increased from
$637,543,000 in 1910 to $1,057,430,000 in 1920. From 1920 to
1925 it decreased, however, owing to the general depression after
the World War. Farm lands valued at $797,651,000 in 1920 were
worth only $584,386,000 in 1925, while the average value per
farm decreased from $13,885, to $9,921. Washington, though,
did not feel the depression as heavily as did her sister agricul-
tural States in the West. The value of buildings on the farms,
for instance, increased from $122,741,000 in 1920 to $142,504,000
in 1925. The number of farms increased from 66,288 to 73,267
in the same years, and the farm population increased from 283,000
to 288,673. In farm population Washington was one of the three
States in the United States, outside of New England, showing an
increase.
One reason, doubtless, for the comparatively good showing
made by the State during the period of depression is its great di-
versification in agricultural products. It is strong, not only in the
grains, but also in vegetables and fruits. From 1924-26 the value
of crops rose from $130,587,000 to $147,220,000. The acreage of
the 22 leading crops increased in the same period from 3,198,000
to 3,491,000. The value per acre of the leading crops for 1926
may be compared with the values for the United States as a whole
as follows: wheat, $22.18 (U.S., $17.65); rye, $12.00 (U.S.,
$9.51); corn, $33-25 (U.S., $17.12); oats, $22.79 (U.S., $11.25);
barley, $22.10 (U.S., $13.38); potatoes, $152.00 (U.S., $160.26);
tame hay, $30.55 (U.S., $20.68). Wheat is the principal grain,
the State ranking fourth among the States in production in 1923,
tenth in 1924, third in 1925, and seventh in 1926. The banner
crop of 61,215,000 bu. in 1923 slumped in the off year of 1924 to
26,380,000 bu., and amounted to 40,251.000 bu. and 40,271,000
bu. respectively in 1925 and 1926. The average yield per acre in
the latter years was 19-4 bu. and 19-1 bu., while the value of the
crop decreased from $52,434,000 in 1925 to $46,727,000 in 1926.
In 1926 9,847,000 bu. of oats valued at $5,219,000 were raised,
also 1,715,000 bu. of corn valued at $1,629,000 and 2,176,000 bu.
of barley valued at $1,414,000. These three all showed a slight de-
crease in amount and value from 1925, but an increase over the
results of 1924. In 1926 10,720,000 bu. of potatoes valued at $10,-
184,000 were raised as compared with 8,680,000 bu. worth $14,-
322,000 in 1925. Next came hay, the 1926 tame hay crop of
2,055,000 tons (2-23 tons per acre) being worth $28,154,000.
The development of fruit-raising in Washington since 1909 has
been almost spectacular, the irrigated valleys on the eastern slopes
of the Cascades being especially famous for their orchard prod-
ucts. The production of apples increased from 2,672,000 bu. in
1909 to 34,030,000 bu. in 1926, the value of the crop in the latter
year being $25,522,500. Vineyards arc a recent development,
yielding 1,732 tons in 1924, 3,100 tons in 1925 and 2,500 tons in
1926. The climate is especially favourable to strawberries, logan-
berries and blackberries, which are increasing. The strawberry
crop in 1926 was 10,788,000 quarts at $1,725,080.
Owing to severe depression in wool prices the number of sheep
grazed in Washington decreased from 624,000 head in 1920 to
451,000 head in 1922. It then increased gradually to 526,000 head
in 1927 valued at $5,797,000. The wool production in 1926 was
4,194,000 lb., valued at $1,262,394. From 1920 the State assumed
first place in the average weight of fleeces, the 1926 weight aver-
aging 9-8 lb. as compared with the 7-8 average for the entire
United States. Cattle in 1927 numbered 544,000 head valued at
$27,696,000. Of this number 264,000 were milch cows valued at
$74.00 per head, or $19,536,000. Creamery butter production
increased from 16,407,000 lb. in 1918 to 25,673,000 lb. in 1925,
and cheese production from 1,145.000 lb. to 3,076,000 pounds.
Mining. — The average annual value of the mineral production
of Washington from 1918 to 1924 inclusive was $20,943,509. A
peak production of $26,677,191 was reached in 1920 followed by
depression in 1921 when the total dropped to $17,605.878. By
1925 production had recovered to a value of $22,382,132. The
most important mineral produced was coal, of which an average
of 2,601,000 tons annually was mined from 1921 to 1925 inclusive.
The production for 1923 was 2,926,000 tons valued at $10,894,000
and for 1925, 2,537,890 tons valued at $9,176,000. The coal in-
dustry in 1923 employed 4,306 persons for an average of 213 clays
each. Approximately one-half the output came from Kittitas
county, with King, Pierce and Thurston counties next in order.
Cement is next to coal in the value of its output. Four plants lo-
cated at Bellingham, Concrete, Metaline Falls and Irvin produced
1,842,113 bbl. in 1924 and 2,499,237 bbl. in 1925. The value of
the 19:5 output was $5,523,324. Clay products valued at $2,619,-
250, building stone valued at $1.042,165, sand and gravel valued
at $1,763,153 and lime valued at $357,297 were the other impor-
tant non-metallic minerals mined in 1925.
The total value of the leading metals, gold, silver, copper, lead
and zinc was $1,065,666 in 1923, an increase of 83% over that of
1922. The increase was distributed among all five metals, and the
total was close to the average annual total for the decade 1913-23.
The production of gold increased from $186,965 in 1922 to $342,-
067 in 1923, but dropped to $230,253 in 1925. More than 98% of
the gold came from gold ore, largely from Ferry and Whatcom
counties. The production of silver was 205,046 oz. troy in 1922
and 155,952 oz. troy in 1926; its value decreased from $205.046
to $97,314. Copper increased from 317,203 lb. in 1922 to 1,184,-
807 lb. in 1925 and 1,336,617 lb. in 1926 (value in 1925, $164,586).
Lead production also was more than doubled in 1923, the value of
its output for 1922, 1923 and 1925 being respectively $75,966,
$203,454 and $489,570. In the production of magnesite Washing-
ton ranked, in 1926, first in quantity (79,561 short tons) and sec-
ond to California in value ($596,700).
Forests and Lumbering.— Since 1905 Washington has led all
States in the production of lumber, except in 1914, when Louisi-
ana reported a larger cut. From 1919 to 1926 Washington each
year cut about one-seventh of the annual production of the entire
39°
WASHINGTON*
LUMBER PRODUCTION, 1889-1927
United States. The cut in 1919 amounted to 4,961,000,000 board
feet, in 1923 to 6,678,000,000 board feet, and in 1924 to 6,267,-
000,000 board feet. About 75% of the State's timber cut is of the
valuable Douglas fir, this amount being nearly two-thirds of the
cut of this species in the United States. Hemlock, spruce, west-
ern yellow pine and cedar each represents from 4 to 6% of
the total cut. Larch, Idaho white pine and white fir are also
important.
By far the greater part of the
forests lies west of the Cascade
range. The eastern section had
at one time a good stand of pine,
but these lands have given way
to cultivated orchards. A great
deal of the timber now lies in
the ten national forests totalling
9,637,083 ac., which occupy the
mountainous sections of the State
and also furnish grazing.
Fisheries, — Washington, hav-
ing passed the peak of her devel-
opment in the salmon and halibut fisheries, relinquished her place
as the leader in Pacific coast fisheries to California in 1922. The
number of persons engaged in this industry dropped from 14,645
in 1915 to 7,600 in 1922; the investment dropped from $14,129,-
553 to $10,711,500, and the value of products from $5,320,725 to
$4»953i9*3- In 1923 the fisheries employed 5,399 men, and
yielded 114,379,148 Ib. of fishery products valued at $7,692,005.
There were 267 vessels, 1,751 power boats, and 289 row-boats and
scows used in the operations.
Manufacturing, Transport and Commerce. — The growth
of manufactures has been gradual but steady, paralleling the
steady increase in the production of the raw products upon
which it is dependent. There were in 1921 2,908 factories employ-
ing 77,518 workers, paying $99,191,000 in wages and producing
goods valued at $448,165,000. Four years later the industry had
increased to 3,216 establishments employing 105,893 wage-earners
paying $146,224,608 in wages, and manufacturing goods to the
value of $659,339,836. The industries leading in value of products
in 1925 were: lumbering and saw-mill products, $253,070,780;
milling of grain, $39,831,878; slaughtering and meat packing,
$32,309,822; butter, cheese and evaporated milk, $24,801,794;
planing mill products, $20,474,757; foundry and machine shops,
$16,665,398; steam railway repair shops, $16,582,294; printing
and publishing, $16,549,488; bakeries, $16,399,011; paper and
wood-pulp, $14,683,472; and canning and preserving of fruits
and vegetables, $14,242,892. Shipbuilding, one of the State's chief
industries, with an output valued at $10,829,812 in 1916 and
$166,519,787 in 1919, had declined by 1925 to $4,082,084. The
gross tonnage built was 634,272 in 1919, 50,710 in 1921 and
8,945 in 1923.
Seattle was, in 1925, the leading manufacturing centre, having
1,005 establishments, producing $159,565,671 worth of products
and paying $27,610,151 wages to 19,220 workers. Tacoma was next
in importance with 289 establishments, turning out $71,001,327
worth of products, and paying $16,148,854 wages to 12,315
workers. Spokane was third with 261 establishments producing
goods to the value of $43,529,928 and paying $7,980,609 in wages
to 6,098 workers. Washington has water-power resources above
those of any other State.
Puget sound has formed a natural terminus for several trans-
continental railways, the cities of Seattle and Tacoma on its shores
affording outlets to the commerce of the Pacific for the Northern
Pacific, the Great Northern and the Chicago, Milwaukee and St.
Paul transcontinental lines, which enter these cities over their
own tracks. The Union Pacific, the Burlington, the Canadian Pa-
cific and the Grand Trunk lines reach Seattle over the tracks of
other roads. The railway mileage in 1926 was 5,559 m.
The highways of the State are in excellent shape, an average of
$16,000,000 annually having been spent upon them from 1920 to
1926. There are in the State 49,016 m. of road of all types, of
which 17,271 m. were surfaced in 1926. Paved roads totalled
2,304 miles. The State highway system included 3,284 m. of high-
way, of which 2,304 m. were surfaced.
The ocean commerce of Washington ports has shown a steady
increase. In 1926 the imports were 1,084,919 tons and exports
2,515,402 tons. Seattle was the leading port with a total of 1,189,-
359 tons, while Tacoma followed with 887,562 tons. Grays Har-
bor was third with exports of 689,072 tons, but few imports.
History* — Sailing southward after an expedition northward to
55° lat., a Spanish captain, Juan Perez, one day in June 1774, saw
a snow-clad peak in lat. 48° 10' which he named Santa Rosalia,
but which to-day is known as Mt. Olympus. So far as is definitely
known, this is the first time that a white man looked upon a part
of what is now Washington State. Another Spaniard, Heceta, was
in the following year the first man to land on its shores, which he
did at the cost of six men, killed by the Indians that they might
secure the metal in the white men's boat. In 1778 the great
British explorer, Captain Cook, on his third and last voyage,
coasted along these shores. Captain John Meares, also an English-
man, in 1788 discovered and named San Juan strait, rechristened
Mt. Olympus, and searched the shores for the legendary "river
of the west." Though actually within its bay, he failed to perceive *
the hidden mouth of the Columbia and named the inlet Deception
bay and its neighbouring headland Cape Disappointment. In the
four years following a number of ships, American, British and
Spanish, engaging mostly in the fur trade, reached these coasts,
but did not systematically explore them. Then in 1792 came the
Englishman, Vancouver, who discovered, named and thoroughly
explored Puget sound, doing his work so well that so^mc 70 or 80
of his geographical names remain, among them the Gulf of
Georgia, Hood canal, Admiralty Inlet, Mt. Baker and Mt. Rainier.
In that year also Robert Gray, an American from Boston, not only
discovered Grays Harbor, but finally spied the long-sought "river
of the west," which he named after his ship, the "Columbia."
This discovery gave the United States its first claim to the "Ore-
gon Country," as the land drained by the Columbia was called.
This claim was furthered by the first land exploration, that of
Lewis and Clark in 1805-06. They entered Washington from
Idaho by the Snake river, which they followed to the Columbia
and thence to the sea. Their return the next spring was by the
same route. The fur trade, which had proved so profitable by
water, was now to be attempted on land almost simultaneously by
the British and Americans. David Thompson, the dauntless
explorer and geographer of the Northwest Company, a British con-
cern, some time in 1810 built Spokane House where the Little
Spokane enters the main Spokane river, the first permanent build-
ing in Washington. By the end of 1811 Thompson had explored
the length of the Columbia valley. In March 1811 an expedition
sent out by John J. Astor of New York to develop the fur trade of
the region built a fort at the mouth of the Columbia and sent
a party up the Columbia to the mouth of the Okanagan where a
fort was built in opposition to Spokane House. But the war of
1812 forced the Americans out of the region and the British took
over their forts. For the next 35 years the British fur companies
ruled the Oregon country. The Hudson's Bay Company absorbed
its rival, the Northwest Company, in 1821 and in 1824 sent John
McLoughlin, the "father of Oregon," as its chief factor and
governor west of the mountains. McLoughlin governed the region
with a firm hand, but with a benevolent purpose for 22 years. On
the northern bank of the Columbia in 1824-25 he built Ft. Van-
couver, which became a port for ocean vessels.
In 1818 Great Britain and the United States reached an agree-
ment whereby they were to hold the Oregon territory in "joint
occupation" for ten years. This agreement was renewed again in
1827 for an indefinite term, with the proviso that it might be
terminated by either party at 12 months' notice. By 1841 a con-
siderable number of American settlers arrived in the region south
of the Columbia, and immigration over the Oregon Trail was still
greater in the years immediately following. But north of the river
the Hudson's Bay Company discouraged American settlement,
believing that the final decision of the Oregon controversy would
make the Columbia river the boundary line between the two
nations. Certainly north of the river the company seemed to have
WASHINGTON
391
the prior claim. In 1832 they built Nisqually House on Puget
sound. They had large farms near Nisqually and on Cowlitz
Prairie. They raised cattle enough to supply their settlers and
shipped butter, cheese and beef to Sitka and other places. At the
same time there was not a successful American settlement north
of the Columbia. Yet in 1846 Great Britain agreed to accept the
49th parallel as the boundary and Washington became part of the
United States. The Hudson's Bay Company were paid $650,000
for the developments they already had made in the territory.
Supported by the American board, Dr. and Mrs. Marcus Whit-
man founded in 1836 a mission south-east of the Columbia near
the present site of Walla Walla. A school was started, fields were
planted and Whitman ministered tirelessly to the physical and
spiritual life of the Indians. In the winter of 1842-43 he rode
over the Rocky mountains and the plains to win support from the
board for his missionary projects, and his activities in the east
did much to increase interest in tjie Oregon country. Catholic
fathers also became active in the region, serving the Canadian
employees of the Hudson's Bay Company as well as teaching and
preaching to the Indians. Father Blanchet and Father Demers
were the pioneer priests, arriving in 1838. In 1852 Father Demers
preached the first sermon in the infant village of Seattle.
Of their own initiative the Oregon settlers set up a provisional
government in 1843. There were not many settlers north of the
Columbia to participate in this legislation, but such as there were,
were under this Government until the United States Congress
passed the Oregon bill in 1848, providing for the usual Territorial
administration. Five years later (1853) the Oregon region was
divided and Washington acquired its present name and a separate
Territorial organization. The boundary ran along the Columbia
river to the 46th parallel and thence east to the crest of the Rocky
mountains. Washington did not assume its present shape until
the Territory of Idaho was created in 1863. Isaac I. Stevens
became the first governor. After his arrival he at once set to work
to extinguish by purchase the Indian titles to land, and a series of
treaties were held with all the tribes. These resulted in definite
agreements and apparent friendships, but the tribes soon became
alarmed by the rapid growth of the white population and at-
tempted to drive them out. Between 1855 and 1859 there were
many complicated Indian campaigns and a number of sharp
engagements which resulted in the partial subduing of the natives.
The first permanent "American settlement was made at Turn-
water on Puget sound in 1845. Two miles away a town named
Smithfield was begun in 1847. Later the name was changed to
Olympia, and the place became the capital of the Territory and
State, Ft. Steilacoom and Port Townsend were settled in 1850,
Seattle in 1851, Bellingham and Tacoma in 1852. The Indian wars
prevented settlement in eastern Washington until 1858 when a
crowd of homeseekers and miners swarmed into the region, con-
centrating largely around Colville where the mines attracted
attention. Gold discoveries on the Fraser river drew many
farther east, and a settlement began to grow up around Ft. Walla
Walla. After gold was discovered in the Clearwater region of
Idaho (then still Washington Territory), Walla Walla became the
outfitting point, and the brisk trade soon developed a lively city.
In 1872 the first settlement at Spokane Falls was made, the nucleus
of the city of Spokane. Supplying the mines in British Columbia,
Idaho, Montana, Oregon and California with grain, meat, lumber
and other needed articles proved lucrative business for the Terri-
tory. Rapid growth in wealth and population led to agitation for
Statehood, and a Constitution was adopted in 1878, but Congress
declined to pass an enabling act. The completion of the Northern
Pacific railway in 1883 brought another period of swift increase
in population. Statehood was finally granted in 1889. Trade along
the Pacific coast became active after the Klondike gold discoveries
of 1897. As outfitting and supply points the sound cities especially
benefited from this activity, and at this time a period of bitter
rivalry began between them for dominance in the trade of the
sound. The Alaska-Yukon Exposition was held at Seattle in 1909,
and its success helped that city and benefited the State as well.
In politics Washington has been Republican in national elec-
tions, except in 1896 when it was carried by a fusion of Democrats
and Populists, in 1912 when it was carried by the Progressives for
Roosevelt, and in 1916 when Wilson carried it for the Democrats.
The Republicans controlled the governorship from the time of
the State's admission into the Union in 1889 up to 1928, except
for the administrations of Rogers (Populist, 1897-1901) and
Lister (Democrat, 1913-21).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Consult the Biennial Reports of the various State
departments and State officers, especially those of the auditor,
treasurer and secretary of State, and the departments of education,
business control, conservation and development and public works;
also the Bulletins and Educational Directories of the department of
education, the Bulletins of the Geology division of the conservation
and development department, the Bulletins of the bureau of statistics
and immigration, the Bulletins of the agricultural experiment station
at Pullman, and the Publications in Geology, the Publications in
Anthropology, and the Publications in Fisheries of the University of
Washington. Set also The Irrigated Lands of the State, of Washington
(Olympia, 1910) ; Beauties of the State of Washington (Olympia*
1915) ; Manufacturing Opportunities in the State of Washington
(Olympia, 1918) ; and Descriptive and Statistical Information of
Washington for the Traveler, Ifomebuilder and Investor (Olympia,
1922). For history consult H. H. Bancroft, History of Washington,
Idaho and Montana (San Francisco, 1890) ; W. P. Prosser, History of
the Puget Sound Country (New York and Chicatfo, 1903) ; Baglcy,
In the Beginning: Sketch of Early Events of Washington (Seattle,
1906) ; E. I. Denny, Blazing the Way (Seattle, 1909) ; E. S. Meany,
History of the State of Washington (1909) ; C. A. Snowden, History
of Washington (1009-11) ; Washington Historical Quarterly (Seattle,
1906- ) ; N. W. Durham, History of the City of Spokane and
Spokane Country (Chicago, 1912) ; A. Reagan, Archaeological Notes
on western Washington (San Francisco, 1917) ; E. Meeker, Seventy
Years of Progress in Washington (Seattle, 1921) ; E. S. Meany, Origin
of Washington Geographical Names (Seattle, 1923); and L. M. Scott,
History of the Oregon Country (Cambridge, 1924).
WASHINGTON, a city and the capital of the United States
of America, coterminous with the District of Columbia, on the
north-east bank of the Potomac river at the head of tide and
navigation, 40 m. S.W. of Baltimore, 135 m. S.W. of Philadelphia,
and 226 m. S.W. of New York. Area, 60 sq.m. (exclusive of 10
sq.m. of water surface). Pop. (1890) 230,392; (1900) 278,718;
(1910) 331,069; (1920) 437,571; (1928, estimated) 552,00x3.
In 1920, 29,365 were foreign-born and 109,966 negroes.
Streets and Parks.— -The original plan of the city, which was
prepared by Maj. Pierre C. L'Enfant (1755-1825), under the
supervision of President Washington was a masterpiece in land-
scape architecture and in the main it has been preserved. The
actual surveying and laying out of the city was done by Maj.
Andrew EHicott (1754-1820), another engineer officer, who had
been employed in many boundary disputes and became surveyor-
general of the United States in 1792, and from 1812 until his
death was professor of mathematics at the U.S. Military academy
at West Point. Besides streets running east and west, which arc
named by the letters of the alphabet, and streets running north
and south, which are numbered, there are avenues named after
various States, which radiate from two foci — the Capitol and the
White House— or traverse the city so as to afford short routes
to or around the perimeter of the old city. North and south of
the Capitol the streets are numbered; cast and west from it they
are lettered, but streets are distinguished by annexing to the name
or letter the name of the quarter: N.W., S.W., N.E. or S.E.—
the city is divided into these four parts by North Capitol, East
Capitol and South Capitol streets and the Mall parkway, which
intersect at the Capitol. The width of the avenues is from 120
to 1 60 ft. and the width of the streets from 80 to 120 feet.
Among the principal residence streets are Massachusetts, espe-
cially between Dupont and Sheridan circles, New Hampshire,
Connecticut and Vermont avenues and i6th street, all in the N.W.
quarter of the city. The principal down-town business streets
are Pennsylvania avenue and 7th, 9th, i4th, F and G streets.
Streets and avenues for the most part are paved with asphalt, and
many of them have two and occasionally four rows of over-
arching shade trees and private lawns on either side. At nearly
every intersection of two avenues is a circle or square in which
is the statue of some notable American whose name the square
bears. At the intersection of a street with an avenue there is
usually the reservation of a small triangular grass plot. In
L'Enf ant's plan a broad parkway or mall was to extend from the
392
WASHINGTON
Capitol westwards to meet a similar park development south of
the White House. At their intersection he proposed a monument
to Washington. This plan has substantially been carried out.
In 1901 a commission (Daniel H. Burnham, C. F. McKim,
Augustus St, Gaudens and F. L. Olmsted, Jr.) was appointed by
authority of the U.S. Senate to prepare plans for the beautifica-
tion of the city and this body's most important recommendation
was for an appropriate development of L'Enfant's ideas for the
Mall avenue, with a group of official and scientific buildings
fronting it on either side, and a group of Government office build-
ings between the Mall and Pennsylvania avenue, with a Lincoln
memorial on the bank of the Potomac in prolongation of the Mall
axis. Potomac park (723 ac.), a portion of which is embraced in
this design, has already been reclaimed from the Potomac river.
On Rock creek, above Georgetown, is the National Zoological
park (under the control of the Smithsonian Institution), embrac-
ing 170 ac. in a picturesque site. North of this and extending to
the boundary of the District, and including both banks of Rock
creek, with its wild and picturesque beauty, is a tract of 1,600
ac., known as Rock Creek park. There are numerous smaller
parks, parkways and playgrounds. An act of 1924 created the
national capital park commission to acquire land for park, park-
way and playground purposes. Two years later the scope of this
commission was enlarged and its name was changed to the
national capital park and planning commission.
Climated—The climate of Washington is characterized by
frequent periods of high humidity, occasional periods of oppres-
sive heat in summer and moderately mild winters. During the
period of 49 years ending Dec. 1921, the mean winter tempera-
ture (December, January and February) was 35° F and the mean
summer temperature (June, July and August) 75°; the mean of
the winter minima was 27°, and the mean of the summer maxima
84°. Extremes ranged, however, from the absolute maximum of
1 06° to an absolute minimum of —15°. There is an average an-
nual precipitation of 42-2 in., which is evenly distributed.
Buildings. — In a dignified landscape setting on the brow of a
hill 88 ft. above the Potomac stands the Capitol (built 1793-
1827; architect William Thornton, superintendent of the Patent
Office, whose designs were modified by B. H. Latrobe and Charles
Bulfinch; extension wings and dome added 1851-65). It consists
of a central building of Virginia sandstone, painted, and two wings
added to the original building of white Massachusetts marble.
The cornerstone of the original building was laid on Sept. 18,
1793, by President Washington, with Masonic ceremonies. On
Aug. 24, 1814 (during the War of 1812), the interior of both
wings of this building was destroyed by fire, started by the British
forces. The cornerstone of the extension wings (Senate and
House) was laid on July 4, 1851, by President Fillmore, Daniel
Webster officiating as orator (architect Thomas U. Walter). The
length of the Capitol building over all is 751 ft. 4 in., and its
breadth ranges in different parts from 121 ft. to 350 feet. The
main building is surmounted with an iron dome, designed by
Thomas U. Walter, which rises to the height of 287 ft. 5 in., and
on the dome is a statue of Freedom (1863; 19^ ft. high) by
Thomas Crawford.
The Capitol faces east, and on this side is a richly sculptured
portico with Corinthian columns flanked on either side by colossal
groups of statuary (the group on the north side known as the
"Rescue Group" is by Horatio Greenough, and the "Discovery
Group" on the south side by Luigi Persico, who executed the
statues "Peace" and "War" under the portico and the sculptural
decorations of the pediment) leading to the rotunda under the
dome, a sculptured Corinthian portico leading to the Senate
Chamber in the north wing, and a sculptured Corinthian portico
leading to the Hall of Representatives in the south wing; there
is also a portico at each end and on the west side of each wing.
Over the bronze door (by Randolph Rogers) is a bas-relief by
Antonio Capallano. The rotunda, 96 ft. in diameter and 180 ft.
high, is decorated with eight historical paintings: "Landing of
Columbus" (1492), by John Vanderlyn; "De Soto discovering
the Mississippi" (1541), by William H, Powell; "Baptism of
Pocahontas" (1613), by John G. Chapman; "Embarkation of
the Pilgrims from Delft-Haven" (1620), by Robert W. Weir;
"Signing the Declaration of Independence" (1776), "Surrender
of ^urgoyne at Saratoga" (1777), "Surrender of Cornwallis at
Yorktown" (1781) and "Washington resigning his Commission
at Annapolis" (1783), by John Trumbull.
Between the rotunda and the Hall of Representatives is the
National Hall of Statuary (formerly the Hall of Representatives),
in which each State in the Union may erect statues of two of
her "chosen sons"; and between the rotunda and the Senate Cham-
ber is the room of the Supreme Court, which until 1859 was the
Senate Chamber. Connected with the Capitol by subways, imme-
diately south-cast and north-east of the Capitol respectively, arc
the marble office buildings (1908) of the House of Representatives
and of the Senate. The Capitol is connected by subways with the
Library of Congress also.
The Executive Mansion, more commonly called the White
House, the official residence ( of the president, is a two-storey
building of Virginia freestone, painted white since 1814 to hide
the marks of fire— only the walls were left standing after the
capture of the city by the British in that year. It is 170 ft. long
and 86 ft. deep. It is simple but dignified; the principal exterior
ornaments are an Ionic portico and a balustrade. The White
House was built in 1792-99 from designs by- James Hoban, who
closely followed the plans of the seats of the dukes of Leinster,
near Dublin, and remodelled in 1902-03, when the president's
office was moved out of the White House itself into new quarters
nearby and the interior brought back more nearly into accord
with the original mansion of Hoban. The White House was re-
roofed and in other ways remodelled during the spiring and sum-
mer of 1927. East of the White House and obstructing the view
from it to the Capitol stands the oldest of the departmental
buildings, the Treasury building (architect, Robert Mills, 1781-
1855, then U.S. architect), an imposing edifice mainly of granite,
510 ft. long and 280 ft. wide; on the east front is a colonnade of
38 Ionic columns, and on each of the other three sides is an
Ionic portico. On the opposite side of the White House is a
massive granite building of the State, War and Navy Depart-
ments, 567 ft. long and 342 ft. wide.
The Library of Congress (1889-1897); original cost, exclusive
of site, over $6,347,000, south-east of the Capitol, was designed
by Smithmeyer and Pclz, and the designs were modified by
Edward Pearce Casey (b. 1864). The architect (Gen. Thomas
Lincoln Casey, chief of engineers U.S. army) was in charge of
construction. It is in the Italian Renaissance style, is 340 by
470 ft., and encloses four courts and a central rotunda sur-
mounted by a flat black copper dome, with gilded panels and a
lantern. The exterior walls are of white New Hampshire granite,
and the walls of the interior courts are of Maryland granite and
white enamelled bricks. There are numerous sculptural adorn-
ments without, and there is elaborate interior decoration with
paintings, sculpture, coloured marbles and gilding.
A bronze fountain, "The Court of Neptune," in front of the
Library, is by Hinton Perry. Granite portrait busts of great
authors occupy niches in windows near the entrance; these are
by J. S. Hartley, Herbert Adams and F. W. Ruckstuhl. The
allegorical figures over the entrance are by Bela L. Pratt. There
are fine bronze doors by Olin Warner and Frederick MacMonnies.
Among the mural paintings are series by John W. Alexander,
Kenyon Cox, E. H. Blashfield, Henry O. Walker, Walter Mc-
Ewen, Elihu Vedder, Charles S. Pearce, Edward Simmons, George
W. Maynard, Robert Reid, George R. Barse, Jr., W. A. Mackay,
F. W. Benson, Walter Shirlaw, Gari Melchers, W. De L. Dodge
and others.
Two squares north of the Senate Office building is the Union
railway station (1908; 343 by 7°o ft.; cost, $4,000,000), designed
by Daniel Hudson Burnham, consisting of a main building of
white granite (from Bethel, Vt.) and two wings, facing a beauti-
ful plaza. On Pennsylvania avenue, nearly midway between the
Capitol and the White House, is the nine-storey Post Office (1899;
with a tower 306 ft. high), housing the U.S. Post Office Depart-
ment. A few squares north-west of it are the General Land Office
and the Patent Office, with Doric portico; a little farther to the
WASHINGTON
PLATK I
WASHINGTON SCENES
PROM ETCHINGS BY ANTON 5CHUTZ
1. Tho White House, home of the President of tho United States. 2. Arlington Memorial Bridge
showing the Lincoln Memorial (left) and the Washington Monument (right) in the background
XXIII. 392
PLATE II
WASHINGTON
LOOKING DOWN ALONG THE MALL
Looking toward the Capitol between the columns of the Lincoln Memorial from an etching by Anton Schutz.
Washington monument is seen in the foreground. The McMillan Plan for a parkway extending the entire distance
along the Mall from the Lincoln Memorial to the Capitol adds largely to the attractiveness of the view
WASHINGTON
393
east the Pension Office building, now occupied by the General
Accounting Office; the Government Printing Office (12 storeys —
one of the few tall office-buildings in the city) ; the City Hall or
District Court House; and to the west on Pennsylvania avenue,
the District building (1908), another building of the local govern-
ment. On the height north of Georgetown is the U.S. Naval Ob-
servatory, one of the best-equipped institutions of its kind ; from it
Washington time is telegraphed daily to all parts of the United
States. North-east of the Naval Observatory is the Bureau of
Standards. Near Rock creek, east of Georgetown, is the head-
quarters of the U.S. Weather Bureau.
In the Mall are the buildings of the Department of Agriculture,
the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.)t the National Museum (1910),
the Army Medical Museum arid the Bureau of Fisheries. South
of the Mall and facing Potomac park is the home of the Bureau
of Engraving and Printing, in which the U.S. paper money and
postage stamps are made. Along i yth street, framing the grounds
south of the White House are several notable semi-public build-
ings: the Pan-American building (1910; Kelsey and Cret archi-
tects), the D.A.R.'s Continental Hall (1910; E. P. Casey, archi-
tect), the Red Cross Building (1917; Trowbridge and Livingstone,
architects), and the Corcoran Gallery of Art (1894-97; architect,
Ernest Flagg), housing a collection of paintings (especially Amer-
ican portraits) and statuary ; the gallery was founded and endowed
in 1869 by William Wilson Corcoran (1798-1888) ''for the per-
petual establishment and encouragement of the Fine Arts." The
Public Library, a gift of Andrew Carnegie, is a white marble
building in Mt. Vernon square, at the intersection of Massa-
chusetts and New York avenues, The old Ford's theatre, in
which President Lincoln was assassinated, was on Tenth street
N.W. between E and F. The house in which Lincoln died is on
the opposite side of the street, and contains relics of Lincoln
mostly collected by O. H. Oldroyd.
Monuments. — Foremost among the city's many monuments
is that erected to the memory of George Washington. It is a
plain obelisk of white Maryland marble, 55 ft. square at the base
and 555 ft, in height; it was begun in 1848, but the work was
abandoned from 1855 to 1877. It was completed in 1884 at a
cost of $1,300,000. The site is said to have been chosen by Wash-
ington himself — Congress had planned a marble monument in
1783. In 1833 the Washington National Monument Society was
formed and a popular subscription was taken. The obelisk was
designed by Robert Mills, whose original plan included a "Pan-
theon" 100 ft. high with a colonnade and a colossal statue of
Washington. After 1877 the work was carried on by an appro-
priation made by Congress under the direction of Col. Thomas L.
Casey, Corps of Engineers. Among statues of Washington are the
half -nude seated figure (1843) by Greenough in the Smithsonian
Institution, and an equestrian statue (1860) of Washington at the
Battle of Princeton by Clark Mills in Washington circle. At
the foot of Capitol hill and the east end of the Mall is an
equestrian statue of Gen. Grant (1922) with decorative side
groups (by H. M. Shrady) and near-by an allegorical monument
to Gen. G. G. Meade (by Charles Grafly).
Among the other prominent statues are : the equestrian statue
(1908) of Gen, Philip H. Sheridan in Sheridan circle, by Gutzon
Borglum; an equestrian statue of Gen. Sherman near the Treas-
ury building, by Carl Rohl-Smith; a statue of Frederick the
Great (by T. Uphues; presented to the United States by Emperor
William II. of Germany) in front of the Army War college at
the mouth of the Anacostia river; a statue of Gen. Nathanael
Greene (by H. K. Brown) in Stanton square; statues of Gen.
Winfield Scott in Scott square (by H. K. Brown) and in the
grounds of the Soldiers' Home (by Launt Thompson) ; a fountain
(by Daniel C. French) in memory of Rear-Admiral S. F. Du
Pont in Du Pont circle; statues (by J. E. Fraser) of Alexander
Hamilton on the Treasury steps and of John Ericsson in west
Potomac park; of Rear-Admiral D. G. Farragut (by Vinnie
Ream Hoxie); an equestrian statue of Gen. George H. Thomas
(by J. Q, A. Ward), erected by the Society of the Army of the
Cumberland; one of Gen. George B. McClellan, by Frederick
MacMonnies; and statues of Lincoln, by Scott Flannery (in Lin-
coln park), by Thomas Ball and (in the Lincoln memorial) by
Daniel C. French, of Joseph Henry (by W. W. Story) in the
grounds of the Smithsonian Institution, of John Marshall (by
Story) on the west terrace of the Capitol, of Gen. Andrew Jack-
son (by Clark Mills) and, in Lafayette square, of the Marquis
de Lafayette (by Falguiere and Mercie), of the Comte de
Rochambeau (by F. Hamar) and of Baron von Steuben. A
white marble memorial to Columbus (by D. H. Burnham) stands
in front of the Union station. In Pennsylvania avenue, at the
foot of Capitol hill, is a "Monument of Peace" (by Franklin
Simmons) in memory of officers, seamen and marines of the U.S.
navy killed in the Civil War.
Cemeteries. — On the opposite side of the Potomac, in Virginia,
and adjoining Ft. Myer, a military post (named in honour of
Gen. Albert James Myer [1827-1880], who introduced in 1870
a system of meteorological observations at army posts) with
reservation of 186 ac., is Arlington, a national cemetery (of
408-33 ac.), in which lie buried 21,106 soldiers killed in the Civil
War and in the war with Spain; and 5,140 of those killed in the
World War; among the distinguished officers buried here are
Gen. Philip H. Sheridan, Admiral David D. Porter, Gen. Joseph
Wheeler and Gen. Henry W., Lawton. The cemetery also con-
tains the tomb of the Unknown Soldier of the World War; there
is a Spanish War Monument; the grounds are noted for their
natural beauty, and on the brow of a hill commanding a mag-
nificent view of the city is Arlington House (1802), the residence
of George Washington Parke Custis (1781-1857), grandson of
Martha Washington, and afterwards of Gen. Robert E. Lee,
Custis's son-in-law; the estate was seized by Federal troops early
in the Civil War, and was bought by the United States in 1864
at a delinquent tax sale but the title was not cleared until 1884
when the U.S. Government paid G. W. Custis Lee $150,000 for
his claim to the property. There was a military hospital here
throughout the Civil WTar. Adjoining the grounds of the Soldiers'
Home (3 m. N. of the Capitol) is a national military cemetery
containing the graves of 7,220 soldiers. On the bank of the
Anacostia river, east of the Capitol, is the Congressional cemetery
containing the graves of many members of Congress. North of
Georgetown is Oak Hill cemetery, and in the vicinity of the
Soldiers' Home are Rock Creek, Glenwood, Harmony, Prospect
Hill and St. Mary's cemeteries. A crematorium was completed in
1909, and cremation instead of interment has since been urged
by the District commissioners.
Charities, etc.— The National Soldiers' Home (1851), founded
by Gen. Winfield Scott, comprises five buildings, with accom-
modations for 800 retired or disabled soldiers, and 512 ac. of
beautiful grounds. The charitable and correctional institutions of
the District of Columbia are the following Government institu-
tions, under the control of the United States or of the District
of Columbia: Freedmen's hospital (1862), U.S. Naval hospital
(1866), U.S. Army hospital, Gallinger Municipal hospital, Tuber-
culosis hospital; St. Elizabeth's hospital (for insane) on the east
bank of the Anacostia river, Industrial Home school (1872), a
municipal lodging house (1892), a Soldiers' and Sailors' Tem-
porary home (1888), workhouse, District of Columbia Reforma-
tory, Washington asylum and jail, National Training School for
Girls (one for whites and one for negroes), District Training
school, Industrial Home School for Coloured Children, Home for
the Aged and Infirm.
Among many semi-private and private institutions are the
Washington City Orphan asylum; Lutheran Eye, Ear and Throat
infirmary; Gar field Memorial hospital; Episcopal Eye, Ear and
Throat hospital; Central dispensary and Emergency hospital;
Providence hospital (Sisters of Charity); George Washington
University hospital; Georgetown University hospital; Columbia
Hospital for Women; Children's hospital; Eastern Dispensary
and Casualty hospital; Washington Hospital for Foundlings;
Children's Temporary home (for negroes); a German Orphan
asylum; Washington Home for Incurables; Home for the Aged;
the National Lutheran home; the Methodist home and Baptist
home; National Training School for Boys; Florence Crittenden
home; Southern Relief Society; Columbia Polytechnic Institute
394
WASHINGTON
for the Blind. A "non-support law," which came into effect in
1906, enacts that a man who refuses to provide for his family
when able to do so shall be committed to the workhouse for hard
labour, and that 50 cents a day shall be paid to his family. An
act of June 22, 1916, provides for allowances to mothers for the
home care of dependent children under 16 years of age. A juvenile
court has extensive jurisdiction over dependent and delinquent
children, and a general supervision of all charities and corrections
is vested in a board of public welfare consisting of nine members
appointed by the commissioner of the District of Columbia.
Education. — Washington is one of the leading educational
centres of the United States. It is here that the Army War
college is situated. The public school system, under the control
of a board of education of six men and three women appointed
by the supreme court judges of the District of Columbia, embraces
kindergartens, primary, grammar, junior high, high, a business
high school, manual training, normal and night schools. The
schools are open 9 months in the year, and all children between
8 and 14 years of age are required to attend some public, private
or parochial school during these months unless excused because
of some physical or mental disability. The Army Medical school
is situated here. George Washington university, in the vicinity of
the White House, is a non-sectarian institution (opened in 1821
under the auspices of the Baptist General Convention as "The
Columbian College in the District of Columbia"; endowed by
W. W. Corcoran in 1872, organized as the Columbian university
in 1873, organized under its present name in 1904), and com-
prises Columbian college of arts and sciences with a graduate
department (1893), a college of the political sciences (190?),
Washington college of engineering, divisions of architecture and
education (1907), a department of law (first organized in 1826;
closed in 1827; reorganized in 1865), a department of medicine
(1821; since 1866 in a building given by W. W. Corcoran), with
several affiliated hospitals, a department of dentistry (1887), the
national college of pharmacy (united with the university in
1906) and a college of veterinary medicine (1908). Georgetown
university (organized 1789) is in Georgetown. In 1926 it had 231
instructors and 2,322 students.
The Catholic University of America (incorporated 1887;
opened 1889), with buildings near the Soldiers' Home, stands at
the head of Roman Catholic schools in America. Although de-
signed especially for advanced theological studies, it comprises
schools of the sacred sciences, philosophy, letters, physical
sciences, biological sciences, social sciences, jurisprudence, law
and technological sciences. In 1926 its faculty numbered 112 and
its students 863. A Franciscan convent, Dominican, Paulist and
Marist houses, and Trinity college for girls are affiliated with
the Catholic university. The American university (chartered
1893 as a graduate school), under Methodist Episcopal control,
has a campus of 94 ac. at the north-west end of the city and
in 1926 had 55 instructors and 308 students. Howard university
(1867), for the higher education of negroes, is situated south-
west of the Soldiers' Home; it was named in honour of Gen.
Oliver O. Howard, one of its founders and (in 1869-73) its presi-
dent; it has a small endowment, and is supported by Congressional
appropriations which are administered by the secretary of the
Interior; it comprises an academy, a college of arts and sciences,
a teachers' college, schools of theology, law and medicine, a
pharmaceutic and a dental college, a school of manual arts and
applied sciences and a commercial college; in 1926 it had 152
instructors and 2,137 students.
The Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, on Kendall
Green, in the north-eastern part of the city, is composed of
Kendall school (a secondary school) and of Gallaudet college
(called in 1864-93 the National Deaf Mute college; the present
name is in honour of Dr. T. H. Gallaudet); it was the first
institution to give collegiate courses to the deaf, and it has
received Congressional appropriations, though it is a private
foundation. Washington has also several academies, seminaries
and small colleges. Among the latter are St. John's college (Roman
Catholic, 1870), Washington Christian college (non-sectarian,
1902), Catholic Sisters' college (1911), National university (1869),
Trinity college (1900), U.S. College 6f Veterinary Surgeons
0894), Washington College of Law (1896), Washington Mis-
sionary college (1904). The Washington College of Law (1896)
is an evening school especially for women. A school of art is
maintained in the Corcoran Gallery of Art. There are also the
National School of Fine and Applied Art, Washington School of
Art, Arts and Crafts school, Critcher-Hill School of Art, Abbott
School of Fine and Commercial Arts, Livingston academy and
Columbia School of Draughting.
The Carnegie Institution of Washington, founded by Andrew
Carnegie in 1902 and endowed by him with $22,000,000 ($10,000,-
ooo in 1902; $12,000,000 later), is designed "to encourage in the
broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research and
discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement
of mankind; and in particular to conduct, endow and assist in-
vestigation in any department of science, literature or art, and
to this end to co-operate with governments, universities, colleges,
technical schools, learned societies and individuals; to appoint
committees of experts to direct special lines of research; to pub-
lish and distribute documents; and to conduct lectures, hold
meetings and acquire and maintain a library." It is under the
control of a board of 24 trustees, vacancies in which are filled
by the remaining members.
In 1908 ten departments had been organized: botanical research,
with a ''desert laboratory" (1903) at Tucson, Ariz.; economics
and sociology (1904); experimental evolution, with a station
(1904) at Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; geophysical research, with
a laboratory (1906-07) at Washington — investigations have been
carried on by the U.S. Geological Survey and at McGiil tmi-
versity, Montreal; historical research (1903) ; marine biology, with
a laboratory (1904) at Tortugas, Fla. ; meridian astrometry
(1906; work is carried on especially at Dudley observatory,
Albany, N.Y.); research in nutrition, with a laboratory (1906)
at Boston, Mass. — investigations (since 1904) have been carried
on at Yale and Wesleyan universities; solar physics, with ob-
servatory (1905) on Mt Wilson, Calif., and workshops at Pasa-
dena, Calif., and terrestrial magnetism (1903; headquarters in
Washington) ; the institution began to assist Luther Burbank in
his horticultural experiments in 1905; has published the Index
Medicus since 1903; and makes occasional grants for minor re-
search and tentative investigations.
The learned societies of Washington are to a large degree more
national than local in their character; among them are: the
Washington Academy of Sciences (1898), a "federal head" of
most of the societies mentioned below; the Anthropological
Society (founded 1879; incorporated 1887), which has published
Transactions (1879 ^<7-> w^h the co-operation of the Smithsonian
Institution) and The American Anthropologist (1888-98; since
1898 published by the American Anthropological Association);
the National Geographic Society (1888), which since 1903 has
occupied the Hubbard Memorial building, which sent scientific
expeditions to Alaska, Mt. Pelee and La Souffriere, and which
publishes the National Geographic Magazine (1888 seq.), National
Geographic Monographs (1895) and various special maps; the
Philosophical Society of Washington (1871; incorporated 1901),
devoted especially to mathematical and physical sciences; the
Biological Society (1880), which publishes Proceedings (1880
seq.); the Botanical Society of Washington (1901); the Geo-
logical Society of Washington (1893); the Entomological Society
of Washington (1884), which publishes Proceedings (1884 seq.);
the Chemical Society (1884); the Records of the Past Explora-
tion Society (1901), which publishes Records of the Past (1902
seq.); the Southern History Association (1896), which issues
Publications (1897 seq.); the Society for Philosophical Inquiry
(1893), which publishes Memoirs (1893 seq.); the Society of
American Foresters (1900), which publishes Proceedings (1905
seq.) ; and the Cosmos club. The libraries and scientific collec-
tions of the Federal Government and its various bureaux and
institutions afford exceptional opportunities for students and
investigators.
The Library of Congress contains more than 3,726,502 books
and pamphlets, 1,000,000 manuscripts, 1,420,367 maps, 1,330,515
WASHINGTON
395
pieces of music and 469,062 prints. In the library of the State
Department are 125,000 volumes of documents. The library pf
the surgeon-general's office of the army contains 850,000 volumes,
and is the largest medical library in the world. Besides these
there is a vast amount of material in the collections of the Bureau
of Education, the Bureau of Ethnology, the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, the National Museum, the House of Representatives, the
War College, the Public Health Department, the Patent Office,
the Department of Agriculture, the Botanic Gardens, the Bureau
of Fisheries, the Naval Observatory, the Geological Survey and
the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Public Library contains
about 325,183 volumes in the main and seven branch libraries.
Communications. — Seven railways enter the city: the Penn-
sylvania, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Southern, the Chesapeake
and Ohio, the Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis, the Washing-
ton Southern and the Washington, Alexandria and Mt. Vernon.
Steamboats ply daily from the foot of Seventh street to Alex-
andria, Mt. Vernon, Old Point Comfort and Norfolk, and at Old
Point Comfort there is connection with boats for New York. At
irregular intervals there are boats direct to Baltimore, Philadel-
phia, New York and Boston. The street railways, underground
trolley in the urban district and overhead trolley in the suburbs, ,
and buses connect at several points with inter-urban railways in
Maryland and Virginia.
Industries. — The city's manufactures and commerce are of
little importance in proportion to its population. Only Govern-
ment manufactures and manufactures for local consumption are
at all large. In 1925 the Government's printing and publishing
cost $11,532,954; its ordnance and ordnance stores (in the navy
yard on the bank of the Anacostia river), $9,586,898; and its
engraving and plate printing, $10,410,457.
Government — Washington is the seat of the U.S. Federal
Government and as such is not self-ruled, but governed by the
Federal Congress. The city was chartered in 1802, with a mayor
appointed annually by the president and an elective council of
two chambers. The mayor was elected by the council from 1812
to 1820, and by the people (biennially) from 1820 to 1871. In
1871 the Federal Congress repealed the charters of Washington
and Georgetown and established a new government for the entire
District, consisting of a governor, secretary, board of public
works, board of health and a council appointed by the president
with the concurrence of the Senate, and a house of delegates and
an elected delegate to the national House of Representatives.
In 1874 Congress substituted a government by three commis-
sioners appointed by the president with the concurrence of the
Senate, and in 1878 the government by commissioners was made
permanent. Two of the commissioners must be residents of the
District, and the third must be an officer of the Corps of Engineers
of the U.S. army. The residents of the District have no voice
in its government, have no representation in Congress and do not
vote for the president of the United States. The District com-
missioners are the chief executive officers. Congress and the
commissioners legislate for the District; the president, the com-
missioners and the supreme court of the District appoint the
administrative officers and boards; and the president appoints
the judges of the District courts, viz., a court of appeals, supreme
court, municipal court, police court, probate court and juvenile
court. About three-quarters of the expenses of the government of
Washington are paid by the District of Columbia and about one
quarter by the United States. The revenue of the District, which
is derived from real estate and personal property taxes and from
various licences, is paid into the U.S. Treasury; appropriations,
always specific and based on estimates prepared by the com-
missioners, are made only by Congress; and all accounts are
audited by the Treasury Department. The government owns the
waterworks, by which an abundant supply of water is taken from
the Potomac at the Great falls, conducted for 12 m. through two
aqueducts one 9 ft. in diameter and the other horseshoe shape
79 sq.ft. in area (aqueducts interconnected) and filtered through
two sand filtration plants. The government of the District has
been in recent years uniformly excellent, and the laws therefor
have' been modern in their tendency.
History. — During the Revolutionary War Philadelphia was the
principal seat of the Continental Congress, but it was driven thence
in 1783 by mutinous soldiers, and for the succeeding seven years
the discussion of a permanent site for the national capital was
characterized by sectional jealousy, and there was a strong senti-
ment against choosing a State capital or a large city lest it should
interfere with the Federal Government. The Constitution, drafted
in 1787, authorized Congress "to exercise exclusive legislation in
all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding 10 sq.m.)
as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of
Congress, become the scat of government of the United States."
Virginia and Maryland promised such a cession ; President Wash-
ington was known to be in favour of a site on the Potomac, and
in July 1790 Alexander Hamilton, in return for Thomas Jefferson's
assistance in passing the bill for the assumption of the State
war debts by the Federal Government, helped Jefferson to pass
a bill for establishing the capital on the Potomac, by which the
president was authorized to select a site anywhere along the
Potomac between the Eastern Branch (Anacostia) and the
Conococheaguc river, a distance of about 80 m., and to appoint
three commissioners who under his direction should make the
necessary surveys and provide accommodations for the reception
of Congress in 1800.
The commissioners — Thomas Johnson (1732-1819), Daniel
Carroll (1756-1829) of Maryland and Dr. David Stuart of
Virginia — gave the city its name; Maj. L'Enfant drew its plans
and Maj. Andrew Ellicott laid it out. When in 1800 the Govern-
ment was removed to Washington it existed principally on paper,
and the magnificence of the design only served to emphasize the
little progress made in its* execution. One wing of the Capitol and
the president's house were nearly completed, but much of the land
surrounding the Capitol was a marsh; there were no streets
worthy of the name, the roads were very bad, and the members
of Congress were obliged to lodge in Georgetown. For many
years such characterizations as ''Wilderness City," "Capital of
Miserable Huts," "City of Streets without Houses," "City of
Magnificent Distances" and "A Mudhole almost Equal to the
Great Scrbonian Bog" were common. Resolutions were frequently
offered by some disgusted member of Congress for the removal
of the capital. In 1814, during the second war with Great Britain,
the British, after defeating on Aug. 24, an American force at
Bladensburg, Prince George county, Md., about 6 m. north-east
of Washington, occupied the city and burned the Capitol, the
president's house, some of the public offices and the navy yard.
In the following year when a bill appropriating $500,000 for
rebuilding was before Congress it met with formidable opposition
from the "capital movers."
The question of removal was again to the front when, in 1846,
the Virginia portion of the District was retroceded to that State
in response to the appeal of Alexandria, which had suffered from
the neglect of Congress. The lethargy of the nation toward its
capital suddenly vanished at tbe outbreak of the Civil War. At
the close of the first day's bombardment of Ft. Sumter (April
12, 1861) Leroy P. Walker (1817-84), the Confederate secretary
of War, boasted that before May i, the Confederate flag would
float over the Capitol. The North, alarmed at the threat, speedily
transformed Washington into a great military post in accordance
with the plans of Maj. Gen. J. G. Barnard and protected it on all
sides with strong earthworks.
Throughout the war it was the centre of the military operations
of the North: here the armies were officered and marshalled,
from here they marched on their campaigns against the South,
here was the largest depot of military supplies, and here were
great hospitals for the care of the wounded. Although several
times threatened by the South, Washington was never really in
danger except in July 1864 when Gen. Jubal A. Early advanced
against it with 12,000 veterans, defeated Gen. Lew Wallace with
about 3,500 men at Monocacy Bridge on the 6th, and on the nth
appeared before the fortifications, which were at the time de-
fended by only a few thousand raw troops; the city was saved
by the timely arrival of some of Grant's veterans. In the city,
on May 23-24, 1865, President Andrew Johnson reviewed the
396
WASHINGTON— WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
returning soldiers of the Union army.
The population of Washington increased from 61,122 to 109,-
199 or 78-6% in the decade, 1860 to 1870. The city had been
founded on too elaborate and extensive a plan to be left to the
initiative and unaided resources of its citizens. But under the
new form of government which was instituted in 1871 a wonder-
ful transformation was begun under the direction of Alexander R.
Shepherd (1835-1902), the governor of the District and presi-
dent of the board of public works. Temporary financial embar-
rassment followed, but the Federal Government took upon
itself half the burden and established the economic administration
of the commissioners. A national capital park and planning com-
mission was instituted in 1926 with the duty of co-ordinating the
efforts of the various Federal and municipal authorities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. C. Todd, The Story of Washington, the National
Capital (New York, 1889) ; R. R. Wilson, Washington, the. Capital
City (Philadelphia, 1901) ; C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, Washington, the
City and the Seat of Government (Philadelphia, 1908) ; F. A. Vander-
lip, "The Nation's Capital," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the
Southern States (New York, IQOC) ; J. A. Porter, The City of
Washington, its Origin atnd Administration, in Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Studies, vol. iii. (Baltimore, 1885) ; C. Howard, Washington as a
Center of Learning (Washington, 1904) ; W. Tindall, Origin and
Government of the District of Columbia (ibid., 1903) ; A. R. Spofford,
The Founding of Washington City (Baltimore, 1881) ; F. L. Harvey,
History of the Washington Monument and the National Monument
Society (Washington, 1903) ; G. Brown, Papers on Improvement of
Washington City (Washington, IQOI) ; C. Moore, The Park System
of the District of Columbia (1902) ; W. Tindall, Standard History of
the City of Washington (1914) ; W. B. Bryan, History of the National
Capital (1914-16); L. F. Schmeckebier, The District of Columbia
(1928). (E. JA.)
WASHINGTON, a city of south-western Indiana, U.S.A., on
Federal highway 50, near the White river; county seat of Daviess
county. Population (1920) 8,743 (97% native white); estimated
locally at 10,000 in 1928. The city was founded in 1816 and char-
tered in 1870.
WASHINGTON, a city of south-western Pennsylvania.
Pop. (1920) 21,480 (83% native white; the remaining 17%
about equally divided between negroes and foreign-born white) ;
1928 local estimate 25,000, with 5,000 more in contiguous suburbs.
Washington lies among beautiful surroundings, at an altitude of
1,156 ft., in a fertile region, rich in bituminous coal (still largely
unmined) and still producing oil and gas. It has important manu-
facturing industries, with an output in 1927 valued at $26,013,100.
Among the leading products are annealing boxes, baby and doll
carriages, brooms, cathedral glass, table glassware, plate and wire
glass, glass containers, ferro-alloys, tin and ternc plate, steel plates
and tungsten. It is the seat of Washington and Jefferson college
and of Washington seminary for girls (1836). The college is a
consolidation (1865) of Washington college, founded in 1787 as
an academy formed by the union of three schools established
within 10 m. of Washington in 1780, 1781 and 1785, by three
Presbyterian ministers, and Jefferson college, founded as an acad-
emy at Canonsburg in 1794, On South Main street, stands a
house built in 1788, which was the headquarters of David Brad-
ford, leader of the Whiskey Insurrection, in 1794. The site of
Washington was part of a tract bought in 1771 by David Hoge,
and was at first called Catfishes Camp, then for brief periods
Dandrige Town and Bassctt Town. In 1781 Hoge laid out a
town, and gave lots (now part of the college campus and the site of
the First Presbyterian church) to George and Martha Washington.
The National road (first proposed by George Washington and
urged by him throughout his life) was authorized by Congress in
1806, and the right of way was given in 1807 by Pennsylvania
on condition that it should pass through the town of Washington,
along the route of George Washington's first expedition into the
west. The first crematory in the United States was established in
Washington in 1876 by Francis Julius Le Moyne (1798-1879),
the son of a French refugee. Through his ardent sympathy for
the abolition movement he was influential in making Washington
an important "station" on the "underground railroad." The town
was incorporated in 1810 and became a city in 1924.
WASHINGTON, MOUNT, a peak of the White mountains
in New Hampshire, alt. 6,293 ft. The Presidential range is about
20 m. in length, and contains nine other peaks exceeding 5,000
ft. in height. The sides of Mt. Washington are cut deep with
ravines which offer some of its wildest scenery. Above the
ravines (5,000-5,500 ft.) are comparatively level areas called
"lawns"; from these rises the rounded bare-rock summit. The
tree-line, which extends up its sides to an elevation of about
3,850 ft., gives away for the next 1,000 ft. of altitude to dwarf
spruce, balsam and birch. This is followed by the real Alpine
zone which extends to the summit. The flora of this region is
chiefly Alpine flowers, sedges and lichens. The winter weather
is very severe. Official weather records show temperatures as low
as 60° below zero and storm winds exceeding 100 m. per hour.
The region is plentifully supplied with water which finds its way
into three rivers, the Androscoggin, the Connecticut and the Saco.
Near the summit are two rock-rimmed and clear bodies of water
known as the "Lakes of the Clouds."
The peak was first sighted /rom the ocean in 1605, and was first
ascended in 1642 by Darby Field accompanied by two Indian
guides. The mountain was given its present name by the Rev.
Manasseh Cutler, who, with several companions, made a scientific
trip to the summit in 1784. The Crawford path, which approaches
from the south-west, was finished in 1821, and a few years later
was made a bridle path to the summit. The carriage road, which
was constructed during the years 1855-61, follows the prominent
north-east ridge from Glen House to the summit. This makes it
possible to climb the peak by automobile. The cog railway, which
follows the westerly spur, was started in 1866 and completed in
1869. It operates between the Base station and the Summit
house. Numerous trails and shelters are maintained, chicly by the
Appalachian mountain club.
See W. C. O'Kane, Trails and Summits of the White Mountains
(1925) and Guide to Paths in the White Mountains (6 ed., 1025) pub-
lished by the Appalachian mountain club.
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. Preliminary invita-
tions to a Conference at Washington on the limitation of na-
tional armament "in connection with which Pacific and Far
Eastern questions could also be discussed" were issued by Presi-
dent Harding in July 1921, to Great Britain, France, Italy and
Japan. On Aug. TI, formal invitations were sent to these Powers,
to China and later to Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal,
President Harding having been authorised by Congress on July
TI, 1921, to arrange for the Conference. As American delegates
Mr. Harding designated Secretary of State Hughes, Elihu Root,
Senators Lodge and Underwood; the British Empire was repre-
sented by Mr. Balfour (as he then was), Lord Lee of Fareham,
Sir Auckland Geddes and Sir Robert L. Borden, as principal
delegates; France by M. Briand, M. Viviani, M. Sarraut and M.
Jusscrand; Italy by Signer Schanzer and Signor Ricci; Japan by
Prince Tokugawa, Admiral Kato and Ambassador Shidehara;
China by Mr. Wellington Koo and Mr. Sze. The conference
assembled on Nov. 12, 1921, was addressed by Mr. Harding, and
elected Mr. Hughes as its chairman. The latter at once placed the
American proposals on naval disarmament before the gathering.
Mr. Hughes proposed that there should be a naval "holiday":
"for a period of not less than 10 years there shall be no further
construction of capital ships." He then presented a definite plan
for the scrapping of certain of the older capital ships and of
capital ships under construction, and the restriction of capital
ship replacements by an agreed maximum of tonnage.
In the plenary session of Nov. 21 the subject of military arma-
ment was introduced by Mr. Hughes, but the attitude of France
established the impracticability of discussing any definite plan
for the limitation of armies. A sub-committee was appointed,
however, to consider the question of aircraft, poison gases and
the rules for the conduct of war.
The agenda of the conference were dealt with by two com-
mittees of the whole, one composed of the delegates of the five
principal Powers to deal with limitation of armament, the other
composed of delegates of all nine Powers to deal with matters
affecting the Pacific and the Far East.
Meetings of these committees and their sub-committees were .
not open to the public; their results were reported formally at the
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
397
open plenary sessions, of which six were held. The decisions
reached were in regard to navies, including submarines; poison
gases; the Pacific Ocean and its islands; and Chinese affairs.
The Question of Capital Ships. — The committee on arma-
ment discussed fully the maximum tonnage and ratio of capital
ships to which each Power should restrict itself ; and on Dec. 20 a
provisional agreement was reached. Japan maintained (Dec. 20)
that 60% of the quota proposed for the United States and Great
Britain was insufficient for her defensive needs, and asked that
it be increased to 70%; her delegates were especially unwilling
to sacrifice the "Mutsu," a new capital ship (in large measure paid
for by popular subscription), which, under the Hughes plan,
would have to be scrapped. This obstacle was overcome by per-
mitting Japan to retain the "Mutsu," on condition that an older
ship, the "Setsu," should be scrapped. This change gave Japan
two post-Jutland ships and an increased capital ship tonnage, to
offset which it was agreed that the ynited States should complete
two ships still in process of construction, and that Great Britain
should construct two new vessels not to exceed 35,000 tons each.
In replacement tonnage the ratio was to stand thus ; United States
and Great Britain 525,000 tons each and Japan 315,000 tons —
a ratio of 5-5-3. This agreement was stated to be contingent upon
a suitable arrangement for France and Italy, who had been offered
a replacement tonnage of 175,000 each. But M. Sarraut, repre-
senting France, held out for an aggregate of 350,000 tons, to be
constructed on a replacement basis from 1925 onwards. The
controversy was finally laid before M. Briand, who had returned
to France; he agreed to accept for France the maximum of
175,000 for capital ships, but made his consent conditional on
the obtaining of a larger proportion of auxiliary craft and sub-
marines, which were regarded by France as purely defensive
weapons.
The Question of Submarines,— The French reply settled the
problem of capital ships, but a warm controversy was provoked
over submarines. Mr. Balfour proposed their complete abolition.
Mr. Hughes proposed a reduction of submarine tonnage for the
United States and Great Britain to 60,000 apiece, and approxi-
mately the status quo for France, Japan and Italy (31,500 for the
first two, 21,000 tons for the last). But the French delegates
refused to accept less than 90,000 tons for submarines and 330,-
ooo for cruisers and auxiliary craft. Mr. Balfour then made it
plain that, failing action against the submarine itself, Great
Britain could accept no limitation for anti-submarine craft.
As a result, the treaty, as finally agreed upon by the five major
Powers, did not include limitation of total tonnage of submarine
or auxiliary craft. Limits, however, were placed upon the total
tonnage of aircraft carriers and upon individual tonnage of cap-
ital ships and cruisers, as well as upon the calibre of guns carried.
The failure of the British attempt to abolish the submarine was
mitigated by the passage of a series of resolutions presented by
Mr. Root and later embodied in a treaty. As accepted, they
stated the rules of international law as to "visit and search" on
the high seas, and declared that belligerent submarines are not
exempt from these rules. They invited the adherence of all civi-
lised Powers to this statement. In the third place, they recognised
that the use of submarines as commerce destroyers was practi-
cally impossible without violation of these rules, and that pro-
hibition of such use should be accepted as a law of nations; they
declared the assent of the contracting Powers to such prohibition,
and invited that of all other nations. No definition of a mer-
chant ship was adopted. In the fourth place, they declared that
commanders of all ships transgressing international rules should
be subject to punishment for piracy. Aircraft limitation was
rejected by the conference, after a technical report of the sub-
committee had declared limitation to be impracticable, but an
inquiry commission was appointed. The abolition of the use
of poison gas in international warfare, on the other hand, was
advocated by the Naval Committee Jan. 7 1922, on the motion
of Mr. Hughes, and prohibition qf poison gas was embodied in a
treaty.
Problems of the Pacific.— In respect of the problems of the
session, Dec. 10 1921, between the United States, Great Britain,
France and Japan. It pledged each to respect the rights of the
others in relation to their insular possessions and insular domin-
ions in the Pacific, to accept mediation in case of controversy
over these possessions and to open frank discussions if their
rights were threatened by any other Power. The treaty was to
remain in force for 10 years, and upon its ratification the Anglo-
Japanese Alliance was automatically to be terminated. A reser-
vation accompanied the treaty embodying provisions to the effect
that it should not be deemed an assent on the part of the United
States to "mandates'* granted in the Pacific under the Peace
Treaty of Versailles, and should not preclude agreements relative
to mandated islands. (See SINGAPORE.)
The reservation also excepted from arbitrable controversies
questions lying within domestic jurisdiction of the contracting
Powers, To the treaty was later appended a second agreement,
defining the phrase "insular possessions and insular dominions"
in such a way as to exclude Japan proper from its scope. The
representatives of the United States and Japan also signed a
treaty regarding Yap, according to which the United States was
to have free access there on a footing of entire equality with
, Japan in all that related to cable and radio service, and received
\ certain privileges and exemptions in relation to electrical com-
munications. Subject to various conditions the United States con-
sented to the administration by Japan of the mandated islands in
the Pacific north of the equator.
Attitude Towards China.— Chinese problems were presented
(Nov. 1 6 1921), by Mr. Sze in the form of 10 points, which the
conference was asked to adopt. (See CHINA.) They called for
recognition of the territorial integrity and political and adminis-
trative independence of China, the "open door'1 neutrality and
the complete removal of all political, jurisdictional and adminis-
trative restrictions upon the Chinese Republic. The general atti-
tude of the conference towards China was crystallised (Nov. 21)
when four resolutions presented by Mr. Root were adopted.
They declared the intention of the Powers to respect the sover-
eignty, the independence and the territorial and administrative
integrity of China, their desire to maintain the principle of equal
opportunity for the commerce and industry of all nations and
their agreement not to seek special rights or privileges. Details
of specific arrangements to be enforced led to long discussions.
A resolution was adopted (Dec. 24) providing for the voluntary
withdrawal of foreign post-offices from China Jan. i 1923, on
condition that China should maintain efficient service and con-
tinue the supervision of the foreign co-clirec tor-general. The prob-
lem of extraterritorial rights could not be settled definitely, but it
was referred to an international committee for intensive study
and report within u year. The demand for the withdrawal of for-
eign troops from China was referred to a sub-committee, and
finally it was agreed that, while the principle of withdrawal was
accepted, the issues raised should be made the subject of inquiry,
in order to determine the conditions upon which withdrawal must
depend.
On the other hand, the Powers passed a resolution urging China
to reduce the large military forces maintained by the military
governors. The relinquishment of foreign leaseholds in China
was not actually secured (though Great Britain announced her
readiness in this respect if other countries would join her); but
China's fight for "open diplomacy" was virtually won when a
resolution was passed (Dec. 8) pledging the nine Powers not to
enter into any agreement that mic^ht impair the force of the four
Root resolutions. As regards the customs tariffs, the demand of
j China for complete autonomy was not granted, nor the request
made, in view of the nation's financial necessities, that her quota
be raised from 5% to 12^%. It was decided, however, that
China's customs revenue should be increased by $46,000,000
silver annually, through an advance to 5% effective, a surtax of
2\% and a surtax not exceeding 5% on luxuries. The treaty
provided for the convening of a Tariff Revision Commission at
Shanghai, the opening of which was delayed until Oct. 1925,
owing to the internal troubles of China. Other resolutions in-
r\™\»,\ agreements that foreign radio stations should transmit
398 WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE— WASHINGTON TREATY
only Government messages, that there should be no unfair dis-
crimination in railway rates, an expression of hope that the
railway system might be unified under Chinese Government con-
trol, and an agreement for the establishment of a board of refer-
ence for Far Eastern questions.
Shantung. — The question of the Japanese occupation of
Shantung entailed long negotiations which at times seemed to
reach a dead-lock, especially those relating to the Tsin^tao-
Tsinan-fu Railway. Largely through the mediation of Mr. Hughes
and Mr. Balfour, a separate agreement was finally reached be-
tween Japan and China and signed Feb. 4. It provided for the
return to China of the former German leasehold and $o-km, zone
in Shantung, and the withdrawal of Japanese troops and gen-
darmes; China was to purchase the Tsinan-fu Railway for $30,-
000,000, but, before complete redemption, there were to be ap-
pointed a Japanese traffic manager subject to the direction of
the Chinese managing director, a Japanese accountant and a
Chinese accountant of equal rank. Japan renounced all rights
to foreign assistance stipulated in the Chinese-German Treaty of
1898, and relinquished the maritime customs at Tsingtao and
former German public properties. As to Siberian problems, Baron
Shidehara made a full statement to the effect that it was "the
fixed and settled policy" of Japan to respect the territorial integ-
rity of Russia.
The Treaties. — The decisions taken by the conference were
embodied in seven treaties and various supplementary resolu-
tions. For particulars regarding the terms of the Five-Power
Treaty Limiting Naval Armaments see WASHINGTON TREATY.
By June 9 1923, all the signatory Powers except France had
ratified the Five-Power Treaty in relation to the use of Sub-
marines and Noxious Gases in Warfare, the Nine-Power Treaty
relating to Principles and Policies to be followed in Matters con-
cerning China, and the Nine- Power Treaty relating to Chinese
Customs Tariff. France ratified the last two on July 20 1925, but
had not, up to Apr. 1929, ratified the treaty in relation to the
use of Submarines and Noxious Gases, apparently because of its
objection to the provision on the use of submarines and not be-
cause of the restrictions upon the use of poison gases. The
French Government ratified the Geneva Poison Gas Protocol of
June 1925. By July 28, 1923, all the signatory Powers had ratified
the Five-Power Treaty limiting Naval Armaments; also the Four-
Power Treaty relating to Insular Possessions and Insular Do-
minions in the Pacific Ocean, the Declaration accompanying this
treaty, and the treaty supplementary thereto.
Norway adhered on Sept. 23 1925, to the treaty relating to
Chinese Customs Tariff; and on Nov. 13 1925, to the treaty
relating to Principles and Policies concerning China. Denmark
and Sweden signified their adherence to the treaty relating to
Chinese Customs Tariff on Aug. 27 1925 and Sept. n 1925.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— G. Z. Wood, China, the United States and the
Anglo-Japanese Alliance (New York 1921); H. W. Taft, Japan and
the Far East Conference, tyai-2 (New York-London) ; Mark Sullivan,
The Great Adventure at Washington; the story of the Conference
(1922) ; L. Archimbaud, La Conference de Washington (Paris 1923) ;
A. L. P. Dennis, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (Univ. of California
Press 1923); T. F. F. Millard, Conflict of Policies in Asia (1924);
Canadian Government: Conference on the Limitation of Armament
Held at Washington. Report of the Canadian Delegate Including
Treaties and Resolutions (Sessional Paper No. 47, 1922) ; French Gov-
ernment: Documents diplomatiques ; Conference de Washington, juillet
iQ2i-fe.vrier 1922 (1923) ; Treaty between the British Empire, Prance,
Italy, Japan and the United States of America for the limitation of
naval armament (London, 1924) ; Treaty between the British Empire,
France, Japan and the United States of America relating to their insular
Possessions and insular dominions in the Pacific Ocean, and accompany-
ing declaration, together with treaty supplementary to the above treaty,
and identic communication to Netherlands and Portuguese Govern-
ments respecting the above treaty (London, 1924) ; United States Gov-
ernment: Address Submitting Treaties and Resolutions Approved and
Adopted by Conference Together with Report of American Delegation
of Proceedings of Conference, Submitted to the President oth Feb.
1922 (Senate Doc. 125, 1922); Proceedings of Conference on Limita-
tion of Armament Held at Washington, Nov. igai-Feb. 1022; Presi-
dent's Address to Senate, Letter op Secretary of State Submitting
Treaties to the President, etc. (Senate Doc, 120, 1922) ; Report of the
American Delegation (1922); American Association for International
Conciliation: Washington Conference on the Limitation of Armaments,
Dec. 1021, 2 parts (New York, Inter. Conciliation, No. 169 and No.
172). (C. SEV.)
WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE, a city of Ohio, U.S.A.,
the county seat of Fayette county; on Paint creek, 40 m. S.W.
of Columbus, at an altitude of 970 feet. Pop. (1920) 7,962.
The city was laid out in 1810 and chartered in 1888.
WASHINGTONIA, in botany, a genus of the palm family
(Paimae), named in honour of George Washington, comprising
three handsome species, natives of southern California, Arizona
and adjacent Mexico.
WASHINGTON TREATY (LIMITATION OF NAVAL ARMA-
MENTS). A treaty for the limitation of naval armaments was-
concluded at Washington, U.S. A,, on Feb. 6, 1922. The con-
tracting parties were the United States of America, the British
empire, France, Italy and Japan.
Provisions of the Treaty. — The following are the essentials
of the agreement come to under the treaty.
(i.) The Contracting Powers agree to limit their respective
naval armament as provided in the treaty.
(2.) The Contracting Powers may retain respectively the capi-
tal ships specified in the treaty; all other capital ships, built or
building, of the United States, the British empire and Japan to be
disposed of.
(3.) Subject to the foregoing, the Contracting Powers abandon
their respective capital ship building programmes, and no new
capital ships shall be constructed or acquired by any of them
except replacement tonnage as specified below. Ships replaced
shall be disposed of.
(4.) The total capital ship replacement tonnage of each of the
Contracting Powers shall not exceed in standard displacement,
for the United States, 525,000 tons; for the British empire,
525,000 tons; for France, 175,000 tons; for Italy, 175,000 tons;
for Japan, 315,000 tons.
(5.) No capital ship exceeding 35,000 tons' standard displace-
ment shall be acquired by, or constructed by, for, or within the
jurisdiction of, any of the Contracting Powers.
(6.) No capital ship of any of the Contracting Powers shall
carry a gun with a calibre in excess of 16 inches.
(7.) The total tonnage for aircraft carriers of each of the
Contracting Powers shall not exceed in standard displacement, for
the United States, 135,000 tons; for the British empire, 135,000
tons; for France, 60,000 tons; for Italy, 60,000 tons; for Japan,
81,000 tons.
(8.) The replacement of aircraft carriers shall be effected only
as prescribed below, provided, however, that all aircraft carrier
tonnage in existence or building on Nov. 12, 1921, shall be con-
sidered experimental, and may be replaced, within the total
tonnage limit prescribed above without regard to its age.
(9.) No aircraft carrier exceeding 27,000 tons' standard dis-
placement shall be acquired by, or constructed by, for or within
the jurisdiction of, any of the Contracting Powers. However, any
of the Contracting Powers may, provided that its total tonnage
allowance of aircraft carriers is not thereby exceeded, build not
more than two aircraft carriers, each of a tonnage of not more
than 33,000 tons* standard displacement, and in order to effect
economy any of the Contracting Powers may use for this purpose
any two of their ships, whether constructed or in course of con-
struction, which would otherwise be scrapped. The armament of
any aircraft carriers exceeding 27,000 tons' standard displacement
shall be in accordance with the requirements stated below, except
that the total number of guns to be carried in case any of such
guns be of a calibre exceeding 6 in., except anti-aircraft guns and
guns not exceeding 5 in., shall not exceed eight.
(10.) No aircraft carrier of any of the Contracting Powers
shall carry a gun with a calibre in excess of 8 inches. Without
prejudice to the foregoing provisions, if the armament carried
includes guns exceeding 6 in. in calibre the total number of guns
carried, except anti-aircraft guns and guns not exceeding 5 in.,
shall not exceed TO. If alternatively the armament contains no
guns exceeding 6 in. in calibre, the number of guns is not limited.
In either case the number of anti-aircraft guns and of guns not
exceeding 5 in. is not limited.
WASHINGTON TREATY
399
(11.) No vessel of war exceeding 10,000 tons' standard dis-
placement, other than a capital ship or aircraft carrier, shall be
acquired by, or constructed by, for, or within the jurisdiction of,
any of the Contracting Powers. Vessels not specifically built as
fighting ships nor taken in time of peace under Government con*
trol for fighting purposes, which are employed on fleet duties or as
troop transports or in some other way for the purpose of assisting
in the prosecution of hostilities otherwise than as fighting ships,
shall not be subject to this limitation.
(12.) No vessel of war of any of the Contracting Powers, here-
after laid down, other than a capital ship, shall carry a gun with a
calibre in excess of 8 inches.
(13.) Except as provided in Article IX., no ship designated in
the treaty to be scrapped may be reconverted into a vessel of war.
(14.) No preparations shall be made in merchant ships in time
of peace for the installation of warlike armaments for the purpose
of converting such ships into vessels of war, other than the
necessary stiffening of decks for the mounting of guns not
exceeding 6-in. calibre.
(15.) No vessel of war constructed within the jurisdiction of
any of the Contracting Powers for a non-Contracting Power shall
exceed the limitations as to displacement and armament prescribed
by the treaty for vessels of a similar type which may be con-
structed by or for any of the Contracting Powers; provided,
however, that the displacement for aircraft carriers constructed
for a non-Contracting Power shall in no case exceed 27,000 tons'
standard displacement.
(16.) If the construction of any vessel of war for a non*
Contracting Power is undertaken within the jurisdiction of any
of the Contracting Powers, such Power shall promptly inform the
other Contracting Powers of the date of the signing of the con-
tract and the date on which the keel of the ship is laid; and shall
also communicate to them particulars of the ship.
(17.) In the event of a Contracting Power being engaged in
war, such Power shall not use as a vessel of war any vessel of
war which may be under construction within its jurisdiction for
any other Power, or which may have been constructed within its
jurisdiction for another Power and not delivered.
(18.) Each of the Contracting Powers undertakes not to dis-
pose by gift, sale or any mode of transfer of any vessel of war
in such a manner that such vessel may become a vessel of war
in the navy of any foreign Power.
(19.) The United States, the British empire and Japan agree
that the status quo at the time of the signing of the treaty, with
regard to fortifications and naval bases, shall be maintained in
their respective territories and possessions specified hereunder: —
1. The insular possessions which the United States now holds
or may hereafter acquire in the Pacific ocean, except (a) those
adjacent to the coast of the United States, Alaska and the Panama
Canal Zone, not including the Aleutian islands, and (6) the
Hawaiian islands ;
2. Hong Kong and the insular possessions which the British
empire now holds or may hereafter acquire in the Pacific ocean,
east of the meridian of 110° east . longitude, except (a) those
adjacent to the coast of Canada, (6) the Commonwealth of
Australia and its territories and (c) New Zealand;
3. The following insular territories and possessions of Japan
in the Pacific ocean, to wit : the Kurile islands, the Bonin islands,
Amami-Oshima, the Loochoo islands, Formosa and the Pescadores,
and any insular territories or possessions in the Pacific ocean
which Japan may hereafter acquire.
The maintenance of the status quo under the foregoing pro-
visions implies that no new fortifications or naval bases shall be
established in the territories and possessions specified; that no
measures shall be taken to increase the existing naval facilities
for the repair and maintenance of naval forces, and that no in-
crease shall be made in the coast defences of the territories knd
possessions above specified. This restriction, however, does not
preclude such repair and replacement of worn-out weapons and
equipment as is customary in time of peace.
Replacement— The replacement of capital ships and aircraft
carriers shall take place according to the following rules.
(i.) Capital ships and aircraft carriers 20 years after the date
of their completion may, except as otherwise provided, be replaced
by new construction, but within the limits prescribed in Article
IV. and Article VII. The keels of such new construction may,
except as otherwise provided, be laid down not earlier than 17
years from the date of completion of the tonnage to be replaced,
provided, however, that no capital ship tonnage, with the excep-
tion of ships specified in the treaty, shall be laid down until ten
years from Nov. 12, 1921.
(2.) Each of the Contracting Powers shall communicate
promptly to the others the following information :
(a) The names of the capital ships and aircraft carriers to be
replaced by new construction; (b) the date of governmental au-
thorization of replacement tonnage; (c) the date of laying the
keels of replacement tonnage; (d) the standard displacement in
tons and metric tons of each new ship to be laid down, and the
principal dimensions, namely, length at waterline, extreme beam
at or below waterline, mean draft at standard displacement; (e)
the date of completion of each new ship and its standard displace-
ment in tons and metric tons, and the principal dimensions.
(3.) In the case of loss or accidental destruction of capital ships
or aircraft carriers, they may immediately be replaced by new
construction subject to the tonnage limits prescribed in Articles
IV, and VII. and in conformity with the other provisions of the
treaty, the regular replacement programme being deemed to be
advanced to that extent.
(4.) No retained capital ships or aircraft carriers shall be
reconstructed except for the purpose of providing means of de-
fence against air and submarine attack, and subject to the follow-
ing rules: The Contracting Powers may, for that purpose, equip
existing tonnage with bulge or blister or anti-air-attack deck pro-
tection, providing the increase of displacement thus effected does
not exceed 3,000 tons' displacement for each ship. No alterations
in side armour, in calibre, number or general type of mounting of
main armament shall be permitted except; (a) In the case of
France and Italy, which countries within the limits allowed for
bulge may increase their armour protection and the calibre of the
guns carried on their existing capital ships so as not to exceed 16
in. and (b) the British empire shall be permitted to complete, in
the case of the "Renown," the alterations to armour that have
already been commenced but temporarily suspended.
Definitions. — For the purpose of the treaty, a capital ship,
in the case of ships hereafter built, is defined as a vessel of war,
not an aircraft carrier, whose displacement exceeds 10,000 tons'
standard displacement, or which carries a gun with a calibre
exceeding 8 inches.
An aircraft carrier is defined as a vessel of war with a displace-
ment in excess of 10,000 tons' standard displacement, designed for
the specific and exclusive purpose of carrying aircraft. It must be
so constructed that aircraft can be launched therefrom and landed
thereon, and not designed and constructed for carrying a more
powerful armament than that allowed to it under Article IX. or
Article X. as the case may be.
The standard displacement of a ship is the displacement of the
ship complete, fully manned, engined, and equipped ready for sea,
including all armament and ammunition, equipment, outfit, pro-
visions and fresh water for crew, miscellaneous stores and imple-
ments of every description that are intended to be carried in war,
but without fuel or reserve feed water on board.
Miscellaneous Provisions,— If during the term of the treaty
the requirements of the national security of any Contracting
Power in respect of naval defence are, in the opinion of that
Power, materially affected by any change of circumstances, the
Contracting Powers will, at the request pf such Power, meet in
conference with a view to the reconsideration of the provisions of
the treaty and its amendment by mutual agreement.
In view of possible technical and scientific developments, the
United States, after consultation with the other Contracting
Powers, shall arrange for a conference of all the Contracting
Powers which shall convene as soon as possible after the expira-
tion of eight years from the coming into force of the present treaty
to consider what changes, if any, in the treaty may be necessary
4-oc
WASP— WASSERMANN REACTION
AND THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND
FISHERIES
FlG. 1. — WASP (VESPA RUFA), ONE
to meet such developments. '
Whenever any Contracting Power shall become engaged in a
war which in its opinion affects the naval defence of its national
security, such Power may after notice to the other Contracting
Powers suspend for the period of hostilities its obligations under
the present treaty other than those under Articles XIII. and
XVIL, provided that such Power shall notify the other Contract-
ing Powers that the emergency is
of such a character as to require
such suspension. The remaining
Contracting Powers shall in such
case consult together with a view
to agreement as to what tempo-
rary modifications, if any, should
be made in the treaty as between
themselves. Should such consul-
tation not produce agreement,
duly made in accordance with the
constitutional methods of the
respective Powers, any one of OF THE SEVEN SPECIES MET WITH
the said Contracting Powers may, IN BRITAIN
by giving notice to the other Contracting Powers, suspend for
the period of hostilities its obligations under the present treaty,
other than those under Articles XIII. and XVIL On the cessa-
tion of hostilities the Contracting Powers will meet in conference
to consider what modifications, if any, should be made in the
provisions of the present treaty.
The present treaty shall remain in force until Dec. 31, 1936,
and in case none of the Contracting Powers shall have given
notice two years before that date of its intention to terminate
the treaty, it shall continue in force until the expiration of two
years from the date on which notice of termination shall be given
by one of the Contracting Powers, whereupon the treaty shall
terminate as regards all the Contracting Powers. Within one year
of the date on which a notice of termination by any Power has
taken effect, all the Contracting Powers shall meet in conference.
The present treaty remains deposited in the archives of the
Government of the United States, and duly certified copies thereof
have been transmitted to the other Contracting Powers.
WASP, the ordinary name for a well-known kind of stinging
insect belonging to the order Hymenoptera (q.v.). At least
10,000 species of wasps are known and unlike bees, they are
primarily predacious in habit,
feeding their young mainly upon
other insects. They form two
great groups, Sphecoidea and
Vespoidea, with the vast major-
ity of the species solitary in habit.
Most of these solitary kinds are
known as fossorial or digging
wasps, from the fact that so
many of them make receptacles
for their young by excavating
burrows in the ground or tunnel-
ing in wood or in stems of plants.
The true wasps form a separate
section of the Vespoidea and
were formerly grouped into a
single division — the Diploptera,
in allusion to the fact that the
fore wings are longitudinally
folded when at rest. They are
further distinguished from other wasps by the posterior lateral
angles of the pronotum, which end above the tegulae. They
include three families, one of which, the Vespidae, consists of
social species and includes the wasps most familiar to the ordi-
nary observer: for these see SOCIAL INSECTS. The Eumenidae are
solitary wasps and the best-known genera are Ruirienes and
Odynerus. These insects have the curious habit of suspending
their eggs by slender threads from the roofs of the cells in which
they are laid. Each cell is commonly provisioned with several
FIG. 2.— NEST OF THE TREE WASP,
(VESPA SYLVESTRIS)
caterpillars previously paralysed by stinging. In Eumenes the
abdomen is joined to the thorax by a slender petiole or stalk:
they are potter wasps making neat vase-like cells attached to
stems or other objects. In Odynerus the petiole is wanting and
the cells are made on walls, in wood, or in the ground; some
species utilize key holes or even deserted cells of other wasps.
Both genera occur in Great Britain and North America. The
FlG. 3.— NEST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN WASP (POLISTES TEP1DUS)
third family, or Masaridae, is chiefly tropical and remarkable
because its cells are provisioned with a paste of honey and pollen.
The species are all solitary and have the wings either incapable of
being folded or imperfectly plicate. >
See E. Saunders, Hymenoptera Aculeata of the British Islands
(1896) ; P. and N. Rau, Wasp Studies Afield (Princeton, N.J., 1918) ;
G. W. and E. G. Pcckham, Wasps, Solitary and Social (Boston and
New York, 1905) ; E. Berland, "Hymenopteres Vespiformcs," Faune
de France, vol. x. (1925). (A. D. I.)
WASSAIL, the ancient form of "toasting" (O.E. waes hdl,
"be whole"), the term being applied later to the Christmas
feasting and revelries and particularly to the bowl of spiced ale
or wine which was a feature of the mediaeval Christmas. At the
reception of King Vortigern by Hengist, Rowena "came into the
king's presence, with a cup of gold filled with wine in her hand,
and making a low reverence unto the king said, 'Waes hael hla-
ford Cyning,' which is (Be of health, Lord King.' " In Henry
VII. 's reign the steward on Twelfth Night cried "wassail" three
times on entering with the bowl. Wassailing was as much a cus-
tom in the monasteries as in laymen's houses, the bowl being
known as poculum Caritatis.
WASSERMANN, AUGUST VON (1866-1925), German
professor of medicine, was born Feb. 21, 1866, at Bamberg, in
Bavaria. He studied in Erlangen, Munich, Strasbourg and Vienna,
and in 1888 began to practise as a physician in Strasbourg. He
was then engaged as an assistant to the Robert Koch institute
for Infectious Diseases, Berlin, where, from 1906, he directed
the department of experimental therapy and serum research. In
1913 he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm institute in
Berlin-Dahlem. Wassermann achieved international fame by
his discovery (1907) of sero-diagnosis in syphilis — the so-called
Wassermann Reaction — which enables both past infection and
the activity of the process of the disease to be ascertained. He
died in Berlin on March 15, 1925.
His works include "Allgemeine Einlcitung zur Lehre von den Infek-
tionskrankheiten" in Ebstein and Schwalbe's Handbuch der prak-
tischen medegia: Influenza, Immunitat und Serumtherapie and Hamo-
lysine, Zytotoxine und Prdzipitine (1910).
WASSERMANN REACTION. The Wassermann, or, per-
haps more correctly, the Bordet-Wassermann test of the blood
serum and of the spinal fluid for active syphilis was elaborated in
1906 by Wassermann, Neisser and Bruck. It depends on the fact
well-known to bacteriologists that foreign organic substances, e.g.,
disease germs in the body, stimulate the formation of compounds
(which appear in the blood) designed to destroy the foreign or-
ganic substances or germs (see IMMUNITY). These anti-bodies
effect their purpose with the aid of a substance present in prac-
tically all blood sera and known as complement. Bqrdet and
Gengou, by devising a simple test for complement, showed that,
WASTE
401
in the process, complement was put out of action.
Wassermann, Neisscr and Bruck adapted the Bordet-Gengou
phenomenon to the purpose of detecting anti-syphilitic substance
in the blood serum. They found that, in a mixture of (a) extract
of liver of an infant dead of syphilis (which they regarded as ex-
tract of the germs of syphilis — Spirochaeta pallida — with which
the liver was stuffed), (b) fresh serum of a guinea-pig — comple-
ment— , and (c) serum (previously heated to destroy its natural
complement) of a syphilitic person, the complement was put out
of action, and that this did not occur when serum of a normal
person was substituted for that of a syphilitic. Thus they demon-
strated, as they thought, anti-spirochaeta-pallida substance in the
blood of the syphilitic person and inferred from this that a
similar phenomenon in any serum would prove syphilitic infection.
Later discoveries showed that extract of such an organ as nor-
mal heart of any animal would serve in the test as well as syphilitic
liver, and it is now believed that the test does not discover anti-
spirochaeta-pallida substances, but anti-bodies to tissue cells
which have degenerated in consequence of the action of Sp. pallida
and act as foreign organic substances. The reliability of the test
can best be described in the words of a committee of the Medical
Research Council as follows :
There is no process of biochemical diagnosis that pives more trust-
worthy information or is liable to a smaller margin of error than
the Wassermann test when it is performed with completeness and
with proper skill and care.
The percentages of cases of syphilis which give positive re-
actions to the Wassermann test vary with different pathologists,
who have modified the original technique considerably — in the
preparation of the extract, the. proportions of the different re-
agents to one another and the periods during which they are
allowed to interact, but broadly the reaction is negative for the
first fortnight after appearance of the primary syphilitic lesion,
and is positive in almost TOO per cent of cases by the end of a
month or six weeks. In older cases with outward signs of active
syphilis the percentage is almost as high, but in those with no
obvious signs (latent syphilis) it is rather lower. Treatment, in
the early stages usually converts the reaction to negative in a
few weeks, but in later stages a persistently positive reaction is
very common. A negative reaction does not prove cure or absence
of the disease, and suspension of treatment when the reaction first
disappears is commonly followed by relapse, a fact which the
general public often does not realise. The reaction may be negative
in the blood serum but positive in the spinal fluid, and vice versa.
Other Serum Tests for Syphilis. — The great complexity of
the Wassermann test has stimulated research to discover a
simpler, and there are now a number, of which the chief are the
Sachs-Gcorgi, the Meinicke, the Sigma, the Verncs and the Kahn.
They differ considerably in technique and quality, but all depend
on the fact that, when a syphilitic serum is brought into contact
with an extract of heart, flocculi appear sooner or later in the
mixture, or it becomes more turbid. The reliability of these
flocculation tests and their value in comparison with one another
are not yet decided, but the better of them are practically as
reliable as the Wassermann and give higher percentages of posi-
tive reactions in syphilis. Since, however, a syphilitic serum may
give a positive reaction to the Wassermann but negative to a
flocculation test, and vice versa, it is now a common practice to
test every specimen of serum by the Wassermann and by one or
more of the flocculation methods. (L. W. H.)
WASTE, a term used in English law in several senses, of
which four arc the most important, (i) "Waste of a manor" is
that part of a manor subject to rights of common, as distin-
guished from the lord's demesne (sec COMMONS, MANOR). (2)
"Year, day, and waste" was a part of the royal prerogative, ac-
knowledged by a statute of Edward 11., De Pratro saliva Regis.
The king had the profits of freehold lands of those attainted of
felony and petit treason, and of fugitives, for a year and a day
with a right of committing waste in sense (3) thereon. After the
expiration of a year and a day the lands returned to the lord of
the fee. This species of waste was abolished by the Corruption
of Blood Act 1814 (see FELONY, TREASON). (3) The most usual
signification of the word is "any unauthorized act of a tenant, for
a freehold estate not of inheritance, or for any lesser interest,
which substantially alters the permanent character of the thing
demised (i.) by diminishing its value, (ii.) by increasing the
burden on it, (iii.) by impairing the evidence of title and thereby
injuring the "inheritance" (West Ham Charity Board v. East
London W.W., 1900, i Ch. 624, 637; cf. Pollock on Torts, 357).
Waste in sense (3) is either voluntary or permissive. Volun-
tary waste is by act of commission, as by pulling down a house,
wrongfully removing fixtures (q.v.), cutting down timber trees,
i.e., oak, ash, elm, 20 years old, and such other trees, e.g., beech,
as by special custom are counted timber in the district, opening
new quarries or mines (but not continuing the working of exist-
ing ones), or doing anything which may — for this is the modern
test — alter the nature of the thing demised, such as conversion of
arable into meadow land. Although an act may technically be
waste, it will not as a rule constitute actionable waste, or be
restrained by injunction, in the absence of some prohibitive
stipulation if it is "ameliorating," i.e., if it improves the value of
the land demised (see Mcnx v. Cobley, 1892, 2 Ch. 253, 263).
In the case of "timber estates" upon which trees of various kinds
arc cultivated solely for their produce and the profit gained from
their periodical felling and cutting, the timber is not considered
as part of the inheritance but as the annual fruits of the estate,
and an exception arises in favour of the tenant for life (see Dash-
wood v. Magniac, 1891, 3 Ch. 306). Under the Settled Land Act
19:5, a tenant for life may grant building, mining, forestry and
other leases for the prescribed terms "for any purpose whatever,
whether involving waste or not" (s. 41) and is also protected as
regards waste, in the execution and repair of improvements (s. 89).
Permissive waste is by act of omission, such as allowing buildings
to fall out of repair. A "fennor" — a term which here includes "all
who held by lease for life or lives, or for years by deed or without
deed" by the statute of Maryborough (1267) — may not commit
waste without licence in writing from the reversioner.
Acts of equitable waste were, before 1875, not cognizable in
courts of common law. However, by the provisions of the
Law of Property Act 1925 (s. 135) an equitable interest for life
without impeachment of waste does not confer upon the tenant
for life any right to commit equitable waste, unless an intention
to confer such right expressly appears in the instrument creating
the equitable interest. A copy-holder may not commit waste
unless allowed to do so by the custom of the manor. The penalty
for waste is forfeiture of the copy -hold; Galhraitk v. Poynton,
1905, 2 K.B. 258 (see COPY-HOLD). The Agricultural Holdings
Act 1923, by reason of provisions giving compensation for im-
provement as regards the holdings to which it applies, overrides
some of the old common law doctrines as to waste.
(4) "Waste of assets" or "devastavit" is a squandering and
misapplication of the estate and effects of a deceased person by
his executors or administrators (sec EXECUTORS AND ADMINIS-
TRATORS, and Administration of Estates Act 1925, s. 29). Exec-
utors and administrators may now be sued in the county court
for waste of assets (County Courts Act 1888, s. 95).
Remedies /or Waste. — The landlord is entitled to compensa-
tion for deterioration in the value of a holding by the failure of
the tenant to cultivate according to the rules of good husbandry
or the contract of tenancy (s. 10). Sea also Landlord and Tenant
Act 1927 (s. ii). Proceedings may be taken either by action for
damages, or by application for an injunction, or by both combined,
and either in the king's bench or in the chancery divisions. See
Supreme Court of Judicature (Consolidation) Act 1925, s. 45.
The law of waste as it affects ecclesiastical benefices will be
found under DILAPIDATIONS.
Scotland. — In Scots law "waste'' is not used as a technical
term, but the respective rights of fiar and life-renter arc much
the same as in England. As a general rule, a life-renter has no
right to cut timber, even though planted by himself. An exception
is admitted in the case of coppice wood, which is cut at regular
intervals and allowed to grow ag<jin from the roots. Grown timber
is also available to the life-renter for the purpose of keeping up
the estate or repairing buildings. Before making use of mature
402
WATCHES
timber for estate purposes, the life-renter should give notice to
the fiar. He is also entitled to the benefit of ordinary windfalls.
Extraordinary windfalls are treated as grown timber. Life-renters
by "constitution" (i.e., by grant from the proprietor) as opposed
to life-renters by "reservation" (where the proprietor has reserved
the life-rent to himself in conveying the fee to another) have,
as a rule, no right to coals or minerals underground if they are
not expressed in the grant or appear to have been intended by
a testator to pass by his settlement, for they are paries soli.
Where coals or minerals are expressed in the grant, and also in
cases of life-rent by "reservation," the life-renter may work any
mine which had been opened before the beginning of his right,
provided he does not employ a greater number of miners, or
bring up a greater quantity of minerals, than the unburdened
proprietor did. AH life-renters are entitled to such minerals as
are required for domestic use and estate purposes.
British PoueMions*— French law (u. i.) is in force in Mauri-
tius, and has been followed in substance in the civil codes of
Quebec (art. 455) and St. Lucia (art. 406). In most of the
other colonies the rules of English law arc followed, and in many
of them there has been legislation on the lines of the English
Settled Land Acts. In India the law as to waste is included to
some extent in the Transfer of Property Act (No. IV. of 1882)
and its amendments. Section 108 deals with the liabilities of
lessees for waste, which may be varied by the terms of the lease
or by local usage. The liabilities for waste of persons having
under Hindu or Mohammedan law limited interests in reality
depend in the main upon those laws, not on Indian statutes.
United Statctw— Following the general principle that the com-
mon law was applicable only in so far as it served American
needs, American courts adapted the common law doctrine of waste
to the requirements of a continuously expanding country. The
application of the English law of waste wad thus restricted to
stimulate the development of the land by the tenant in possession.
Good husbandry upon his part was the criterion by which the
character of his acts as waste was determined. The conversion
of meadow and wood land into arable land was thus permissible.
In view of the quantity of land available for use by simply clear-
Ing away the timber, cutting timber for the purpose of cultivating
the soil was not regarded as waste. With the disappearance of
pioneer conditions, except in the far western States, a tendency
toward greater stringency in the application of the doctrine of
waste is apparent. This is particularly noticeable in such highly
industrialized States as those of the northern Atlantic seaboard.
The difference, however, lies largely in a change in the character of
what good husbandry demands, rather than a change in the legal
principle. The remedy for waste lies either by an action at law for
damages due to waste or by an injunction to restrain further
waste and to compel an accounting for the waste done. Few cases
in which the old common law action for forfeiture of the tenancy
because of waste are to be found in the American reports.
Europe.— The French Civil Code provides (art. 591) that
the usufructuary may cut timber in plantations that are laid out
for cutting, and arc cut at regular intervals, although he is bound
to follow the example of former proprietors as to quantity and
times. This provision is in force in Belgium (Civil Code, art.
591). Analogous provisions are to be found in the civil codes of
Holland (art. 814), Spain (art. 485), Italy (art. 486), and cf.
the German Civil Code, art. 1036.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— English law: W. Woodfall, Laiv of Landlord and
Tenant (1802) ; W. A. Bewes, Law of Waste (1894) ; W. M. Fawcett,
Law of Landlord and Tenant (1900) ; E. Foa, Relationship of Land-
lord and Tenant (1924). Scots law: J. Erskinc, Principles (1911);
W. M. Gloag and R. C. Henderson, Introd. to Scots Law (1927).
Irish law: F. Nolan and R. R. Kane, Statutes relating to the Law of
Landlord and Tenant in Ireland (1898) ; J. O. Wylie and L. S. Eiffe,
Judicature Acts, 1877, 1878 (1881). American law: H. T. Tiffany, Real
Property (ad ed. 1920). Indian law: H. H. Shephard and K. Brown,
Commentaries on Indian Transfer of Property Act 1882 (1910).
(A. W. R.)
WATCHES. The word watch by derivation means that which
keeps observation. It is thus the term for the body of persons
who patrolled the streets, called the hours, and performed the
duties of the modern police. The application of the term to a
FIG. i.— FORM OF EARLY WATCH
FROM 16TH CENTURY ONWARDS.
SHOWING OO.NG BARREL AND
period of time is due to the military division of the night by the
Greeks and Romans into watches marked by the change of sen-
tries; similarly, on shipboard, time is also reckoned by watches,
and the crew is divided into two portions, the starboard and port
watches, taking duty alternately.
The invention of portable timepieces dates from the end of the
1 5th century, and the earliest manufacture of them was in Ger-
many. They were originally small clocks with mainsprings en-
closed in boxes; sometimes they
were of a globular form and
were often called "Nuremberg
eggs." Being too large for the
pocket they were frequently hung
from the girdle. The difficulty
with these early watches was the
inequality of action of the main-
spring. An attempt to remedy
this was provided by a contriv-
ance called the stack-freed, which
was little more than a sort of
rude auxiliary spring. The prob-
lem was solved about the years
1-40 by the invention of the
By this contrivance the
mainspring is made to turn a
barrel on which is wound a piece of catgut, which in the latter part
of the 1 6th century was replaced by a chain. The other end, of the
catgut band is wound upon a spiral drum, so contrived that as the
spring runs down and becomes weaker, the leverage on the axis
of the spiral increases, and thus gives a stronger impulse to the
works (fig. i).
In early watches the escapement was the same as in early clocks,
namely, a crown wheel and pallets with a balance ending in small
weights. Such an escapement was, of course, very imperfect, for
since the angular force acting on the balance does not vary with
the displacement, the time of oscillation varies with the arc, and
this again varies with every variation of the driving force. An
immense improvement was therefore effected when the hair-spring
was added to the balance, which was replaced by a wheel. This
was done about the end of the i7th century. During the i8th
century a series of escapements were invented to replace the old
crown wheel, ending in the chronometer escapement, and though
great improvements in detail have since been made, yet the watch,
even as it is to-day, may be called an 18th-century invention.
The watches of the i6th century were usually enclosed in cases
ornamented with the beautiful art of that period. Sometimes the
case was fashioned like a skull, and the watches were made in (he
form of octagonal jewels, crosses, purses, little books, dogs, sea-
shells, etc., in almost every instance being finely engraved. Queen
Elizabeth was very fond of receiving presents, and a number of
the gifts presented to her were jewelled watches.
The man to whom watch-making owes perhaps <the most was
Thomas Tompion (1639—1713), who invented the first dead-beat
escapement for watches. But a defect remained, namely, the in-
fluence of temperature upon the hair-spring of the balance-wheel.
Many attempts were made to provide a remedy. But the best
solution of the problem was ultimately proposed by Pierre le Roy
(1717-85) and perfected by Thomas Earnshaw (1749-1829).
This was to diminish the inertia of the balance-wheel in propor-
tion to the increase of temperature, by means of the unequal
expansion of the metals composing the rim.
Invention in watches was greatly stimulated by the need of a
good timepiece for finding longitudes at sea, and many successive
rewards were offered by the Government for watches which would
keep accurate time and yet be able to bear the rocking motion of
a ship. The difficulty ended by the invention of the chronometer,
which was so perfected towards the early part of the igth cen-
tury as to have even now undergone but little change of form. In
fact the only great triumph of later years has been the invention of
watch-making machinery, whereby the price is so lowered that an
excellent watch (in a brass case) can now be purchased for about
£2, and a really accurate timekeeper for about £18.
WATCHES
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THE MODERN WATCH
A modern watch consists of a case and framework containing
the four essential parts of every timepiece, namely, a mainspring
and apparatus for winding it up, a train of wheels with hands and
a face, an escapement and a balance-wheel and hair-spring.
The Mainspring.-— As has been said, the mainspring of an old-
fashioned watch was provided with a drum and fusee so as to
equalize its action on the train. An ar-
rangement was provided to prevent over-
winding, consisting of a hook which, when
the chain was nearly wound up, was pushed
aside so as to engage a pin, and thus pre-
vent further winding (see fig. i). Another
arrangement for watches without a fusee,
Fie. 2.— -WATCH WITH C9\\^ a Geneva stop, consists of a wheel
working into another with only four or five
teeth. This allows the barrel arbour only to be turned round four
or five times.
The going barrel, which is fitted to most modern watches, con-
tains no fusee, but the spring is delicately made to diminish in size
from one end to the other, and it is wound up for only a few
turns, so that the force derived from it does not vary very sub-
stantially. The unevenness of drive is sought to be counteracted
by the construction of the escapement and balance-wheel.
Watch Escapements. — The escapements that have come into
practical use are — (i) the old vertical escapement, now disused;
(2) the lever, very much the most common in English watches;
(3) the horizontal or cylinder, which is equally common in for-
eign watches, though it was of English invention; (4) the duplex,
which used to be more in fashion for first-rate watches than it is
now; and (5) the detached or chronometer escapement, so-called
because it is always used in marine chronometers.
The vertical escapement is simply the old verge adapted to the
position of the wheels in a watch and the balance, in the manner
exhibited in fig. 2. As it requires considerable thickness in the
watch, is inferior in going to all the others and is no cheaper than
the level escapement, it has gone out of use.
The lever escapement, as it is now universally made, was
adopted late in the i8th century by Thomas "Mudge. (Fig. 3.)
Figure 4 is a plan of the horizontal or cylinder escapement,
cutting through the cylinder, which is on the verge of the balance,
at the level of the tops of the teeth of the esc ape -wheel ; the
triangular pieces, A, B, are not flat projections in the same plane
as the teeth, but are raised on short stems above the plane of the
wheel; and still more of the cylinder than the portion shown at
ACD is cut away where the wheel itself has to pass. The author
of this escapement was G. Graham. The
Swiss watches have almost universally the
horizontal escapement. It is found that —
for some reason which is apparently un-
known, as the rule certainly does not hold
in cases seemingly analogous — a steel
scape-wheel acts better in this escapement
than a brass one, although in some other
cases steel upon steel, or even upon a ruby,
very soon throws off a film of rust, unless
they are kept well oiled, while brags and
steel or stone, will act with scarcely any
oil at all, or none.
The chronometer or detached escape-
meat is shown in fig. 5 in the form to
which it was brought by Earnshaw, and in which it has remained
ever since. The early history of escapements on this principle
does not seem to be very clear. They appear to have originated
in France; but there is no doubt that they were considerably im-
proved by the first Arnold (John), who died in 1799. Earnshaw 's
watches, however, generally beat his in trials.
In fig. 5 the small tooth or cam V, on the verge of the balance,
is just on the point of unlocking the detent D T from the tooth
T of the scape- wheel; and the tooth A will immediately begin to
give the impulse on the pallet P, which in good chronometers, is
FlO. 3.— THE LEVER ES-
CAPEMENT
always a jewel set in the cylinder ; the tooth V is also a jewel. This
part of the action is so evident as to require no further notice.
When the balance returns, the tooth V has to get past the end of
the detent, without disturbing it; for, as soon as it has been un-
locked, it falls against the banking-pin E, and is ready to receive
the next tooth B, and must stay there until it is again unlocked.
It ends, or rather begins, in a stiffish spring, -which is screwed to
the block D on the watch frame, so that it moves without any
friction of pivots, like a pendulum. The passing is done by means
of another spring V T, called the passing
spring, which can be pushed away from
the body of the detent towards the left,
but not the other way without carrying
the detent with it.
The Balance-wheel and Hair-spring.
— -This consists of a small wheel, usually
of brass, to which is affixed a spiral, or in
chronometers a helical spring. This wheel
swings through an angle of from 180° to
270° and its motions are approximately
FlG. 4." MODERN CYLIN-
OER ESCAPEMENT
isochronous. The time of the watch can be regulated by an arm
to which is attached a pair of pins which embrace the hair-spring
at a point near its outer end, and by the movement of which the
spring can be lengthened or shortened. The first essential in a
balance-wheel is that its centre of gravity should be exactly in the
axis, and that the centre of gravity of the hair-spring should also
be in the axis of the balance-wheel. True isochronism is disturbed
by variations in the driving force of the train or by variations in
temperature, and also by variations in barometric pressure. Isoch-
ronism is produced in the first place by a proper shape of the
spring and its overcoil. It is usual to time the watch's going when
the mainspring is partly wound up, as well as when it is fully
wound up, and then by removing parts of the hair-spring to get
such an adjustment that the rate is not influenced by the lesser
or greater extent to which the watch has been wound. The varia-
tions in length and still more in elasticity caused in a hair-spring
by changes of temperature were for long not only a trouble to
watchmakers but a bar to the progress of the art. A pendulum
requires scarcely any compensation except for its own elongation
by heat; but a balance requires compensation, not only for its
own expansion, which increases its moment of inertia just Wke
the pendulum, but far mo$e on account of the decrease in/ the
strength of the spring under increased heat. E. G. Dent,/in a
pamphlet on compensation balances, gave the following result!
of some experiments with a glass balance,
which he used for the purpose on account
of its less expansibility than a metal Jone:
at 32° F, 3,606 vibrations in an hflKir; at
66°, 3,598-5; and at 100°, 3,599. F' there-
fore, it had been adjusted to go fight (or
3,600 times in an hour) at 32°
have lost 7^ and 8-J seconds an
more than three minutes a day,
successive increase of 34°, which is\ about
15 times as much as a common wire pen-
dulum would lose under the same increase
of heat; and if a metal balance had been
Fio. s.— CHRONOMETER used instead of a glass one the difference
ESCAPEMENT WQuld baye be<m stm greater.
The necessity for this large amount of compensation having
arisen from the variation of the elasticity of the spring, the first
attempts at correcting it were by acting on the spring itself in the
manner of a common regulator, Harrison's compensation con-
sisted of a compound bar of brass and steel soldered together,
having one end fixed to the watch-frame and the other carrying
two curb pins which embraced the spring. As the brass expands
more than the steel, any increase of heat made the bar bend;
and so, if it was set the right way, it carried the pins along the
spring, so as to shorten it. This contrivance is called a compensa-
tion curb; and it has often been reinvented, or applied in a modi-
fied form. But there are two objections to it: the motion of the
curb pins does not correspond accurately enough to the variations
404
WATCHES
in the force of the spring, and it disturbs the isochronism, which
only subsists at certain definite lengths of the spring.
Compensation Balance. — The compensation which was next
invented left the spring untouched, and provided for the varia-
tions of temperature by the construction of the balance itself.
Fig. 6 shows the plan of the ordinary compensation balance. Each
portion of the rim of the balance is composed of an inner bar of
it, and carrying the weights b, b, which are
screwed to it. As the steel with an outer
one of brass soldered, or rather melted,
upon temperature increases, the brass ex-
panding must bend the steel inwards, and
so carries the weights farther in, and
diminishes the moment, of inertia of the
balance, the decrease of rate being in-
versely as the diameter of the balance-
wheel. The metals are generally soldered FIG. 6.— THE TEMPERA-
together by pouring melted brass round a T u R E COMPENSATION
solid steel disk, and the whole is after- BALANCE
wards turned and filed away till it leaves only the crossbar in the
middle lying flat and the two portions of the rim standing edge-
ways. The first person to practise this method of uniting them
appears to have been either Thomas Earnshaw or Pierre le Roy.
The adjustment of a balance for temperature compensation can
only be done by trial, and requires a good deal of time. It must
be done independently of the compensation for time. It is effected
by shifting the weights, because the nearer they are to the cross-
bar the less distance they will move over as the rim bends with
them. The timing is done by screws with heavy heads (/,/, fig. 6),
which are just opposite to the ends of the crossbar, and conse-
quently not affected by the bending of the rim; other screws are
also provided round the rim for adjusting the moment of inertia
and centre of gravity of the balance-wheel. The compensation
may be done approximately by the known results of previous
experience with similar balances; and many watches are sold with
compensation balances which have never been tried or adjusted,
and even with a sham compensation balance, not cut through.
A few chronometers have been made with glass balance-springs,
which have the advantage of requiring very little primary and no
secondary compensation, on account of the very small variation
in their elasticity, compared with steel or other metal.
Use of Invar. — One of the mosV important and interesting
attempts to correct the temperature errors of a hair-spring by a
series of corresponding tempera- ( ~ — 1
turc changes in the moment of
inertia of the balance-wheel has
been made by means of the use
of the nickel-steel compound
called invar, which, on account of
its very small coefficient of ex-
pansion, has been of great use for
pendulum rods. In a memoir
published in 1904 at Geneva, Dr.
Charles Guillaume, the inventor
of invar, shows that in order to
get a true secondary compensa-
tion what is wanted is a material
having the property of causing
the curve of the rim of the wheel
or ART
FIG. 7.— THE WATCH WHICH LOUIS
XIII OF FRANCE PRESENTED TO
CHARLES 1 OF ENGLAND, SHOWING
to change at an increasing rate as OBVERSE, REVERSE AND SIDE AP.
compared with changes in the PEARANCE
temperature. This is found in those specimens of invar in which
the second coefficient of expansion is negative, i.e., which are less
dilatable at higher temperatures than at lower ones. It is satis-
factory to add that such balance-wheels have been tried success-
fully on chronometers, and notably in a deck watch by Paul Diti-
sheim of Neuchatcl, who has made a chronometer with a tour-
billon escapement and an invar balance-wheel, which when made
held the highest record ever obtained by a watch of its class.
It is obvious that in order that a watch may keep good time
the centre of gravity of the balance-wheel and hair-spring must
be exactly in the axis; for if this were not the case, then the
wheel would act partly like a pendulum, so that the time would
vary according as the watch was placed in different positions. It
is exceedingly difficult to adjust a watch so that these "position
errors" are eliminated. Accordingly it has been proposed to neu-
tralize their effect by mounting the balance-wheel and hair-spring
upon a revolving carriage which shall slowly rotate, so that in
succession every possible position of the balance-wheel and spring
is assumed, and thus errors are averaged and mutually destroy
one another. This is called the
tourbillon escapement. There are
several forms of it, often con-
tributing to "excellent time.
Stop Watches. — Stop watches
or chronographs arc of several
kinds. In the usual and simplest
form there is a centre seconds
hand which normally remains, at
rest, but which, when the
winding handle is pressed in,
is linked on to the train of
the watch and begins
COURTESY OF THE MTTROPOUTAN MUSEU
FlG. 8. — THE SILVER GILT SKULL
to COUIlt WATCH OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
seconds, usually by fifths. A second pressure arrests its path,
enabling the time to be taken since the start. A third pres-
sure almost instantaneously brings the seconds hand back to
zero, this result being effected by means of a heart-shaped cam
which when a lever presses on it instantaneously flies round to
zero position. The number of complete revolutions of the seconds
hand, i.e., minutes, is recorded on a separate dial.
Calendar work on watches is, of course, fatal to great accuracy
of time-keeping, and is very complicated. A watch is made to
record days of the week and month, and to take account of leap
years usually by the aid of star-wheels with suitable pauls and
stops. The type of this mechanism is to be found in the calendar
motion of an ordinary grandfather's clock.
Watches have also been made containing small musical boxes
and arranged with performing figures on the dials. Repeaters are
striking watches which can be made at will to strike the hours
and either the quarters or the minutes, by pressing a handle which
winds up a striking mechanism. They were much in vogue as a
means of discovering the time in the dark before the invention
of lucifer matches, when to obtain a light
by means of flint and steel was a trouble-
some affair. A very beautiful watch of this
type is shown in the plate. It contains a
minute barrel fitted with pins which as the
barrel rotates strike or rather flip across
the teeth of a minute comb. The whole
thing is a marvellous specimen of hand
skill. Minute work of this sort is now not
much in use. It used to be thought that it
ruined the eyes of the workmen. Hut it
appears that fine work of all sorts can be
done without injury to the eyes, if only
proper magnifying glasses are used.
A watch shown in the plate is an exam-
ple of early 18th-century work. It has SHAPED WATCH BELONG-
only one hand but two dials on the face. ING TO BOGISLAUS xiv.
It is enclosed in a separate case as was DUKE OF POMERANIA
usual with early watches. It has a crown BEAR1NG THE DATE- 1627
escapement. These crown escape wheels were abandoned and
replaced by the more accurate "lever." On the same plate is also
shown a clock with an enamelled painted dial and a windmill with
movable arms.
MODERN WATCH MAKING
From what has been said it will be seen that for many years
the form of escapements and balance-wheels has not greatly al-
tered. The great improvements which modern science has been
able to effect in watches are chiefly in the use of new metals and
in the employment of machinery, which, though they have altered
the form but little, have effected an enormous revolution in the
price. The cases of modern watches are made sometimes of steel,
artificially blackened, sometimes of compounds of aluminium and
ITAN MUSEUM OF ART
F I G. 9.™ T HE BOOK-
WATCHES
405
copper, known as aluminium gold. Silver is at present being less
employed than formerly. The hair-springs are often of palladium
in order to render the watch non-magnetizable. An ordinary
watch, if the wearer goes near a dynamo, will probably become
magnetized and quite useless for time-keeping. One of the simplest
cures for this accident is to twirl it rapidly round while retreating
from the dynamo and to continue the motion till at a considerable
distance. The use of invar has been already noticed.
The forms given to watches have exercised the ingenuity of the
most splendid artists. They have been enclosed in fanciful cases
representing deaths' heads and all sorts of sacred emblems. They
have been ornamented by movable figures and in some of them
little chimes have been inserted, but the tendency of modern days
is rather in favour of utility than beauty. One of the most inter-
esting centres of watch-making is to be found at Neuchatel in
Switzerland. There on a ridge of mountains overlooking the valley
is a row of watch-making factories. -They are provided with water-
power during the summer and in winter they use gas-engines. A
large amount of the work is done by industries in the homes.
The people have been watch-makers for generations. To them it
is a family trade. A visit to this interesting locality would show
how possible it is to unite work done with the highest scientific
appliances and happy family life. Splendid schools arc provided
where the engineering of watch-making is thoroughly taught and
inspection of the factories will show how effectively scientific
engineering can be made applicable to factory work.
The use of jewelled bearings for watch pivots was introduced
by Nicholas Facio about the beginning of the i8th century. Dia-
monds and sapphires are usually employed and pierced either
by diamond drills or by drills covered with diamond dust. Rubies
are not a very favourite stone for jewels, but as they and sapphires
can now be made artificially for about two shillings a carat the
difficulty of obtaining material for watch jewelling is met.
Watches have also been fitted with machinery whereby electric
contacts are made by them at intervals, so that if wires are led to
and away from them, they can be made to give electric signals
and thus mark dots at. regular intervals on a moving strip of paper.
Watch Testing. — As in the case of clocks, the accuracy of go-
ing of a watch is estimated by observation of the variations of its
mean daily rate. In Great Britain, this is officially done at Kew
Observatory, near Richmond, and also for admiralty purposes at
Greenwich. At. Richmond watches are divided into two classes,
A and B. For an A certificate the trials last for 45 days, and
include tests in temperatures varying from 40° to 90° F, going in
every position with dial vertical, face up and face down. The
average daily departure from the mean daily rate, that, is the
average error due to irregular departures from the average going
rate, must not exceed 2 set ond.s a day except where due to posi-
tion, when it may amount to 5 seconds. The error should not
increase more than 0-3 second a day for each i° F. The trial for
the B certificate is somewhat similar but less severe. Chronom-
eters are put through trials lasting 55 days, and their average
error from mean rate is expected not to exceed 0-5 second per
diem. The fees for these tests are various sums from two guineas
downwards. In estimating the timekeeping qualities of a watch or
clock, the error or rate is of secondary consequence. It is due to
the time-keeper going too fast or too slow, and this can easily be
corrected. What is wanted for a good watch is that the rate,
whatever it is, shall be constant. The daily error is of less account
provided it is a uniform daily error and not an irregular one.
Hence the object of the trials is to determine not merely the daily
rate but the variations of the daily rate, and on the smallness of
these the value of the watch as a time-keeper depends.
Machine-made Watches. — Briefly that every part is stamped
out of metal. The stamped pieces are then finished by cutters and
with milling machinery. Each machine as a rule only does one
operation, so that a factory will contain many hundreds of differ-
ent sorts of machines. The modern watchmaker, therefore, is not
so much of an art craftsman as an engineer. The effect of making
all the parts of a watch by machinery is that each is interchange-
able, so that one part will fit any watch. It is not an easy thing
to secure this result, for as the machines arc used the cutting edges
wear down and require rcgrinding and resetting. Hence a tool is
not allowed to make more than a given quantity of parts without
being examined and readjusted, and from time to time the pieces
being put out are tested with callipers. The parts thus made are
put in groups and sorted into boxes, which are then given over to
the watch-adjusters, who put the parts together and make the
watch go. The work of adjustment for common watches is a
simple matter. But expert adjusters select their pieces, measure
them and correct errors with their tools. The finest watches are
thus largely machine-made, but hand-finished. The prejudice
against machine-made watches has been very strong in England,
but is dying out — not before much of the trade has been lost to
the country. A flourishing watch industry exists in Switzerland in
the neighbourhood of Neuchatel. A watch in a stamped steel
case can now be made for about five shillings.
When one considers that watch and clock-making is capable of
affording employment to thousands of artisans, that it is healthy,
and above all that a considerable part of the work can be done
by girls without any interruption to their home life, and again
when one thinks of the millions of labourers over the world who
have not got watches but who now can afford to purchase them,
it seems very desirable that every effort should be made to en-
courage this industry. One of the wisest acts done by Voltaire was
when he introduced watch-making into Switzerland, for a nation
in which there are men and women trained to dexterity with
the fingers, possesses an asset that may be very valuable in view
of the ever increasing demand for delicate mechanisms.
Watch Imports Into United Kingdom. — The importation
of watches into the United Kingdom is very large, although it
was severely hit by an import duty of 33.\%. In 1925 the British
importation of watches and parts of watches was valued at
£2,161,000; in 1926 it fell to a value of £961,000. The export of
British-made watches is negligible, amounting in 1925 to a value
of £13,000 and in 1926 to £24,000. (H. H. C.)
MASS PRODUCTION OF WATCHES
The use of duplicating machinery for watchmaking began in
America with Henry Pitkin of Hartford, Conn., in 1838, but with
no stress on intcrchangcability. The American Walt ham Watch-
Company early in 1853, in Boston, produced watches in quantity.
This was the parent organization of some 30 odd American fac-
tories, of which, in 1928, only the Elgin, Hamilton, Illinois, How-
ard and South Bend factories existed, producing from about 100
to some 4,000 watches each, or a total of 8,000 to 10,000 per day,
over 3,000,000 per year. The present-day automatic machinery
has been developed by many inventors and designers among whom
are Sherwood, Webster, Marsh, Stratton, Moseley, Woerd, Hart,
Church, Ohlson and Gabriel.
Modern Methods.— -There have been two rather different
routes to mass production of watches; (i) following the making
of the conventional watch; and (2) making little clocks smaller
and smaller, but essentially along lines developed in mass pro-
duction of clocks (q.r.). The pioneer unit of mass production
in cheap watches was the Waterhury watch (about 1890), but it
had a short-lived popularity because of the greater amount of
time required in winding its 8 ft. mainspring. The production of
these watches exceeded 500,000 per year.
The New Haven Clock Company then began making a clock
wound from the back, small enough to be carried in the pocket,
and this was followed by a smaller one by the Waterbury Clock
Company. It was due, however, to the merchandising genius of
Robert H. Ingersoll that enormous production has come into
being. His business passed in 1922 to the Waterbury Clock Com-
pany. Other companies followed and of those in America con-
tinuing in 1928 the Western Clock Manufacturing Company, the
Ingraham Company, the New Haven Clock Company and the
Ingersoll Watch Company, each produce daily from 5,000 to
14,000 watches or a total of about 10,000,000 p)er year. The size
of the cheap watch has been reduced from an 18 to a 12 and even
to a 6 size. An o size, wrist watch has been manufactured. (The
sizes of movements are designated by 3oths of an inch over the
o size which is I3fl0 inches.)
406
WATER
Recent Improrements,— Many improvements have been
made in the design of cases, by chromium plating and luminous
dials. While each factory has its own processes in detail, the
example from one factory in which there are 117 pieces is de-
scribed here as being fairly typical. Forty of these pieces arc
made on screw machines, 38 in presses and 39 on forming or head-
ing machines. The frame plates are blanked from sheet brass at
the rate of 25,000 to 50,000 per day per machine, pierced 15,000
to 16,000, reamed 2,000 to 3,500 and finished 12,000 to 14,000.
The wheels stamped finished from sheet brass by compound sub
press dies come through at a rate of 50,000 to 100,000 per day.
In this press the holes are pressed downward and the wheel up-
ward simultaneously, the severed parts coming back in original
position so that the sheet may be pushed onward for duplications.
The small toothed wheels (pinions), are produced in three ways:
(1) by milling the teeth from a solid blank in a screw machine;
(2) by turning down for arbor and pivots from pinion rod (which
has been produced by a drawing process giving the proper shape
of teeth); and (3) the lantern pinion, in which two brass collets
on the arbor carry into proper holes short steel wires as teeth.
A screw machine will produce from 800 to 1,500, and a pinion
milling machine from 500 to 3,000 per day. In the lantern pinions
the arbor of wire of proper size has pivots turned on it by an
automatic screw machine at a rate of 2,000 to 3,000 per day. The
collets will then produce from 3,000 to 5.000 partly finished
pinions. These go from a hopper to an automatic drilling machine
which drills through one collet and partially through another the
circle of holes for the short wires at 3.000 to 5.000 per day.
Dials are punched from sheet brass, buffed, plated, wire-brushed
and lacquered. The numerals are applied by a rubber roller taking
ink from multiple electros and with this press two operators will
produce from 5.000 to 8,000 dials per day. Hands made from
steel or from nickel silver for holding luminous material, are
progressively pierced for the centre hole, swaged for the socket
and blanked in a press capable of producing over 100,000 per
day. The blueing is done in an appropriate furnace.
Time of Manufacture. — Taking another example to give a
more concrete conception of rapidity with which operations are
performed, the following outline, covering nearly all the steps in
the making of "a mass production watch," gives the equivalent
time of manufacture of one individual watch in seconds:
The back plate, involving 17 operations by 25 hands for 103
seconds; front plate, 12 operations by 7 hands, 29; barrel, 10 op-
erations, boring, levelling, turning, sizing, punching hook for
spring, assembling spring, fitting arbor and testing, 6g; centre
pinion pivoted, 29; other pinions pivoted, each 40; wheels
stamped, 0-3; staking centre wheel on pinion, 4; staking third
ami fourth wheels on pinion, cadi /; fitting centre arbor, 4;
staking escape wheel on pinion, 7; making brass screws, 105; mak-
ing steel screws, 2-5: making winding stem, 15; grinding balance
staff, 3-6; fitting balance and pinning hairspring, 51-4; drilling
for impulse pin, 4-1 ; staking impulse pin, 4-5.
Putting in balance staff, 4-8; truing wheel in press, 4-1; lining
tip, 4-5; putting on roller, 5-5; general inspection, 4; spinning,
4-3; poising balance, 18-9; assembling movement, 72; washing
movement, 4; oiling train parts, 20-5; fitting stem and winding
wheel, winding with lever not in, 4; lever put in, inspection for
end shake and winding, 45; putting on hairspring, 4-5; truing
hairspring, 17; vibrating hairspring, 91-1; setting halanre to beat,
7-2 ; putting hour hand on hour wheel, 2-4 ; putting on dial and hour
wheel, 17; putting on minute and seconds hands, 17; putting
in case, shaping hands, driving three screws and putting on tem-
porary back, 117; oiling and winding, 42-3; timing, comprising
four 24 hour runs with dial down for interference of hands,
pendant up with two-minute tolerance and another run with
permanent back and bezel on, 170; putting on permanent back
and bezel, 14-4; inspection and packing, icS-2. The making of the
case involves 16 operations, ranging from four-tenths seconds
to nine and seven-tenths seconds; total, 36 seconds.
(P.M.C.)
WATER, considered chemically, is an oxide of hydrogen hav-
ing the composition H,O (sec below), but naturally occurring
waters all contain impurities in varying degrees. Most water is
derived directly or indirectly from the ocean by evaporation, con-
densation in clouds and precipitation, as, for instance, in the form
of rain, after which, it reappears in rivers, springs, lakes, etc.
In evaporation the salts contained in the ocean are left behind,
and rain water is therefore free from these ; but it acquires traces
of ammonium salts and various gases from the air, and traces of
sulphuric acid derived from the burning of sulphur in coal, in the
neighbourhood of towns. Lake waters are relatively pure, espe-
cially in mountainous districts where pollution from animal, agri-
Cultural or industrial sources is minimised, but they may contain
considerable quantities of suspended mineral or peaty matter.
River waters acquire a variety of impurities from soils which
they traverse, from drainage of fields, and from factory and
sewage effluents, and shallow well waters are frequently vitiated
from the first two of these causes. Spring waters and deep well
waters have usually undergone a prolonged process of filtration
which tends to clarify them from suspended matter, and to purify
them from dangerous contamination, but at the same time they
acquire considerable quantities of dissolved salts.
The nitrogenous organic matter in waters is a useful indication
of contamination. Certain bacteria break down this material into
ammonia, which is slowly oxidised to nitrites and nitrates by
other bacteria. By Wanklyn's method of water analysis it is
possible to find, (i) the amount of "free or saline" ammonia,
and (2) the amount of "albuminoid" ammonia, which is a rough
index of the organic matter still undccomposed. Although the
free ammonia itself is harmless, it is an almost certain indication
of former pollution. A consideration of these two quantities, in
conjunction with the source and history of the water, is of great
value in determining its suitability for human consumption. So
many factors are involved that it is useless to give definite figures,
but it may be said that if either type of ammonia (and especially
the second) exceeds 0-005 parts per 100,000, the water is open
to suspicion, and if they exceed o-oio parts, it is probably danger-
ous. Further, the presence of nitrites in water is an almost cer-
tain indication of recent sewage contamination, otherwise nitrates
and not nitrites would be found. Prolonged aeration tends to de-
stroy the organic matter on which harmful bacteria thrive, and
boiling almost invariably renders waters safe for consumption.
The saline constituents of a water have some effect on its
potability but are more important in connection with industry.
The dissolved salts are largely those of calcium and magnesium,
which are retained in solution owing to the presence of carbon
dioxide (see CALCIUM). These salts cause "hardness," i.e., they
hinder the lathering of soap. When hard water is boiled, the car-
bon dioxide is expelled, and calcium carbonate is deposited as a
"fur" or boiler crust; the hardness due to this cause is therefore
called "temporary/* whereas that clue l.o other salts (magnesium
and calcium chlorides and sulphates') which are not thus deposited
is called "permanent." In determining "hardness" successive
small quantities of a standard soap solution are added to a known
volume of water in a bottle which is shaken after oath addition.
After a time a lather forms which has only a transitory existence,
but at a certain stage it will persist for some minutes. The volume
of soap solution necessary to secure this condition is noted, and
the hardness can then be calculated. The soap solution is usually
standardised to give hardness as parts of calcium carbonate per
100,000 parts of water, or sometimes (as in Clark's solution) in
grains per gallon (i part in 70,000). Roughly, it may be said
that a "hard" water shows more than 15 parts (or degrees) and
a "soft" water less than 5 degrees.
A water with much temporary hardness can be softened by
adding just sufficient milk of lime to combine with the excess of
carbon dioxide, whereby all the chalk is precipitated. Many water
softeners are marketed under various names, e.g., "Sofnol," "Per-
mutite"; the latter is a natural or artificial zeolite (q.v.) which
exchanges sodium for calcium when a hard water is passed over
it, and which is ''revived" by contact with brine. The purest water
ordinarily obtainable is procured by distillation (q.v.) which
leaves all solid impurities in the still.
Pure Water. — Absolutely pure water is probably unknown.
WATER-BOATMAN—WATER CHINQUAPIN
407
"Chemically pure" water of the laboratory is extremely difficult
to prepare. Ordinarily pure water is used as a standard for many
weights and measures. Thus, a gallon is denned as the volume at
62°>F of lolb. of water when weighed in air at 3oin. barometric
pressure and at 62° F. Similarly, the original kilogram was sup-
posed to be the mass of i cu.dm. of water at 4° C. (It is now
known that the kilogram is not strictly what it was supposed to
be; consequently, it has to be redefined as the mass of a particular
standard — the "kilogramme clcs archives." This means that the
litre, which is based on the kilogram, is not strictly 1,000 cu.cm.
and the tendency is to use the millilitre instead of the cubic cen-
timetre for very accurate work: i ml. = 1-000027 cu.cm. ) The
fixed points on thermometric scales are based on the melting point
of ice (o° C; 32° ¥) and the boiling point of water (100° C at
76omm. pressure; 212° F at 3oin. pressure). Specific heats are
usually referred to that of water as unity, because the unit of heat
is based on the heat capacity of water. The specific heat of water
(which is about 1% greater at. o° and at 100° than at 25°) is
greater than that of almost all other liquids (liquid ammonia is
the chief exception) ; it is owing to this property of water that
insular climates are subject to less extreme changes of tempera-
ture than continental climates.
Another remarkable property of water is its increasing density,
on being cooled, to a maximum at 4° C, after which further cool-
ing causes it to expand, and on freezing it expands rapidly. The
following are the figures of this change in density: —
Water at 10° (^0-99973
Water at 100° €=0.9585
Ice at o° C— 0-9175
Water at o° €=0-99987
Water at 4° C =1-00000 (by definition of kilogram).
The significance of this is dealt with in the article ICE.
On conversion into steam at ioo°C, one volume of water ex-
pands about 1,700 times under ordinary pressure and absorbs
538 calories per gram as "latent heat of vaporisation." Its critical
temperature is 370° C — whatever the pressure, it cannot be lique-
fied above this temperature. The peculiar ability of water to
initiate or to facilitate (i.e., to "catalyze") chemical reactions is
described in the article DRYNESS, CHEMICAL; it is ascribed by
H. E. Armstrong to its dissolution of traces of the reactants or of
"impurities" to form conducting solutions.
Constitution. — In former times, water was regarded as an
"element," and even when this term acquired its present usage
the idea was not abandoned, although water had been decomposed
in various ways. It was not until Cavendish prepared pure hydro-
gen and burnt it in air to form water that it came to be recognized
as a compound. He further showed it to be formed from 2-014
vols. of hydrogen and i vol. of oxygen, and it was only many
years later that the researches of E. W. Morley, A. Scott, Leduc,
Lord Rayleigh and others showed that this slight deviation from
the theoretical ratio (2:1) is due to the two gases showing slight
deviations from Boyle's law at ordinary pressures (see STOICHIO-
METRY). The gravimetric composition is 2-0154 parts of hydrogen
to i6«ooo parts of oxygen.
It seems probable that liquid water is a mixture of several types
of molecules (Hs.O)3 and especially (H^O), predominating. Many
of its physical properties point to such a conclusion (see ASSOCIA-
TION); thus, the latent heats of fusion and vaporisation (vide
supra) are much higher than those of most other liquids, and this
is attributed to the heat absorbed in breaking down complex into
simpler molecules. The ice molecule — possibly (H^))s — is un-
doubtedly bulky (witness the low density of ice, q.v.), and the
occurrence of a point of maximum density of water is probably
due to the normal expansion of the liquid being outweighed by the
contraction due to these (H20)3 molecules, which have persisted
in the liquid, breaking down to less bulky (HaO), molecules.
The foregoing ideas have been variously expressed by different
chemists. Thus, I. Traube postulated the existence of "gasogenic"
(simple HjO) molecules, and "liquidogenic" (complex) molecules;
and A. W. C. Menzies (1921) confirmed that steam at 100° C
contains only HsO molecules. W. Sutherland, from a considera-
tion ofVall the physical properties of ice, water and steam, as-
signed values for these properties to each of the molecular species
(HiO)., (H,X))« and H.O, and calculated that water at o°C con-
tained 37-5% of "trihydrol" and 62-5% of "dihydrol." H. E. Arm-
strong believes that, among other molecules in water, the H4O«
molecules arc of at least two types :
H\ Al H\ /OH
O- 0 '
H
/
and
MI H
MI
dihydrone (inactive) and hydronol (active), respectively. Finally,
A. Hantzsch believes water to be a basic anhydride [HaO]cO of
thq oxonium hydroxide H:,0-OH in conformity with oxonium
salts such as H;,0-C1 and the so-called ''hydrogen ion," which is
possibly H3CT (see ACIDS). (A. D. M.)
WATER-BOATMAN, an aquatic hemipterous insect of the
family Notonectidae, of which the best-known species (Notonecta
$lanca) is common in the ponds of Great Britain. The technical
name, Notonecta ("back-swimmer"), alludes to the habit of the
insect of swimming upside down, the body being propelled through
the water by powerful strokes of the hind legs, which are fringed
with hair and, when at rest, are extended laterally like a pair of
sculls in a boat. This insect is predaceous, feeding on aquatic
larvae or worms. The body is provided with special hairs which
serve to retain bubbles of air for respiration when the insect is
submerged. The eggs are laid in the stems of water plants.
WATERBUCK, a large
BY COURTESY OF THE N.Y. ZOOLOGICAL SO-
CIETY
SlNQ.SINO (COBUS DEFASSA)
Thlt animal it • »p«oi«i of watarbuok
found in West and Central Africa
South African antelope (Cobns
ellipsiprymnus) of the subfamily
Cervicaprinae, characterized by
the white elliptical ring on the
buttocks and the general reddish
grey colour of the long coarse
hair. They have heavily fringed
necks and tufted tails; long sub-
lyrate, ringed horns are carried
by the bucks only. The name is
extended to include the sing-sing
(C. defassa), a widespread spe-
cies, without the white ring. Both
species equal the red deer in size.
(See ANTELOPE.)
WATERBURY, a city of
western Connecticut, U.S.A., one
of the county seats of New
Haven county; on the Naugatuck river, 21 m. N.N.W. of New
Haven. Pop. (1920) 91,715 (33% foreign-born white); local
estimate 107,400 in 1928. It is the centre of the brass industry of
the country. Other products are clocks and watches, silverware,
files, recording instruments, machinery, chemicals and acids.
The city's assessed valuation was $164,828,901. The town of
Waterbury (settled in 1677) was set off from Farmington and
incorporated in 1686. The city was chartered in 1853, a°d in
1901 city and town were consolidated. The brass industry dates
from 1802, when the manufacture of brass buttons was begun.
Sheet brass was first made in 1830. Iron buttons covered with
silver had been made about 1760; block tin and pewter buttons
about 1800. Tall wooden clocks were made here in the latter part
of the 1 8th century. The manufacture of cheap watches was
begun in 1879; these were long distinctive of Waterbury, and were
often called "Waterbury watches." Broadcloth was first made
here in 1833.
WATER CHINQUAPIN (Nelumbium lutenm), a North
American aquatic plant of the water-lily family (Nymphaeaceae),
called also American nelumbo or lotus, rare and local in ponds
and slow streams from Connecticut to Michigan and southward
to Florida and Louisiana. It is a stout plant, rising from a hori-
zontal tuber-bearing rootstock, with large shield-shaped leaves,
i to 2 ft. across, some floating but mostly rising high out of the
water, and solitary pale-yellow flowers, 4 to 10 in. broad, borne
on long stalks usually higher than the leaves. The edible tubers
and farinaceous seeds were used for food by the Indians, who
probably introduced it into the eastern States. It is sometimes
grown in water-gardens for its ornate foliage. (See WATER-LILY.)
408
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING. The art of water-colour
has passed through a renaissance since about 1890 and has again
assumed a recognized place among the mediums of artistic ex-
pression. For many years the medium had been looked down
upon and considered unimportant, and of use only in young ladies'
"finishing schools." The 20th century has seen this mOsSt spon-
taneous of all mediums regain its eminence and vital beauty. A
small group in England, the United States and France kept the
use of water-colour alive until the present awakening, and great
water-colour societies have now grown up and become of na-
tional and international importance.
HISTORY
Ancient Chinese Art — Water-colour in its various forms
constitutes one of the finest and most permanent records of art
that has come down to us, reaching back into the 3rd century
of Chinese art, and it was also used both by the Japanese and
the East Indian artists in various forms. We find in the Chinese
art a great use of clear water-colour and some use of tempera
(q.v.). Brushes for the very fine work wore as a rule made of
sable hair; selected pig bristles were used for coarse textures. An
elaborate and adroit handling of the brush was cultivated, the re-
sult being a delicate and exquisite line; design was ranked above
colour in most of the early work. It is interesting to note that
water-colour was always used in the East to a much greater de-
gree than oil, being more delicate and of greater flexibility.
Paper and silk were the surfaces used. Paper of wood bark
came first, and then silk was made into a kind of paper but it was
found too glossy; then came a tough rice-paper. Silk was mounted
on paper and glued down to hold the colour intact and keep it
from spreading. The backing was built up by placing layers of
paper on successively, and it is said that the silk was moistened
and stretched, which seems reasonable since we stretch our fine
rag papers to-day. The ink, of course, went through, onto the
backing, making two pictures. Black ink was frequently the only
colour used, though dark brown, or sepia, appears. The most in-
teresting impressions were done in ink by the masters of the Sung
dynasty and by the Japanese of the i5th century. (See ART:
Far Eastern Methods; CHINESE PAINTING; JAPANESE PAINTING
AND PRINTS. )
Rich colour and much use of gold dominate the Buddhist pic-
tures. The masterpieces of the religious painters contain a fine
rhythm of design, which gives them a fundamental character, ex-
quisite subdued colour, and is also found in the flower designs and
birdpieces. Poetic suggestion, and not representation, was the
most important part of the Ming art, and helped to explain the
great use of water-colour. In the Sung dynasty, lampblack began
to be used, mixed with a glue made from donkey hides boiled in
water. The glue obtained is the colour of amber, glossy and odour-
less, and is mixed with black made from soot which is obtained
from imperfect combustion in the burning of dry pine or fir.
This was used to the end of the Yuan dynasty, notably by Tung
Chi-Chang, \Vu Wei and Fu Shan. This depth of colour and
glossiness was lacking in the Ming, ink as used by Shen Chau,
Tang Yin, Weu Cheng-Ming and Ch'in Ying. In the Sung work
(see Plate I.; figs, i and 2), no attempt was made at modelling;
consequently there was no trace of light and shade. The figures
stand in a flat light. Of course, this enhances the decorative effect
greatly. The following artists of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-
1 280) are the outstanding ones as far as known : Wen Tung, Tung
Chi-Ch'ang, Wu Wei, Fu Shan, Shen Chan, T'ang Yin, Wen
Cheng-Ming, Ch'in Ying, and Kuo Chung-Shu.
Japanese Art. — From the 6th century the development of
painting may be shown as follows: (i) middle of 6th to middle of
9th century: naturalization of Chinese and Chino-Buddhist Art;
(2) middle of gth to middle of i5th century: establishment of
great native schools under Rose no Kanaoka and descendants —
pure Chinese school falling into neglect; (3) i$th to latter part
of i yth century: revival of Chinese style; (4) latter part of iyth
to latter part of i8th century: popular school; (5) i8th to iQth
century: introduction of European influence — naturalistic school
— acme and decline of popular school; (6) 1875 to present: a
period of transition.
Painting began in the 5th century, brought by Nawrin from
China. By the middle of the 6th century a real art of painting,
of which Buddhism was the main theme, had begun. The art was
thereafter carried, out under Korean and Chinese immigrants.
Toward the end of the Qth century, two exotic styles of painting
flourished, and on these a native style had been founded which
featured landscape of a romantic kind, animal life, trees, flowers
and designs representing legends of olden times. The exotic
Buddhist style brought a change. Of Indian origin or influence,
it was brilliant and decorative, with a lavish use of gold, and con-
fined to representations of sacred personages and places. The
principal painters of this period, extending into the succeeding
centuries, were of the Kose, Takuma and Kasuga lines, descending
from Kanaoka, Takuma Tameuji, and Fujiwara respectively. Last
and greatest was Meicho, or Cho Densu, who died in 1427.
The beginning of the nth century shows adaptations of Chinese
canons to motives selected from poetry, court life, and legends of
Old Japan. This art was characterized by a lightly touched outline
and tinted with flat and bright body-colour. Verdigris-green domi-
nated the schemes. Important names are Fujiwara no Motomitsu
(nth century), Nobuzane and Tsunetaka (i^th century), Mit-
sunobu Osth and i6th centuries), Sishu (1421-1509), Shubun
and Kano Masanobu (1424-1520), Mitsushige and Mitsuoki (i/th
century).
A popular period began with the establishment of a school of
art by Hishigawa Moronobu (1646-1713). He created a progres-
sive and trustworthy life about him, expanding his followers'
artistic natures. After this came a development of realistic art,
which compares in time with the European style. This manner has
its importance in the great harm it did to Japanese art. It at-
tempted to reproduce nature and all forms exactly, combining
European chiaroscuro and linear perspective with the Japanese
style. Glass, tapestry and furniture suffered as well as pictures.
Except for the existence of water-colour painting, the loss would
have been still greater. (See JAPANESE ART.)
Persian Artists. — During the 8th century, Turkistan princes
sent into China for their artists and in the conventionalization of
certain forms and flat treatment of figures, a trace of Chinese
influence is discernible. The few surviving paintings of the Mongol
period are in the Persian manuscripts of the "History of Ghenghis
Khan and Family," and are the most important, dating back to
A.D. 1314. Here the Mongol types and fashion of drapery are
manifested. At Herat, the most famous of the Persian masters,
Bihzad, who founded a National School of Painting, changed the
course of the native art. Bihzad illustrated manuscripts of the
two most, famous poets, Sadi and Nizami. The Sultan, Muhmed,
worked in Mirak's studio and Mirak, who was born A.D. 1500,
was a pupil of Bihzad.
The most important contribution of Persian art, and to it the
Indian is closely allied, is its charm of colour. As the school
matures, it shows a weakening of design, becomes less coherent,
and conventions become dominant; vitality is lost and expres-
siveness of drawing is smothered. But the gem-like colour and
refined luxury give a marvelous atmosphere of sensuousness and
beauty. Figure work was not done from living models. The
painters recreated the entire scene in their mind and in putting
colour on material suggested such detail only as was essential to
the depicting of the tale. This lack of realism gave a splendid
feeling of all-over pattern (see Plate I. — Persian Art; Plate I.,
fig. 3 — Water-Colour Painting). Chiaroscuro and modelling were
not important in painting, and third dimension was sedulously
avoided; decorative effects in two dimensional space were aimed
at. (See PERSIAN ART, PAINTING AND CALLIGRAPHY.)
Indian Technique and Materials. — The earliest material
used in painting was a red haematite which was mixed with an
animal fat. The outlines were made with a pointed stock, brushes
being of such poor quality that it was not possible to bring them
to a point; they were probably made of vegetable fibre at first.
White was obtained from an earth substance, possibly a clay or
lime; black was obtained from dried astringent* prune-like fruit.
Frescoes* — The Buddhist frescoes were painted over a /oughly
WATER COLOURS
PLATE I
WATER COLOURS BY WINSLQW HOMER
Top. "Tornado — Bahamas." Bottom. "Shooting the Rapids." Winslow Homer 01836-1910), an American artist well known at
a painter of landscape and genre pictures in oil, was equally distinguished for his water colours, of which two are here
reproduced. T^ey are good examples of his sure, vigorous brush work, and the directness and economy of his method
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
409
excavated wall, first prepared with a coating made of a mixture of
clay, camel dung, and trap rock, to the thickness of £ to j inches.
TJws surface was then coated with a thin layer of white plaster
ft^'d the painter was ready to paint frescoes in water-colour. The
method used is open to difference of opinion. True fresco was
done on wet plaster. If a part of the design did not suit the
artist, he had to cut out that section and apply a fresh coat of wet
plaster. The other method (fresco secco) is a combination of
fresco and tempera. The plaster ground is allowed to dry before
painting. True fresco is favoured but much more difficult be-
cause a design cannot be changed except as mentioned above.
The Rajput painting was a mural in design but done on a small
scale. Paper was used instead of a wall > surf ace. The Mogul
miniatures were painted on a paper composed of bamboo, jute
and cotton. The surface was carefully rubbed smooth with a
rounded agate. Later English painters took rough paper, painted
their figures on it, but rubbed the surface smooth where the heads
were to be. A fine texture was acquired in this way.
These various processes of clear colour, fresco, tempera and
combined methods of water-colour and inks, paved the way for
the development in southern and western Europe. Italy took
what was best suited for its climate, tempera; fresco for wall-
surfaces, and the mixed methods of tempera and ink for book
.illumination scrolls, and later for studies to be developed in
larger oil painting, as oil became better understood during the
Middle Ages. Water-colour slipped lower down the scale of artistic
and popular appreciation. The return to active use of water-
colour now heralds a real awakening of art and promises tremen-
dous progress in the near future. Beauty of colour and dignity
of design will strip the old ugliness of things from our every-
day lives and prevent the return of naturalistic abominations. (See
INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY.)
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
The methods and achievements of the great water-colour
painters have apparently modified the modern technique of oil
painting. The looser handling of modern oil paint, and the lighten-
ing of its colour scheme by the elimination of some of those darker
pigments to which the older works owed so much of their massive
solidity and gloomy grandeur, seem to be due, at least in part,
to the example set by water-colour painting.
This modification of the aims and practice of oil painting by
the example of water-colour may be regarded as merely a rever-
sion to type, for water-colour painting is by far the older method.
The paintings in the caves of Altamira and Perigord (said to date
from some 10,000 or 12,000 years before the Christian era), the
paintings on the walls of the tombs of the Egyptian kings ( 1 700-
1400 B.C.), the frescoes in the Palace of Cnossus (1600 B.C.), in
the buildings of Pompeii and the Catacombs, the illuminated man-
uscripts and wall-decorations of the Middle Ages, were all wrought
with pigments in a state of fine powder, mixed with gum or some
other binding vehicle which is soluble in water. Water-colour
painting may thus be considered as the universal form of pictorial
art, the substitution or addition of various other liquid vehicles
than water (such as oils, varnishes, wax, the juice of figs, size, the j
white or yolk of eggs), producing the subordinate distinctions of
oil painting, encaustic, fresco, true fresco, tempera, etc. But dur-
ing the 1 6th, 1 7th, and i8th centuries, oil painting reigned su-
preme in Europe, and water-colour painting was looked ujxm as
an inferior, or at least as a subordinate or antiquated form of art.
The water-colour mediums, however, were far too useful to the
artist to be abandoned, even when oil painting was in the height
of its favour with the public. Water-colour dries more quickly
than oil paint, and therefore is more suitable for use in works
which require rapidity of execution; it is also handier and more
easily carried about. It therefore remained the favourite medium
with artists for what may be termed their private work, i.e., for
recording their first ideas of a composition, and for making pre-
liminary studies- Rembrandt's and Claude's pen and ink drawings
with washes of sepia, India ink or bistre, for the shadows or
darker tones, may be regarded as typical of much of this private
or preliminary work. A number of brightly coloured landscape
studies by Diirer (1471-1528), Rubens (1577-1640), and Van
Dyck (1599-1641), may be mentioned, also figure subjects by
Jordeans (1593-1678), Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685), and
Cornelius Dusart (1660-1704). Such drawings, and the mass of
work of which they stand as examples, belong to the sphere of the
artist's private or studio practice.
GREAT BRITAIN
Renaissance of Water Colour Painting. — Water colour
painting was a forgotten art until about the year 1700, when
English artists began using this medium. Previous to this period,
water colour was used only to tint pen and pencil sketches.
Pen and ink, both black and brown, with superimposed tints of
sepia and blue were first used. These tints of colour suggested
the warm and cool masses. Monochrome also came into general
use at this period. Monochrome lacked range and sequence and
was soon superseded by the above-mentioned addition of colour.
During those early years three forms of water colour painting
came into use in England:
First, colour and water were mixed and used on white paper,
often with the addition of fine pen lines to strengthen the drawing.
Rubbing or scrubbing the colour after it had been laid on the paper
darkened and dimmed the lustre just as it does in the modern day
method of painting in water colour.
Second, the employment of opaque, gouache, or body colour.
This form comprised opaque colour mixed with solid opaque white.
This method is rather harsh and raw. The mixture often would
clot up and become unmanageable, creating ridges of colour. It
was used mostly on soft gray or tinted papers. Interesting textures
were obtained with this form.
Third, a combination of transparent colour and opaque white.
This is a most interesting form to use. Shadows arc kept trans-
parent and the light masses loaded. Clever handling and the
accidental quality of clear water colour is present in this method.
These three methods arc in active use to-day. Clear water
colour painting seems capable of expressing more in the way of
sheer beauty, atmosphere and power than the other forms.
Figure studios and decorative motives by Albrecht Durcr
(1471-1528), Rembrandt, and Claude are important landmarks in
the development of the early periods of water colour; also Peter
Paul Rubens (1577-1640); Cornelius Dusart (1660-1704);
Francis Barlow (1626-1702); and Honore Daumier (1808-1879).
This type of drawing formed the basis and beginning of the
great art of water colour painting in England, both by nature and
climate adapted to this form of artistic expression.
First Period— (172S-1780).--Tlie early period of British water
colour development can be dated from 1725-1780. Within this
time progress was made and many artists destined to become great
were born. The work done during these years was carefully
topographical and painstaking. Pen and tint drawings represented
their range. Landscape was beginning to be used as a theme in
pictorial art, though in a tentative and monochromatic form.
Real colour was not understood or used. Colour makers had not
appeared on the scene and artists using this medium were obliged
to grind and prepare their own colour. When one considers the
modern artist and his absolute lack of knowledge of what his
colour is made, and how it is prepared, all praise must be
accorded to the artists of that time who made almost every kind
of material for themselves.
Paul Sandby (1725-1809) laid the foundations of landscape
painting in England. His early drawings carried a fine, closely
drawn line around the objects used in his compositions. Then an
India tint was imposed over parts of this picture. As he gained
in knowledge, varied colour was used and the outlines were
softened to effect a chiaroscuro. He gradually began to add more
and more colour through superimposing hue upon hue, timidly
perhaps at first, but building solidly and in advance of his time.
When water colour first emerged from the early monochromatic
state, artists of this period sensed its possibilities and began a
series of experiments that was destined to restore this medium to
its rightfui place as a great means of art expression. Samuel Scott
(1710-1772), Michael Angelo Rooker (1743-1801) and Thomas
410
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
Malton ( 1 748-1804) were eminent exponents of water colour.
Malton painted architectural subjects with great distinction. John
Alexander Gresse (1741-1794), William Pars (1742-1782) and
Francis Wheatley (1748-1801) are representative of the fine art
of this time.
Second Period— (1780-1850).— This second stage of develop-
ment brought forth the real force of water colour and cemented
the foundations laid by the earlier painters, developing from pen
and wash or tinted drawings into water colour painting of great
quality and power. In the beginning of this period a number of
colours were already being made by a rapidly growing gild of
colour makers.
John Robert Cozens (1752-1797) produced work of a high
order, romantic and imaginative, possibly influenced by Claude,
but striking boldly into an undeveloped realm of landscape com-
position and showing the way to many young artists of this period.
William Blake, Thomas Girtin and J. M. W. Turner were
outstanding painters of this period. Blake and Turner were
romantic and highly imaginative, leaving the common highway to
delve into unexplored phases of painting. In each existed the
impulse to subordinate reality and seek romance in colour and
design. Blake delved farthest into that unknown world, while
Turner roamed in a world of colour, making colour his servant
and slave. Girtin painted landscape with a splendid feeling for
scale, mass, and atmosphere, holding that simplicity was great
art. He was friendly with and undoubtedly influenced many of his
younger contemporaries. Turner and Cotman both profited by
their association with Girtin.
These painters, each in his way and manner, left a great im-
press on the art in England, not only on water colour painting,
but on the medium of oil. Girtin's impress extends over this
entire period and helped to create the modern school of water
colour painting. Cotman excelled in clear, limpid, flowing colour.
Peter De Wint (1784-1849) used a rich palette, saturated his
paper and while it was wet brushed the colour into it. In this
manner he maintained, or avoided disturbing, the bloom which
is one of the beauties of water colour, and which accounts for the
transparency of his tones. Superimposed colour almost always
deadens brilliancy and makes it look sodden.
De Wint, and also Cox, obtained a beautiful quality in their
sketches. De Wint obtained fine colour effects in his broad rough
way, using the brush vigorously and with interesting suggestive-
ness, not bothering with, nor caring for the naturalistic, but
creating an impression of air and wind, and solid things. Cox's
sketches took the form of notes, design not playing much of a
part, but his loose handling and reminiscent colour imparted a
great charm to his work.
Dayes used water colour in an architectural manner, choosing
subjects possessing great detail and handling these compositions
in a large way. While he was inclined toward colour and experi-
mented freely with that method of expression, yet he never fully
accepted it. Dayes' influence on Turner's early work was un-
questioned.
Girtin profited also to a large extent through Dayes' experiments
in warm and cool colour. By the last years of the i8th century
Turner and Girtin had surpassed Dayes in quality and colour.
Turner may be classed as the most important colourist of this
period. Another note of interest is that Turner's water colour
practice exerted a very strong influence upon his oil painting. He
was able to experiment quickly and easily in this medium and to
obtain the effect of clarity and richness. He realized that the
transparency and fluidity of the lighter medium would tend to
lift oil out of its heavy dull manner, as it was practised at that
time. This was a matter of evolution, of one medium flowing into
another. Water colour has a verve and spirit all its own and the
painters of this period realized its value both as an individual art,
and as a helpmate in reclaiming oil from its sloth of dullness.
Lustreless blues and browns gave way rapidly to Turner's swift
and fresh sense of colour. It is an extremely noteworthy fact
that sketches, tinted drawings and water colour paintings reveal
the spontaneous artist ir soul of an artist. He seemj freer and
less bound by convention and an academic view of £rt. Turner,
through the use of water colour, vitalized his oil painting and
developed its brilliancy.
John Sell Cotman used water colour with great freedom t»-d
simplicity. His pattern and form show a fine judgment in sele:-
tion. He did not clutter up his composition by useless detail. 'He
held the masses of his picture clear and strong.
The Society of Water Colour Painters was formed in London
in 1804 and its first exhibition was held in Brook Street on April
22, 1805. Most of the distinguished water colour painters exhib-
ited their work in this society excepting Turner, who was never
a member. Among the noted water colourists of this period were
William Blake (1757-1827); E. Dayes (1763-1804); Thomas
Walmsley (1763-1806); Francis Towne (1740-1816); John
White Abbott (1763-1851); J. M. W. Turner (1775-1851); John
Constable (1776-1837); Thomas Girtin (1775-1802); John
Varley (1778-1842); Cornelius Varlcy (1781-1873); William
Fleetwood Varley; John Sell Cotman (1782-1842) and David
Cox (1783-1859); A. V. Copley Fielding (1787-1855); Peter
De Wint (1784-1849); G. F. Robson (1790-1833); William Hunt
(1790-1864).
Third Period— (1850- ).— By this time a number of exhi-
bitions were being held and the [winters were afforded the oppor-
tunity of showing their work to advantage. For many years past
the water colour exhibitions have been important artistic and
social events in England. In addition to these advantages the finest
paper and colour is now preferred and sold by colour makers. The
only difficulty is that too many hues and tints are made to-day.
The beginner in this interesting form of art becomes confuseS and
is liable to select a complicated and impossible palette. Simplicity
still rules the world of art.
Among the many outstanding water colour painters of this
period may be mentioned Sir Edward Burne-Jones (1833-1898),
and Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882). They had a great deal
in common. Their work was decorative and colourful. Burne-
Jones used water colour in designing many stained glass windows.
More recent was the rich and dramatic art of J. D. Innes
(1887-1914). Among others who in the first quarter of the 20th
century produced excellent work were Sir W. Orpen, A. M.
McEvoy, J. Holland, S. Palmer, J. F. Lewis, W. Callow, T.
Shotter Boys, B. Foster, A. W. Hunt, E. M. Wimperis, T. Collier,
E. B. Lintott, A. J. M minings, Arminell Morshead, P. W. Steer,
W. Tryon and Sir F. Brangwyn.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. E. Hughes, Early English Water Colours (1913) ;
E. Barnard Lintott, The Art of Water Colour Painting; Cosmo Monk-
house, The Earlier English Water Colour Painters (2nd edition, 1897) ;
A. P. Oppc, The Water Colours of Turner, Cox and De Wint (1925) ;
Early English Water Colour Drawings by the great Masters (1919) ;
Samuel Redgrave, Introductory Notice to the Descriptive Catalogue of
the Historical Collection of "Water Colour Painting in the South
Kensington Museum (1877) » C. F. Bell, fresh Light on Some Water
Colour Painters of the Old British School; A. J. Finberg and E. A.
Taylor, The Development of British Landscape Painting in Water
Colour (1918).
THE UNITED STATES
The first water-colour societies in America were formed by
small coteries of workers who appreciated the need for this
medium. Then came the formation of the American Water Color
Society in New York on December 5th, 1866. Some years later,
Philadelphia and Boston formed groups and in 1890 the New York
Water Color Club was organized. These societies endeavoured
to foster and develop the art of water-colour painting early in the
igth century. Most American artists worked in oil, and water-
colour was not a part of their general training. It was thought
necessary to study in Paris and water-colour has never assumed
a very important niche in French art. This practice of study
continued until about 1890. There were exceptions to this, as
Winslow Homer, George Inness and a few other painters developed
their art in their own country and are called self-taught by many
writers on art. Painters who have used this medium successfully
find it of great value in advancing their oils; experiments may be
made easily, and colour values established.
Three Stage*.— The first stage of development resulted in a
meticulous kind of workmanship, rather dry and not fich in
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
PLATE II
ORIENTAL, EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN WATER COLOURS
1. "Gathering of Philosophers" by Kung Kai. Sung Dynasty (960-1280).
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Chinese
2. "Landscape, Late Autumn," part of a long "Makiemono" by Wen-Tung
(also called Yu-K'o). Sung Dynasty. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Chinese
3. Miniature. "Arjuna Fighting the Kauravas," by Rajput Rajasthani,
Indian School of the 16th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art
4. "Saint Michael's Mount" by Thomas Glrtin (1775-1S02). Metropolitan
Museum of Art, English
5. "The Wise and Foolish Virgins," water colour with pen and ink, by
William Blake (1757-1827). Metropolitan Museum of Art. English
6. "San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice," by Hercules Brabazon (1821-1906).
Metropolitan Museum of Art. English
7. "The Ruined Castle" by John Sell Cotman (17R2-1S42). Metro-
politan Museum of Art. English
E. "The Lighthouse" by Henry B. Snell (1S56- ). American
9. "Spring," by Horation Walker (1858- ), American
10. "A Perplexing Point" by John Ward Dunsmore (1856— ), American
PLATE 111
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
WATER COLOURS BY CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN ARTISTS
1. "Landscapes" by Arthur B. Davies (1862-1928)
2. "The Mirror, Cos Cob" by Chlldo Hassam (1859-
3. "Evening Light" by William Ritschel (1864-
4. "Fishermen with Net" by Gifford Beal (1879-
5. "Twilight of Man" by Rockwell Kent (1882- )
6. "The Sardine Captain" by Sigurd Skou (1877— )
7. "Sheep at the Gate" by John E. Costioan (1888-
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
411
colour, following closely the English school and showing small
-, promise of what it was destined to become a half -century later.
) Tae water-colour painting did not develop until after the 6o's.
•J. The second stage began about 1850 and extended to 1890. It
saw the rise of a number of great water-colourists who were
destined to save the medium from death by dry rot, and en-
courage the present generation to renewed activity and progress.
The third and last stage (1890-1929) shows a combination of
knowledge acquired from the preceding schools of painting and
a keen analysis of what the art of water-colour is capable of giving
the student in this medium. Over-modeled forms are being
eliminated and design is valued at its proper worth. Colour takes
a great place in rhythmic masses and naturalistic interpretation
and meticulous workmanship is giving place to a finer conception
of emotional feeling, and painters are becoming sensitized to the
horrors of unintelligent imitation.
Such men as E. Leutze (1816-1868), T. P. Rossiter (1817-
1871), John F. Kensett (1818-1873), S. R. Gifford (1823-1880),
J. O. Eaton (1829-1875) and Thomas Hicks (1823-1890), repre-
sented a few of the well-known workers of this period. From
1850 a strongly marked development began. The artists of
America saw the need of a fluent, rapid medium which could be
used to gather material and as a means of study. This period
saw a great development, with highlights here and there among
the artists; Wordsworth Thompson (1840-1896), J. H. Dolph
(1835-1903), Robert C. Minor (1840-1904), Eastman Johnson
(1824-1906), Daniel Huntington (1816-1906), Thomas B. Craig
(1849-1924).
1850-1890. — The period of 1850 can be called the dividing line
between the older or representative form of water-colour drawing
and the beginning of water-colour painting. Accurate drawing
was the important quality to be obtained and this was accom-
plished much in the manner of the contemporary English school
prior to 1850. The period between 1850 and 1890 records the
birth and development of many painters of genius, with a decided
flair for clear water-colour painting. This method of laying on
colour directly and achieving deep, rich tones at the first stroke
sadly upset the older and more conservative manner of building
up contrasts by stages. The direct handling of flashing contrasts
forced the opaque water-colour from the important exhibitions.
The use of Chinese-white lowered the brilliance and purity of
water-colour, giving it a chalky dull effect.
John La Farge (q.v.), famous for his decorative work, used
water-colour to make his designs for stained glass, mosaic and
mural painting. His drawings and water-colour paintings done
in the South Seas added much to the art of this country, Other
painters who have left their impression on the art of America
and whose work is appreciated were Edwin A. Abbey (1852-
1911), who used the medium in planning many large decorations;
Robert Blum (1857-1903), Carleton T. Chapman (1860-1925),
Harry Chase (1853-1890), Wm. M. Chase (1849-1916), William
Hart (1823-1894), Francis C. Jones (b. 1857), Arthur I. Keller
(1867-1924), George H. McCord (1849-1909), F. D. Millet
(1846-1912), J. Francis Murphy (1853-1921), who painted
beautiful water-colours, mostly landscapes, subtle and atmos-
pheric; Edward H. Potthast (1857-1927), whose work was clear
and fresh, won many prizes during his lifetime and took a great
interest in water-colour; Walter Shirlaw (1838-1909), noted in
his day; William T. Smedley (1858-1920); F. Hopkinson Smith
(1838-1915), who was an engineer, artist and author, self-taught
in the art of water-colour painting. Besides being an artist of
note, he built the foundations for the "Statue of Liberty" and
many other engineering works of importance. H. Vance Swope
(1879-1925), used a mixed medium, almost opaque water-colour.
His. work had power and design. George H. Hallowell (1871-
1927) used a scrub method and achieved delightful texture and
colour. His life and work were centred around Boston.
WINSLOW HOMER (1836-1910). In tracing the work of
Homer (q.v.) through his early drawings and sketches, one is
impressed with his steady advance from drawing in water-colour
into the finer art of painting in this medium. Masses became more
simple and colour cleaner. His water-colours were always well
in ad\ mce of his oils, which makes it clear that water-colour is
the most distinguished of all mediums and requires the most
complete knowledge of the master artist.
JOHN SINGER SARGENT (1856-1925) was born at Florence, Italy,
of American parentage, and while he was educated in Europe and
lived a good part of his life there, his work, and especially his
water-colours, has exerted a great influence on the art of this
generation in America. His clear and brilliant quality of painting
offered encouragement to other painters and helped keep the
medium alive. He is quoted as saying that water-colour was his
best medium and capable of greater artistic expression than oil.
(See SARGENT, JOHN SINGER.)
HORATIO WALKER was born at Listowel, Ont., Canada (1858),
and is a strong and vigorous painter who uses water-colour with
fine distinction. His work shows atmosphere and quality and he
uses the every-day life of farm and countryside for his subjects
and understands its character, investing this life with a quaint
and romantic air. While he works largely in Canada, most of his
work is exhibited in the United States and especially in New York.
JOHN WARD DUNSMORE was born in 1856 near Cincinnati, Ohio.
The work of this artist, while careful in detail, shows a rich quality
of tone and colour. It is largely historical, with much material
used from the American Revolution; he produced large groups
of figures, well composed and fine in spirit. He has held his way
undisturbed, reflecting little of the modern day manner. Dunsmorc
received his training in France and returned to America to
organize the Detroit Art Museum and School. As president of the
American Water Color Society for many years, he has given freely
of his time to bring the Society to its present high plane.
HENRY B. SNELL has contributed largely to the art of water-
colour painting. His work is beautiful in tone and composition.
He most always uses a scrub method for which he is largely
responsible, being its leading exponent both in England and in
America. His work has great depth of colour and reflects a lumi-
nous feeling of light; edges are softened, thereby regaining the
decorative sense of paint which was lost in a hard rendering of
objective things. Sncll was born in Richmond, England, in 1858.
He has taught painting for many years and has had a great in-
fluence on the artist of the present time. He was one of a younger
group of painters who broke away from the American Water
Color Society to form the New York Water Color Club.
ARTHUR B. DAVIES (1862-1928), and FRANK W. BENSO.V were
born in the same year; Davies in Utica, N.Y., and Benson in
Salem, Mass. Both of these painters have impressed a fine and
spontaneous art on this country. Davies' work carries a mystery
and romance, not realistic, but filled with atmosphere and beauty
of design. Both his landscape and figure groups are noteworthy.
He uses nude figures set in a romantic landscape, decorative and
with rich, fine colour. Frank W. Benson uses most mediums, but
his water-colours have a direct charm and a spontaneity of han-
dling, crisp and rich, and luscious in colour, which is direct water-
colour painting at its best.
CHII.DK HASSAM (b. 1859) is a painter of many moods ;ind
mediums. Water-colour has been his vehicle of spontaneous ex-
pression from the beginning of his artistic career, covering a
period of forty years. Breadth of colour and an impressionistic
manner, broken colour closely tied together and washes beauti-
fully spotted in, tend to give a fine sparkle to his pictures. He
was the first president of the New York Water Color Club,
organized in 1890, serving six years.
DODGE MACKNIGHT (b. 1860) is noted for his broad treatment
and brilliant colouring. He has had a strong influence over Boston
painters, tending to loosen the tightness of the Boston school of
water-colourists. Reds and violet blues have been dominant notes
in his work, running sometimes almost to monochrome, but always
saved by a compliment, giving his pictures a brilliant quality.
WILLIAM RITSCHEL, born in 1864, in Nuremberg, Germany, has
worked through many phases from the older methods of superim-
posed tone on tone to get depth, to a direct and sparkling wash of
broken colour.
MAURICE PRENDERGAST (1861-1924) belongs to the same pe-
riod but his work has been developed and relates to the Persian
rather tha\i the Chinese manner, direct in handling but highly
imaginative patterns backed by high colour suggesting mosaic glass.
412
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
Sigurd Skou, Gifford Heal, Rockwell Kent, John E. Costigan
and John R. Koopman have much in common; they use a fast and
direct method and are interested in design first and colour second.
Possibly Beal thinks more of tonality than the others. George
Elmer Browne enters this same group, but with a broader han-
dling of swift, wet colour used simply. Browne has taught painting
for many years and has had a decided influence on young Ameri-
can painters. He was educated in Paris. Kent has the most strik-
ing sense of design in this group, while Koopman, subjecting colour
to a decorative treatment, rhythm, plays a strong part in creating
this feeling. He paints and draws in water-colour and treats of
broken pattern and colour, design translated to pattern, very fresh
and rich in handling. Costigan achieves beautiful water-colour
handling daringly on smooth paper, with a surety of touch.
John Marin started from a very conservative form of painting
and steadily developed a swift and subjective manner in his late
work. Objective things have little place in his scheme. This in-
tense effort to throw off the representative type so dominant for
many years and work inward, not outward, causes one to wonder
what the ultimate answer will be.
Chauncey Ryder presents another phase, not exactly realistic
but rather decorative and free, treating mountains and trees in
an extremely simple manner.
Other water-colourists who are enriching the art of the present
time are Emerton Heitland, a modern painter in water-colour,
brilliant in style; Frank Hazell, who used tempera with force and
freedom; J. Scott\Villiams,who uses clear water-colour with effect;
and John Alonzo Williams, who illustrates and paints in a rich
manner. John Goss, Emil J. Bistran, Paul Gill and Edward Hop-
per work in a direct and characteristic way, putting down their
impressions with power, keenly observing the salient points of in-
terest and never becoming commonplace. Harley Perkins achieves
pattern and colour in an extremely modern way. William J. Ayl-
ward, Arthur Beaumont, Roy Brown, Julius Delbos, Lloyd C.
Griscom and Frank Tenney Johnson present work of distinction.
Charles W. Hawthorne uses water-colour with liquid flowing
effects.
George (Pop) Hart and Eugene Higgins search out the heavy,
gloomy feeling in life, both painting in a dark, strong manner.
Walter Farndon views water-colour as a helper to his oils, sketchy
and rather light in colour. Oscar Julius, Wayman Adams, Charles
S. Chapman, Alpheous P. Cole, E. Irving Conse, Frederick K.
Detwiller, Jonas Lie, George Lawrence Nelson, G. Glenn Newell,
Raymond Perry, Arthur E. Powell Ernest D. Roth, W. Granville
Smith, Stanley W. Woodward, Cullen Yates, Frank N. Wilcox, J.
Lars Hoftrup and Howard Giles, Gordon Grant and Herbert B.
Tschudy represent a few of the many water-colourists of note.
Armin Hansen (b. 1886) paints the sea with fine feeling. Ezra
Winter uses water-colour to plan and design the decorations which
he finally paints in oil or fresco. His work has excellent mural
quality; formal design holds a strong place in his field. He uses
one of the methods employed by the Pompeians.
William J. Whittemorc is a landscape and figure painter who
has for many years been a devotee of this medium. His recent
work is free and colourful, and has a fine quality. William Stark-
weather, a vigorous painter, spares no trouble in finding interesting
motives, unusual and rich in colour. He is a personage in this
field. Harry Vincent, another watcr-colourist, uses the sea and
boats as material to create luscious and fluid combinations of
colour. George Walter Dawson, professor of drawing at Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, is widely known as a water-colourist. J.
Olaf Olson and Felicie Waldo Howell are among the younger
artists who have shown the great possibilities of water-colour.
TECHNIQUE
The materials used in painting in water-colour become of prime
importance if the richness and purity of colour is to be achieved.
This calls for a short but brilliant palette. Seven or eight colours
suffice to give the greatest range and flexibility of handling, making
it possible for the painter to force the key at any desired area
on his paper. The medium must be liquid and free to tfiin beauty
and texture. The artists of the Sung dynasty carried much of the
same fresh directness that is being achieved to-day, and they took
great care and trouble in the making of their materials. The
artist of the present time uses a much more brilliant palette; co»«c-
sequently his troubles increase, as it is doubly important to ha;);
all materials of the best.
To begin with, a box to hold«the colour is an important matter.
It should be convenient, not too large to handle, and be both
palette and colour container; it should be a folding box, having
preferably two lids, one flat which folds over the first, and then
the outer cover which should contain three or four wells or sinks
where one can mix colour or gather a pool if there is a large
surface to cover.
It is wise to procure a separate holder for the brushes and
pencil, and to carry the tubes of paint separately. Tube colour is
better than pans of colour, because it can be squeezed out as
needed and the colour is always fresh, one of the most important
factors in this difficult art. Witty the exception of vermilion, which
must have time to set, otherwise it runs throughout the box, the
various colours used can be put out when ready to work. So-called
pan colour is of little use and is almost always dried out when
bought. Tube colour is much more economical, keeps better, and
if the cap is put on tight, will not dry out.
The Use and Care of Brushes. — One large brush, red sable,
will do the work of five small ones. One No. 10 or No. 12 brush
will do the finest or broadest kind of work. It is well to wash the
sable in warm water and soap at various times, as the paint rots
the hairs. Dip the brush in water and see if it tapers to a fine point,
wedge-shaped, almost straight from tin to point, and not curved
(see figure). A fat, curved brush seldom acts well in handling,
and does not last. It. becomes a club after the point wears down.
Some water-colour artists use three or four different-sized brushes,
but the mastery of one brush means considerable progress. The
wedge-shaped brush will spread as well as the curved brush, and
can be controlled much better. The curved brush kicks up edges
and sometimes needlessly separates. The mere matter of holding a
brush is very important to the novice in water-colour painting
(see Plate V.). The Chinese spent
years in cultivating the use of
their brushes, how to hold them,
acquiring a dexterity of handling
far beyond that of many of our
modern artists. They wrote with
the brush and also painted with
it, painting with the greatest
WATER-COLOUR BRUSHES; (A) breadth or with the most exacting
CORRECT SHAPE, (B) INCORRECT minuteness (see ART: Far East'-
SHAPE ern Methods).
In holding the brush, it is necessary to use not only the fingers
but the entire arm and wrist, taking care not to choke the brush by
grasping it down close to the tin. When it is held in such a man-
ner, only the fingers operate; the rigid arm means a loss in free-
dom. The brush should be held as far from the hair as possible,
and kept as nearly at a right angle to the paper as possible. This
makes for great variety, flexibility, and carries the colour to the
paper with dexterity. In taking up colour from the box a charged
brush is of supreme importance, whether the colour be pale or of
the deepest intensity. A full brush means depth; a thin brush
means a tint, and tinting is not, in the fullest meaning of the
term, water-colour painting.
A flooded colour, light or dark, has a much greater beauty and
vibration. Dark detail can be struck over a lighter mass with a
charged brush, without wiping up the colour underneath or dis-
turbing it; when colour is used thinly it loses lustre. The
paper should not be held flat, as colour will puddle and not flow
as it does when held at a 45° angle; flood-colour helps to give
variation and texture, and also better represents light. Just as will
be observed in fine stained-glass, the upper edge will be light in
colour and the lower edge rich and glowing. The colour should
really flow from the brush onto the paper and be luminous, not
thin and pasty.
Selection of Colours.—This subject i* extensive and full of
pitfalls. Naturally, the dealer desires to sell as many Afferent
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
PLATE IV
REALISTIC AND IMPRESSIONISTIC WATER COLOURS BY AMERICAN ARTISTS
1. "Mending the Net" by John R. Koopman (1881— )
2. "The Log Drive," showing lumberjacks at work, by Frank W. Benson
(1862- )
3. "Becalmed," impressionistic water colour by John Marin (1875— ).
Modernist
4. "Voyage of Lelf Ericson to America," decorative mural by Ezra Winter
(1836- ). In the Great Hall of the Cunard Building in New
York city
5. "A Quiet Morning," tempera water colour by Fclicie Waldo Howell
(1897- )
6. "Broadside On" by Armin Hansen (1886- )
7. "The Free Wind" by George Pearse Ennis (1884-
XXIII. 410
PLATK \'
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
• V COURTESY Or (2-4) THE METROPOLITAN MU&KUM OF ART, NEW YORK
NINETEENTH-CENTURY WATER COLOURS OF EUROPEAN MASTERS
1. Water colour view of Blackburn canal, by Sir Charles John Holmes
(1868— ) ; showing Interesting structure and composition ac-
quired directly. English
2. "French Landscape," water colour by Henri Harpignies (1819-1916);
a delicate and effective treatment involving a certain amount of
drawing with the brush. French
3. "Bath of Venus" by Sir Edward Burne-Jones (1833—98); a treatment
inappropriate for water-colours. Its necessarily careful modelling
loses its spontaneity. English
4. "Don Quixote and Sancho Panza" by Honord Daumler (1808—79).
Masterful example of direct powerful modelling. French
WATER-COLOUR PAINTING
PLATE VI
RELATIVE POSITIONS OF PAPER, PAINT BOX AND BRUSH IN WATER COLOUR WORK
1. In applying a wash as Is illustrated here, and In fact throughout water-
colour painting, the brush should be full of colour which flows easily, and
the a Jim should have a free movement in any direction. 2. In the painting
in of Jetai! a brush perpendicular to the painted surface permits movement
In aj-/ ^direction. If the brush, is slanted and the painter attempts to do a
cu^Te s ^n(as a circle, it will stutter when it is pushed forward and draw
more finely when It Is pulled back. 3, 4. The proper method of holding the
paint-box anc\ the paper, showing a slight canting of the brush in the
direction of tie stroke. 5. Some painters prefer the paper to bo nearly
horizontal, whyh permits ^f. even freer u-c of the perpendicular brush.
Note that the land is some distance from the ferrule. 6. Showing method
of stretching vAtcr colour papcrjon frame
WATER-CRESS— WATERFORD
shades and hues of colour as possible. The artist's task is to select
exactly the smallest number of colours which will give complete
v^Vige and effect.
l%v> Three primary colours are the first necessity: red, yellow and
blue. Three secondary colours complete the range: orange, violet,
green. The warm colour scale is comprised in the red, yellow and
orange. The complements represent the cool scale. This is the
theory of warm and cool colour. If we select a rose madder for
our red, an ultramarine blue and a cadmium yellow, this set of
three calls for supplementary assistants. The rose madder needs a
yellow red, so vermilion is added, as it helps to reach the yellow
spectrum. Cobalt blue assists French ultramarine blue and a pale
yellow forms the link between yellow and green. The cadmium
yellow can be omitted and cadmium pale substituted in its place.
Adding green deep, the artist has a complete range of colour, from
deep to light and from warm to cool. Cerulean blue will also be
found useful. Water-Color Palette
Rose Madder French Ultramarine Bine
Vermilion Cobalt Bine
Cadmium Pale Hookers Green Deep II.
Cadmium Yellow Cerulean Blue (a cold blue green)
This palette will be found clear and brilliant and will enable
one to paint in a very deep, full-toned manner or in a very pale
and high-keyed pitch; it also has the value of being short and
easily handled. The three primary colours "carry" the picture,
and the remaining colours complete the tone, scale and envelop
the picture.
Hooker's green, No. 2, has many advantages over other greens,
since it is deep, clear, cool, and mixes readily with the other
colours of this palette. It will mix with yellows without turning
into mud, as most greens do. Cerulean blue melts into ultra-
marine and cobalt blue, and cools them. When used with ver-
milion it makes a beautiful grey. It is interesting to put down
vermilion and then carry the cerulean to it directly from the box
and mix on the paper. This gives a better variety. It also helps
to make transparency in the gray, for while vermilion is inclined
toward opacity, it clears when the brush is charged and flushed
directly into blues. When it is desired to make rose madder flash,
cerulean blue can be charged into it in the above manner, but not
if the madder has dried.
Of the eight colours above mentioned, six or seven will always
be in active use. The water-colourist should resist as much as pos-
sible the impulse to work over a tone. If its depth at first is ques-
tioned, he should charge the surface again, thereby increasing its
weight. It is a wise practice to establish the contrast or deepest
notes at the beginning of the picture, saving all light masses, as
white paper, until near the finish. This makes optional the matter
of holding the contrasting masses or pressing them down with tone
or warm light, as the subject may require. Save or spare the
whites. Do not dull them. At the finish they can be tinted.
The picture must be carefully planned, drawn as simply as pos-
sible, not modeled in pencil or shade, and designed as one would
design a pattern, giving due thought to the rhythm of line and
mass. When the enveloping process begins, as mentioned earlier,
the main masses should be preserved, since this maintains the
carrying power. Light or dark masses should not be cut up too
much, as this results in chaos and gives the feeling of over-
abundance in the picture. When a colour occurs in a mass, say
red or blue, let the clear colour flash to the surface somewhere,
as that produces light and brilliance. If a red appears in a mass,
repeat it again elsewhere in a minor chord. Other colours should
reach in like manner. Do not try to over-model clear tones;
simply maintain them.
With due consideration for what has been done during the last
forty years, it is evident that water-colour painting in its various
branches and ways of handling, its brilliancy of colour and flexi-
bility, will return to its right and proper place. (See PAINTING.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — G. B. Allen, Water-Colour Painting (1898) ; J. Mac-
Whirter, Landscape Painting in Water-Color (191$) ; A. W. Rich,
Water-Cotor Painting (1918) ; L. Richmond and J. Littlcjohns,
Technique of Water-Color Painting (1925) ; E. B. Lintott, Art of
Water-Color Painting (1926); David Lloyd, Water-Colour Painting,
Handling, Technique. (G. P. E.)
WATER-CRESS (Nasturtium officinalc), an aquatic salad-
plant of the family Cruci ferae, native to Europe and Asia, com-
mon in Great Britain, widely naturalized in the United States and
Canada and introduced also into the W'est Indies and South Amer-
ica. It is a creeping or floating perennial, rooting in clear, cold
water, with leaves composed of few to several small rounded leaf-
lets and elongated clusters of small white flowers. Its slightly
pungent flavour is due to an oil containing sulphur. Water-cress
is cultivated for the market in shallow ditches, prepared in wet,
low-lying meadows, provision being made for flooding at will.
WATER-DEER, Hydreltiphus incrmis, a small member of
the deer-tribe from northern China differing from all other Ce.n>i-
dae except the musk-deer (with which it has no affinity) by the
absence of antlers in both sexes. To compensate for this the
bucks are armed with long sabre-like upper tusks (see DKKR);
a second form, //. kreyenbcrgi, has been distinguished, from
Hankow. Water-deer frequent the neighbourhood of the large
Chinese rivers, where they crouch amid the reeds and grass. W7hen
running, they arch their backs and scurry away in a series of
short leaps. This is one of the few deer in which there are glands
neither on the hock nor on the skin covering the cannon-bone.
These glands probably enable deer to ascertain the whereabouts
of their fellows by the scent they leave; but the sub-aquatic
habits of the present species render such a function impossible.
The tail is a mere stump.
WATERFALL, a point in a watercourse where descent is
perpendicular or nearly so. The beauty of a waterfall is de-
pendent on its height rather than on the volume of water. Small
but immensely deep falls are common, for a small stream has
insufficient power to erode a steady slope, and thus any consider-
able irregularity of level in its course is marked by a fall. In
mountainous districts a stream may descend into the main valley
as a "hanging tributary" by way of a fall, its own valley having
suffered less erosion than the main valley. The chief cause of a
waterfall is a sudden and marked change in geological structure.
For example, if a stream crosses a harder stratum it will be able
to grade its course through the upstream or downstream soft
strata more rapidly than through the intermediate hard stratum,
over a ledge of which it will subsequently fall. Such barriers may
be produced by the ordinary rock sequence or by an intrusive dyke
of basalt, or by glacial deposits. Where a river falls over a shelf
of hard rock overlying softer material there is a rapid erosion of
the soft rock, with undercutting and consequent collapse of the
edge of the hard shelf. In this way, the fall gradually moves up-
stream and a gorge occurs below it; the Niagara Falls provide
an excellent illustration of this process.
WATER-FLEA, a name given by the earlier microscopists
(Swammerdam, 1669) to minute aquatic Crustacea (q.v.) of the
order Cladocera (q.v.), but applied also to the smaller members of
other groups. The Cladocera are abundant everywhere in fresh
water. One of the commonest species, Daphnia pnlex, found in
ponds and ditches, is less than one-tenth of an inch in length and
has the body enclosed in a transparent bivalved shell. The head,
projecting in front of the shell, bears a pair of branched feathery
antennae which are the chief swimming organs and propel the
animal, in a succession of rapid bounds, through the water. There
is a single large black eye. In the living animal five pairs of leaf-
like limbs acting as gills can be observed in constant motion be-
tween the valves of the shell, and the pulsating heart may be seen
near the dorsal surface, a little way behind the head. The body
ends behind in a kind of tail with a double curved claw which can
be protruded from the shell. The female carries the eggs in a
brood-chamber between the back of the body and the shell until
hatching takes place. Throughout the greater part of the year
only females occur and the eggs develop "parthcnogenetically,"
without fertilization. When the small males appear, generally in
the autumn, fertilized "winter" or "resting eggs" are produced
which are cast adrift in a case or "ephippium" formed by a spe-
cially modified part of the shell. These resting eggs enable the
race to survive the winter or drying of the water. (W. T. C.)
WATEftFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of
Munster. The area of Waterford is 458,108 acres, or about 716
414
WATERFORD
sq.m. Pop. (1926), exclusive of Waterford City, 51,892. The
coast line is in some parts bold and rocky, and is indented by
numerous bays and inlets, the principal being Waterford Harbour;
Tramore Bay, with picturesque cliffs and extensive caves, and
noted for its shipwrecks on account of the rocky character of its
bed, Dungarvan Harbour, much frequented for refuge in stormy
weather, and Youghal Harbour, partly separating Co. Water-
ford from Co. Cork. The surface of the country is to a large
extent mountainous, providing beautiful inland scenery, especially
towards the west and northwest. The Knockmealdown Moun-
tains, which attain a height of 2,609 ft., form the northern
boundary with Tipperary. A wide extent of country between
Clonmel and Dungarvan is occupied by the two ranges of the
Comeragh and Monavallagh Mountains, reaching a height of
2,504 ft.
To the south of Dungarvan there is a lower but very rugged
range, called the Drum Hills. The south-eastern division of the
county is for the most part level. Though Waterford benefits in
its communications by the important rivers in its vicinity, the
only large river it can properly claim as belonging to it is the
Blackwater. This river is famous for salmon fishing, and,
particularly in the stretch between Cappoquin and Lismore, flows
between high, well-wooded banks, contrasting beautifully with
the background of the mountains. It enters the county east of
Fermoy, and flows eastward to Cappoquin, the head of navigation,
where it .turns abruptly southward, to enter the sea at Youghal
Harbour. Waterford Harbour may be called the estuary of three
important rivers, the Suir, the Nore and the Barrow, but neither
of the last two touches the county. The Suir reaches it about
8 m. from Clonmel, and thence forms its northern boundary with
Tipperary and Kilkenny. It is navigable to Clonmel, but the
traffic lies mainly on the left bank, outside the county.
Geology. — The Knockmealdown Mountains are an anticline of
Old Red Sandstone, cut away at the eastern end to expose Silurian
strata, which are associated with an extensive series of volcanic
and intrusive rocks, often crushed by earth-movement. The im-
pressive scarp formed by the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate
above this lower ground is called the Comeragh Mountains. The
moraine-dammed cirque of Lough Coumshingaun lies in these,
with a precipice 1,000 ft. in height. The unconformity of the
Old Red Sandstone on the greenish and yellowish Silurian shales
is excellently seen on the north bank of the Suir at Waterford.
Carboniferous Limestone is found in the floor of the synclinals
on either side of the great anticline, that is, in the Suir valley on
the north, and in the green and richly-wooded hollow of the
Blackwater on the south. Rapidly repeated anticlinal and syn-
clinal folds continue this structure across the country between
Dungarvan and Youghal. Rich copper-mines wert> worked, mainly
in the i9th century, in the Silurian area near Bonmahon, and the
region remains full of mineral promise.
History. — In the Qth century the Danes landed, and after-
wards made a permanent settlement. Waterford was one of the
twelve counties into which King John is stated to have divided
that part of Ireland which he nominally annexed to the English
crown. On account of the convenience of the city as a landing
place, many subsequent expeditions passed through the county.
In 1444 the greater part of it was granted to James, earl of Des-
mond, and in 1447 it was bestowed on John Talbot, earl of
Shrewsbury, who was created earl of Waterford. The county suf-
fered severely during the Desmond rebellion, in the reign of Eliza-
beth, as well as in the rebellion of 1641 and during the Crom-
wellian period. At Ardmore, overlooking the sea from Ram Head,
there is a round tower 95 ft. in height, and near it a huge rath and
a large number of circular entrenchments. Lismore castle, origi-
nally erected in 1185, is in great part comparatively modern. The
chief ecclesiastical remains are those of the chancel and nave of
the cathedral of Ardmore, where a monastery and oratory were
founded by St. Declan in the 7th century. The see of Ardmore
was abolished in the i2th century. Here are also remains of a
church and oratory, and a holy well. Mention should be made of
the existing monastery of Mount Melleray, a convent oc' Trappists
founded aear Cappoquin in 1830, on the expulsion of/ the foreign
members of this order from France. Schools, both free and board-
ing, are maintained; and there is a branch of the order at Roscrea
(co. Tipperary). ^f ^
Industries.— Of the 23,343 gainfully employed in 1926, 13,5^,
or 58% were farmers. The land is generally better for pasturage
than for tillage, although there are considerable tracts of rich
soil in the south-eastern districts. In 1926 13-9% of the land was
ploughed, as compared with 34-6% in 1851. There were 43.391
ac. in crops, 26,391 ac. in hay and 243,026 ac. in pasture. The
crop acreage has decreased from 69,360 in 1918. Of the crop
acreage slightly over half was planted to corn crops, mostly oats
(23,211 ac.), and slightly less than half to root and green crops.
Of the latter potatoes, turnips and mangels were the most im-
portant. The size of farm holdings in the county average larger
than for Ireland in general. The county ranked second among
Irish counties in 1926 in the number of its cattle. The numbers
of cattle, sheep and poultry increase steadily, and pigs are ex-
tensively reared. The woollen manufacture, except for home use,
is practically extinct, but the cotton manufacture is still of some
importance. There are a number of breweries and distilleries and
also a large number of flour-mills. The deep sea and coast
fisheries have their headquarters at Waterford, and the salmon
fisheries of the Suir and Blackwater have theirs at Waterford
and Lismore respectively. Railway communication is provided
by the Great Southern railway. Waterford returns 4 members to
Dail Eireann.
WATERFORD, the chief town of co. Waterford, Ireland.
Pop. (1926) 26,646. It. is situated on the Suir 4 m. above its
junction with the Barrow at the head of the tidal estuary called
Waterford Harbour. The Suir is crossed by a wooden bridge of
39 arches, and 832 ft. long, connecting Waterford with the suburb
of Ferrybank.
Anciently Waterford was called Cuan-na*groith, the haven of
the sun. By early writers it was named Menapia. It first acquired
importance under the Danes, of whom it remained one of the
principal strongholds until its capture by Strongbow in 1171. In
1172 Henry II. landed near Waterford, and received here the
hostages of the people of Munster. It became a cathedral city in
1096. The Protestant dioceses of Cashel, Emly, Waterford and
Lismore were united in 1833. John landed at Waterford in 1185.
After ascending the English throne he granted it a fair in 1204,
and in 1206 a charter of incorporation. He landed at Waterford
in 1 2 10, in order to establish within his nominal territories in
Ireland a more distinct form of government. The city received a
new charter from Henry III. in 1232. Richard II. landed at
Waterford in Oct. 1394 an^ again in 1399. In 1447 it was granted
by Henry VI. to John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who was
created earl of WTaterford. In 1497 it successfully resisted an
attempt of Perkin Warbeck to capture it, in recognition of which
it received various privileges from Henry VII.
In 1603, after the accession of James I. to the English crown,
the city, along with Cork, took a prominent part in opposition
to the Government and to the Protestant religion, but on the
approach of Mountjoy it formally submitted. From this time,
however, the magistrates whom it elected refused to take the oath
of supremacy, and, as by it^ charter it possessed the right to
refuse admission to the king's judges, and therefore to dispense
with the right of holding assizes, a rule was obtained in the
Irish chancery for the seizure of its charter, which was carried
into effect in 1618. In 1619 an unsuccessful attempt was made to
induce Bristol merchants to settle in the city and undertake its
government, and in 1626 the charter was restored. The city
resisted Cromwell in 1649, but surrendered to Ireton in 1650.
After the battle of the Boyne James II. embarked at it for France
(July 1690). Shortly afterwards it surrendered to William, who
sailed from it to England. It sent two members to parliament
from 1374 to 1885, when the number was reduced to one. In
1898 it was constituted one of the six county boroughs having
separate county councils.
The city is built chiefly along the banks of the river, occupying
for the most part low and level ground except at its western
extremity: The modern Protestant cathedral of the Holy Trinity,
WATERFORD— WATERHOUSE
generally called Christ Church, occupies the site of the church
built by the Danes in 1096, in the Mall. Near it are the episcopal
•i^lace and deanery. There is a Roman Catholic cathedral, and
'^t. John's college, a training seminary for priests. The principal
secular buildings are the town-hall, the county and city courts
and prisons, the custom-house and the barracks. At the extremity
of the quay is a large circular tower, called Reginald's tower,
forming at one time a portion of the city walls, and occupying
the site of the tower built by Reginald the Dane in 1003. Other
remains of the fortifications, consisting of towers and bastions, are
to be seen as in the Tramore railway sidings and in Castle street.
The leper house, founded in the reign of King John, is now used
practically as an infirmary. The town possesses breweries, salt-
houses, foundries and flour mills; and there is a large export
trade in cattle, sheep and pigs, and in agricultural produce. It is
the headquarters of extensive salmon and sea fisheries. Water-
ford is second in importance to ^Cork among the ports of the
south coast of Ireland. There 'is regular communication by
steamer with Cork, with Dublin and Belfast, with Fishguard and
with many English ports.
Waterford harbour is a winding and well-sheltered bay formed
by the estuary of the river Suir, and afterwards by the joint
estuary of the Nore and Barrow. Its length to the sea is about
15 miles. Its entrance is 3 m. wide, and is lighted by a fixed light
on the ancient, donjon of Hook Tower (139 ft. in height) and
others. The natural harbour is formed by the Suir from Water*
ford to its confluence with the Barrow and thence to the sea,
a distance of 18 miles. The entrance is 3 m. wide. The Suir is
navigable to Waterford for vessels drawing 22 ft. The shores of
the harbour are studded with country residences and waterside
villages, of which Passage and Duncannon are popular resorts
of the citizens of Waterford.
See C. Smith's Antient and Present State of the County and City of
Waterford (1746) ; R. H. Ryland, Topography and Antiquities of the
County and City of Water jord (1824) ; P. M. Egan, Guide to Water-
ford (1896) ; Power, Parochial History of the Diocese of Waterford
and Lismore (1912) ; E. Downey, The Story of Waterford (1914).
WATERFORD> a village of Saratoga county, New York,
U.S.A., on the west bank of the Hudson river, near the mouth
of the Mohawk river, and about 10 miles north of Albany. The
population decreased from 3,225 in 1910 to 2,637 in 1920. Water-
ford is served by the Delaware and Hudson railway, and is at
the junction of the Erie and the Champlain divisions of the
great barge canal connecting Lake Erie and Lake Champlain with
the Hudson river. There was a settlement here probably as early
as 1630, and Waterford was laid out in 1784, and was incorporated
as a village in 1794.
WATER GAS. When steam is passed over red-hot anthra-
cite or coke it is decomposed, and the resultant gas, consisting
of a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, is termed water
gas. Enriched with gas from cracked oil, it is termed carburetted
water gas and is largely employed in industrial operations. It is
also used mixed with coal gas for town purposes; when so em-
ployed it increases the poisonous character of the gas supply
owing to the peculiarly dangerous qualities of carbon monoxide.
For full details see GAS MANUFACTURE and FUEL.
WATER-GLASS. A common name for sodium silicate, made
by fusing together in a furnace soda ash and clean sand. The
name water-glass (or soluble glass) is derived from the fact that
while the substance resembles glass it can be dissolved in water
by prolonged exposure. The proportions of soda and silica in
water-glass may be considerably varied, according to the purpose
for which it is required. (See ALKALI.)
WATER HEMLOCK, also known as cow-bane, is botani-
cally Cicuta virosa, a poisonous weed found growing at the edges
of ponds, ditches and rivers in Great Britain. It is a perennial
plant of the family Umbelliferae, and has large compound leaves
and small white flowers appearing from July to August. It has
been mistaken by human beings for celery, with fatal results, and
is responsible for the death of cattle. In North America there
are six native species of Cicuta, all similarly poisonous, especially
the spotted cow-bane or musquash-root (C. maculata) of the
eastern States and Canada, and the western water hemlock (C.
Douglasii) of the Pacific coast. Before its virulence became
known to cattle-raisers the western species caused serious losses
of live stock in Oregon and other north-western States.
The closely allied poison hemlock (Conium maeulatum) is a bi-
ennial plant of the family umbelliferae, found wild in many parts
of Great Britain and Ireland,
where it occurs in waste places on
hedge-banks, and by the borders
of fields, and also widely spread
over Europe and temperate Asia,
and naturalized in the culti-
vated districts of North and
South America. It is an erect
branching plant, growing from 3
to 6 ft. high, and emitting a dis-
agreeable smell, like that of mice.
The stems are hollow, smooth,
somewhat glaucous green, spotted
with dull dark purple, as al-
luded to in the specific name,
maeulatum. The root-leaves have
long furrowed footstalks, sheath-
HE WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA MA- ing the stem at the baseband are
cuLATA), A HERB FOUND IN large, triangular in outline, and
SWAMPS AND LOW LANDS repeatedly divided or compound,
the ultimate and very numerous segments being small, ovate and
deeply incised at the edge. These leaves generally perish after the
growth of the flowering stem, which takes place in the second
year, while the leaves produced on the stem became gradually
smaller upwards. The branches are all terminated by compound
many-rayed umbels of small white flowers, the general involucres
consisting of several, the partial ones of about three short lance-
olate bracts, the latter being usually turned towards the outside
of the umbel. The flowers are succeeded by broadly ovate fruits,
the mericarps (half-fruits) having five ribs which, when mature,
are waved or crenated; and when cut across the albumen is seen
to be deeply furrowed on the inner face, so as to exhibit in section
a reniform outline. The fruits when triturated with a solution of
caustic potash evolve a most unpleasant odour.
WATERHOUSE, ALFRED (1830-1905), English archi-
tect, was born at Liverpool on July 19, 1830, and died on Aug.
22, 1905. He was a pupil of Richard Lane in Manchester. His
earliest commissions were of a domestic nature, but his position
as a designer of public buildings was assured as early as 1859
when he won the open competition for the Manchester assize
courts. This work marked him not only as an adept in the
planning of a complicated building on a large scale, but also as
a champion of the Gothic cause. In 1868 he won the competition
for the Manchester town-hall, where he showed a firmer and
perhaps more original handling of the Gothic manner. The same
year brought him the rebuilding of part of Caius College, Cam-
bridge, not his first university work, for Balliol, Oxford, had
been put into his hands in 1867. At Caius, out of deference to
the Renaissance treatment of the older parts of the college, the
Gothic element was intentionally mingled with classic detail, while
Balliol and Pembroke, Cambridge, which followed in 1871, may
be looked upon as typical specimens of the style of his mid career
— Gothic tradition (European rather than British) tempered by
individual taste and by adaptation to modern needs. Girton Col-
lege, Cambridge, a building of simpler type, dates originally from
the same period (1870), but has been periodically enlarged by
further buildings. Two important domestic works were under-
taken in 1870 and 1871 respectively — Eaton Hall for the duke,
then marquis, of Westminster, arid Heythrop Hall, Oxfordshire,
the latter, a restoration, being of a fairly strict classic type.
Iwerne Minster for Lord Wolverton was begun in 1877. In 1865
Waterhouse had removed his practice from Manchester to Lon-
don, and he was one of the architects selected to compete for the
Royal Courts of Justice. He received from the government, with-
out competition, the commission to build the Natural History
Museum, South Kensington, a design which marks an epoch in
the moderr4 use of terra-cotta. The new University Club — a
4*6
WATERHOUSE— WATER-LILY
Gothic design — was undertaken in 1866, to be followed nearly
twenty years later by the National Liberal Club, a study in
Renaissance composition. Waterhouse's series of works for
Victoria University, of which he was made LL.D. in 1895, date
from 1870, when he was first engaged on Owens College, Man-
chester. Yorkshire College, Leeds, was begun in 1878; and
Liverpool University College in 1885. St. Paul's School, Hammer-
smith, was begun in 1881, and in the same year the Central
Technical College in Exhibition Road, London. Waterhouse's
chief remaining works in London are the new Prudential Assur-
ance Company's offices in Holborn; the new University College
Hospital; the National Provincial Bank, Piccadilly, 1892; the
Surveyors' Institution, Great George Street, 1896; and the
Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea, 1895. For
the Prudential Company he designed many provincial branch
offices, while for the National Provincial Bank he also designed
premises at Manchester. The Liverpool Infirmary is Water-
house's largest hospital; and St. Mary's Hospital, Manchester,
the Alexandra Hospital, Rhyl, and extensive additions at the
general hospital, Nottingham, also engaged him. Among works
not already mentioned are the Salford gaol; St. Margaret's
School, Bushcy; the Metropole Hotel, Brighton; Hove town-
hall; Alloa town-hall; St. Elizabeth's church, Reddish; the Weigh
House chapel, Mayfair; and Hutton Hall, Yorks.
Waterhouse became a fellow of the Royal Institute of British
Architects in 1861, and president from 1888 to 1891. In 1878 he
received the royal gold medal of the institute, and was made
an associate of the Royal Academy, becoming a full member in
1885 and treasurer in 1898. He became a member of the acade-
mies of Vienna (1869), Brussels (1886), Antwerp (1887), Milan
(1888) and Berlin (1889), and a corresponding member of the
Institut de France (1893). After 1886 he was constantly called
upon to act as assessor in architectural competitions, and was a
member of the international jury appointed to adjudicate on the
designs for the west front of Milan Cathedral in 1887. In 1890 he
served as architectural member of the Royal Commission on the
proposed enlargement of Westminster Abbey as a place of burial.
From 1891 to 1902, when he retired, his work was conducted in
partnership with his son, Paul Waterhouse.
See Memoir in The Builder, Aug. 1905.
WATERHOUSE, GEORGE ROBERT (1810-1888),
English naturalist, was born aX Somer's Town on Mar. 6, 1810.
He was educated as an architect and for a time followed his pro-
fession with great success. His real taste, however, was for
entomology. In 1833 he and Frederick W. Hope founded the
Entomological Society of London and W'aterhouse was made
honorary curator and later president. He wrote the natural
history articles for Knight's Penny Cyclopaedia. In 1835 he be-
came curator of the museum of the Royal Institution at Liver-
pool, giving this up in 1836 for the curatorship of the Zoological
Society of London. He made a catalogue of the mammals in the
society's museum which was published in 1838 and followed by
a supplement in 1839. He declined an invitation to accompany
Darwin on the famous voyage of the "Beagle," but on its return
Darwin placed the mammals and the coleoptera collected on the
voyage with Waterhouse for description. In 1843 he was ap-
pointed an assistant in the mineralogical branch of the department
of natural history of the British Museum. Of this branch he
became keeper in 1851, but in 1857 v™* transferred to keeper of
the department of geology, which post he held until his retirement
in 1880. He died at Putney on Jan. 21, 1888.
His special studies were on coleoptera and on the group
Heteromera. He began in 1844 a Natural History of the Mam-
malia of which two volumes (1846-1848), treating of the Mar-
supialia and Rodentia, were published when the publisher found
himself unable to continue the work. Waterhouse published also
a Catalogue of British Coleoptera (1858), and contributed some
120 papers to various scientific journals. He was an indefatigable
collector and greatly enriched the museums of which he was
curator.
WATERHOUSE, JOHN WILLIAM (1847-1917), Eng-
lish painter, was the son of an artist, by whom he was mainly
trained. As a figure-painter he shows in his work much imagi-
native power and a very personal style, and his pictures are for^
the most part illustrations of classic myths treated with «*-
tractive fantasy. He was an able draughtsman and a fin>
colourist. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1885 and R.A. in 1895.
Four of his paintings. "Consulting the Oracle," "St. Eulalia,"
"The Lady of Shalott" and "The Magic Circle," are in the
National Gallery of British Art. He died in London on Feb.
10, 1917.
See A. L. Baldry, "J- W. Waterhouse and his Work," Studio, vol. iv,
(1894).
WATER-HYACINTH (Eichhornia crassipes), an aquatic
herb of the pickerel-weed family (Pontederiaceae), native to
tropical America and widely naturalized in warm regions. It is
an emersed or floating somewhat fleshy plant, bearing smooth,
nearly round, erect leaves, J in. to 6 in. broad, and loose clusters
of pale violet, orchid-like flowers, marked with blue and yellow.
The bladder-like bases of the leaf-stalks serve as floats which
keep the plant high in the water. Escaping from cultivation, it
has become a troublesome weed, impeding navigation in the in-
land waters of many warm countries, as Florida, Java, Argentina
and Australia.
WATERLAND, DANIEL (1683-1740), English theo-
logian, was born at Walesby on Feb. 14, 1683. He was educated
at Magdalene College, Cambridge, of which he was macje a fellow
in 1704 and master in 1713. He graduated M.A. in 1706 and
B.D. in 1714. On Nov. 14, 1715 he became vice-chancellor of
the University and in the following year was appointed Chaplain
in ordinary to the king. In 1720 he published Eight Sermons in
Defence of the Divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, preached by
him in St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1722 he was appointed Chancellor
of the diocese of York, and in 1723 appeared his Critical History
of the Athanasian Creed. He resigned his London rectory in
1730 when he became archdeacon of Middlesex and vicar of
Twickenham. His other major works were Scripture Vindicated
(1730-32), a reply to Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as
Creation; The Importance of the Doctrine of the Holy Trinity
Asserted (1734); and Review of the Doctrine of the Eucharist
(1737). His work did much to check the increase of latitudinarian
ideas within the church of England at the time. His wide learn-
ing and command of English and his dispassionate reasoning made
him formidable in controversy. He died on Dec. 23, 1740.
WATER-LETTUCE (Pistia Stratiotes), an aquatic plant
of the acum family (Araceae, t/.iO, very widely distributed in
tropical and subtropical regions; in the United States it is native
to slow streams from Florida to Texas. It is a tender, floating
perennial, rarely becoming anchored by its long feathery roots.
The wedge-shaped, light-green leaves form a rosette, about 6 in.
broad, which is somewhat similar to a half-grown lettuce plant
before the head is formed. In the cup-like centre of the rosette
are borne the small white flowers. The water-lettuce is often
grown in water gardens and as an aquarium plant.
WATER-LILY, a name somewhat vaguely given to almost
any floating plant with conspicuous flowers, but applying more
especially to the species of Nymphaea, Nuphar, and other mem-
bers of the family Nymphaeaceae. These are aquatic plants with
thick fleshy root stocks or tubers embedded in the mud, and
throwing up to the surface circular shield-like leaves, and leaf-
less flower-stalks, each terminated by a single flower, often of
great beauty, and consisting of four or five sepals, and numerous
petals gradually passing into the very numerous stamens without
any definite line of demarcation between them. The ovary con-
sists of numerous carpels united together and free, or more or
less embedded in the top of the flower-stalk. The ovary has many
cavities and is surmounted by a flat stigma of many radiating
rows as in a poppy. The fruit is berry-like, and the seeds are
remarkable for having their embryo surrounded by an endosperm
as well as by a perisperm. The leaf-stalks and flower-stalks are
traversed by longitudinal air-passages, whose disposition varies
in different species. The species of Nymphaea art found in every
quarter of the globe. Their flowers range from white to rose-
coloured, yellow and blue. Some expand in the evening only,
WATER-LILIES
PLATE
COMPOSITE GROUP OF NATURAL AND CULTIVATED WATER-LILIES
1. East Indian lotus (Nelumbium ncJumbo)
2. Formosa water-lily (Nymphaea formosa)
3. (Nymphaea zanzibariensis)
4. Rico-field water-lily (Nymphaea odorata
gigantea)
5. Spoiled Marline (Nymphar
rubra punctata)
6. Nymphae.t Mrs. C. W. Ward
7. Nymphaea Sioux
8. Nymphaea Manzoniello
9. Nymphaea Dauheniann
10. Nymphaea Robert A. Harper
11. Nymphaea odor at a sulphurea grandiflora
12. Blue Egyptian lotus (Nymphaea caerulea)
13. Nymphaea George Muster
14. f oyal water-lily (Victoria regia)
WATERLOO— WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
others close soon after noon. Nymphaea alba is common in some
parts of Great Britain, as is also the yellow Nuphar luteum
(Nymphaea lutea). The seeds and the rhizomes contain an
abundance of starch, and are used in some places for food.
Nymphaea odorata, fragrant water-lily, and N. tuber osa,
tuberous water-lily, are the conspicuous white water-lilies of
eastern North America; Nuphar advenum is the common yellow
water-lily or spatter-dock of the eastern States and Canada and
N. polysepalum, Indian pond-lily, is its counterpart on the Pacific
coast; Brascnia Schreberi, the water-shield, with small yellow
flowers, occurs across the continent.
Under the general head of water-lily are included the lotus of
Egypt, Nymphaea Lotus, and the sacred lotus of India and China,
Nelumbium speciosum, formerly a native of the Nile, as shown by
Egyptian sculptures and other evidence, but no longer found in
that river. Nelumbium luteum, of the eastern United States, is
the American lotus or water chinquapin (q.v.). The gigantic
Victoria regia, with leaves 6 to 7 ft. in diameter and flowers 8 to
1 6 in. across, also belongs to this group. It grows in the back-
waters of the Amazon, often covering the surface for miles: the
seeds are eaten under the name water maize.
WATERLOO, a city of eastern Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar
river, about 90 m. west of Dubuque and 275 m. west of Chicago.
Pop. (1920.) 36,230 (90% native white); 1928 local estimate
40,000. It is in a rich farming and stock-raising region, and is
headquarters of the Dairy Cattle Congress and the National
Belgian Horse Show. Among the manufactures are tractors,
engines and dairy separators. The number of manufacturing
establishments in 1925 was 95, the number of wage earners
4,205, the value of products $42,202,975 of which $14495,811
was added by the various manufacturing processes. The river
here is 700 to 900 ft. wide; its clear water flows over a limestone
bed through a rather evenly sloping valley in the middle of the
city with enough fall to furnish valuable water power. The city
is served by the Illinois Central (which has large construction
and repair shops here), the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific and
the Chicago Great Western. The city was founded about 1846,
laid out in 1854, and chartered in 1868. It doubled its population
between 1890 and 1900, more than doubled it between 1900 and
1910 and increased it ^6% between 1910 and 1920.
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN, 1815. On Feb. 27, 1815,
Napoleon set sail from Elba with a force of 1,000 men and 4
guns, determined to reconquer the throne of France. On March
i he landed near Cannes, and proceeded at once to march on
Paris. He deliberately chose the difficult route over the French
Alps because he recognized that his opponents would neither ex-
pect him by this route nor be able to exert combined operations
in time to thwart him. Events proved the wisdom of his choice.
His advance was a series of triumphs, his power waxing with every
league he covered, and when he reached Paris the Bourbons had
fled. But he had soon to turn his attention to war. His sudden
return far from widening the breaches between the allies had
fused them indissolubly together, and the four powers bound them-
selves to put 150,000 men apiece under arms and to maintain
them in the field until Napoleon had been utterly crushed. To
oppose their vast armies, Napoleon only had in March the 150,000
men he had taken over when Louis XVIII. hurriedly quitted the
throne. Within ten days the emperor could have concentrated
50,000 men and struck straight at the small allied forces then in
Belgium. But he wisely refrained from taking the immediate
offensive. Such action could lead to no decisive result; and Na-
poleon therefore hastened forward the organization of an army
with which to confront the Seventh Coalition. Meanwhile he
sought by various means to detach Great Britain and Austria from
the alliance.
Napoleon's Preparations and Plans. — By June i Napoleon
had got together an army of 360,000 for the defence of France,
one half of which was available for field service. In this army
was comprised his whote means of defence; for he had no allies.
On his return from Elba it is true Murat, the king of Naples,
took his side; but recklessly opening an offensive campaign,
Murat was beaten at Tolentino (May 2-3), and he found himself
compelled to fly in disguise to France, where the emperor refused
to give him an audience or employment. Napoleon thus deprived
himself of the most brilliant cavalry soldier of the period and
left the whole eastern frontier of France open to invasion. The
country, too, was weakened by internal dissensions at the very
moment when it was necessary to put every man in line to meet
the rising tide of invasion.
In Belgium lay an ever-increasing force of Anglo-Dutch and
Prussian troops under Wellington and Blucher. The eastern
frontier was threatened by Austrian armies, and the Russians
were slowly coming up. The allies determined to avoid any risk
of defeat in detail. It was arranged that Wellington and Blucher
should await in Belgium the arrival of the Austrians and Russians
on the Rhine. Then about July i the general invasion of France
would be begun. Affording each other mutual support, the allies
would press forward on Paris, and, after defeating Napoleon,
drive him within its works. This menacing danger forced Napoleon
to strike prematurely, for he determined to crush Wellington and
Blucher, whose forces lay dispersed in Belgium, before the
Austrians and Russians poured across the eastern frontier.
In the early days of June Wellington and Blucher were dis-
posed as follows. t(See map.) The Anglo-Dutch Army, 93,000,
headquarters at Brussels, were cantoned: I. Corps (Prince of
Orange), 30,200, in the area Enghien-Genappc-Mons; II. Corps
(Lord Hill), 27,300, in the area Ath-Audenarde-Ghent ; reserve
cavalry (Lord Uxbridge), 9,900, in the Dcndre valley; whilst
the reserve (Wellington), 25,500, lay around Brussels. The front
was watched by Dutch-Belgian light cavalry.
Bliicher's Prussian Army, 116,000, headquarters at Namur, were
quartered: I. Corps (Zieten), 30,800, along the Sambre cover-
ing Fontaine TEveque-Heurus-Moustier; II. Corps (Pirch),
31,800, in the area Namur-Hannut-Huy; III. Corps (Thiele-
mann), 23,900, in the bend of the Meuse from Dinant to Huy;
IV. Corps (Bulow), 30.300, around Liege. The front was watched
by the I'russian outposts.
Thus the allied cantonments extended for nearly 90 m. and
their mean depth was 30 m. To concentrate on either flank would
take six days, and on the common centre, Charleroi, three days.
The allies had foreseen the very manoeuvre that Napoleon
decided to adopt, and if an attempt wa$ made to break their
centre they intended to concentrate forwards and on their inner
flanks, the Anglo-Dutch at Gosselies and the Prussians at Fleurus.
They could then act united against Napoleon with a numerical
superiority of two to one. They felt certain they would obtain
the necessary three days' warning of the French concentration, as
Napoleon's troops were then distributed between Lille, Metz and
Paris (175 m. by 100 m.). To concentrate the French army,
within striking distance of Charleroi, before the allies had moved
a man to meet it was unthinkable. But it was the unthinkable
that happened.
Whereas Blucher had covered Fleurus by Zieten's Corps, which
by a yielding fight would secure the time for the Prussian con-
centration, yet Wellington had only covered Gosselies by a
cavalry screen which was too weak to gain the time requisite for
the Duke to mass there. Hence to enable him to concentrate as
arranged Wellington relied on obtaining timely information of
Napoleon's plans, which in fact he failed to obtain.
The French Concentration. — The emperor made his final
preparations with the utmost secrecy. The "Armee du Nord" was
to concentrate in three columns — around Solre, Beaumont and
Philippeville— as close to Charleroi as was practicable. On June 6
the IV. Corps (Gerard) started and soon the whole army was in
motion, every effort being made to hide the movements of the
troops, for there was no great natural screen to cover the
strategical concentration. On June n Napoleon left Paris for the
front, and by June 14 he had achieved almost the impossible
itself. There around Solre, Beaumont, and Philippeville lay his
mass of men, 124,000, concentrated under his hand and ready
to march across the frontier at dawn against the unsuspicious
enemy. The allies still lay in widely distant cantonments and they
had not moved a man to meet the foe.
The opposing armies were of very different quality. Welling-
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
THE
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN IBIS
Theatre of Operations in Btlgium
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frvtsjan CMtQixvnto 11*00* PS •
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ton's was a collection of many nationalities, and the kernel of
British and King's German Legion troops numbered only 42,000.
Bliicher's army was undoubtedly more homogeneous and included
no specially weak elements. Napoleon led out a veteran army of
Frenchmen who worshipped their leader. But there were lines
of weakness in his force. For various reasons, neither Davout,
Murat, Suchet, nor Clausel were employed in the "Armee du
Nord," Marshal Soult, appointed chief of the staff, possessed
few qualifications for this post ; and neither Ney nor Grouchy who,
when the campaign began were given command of the left and
right wings, possessed the ability or strategic skill necessary for
such positions. Again the army was morally weakened by a
haunting dread of treason; and, finally, it was too small for its
purpose. Locked up in secondary theAtres Napoleon had left
56,500 men, of whom he might have collected over 30,000 for
the decisive campaign in Belgium. Had he concentrated 155,000
of his available force opposite to Charleroi on June 14, then the
issue would hardly have been in doubt. As it was he left too much
to Fortune.
For his advance into Belgium in 1815 Napoleon divided his
army into two wings and a reserve. As the foe would lie away
to his right and left front after he had passed the Sambre, one
wing would be pushed up towards Wellington and another towards
Blticher; whilst the mass of the reserve would be centrally placed
so as to strike on either side, as soon as a force of the enemy
worth destroying was encountered and gripped. To this end he
had, on the i4th, massed his left wing (Reille and D'Erlon)
around Solre, and his right wing (Gerard) at Philippcville ; whilst
the central mass (Vandamme, Lobau, the Guard and the Cavalry
Reserve) lay around Beaumont. The orders for the French ad-
vance next day, among the finest ever issued, directed that the
army should march at dawn and move to the Sambre at Mar-
chienne and Charleroi. By evening it was expected that the whole
would have crossed (he Sambre, and would bivouac between the
sundered allies.
The Passage of the Sambre.— At the very outset delays oc-
curred. Vandamme, who was to lead the advance on Charleroi,
was delayed by an accident that befell the single orderly who
carried the orders to the III. Corps. Gerard, too, was late as his
concentration had not been completed on the I4th. Zieten's out-
posts fought stubbornly to delay the French advance for 24 hours
and give time for Bliicher's concentration. As soon as the emperor
reached the front he took vigorous action, nevertheless it was
after noon before the Charleroi bridge was stormed. At the same
time Reille crossed at Marchiennc. The emperor at once began
the advance up both the Fleurus and Quatre Bras roads. It was
3 P.M. when Marshal Ney joined the army and was at once given
command of the left wing. Napoleon then proceeded with Grouchy
to reconnoitre the Prussian position at Gilly, and, handing over
the command of the right wing to the marshal, the emperor im-
mediately returned to Charleroi and ordered Vandamme to go to
the assistance of Grouchy.
The allies had been caught unprepared. But as soon as BlUcher
got the first real warning of imminent danger he ordered the
immediate concentration of his army at Sombreffe. Unfor-
tunately, the orders sent to Biilow were so hazy that Biilow
did not realize the need for any special haste. Thus the IV.
Corps was neutralized until after the i6th. But Pirch I. and
Thielemann acted with satisfactory promptness and their corps
reached Mazy and Namur by nightfall. Blucher in pursuance with
his plan moved to Sombreffe.
Wellington's position at night was hardly safe or even satis-
factory. It was not until 3 P.M. that definite news of the French
advance reached Brussels, and even then the duke was not certain
of the direction of Napoleon's main stroke. Consequently he
ordered his divisions to concentrate at their alarm-posts and await
further orders. The danger of Bliicher's position was thus
enormously increased. The allies do not appear to have decided
! upon the course to be taken in case they were surprised, and
| their system of inter-communication was most imperfect. Luckily
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
419
Wellington's subordinates at the critical point acted with ad-
mirable boldness. Prince Bernard, commanding the brigade at
Quatre Bras, retained his position there to check the French
advance instead of drawing off to mass with his division at
Nivelles. His immediate superiors approved his action. Owing
to these officers Wellington retained possession of the important
strategical point of Quatre Bras. Consequently Ney's advance
struck into Prince Bernard's advanced troops who were forced
back. But Prince Bernard firmly held his main position at the
cross-roads; and, as the day was drawing on, Ney wisely decided
not to push on any farther and so risk isolating the left wing. He
halted and reported to the emperor.
Meanwhile Grouchy and Vandamme wasted two hours deliberat-
ing in front of the Prussian brigade at Gilly. Then at 5:30 P.M.
Napoleon again reached the front and vigour replaced indecision.
After a brief cannonade Vandamme advanced with the bayonet
and the Prussians gave way. Grouchy then moved on Fleurus and
halted for the night.
Owing to Zicten's skill Blucher had secured his concentration
area, one corps was in position, and two others were at hand.
Thanks to his subordinates Wellington still retained a grip on
Quatre Bras. His corps were assembling: I., Nivelles, Braine le
Comte, Enghien; II., Ath, Grammont, Sotteghem; Cavalry,
Ninove; Reserve, at Brussels. During the night the divisions were
ordered to move to Nivelles, and at dawn the Reserve marched
for Mt. St. Jean.
The duke had relied on information that did not come to hand.
His intelligence officer, Colonel Colquhoun Grant, who was in
France, was ordered to send back his reports to the duke through
General Dornberg at Mons. On June 15 Grant reported that the
French Army was advancing, but Dornbcrg refused to believe the
report and returned it. Owing to this officer's presumptuous folly
Grant's report only reached Wellington on June 18.
On the night of the i$th the "Armee du Nord" was disposed
as follows: — Left Wing, Frasncs to Marchiennc; Right Wing, in
front of Fleurus and astride the Sambre at Chatelet; Centre (or
Reserve), Guard, between Gilly and Charleroi; but Milhaud's
Cuirassiers and Lobau's (VI.) Corps were still south of the
Sambre. Thus, despite the delays, Napoleon had secured a
dominant strategical position. The allies were still encouraged to
attempt a risky forward concentration, whilst Napoleon's cover-
ing forces were sufficiently far forward to be able to grip which-
ever ally adventured his army first. The "Armec du Nord" lay
concentrated "in a square whose sides measured 12 m. each; and
it could with equal facility swing against the Prussians or the
Anglo-Dutch, and was already placed between them.'*
16th June. — Early in the morning Prince Bernard was rein-
forced at Quatre Bras by the rest of his division ( Perponchcr's) ;
and Wellington's other troops were now all on the march east-
ward except the reserve, who were heading southwards and halted
at the cross-roads of Mt. S. Jean until the duke had resolved that,
their objective should be Quatre Bras. They then marched in
that direction. Blucher meanwhile was making his arrangements
to hold a position to the south of the Namur-Nivelles road and
thus maintain uninterrupted communication with Wellington at
Quatre Bras.
Napoleon spent the early morning in closing up his army, and
writing what proved to be the most important letter of the cam-
paign to Ney (Charleroi, about 8 A.M.) : "I have adopted as the
general principle for this campaign to divide my army into two
wings and a reserve. . . . The Guard will form the reserve, and
I shall bring it into action on either wing just as circumstances
dictate. . . . According to circumstances I shall weaken one wing
to strengthen my reserve. . . ." Here, in its simplest form, is
the principle that underlies Napoleon's strategy in 1815. Only on
the wing on which the reserve is brought into action will a
decisive result be aimed at. The other is to be used exclusively
to neutralize the other enemy, by holding him at bay.
Napoleon's plan for this day assumed that the surprised allies
would not risk a forward concentration. The emperor intended to
push an advanced guard to Gembloux to ward off Bliicher. and
move up the Guard to Fleurus. But once in possession of Som-
breffe, the emperor would swing the reserve westward to join
Ney, who should then have mastered Quatre Bras and have pushed
out a force to link with Grouchy, as well as another body 6 m.
to the northward. The centre and left wing would then march
by night to Brussels. The allies would thus be irremediably
sundered. Meanwhile Napoleon and the VI. Corps waited at
Charleroi for further information. Up till noon Ney took no
serious step to capture Quatre Bras, which still lay at his mercy.
Grouchy reported that Prussian masses were coming up from
Namur, but Napoleon ignored this. Before 10 A.M. Ney reported
considerable hostile forces at Quatre Bras. The marshal was
ordered to crush what was in front of him and report to Fleurus.
Here Napoleon arrived at n A.M., still leaving Lobau at Charleroi.
Napoleon at once reconnoitred the situation. Only one Prussian
corps was showing, but it was disposed parallel to the Namur
road, as if to cover a forward concentration. Had the decisive
day arrived? If so, by 2 P.M. Vandamme, Gerard, Pajol and
Exelmans would be available for the assault, and the Guard and
Milhaud would art as a reserve. At 2 P.M. Napoleon ordered
Ney to secure Quatre Bras, as the emperor was attacking the
Prussian corps. Whichever wing succeeded first would then wheel
inwards and help the other. The decisive flank had not yet be-
come clear.
Blucher had determined to fight. Wellington, on arrival at
Quatre Bras, finding all was quiet rode over to meet Blucher at
Brye. Considering no serious force was in front of Quatre Bras,
Wellington ended the interview with the conditional promise that
he would bring his army to Blucher 's assistance at Ligny, if he
was not attacked himself. But on his return to Quatre Bras he
found the situation already critical.
Quatre Bras. — Ney had let slip the chance when he could have
mastered Quatre Bras with ease, and thereby ensured co-
operation with Napoleon. He waited to mass Reille's Corps before
he advanced, though the Prince of Orange had only 7,500 troops
at Quatre Bras. The Prince had boldly scattered his force, made
wise use of cover and showed a firm front to Ney. It was 2 P.M.
when the French attacked. East of the road the Dutch-Belgians
were forced back and the line wavered. But at 3 P.M. Merlen's
cavalry rode in from Nivelles, Picton and the 5th division marched
up from Brussels, and Wellington himself returned. Picton stopped
the French advance, but Reille's last division was thrown in on
the French left, and a hot fight broke out. The Brunswick con-
tingent now reached Wellington and at once attacked. It was
4:15 P.M. Ney had just received Napoleon's 2 P.M. order, and
he promptly pressed his attack and almost cleared the Bossa
wood. However, at 5 P.M. Allen's division arrived from Nivelles,
and Ney realized that he needed D'Er Jon's corps to gain the
cross-roads.
About 5:15 P.M. Ney learned that D'Erlon, without his knowl-
edge, had moved eastwards to co-operate at Ligny. Then at 5:30
P.M. he received Napoleon's order to seize Quatre Bras and swing
in against Bliicher who was pinned at Ligny. Napoleon added,
"the fate of France is in your hands." Ney's duty was clear. He
must hold Wellington at Quatre Bras and allow D'Erlon to ensure
that a decisive success was gained that day at Ligny. In no case
could D'Erlon return in time to be of any use at Quatre Bras.
Ney, beside himself with rage, sent imperative orders to D'Erlon
to return and ordered Kellermann's cuirassier brigade to break
through Wellington's line. The charge was admirably executed.
A British regiment, caught in line, was overthrown and lost a
colour. But. unsupported, the horsemen were then beaten back.
At that moment Ney received a verbal message from Napoleon
ordering him, whatever happened at Quatre Bras, to allow D'Erlon
to carry out the move to Ligny. Despite remonstrance, Ney
refused to reconsider D'Erlon's recall and plunged into the fight.
Then about 7 P.M. the British Guards reached Wellington and
at last gave him the numerical superiority. Promptly the duke
attacked all along the line, and by nightfall the French had been
driven back to Frasnes. The losses were, Anglo-Dutch 4,700,
French 4,300. At y P.M., when the battle was over, D'Erlon
arrived. The corps had reached the edge of the Ligny battlefield
when it received the counter-order. Thinking he was still under
42O
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
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WATERLOO
Anglo Dutch fr-oops C — ^3 Prussian Troops
nglo Dutch Skirnikhersooa Approximate Con
Ncy, D'Erlon decided to leave one division at Wapnelee and to
return to the left wing. The incident was immeasurably unfor-
tunate for the French. Had D'Erlon been used betimes at Quatre
Bras, Wellington would have be'en crushed; had he only engaged
at Ligny, D'Erlon would have ensured Bliicher's annihilation.
But oscillating between the two fields the Corps took part in
neither. At 10 P.M. Ney wrote a short and somewhat one-sided
report to Soult.
Ligny. — On the other flank there had meanwhile been waged
the very bitterly fought battle of Ligny. As Bliicher's dis-
positions gradually became clearer the emperor realized that the
first decisive day of the campaign had actually come and promptly
made arrangements for defeating the Prussian army in his front.
Bliicher, to cover the Namur road, held with the 1. Corps the
villages of Brye, St. Ainand, and Ligny, whilst behind his centre
was massed the II. Corps, and on his left was placed the III.
Corps. Wellington and Biilow on arrival would act as general
reserve. Bliicher's army was quite visible to Napoleon on the
bare open slopes, the II. Corps being especially exposed. The
emperor decided to bear down Bliicher's centre and right with the
corps of Vandamme and Gerard and with Girard's division which
he had drawn into his operations, containing the Prussian left
meanwhile with the squadrons of Pajol and Exelmans, assisted by
a few infantry. The Guard and Milhaud were in hand at. Fleurus.
Further, he could order up Lobau, and direct Ncy to move his
rearward corps across and form it up behind Blikher's right.
When the battle was ripe, he would crush the Prussian centre and
right between the Guard and D'Erlon 's corps. It was a somewhat
complicated manoeuvre; for he was attempting to outflank his
enemy with a corps that he had subordinated to Marshal Ney.
Much depended on whether Ncy would grasp the full purport of
his orders. The usual Napoleonic simplicity was wanting at Ligny,
and he paid in full for the want.
The Prussians numbered about 83.000 to Napoleon's 71,000
(including Lobau). About 2:30 P.M. the sound of Ney's guns to
the westward proved that. Wellington was attacked and Napoleon
then opened the battle. A fierce fight soon raged for the villages
of Ligny and St. Amand. By 3:15 P.M. the battle was in full
swing and Napoleon wrote to Ney, saying, "The fate of France
is in your hands," and ordering the marshal to master Quatre
Bras and move eastwards to assist at Ligny. Directly afterwards,
hearing that Ney had 20,000 men in front, of him, he sent the
"pencil-note1' by General La Bcdoyere, directing Ney to detach
IVKrlon's corps to Ligny. This the A.D.C., in a fit of mistaken
zeal, took upon himself to do. Hence the corps appeared too
soon and in the wrong direction. It is clear that Ney's essential
duty was to co-operate at Ligny, provided that Wellington was
held fast at Quatre Bras. Unfortunately, in the heat of action,
Ney misread his instructions. Meanwhile the emperor had
ordered Lobau to move up to Fleurus. The fight for the villages
raged fiercely and incessantly, and the places were captured and
recaptured. Generally the French had the better of the fighting,
and Bliicher was compelled to use up more and more of his re-
serves. The fighting grew so furious that the troops literally
melted away. Even the emperor had to call on his reserves. Just
as the Young and Middle Guard moved to reinforce Gerard and
Vandamme, the latter reported that a hostile column, 30,000
strong, was threatening his left (in reality it was D'Erlon). This
sight unnerved Vandamme's exhausted troops, and guns had to
be turned on (hem to quell a panic. It was nearing 6 P.M. Na-
poleon concluded that this could not be D'Erlon, as he had
arrived too soon and was marching in the wrong direction.
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
421
Napoleon sent an officer to reconnoitre. As the French attacks
slackened the Prussians rallied and counter-attacked, but they
were beaten back by the Young Guard. By 6:30 P.M. Napoleon
learned that the force was D'Erlon's, and that it had withdrawn
westwards. Thus there was no direct co-operation from the Left
Wing on this decisive day. The emperor had perforce to finish
the battle single-handed.
Blucher now launched a general counter-stroke against %an-
darnme, but the chasseurs of the Guard drove back the Prussians
in disorder and Napoleon's chance had come at last. As Lobau
formed up near Fleurus, the guns of the Guard opened on Ligny
to prepare Blikher's centre for assault. At 7:45 P.M. a crashing
salvo from 60 guns heralded a combined onslaught by Gerard,
the Guard, and Milhaud. This tremendous impact of picked
troops pierced and broke the Prussian centre. Blucher promptly
launched his cavalry reserve to stem the French advance. Lead-
ing a charge in person he was dismounted and ridden over, before
he was rescued and borne from the field. Blucher had taken an
unjustifiable personal risk, for at this crisis it was essential for
the Prussians to be commanded by a chief who would keep loyally
in touch and act in concert with his colleague. By 9 P.M. the
battle was over and the French pressed resist lessly onwards.
The beaten Prussians retired to the north of the Namur road. But
in the failing light and in the uncertainty as to events on the left
wing, immediate pursuit was out of the question.
The execution had again fallen short of the conception; Bliicher
though beaten was not destroyed, nor was his line with Welling-
ton cut. If the Prussians now retired northwards, parallel to the
direction which Wellington would follow perforce on the morrow,
the chance of co-operating in a decisive battle would still remain
to the allies; and Gneisenau's order issued by moonlight, directing
the retreat, on Tilly and Wavre, went far to ensuring the possibility
of such combined action. However, Gneiscnau was very remiss
in not immediately reporting this vital move and the necessity for
it to the duke, as it left the Anglo-Dutch inner flank quite exposed.
Gnciscnau apparently selected Wavre, not with the intention of
assisting his ally, but rather to re-establish his own line of com-
munication, and the presence of the Prussians on the field of battle
of Waterloo must be put down to the immortal credit of Blucher
and Grolmann, his quartermaster-general.
Gneisenau allowed the re-establishment of his communications
to overweigh the paramount necessity of arranging concerted
action with his ally. Probably Wellington's failure to co-operate
at. Ligny had heightened the Prussian chief-of -staff's unworthy
suspicions of the duke's good faith. It was well for the allies that
Blucher was able to resume command before Napoleon had time
to profit from the dissensions that would probably have arisen
had Gneisenau remained in control. The casualties at Ligny were
very heavy. The Prussians lost 12,000 men and 21 guns, and the
French 8,500 men. So close was the fighting that most of the
20,000 casualties lay on 2 sq. in. of ground.
Napoleon's plan of campaign had succeeded. Despite D'Erlon's
misadventure, Ney's failure had placed the Anglo-Dutch army in
a precarious position. Napoleon having beaten Blucher, the latter
must fall back to rally and re-form. On the other tlank Ney lay in
front of Wellington, and the marshal could fasten upon the
Anglo-Dutch army and hold it fast on June 17, sufficiently long to
allow the emperor to close round its open left flank and deal it a
death-blow. It was essential to deal with Wellington before
Blucher could re-appear on the scene. Wellington was but im-
perfectly informed of the details of the result of Ligny. Certainly
Blucher had despatched an aide-de-camp to warn Wellington
that he was forced to retire. But the officer was shot and the
message remained undelivered. Nor did Gneisenau repeat this
important message directly he assumed temporary command.
Gneisenau's neglect involved the allies in an unnecessary and
very grave risk.
June 17. — Napoleon was unwell, and was not in the saddle as
early as he would otherwise have been ; and neither Soult nor Ney
made any serious arrangements for an advance when every
minute was golden. By early morning the duke had most of his
army about Quatre Bras. But Bliicher's defeat had rendered
Wellington's position untenable. Still ignorant of Bliicher's exact
position, Wellington sent out a well-escorted officer to establish
touch with the Prussians. He reported that the Prussians were
drawing off to rally at W7avre. Then, about 9 A.M., a Prussian
officer arrived to explain the situation and learn Wellington's
plans. The duke replied that he should fall back and accept
battle near Mt. S. Jean, provided he was assured of the support
of one of Bliicher's corps. He now subordinated everything to
remaining- in communication with Bliicher. It was 2 A.M., June 18,
before Wellington received an answer.
Covered by Thielemann the Prussians had drawn off towards
Gembloux to join Bulow. Meanwhile, soon after dawn, the French
cavalry rounded up some stragglers on the Namur road, and for
a time confirmed the idea that Bliicher was retiring on his base.
The situation was still obscure, details about what had happened
to Ney were wanting, and the direction of the Prussian retreat
was uncertain. At 8 A.M. Ney was ordered to take up his position
at Quatre Bras, or if he reported that it was impossible the em-
peror would co-operate. Napoleon meant that if only a rear-
guard opposed Ney it was to be driven off and Quatre Bras
occupied. But if Wellington was still there, the marshal was to
hold him fast, and Napoleon would hasten up with the reserve
and crush his enemy. Wellington in fact was there; but Ney did
nothing to retain him, and at 10 A.M. the duke began to retire
northwards. The last chance of bringing about a decisive French
success was thus allowed to slip away.
Grouchy's Operations.— About 1 1 A.M. Napoleon came to a
decision. He determined to send two cavalry corps, and Van-
damme's and Gerard's corps, and Testc's division (33,000 and
no guns) to follow the Prussians arid discover if they intended
uniting with Wellington in front of Brussels. As touch had been
gained with Thielemann at Gembloux, Marshal Grouchy, who had
been given command of the force, was ordered by the emperor to
"proceed to Gembloux." This order the marshal obeyed literally.
After an inconceivably slow march, in one badly arranged column
moving on one road, Grouchy only reached Gembloux on June 17,
and halted there for the night. Grourhy's cavalry who had been
in touch with Thielemann's corps, at Gembloux, allowed it to
slip away, and contact was lost for want of a serious effort to keep
it. Grouchy did not proceed to the front and entirely failed to
appreciate the situation. Pressing danger could only exist i(
Blucher had gone northwards, and northwards in the Dyie valley
Grouchy should have sought for the Prussians. But on June 17
the marshal pushed no reconnaissances to the northward and west-
ward of Gentinnes. (Actually Milhaud, when marching with
Napoleon towards Quatre Bras, did see some Prussian infantry
retiring northwards and reported this about g P.M. to Napoleon,
but he attached little importance to it.) Had Bliicher gone east-
wards, then no danger threatened, for Grouchy could easily have
held back any future Prussian advance on the line of the Dyle.
Grouchy merely obeyed his orders literally and went to Gembloux.
At nightfall the situation was in favour of the allies. The four
Prussian corps were concentrated astride the Dyle at Wavre and
Grouchy was actually outside them. After an unmolested retreat
the Prussians were ready to take the field once more, and 24
hours before Napoleon had deemed it possible after their defeat
at Ligny.
Napoleon's Pursuit of Wellington. — On the other ilank, too.
things had gone all in favour of Wellington. At noon Napoleon
wrote to Ney that troops had been placed at Marbais to second the
marshal's attack on Quatre Bras, yet Ney remained quiescent, and
Wellington began his retreat unmolested. Thus on Napoleon's
arrival only the duke's cavalry screen and some horse artillery
remained on the position. As the emperor justly said, Ney had
ruined France. This was the fatal mistake of the campaign. Al-
though Napoleon opened a rapid pursuit as the cavalry screen
crumpled up and decamped, yet he failed to entangle the rear
guard so deeply as to force the duke to return to its assistance.
Also a tropical thunderstorm considerably retarded the French
pursuit. Only as the light failed did Napoleon arrive opposite to
Wellington's position, and then by a masterly reconnaissance in
force he compelled the duke to disclose the presence of virtually
422
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
the whole army. The French halted between Rossomme and
Genappe, bivouacking In the sodden fields.
June 18—-During the night Wellington heard that Blucher
would bring two corps certainly, and possibly four, to Waterloo,
and the duke determined to accept battle. Yet so far was Welling-
ton from divining Napoleon's plan that he stationed 17,000
men (including Colville's British division) about Hal, 8 m. to
his right, to repel a turning movement that he groundlessly antici-
pated and to form a rallying point for his right in cuse his centre
was broken. By making this detachment the duke ran a very grave
risk. But with the 67,600 men and 156 guns which he had in hand,
he took up a truly admirable "Wellingtonian position" in front
of Mt. S. Jean. He used a low ridge to screen his main position,
exposing comparatively few troops in front of the crest. He
occupied Hougoumont with detachments of the British Guards
and placed a King's German Legion garrison in La Haye Sainte,
the key of his position. The duke also took care to distribute the
troops so that the indifferent and immature were closely supported
by those who were "better disciplined and more accustomed to
war." Full arrangements for Bliicher's co-operation were made
through General Muffling, the Prussian attache* on the duke's staff.
The duke was to stand fast and receive the attack, whilst Blucher
closed round Napoleon's exposed right. Thus the Prussians were
the real general reserve on this day.
Blticher kept his promise loyally, but the execution was faulty.
The Prussians did not start marching at dawn, and the rear corps
(BUlow) was selected to lead the column. A fire that broke out in
Wavre further delayed the march. But, despite his hurts, the old
marshal was in the saddle.
Luckily the wet state of the ground (largely cornfields) and
the scattered bivouacs of the French caused Napoleon's attack
to be put off until 11.30 A.M. Grouchy had reported at 10 P.M.,
i yth, from Gembloux that the Prussians were retiring towards
Wavre and Perwez. He stated that he meant to follow the Wavre
column, if it was the stronger, and separate it from Wellington.
But this was impossible. Grouchy was outside the Prussian left
and, by following it, he must inevitably drive the allies together.
The emperor answered the letter at 10 A.M., and directed the
marshal to march for Wavre. Napoleon's original plan must be
kept in mind when considering this letter. It will then be seen
to mean that Grouchy was to place his force on Bliicher's inner
flank and hold him back from Waterloo. But this is just what the
letter does not state precisely; accordingly Grouchy (as Ney had
done previously) misread it.
Meanwhile the French army formed up some 1,300 yards from
Wellington's position. Although some misgivings filled the minds
of such Peninsular veterans as Soult, Reille, and Foy, none
assailed Napoleon. But the late hour at which the battle opened,
and Napoleon's determination to break Wellington's centre instead
of outflanking his left and farther separating the allies, deprived
him of any chance of beating Wellington before Blucher could
intervene. Napoleon drew up his army of 74,000 and 246 guns
in three lines in full view of the Anglo-Dutch army. It was an
imposing array of veteran troops backed by the dark masses of the
Imperial Guard. As their emperor rode along the lines the troops
acclaimed him with extraordinary enthusiasm.
WATERLOO
First Phase. — About 11.30 A.M. the battle was opened with
an attack by one of Reille's divisions on Hougoumont. This was
merely to draw Wellington's attention to his right, and in this it
failed. Half-an-hour later a battery of 80 guns unlimbered on
the long spur to the S.E. of La Haye Sainte to prepare the
duke's centre for the main attack. But the crest of the "Welling-
tonian position" sheltered the defence from the tempest of iron.
After i P.M., and just before he gave orders for Ney to lead the
main attack, the emperor scanned the battlefield, and on his right
front he saw a dense dark cloud emerging from the woods at
Chapelle Saint Lambert. It was soon discovered that this was
Bulow's corps marching to Wellington's assistance. A letter
was now awaiting despatch to Grouchy, and to it was added a
postscript that the battle was raging with Wellington, that Billow's
corps had been sighted by the emperor, and that the marshal was
to hasten to the field and crush Billow. This order at least was
clear, but it was sent 12 hours too late, and when Grouchy re-
ceived it he was unable to carry it out. To neutralize BUlow
when necessity arose, the emperor now detached Lobau together
with the squadrons of Domon and Subervie. The general, how-
ever hardly drew out far enough from the French right; otherwise
theTnagnificent resolution he displayed and the admirable ob-
stinacy with which his troops fought against ever-increasing odds
are worthy of all praise. Thus as early as 1.30 P.M. the Prussian
intervention deranged the symmetry of Napoleon's battle-array.
The emperor never considered breaking off the fight and seeking a
more favourable opportunity of beating the allies in detail. He
was still determined to involve both Wellington and BUlow in a
common ruin.
Second Phase. — Ney was therefore ordered to attack Welling-
ton's centre with D'Erlon's corps. Owing to a misconception the
columns used for advance were over-heavy and unwieldy, and the
corps failed to achieve anything of importance. As D'Erlon's
troops advanced the Dutch-Belgian brigade in front of the ridge,
which had been subjected to an overwhelming fire from the 80
French guns at close range, turned about and retired in disorder
through the main position. This, however, was the solitary suc-
cess secured by the I. corps; for the left division failed to storm
La Haye Sainte and Picton's division met the remainder of
D'Erlon's corps face to face, engaging them in a murderous
infantry duel in which Picton fell. During this struggle Lord Ux-
bridge launched two of his cavalry brigades on the enemy; and
the "Union brigade" catching the French infantry unawares rode
over them, broke them up, and drove them to the bottom of the
slope with the loss of two eagles; but the British cavalry were
driven back with great loss by fresh French horsemen hurled on
them by the emperor. So far no success against Wellington had
been achieved, and Billow was still an onlooker.
Third Phase. — Ney was now ordered to attack La Haye Sainte
again, but the attack failed. A furious cannonade raged, and the
Anglo-Dutch line withdrew slightly to gain more cover from the
ridge. Ney misinterpreted this manoeuvre and led out, about
4 P.M., Milhaud's and Lefebvre-Desnouettes' horsemen (43
squadrons) to charge the allied centre between the two farms.
For several reasons, the cavalry could only advance at a trot.
As the horsemen closed they were received with volleys of case
from the guns, and the infantry formed into squares. Against the
squares the horsemen were powerless, and failing to break a
single square, they were finally swept off the plateau by fresh
allied horsemen. Kellermann's cuirassiers and the heavy horse
of the Guard (37 fresh squadrons) now advanced to support the
baffled cavalry, the latter falling in as supports. The whole So
squadrons resumed the attack, but with no better result. The
cavalry gradually became hopelessly entangled among the squares
they were unable to break, and at last they were driven down the
face of the ridge and the most dramatic part of the battle came
to an end. Had these great cavalry attacks been closely supported
by infantry, there can be little doubt that they must have achieved
their object. But they were not. In his handling of the three
arms together, Napoleon on this day failed to do justice to his
reputation.
About 4.30 P.M. BUlow at last engaged. Lobau's men were grad-
ually overpowered and forced back into Plancenoit, the village
was stormed, and the Prussian round shot reached the main road.
To set his right flank free the emperor called further on his
reserve, and sent Duhesme with the Young Guard to Lobau's
support. Together, these troops drove Bulow out of Plancenoit,
and forced him back towards the Paris wood. But the Prussians
had not yet changed the fate of the day.
Fourth Phase. — Napoleon now ordered Ney to carry La Haye
Sainte at whatever cost, and this the marshal accomplished with
the wrecks of D'Erlon's corps soon after 6 P.M. The garrison
(King's German Legion) had run out of rifle ammunition and the
French bursting in seized the post. This was the first decided
advantage that Napoleon had gained during the day. The key of
the duke's position was now in Napoleon's hands, Wellington's
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
423
centre was dangerously shaken, the troops were exhausted, and
the reserves inadequate. But the Iron Duke faced the situation
unmoved. Calmly he readjusted his line and strengthened the
torn centre. Happily for him, Pirch I. and Zieten's corps were
now at hand. Pirch I. moved to support Biilow; together they
regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi
road was swept by Prussian round shot. Napoleon, therefore, had
to free his right flank before he could make use of Ney's capture.
To this end he sent two battalions of the Old Guard to storm
Plancenoit. The veterans did the work magnificently with the
bayonet, ousted the Prussians from the place, and drove them
back 600 yards beyond it. But Napoleon could not turn now on
Wellington. Zieten was fast coming up on the duke's left, and
the crisis was past. Zieten's advent permitted the two fresh
cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeieur on the duke's extreme
left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. The value
of this reinforcement at this particular moment can hardly be
overestimated.
Fifth Phase. — The French now fiercely attacked Wellington all
along the line ; and the culminating point of this was reached when
Napoleon sent forward the Guard, less 5 battalions, to attack
Wellington's centre. Delivered in three Echelons, these final
attacks were repulsed, the first Echelon by Colin Halkett's British
Brigade, a Dutch-Belgian battery, and a brigade of Chassis
Dutch-Belgian division; the second and third Echelons by the
Guards, the 52nd, and the Royal Artillery. Thus ended the fifth
phase.
Rout of the French. — As the Guard recoiled (about 8 P.M.)
Zieten pierced the north-east corner of the French front, and their
whole line gave way as the allies rushed forward on their now
defenceless prey. Three battalions of the Guard indeed stood their
ground for some time, but they were finally overwhelmed. After-
wards, amidst the ruins of their army, two battalions of the ist
Grenadiers of the Guard defied all efforts to break them. But,
with the exception of these two battalions, the French army was
quickly transformed into a flying rabble. Bulow and Pirch I. now
finally overpowered Lobau, once more recaptured Plancenoit, and
sealed the doom of the French army. But Lobau 's heroic efforts
had not been in vain; they had given his master time to make his
last effort against Wellington; and when the Guard was beaten
back the French troops holding Plancenoit kept free the Charleroi
road, and prevented the Prussians from seizing Napoleon's line
of retreat.
When Wellington and Blucher met about 9.15 P.M. at "La
Belle Alliance," the victorious chiefs arranged that the Prussians
should take up the pursuit, and they faithfully carried out the
agreement. Pushing on through the night, they drove the French
out of seven successive bivouacs and at length drove them over
the Sambre. The campaign was virtually at an end, and the price
paid was great. The French had lost over 40,000 men and almost
all their artillery on June 18; the Prussians lost 7,000, and Welling-
ton over 15,000 men. So desperate was the fighting that some
45.000 killed and wounded lay on an area of roughly 3 sq.m. At
one point on the plateau "the 2yth (Inniskillings) were lying
literally dead in square"; and the position that the British infantry
held was plainly marked by the red line of dead and wounded
they left behind them.
Grouchy's Operations June 18-19. — A few words may now
be bestowed on Marshal Grouchy, commanding the right wing.
The marshal wrongly determined on the i8th to continue his
march to Wavre in a single column, and he determined, still more
wrongly, to move by the right bank of the Dyle. Breaking up
from bivouac long after dawn, he marched forward, via Walhain.
Here he stopped to report to the emperor some intelligence which
turned out to b£ false, and he remained for breakfast. Hardly
had he finished when the opening roar of the cannonade at Water-
loo was heard. Grouchy was now urged by his generals, especially
by Gerard, to march to the sound of the firing, but he refused to
take their advice, and pushed on to Wavre, where he found the
Prussians (Thielemann's corps of 16,000 men) holding the pass-
ages across the' Dyle. A fierce fight (called the Action of Wavre)
began about 4 P.M., in which the Prussians were for long vic-
torious. Instead of concentrating his force upon one bridge over
the swampy and unfordable Dyle, Grouchy scattered it in attacks
upon several; and when the emperor's despatch arrived, saying
Biilow was in sight, the marshal was powerless to move westward.
Towards the end of the day Colonel Vallin's Hussars stormed the
Limale bridge, and a large part of Grouchy's force then promptly
gained the left bank. The action continued till about n P.M.,
when it died out, to recommence shortly after dawn. Thielemann
was at length overborne by sheer weight of numbers, and towards
ii A.M. he was forced to retire towards Louvain. The losses
were considerable, about 2,400 men on each side.
Grouchy's victory was barren. In the far higher duty of co-
operation he had failed miserably. His tactical achievement could
avail the emperor nothing, and it exposed his own force to con-
siderable danger. Whilst pondering on the course he should fol-
low, the marshal received the news of the awful disaster that had
overtaken the emperor at Waterloo. In a flash he realized his
danger and made prompt arrangements to begin his retreat on
Namur, the only line to France that was then available. This
retreat he carried out resolutely, skilfully and rapidly, slipping
past Blucher and finally bringing his force to Paris. But the rapid
advance of the allies gave France no time to rally. Napoleon
was forced to abdicate, and finding escape was impossible, he sur-
rendered (on July 14) to the British — "the most powerful, the
most unwavering and the most generous of his foes."
The causes of Napoleon's failure in the Waterloo campaign were
as follows: — The French army was numerically too weak for the
gigantic task it undertook. Napoleon himself was no longer the
Napoleon of Marengo or Austerlitz, and though he was not broken
down, his physical strength was certainly impaired. Ney failed to
grasp and hold Wellington on the critical i;th of June; and on the
i ;th and i8th Grouchy's feeble manoeuvres enabled Blucher to
march and join Wellington at Waterloo. Napoleon's chance of
success was dangerously diminished, if not utterly destroyed, by
the incompetence of the two marshals whom in an evil hour he
selected for high commands.
Another dominant influence in shaping the course of events was
the loyalty of Blucher to his ally, and the consequent appear-
ance of the Prussian army at Waterloo. Nor must we overlook
Wellington's unswerving determination to co-operate with Blucher
at all costs, and his firmness on June 18; or the invincible steadi-
ness shown by the British troops and those of the King's German
Legion.
Reviewing this campaign at St. Helena, Napoleon laid the re-
sponsibility for the disaster of Waterloo on the inaction of Mar-
shal Grouchy who, after he had lost touch with the Prussian army
(which had crossed the Dyle at Wawres in order to work round
to the north in the direction of Soignes), ignored the urgent
representations of his officers, and in particular of General
Gerard, and refused to unite his forces with the bulk of Na-
poleon's army, although he could hear the sound of the guns.
However grave may have been Grouchy's error, it would be un-
just to characterize his failure as treason. In any case, Mar-
shal Grouchy, in spite of the miscarriage of his first mission, fear-
ing to depart from the orders of the emperor, showed himself
deficient not only in military insight but also in character.
In this article the writer has been greatly assisted by the advice
and suggestions of Lt.Col. H. W. L Hime' R.A. (A. F. BE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY, — Some of the principal books on the subject arc:---
K. V. Clauscwitz, Catnpagne df 1815 (1835, Fr. trans., 1899) ; H. dc
Mauduit, Lex dernirrs jours dc la Grande Armee (1847) ; W. Siborne,
Campaign of rSi<; (1848) ; J. S. Kennedy, Battle of Waterloo (1865) ;
C. C. Chesney, Waterloo Lectures (1874); H. T. Sibornf, Waterloo
Letters (1891) ; L. Navcz, Quatre Bras, LiRny, Waterloo et Wavre
(1903); A. A. Grouard, Strattgique Napoleoniqne, 1815 (1904), and
Critique de 181*; (1907) ; H. Houssaye, Waterloo (1907) ; F. de Bas
and T'serclacs de Wommerson, Catnpagne de 1815 (Dutch-Belgian
official account) (1908); A. Pollio, Waterloo (Rome, 1906); A. F.
Becke, Napoleon and Waterloo (1914) ; E. Lenient, La Solution dts
Mgmes de Waterloo (IQI$). See also Napoleon I«r, Correspondance
and Commentates; Wellington, Dispatches and Memorandum on
Waterloo; Henri Houssaye, 1815; the works of Thiers, Charms and
Quinet ; the story of the battle in Victor Hugo's Les Mistrabtcs; the
beginning of Stendhal, Chartreuses dc Parme,
4.24
WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH— WATER POLO
WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH, an urban district in
the Bootle and Ormskirk parliamentary divisions of Lancashire,
England, at the mouth of the Mersey, 4 m. N. by W. of Liverpool.
On account of its facilities for bathing, firm sands, pleasant
scenery and nearness to Liverpool, of which it is a suburb, it is
much frequented both by visitors and by residents.
WATERLOW, SIR ERNEST ALBERT (1850-1919),
English painter, was born in London, and received the main part
of his art education in the Royal Academy schools, where, in
1873, he gained the Turner medal for landscape-painting. He was
elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-
Colours in 1880, member in 1894, and president in 1897; asso-
ciate of the Royal Academy in 1890, and academician in 1903;
and he was knighted in 1902. He began to exhibit in 1872 and has
produced a considerable number of admirable landscapes, with
and without figures, in oil and water-colour, handled with grace
and distinction. One of his pictures, "Galway Gossips," is in the
National Gallery of British Art. He died on Oct. 25, 1919.
See Sir E. A. Waterlow, R.A., P.R.WS., by C. Collins Baker (Art
Journal Office, 1906).
WATERMARKS, the emblems or designs in paper used
originally in Italy in the latter part of the i3th century. The Ori-
entals, who were the first to make paper, did not employ water-
marks, although their method of fabricating sheets of paper was
almost identical with that introduced into Europe during the
middle i2th century.
The original Italian watermarks consisted of devices such as
crosses, circles, triangles and forms of the simplest kind that could
be readily twisted in wire. Until the middle of the i9th century
all watermarks were formed in outline and were produced by the
use of metal wires bent to the shape of the required design. These
wire objects were then sewed to the mould on which the paper was
to be formed, the wire leaving its impression in the wet sheet of
paper by causing the fibres to lie thinner along its course. The
ordinary watermarks in hand-made paper of the present day are
made in the same manner as those from the inception of the art,
the only difference being in the employment of finer wire and
greater skill in their formation. Plate I., fig. 3, shows the wire
device on the covering of a laid paper mould from the i6th cen-
tury; fig. 5 gives a section of an iSth century Dutch mould with
the watermarking wires in place.
About the middle of the I9th century a more complicated
and artistic form of watermarking was devised and instead of
being limited to simple outline forms, it was possible to cause
the paper to be made in any degree of thickness or tone desired.
Fig. i shows a mould for the watermarking of a portrait. This
mould has been made by first modelling the profile in a sheet
of wax so that the various degrees of light and shade may
be had and then making intaglio and cameo dies from the
wax model by elect rotyping. Closely-woven brass wire gauze is
then subjected to great pressure between the two electrotype
plates, the wire cloth or gauze taking the same contour as the
original wax relief. In forming sheets of paper on a hand mould
the water drains through the woven wire, leaving the moist pulp
in precisely the same thicknesses as those sculptured in the wax
original. The watermarking of paper in colour was invented by
Sir William Congreve in 1818 (English patent, Dec. 4, 1819, No.
4419) and consisted in placing coloured paper stock (pulp) in
various layers to form a homogeneous sheet of paper.
The foregoing treats only of watermarks that are produced in
hand-made paper where the moist pulp lies on the wire lettering
or pressed wire design during the whole process of forming the
sheet. This naturally gives a brilliant and clear-cut watermark.
In machine-made paper a wire cylinder known as a "dandy-roll"
or a circular rubber form is used to impart the lettering or symbol
to the moist paper by rolling over its surface after the web of
paper has been formed. It is therefore not possible to produce as
clear or distinct a watermark on a machine as it is by the use of a
finely-constructed mould in the hands of a skilled craftsman.
(D. Hu.)
WATERMELON (Citrullus vtdgoris), an annual plant of
the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae, q.v.), native to tropical and
southern Africa and widely cultivated since ancient times for its
refreshing fruit. It is depicted in Egyptian paintings dating to
the time of the pyramids. The plant is a prostrate, long-running,
hairy vine, with branched tendrils and large leaves, 4 in. to 7 in.
long, somewhat oblong in outline and deeply cut into several
narrow lobes, the leaf-stalks much shorter than the leaves. The
flowers, borne singly in the axils of the leaves, are light yellow,
about i£ in. broad, and divided into five lobes. The fruit is a
large berry-like structure (pepo), spherical or oblong in form,
mostly smooth and uniform green or mottled with lighter portions,
with a hard but not durable rind, and red flesh containing numer-
ous smooth, flat, black or white seeds. Under cultivation the fruit
attains very large size, often i£ ft. to 2 ft. or more long and
weighing from 20 Ib. to 50 Ib. or more, filled nearly to the rind
with red (sometimes yellowish or white) pleasantly flavoured
pulp, with abundant, sweet, watery juice. The watermelon is
grown in most warm temperate countries, especially China, India,
southern Russia, southern France, Egypt, South Africa and the
southern United States. A harder, white-fleshed form, known as
preserving melon or citron, is used for making conserves. In 1926
the commercial crop of the United States was grown on 199,060
acres, with a total production of 69,698 carloads (of 1,000 melons
each), valued at $10,642,920, 70% of which were grown in Geor-
gia, Florida, Texas and California.
WATER MOTORS: see HYDRAULIC MOTORS; TURBINE,
WATER.
WATER-OPOSSUM or YAPOCK (C/iironectes mini-
mus), distinguished from other opossums by its aquatic halits,
webbed hind-feet, and peculiar coloration. Its ground colour is
light grey, with four or five sharply contrasted brown bands
passing across its head and back giving it a very peculiar mottled
appearance; the head and body together are about i4in. long,
and the tail a little more. It feeds on small fish, crustaceans and
other water animals; its range extends from Guatemala to southern
Brazil.
WATER POLO, a game which has done much to advance
swimming in popular favour and to improve the stamina of
swimmers. It is played either in a bath or open water, the teams
consisting of seven on a side. The field of play must not exceed
3oyd. or be less than i9yd. in length and the width must not be
more than 2oyd. The ball used must be round and fully in-
flated and must not measure less than 26^, nor more than 28in.
in circumference. It must be waterproof, with no strapped seams
outside and no grease or other objectionable substance placed on
it. The goals must be loft, in width, with a cross-bar 3ft. above
the surface when the water is sft. or over in depth, and 8ft.
from the bottom when the water is less than $ft. in depth; in no
case must the water in which a game is played be less than 3ft.
Goal nets are used in all important matches. The duration of a
match is supposed to be 14 minutes, seven minutes each way. The
officials consist of a referee, a timekeeper and two goal scorers,
the first-named official starting the game by throwing the ball into
the centre of the bath. The counting point of the game, called a
goal, is scored by the entire ball passing between the goal-posts
and under the cross-bar.
The players have to place themselves in a line with their respec-
tive goals, and are not allowed to start swimming to the centre of
the bath until the word "Go" is given. They are usually divided
into 3 forwards, i half-back, 2 backs and a goalkeeper. To the
fastest swimmer is usually assigned the place of centre-forward
and it is his duty to make all headway possible so as to reach the
ball before the opposing forward of the other side, then pass rapidly
back to the half or one of the backs and swim on to within close
proximity of the opponent's goal and wait for a pass. The other
forwards should rapidly follow him up and each man carefully
shadow one of the opposing side. In handling the ball only one
hand may be used, for to touch the ball with both hands at the
same time constitutes a foul, as also does the holding of the rail
or the side, during any part of the game, the standing on or
touching of the bottom of the bath except for the purpose of
resting; interfering or impeding an opponent in any way, unless
he be holding the ball; holding the ball under water when tackled,
WATERMARKS
PLATE
^-^
WATERMARKS AND WATERMARKING DEVICES
1. A complete mould (with deckle) for the watermarking of a portrait.
The profile is first worked in wax so that various degrees of light and
shade may be gained, and then intaglio and cameo dies are made from
wax model by electrotyping
2. Hand made paper mould, combining lettering, and light and shade
device for forming sheets of paper in one colour. Wires of lettering
and pressed woven wire of design cause wet paper pulp to lie In many
thicknesses, thus forming watermark in the sheet of paper
3. Wire device for watermarking figure of a camel in sheets of paper. Old
papermakers favoured animals for watermarks
4. Mould for making hand-made paper, which combines the ordinary wire
lettering and designs with the complicated light and shade device.
With this mould the oval centre is produced in separate colour from
balance of sheet. The wheel or star watermark (upper right-hand
side) is that of John Tate who established the first paper mill in
England in 1495. Watermarking device (upper left-hand side) is
that of William Rittenhouso who founded the first paper mill in the
Colonies in 1690
5. Wire device for a watermark showing a child swinging a rope
XX11I. 4-M
WATER POWER— WATER PURIFICATION
425
jumping from the bottom or pushing off from the side (except at
starting or restarting) in order to play the ball or duck an oppo-
nent, holding, pulling back or pushing off from an opponent, turn-
ing on the back to kick at an opponent, assisting a player at the
start or restart to get a good push off, throwing the ball at the goal-
keeper from a free throw or refusing to play the ball at the com-
mand of the referee after a foul or when the ball has been out
of the field of play. Dribbling or striking the ball is held to be
not holding, but lifting, carrying, pressing under water or plac-
ing the hand under or over the ball when actually touching, is
holding; dribbling up the bath and through the posts is permissible.
There is a penalty area, 4yds. from each goal-post and the imagi-
nary line across the* bath is not allowed to be passed by the respec-
tive goalkeepers, otherwise they commit a foul. They may stand
to defend their goal, touch the ball with both hands or jump from
the bottom to play the ball, but in all other respects the same rules
as to fouls apply to them as to other, players. In any case they are
not allowed to throw the ball beyond half-distance. If they do
so the opposing side is awarded a free throw. For fouls which the
referee considers to have been committed wilfully there are very
severe penalties and those guilty of them are ordered out of the
water until a goal has been scored, thus for the time being
crippling the side. Deliberately wasting time, starting before the
word "Go," taking up a position within 2yds. of the opponent's
goal, changing position after the whistle has blown for a free
throw or other similar stoppage of play, or deliberately splashing
an opponent in the face, are all held to be wilful fouls. Whenever
the whistle blows for fouls the players have to remain in their
respective places until the ball has left the hand of the player to
whom the free throw was awarded. A player who has been wil-
fully fouled within 4yd. of his opponent's goal line is given a
penalty throw and the consequence is that a close match is often
won by reason of a player deliberately breaking the rules when
his goal is hotly assailed. In ordinary fouls the ball must touch
another player before a goal can be scored, but in penalty throws
it need not. Any player throwing the ball over his own goal line
concedes a corner throw to the other side, but if an opposing
player sends it over it is a free throw for the goalkeeper.
After each goal is scored the players return to their respective
ends, waiting for the word "Go," and at half-time they are
allowed a rest of three minutes, during which they leave the
water. Fouls, half-time and time are declared by whistle and goals
by bell. The game requires practice of smart and scientific pass-
ing, side and back-handed throws and accurate shooting. For
this purpose "throwing the water-polo ball" contests are commonly
held by the leading clubs, who also conduct competitions on
points for shooting at goal.
The game has become popular in many European countries,
and friendly matches between English and continental clubs are
frequently played. It has extended to all parts of the world since
the British rules have been adopted for the Olympic games.
(W. HE.)
See the Amateur Swimming Association's Handbook for rules of
the game and instructions to referees.
United States.— The rules are similar to the British rules,
excepting that the United States has added two umpires, besides
having a referee and two goal judges.
See Spalding's N.C.A.A. Official Rules for Water Polo and Water
Soccer.
WATER POWER: see ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION;
HYDRO-ELECTRIC GENERATION; HYDRAULIC POWER TRANSMIS-
SION; HYDRAULICS; TURBINE, WATER.
WATERPROOF FABRICS: see RAINPROOF FABRICS.
WATER PURIFICATION. The partial purification of
water probably dates back to the earliest times. No doubt, when a
water looked very turbid, it was strained through any convenient
material, or the suspended matters were allowed to settle out on
standing. We know, too, that mariners found that dirty ill-tasting
water collected at one port became often 'sweet and clean before
the next port was reached. It is also not improbable that boiling
water to purify it may have been an ancient precaution. Ages ago,
everyone must have recognized the potent force of heat, and our
ancestors possibly had their suspicions that dirty water caused
disease and hence used heat as the most likely method of destroy-
ing impurities. Probably too, all sorts of things may have been
added to water with the object, if not of purifying it, of at least
rendering it more potable. Certainly as far back as 1612 the im-
portance of keeping filthy matters out of drinking water was well-
known, for in an indenture, relating to the New river, the following
words occur:
"Wee doe by those presents for us our heirs and Successors straightly
charge and Comaund all pson and psons whatsoever That they or anie
of them doe not hereafter cast or putt into the said new river anie
earth rubbish soylc gravell stones dogges Catts or anie Cattle Carrion
or anie unwholesome or uncleane thing nor shall wash nor dense anie
clothes wooll or other thinge in the said river . . ."
'*. . . nor shall make or convey anie sinckc, ditch Tanhowsc dying
howse or seege into the said river or to have anie fall into the same."
As time went on sand came to be recognized as an effective
filtering material, judged, no doubt, at first, by the clarified con-
dition of the filtered product. Sand filtration, as a practicable
proposition, dates back to 1829 and the honour seemingly be-
longs to London (Chelsea Water Co.). Later, the purification of
water hy sand filtration became an established procedure and
the method has been copied all over the world and is still talked
about as the London system of water purification. Quite apart
from the bacterial "findings," it came to be recognized that an
adequately filtered water was safe as regards disease. Then Koch
showed why safety was secured, by proving that filtration re-
moved 98 per cent of the bacteria. By this time bacteria had
been assigned a definite role in the causation of disease.
The London rate of filtration is very slow, namely, about 2
gallons per sq. ft. per hour, or about 4 inches vertical drop in
the same time. Approximately, it is represented by observing
the progress of the end of the minute hand of a watch as it hourly
completes its circular journey. Fine sand (about 3 ft. in depth)
was nearly always used, supported on a graded gravel substratum.
Efficacy of Sand. — At first, sanitarians wondered why sand
could be so effective when the separate particles were so gross in
size compared with bacteria. It came, however, eventually to be
recognized that the sand particles gradually matured so that each
grain was surrounded with a furry yet slimy coating. In addi-
tion, the particles at, or near, the surface were observed to be
enveloped and covered over with a heavy coating of slimy mate-
rial which eventually became so dense as practically to stop the
passage of water through it. When this occurred it became
necessary to empty the filter, scrape off the surface layers of
dirty sand and wash it very thoroughly before replacement. When
a bed was re-started the results at first were apt to be unsatis-
factory, and the usual custom was to run the filtrate to waste for
several hours, or days. Even when the filtered water was allowed
to pass into consumption, many authorities advocated a specially
low rate of filtration being maintained for several days. This fil-
tration has greatly reduced water-borne epidemic disease.
The increasing difficulty of securing supplies near at hand
gradually led the great towns to invade the uplands and moorlands.
Then new troubles arose, for although very pure and soft, such
waters were often peaty and highly coloured and some of them
were acid and acted upon lead. Experience showed that waters
of this kind were best treated by filtering them through mechani-
cal filters at the rapid rate of about 50 gallons per sq. ft. per
hour, using a coagulant (sulphate of alumina, dose usually about
1-2 grains per gallon) to remove the colour and render the filtered
water attractive in appearance. These mechanical filters are
easily and expeditiously cleaned by a reversal of the flow of water.
Many authorities consider that mechanical filters arc not so
effective in removing bacteria as the slow sand filters, but when
the source of supply is unexceptionable epidemiologically this is
a matter of small importance. The point is that by the use of a
coagulant they can achieve results, as regards clarification, prac-
tically impossible in the case of slow sand filters. As regards
action on lead, this is a serious matter, as lead is a cumulative
poison. Fortunately, it is possible by the use of lime, in suitable
doses, to render such waters absolutely safe for domestic use
Turning now to more modern methods of purification, the
426
WATER PURIFICATION
chlorination of water at Lincoln during the typhoid epidemic
(about 1,000 cases and 100 deaths) there in 1905 marked a for-
ward step to which special attention must now be directed.
Chlorination. — In the United States and Canada chlorination,
for some years past, has been the rule, not the exception. In
England, progress has been much slower, but the World War
greatly altered things, thanks to the initiative of men like Hor-
rocks and Sims Woodhead. Further, the bold step taken by the
Metropolitan Water Board in chlorinating so huge a volume of
water as over 100,000,000 gal. a day proved a great incentive to
further investigation of this water purification.
The "chlorinators" plead that inasmuch as they destroy
practically all the non-sporing bacteria of intestinal origin they
incidentally kill all the microbes, associated with epidemic water-
borne disease. It is a bold claim, but apparently sound on the
basis of current knowledge. The "anti-chlorinators" urge that a
"doped" water is prima facie open to condemnation, and assert
that there have been conspicuous failures in the chlorination
processes in the past due to break-downs in the plant, or to dan-
gerous compromises between doses sufficient to sterilize the water
and yet small enough to avoid taste troubles. They further claim
that natural processes (e.g., storage and slow sand filtration)
remove at least 98% of the total number of bacteria in the original
water of whatever sort they may be, and that prolonged experience
has shown that this is an absolute protection from the diseases
associated with the ingestion of impure water.
A third school claims that all purification processes are merely
a retrograde movement — that safety lies alone in choosing vir-
gin, uncontaminated sources of water supply, requiring no sort
of purification. It is possible to sympathize strongly with this
exalted attitude of mind, but practically we must face, to an
increasing extent, the necessity of rendering impure waters safe
for domestic use. As regards the "chlorinators" and the "nnti-
chlorinators," there is much to be said on both sides, and each
case should be judged on its own merits. Chlorination is an
exceedingly cheap process; less than one shilling per 1,000,000 gal.
of water treated may suffice. It is disputed how the chlorine acts.
Some say it has merely an oxidation effect, others claim that it has
an intrinsic bactericidal action. The dose is usually from 0-25 to
0-5 of available chlorine per 1,000,000 (2-5 to 5 Ib. of chlorine
per 1,000,000 gallons). The time required for sterilization varies
according to the dose and the quality of the water. A few minutes
may suffice, but one to five hours or more should be aimed at.
Administration* — The chlorine can be administered as a
soluble hypochlorite (e.g., alkaline sodium hypochlorite), or as a
solution of bleaching powder (chloride of lime), or as a solution
made from the gas liquefied in and liberated from metal cylinders.
The latter process is now most extensively used, and there are
some highly ingenious forms of apparatus for measuring accu-
rately the gas as it flows from the cylinders through the chlorine
apparatus on its way to the vessels or towers used for its final
solution. Whatever method is adopted, it is highly important that
the mixture of the chlorine and the water to be treated should be
rapid and complete.
Successes. — The success of the treatment is determined by the
destruction of B. call, a non-sporing excrcmental microbe, slightly
more hardy than the typhoid bacillus and the cholera vibrio.
It is also gauged by the circumstance that there are places where
the incidence of water-borne diseases has been modified to a most
gratifying extent since, and apparently as a result of, the intro-
duction of chlorination processes.
Taste Objections. — Taste troubles have been a most serious
factor in the problem. Frequently, in consequence, the dose has
been reduced below the limits of safe sterilization. Recently,
however, knowledge has increased by leaps and bounds. It is now
known that the presence of certain bodies (e.g., phenoloid sub-
stances) in excessively minute amount (less than i in 1,000 mil-
lions) may be the root of the trouble. These impurities may arise
from atmospheric contaminations, or be conveyed by liquid pollu-
tions (e.g., washings from roads, etc.). Fortunately, valuable
remedies (taste preventers) have been found, e.g., potassium per-
manganate and ammonia (dose about 0-2 per 1,000,000 the latter in
terms of nitrogen). Even the organic matter, naturally present in
waters, is a taste preventer, or "remover" of real value. There is no
reliable indication that chlorinated water has any deleterious effect
on man, the lower animals, fish-life or horticultural operations. On
the whole, the same may be said as regards its alleged injurious
effect on metals. Chlorination is a factor of great importance in
water purification, although this admission may be coloured with
certain cautious limitations. It can increase the margin of safety
and can bring almost any water to any pitch of epidemiological
perfection required. In the language of "the man in the street,"
chlorine, in doses of 0-25 to 0-5 per 1,000,000, can render dan-
gerous waters safe without giving them (at all events in con-
junction with taste removers) any unpleasant taste, or conferring
on them any undesirable characteristics. Beyond all question,
chlorination has come to stay, although it may be wise to regard
it as a most valuable adjunct to other purification processes rather
than as an absolute panacea.
Excess Lime Process. — In 1912 a new method of purification
called the excess lime process was described. In softening waters
lime is added in amount equal to, or just short of, what is
necessary to combine with the dissolved carbonic acid in the
water and with the bicarbonates. Carbonate of lime is formed,
which, being practically insoluble, is thrown down as a precipitate.
This mechanically purifies the water to a considerable extent, but
does not produce a true bactericidal effect. In the excess lime
method slightly more lime is added, so as to leave the water
caustically alkaline, and this produces a marked bactericidal action.
The amount of excess necessary depends on the duration of con-
tact and the amount of impurities in the water, but one part of
lime (as CaO) per 100,000 parts of water is usually sufficient.
The following quotation may serve to illustrate the usefulness
of the excess lime method: —
. . . the experiments carried out by us during the last two years at
the Langford experimental station of the Southend Water Co., using
water from two comparatively small rivers, show that by acting on
Sir A. Houston's suggestion to use excess lime better results can be
obtained than by the use of chlorine, since chlorine does not remove
any of the organic matter in solution, whereas the excess lime will
remove at least 50% of this. Waters, therefore, which a few years ago
would have been considered quite unsuitable for a supply, and which
no system of purification then known would have rendered safe, can
now be utilized.
The method proved highly successful (1917) at Accra (Gold
Coast Colony) in dealing with an impure swamp water used for
water works purposes. Its successful use in 1913 enabled Aber-
deen to decide on the retention of the River Dee as a source of
water supply, thus saving over L 100,000 on alternative schemes.
In 1914 it was shown at Sunbury that the raw River Thames
could be purified to a wonderful extent. For example, the ten
worst samples of the river water and of the outlet from the first
tank gave, on the average, colour estimations of 155 and 37
respectively, a reduction of 76%. B. coli was found to be absent
from 10,000 c.c. of the treated water, on ten separate days.
The method has disadvantages: for example, the cost, the diffi-
culties attendant upon the neutralization of the excess of caustic
alkalinity and the problem of disposing of lime sludge in the case
of hard waters. On the other hand, the advantages are consider-
able. Questions of taste are eliminated. Hard waters may be
softened and soft waters hardened by the process. Hard impure
waters are not only softened and rendered safe bacteriologi-
cally but improved greatly, as judged by physical and chemical
standards.
Water Tests. — The physical, chemical and bacteriological tests
used in the examination of waters have not altered very materially
during recent years. Physically^ observations are made of the
colour (using a colour meter), turbidity (gravimetrically, or with
some form of turbidimeter) and opacity (as shown, for example,
by passing a beam of light through the water), etc. Chemically,
the chief tests are still for ammoniacal, albuminoid and oxidized
nitrogen, chlorides, oxygen absorbed from permanganate, hard-
ness, etc., although new tests, like the determination of the hydro-
gen-ion concentration, are being used extensively. Bacteriologi-
cally, the number of bacteria (especially at 37° C) and the B. coli
WATER RIGHTS
427
test still hold the field. In connection with the latter test, a vast
amount of work has been done, but we are still uncertain what
significance should be attached to the various races of B. coli
encountered in water analyses. The tendency is to insist on the
possession of, say, two positive attributes (lactose-findol-f-) which
characterize human faecal microbes and then judge the matter on
a Quantitative basis. On the whole, the attempts to differentiate
between B. coli of human intestinal origin and those derived from
the lower animals, fish and birds have been most disappointing.
The modern teaching is that as it is economically possible, by ade-
quate purification processes, to eliminate (or nearly so) all
ulactose-f indol-f/?. coll" this standard should always be aimed
at. Speaking generally, nearly all are agreed that there should be
no B. coli of the kind referred to in 100 c.c. of water in more than
half of the samples examined.
The interpretation of results has altered considerably during
recent years, especially in those cashes where chlorination is prac-
tised.. The tendency is rather in the direction of condoning certain
imperfections of quality (e.g., the amount of organic matter
present) provided that B. coli is killed. It is considered that if
H coli is destroyed the occurrence of epidemic water-borne dis-
eases is impossible and that therefore other inferential indices of
safety lose much of their significance. But those who cling to past
traditions regard chlorination as a short cut to apparent rather
than real purity.
Natural Methods. — These methods of purification have not
been neglected of late years. The value of storage is being increas-
ingly recognized. The three factors making for safety are equaliza-
tion, sedimentation and devitalization. By equalization is meant
the dilution and averaging of any sudden access of pollutions to
the water "feeding" a storage reservoir. Sedimentation means the
settling out of solid impurities. Devitalization implies the gradual
extinction of undesirable bacteria under conditions of storage
which are unfavourable to the continued vitality of pathogenic
microbes. Nature's method of purification has certain disadvan-
tages. Just as some things die, so do others multiply, sometimes
with embarrassing results. There are the diatoms, the protozoa,
green and blue growths, etc. Some of these growths give rise to
taste troubles (e.g., tabellaria, synura, uroglena, etc.) ; others exer-
cise a serious blocking or choking effect on sand filtration processes
(e.g., asterionella, synedra, cyclotella, fragilaria, etc.). Copper
sulphate (in doses of o-i to i-o per 1,000,000; i to 10 Ib. per
1.000,000 gal.) has been proved to be a valuable algicidal agent.
The smaller doses have no injurious action on fish, but with the
maximum doses care is needed, especially with trout.
Filters. — A new and interesting development is the suggestion
that rapid (mechanical) filters should be used to remove nearly
all the suspended matters (including algal and other growths)
from water, and worked at the vtry rapid rate of 100-200 gal.
per sq.ft. per hour. In order to cover the additional cost involved
it is hoped that it may be feasible to work slow sand filters at six
instead of two gal. per sq.ft. per hour as a final filtration process.
The underlying idea is that slow sand filters might be worked con-
siderably faster than is usual if rapid filters were used anteced-
ently to remove the bulk of the suspended matters. Those
who favour these departures usually advocate chlorination as an
additional safeguard, or, at all events, as a stand-by measure.
REFERENCES. — (i) Joseph Race, Chlorination of Water (1918) ; (2)
B. A. Adams, "The lodoform Taste Acquired by Chlorinated Water,"
The Medical Officer, No. 869, vol. 33, No. 12 (1924) ; (3) Nineteenth
Annual Report of the Director of Water Examination, Metropolitan
Water Board (1922) ; (4) Ninth Research Report by the Director of
Water Examination, Metropolitan Water Board (1913) ; (5) J. C.
Thresh and J. F. Beale, Preface to 3rd ed., The. Examination of Waters
and Water Supplies (1925); (6) James Watt, "Purification of Water
Supply by the Excess Lime Method," Jour, of State Medicine (Aug.
1913) J (7) Tenth Research Report by the Director of Water Examina-
tion, Metropolitan Water Board (1914).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— S. Rideal, Water and Its Purification (1902) ; J.
Don and J. Chisholm, Modern Methods of Purification (1913) ; A. C.
Houston, Studies in Water Supply (1914) ; A. C. Houston, Rural
Water Supplies and Their Purification, and Rivers as Sources of Water
Supply (1918) ; A, H. Hooker, Chloride of Lime in Sanitation (1913).
See also Dr. R. J. Reece's Report to the Local Government Board on
the Epidemic ofJZnteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1004-5, No. 226
(1906) ; Dr. A. Houston, "B. Welchii, Castro-enteritis and Water Sup-
ply/' Engineering News Record, vol. 8g, p. 484 (1921). The Official
Circular of the British Waterworks Association gives the most up-to-
date account of all matters of interest relating to water supplies,
Including purification. (A. C. Ho.)
WATER RIGHTS. By the law of England the property in
the bed and water of a tidal river is presumed to he in the Crown
or as a franchise in a grantee of the Crown, and to be extra-
parochial. The bed and water of a non-tidal river are presumed
to belong to the person through whose land it flows, or, if it
divide two properties, to the riparian proprietors, the rights of
each extending to midstream (ad medium fihim aquae). In order
to give riparian rights, the river must flow in a defined channel,
or at least above ground. The diminution of underground water
collected by percolation, even though malicious, does not give
a cause of action to the owner of the land in which it collects,
it being merely damnum sine ininria, though he is entitled to
have it unpolluted unless a right of pollution be gained against
him by prescription. The right to draw water from another's
well is an easement (q.v.) not a profit a prendre, and is therefore
claimable by custom. As a general rule n riparian proprietor,
whether on a tidal or a non-tidal river, has full rights of user
of his property. Most of the statute law will be found in the
Fishery Harbours Act, 1915, and the Salmon and Freshwater Fish-
eries Act, 1923. In certain cases the rights of the riparian pro-
prietors are subject to the intervening rights of other persons.
These rights vary according as the river is navigable or not, or tidal
or not. For instance, all the riparian proprietors might combine
to divert a non-navigable river, though one alone could not do
so as against the others, but no combination of riparian propri-
etors could defeat the right of the public to have a navigable
river maintained undiverted. We shall here consider shortly the
rights enjoyed by, and the limitations imposed upon, riparian pro-
prietors, in addition to those falling under the head of fishery or
navigation. (See also FORESHORE.)
The right of use of the water of a natural stream cannot be bet-
ter described than in the words of Lord Kingsdown in 1858: "By
the general law applicable to running streams, every riparian pro-
prietor has a right to what may be called the ordinary use of water
flowing past his land — for instance, to the reasonable use of the
water for domestic purposes and for his cattle, and this without
regard to the effect which such use may have in case of a deficiency
upon proprietors lower down the stream. But, further, he has a
right to the use of it for any purpose, or what may be deemed the
extraordinary use of it, provided he docs not thereby interfere
with the rights of other proprietors, either above or below him.
Subject to this condition, he may dam up a stream for the pur-
poses of a mill, or divert the water for the purpose of irrigation.
But he has no right to intercept the regular flow of the stream,
if he thereby interferes with the lawful use of the water by other
proprietors, and inflicts upon them a sensible injury'* (Miner v.
Gilmour, 12 Moore's P.C. Cases, 156). The rights of riparian
proprietors where the flow of water is artificial rest on a different
principle. As the artificial stream is made by a person for his own
benefit, any right of another person as a riparian proprietor does
not arise at common law, as in the case of a natural stream, but
must be established by grant or prescription. If its origin be
unknown the inference appears to be that riparian proprietors
have the same rights as if the stream had been a natural one
(Baily v. Clark, 1902, i Ch. 649). The rights of a person not a
riparian proprietor who uses land abutting on a river or stream by
the licence or grant of the riparian proprietor are not as full as
though he were a riparian proprietor, for he cannot be imposed
as a riparian proprietor upon the other proprietors without their
consent. The effect of this appears to be that he is not entitled
sensibly to affect their rights, even by the ordinary as distin-
guished from the extraordinary use of the water. Even a riparian
proprietor cannot divert the stream to a place outside his tene-
ment and there use it for purposes unconnected with the tene-
ment (McCartney v. Londonderry and Lough Sunlly Rly. Co.,
1904, A.C. 301).
The limitations to which the right of the riparian proprietor is
subject may be divided into those existing by common right, those
430
WATERSHED— WATER SUPPLY
gether to form a siphon by means of which air is conducted to
the tracheae at the apex of the abdomen when the tip of the tube
is thrust above the surface of the water. In immature forms the
siphon is undeveloped and breathing takes place through six pairs
of abdominal spiracles. The eggs, laid in the stems of plants, are
supplied with seven filamentous processes which float freely in
the water. In the allied genus Ranatra both body and legs are
slender and elongate. It is the common genus in the United States,
R. fnsca being a well-known species.
WATERSHED, the land-form separating the head streams
tributary to two different river basins. Alternative terms are
"water-parting" and "divide" (q.v.). In an area such as the
central plain of Ireland the watershed is often indistinct, as the
headwaters of two different river systems may merge in marshy
lands at their highest levels. Moreover, where two streams,
flowing in opposite directions from adjacent sources, are both
gradually cutting back the land at their heads, a "col" (q.v.)
is formed. In such cases, where one stream "erodes" faster
than the other, the stronger may ultimately "behead" the weaker,
and "capture" some of its waters, whose flow is thus diverted
from one basin to another.
WATERSPOUT, the name applied to the funnel-shaped
cloud of the tornado (</.iO when it occurs at sea. The funnel
point seems to descend slowly from the lower side of the heavy
nimbus clouds. Beneath this point the sea appears agitated and
a cloud of spray forms, into which the funnel point dips, and the
whole has the appearance of a water column which (by eye esti-
mation) has been given as 20 to 30 ft. in diameter and 250 to 300
ft. high; the bulk of the liquid in the column consists of rain-
water. The top usually travels more quickly than the base, and
the spout assumes an oblique form. The phenomenon seldom
lasts as long as 30 minutes, and though the whirling wind in its
vicinity is violent the effects are strictly local.
WATER SUPPLY. A sufficient supply of potable water is
essential to man. The word potable means that the water shall
be bright, clear and sparkling, free from suspended matters,
reasonably soft, free from chemical poisons and in such condition
that it cannot cause typhoid fever, cholera, diarrhoea or other
water-borne disease, nor have any injurious action on metals.
The water should be available at such pressures as will enable
a supply by gravity to reach the upper floors or cisterns.
Water is needed for domestic purposes, including sanitation,
also for industries, where a high degree of purity is often needed.
The availability of suitable supplies determines the location of
such industries. Water must also be supplied for fire extinction,
street watering, supplies to public buildings and institutions and
the flushing of sewers.
Estimation of Requirements. — A local estimate should be
made of the average daily quantity which will be required in from
25 to 50 years* time. This estimate involves the prediction of the
probable increase of population and of the quantity to be used
for all purposes expressed in gallons per head per day. Factors
involved arc the character of the town, the habits of the people
and the various industries which are established or likely to be
established. The rate per head varies widely not only throughout
any particular country but also as between countries. General
experience indicates that almost invariably the rate per head
shows an upward trend.
For example a small country town in England where there is
but little industrial usage may require 18 or 20 gallons: a large
commercial city may use for all purposes 35 or 40 gallons, and
in America supplies up to 100 gallons are fairly common and
in several instances in the United States much larger quantities
are used. Liverpool may be cited as a typical large city and of
the total supply of 34-7 gallons per head in 1927 domestic
purposes account for 21-7 gallons, trade and shipping (supplied
by meter) 9-1 gallons, public purposes 1-6 gallons and sundry
other purposes including fire extinction 3-3 gallons.
In America the higher consumption is partly due to a higher
standard of living and a more lavish use of water and partly
to waste due to faulty house fittings and to leaky distribution
mains; an analysis of statistics covering 136 American cities
having a population exceeding 25,000 shows that, on the average,
where less than 10% of the services are metered the consumption
per head is 1 28 gallons, whilst with 50% or more metered services
the consumption is only 52 gallons.
Consumption and Distribution. — The variations in con-
sumption have also to be considered in designing aqueducts and
distribution works. The aqueduct by which the water is carried
from the source of supply to the town terminates in a main
service reservoir, and the capacity of this reservoir depends, in
both gravitation and pumping schemes, upon (a) the fluctuations
in supply during the maximum day, week and month as compared
with the average; (b) on the time required to repair a break in
the aqueduct; and (c) on the reserve required to meet the
probable maximum demand in case of fire. In addition to main
service reservoirs there are minor service reservoirs with capac-
ities of about 250,000 gallons up to 4,000,000 gallons.
The maximum hourly denjand for a town with a population
of several hundred thousand will be 50% to 100% in excess
of the average hour taken over the day: the demand of the
maximum day will be 20-40% in excess of the average day's
demand : the maximum week will exceed the average week by
J5~3°% and the maximum four weeks will exceed the average
four weeks by 10-20%.
The hourly fluctuations and to some extent the daily fluctua-
tions are usually catered for in the minor service reservoirs
which will also be first drawn upon in the event of fire, but
the storage to meet the fluctuations over longer periods and
the reserve to cover periods when the aqueduct may be T)ut of
commission is provided in the main service reservoir, and this
in practice would have a capacity equal to 2-4 days of the
average supply in the case of a gravitation supply; this storage
would be increased if the aqueduct traversed ground liable to
subsidence and reduced if the ground were good and the aque-
duct, where of pipes, was in duplicate with fairly frequent cross
connections. Where a supply is pumped the aqueduct, or rising
main, is usually fairly accessible, and pumping machines in
duplicate, so less storage would be sufficient. Should the pumps
work only part of the day the storage must also be capable of
meeting the demand when the pumps arc idle.
The amount of water required as a special reserve for fire
extinction is usually small as compared with that necessary for
other purposes, and is sometimes neglected, but an approximate
rule applicable to industrial towns in Britain is that 80,000 V*,
when x is the population in thousands, will give the extra storage
in gallons. This storage should be available in the minor service
reservoirs, and should be appropriate to the particular district
and population supplied by each such reservoir.
Whilst the distribution mains should be capable of meeting
the maximum hourly demand, the criterion which really decides
their capacity, especially in sub-districts, is the demand for fire
extinction, and for this purpose the distribution mains should be
capable of carrying 7~:-% of tlle average hourly rate of ordinary
V.v
consumption. Thus in a sub-district having a population of
2,250 the average day's supply might be 72,000 gallons, the
average hour therefore being 3,000 gallons and the maximum
hour of the maximum day 3,oooXI'75X*-25~6>6oo gallons,
whereas the fire demand would be y— - =500% of 3,000 or
Y2-25
15,000 gallons an hour, and the main should therefore be capable
of carrying 21,600 gallons an hour.
Source of Supply. — Schemes of water supply may be divided
broadly into two groups according to the general source, and
the method of collection. In the first or surface water group
we have (i) rain water collected from roofs, etc.; (2) water from
(a) upland rivers, (b) lowland rivers; and (3) water from lakes.
In the second or ground water group we have water derived from
(i) springs; (2) shallow wells; (3) deep and artesian wells; and
(4) horizontal galleries. Whilst rain water from roofs or specially
constructed tanks and ground water from shallow wells may,
in general, be sufficient for individual supplies or for small groups
WATER SUPPLY
43 *
of consumers, such supplies are not suitable for public supplies
and are therefore not further considered here.
Public water .supplies may, from the nature of the works
required, be divided into two broad groups — gravitational and
pumping schemes. Gravity supplies may be obtained from upland
rivers and sometimes from 'elevated lakes and springs, whilst
supplies obtained from lowland rivers, deep wells, horizontal
galleries, and sometimes from low level lakes and artesian wells,
involve pumping.
Gravitational Schemes. — In the case of upland supplies the
amount of storage provided must be such as will afford con-
tinuity of supply and the elevation should be such that when the
reservoir is drawn down to the lowest draw-off level, it not only
commands the greater part, if not all, of the area to be supplied,
but also allows for the necessary fall to overcome the friction
in the aqueduct and for the loss of head in filtration.
As most impounded waters are soft, it is now usual to install
filters at the head of the aqueduct, and, during or after the
filtration process, the water is so treated as to have a small
residual alkalinity which inhibits any deleterious action on the
materials, especially pipes, of which the aqueduct may be con-
structed. Whereas a large main conveying soft moorland water
may have its capacity reduced by as much as 40% by tubercula-
tion or nodular encrustation within twenty years, the same
main conveying filtered and hardened water will not suffer
any appreciable reduction in carrying capacity. In the older
aqueducts, the only way of maintaining a reasonable capacity is
by mechanical scraping at intervals, but once this process is
adopted, it is found that the necessity of scraping increases in
frequency as time goes on.
The necessity for filtration and hardening or softening of
spring waters depends upon the possibility of pollution and the
geological formation from which the springs derive their water.
Pumping Schemes. — Where the source is a lowland river or
a low level lake the water may be abstracted by means of a
simple intake or intakes protected by duplicate screens leading
to a sump from which the water is pumped into sedimentation
basins, and after a period of storage depending upon the amount
of matter in suspension and other factors it is filtered, hardened
or softened, and, if necessary, sterilized, and finally pumped into
the service reservoir. W'hcre the water is derived from deep wells
or from infiltration galleries in the pervious bed or banks of a
river, sedimentation is not required and, generally, filtration is
unnecessary, though such waters may require softening and
sterilization.
Choice of Source.— Recent developments in the methods of
water purification have made it possible to consider many waters
as potentially suitable for public supply purposes which but ten
or twenty years ago would have been entirely ruled out. It fol-
lows that the choice. between utilising a relatively pure water from
a distant elevated source or a water of a much lower standard
from a nearer source which calls for pumping and greater work-
ing cost in filtration and other treatment, is now largely a question
of cost of water. This means the cost per 1,000 gallons delivered
at the main service reservoir after taking into account interest and
sinking fund charges and annual working expenses — cost of
labour, chemicals, fuel, repairs and maintenance.
The initial cost of water from a gravitation scheme is usually
high because the impounding reservoir and all or part of the
aqueduct must be constructed at the outset of sufficient size to
meet the ultimate requirements, although the initial demand may
be but 20 or 25% of the ultimate. Another factor, which applies
particularly to British work, is that it has been the practice of
Parliament to insert a Clause in the Act authorising the construc-
tion of impounding reservoirs whereby one-tenth to one-third of
the yield of a catchment area is to be released in a more or less
regular flow from the reservoir as "compensation water,'* and this
of -course may place a serious- additional burden on the under-
takers. In the United States the riparian and other interests are
most frequently compensated by monetary payments.
It is therefore evident that for the economical development of
impounding schemes, a relatively large initial demand is desir-
able and this, in a measure, explains the modern tendency to the
formation of joint Water Boards with the consequent reduction in
the cost of water to each constituent authority.
In a pumping scheme, on the other hand, the initial capital
expenditure is, as a rule, much smaller, and the working expenses
are larger but roughly proportionate to the quantity of water
pumped. The capacity of such schemes can also be augmented
from time to time as required to keep a few years ahead of the
demand at relatively small cost, whereas when the demand is
approaching the yield of an impounding reservoir it is necessary
to construct another similar reservoir and duplicate increasingly
long lengths of the aqueduct, so that it is usually advantageous
for a single authority to embark on a pumping scheme where
there is any choice.
Impounding Reservoirs. — The considerations which deter-
mine the capacity of the impounding reservoir are dealt with
under RESERVOIRS, and the type of dam by which the reservoir
may be created under DAM. It may, however, be emphasized
that frequently as much as 30 or 40% of the cost of the dam
may be expended on subsurface works for preventing undue leak-
age through, pervious beds under the structure or round its
flanks, and a masonry dam may have to be carried to considerable
depths to ensure that the structure rests upon material strong
enough to withstand the loading which is the resultant of the
water pressure and the weight of the dam itself.
An essential preliminary to the selection of the site for a dam
is a thorough geological investigation of the area within the limits
assigned to the dam, and a general examination of the valley
above the dam; such an investigation will not only prevent waste
of money in locating a dam at an unsuitable site, but will also
enable a much closer estimate of the cost of the work than would
otherwise be possible. In this connection the use of boreholes only
as a means of exploration is insufficient, and may lead to erroneous
conclusions: they should be used to supplement the results
obtained from trial shafts and to clear up doubtful points.
The cementation process by means of which cement is injected
under pressure through drilled holes over the site of a dam, has
of recent years been used to strengthen rock which otherwise
might have had insufficient strength, and also to seal up fissures
and joints through which water might escape. This process
therefore makes it possible to use sites or structures which might
otherwise have been considered unsuitable, and in more favour-
able sites, to reduce the extent of the subsurface work.
Gravitation Aqueduct. — In fixing the size of the various
portions of the aqueduct an allowance over the average daily sup-
ply which the aqueduct is intended ultimately to carry, apart from
any allowance required to meet loss of capacity due to encrusta-
tion, must be made to cover the filling up of the terminal service
reservoir after depletion consequent upon a burst in the aqueduct,
and also to cover seasonal variations. The precise allowance de-
pends on the length of the aqueduct, its liability to interference,
accessibility and the economic possibilities of terminal storage ; in
general 10 per cent, would be sufficient: this might be reduced if
a relatively large storage — 5 or 6 days — could be economically
obtained at the end of a long and costly aqueduct, and increased
if the aqueduct were short or only 2 or 3 days' storage could
be obtained. The aqueduct is chiefly of cut and cover or tunnel
with relatively short connecting lengths of pipe line or lines
where the general route can more or less contour the hillsides, or
entirely or chiefly of pipe line with short intervening lengths of
tunnel where the route crosses hills.
The tunnel and cut and cover portions are made capable of
taking the ultimate yield of the source: for this quantity two or
more pipe lines, side by side, may be required, but initially only
one line would be laid, the others being added wholly or in part
and cross-connected to the original line and to each other as the
growth of demand necessitates. These portions act also as break-
pressure tanks, so that the maximum pressure to which any par-
ticular length of pipes is subjected is that corresponding to the
top water level in the preceding tunnel or cut and cover.
When of appreciable length, the tunnel and cut and cover por-
tions should be provided with automatic self-closing outlet valves
432
WATER SUPPLY
designed to close when the flow exceeds the normal by more than
a predetermined amount, to prevent undue loss of water in the
event of a burst in the ensuing pipes, and each pipe should have
a reflux valve at its termination to prevent loss of water in the
other direction. Where an aqueduct consists wholly of pipes,
break-pressure tanks of relatively small capacity are located at
suitable high points, and the inlet to these tanks is controlled by
some form of float regulator to prevent loss by overflow, and the
outlet by a self closing valve. To facilitate testing and repairs,
long mains are provided with stop-valves at intervals of about
1^—2 miles with scour valves at depressions, and air valves at all
summits. Where the lining is with either cement, mortar or
bitumen, it is well to combine the air-valve and an access man-
hole to facilitate the making of joints. Where unlined pipes, liable
to encrustation, are used, hatch pipes should be provided for the
passage of the "scraper." Additional air valves are provided in
any long lengths of main which are laid to flat gradients, or at any
sudden change of gradient.
Pumping Machinery. — Where coal is available ot suitable
cost and quality, the triple expansion steam engine using super-
heated steam is still the most efficient pump against a constant
head. Where centrifugal pumps are used they may be driven by
steam turbines. The Diesel Engine has proved so reliable in ship
propulsion, that it is being widely used. It is equally efficient in
large and small units. Where electric current is cheap, motor
driven pumps are frequently adopted: better terms can be ob-
tained if the pumping avoids the peak hours of the generating
station, and automatic controls can be installed to effect this.
For intermittent work or small quantities, electric motors, oil
engines, or gas engines, may be used.
Where the suction lift does not exceed about 25 feet either
direct acting or centrifugal pumps may be used : where the suction
lift exceeds this limit, three-throw plunger pumps may be used in
conjunction with a suction well of ample size, or where space is
a consideration, as in a borehole, vertical spindle turbine cen-
trifugal pumps may be employed.
Where water has to be raised from great depths by means of
boreholes, the air-lift pump is frequently the only arrangement,
available: it has the advantage of having no moving parts, and
although its efficiency is low it is considered to have advantages
in certain cases, which compensate for the lack of efficiency.
Rising Main. — In contradistinction to a gravitation supply,
where the general hydraulic gradient and therefore the dimensions
of component parts of the aqueduct arc, for a given capacity,
fixed within close limits by the levels of the impounding and main
service reservoirs, the hydraulic gradient of the rising main is
determined by purely economic considerations. The terminal
level, i.e., the top water level of the service reservoir, is fixed by
the level of the area to be supplied from that reservoir, but the
head against which the pumps are designed to work, and which
determines the hydraulic gradient under which the rising main will
operate, must be above that due to the service reservoir.
The carrying capacity of the main is a function of its size and
hydraulic gradient: the flatter the gradient the larger the pipe
and the smaller the head against which the pumps will operate,
for, in addition to the purely static lift given by the difference
between the level in the suction well and the level in the service
reservoir, there is the friction head which is the product of the
hydraulic gradient and the length of the main. Conversely, a
smaller and less costly pipe may be used at the expense of increas-
ing the pumping head, the size of the pumping units, and the cost
of pumping. In its simplest terms, the economic size of the rising
main is that diameter for which the sum of the interest and sink-
ing fund charges on the cost of the pipe line, the pumping units
and the building, the service reservoir and filters (if required) and
of the annual working expenses, is a minimum.
Service Reservoir. — When the main service reservoir is sup-
plied with filtered water or deep well water it is usually covered
in order to prevent contamination and algal growths. Covering
also helps to maintain the water at an even temperature and, espe-
cially in hot climates, prevents loss of water by evaporation.
Even if reservoirs are not covered initially, it frequently happens
that the building up of the surrounding land has rendered cover-
ing necessary, and as this can only be done by throwing the res-
ervoir out of commission, it is really economy to .cover all but the
largest reservoirs at the outset. The smaller service reservoirs are
located in populous districts and are invariably covered.
Both large and small reservoirs are constructed of concrete, re-
inforced concrete or brickwork and concrete. They may be rec-
tangular, circular or hexagonal in plan, and their shape depends
not only upon the contour of the ground, but also to some extent
on the form of roof covering. For capacities up to one million
gallons, the economic depth may be from 10 to 12 feet, whilst at
30 millions, the depth may be 30 feet. Usually service reservoirs
are surrounded by an earthen bank and the roof is soiled over.
The concrete floor is usually flat with sufficient fall for drainage
during cleaning, and in all but the smallest reservoirs, a division
wall of part or full height may be provided to enable a part of
the storage to be available during cleaning. The roof may be of
flat reinforced concrete slabs resting upon a system of main and
secondary beams of reinforced concrete, or steel beams encased
in concrete. It may consist of longitudinal arches in brickwork
or concrete, which spring either from girders or from transverse
flying arches, these arches being supported on massive piers, or,
as is frequently found in American practice, the piers may support
a system of concrete groined arches. Still another and economical
form of covering consists of a series of relatively thin plain con-
crete domes springing from concrete groined arches which, in turn,
are supported by hexagonal concrete block columns. Ample pro-
vision for ventilation should be made especially in tropicaf coun-
tries, and in these countries mosquito netting is essential.
Apart from the main service reservoir it is usual to provide
one or more minor reservoirs upon suitably elevated sites to
meet the hourly and possibly daily fluctuations of supply in the
more or less immediate vicinity, and to hold an appropriate
reserve for fire extinction. Where no site at the required elevation
is available, watertowers supporting elevated tanks of cast iron,
steel or reinforced concrete, holding 20,000 to 500,000 gallons,
and standing 50 to 100 feet above the ground, are used. Minor
service reservoirs, located at the ends of main distribution pipes
remote from the main service reservoir, are advantageous in that
they enable smaller and less costly connecting mains to be used,
and also give more regular pressures in the districts served.
Distribution. — There are two methods of charging for domes-
tic supplies : as in Britain, it may be by a water rate at so much
per cent, of the annual value, or, as in many American and Con-
tinental cities, at so much per 1,000 gallons by meter. Where the
supply is metered, it is to the user's interest to maintain his fittings
in proper condition, and in America, the introduction of meters
invariably leads to a considerable reduction in consumption.
Quite apart from leaky fittings there may be loss of water in
the distribution mains, and in, a well-organised Water Depart-
ment, the detection and prevention of leakage and waste is an
important part of the work of maintenance.
The outflow from all service reservoirs should be metered, and
a close observation of the rates of flow during the night hours
will indicate whether there is any serious loss of water in the
area supplied from that reservoir. For more detailed observa-
tions, the town is divided up into districts, the night supply to
each of which can by an appropriate system of valve control be
made to pass through a Deacon Differentiating Waste Water
Meter. This meter carries a paper diagram mounted on a drum,
which is caused by clockwork to revolve uniformly; each house
service is controlled by a stop cock accessible to the Waterworks
Officials; these cocks are closed in turn and the time of doing
so is noted; where there is leakage taking place the closing of
the cock will cause a step in the diagram/ and the time at which
the step occurs will, on reference to the night inspector's log,
enable that particular house to be located. The fittings in that
house are examined and the user is called upon to remedy the
defects which are notified.
When all the stop cocks in the district have been closed, there
may still be a flow recorded on the meter, and this represents leak-
age from the distribution system which may, as a rule, be readily
WATER-THYME— WATERTOWN
433
located by a stethoscope in the hands of an experienced man. The
modern practice of re-surfacing roads with reinforced concrete
idds considerably to the cost of mending defects in mains.
Native quarters in tropical towns are usually supplied from
stand pipes, and unless .these are very frequently inspected and
well maintained, serious loss of water may occur.
Distribution System. — Where the area of supply has a wide
range of level, it is usual to divide it up into zones each com-
manded by a service reservoir or water tower at an appropriate
elevation in order to prevent the pipes and fittings being sub-
jected to excessive pressure with consequent increased liability to
loss and waste of water, or the same result may be obtained by
the use of pressure reducing valves. The same principle is adopted
ilso when the higher districts have to be supplied by pumping, or
repumping, in order to restrict the quantity of water pumped to
that requisite for the higher districts only. Where current is
Available electrically driven centrifugal pumps are installed, and
lutomatically come into action when the level in the upper res-
ervoir falls to a pre-determined level : it can also be arranged that
the pumping shall be confined to certain hours if by so doing, the
peak hours at the generating station are avoided, and a more
favourable tariff for current is thereby obtained. •
The general requirements of a satisfactory distribution system
ire, well laid mains of durable material, laid at such depths as
will prevent damage by frost or traffic, of sufficient capacity to
meet all demands at an adequate pressure, usually not less than
3 inches internal diameter, and so arranged and intercommuni-
cated that in the event of a burst or for any other reason, a small
section may be isolated rapidly; a sufficiency of hydrants appro-
priate to the various parts of the district; master meters register-
ing the quantities delivered into the several districts; and adequate
means of detecting leakage and waste.
Mains. — The mains may be of cast iron, steel, galvanised iron
:>r asbestos-cement. The cast iron and steel pipes may be simply
:oated internally and externally with Dr. Angus Smith's Solution
where the ground in which the pipes are laid has no adverse
effect on metals and where the water has sufficient alkalinity to
inhibit corrosion or incrustation.
If the water is soft or otherwise likely to cause tuberculation,
such pipes should either be of larger diameter to allow for the
falling off in carrying capacity, or the pipes must be lined with
:ement mortar or bituminous compound, and the nature of the
lining is not only a question of cost, but also of suitability for the
particular water supplied. The thickness of the lining depends
upon the size of the pipe, being thinner in the smaller pipes. <
The choice of a special type of lining may restrict its use to
pipes of such a size that a person can enter them if the making
?ood of the internal joints from the inside is necessary in order
to secure continuity in the lining, and this consideration more
particularly affects steel pipes, where the consequences of pitting
are relatively of greater importance than in the much thicker
cast iron pipes.
For protection against external corrosion coated steel pipes may
be effectively protected by wrapping with Hessian cloth impreg-
nated with hot bitumen, but great care has to be taken to pre-
vent damage to this wrapping. Where the ground in which the
pipes are to be laid contains particularly aggressive constituents,
it may be necessary to surround the pipes with concrete or to refill
the trench with other and more suitable earth. In tropical coun-
tries, where aqueduct mains traverse bad ground, they may be laid
on or above the surface, but in such cases expansion and contrac-
tion, in the absence of expansion joints, may give rise to leaky
joints, though a lead joint, with a depth of lead of 3 inches, under
pressure of 200 to 300 feet, will allow of a movement of as much
as an inch without leakage.
Joints. — The joints in metal mains are usually of the socket
and spigot type made with yarn and lead: of recent years various
proprietary substitutes for lead have been used, chiefly in Amer*
ica, with the view to eliminating that caulking which a run lead
joint requires, and cement caulked in an almost dry state instead
of lead has also been adopted with some measure of success.
Galvanised pipes with screwed joints are frequently used for the
smaller distribution mains, especially in tropical countries where
freight and transport are heavy items of expense.
In Italy asbestos-cement pipes have been used of recent years
instead of cast iron pipes in sizes ranging from the smallest dis-
tribution pipe up to large trunk mains. These pipes are made
with double spigots and jointed by means of collars either of the
same material or of cast iron with inserted rubber rings. With
most waters and in ordinary ground they are not liable to deteri-
oration, either inside or out.
See also RESERVOIRS, DAMS, WELLS, AQUEDUCTS and WATER
PURIFICATION.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. Lapworth, "The Geolopy of Dam Trenches,1'
Trans. Inst. Water Eng.t Vol. XVI. (1911) ; C. P. Berkey and J. F.
Sanborn, "Engineering Geology of the Catskill Water Supply," Trans.
Am. Soc. C.E., Vol. LXXXVI. (1923) ; H. J. F. Gourley, "The Use of
Grout in Cut-off Trenches and Concrete Core Walls for Earthen
Embankments," Trans. Inst. Water Eng., Vol. XXVII. (1922) ; A. A.
Barnes, "Cementation of Strata below Reservoir Embankments,'*
Trans. Inst. Water Eng., Vol. XXXII. (1927) ; J. R. Fox, "Pre-cemen-
tation of a Reservoir Trench," Ibid.; F. W. Macaulay, "Cross-connec-
tions in the Elan Aqueduct of the Birmingham Corporation Water-
works," Proc. Inst. C.E.. Vol. CCXI. (1920) ; M. R. Push, "External
Corrosion of Cast Iron Pipe," Trans. Am. Soc. C.E., Vol. LXXVIII.
(1915); W. J. E. Binnie, "The Cross Hill Covered Service Reservoir
for the Birkenhead Waterworks," Trans. Inst. Water En%.t Vol. XXI.
(1916). (H.J.F.G.)
WATER-THYME (Elodea canadensis) , a small submerged
water-weed, native of North America; it is also known as Ameri-
can water-weed. It was introduced into co. Down, Ireland, about
1836, and appeared in England in 1841, spreading through the
country in ponds, ditches and streams, which were often choked
with its rank growth. Elodea belongs to the family Hydrochari-
taceae, which includes also the frog-bit (Hydro charts Morsus-
ra?uie), the water-soldier (Stratiotes aloides) and the eel-grass
(Vallisneria spiralis).
WATERTOWN, a town of Massachusetts, on the Charles
river. Pop. (1920) 21,457 (27% foreign-born white); 1928
local estimate 32,500. There are two interesting old burying
grounds, one of which has been in use since 1642, and a number
of colonial houses. The town includes mounds and earthworks
thought by Prof. E. N. Horsford to be remains of a Norse settle-
ment of the nth century. The Federal Government maintains
one of its principal arsenals at Watertown, occupying 100 ac. along
the river. Several of the original low brick buildings (1816—20)
are still in use. The town has numerous and varied manufactures,
with an annual output valued at $60,000,000. Watertown was one
of the earliest of the Massachusetts Bay settlements, founded in
1630 by Sir Richard Saltonstall and the Rev. George Phillips, and
for the first quarter century it ranked next to Boston in popula-
tion and area. Since then its territory has been greatly reduced.
The first protest in America against taxation without representa-
tion was made by the people of Watertown, on the occasion of a
levy for erecting a stockade fort in Cambridge. The first grist
mill in the Colony was established here about 1632, and one of the
first woollen mills in America in 1662. Here the Provincial Con-
gress met from April to July 1775; the Massachusetts general
court from 1775 to 1778; and the Boston town meetings during
the siege of Boston. For several months early in the Revolution
the committees of safety and correspondence made Watertown
theirTieadquarters, and from here Gen. Joseph Warren set out for
Bunker Hill. Theodore Parker conducted a private school in
Watertown from 1832 to 1834.
WATERTOWN, a city of northern New York, U.S.A. It has
a municipal airport. Pop. (1920) 31,285 (81% native white);
1928 local estimate 35,000. The Thousand islands are 22 m. N,
and the Adirondacks 45 m. N.E. The city's parks include one of
196 ac., two large athletic fields, municipal golf links, swimming
pools and children's playgrounds. There is a beautiful public
library (1904), a memorial to Governor Roswell P. Flower, whose
home was here. Among the products are automobile bodies, rail-
road air-brakes, brass plumbing supplies, paper, silk fabrics,
knitted silk garments, shirts, women's coats, electrical machinery,
flour and breakfast foods, thermometers and optical goods. The
city owns a hydro-electric plant of 7,500 h.p. (opened 1927).
434
WATERTOWN— WATSON
Since 1920 it has had a city-manager, The chanties are financed
through a community chest. Watertown was founded in 1800,
and named after the water-power, which has been used since 1802.
It was incorporated as a city in 1869. The first portable steam
engine made in the United States was made in Watertown in
1847, and here in 1878 F. W. Woolworth established the first
five and ten cent store.
WATERTOWN, a city of South Dakota, U.S.A., on the
Big Sioux river, near Lake Kampeska and Lake Pelican, 200 m.
W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1925 State census) 10,319. The city
has a large meat-packing plant, flour mills and machine shops.
The city was founded in 1882 and incorporated in 1885.
WATERTOWN, a city of Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Rock
river. Pop. 9,299 in 1920, 84% native white. It is the seat of
Northwestern college (Lutheran, 1865); a shipping point for but-
ter and cheese; a market for imported horses. Watertown was
founded about 1836 by colonists from Watettown, N.Y. Later,
especially after 1848, there was a large influx of Germans, includ-
ing Carl Schurz, who began his law practice here. The village was
incorporated in 1849 and chartered as a city in 1853.
WATER TURBINE: see TURBINE, WATER,
WATER-TURKEY, the popular name in U.S.A. for the
American darter (Anhinga anhinga). (See SNAKE-BIRD.)
WATERVILLE, a city of Maine, U.S.A. Pop. (1920)
i3»35i (22% foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate 14,500.
Water-power from the Ticonic falls, and more recently an ample
supply of hydro-electric current, have made Waterville an im-
portant manufacturing centre. It has large cotton and worsted
mills and many other plants, and in Winslow, directly opposite,
is one of the largest pulp and paper mills of New England. The
city is the seat of Colby college, founded in 1813 as the Maine
Literary and Theological Institution. The Belgrade lakes are 10
m. W. of the city and some of the best fishing-grounds in the State
are in the vicinity. Settlement here began about the middle of the
1 8th century. Waterville was set off from Winslow and incorpo-
rated as a town in 1802. In 1883 it was incorporated as a city,
adopting a city charter in 1888.
WATERVLIET, a city of New York, U.S.A. Pop. (1920)
16,073 (84% native white); 1928 local estimate 22,500. It has
railroad shops and extensive manufactures of bells, iron and steel
castings, stoves, ladders, woollen goods, paper and wooden boxes,
asbestos products, spun silk, men's clothing and various other com-
modities, with an aggregate output in 1925 valued at $9,480,203.
Within the city limits is a U.S. arsenal (1807). \Vatervliet was
originally called West Troy. It was incorporated as a village in
1836 and as a city (under its present name) in 1896. Since 1918 it
has had a commission-manager form of government. In 1776
"Mother Ann" Lee and her followers established the first Shaker
settlement in America near the present site of Watervliet.
WATERWAYS: see CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS; IN-
LAND WATER TRANSPORT.
WATFORD, a town of Hertfordshire, England. Pop. (1921)
45,922. The church of St. Mary contains good monumental work
of the early i7th century. There are large breweries, also corn-
mills, malt-kilns and an iron foundry. Bushey, on the south side
of the Colne, is a suburb, chiefly residential with a station on the
L.M.S. line. The church of St. James, extensively restored by Sir
Gilbert Scott, has an Early English chancel. Here a school of art
founded by Sir Hubert von Herkomer, R.A., was closed in 1904,
and subsequently revived in other hands. Other institutions are the
Royal Caledonian asylum and the London Orphan asylum. At
Aldenham, 2 m. N.E., the grammar school founded in 1599 now
ranks as one of the minor English public schools.
WATKINS GLEN, a village of New York, U.S.A., at the
south end of Seneca lake, in the heart of the Finger Lake re-
gion. Resident pop. (1925) 2,919 (State census). Medicinal
springs and the beauty of the "Glen" have made it one of the
noted health and pleasure resorts of the country, and 18 brine
wells provide raw material for the manufacture of 170,000 tons
of salt annually. The most noted of the mineral springs is one
on the property of the Glen springs, a large health resort and hotel
established in 1890 to provide the "Nauheim treatment" in
America. Its properties are similar to those of the springs at
Bad Nauheim, but the mineral content is about five times as
great. The famous glen is a narrow winding gorge 2 m. long, with
walls from 100 to 300 ft. high, through which flows a small stream
(with a total descent of 1,200 ft.) in many falls, cascades and
pools. It is in a State park of 800 ac., entered from the main
street of the village. The first settlement here was made in 1788
by two men from Connecticut. In 1794 came Dr. Samuel Watkins,
in whose honour the village was named in 1852, after having been
known first as Salubda and incorporated in 1842 as Jefferson.
WATLING STREET, the Early English name for the great
road made by the Romans from London past St. Albans (Roman
Verulamium) to Wroxeter (Roman Viroconium) near Shrewsbury
and used by the Anglo-Saxons, just as a great part of it is used
to-day. According to early documents the name was at first
Waeclinga (or Waetlinga) straet; its derivation is unknown; but
an English personal name may lie behind it. After the Conquest
the road was included in the list of four Royal Roads which the
Norman lawyers recorded or invented. (See ERMINE STREET.)
Later still, in the Elizabethan period and after it, the name
Watling Street seems to have been applied to many Roman or
reputed Roman roads in various parts of Britain. In particular,
the Roman "North Road" which ran from York through Cor-
bridge and over Cheviot to Newstead near Melrose, and thence to
the Wall of Pius, and which has largely been in use ever since
Roman times, was not unfrequently called Watling Street, though
there was no old authority for it and throughout the middle ages
the section of the road between the Tyne and the Forth was'called
Dere Street. For its course near London, see Royal Comm. on
Hist. Monuments, Inventory of London (1928).
WATSON, JOHN BROADUS (1878- ), American
psychologist, was born at Greenville, S.C., on Jan. 9, 1878. He
graduated at Furman university (M.A. 1900), continuing his
studies at the University of Chicago (Ph.D. 1903). After serving
as assistant and instructor in experimental psychology at the
University of Chicago he was appointed professor of experimental
and comparative psychology at Johns Hopkins university in 1908,
being also director of the psychological laboratory there until
1920. Later he was a lecturer at the New School for Social Re-
search. He became known as the leading exponent of behaviour-
ism. (See BEHAVIOURISM.) In 1917 he served as major in the
aviation section of the Signal Corps, U.S. Reserves, and with the
A.E.F. He was editor of The Psychological Review, 1908-15; he
became joint editor of The Journal of Animal Behavior in 1910
and editor of The Journal of Experimental Psychology in 1915.
He wrote Animal Education (1903); Behavior: An Introduction
to Comparative Psychology (1914); Psychology from the Stand-
point of a Behaviorist (1919); and Behaviorism (1925); as well
as many scientific monographs and articles,
WATSON, JOHN CHRISTIAN (1867- ), Australian
politician, was born at Valparaiso, Chile, on April 9, 1867, when
his parents were on their way as emigrants to Australasia. He was
educated at the public school of Oamaru, N.Z., and as a boy
began work as a compositor. He attached himself to the Labour
party in politics. He was president of the Sydney Trades and
Labour Council in 1890. From 1894-1901 he was a member of
the New South Wales legislature. In 1901 he was elected to the
Commonwealth parliament, and for a short time in 1904, on the
resignation of Deakin, he was prime minister and treasurer. He
resigned after a few months, though he continued to lead the
Labour party until 1908.
WATSON, THOMAS (c. 1557-1592), English lyrical poet,
was born in London, probably in 1557. He proceeded to Oxford,
and while quite a young man enjoyed a certain reputation, even
abroad, as a Latin poet, His De remedio amoris, which was per-
haps bis earliest important composition, is lost, and so is his
"piece of work written in the commendation of women-kind/'
which was also in Latin verse. He came back to London and
became a law-student. The earliest publication by Watson which
has survived is a Latin version of the Antigone of Sophocles,
issued in 1581. It is dedicated to Philip Howard, earl of Arundel,
who was perhaps the patron of the poet, who seems to have
WATSON— WATT
435
spent some part of this year in Paris. Next year Watson appears
for the first time as an English poet in some verses prefixed to
Whetstone's Heptameron, and also in a far more important guise,
as the author of the Hecatompathia or Passionate Centwie of
Love. This is a collection or cycle of loo pieces, in the manner of
Petrarch, celebrating the sufferings of a lover and his long fare-
well to love. Although they profess to be sonnets, they are really
written in triple sets of common six-line stanza, and therefore have
1 8 lines each. The metre has had no imitators. In 1585 he pub-
lished a Latin translation of Tasso's pastoral play of Aminta, and
his version was afterwards translated into English by Abraham
Fraunce (1587).
Watson was now, as the testimony of Nashe and others prove,
regarded as the best Latin poet of England. In 1590 he published,
in English and Latin verse, his Meliboeus, an elegy on the death
of Sir Francis Walsingham, and a collection of Italian Madrigals,
put into English by Watson and s^t to music 'by Byrd. Of the
remainder of Watson's career nothing is known, save that on
Sept. 26, 1592 he was buried in the church of St. Bartholomew
the Less, and that in the following year his latest and best book,
The Tears of Fancie, or Love Disdained (1593), was post-
humously published. This is a collection of 60 sonnets with 14
lines each. Spenser may have alluded to Watson in Colin
Clout's Come Home Again, when he says: —
Amyntas quite is gone and lies full low,
Having his Amaryllis left to moan.
He is mentioned by Meres in company with Shakespeare, Peele
and Marlowe among "the best for tragedic," but no dramatic
work of his has come down to us. He was, however, forerunner
of Shakespeare (in Venus and Adonis and in the Sonnets).
(E. G.)
The English works of Watson, excepting the madrigals, were first
collected by E. Arber in 1870. Thomas Watson's "Italian Madrigals
Englished" (1590) were reprinted (ed. F. J. Carpenter) from the
Journal of Germanic Philology (vol. ii., No. 3, p. 337) with the
original Italian, in 1809. See also Sir Sidney Lee's Introduction
(pp. xxxii.-xli.) to Elizabethan Sonnets in the new edition (1904) of
An English Garner.
WATSON, WILLIAM (c. 1559-1603), English conspirator,
was born in the north of England, probably on April 23, 1559.
In 1586 he became a Roman Catholic priest in France, and during
the. concluding years of Elizabeth's reign he paid several visits to
England ; he was imprisoned and tortured more than once. Under
James J. he was involved in the "Bye plot," or ''Watson's plot."
It was arranged that James should be surprised and seized, while
the conspirators talked loudly about capturing the Tower of
London, converting the king to Romanism, and making Watson
lord keeper. One or two of the conspirators drew back; but
Watson and his remaining colleagues arranged to assemble at.
Greenwich on June 24, 1603, and under the pretence of presenting
a petition to carry out their object. The plot was a complete
failure; Henry Garnet and other Jesuits betrayed it to the
authorities, and its principal authors were seized, Watson being
captured in August at Hay on the Welsh border. They were tried
at Winchester and found guilty; Watson and Clark were executed
on Dec. 9, 1603, and Brooke suffered the same fate a week later.
Before the executions took place, however, the failure of the Bye
plot had led to the discovery of the Main plot. Brooke's share in
the earlier scheme caused suspicion to fall upon his brother Henry
Brooke, Lord Cobham, the ally and brother-in-law of Sir Robert
Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. Cobham appears to have been
in communication with Spain about the possibility of killing "the
king and his cubs" and of placing Lady Arabella Stuart on the
throne. He was seized, tried and condemned to death, but although
led out to the scaffold he was not executed. It was on suspicion
of being associated with Cobham in this matter that Sir Walter
Raleigh was arrested and tried.
See the documents printed by T. G. Law in The Archpriest contro-
versy (1896-98) ; the same writer's Jesuits and Seculars (i88g), and
S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol. i. (1905).
WATSON, SIR WILLIAM (1858- ), English poet,
bora on Aug. 2, 1858, at Burley-in-Wharfedale, Yorkshire, was
brought up at Liverpool, whither his father moved for business.
In 1880 he published his first book The Prince's Quest, a poem
showing the influence of Keats and Tennyson, but giving little
indication of the author's mature style. Recognition came in
1890 with the publication of Wordsworth's Grave, which marked
a reversion from the current Tennysonian and Swinburnian fash-
ion to the meditative note of Matthew Arnold. Besides Words*
worth's Grave the volume contained Ver tenebrosum (originally
published in the National Review for June 1885), a series of
political sonnets indicating a fervour of political conviction which
was later to find still more impassioned expression; also a selec-
tion with additions from the Epigrams of 1884, and among other
miscellaneous pieces his tribute to Arnold, "In Laleham Church-
yard." There followed: Excursions in Criticism (1893), a col-
lection of review articles; Lacrymae Musarum (1893); The
Eloping Angels (1893); Odes and Other Poems (1894); The
Father of the Forest (1895); and The Purple East (1896), son-
nets on the Armenian question; Collected Poems (1902); Se-
lected Poems (1903); For England (1903); New Poems (1909);
and also other verse, including A Hundred Poems (1922),
a selection from various volumes, and Poems, Brief and New
(1925). In 1917 Watson was knighted.
Sir William Watson's poetry is contemplative, not dramatic,
and only occasionally lyrical in impulse. In spite of the poet's
plea in his "Apologia" that there is an ardour and a fire other
than that of Eros or Aphrodite, ardour and fire are not conspicu-
ous qualities of his verse. Except in his political verse there is
more thought than passion. Bearing trace enough of the influence
of the romantic epoch, his poetry recalls the earlier classical
period in its epigrammatic phrasing and Latinized diction. By the
distinction and clarity of his style and the dignity of his movement
William Watson stands in the classical tradition.
See also section on William Watson in Poets of the Younger Genera-
tion, by William Archer (1902) ; and for bibliography up to Aug.
1903, English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. (N.S.), pp. 542 and 548.
WATSONVILLE, a city of Santa Cruz county, California.
Pop. (1920) 5,013; 1928 local estimate, including immediate
suburbs, 10,000. Over 15,000 ac. of the beautiful fertile Pajaro
valley are planted to apples, which supply work for 75-100
packing houses, 25 driers, canneries and cider and vinegar works in
the city. Small fruit, vegetables and other agricultural products
are also shipped in large quantities. Watsonville was one of the
early settlements of the State, founded in 1851. It was incor-
porated as a city in 1903.
WATT, JAMES (1736-1819), Scottish engineer, the inven-
tor of the modern condensing steam-engine, was born at Greenock
on Jan. 19, 1736. His father was a small merchant there, who
lost his trade and fortune by unsuccessful speculation. James
made his way to London, at the age of nineteen, to be appren-
ticed to a philosophical-instrument maker, John Morgan, in
whose service he remained for twelve months. The hard work
and frugal living forced him at the end of a year to seek rest
at home, not, however, before he had gained a fair knowledge
of the trade and br come handy in the use of tools. On his return
to Scotland in 1756 he tried to establish himself as an instrument
maker in Glasgow, but the city guilds would not recognize a crafts-
man who had not served the full term of apprenticeship, and
Watt was forbidden to open shop in the burgh. The college,
however, took him under its^protection, and in 1757 he was estab-
lished in its precincts with the title of mathematical-instrument
maker to the university.
Joseph Black, the discoverer of latent heat, then lecturer on
chemistry, and John Robison, then a student, afterwards pro-
fessor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, became his intimate
friends, and with them he often discussed the possibility of im-
proving the steam-engine, the best type of which was at that
time the Newcomen engine. It was then applied only to pumping
water—chiefly in the drainage of mines ; and it was so clumsy an'd
wasteful in fuel that it wa« little used. Some early experiments
of Watt in 1761 or 1762 had no direct result, but in 1764 his at-
tention was seriously aroused by having a model of Newcoraen's
engine, which formed part of the college collection of scientific
apparatus, given him to repair. Having put the model in order,
436
WATT
he was at once struck with its enormous consumption of steam,
and set himself to find its cause and remedy.
In Newcomen's engine the cylinder stood vertically under one
end of the main lever or "beam," and was open at the top. Steam,
at a pressure scarcely greater than that of the atmosphere, was
admitted to the under side; this allowed the piston to be pulled
up by a counterweight at the other end of the beam. Communi-
cation with the boiler was then shut off, and the steam in the
cylinder was condensed by injection of cold water from a cistern
above. The pressure of the air on the top of the piston then drove
it down, raising the counterweight and doing work. The injec-
tion water and condensed steam in the cylinder were drained out
by a pipe leading down into a well.
After some unsuccessful efforts to remedy the difficulty
Watt began a scientific examination of the properties of steam,
studying by experiment the relation of its density and pressure
to its temperature, and concluded that two conditions were essen-
tial to the economic use of steam in a condensing steam-engine.
One was that the temperature of the condensed steam should be as
low as possible, 100° F or lower, otherwise the vacuum would
not be good; the other was, to quote his own words, "that the
cylinder should be always as hot as the steam which entered it."
In Newcomen's engine these two conditions were incompatible,
and not for some months did Watt see a means of reconciling
them. Early in 1765, the idea struck him that, if the steam were
condensed in a vessel distinct from the cylinder, the temperature
of condensation could be kept low and that in the cylinder high.
Let this separate vessel be kept cold, either by injecting cold water
or by letting it run over the outside, and let a vacuum be main-
tained in the vessel. Then, whenever communication was made
between it and the cylinder, steam would pass over from the
cylinder and be condensed; the pressure in the cylinder would be
as low as the pressure in the condenser, but the temperature of
the metal of the cylinder would remain high, since no injection
water would touch it. Without delay Watt put his idea to the
test, and found that the separate condenser acted as he had an-
ticipated. To maintain the vacuum in it he added another new
organ, namely, the air-pump, the function of which was to remove
the condensed steam and injection-water along with any air
gathered in the condenser.
To further his object of keeping the cylinder as hot as the
steam that entered it, Watt supplemented his great invention of
the separate condenser by several less notable but still important
improvements. In Newcomen's engine a layer of water over the
piston had been used to keep it steam-tight; Watt substituted a
tighter packing lubricated by oil. In Newcomen's engine the upper
end of the cylinder was open to the air*, Watt covered it in, lead-
ing the piston-rod through a steam-tight stuffing box in the cover,
and allowed steam instead of air to press on the top of the
piston. In Newcomen's engine the cylinder had no clothing to
reduce loss of heat by radiation and conduction from its outer
surface; Watt not only cased it in non-conducting material, but
introduced a steam-jacket, or layer of steam, between the cylin-
der proper and an outer shell.
All these features were specified in his first patent (see STEAM-
ENGINE), which was obtained in January 1769, nearly four years
after the inventions it covered had been made. In the interval
Watt had been striving to demonstrate the merits of his engine
by trial on a large scale. His earliest experiments left him in
debt, and he agreed that Dr. John Roebuck, founder of the Carron
ironworks, should take two-thirds of the profits of the invention
in consideration of his bearing the costs. An engine was then
erected at Kinneil, near Linlithgow, and this gave Watt the op-
portunity of overcoming many difficulties in details of construc-
tion. Meanwhile he was gaining reputation as a civil engineer.
In 1767 he was employed to make a survey for a Forth and Clyde
canal, which failed, however, to secure parliamentary sanction.
During the next six years he made surveys for canals at Monk-
land, from Perth to Forfar, and along the lines afterwards fol-
lowed by the Crinan and Caledonian canals. He prepared "plans
for the harbours of Ayr, Port-Glasgow and Greenock, for deepen-
ing the Clyde, and for building a bridge over it at Hamilton. In
the course of this work he invented a simple micrometer* for
measuring distances, consisting of a pair of horizontal hairs placed
in the focus of a telescope, through which sights were taken to a
fixed and to a movable target on a rod held upright at the place
whose distance from the observer was to be determined.
In 1768 Watt had met Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho
engineering works at Birmingham. Boulton agreed to take Roe-
buck's share in the invention, and to apply to parliament for an
act to prolong the term of the patent. The application was suc-
cessful, and in 1775 ah act was passed continuing the patent for
twenty-five years. By this time Watt had settled in Birmingham,
where the manufacture of steam-engines was begun by the firm
of Boulton & Watt. The partnership was a happy one. Boulton
left the work of inventing to Wfatt, in whose genius he had the
fullest faith, while he attended to the business side.
During the next ten years Watt developed the engine. Its first
and, for a time, its only application was in pumping; it was at
once put to this use in the Cornish mines. Further inventions
followed in quick succession. Watt's second steam-engine patent
is dated 1781. It describes five different methods of converting
the reciprocating motion of the piston into motion of rotation,
so as to adapt the engine for driving ordinary machinery. The
simplest way of doing this was by a crank and fly-wheel; this
had occurred to Watt, but had meanwhile been patented by an-
other, and hence he devised "sun and planet wheels" and other
equivalent contrivances. A third patent, in 1782, contained
two new inventions of great importance. Up to this tirr\e the
engine had been single-acting; Watt now made it double-acting;
that is to say, both ends of the cylinder, instead of only one, were
alternately put in communication with the boiler and the con-
denser. Up to this time also the steam had been admitted from
the boiler throughout the whole stroke of the piston; Watt now
introduced the system of expansive working, in which the ad-
mission valve is closed after a portion only of the stroke is
performed, and the steam enclosed in the cylinder is then al-
lowed to expand during the remainder of the stroke, doing addi-
tional work upon the piston without making any further demand
upon the boiler until the next stroke requires a fresh admission
of steam. He observed that, as the piston advanced after admis-
sion had ceased, the pressure of the steam in the cylinder would
fall in the same proportion as its volume increased — a law which,
although not strictly true, does accord very closely with the actual
behaviour of steam expanding in the cylinder of an engine. Recog-
nizing that this would cause a gradual reduction of the force
with which the piston pulled or pushed against the beam, Watt de-
vised a number of contrivances for equalizing the effort through-
out the stroke. He found, however, that the inertia of the pump-
rods in his mine engines, and the fly-wheel in his rotative engines,
served to compensate for the inequality of thrust sufficiently to
make these contrivances unnecessary. His fourth patent, taken
out in 1784, describes the well-known "parallel motion," an ar-
rangement of links by which the top of the piston-rod is con-
nected to the beam so that it may either pull or push, and Is at
the same time guided to move in a straight line.
A still later invention was the centrifugal governor, by which
the speed of rotative engines was automatically controlled. An-
other of Watt's contributions to the development of the steam-
engine is the indicator, which draws- a diagram of the relation of
the steam's pressure to its volume as the stroke proceeds. The
eminently philosophic notion of an indicator diagram is funda-
mental in the theory of thermodynamics; the instrument itself
is to the steam engineer what the stethoscope is to the physician.
The commercial success of the engine was not slow. By 1783
all but one of the Newcomen pumping-engines in Cornwall had
been displaced by Watt's. The mines were then far from thriving;
many were even on the point of being abandoned through the
difficulty of dealing with large volumes of water; and Watt's
invention, by its economy, gave many of them a new lease of life.
His engine used no more than a fourth of the fuel that had for-
merly been needed to do the same work, and the Soho firm usually
claimed as royalty a sum equivalent to one-third of the saving.
Before Watt's time the steam-engine was exclusively a steam-
WATTEAU
437
pump, slow-working, cumbrous and excessively wasteful in fuel.
His first patent made it quick in working, powerful and efficient,
but still only as a steam-pump. His later inventions adapted it
to drive machinery of all kinds, and left it virtually what it is
to-day, save in three respects. In respect of mechanical arrange-
ment the modern engine differs from Watt's chiefly in that the
beam, an indispensable feature in the early pumping-engines, has
gradually given way to more direct modes of connecting the pis-
ton with the crank. The second difference is in the modern use
of high-pressure steam. It is remarkable that Watt, notwithstand-
ing the fact that his own invention of expansive working must have
opened his eyes to the advantage of high-pressure steam, declined
to make use of it. He persisted in the use of pressures that were
little if at all above that of the atmosphere, while Trevithick ven-
tured as far as 120 Ib. on the square inch, a curious episode in
the history of the steam-engine is an attempt by Boulton and Watt
to obtain an act of parliament forbidding the use of high pressure
steam on the ground that the lives of the public were endangered.
The third respect in which a great improvement has been effected
is in the introduction of compound expansion. Here, too, we find
the Soho firm hostile, though the necessity of defending their
monopoly makes their action natural enough. Hornblower had
in fact stumbled on the invention of the compound engine, but
as his machine employed Watt's condenser it was suppressed, to
be revived after some years by Arthur Woolf (1766-1837), Watt
in one of his patents (1784) describes a steam locomotive, but
he never prosecuted this, and when William Murdoch, his chief
assistant (famous as the inventor of gas-lighting), made experi-
ments on the same lines, Watt gave him little encouragement.
The notion then was to use a steam carriage on ordinary roads:
its use on railways had not yet been thought of. When that idea
took form later in the last years of Watt's life, the old man
refused to countenance it.
On the expiry in 1800 of the act by which the patent of 1769
had been extended, Watt gave up his share in the business of
engine-building to his sons, James, who carried it on with a
son of Boulton for many years, and Gregory, who died in 1804.
The remainder of his life was quietly spent at Heathfield Hall,
near Birmingham, where he devoted his time to mechanical pur-
suits. His last work was the invention of machines for copying
sculpture, one for making reduced copies, another for taking
facsimiles by means of a light frame, which carried a pointer
over the surface of the work, while a revolving tool fixed to the
frame alongside the pointer cut a corresponding surface on a
suitable block. We find him not many months before his death,
presenting copies of busts to his friends as the work "of a young
artist just entering on his eighty-third year." His life drew to a
tranquil close, and the end came at Heathfield on Aug. 19, 1819.
He was buried in the parish church of Handsworth.
Watt was twice married — first in 1763 to his cousin Margaret
Miller, who died ten years later. Of four children born of the
marriage, two died in infancy; another was James (1769-1848),
who succeeded his father in business; the fourth was a daughter.
His second wife, Anne Macgregor, whom he married before
settling in Birmingham in 1775, survived him; but her two chil-
dren, Gregory and a daughter, died young.
One of Watt's minor inventions was the press, patented in 1780,
for copying manuscript by using a glutinous ink and pressing the
written page against a moistened sheet of thin paper.
In the domain of pure science Watt claims recognition a* a
discoverer of the composition of water. Writing to Joseph
Priestley in April 1783, with reference to some of Priestley's ex-
periments, he suggests the theory that "water is composed of de-
phlogisticated air and phlogiston deprived of part of their latent
or elementary heat." Watt's views were communicated to the
Royal Society in 1783, Cavendish's experiments in 1784, and both
are printed in the same volume of the Philosophical Transactions.
He was a man of warm friendships, and has numerous letters.
They are full of insight: his own achievements are told with
modesty and dry humour. In his old age Watt is described as a
man stored with knowledge, full of anecdote, familiar with modern
languages and a great talker. Scott so writes of him.
See J. P. Muirhead, Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inven-
tions of James Watt (3 vols., 1854) ; Muirhead, Life of Watt (1858) ;
Smiles, Lives of Boulton and Watt; Williamson, Memorials of the
Lineage, etc., of James Watt, published by the Watt Club (Grecnock,
1856) ; Correspondence of the late James Watt on his Discovery of the
Theory of the Composition of Water, edited by Muirhead (1846);
Cowper "On the Inventions of James Watt and his Models preserved
at Handsworth and South Kensington," Proc. lust. Mech. Eng. (1883) ;
Robison, Mechanical Philosophy, vol. ii. (1822).
WATTEAU, ANTOINE (1684-1721), French painter, was
born in Valenciennes, of humble Flemish origin. At fourteen
he was placed with Gerin, a mediocre Valenciennes painter. But
he learnt more from Ostade's and Teniers's paintings in his native
town. His earliest works suggest this influence. Gerin died in
1702, and Watteau, almost penniless, went to Paris, where he
joined the scene-painter Metayer. Things went badly with his
master, and Watteau, broken in health, worked in a factory where
devotional pictures were turned out wholesale. Three francs a
week and meagre food were his reward. Claude Gillot then took
Watteau as assistant, but the young man soon excelled his master,
whose jealousy led to a quarrel. Watteau and his pupil, Lancret,
entered about 1708 the studio of Claude Audran, decorative
painter and keeper of the collections at the Luxembourg. His
chinoiseries and singeries date probably from this period.
Watteau painted at this time "The Departing Regiment," the
first picture in his second and more personal manner, in which
the touch reveals the influence of Rubens's technique, and the first
of a long series of camp pictures. He found a purchaser for the
picture, at the modest price of 60 livres, in Sirois, the father-in-
law of his later friend and patron Gcrsaint, and was thus enabled
to return to Valenciennes. There he painted a number of small
camp-pieces, two of which are at the Hermitage in Leningrad.
After a short sojourn at Valenciennes, he returned to Paris,
where he lived with Sirois. He obtained the second prize in the
Prix de Rome competition (1709). Watteau was made an associ-
ate of the Academy in 1712, and a full member in 1717, on the
completion of his diploma picture, 'The Embarkment for
Cythera," now at the Louvre.
Watteau now went to live with Crozat, the greatest private
art collector of his time, for whom he painted a set of four
decorative panels of "The Seasons." He lived for six months with
his friend Gersaint, for whom he painted in eight mornings a
wonderful signboard depicting the interior of an art dealer's
shop. His health made it imperative for him to live in the
country, and in 1721 he took up his abode with M. le F&vre at
Nogent. He continued working with feverish haste. Among his
last paintings were a "Crucifixion" for the cure of Nogent, and
a portrait of the famous Venetian pastellist Rosalba Camera,
who at the same time painted her portrait of Watteau. His rest-
lessness increased with the progress of tubercular disease; and on
the 1 8th of July 1721 he died in Gersaint 's arms.
Watteau, though Flemish, was more French than his French
contemporaries. He led a revolt apjrnnst the pompous classicism
of the Louis XIV. period and combined a poet's imagination with
a power of seizing reality. Jn his art can be found the germs of
impressionism. Later theories of light and its effect upon the ob-
jects in nature are foreshadowed by Watteau's fetes champStres.
He is the initiator of the Louis XV. period, but his paintings are
usually free from the licentiousness of Lancret and Pater, and
Boucher and Fragonard. Watteau's art was highly esteemed by
such fine judges as Sirois, Gersaint, the comte de Caylus, and M.
de Julienne, the last of whom collected paintings and sketches, and
published in 1735 the Abr&gi de, la vie de Watteau, an Introduc-
tion to the four volumes of engravings after Watteau by Cochin,
Thomassin, Le Bas, Liotard and others. Until 1875, when Edmond
de Goncourt published his Catalogue raisonnt of Watteau's works,
also discovering Caylus's discourse on Watteau delivered at the
Academy in 1748, prices of Watteau's paintings rarely exceeded
j£ioo. Then the reaction set in, and in 1891 the "Occupation ac-
cording to Age" realized 5,200 guineas at Christie's, and "Perfect
Harmony" 3,500 guineas. At the Bourgeois sale at Cologne in
1904 "The Village Bride" fetched £5,000.
The finest collection of Watteau's works was in the possession
WATTERSON— WATTS
of the German emperor, who owned as many as thirteen, all of
the best period, and mostly from M. de Julienne's collection.
At the Raiser Friedrich museum in Berlin are two scenes from
the Italian and French comedy and a fete champetre. In the
Wallace Collection are nine of his paintings, among them "Rustic
Amusements/' "The Return from the Chase," "Gilles and his
Family," "The Music Party," "A Lady at her Toilet" and "Harle-
quin and Columbine." The Louvre owns, besides the diploma
picture, the "Antiope," "The Assemblage in the Park," "Autumn,"
''Indifference," "La Finette," "Gilles," UA Reunion" and "The
False Step," as well as thirty-one original drawings. Other paint-
ings of importance are at the Dresden, Glasgow, Edinburgh, St.
Petersburg and Vienna galleries; and a number of drawings are
to be found at the British Museum and the Albertina in Vienna.
Of the few portraits known to have been painted by Watteau,
one is in the collection of the late M. Groult in Paris.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Since the resuscitation of Watteau's fame by the
de Goncourts, an extensive literature has grown around his life and
work. The basis for all later research is furnished by Caylus's some-
what academic Life, Gersaint's Catalogue rahonni (Paris, 1744), and
Julienne's Abrt&e. For Watteau's childhood, the most trustworthy
information will be found in Cellier's Watteau, son enfance, ses com-
tcmporains (Yfelencicnnes, 1867). Of the greatest importance is the
Catalogue raisonne de I'oeuvre de Watteou, by E. de Goncourt (1875),
and the essay on Watteau by the brothers de Goncourt in L'Art du
XVlll* siecle. See also monographs by P. Mantz (Paris, 1892), by
P. Dargenty (1891), by G. Seailles (1892), by Claude Phillips (1895),
by Camille Mauclair (1905, and 1920), and A. M, Hind, Watteau,
Boucher and the French Engravers (1911).
WATTERSON, HENRY (1840-1921), American journal-
1st, was born in Washington (D.C.), Feb. 16, 1840. His father,
Harvey McGee Watterson, who succeeded James K. Polk as a
Democratic representative in Congress, was a journalist and
lawyer. The son as a youth had literary ambitions, and turned
to journalism, acting for a short time as music critic on the New
York Times, serving on the Washington daily States, etc. Dur-
ing the Civil War he was attached to the staffs of Generals Forrest,
Polk, and Hood; was chief of scouts in the Johnston-Sherman
campaign, and edited the Rebel in Chattanooga. After further
newspaper work and the first of many trips abroad he became
editor of the Journal at Louisville (Ky.). In 1868, with W. N.
Haldeman, he founded and became editor of the Louisville
Courier-Journal, a consolidation of the Courier, the Democrat,
and the Journal. Haldeman and Watterson adopted a policy of
business integrity and interest in the public service which soon
made the Courier' Journal one of the most influential of southern
newspapers. It had its unpopular days, however, in such times
as the Reconstruction period, when it stood for conciliation be-
tween the two sections, and during the Free Silver and Greenback
agitations when it advocated a sound currency, Watterson was
Democratic representative in Congress for a short term (1876-
77). In general he sought no office for himself. In Aug. 1918 he
became "editor-emeritus." In April 1919 he resigned from the
paper because of its support of the League of Nations. He died
at Jacksonville (Fla.), Dec. 22, 1921. He wrote History of the
Spanish American War (1898), The Compromises of Life and
Other Lectures and Addresses (1903), and "Marse Henry"; an
Autobiography (1919). Some of his Editorials were collected by
Arthur Kroch in 1923.
See "Henry Watterson and His 'Courier- Journal' " in O. G. Villard's
Some Newspapers and Newspaper-Men (1926).
WATT-HOUR METERS, measure the total energy used
in electric circuits (jfecdt). The Board of Trade unit of electrical
energy is the kilowatt hour (amperesXvoltsXhours-M,ooo).
The energy taken from D.C. circuits at constant voltage can be
measured by ampere-hour meters which may be of the electrolytic
or dynamometer type; but in A.C. circuits the power factor has
to be allowed for, and dynamometer or induction wattmeters
provided with a time integrating device must be employed. (See
INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL.)
WATTIGNIES, a village of France $i m. S.S.E, of Mau-
beuge, the scene of a battle in the French Revolutionary Wars
(p.), fought on Oct. 15-16, 1793. The Allied Army, chiefly Aus-
trians, under Coburg, was besieging Maubeuge, and the Revolu-
tionary Army, preparing to relieve it, gathered behind Avesnes.
Even without the Maubeuge garrison Jourdan had a two-to-
one superiority. The French however were still the undisciplined
enthusiasts of Hondschoote. Their left attack progressed so long
as it could use "dead ground" in the valleys, but when the Republi-
cans reached the gentler slopes above, the volleys of the Austrian
regulars crushed their swarms, and the Austrian cavalry, striking
them in flank, rode over them. The centre attack, ordered by
Carnot on the assumption that all was well on the flanks, was pre-
mature; like the left, it progressed while the slopes were sharp,
but when the Republicans arrived on the crest they found a gentle
reverse slope before them, at the foot of which were Coburg's best
troops. Again the disciplined volleys and a well-timed cavalry
charge swept back the assailants. The French right reached, but
could not hold, Wattignies. At last, after a long fight, Carnot and
Jourdan won the plateau, and Coburg drew off. His losses were
2,500 out of 23,000, Jourdan's 3,000 out of 43,000.
WATTLE AND DAUB or DAB, a term in architecture
applied to a wall made with upright stakes with withes twisted
between them and then plastered over. It is probably one of the
oldest systems of construction. The Egyptians employed the
stems of maize for the upright stakes; these were secured to-
gether with withes and covered over with mud, the upper portions
of the maize stems being left uncut at the top, to increase the
height. These uncut tops were bent out by the weight of the mud
roof, and were probably the origin of the later cavetto cornice,
the torus moulding below representing the heavier coil of withes
at the top of the wall. Vitruvius (ii. 8) refers to wattle and
daub; in the middle ages it was employed as a framework for
clay chimneys, and for the filling in of half-timber.
WATTMETER, an instrument for the measurement of elec-
tric power or the rate of supply of electric energy to any circuit.
For direct current (D.C.) circuits the power supplied is given
in watts by multiplying together the current (in amperes) and
the voltage; but, when alternating currents (A.C.) are used
with inductive circuits, this product has itself to be multiplied
by the power factor — a quantity which depends on the phase rela-
tionship of the current and the electromotive force. Wattmeters
measuring this combined product are of three types: (a) electro-
static— used only in standardising laboratories, (b) dynamometer
instruments based on the principle of the Siemens electrodyna-
mometer, and (c) induction instruments. Types (a) and (b) may
be used for both A.C. and D.C. supplies, but type (c) can be used
only for A.C. circuits.
WATTS, GEORGE FREDERIC (1817-1904), English
painter and sculptor, was born in London on Feb. 23, 1817. While
hardly more than a boy he entered the Royal Academy schools;
but his attendance was short-lived, and his further art education
was confined to personal experiment and endeavour, guided and
corrected by a constant appeal to the standard of ancient Greek
sculpture. There are portraits of himself, painted in 1834; of
Mr. James Weale, about 1835; of his father, "Little Miss Hop-
kins," and Mr. Richard Jarvis, painted in 1836; and in 1837 he
exhibited at the Academy "The Wounded Heron" and two por-
traits. His first exhibited figure-subject, "Cavaliers," was shown
at the Academy in 1839, and was followed in 1840 by "Isabella
e Lorenzo," in 1841 by "How should I your true love know?"
and in 1842 by a scene from Cymbeline and a portrait of Mrs.
lonides. At the exhibition in Westminster Hall held in 1843 in
connection with the decoration of the new Houses of Parliament,
Watts secured a prize of £300 for a design of "Caractacus led
in triumph through the streets of Rome." This enabled him to
visit Italy in 1844, and he remained there during the greater
portion of the three following years, for the most part in Florence,
where ho enjoyed the patronage and personal friendship of Lord
Holland, the British ambassador, For him he painted a portrait
of Lady Holland, exhibited in 1848, and in his Villa Careggi,
near the city, a fresco, after making some experimental studies
in that medium, fragments of which are now in the Victoria and
Albert Museum. Encouraged by Lord Holland the artist in 1847
took p0*t in another competition, the third organized by the
Royal Commissioners, this time for works in oil. Watts's car-
WATTS
439
toon "Alfred inciting his subjects to prevent the landing of the
Danes, or the first naval victory of the English," not only gained
a first-class prize of £500 at the exhibition in Westminster Hall,
but was purchased by the government, and now hangs in one of
the committee rooms of the House of Commons. It led, more-
over, to a commission for the fresco of "St. George overcomes the
Dragon" (1848-1853), which forms part of the decorations of
the Hall of the Poets in the Houses of Parliament. His offer to
paint, gratuitously, a series of frescoes illustrating "The Progress
of the Cosmos" for the interior of the great hall in Euston station
was refused. A similar proposition made shortly afterwards to
the Benchers of Lincoln's Inn resulted in Watts's execution of
the fresco, "Justice: a Hemi cycle of Lawgivers," in the hall.
While this large undertaking was in progress, Watts was work-
ing steadily at pictures and portraits. In 1849 the first two of
his great allegorical compositions were exhibited — "Life's Illu-
sions," an elaborate presentment of the vanity of human desires,
and "The people that sat in darkness," turning eagerly towards
the growing dawn. In 1850 he presented to the city of Man-
chester, in memory of the philanthropist Thomas Wright, the
picture of "The Good Samaritan." In 1856 Watts paid a visit
to Lord Holland at Paris, where he was then ambassador, and
through him made the acquaintance and painted the portraits of
Thiers, Prince Jerome Bonaparte and other famous Frenchmen.
In 1867 Watts was elected A.R.A., in the course of the same
year, R.A. Thenceforward he exhibited each year, with a few ex-
ceptions, at the Academy, even after his retirement in 1896, and
he was also a frequent contributor to the Grosvenor Gallery, and
subsequently to the New Gallery, at which a special exhibition
of his works was held in the winter of 1896-1897. With intervals
of travel, he spent the greater part of his life in work at his
studio, either at Little Holland House, Kensington, where he
settled in 1859, or in the country at Limnerslease, Compton, Sur-
rey. Apart from his art, his life was happily uneventful, the sole
facts necessary to record being his marriage in 1886 with Miss
Mary Fraser-Tytler, an early union with Miss Ellen Terry having
been dissolved many years before; his twice receiving (1885 and
1894), but respectfully declining, the offer of a baronetcy; and
his inclusion in June 1902 in the newly founded Order of Merit.
He died on July i, 1904.
Portraits. — Many of Watts's distinguished contemporaries sat
to him for portraits. Among politicians are the duke of Devon-
shire (1883), Lords Salisbury (1884), Sherbrooke (1882), Camp-
bell (1882), Cowper (1877), Ripon (1896), Dufferin (1897) and
Shaftesbury (1882), Mr. Gerald Balfour (1899), and Mr. John
Burns (1897); poets — Tennyson, Swinburne (1884), Browning
(1875), Matthew Arnold (1881), Rossetti (1865, and subsequent
replica) and William Morris (1870) ; artists — himself (1864, 1880,
and eleven others), Lord Leighton (1871 and 1881), Calderon
(1872), Prinsep (1872), Burne-Jones (1870), Millais (1871),
Walter Crane (1891), and Alfred Gilbert (1896); literature is
represented by John Stuart Mill (exhibited 1874), Carlyle (1869),
George Meredith (1893), Max Muller (1895) and Mr. Lecky
(1878); music, by Sir Charles Hall£; while among others who
have won fame in diverse paths are Lords Napier (1886) and
Roberts (1899), General Baden-Powell (1902), Garibaldi, Sir
Richard Burton (1882), Cardinal Manning (1882), Dr. Martineau
(1874), Sir Andrew Clark (1894), George Peabody, Mr. Passmore
Edwards, Claude Montefiore (1894). Even more significant from
an artistic point of view is the great collection of symbolical pic-
tures in the Tate Gallery.
Subject Pictures.— Watts never wearies of emphasizing the
reality of the power of Love, the fallacy underlying the fear of
Death. To the early masters Death was a bare and ghastly skele-
ton, above all things to be shunned; to Watts it is a bringer of
rest and peace, not to be rashly sought but to be welcomed when
the inevitable hours shall strike. Sic transit (1892) shows a corpse,
with the famous inscription, "What I spent I had ; what I saved I
test; what I gave I have." So with the "Court of Death" in the
Tate Gallery. Also We have "Love and Life," exhibited in 1885,
a replica of an earlier picture in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York, and of another version in the Luxembourg, Paris. "Love
and Death/' one version of which was exhibited in 1877 and others
in 1896, and later; and "Love Triumphant" (1898).
Sculpture. — Founded admittedly on the Grecian monuments,
there is a sculpturesque rather than pictorial quality in most of
the paintings by Watts. To him, sculpture was thus natural. He
visited the studio of Behnes, but was not his pupil. Among
h.'s works are a bust of "Clyde" (1868), monuments to the
marquis of Lothian, Bishop Lonsdale and Lord Tennyson, a
large bronze equestrian statue of "Hugo Lupus" at Eaton Hall
(1884), and a colossal one of a man on horseback, emblematical
of "Physical Energy," originally intended for a place on the Em-
bankment, but destined to stand among the Matoppo Hills as
an enduring evidence of the artist's admiration for Cecil Rhodes;
a replica is now placed in Kensington Gardens. Much of his
time and attention was given to the promotion of the Home Arts
and Industries Association; he assisted Mrs. Watts with both
money and advice in the founding of an art pottery at Compton,
and in the building at the same place of a highly decorated mor-
tuary chapel, carried out almost entirely by local labour; and it
was entirely due to his initiative that the erection in Post-
men's Park, Alderstfate Street, London, of memorial tablets to
the unsung heroes of everyday life was begun.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— M. H. Spielmann, "The Works of Mr. G. F. Watts,
R.A., with a Catalogue of his Pictures," Pall Mall Gazette "Extra"
(1886) ; Julia Cartwright (Mrs. Acly), "G. F. Watts, Royal Acadcmi-
r'an, His Life and Work," Art Journal, Extra Number (1896);
W. E. T. Britten, "The Work of Grow Frederick Watts, R.A., LL.D.,"
Architectural Review (1888 and 1889) ; Cosmo Monkhousc, British
Contemporary Artists (1889) ; Charles T. Bateman, G. F. Watts, R.A.,
Bell's Miniature Series of Painters (1901); "Mr. G. F. Watts, R.A.,
Character Sketch," The Review of Reviews (June 1902) ; see also
works by Pantini (1904) ; G. K. Chesterton (190$) ; Mrs. Harrington
(1905) ; and a Life in 3 vols., by his widow (1912).
WATTS, ISAAC (1674-1748), English theologian and hymn
writer, son of a clothier, was born at Southampton on July 17,
1674. The father, who afterwards had a boarding-school at
Southampton, also wrote poetry, and a number of his pieces
were included by mistake in vol. i. of the son's Posthumous
Works. Isaac Watts studied at the Nonconformist academy,
Stoke Newington, London. On leaving the academy he spent over
two years at home, and began to write his hymns. In the
autumn of 1696 he became tutor in the family of Sir John
Hartopp at Stoke Newington, where he probably prepared the
materials of his two educational works — Logiek, or the Right
Use of Reason in the Enquiry after Truth (1725), and The Know-
ledge of the Heavens and the Earth made easy, or the First Prin-
ciples of Geography and Astronomy Explained (1726). In his
twenty-fourth year Watts became assistant pastor of the Inde-
pendent congregation in Mark Lane, London, and two years later
he succeeded as sole pastor. In 1712 he went to live with Sir
Thomas Abney of Abney Park.
Watts preached only occasionally, devoting his leisure chiefly
to the writing of hymns (see HYMNS), the preparation of his
sermons for publication, and the composition of theological work.
In 1706 appeared his Horae Lyricae, of which an edition with
memoir by Robert Southey forms vol. ix. of Sacred Classics
(1834); in 1707 a volume of Hymns; in 1719 The Psalms of
David; and in 1720 Divine and Moral Songs for Children. His
Psalms are free paraphrases, rather than metrical versions, and
some of them ("O God, our help in ages past," for instance)
are amongst the most famous hymns in the language. Isaac Watts
died on Nov. 25, 1748, and was buried at Bunhill Fields.
Among the theological treatises of Watts, which are far from con-
ventional orthodoxy, are: Doctrine of the Trinity (1722) ; Essay on
the Freedom of the Will (1732) ; and Useful and Important Questions
concerning Jesusf the Son of Cod (1746). He was also the author of
a variety of miscellaneous treatises. His Posthumous Works appeared
in 1773, and a further instalment of them in 1779. The Works of . .
Isaac Watts (6 vols.), edited by Dr. Jennings and Dr. Doddridge,
with a memoir compiled by G. Burder, appeared in 1810-1811. His
poetical works were included in Johnson's English Poets, where they
were accompanied by a Life, and they appear in subsequent similar
collections. See also Thomas Milner, The Life, Times and Correspond-
ence of Isaac Watts (1834) ; and T. Wright, Isaac Watts and Con-
temporary Hymn Writers (1914). His Letters 1730-1747 are printed
in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Hist. Soc., Series 2, vols. ix.
and x!i. (1895-99).
440
WATTS— WAUTERS
WATTS, SIR PHILIP (1846-1926), K.C.B. (1905), Brit-
ish naval architect, was born in Kent on May 30, 1846, of a
family who had been shipbuilders for many generations, and was
trained at the Royal school of naval architecture at Portsmouth.
He entered the admiralty as a draughtsman, being promoted to
the grade of constructor in 1883. After almost a year (Nov.
i884-Oct. 1885) on the staff at Chatham dockyard, Watts left
the admiralty and became (1885-1901) director of the war ship-
ping department of Armstrong, Withworth and Co., at Elswick.
During this period he designed and built, in addition to British
ships, many ships for foreign navies; Argentina, Norway, Portu-
gal, etc. He also had a large share in the modern Japanese navy.
On Feb. i, 1902 he was appointed director of naval construction
at the admiralty, and in this position was responsible for naval
construction during the decade preceding the World War. The
designs committee, set up at the instigation of Lord Fisher, who
became first sea lord on Oct. 21 1904, started the production
of ships of the Dreadnought battleship and Indomitable battle-
cruiser type. The responsibility of Sir Philip Watts was hardly
lessened. He designed many classes of battleships, and all the
battle-cruisers in the navy when the World War broke out were
of his design. During his term of office his department took over
from private firms the designing of submarines. In 1912 he be-
came adviser to the admiralty on naval construction. In 1916 he
returned as director of his firm at Elswick. He was elected
KR.S. in 1900. He died in London on March 15, 1926.
WATTS, WILLIAM (1782- ? ), inventor, a native of
Bristol found by experiment that drops of molten lead falling into
water from a great height hardened into spherical form. He
thus invented round shot, shot having been up to that time
oblong in shape. He procured a patent, and "Watts Patent Shot"
was patronized by George III., who presented him with plates
of King Lung china, now on exhibition in the old shot tower,
built by Watts, on Redcliffe Hill, Bristol.
WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE (1832-
1914), English man of letters, was born at St. Ives, Huntingdon,
on Oct. 12, 1832, his family surname being Watts, to which he
added in 1897 his mother's name of Dunton. He was originally
educated as a naturalist, and saw much of the East Anglian gyp-
sies, of whose superstitions and folk-lore he made careful study.
He qualified as a solicitor and went to London, where he practised
for some years, and contributed regularly to the Examiner and the
Athenaeum. His article on "Poetry" in the ninth edition of the
Ency. Brit. (vol. xix., 1885) was the principal expression of his
views on the subject. Watts-Dunton was in later years Rossetti's
most intimate friend. He was the bosom friend of Swinburne
(0.V.), who shared his home for nearly thirty years before he
died in 1909. In 1897 he published a volume of poems under
his own name, The Coming of Love. His prose romance Aylwin
(1898) attained immediate success, and ran through many edi-
tions in the course of a few months. Both The Coming of Love
and Aylwin set forth, the one in poetry, the other in prose, the
romantic and passionate associations of Romany life, and main-
tain the traditions of Borrow, whom Watts-Dunton had known
well in his own early days. He edited George Borrow's Lavengro
(1893) and The Romany Rye (1900) ; his Studies of Shakespeare
appeared in 1910; in 1903 he published The Renascence of
Wonder, a treatise on the romantic movement, as a preface to the
third volume of Chambers's Encyclopaedia of English Literature,
and in 1916 this, with his Encyclopedia Britannica article — both
enlarged — was republished in book form as Poetry and the
Renascence of Wonder. He died at Putney on June 6, 1914.
See T. St. E. Hake and A. C. Rickett, The Life and Letters of
Theodore Watts-Dunton (2 vols. 1916).
WAUGH, BENJAMIN (1839-1908), English social re-
former, was born at Settle, Yorkshire, on Feb. 20, 1839. He passed
some years in business, but in 1865 entered the congregational
ministry. Settling at Greenwich he devoted himself especially to
children. He served on the London School Board from 1870 to
1876. In 1884 he founded the London society for the prevention
of cruelty to children, of which he was honorary secretary. It was
owing to information obtained by him that the Criminal Law
Amendment Act of 1885 was passed. He secured a clause giving
magistrates power to take the evidence of children too young to
understand the nature of an oath. In 1889 he saw his society (of
which he had been made director the same year) justified by the
act for the prevention of cruelty to children, the first stepping-
stone to the act of 1908. (See CHILDREN— PROTECTIVE LAWS.)
In 1895 a charter of incorporation was conferred on the society,
but in 1897 its administration was attacked. An inquiry was
demanded by Waugh, and the commission which included Lord
Herschell, vindicated the society and its director. Waugh had
given up pastoral work in 1887, and he retained his post as
director until 1905. He died at Westcliff, near Southend, Essex,
on March n, 1908. Waugh edited the Sunday Magazine from
1874 to 1896. His The Gaol Cradle, who rocks it? (1873) was a
plea for the abolition of juvenile imprisonment.
See R. Waugh, Life of B. Waugh with introd. by Lord Alvcrstonc
WAUKEGAN, a city of Illinois, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan,
40 m. N. by W. of Chicago. Population 19,226 in 1920 (25%
foreign-born white) ; estimated locally at 31,000 in 1928. The city
lies on a plateau 100 ft. above the lake. The streets are inter-
sected by beautiful wooded ravines, which are bridged for traffic
and utilized for parks. There is a good harbour, with coal docks.
The site of Waukegan is designated on a map in a history of the
United States published in London in 1795 as Little Fort, and the
first settlers (1835) found decaying timbers of an old stockade.
The village became the county seat in 1841, and in 1849 was
incorporated, changing its name from Little Fort to the TPotta-
wattomie equivalent. In 1859 it was chartered as a city. It was a
post on the old Green Bay trail, built up a thriving lake traffic
after 1845, and was reached by the Chicago and North Western
railway in 1855.
WAUKESHA, a city of Wisconsin, U.S.A., 16 m. W. of Mil-
waukee, on the Little Fox river. Population (1920) 12,558 (85%
native white); 17,600 in 1928 (city census). There are mineral
springs which were first exploited in 1868 and have led to the
establishment of institutions of healing. The waters (White Rock,
Bethesda, and others) are shipped to all parts of America and to
Europe. Waukesha is the seat of Carroll college (Presbyterian;
1846), the State Industrial school for boys (1860), and a U.S.
Veterans' hospital. It is a shipping point for pure-bred Holstem
and Guernsey cattle. It was settled in 1836, was named Prairie-
ville in 1839, incorporated as a village under its present name
(supposed to mean "fox") in 1852 and in 1896 was chartered.
WAUPUN, a city of Wisconsin, U.S.A., 60 m. N.W. of
Milwaukee. Pop. 4,440 in 1920; estimated locally at 5,500 in
1928. It is the seat of the State prison and of the Central State
hospital for the insane. It was founded in 1838 and incorporated
in 1857. The name means "early dawn."
WAUSAU, a city of Wisconsin, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 18,661
(82% native white); estimated locally at over 23,000 in 1928.
The German element predominates Wausau is in the red-clover
belt of the State, where dairying is the principal occupation.
Honey, corn, small grains and potatoes are also products. The city
occupies 6 sq.m., extending back to high bluffs on either side of
the river. On the western edge, in an 80 ac. park of virgin pine,
are the tourist camp and the buildings of the Wisconsin Valley
Fair and Exposition; and 5 m. W. is the county tuberculosis
sanatorium. Rib hill (1,950 ft.), the highest point in the State, is
5 m. south-west. Wausau has ample hydro-electric power, gen-
erated in local plants. Granite of several colours is quarried and
there are silver-fox farms. A logging camp was established here
about 1838, and in 1840 a saw-mill was built. The village was
incorporated in 1858, and was chartered as a city in 1880. The
name is an Indian word meaning "far away.'*
WAUTERS, EMILE (1848- ), Belgian painter, was born
in Brussels in 1848. He studied under Portaels and G£r6me. In
1868 he produced a striking work, "The Battle of Hastings: the
Finding of the body of Harold by Edith." A journey to Italy in
no wise affected bis individuality, which was as marked in his
"The Great Nave of St. Mark's" (purchased by the king of the
Belgians) as in his earlier work. As his youth disqualified him
WAUWATOSA— WAVES OF THE SEA
441
for the medal of the Brussels Salon, he was sent, by way of com-
pensation, as artist-delegate to Suez for the opening of the canal.
In 1870 Wauters exhibited his great historical picture of "Mary
of Burgundy entreating the Sheriffs of Ghent to pardon the Coun-
cillors Hugtonet and Humbercourt" (Liege museum) which cre-
ated a great sensation. Even more celebrated was the "Madness
of Hugo van der Goes" (1872, Brussels museum), a picture which
gained for him the grand medal at the Salon and led to the com-
mission for two large works decorating the Lions' stair case of the
Hotel de Ville. His vast panorama, "Cairo and the Banks of the
Nile" (1881), 380 ft. by 49 ft., was exhibited with extraordinary
success in Brussels, Munich and The Hague. Wauters also painted
some admirable portraits, sometimes using pastel as a medium.
See M. H. Spielmann, Magazine of Art (1887) ; A. J. Wauters,
Magazine of Art (1894); Joseph Anderson, Pall Mall Magazine
(1896) ; G. Serae" ("Wauters as a Painter of Architecture") Archi-
tectural Record (1901).
WAUWATOSA, a city of Wisconsin, U.S.A. Pop. 5,818 in
1920 (84% native white) and was estimated locally at 18,300 in
1928. It is a suburb of Milwaukee, and is the seat of the
Evangelical Lutheran Theological seminary. The city was founded
in 1847 and incorporated in 1892. The name is a modification of
an Indian word meaning "firefly."
WAVE ANTENNA, a horizontal radio aerial, the physical
length of which is of the same order of magnitude as that of the
signaling waves to be received, and which is so used as to be
strongly directional.
WAVE LENGTH, in radio, the distance traveled in one
period or cycle by a periodic disturbance. The distance between
corresponding phases of two consecutive waves of a wave train.
The quotient of velocity by frequency. For a discussion of theory
see PHYSICS, ARTICLES ON ; ELECTRIC WAVES ; for wave lengths in
broadcasting and wireless see WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, Communi-
cation by Wireless.
WAVELLITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated aluminium
phosphate, Al3(OH)3(P04)2+4iH2O, crystallizing in the ortho-
rhombic system. Distinct crystals are of rare occurrence, the
mineral usually taking the form of hemispherical or globular
aggregates with an internal radiated structure. It is translucent
and varies in colour from grey or white to greenish, yellowish, etc.
The hardness is 3.5, and specific gravity 2-32. It was first
found, at the end of the i8th century, by Dr. W. Wavell near
Barnstaple, Devon, where it lines crevices in a black slaty rock.
WAVERLY, a village of Tioga county, New York, U.S.A.
Pop. (1925) 5,578 (State census). The Pennsylvania borough of
South Waverly (pop. 1,251 in 1920) is separated from Waverly
only by the State line; and the neighbouring boroughs of Sayre
.(q.v.) and Athens (8,078 and 4,384 respectively in 1920) are also
part of the same community. It was named after Scott's novels.
WAVE SCROLL, in architecture and the decorative arts, a
continuous line which starts as a spiral, then suddenly reverses
its curvature and by a long, concave sweep rises to form the be-
ginning of the next spiral of the series.
WAVES OF THE SEA. It may easily be observed that
when smooth water is struck by wind the surface is imme-
diately covered by a ribbed pattern of transverse inequalities
about one inch from crest to crest travelling very slowly in
the direction of the wind, and however long the breeze con-
tinue there is no increase of their size or speed immediately
adjacent to the shore off which it blows. To leeward, however,
there is an increase in the height and speed of the ridges and
the distance between their crests. This distance is called the
wave-length, the distance for which an individual ridge can be
traced, the crest-length. In the deep waters of the open ocean the
height, speed and wave-length is limited only by the velocity of
the wind, but even the largest lakes have not sufficient room for
full growth. Our knowledge of the height of waves at sea is
mostly obtained by the primitive method of finding how high
above the ship's water-line the observer must 'stand so that the
passing crests shall top the horizon.
During a voyage from Liverpool to Boston, U.S.A., by the
"Ivernia" the wind on Dec. 7, 1900, was a strong gale, number 9
on Beaufort's scale of force, reckoned as having an average speed
of 50 statute or land miles per hour. The writer observed that the
waves, which met the ship at a considerable angle, usually topped
the horizon when the view-point was 30 feet above the ship's water-
line and that a position 43 feet above that line had to be taken
up in order to be on a level with the tops of the largest waves.
On Feb. 9, 1907, bound from New York for Southampton
there was only a moderate breeze, but the "Minnchaha" rolled
heavily in a huge swell from the north-west. The origin of the
swell was revealed to us by a message from the "Cedric" to
the north, which reported a strong north-west gale. The actual
level of the trough of the waves was determined by means of a
heavy rope let down over the ship's side, and the true height of
the swells, which were of nearly uniform size, was found to be
slightly more than 41 feet. Of the height of waves in a whole
gale, Beaufort's force 10, average wind velocity 59 miles per
hour, the writer has obtained estimates from master mariners, with
the details of accompanying conditions which are necessary to
give precise meaning to these statements. The records prove a
height of nearly 50 feet.
Formula and Practice. — On Dec. 29, 1922, in the course of
a prolonged storm in the North Atlantic, the wind reached and
maintained for a considerable time the maximum or hurricane
velocity, computed at 75 miles an hour and upwards. The "Ma-
jestic," hove-to and rode easily among the waves which were of
remarkable regularity and phenomenal size. Under these favour-
able conditions observations were recorded and it was found that
the height of the waves from trough to crest exceeded 70 feet.
It is clear that the height of the waves finally produced in
the open ocean is in direct, simple proportion to the velocity of
the wind. The larger waves occurring at short intervals which
chiefly attract attention have about eight feet of height, reckon-
ing from trough to crest, for each 10 miles-an-hour velocity of
wind, but their apparent height is less when the ship is borne
upon two waves.
In order to determine the height of the waves we must place
ourselves so as to be on a level with the crests. In judging from
this level the wave-length or distance between crests, dimensions
have been obtained far below that which had been calculated by
the usual mathematical formula from the period of the waves,
the interval of time between the arrival of crests, and the ques-
tion therefore arose whether the eye had been deceived or the
calculation applied to conditions not contemplated in the mathe-
matical theory. The answer was obtained by the writer .on
Dec. 21, 1911, when the "Egypt" was hove-to in the Bay of
Biscay. The waves rose rather more than 30 feet above the ship's
water-line, and from the promenade deck, which gave an eye-
height of 27 feet, the wave-length appeared to be scarcely equal
to the length of the vessel whereas the period indicated that it
should be greater. Ascending to the navigating bridge where the
view-point was 54 feet above water-line the whole length of the
ship was seen to lie well within the interval between wave-crests,
and the wave-length as judged from this position agreed with the
period. The apparent wave-length from this elevated position
was also in mathematical agreement with the speed of the waves
which was determined from the time which they took to run the
length of the stationary ship. That the eye is so greatly deceived
in judging -wave-length from near the level of the crests is due
to the very slight convexity of the ridges, and the apparent brow
of both the receding and advancing wave being much nearer than
the true summit.
On the occasion above referred to when the ship was hove-to
the speed of the waves (determined in unusually favourable con-
ditions) was about forty-seven miles an hour when the velocity
of wind, calculated from the recorded number on Beaufort's scale,
was 52 miles an hour. It appears therefore that only a 5 mile-an-
hour wind was blowing over the wave-crests, just enough to turn
a weather-cock or to make leaves rustle. Thus the wind, which
had blown all night with great violence in the direction of the
heavy swell already running in the Bay, had increased its speed
so much that there was no longer any buffeting, wave and wind
being an harmonious procession.
442
WAVES OF THE SEA
Observers are agreed that the waves finally formed in a great
storm of long continuance are not so steep as those in a moderate
gale. According to mathematical theory, if the speed of the
waves be doubled their length is increased four-fold, and so on,
the wave-length increasing as the square of the speed. But the
height only increases in simple proportion with that velocity, so
that the steepness of the final waves would diminish in exact pro-
portion to the violence of the storm.
Final Dimensions. — In pursuit of the enquiry into the final
dimensions of waves produced by wind by the writer, obser-
vations were made during a voyage from Southampton to Trini-
dad and back in 1912 upon the period of the waves. The interval
of time between the arrival of successive wave-crests at a fixed
mark is necessarily the same as the time of subsidence and up-
heaval of a wave-crest. It was found during the course of the
voyage that a single observer could easily determine the period,
and hence by calculation the speed, of the waves by timing with
a stop-watch the up-and-down oscillation of patches of foam,
and that the period of the swell then running could also be deter-
mined by the same means. Later observations of movement of
foam patches with and against wind made at the turn of cur-
rent on a tidal river proved that the drift of the foam was too
slow to invalidate the results. On a subsequent voyage from
Trinidad to Southampton, with a fresh breeze most of the way,
a cup-and-ball anemometer was mounted on the navigating bridge,
and from the reading of the instrument, combined with observa-
tion of the direction of the wind relative to the course of the
ship, the speed of the wind which drove the waves was measured.
The daily record of results showed no definite relation be-
tween speed of wind and wave, although in the trade-wind belt the
weather conditions were steady. Fortunately, however, the direc-
tion and speed of the ocean swell, the longer undulation produced
by former winds or derived from a distance, had also been re-
corded. The daily observations having been grouped according
to the direction of the swell, it was found that when this was the
same as the direction of the waves proper, the speed of the waves
was nearly as great as that of the wind, which blew across the
ridges as a "light air/' the force i of Beaufort's scale, sufficient
to impart a drift to the smoke from a chimney but not strong
enough to turn a wind vane. When, however, the swell met the
waves or crossed their direction, the speed of the wave was much
less than that of the wind. The height of the waves was also
greatly reduced by these conditions, an observation which sug-
gests that the rapidity with which wind raises waves on lakes
and enclosed seas is connected with absence of conflicting swell.
The most rapid increase of wave-height, however, occurs on the
somewhat rare occasion when a rising wind on the open ocean
blows in the same direction as that in which the swell is running
and with a speed greater than that of the swell. This was the
condition which produced the large and regular waves observed
in the Bay of Biscay on Dec. 21, 1911.
Squalls. — In a> rising sea the tops of the waves are cut off
and blown away in spray during the squalls of a few minutes'
duration which punctuate the gale, but when the storm has con-
tinued for a long time the effect of a squall is to increase the
height of the waves, and this action is especially noticeable when
the storm is abating. Thus on December 22, 1906 on a voyage
from Liverpool to Puerto Colombia, while still in the North Atlan-
tic, with a heavy sea and a following wind having the force of a
moderate gale, the writer judged that a violent squall lasting
four minutes increased the height of the waves by about
seven feet. As the squall travelled on, the rear of the group of
higher waves could be seen travelling ahead, soon to pass out
of sight. On the next day, Dec. 23, when the gale had dropped
to a strong breeze, a squall of three minutes' duration increased
the height of the waves by about six feet, and considerably in-
creased their crest-length. Two minutes after the passing of the
squall the ship was among waves of the average size, but a group
of several great ridges could be seen ahead. On the following day,
Dec. 24, the wind fell considerably and the waves were much
lower. At about 5 P.M. a narrow band of black cloud stretching
from the zenith to the horizon on either hand passed over the
ship. Its transit, which u^uyied about five minutes, was attended
by only a slight increase of wind but was nevertheless accom-
panied by a group of at least a dozen large waves among which
the ship rolled heavily. Ten minutes after the passing of the
cloud the ship was among waves of the same size as before.
If the viewpoint during these three days had been the cock-
pit of an aeroplane at a considerable height, with good conditions
of visibility, the ribbed pattern of the sea would have been marked
by stripes, owing to the recurrence of groups of higher and more
regular ridges. If the speed of waves so formed be greater than
the average they will outrun the others when the wind dies down
and herald the approach of the main body by a slow-booming
surf. Observations by the writer on the Dorset coast in the winter
of 1898-99 when a succession of great storms occurred in the
North Atlantic, point to the conclusion that a group of waves
of greater speed as well as greater height is associated with each
squall. On the afternoon of Dec. 29, 1898, in fine weather dur-
ing off-shore wind, large breakers succeeded one another for three-
quarters of an hour without interruption, one-hundred-and-thhrty-
nine in all. The average interval was 19 seconds, showing that
their speed when in deep water was 66J miles per hour.
The wave-length calculated from the period is 1,850 feet, so
that while in deep water the length of the group from front to
rear was 49 miles. This main body had been heralded a few
hours earlier by the arrival of five groups of large breakers con-
taining from four to seven members with an average interval
of 20 seconds, corresponding to a speed in deep water of 69^
miles per hour. The interval elapsing between the first Weaker
of the first group and the last of the last group was 52 minutes,
which is comparable with the 45-minute duration of the main
body that followed in the afternoon. The time occupied by each
group in discharging its breakers ranged from one minute to a
little more than two minutes. The data indicate therefore that
squalls of one to two minutes' duration occurring at about ten
minute intervals had engendered groups of waves possessing
greater speed which had outrun the main body and reached the
shore some hours earlier.
The longest period of swell recorded during this stormy winter
was on Feb. i, 1899 when a group of twelve breakers arrived at
intervals of 22 £ seconds, corresponding to a speed in deep water
of 78^ miles an hour. Anemometers at shore stations in Great
Britain did not record a sustained velocity so great as this, 70
miles an hour maintained for two hours being the highest. On
the other hand velocities much greater than 78^ miles per hour
lasting for some seconds are occasionally recorded by anem-
ometers on our shore stations, as much as io6J miles per hour
having been registered. Waves with a speed of 100 miles an hour
would have a period of 28-6 seconds which is far greater than
that of any North Atlantic swell recorded by the writer. A storm
which lasts for hours is punctuated by squalls which last for min-
utes, so the squalls are punctuated by gusts which last for seconds
at most, and it appears that the speed of the swiftest groups of
waves approximates to the average speed of wind during the
squall but does not approach that of its momentary gusts. Our
habit of thinking of a squall as short-lived is due to the cir-
cumstance that we are not able to keep company with its progress.
Individual squalls travelling from twenty to forty miles an hour
have been traced by the recording instruments of meteorological
stations during an unbroken march of a thousand miles.
Squall-action on Waves.— -Let us now consider how many
waves are simultaneously subject to the action of a squall. A
squall which advances at 40 miles an hour (no matter what
be the velocity of wind developed therein) and which passes over
in three minutes, is two miles, 10,560 feet, from front to back,
and this may be called its length of fetch upon the sea. The
breakers which came in groups of four to seven on the morning
of Dec. 29, 1898 had a period of twenty seconds and the length
of the waves while in deep water was therefore 2,050 feet. A
three-minute squall travelling at forty miles an hour would act
upon five such waves simultaneously, and the waves, reacting on
the air, would throw it into conformable undulations superposed
upon eddies between the crests of the water waves. A three-
WAVES OF THE SEA
443
second gust during this squall would be only 176 feet from front
to back and could therefore have no comparable effect upon the
group of waves.
It has been pointed out that a single observer upon a vessel
under way can readily and quickly determine the period of the
waves by noting the time taken by a patch of foam in falling and
rising. If a swift running, slow-heaving swell be present, its period
of oscillation can also be determined from the foam spots, for
the slower heave is easily watched, not, as might be expected,
camouflaged by the shorter waves. The time of subsidence and
upheaval in seconds multiplied by 3^ gives the velocity of the
wave or swell in miles per hour. When nearing the northern
limit of the trade-wind belt on a voyage from Barbados to South-
ampton, waves travelling 16 miles an hour were recorded by the
writer in an easterly breeze of 19 miles an hour, together with a
swell from a northerly quarter with a period of 13^ seconds and
consequently a speed of 46^ miles an hour, which must have been
produced by a strong gale, the term for a sustained average wind-
velocity of 50 miles an hour.
Much of the region in which the true hurricane or typhoon
occurs is not ordinarily subject to long-period swells, and when
such are observed it is desirable that seamen should have precise
data for judging the force of wind which produced them, for if
very great it is certainly associated with these whirling storms
which are so disastrous to shipping. If the navigating officer will
note the number of seconds occupied by the subsidence and up-
heaval of a patch of foam as it falls and rises with the swell and
multiply the number by 3^ he will know at once that the product
is only a few miles an hour less than the velocity of the wind
which produced the swell, and will therefore be able to place the
distant disturbance in its category in Beaufort's scale of force
with greater precision than if he rely upon "sea sense" unaided
by measurement.
In order to realise the process of wave transmission after the
wind has dropped, let us picture the profile of a wave from one
trough to the next following trough. The water between the
first, trough and the crest is rising, that between the crest and the
next trough, falling The continual rise of front is the advance
of the wave ; in the subsiding back of the mound we see the action
of the propelling agent, which is the force of gravity. The less
the depth of water participating in the transmission, the slower
will be the progress of the rising front, and for any given depth
of water there is a limiting speed of transmission which can be
calculated from the force of gravity. A strong gale in the North
Atlantic produces waves more than 800 feet from crest to crest
travelling 45 miles an hour, and after the wind drops the speed is
maintained as long as the depth of water is comparable with the
wave-length, but when the depth is reduced from 800 to 8 feet
the speed is diminished to about one quarter, and the distance
between crests reduced to 200 feet. Thus the league-long crests,
widely separated, of the ocean swell travelling swiftly up the
English Channel are bent back near the coasts of France and Eng-
land, upon which rollers, ranged nearer to one another advance
more slowly but reach the shore at intervals of time equal to
the period of the swell.
When the depth of water below the troughs is comparable
to the height of the waves from trough to crest we can no longer
say that there is definite depth in which the wave as a whole is
being transmitted, and in fact the rate of transmission is con-
siderably greater at crest than trough. The ridges then cease to
be symmetrical, become steep-fronted and cusped, and at last
the cusp curls over in a scroll and falls.
Beaches. — At Eastbourne during the larger, or spring, tides
near the times of new and full inoon the difference of level be-
tween high and low water is about twenty feet. At high water
on a calm day the sea is a few feet below the top of the bank of
shingle. At low water the whole bank of shingle and an almost
level stretch of sand beyond lies exposed. At high water on
a rough day there is sufficient depth for large rollers to hold to-
gether until near the shore, so that a spectator on the beach can
watch the process of steepening and curling over from close quar-
ters. The relation of the depth of water in which a wave breaks
to the height of the wave varies somewhat with the slope of
shore and direction of wind, but the facts may be expressed in a
general way by saying that a wave crest is on the point of break-
ing when its height above the trough behind it is equal to the
depth of water below that trough. The depth of water in front
of the wave which is about to break upon a sloping shingle beach
depends upon the amount of backwash which it happens to en-
counter from the surge of the preceding breaker and it may even
fall upon bare shingle.
Shingle beaches are the wave's own making, for wherever the
conditions of supply cause a pile of pebbles to gather on the
shore, the stones flung up by the waves tend to collect. These are
driven up in the full depth of the surge flung by the breaker,
but the settlement of water in the crevices of the shingle dimin-
ishes the depth of the backwash and consequently many stones
are stranded. The stranding action is most marked with buoyant
materials, hence the wrack of driftwood, sea-weed and shells
which forms a line at the highest reach of the surge.
The seaward slope beyond low-water mark of spring tides
at Eastbourne is extremely slight. This has two consequences,
first that a large wave breaks far out from the shore, secondly
that its discharge is not dissipated as a surge but initiates a new
kind of wave which is transmitted to the shore across the inter-
vening sheet of shallow water. The new wave is the perfect type
of a bore, the foaming front very steep, the slope behind so
gradual as to escape the notice of the eye. The foaming ridge
travels steadily towards the shore with unchanging form but
diminishing height. If we fix our attention upon a particular
patch of foam we shall see that it is left behind by the foaming
front as long as the water has some inches depth, but when the
depth is reduced to about one inch the foam of the overfall is
pushed along by the advancing ridge, accumulating in a scroll
of froth which is finally left stranded on the sandy beach. These
foaming ridges, sometimes called waves of translation, can be
followed by the eye without difficulty, their individuality being
persistent, but among deep-sea waves individuality is strangely
elusive. The eye is attracted by and follows trustfully the wave
which is larger than its fellows but soon finds that it is no longer
looking at the largest wave, which is now the next behind, the
first having outrun the supply of energy. This elusive effect is
best illustrated in a group of waves in smooth water such as that
produced by throwing a stone into a pond. The front wave of
the group flattens out until it ceases to be visible while at the
rear of the group a new wave appears. In water which is deep
as compared with the wave-length the rate of advance of the
group is only one half the speed of the individual waves, which
travel through the group. In shallower water the waves do not
so quickly outrun the energy and when the depth is very small in
proportion to the wave-length the two rates of transmission are
the same, and we have the typical bore, or wave of translation.
Wind always shifts during a storm, but deep-sea waves once
formed travel with unchanged direction under the action of
gravity, hence we should not think of a regular procession of long-
crested ridges as typical but exceptional in a stormy sea, which is
properly and characteristically a welter of over-riding ridges
culminating in peaks which curl and break in caps of foam which
the wind whips off and drifts in clouds of flying spray. In the
course of many voyages the writer has only twice seen a really
regular sea during a storm, that in the Bay of Biscay to which
reference has already been made being the most spectacular be-
cause, when morning came, the clouds broke and a brilliant sun
shone upon deep blue water laced and fretted with silver foam.
The lofty standpoint of the navigating bridge gave a broad
view of the great procession of mile-long crests charging on from
the horizon, regular in alignment as ranks of cavalry and advanc-
ing at a speed of more than forty miles an hour.
Height of Waves. — Under certain conditions, however, the
height of waves is more impressive than their crest-length or
their speed. When during the growth of the waves in a storm the
condition is reached at which each ridge or peak passing near the
ship tops the horizon, the whole character of the scene is trans-
formed. From a condition in which the waves seem mere mounds.
444
WAXAHACHIE— WAYLAND
we suddenly pass to that in which they assume the appearance
termed mountainous. When the vessel is buried in the trough of
the waves only four or five ridges, comprising three or four wave-
lengths, intervene between the spectator and the horizon, but
there is little to suggest that the view has been narrowed to an
unusually small scale, and the steepness of the ship's side tends
to make the horizon seem more distant than if the station were
a sloping eminence of equal height. Moreover, the greater storm-
waves usually occur during squalls, and these are often accom-
panied by driving rain which hazes the atmosphere and conse-
quently seems to extend the view. The writer has observed such
a narrow environment of four or five waves less than forty yfeet
in height looking like a prospect some miles in extent with moving
hills hundreds of feet high. (V, Co.)
WAXAHACHIE, a town of Texas, U.S.A. Pop. 7,958 in
1920 (23% negroes) and was estimated at 10,000 in 1928. It is
the seat of Trinity university (Presbyterian), established in 1869.
The city has flour, cottonseed-oil, and cotton mills, and a
petroleum refinery. The Midlothian oilfield is 10 m. N.W. Waxa-
hachie was founded in 1852.
WAX FIGURES. Beeswax is possessed of properties which
render it a most convenient medium for preparing figures and
models, either by modelling or by casting in moulds. At ordinary
temperature's it can be cut and shaped with facility; it melts
to a limpid fluid at a low heat; it mixes with any colouring
matter, and takes surface tints well; and its texture and con-
sistency may be modified by earthy matters and oils or fats.
Figures in wax of their deities were used in the funeral
rites of the ancient Egyptians, and deposited among other
offerings in their graves; many of these are now preserved in
museums. That the Egyptians also modelled fruits can be learned
from numerous allusions in early literature. Among the Greeks
during their best art period, wax figures were largely used as dolls
for children; statuettes of deities were modelled for votive offer-
ings and for religious ceremonies, and wax images to which
magical properties were attributed were treasured by the people.
Wax figures and models held a still more important place among
the ancient Romans. The masks (effigies or imagines) of ances-
tors, modelled in wax, were preserved by patrician families, this
jm imaginmn being one of the privileges of the nobles, and these
masks were exposed to view on ceremonial occasions, and carried
in their funeral processions. The closing days of the Saturnalia
were known as Sigillaria, on account of the custom of making,
towards the end of the festival, presents of wax models of fruit
and waxen statuettes which were fashioned by the Sigillarii or
manufacturers of small figures in wax and other media. The
practice of wax modelling can be traced through the middle ages,
when votive offerings of wax figures were made to churches, and
the memory and lineaments of monarchs and great personages
were preserved by means of wax masks as in the days of Roman
patricians. In these ages malice and superstition found expression
in the formation of wax images of hated persons, into the bodies
of which long pins were thrust, in the confident expectation that
thereby deadly injury would be induced to the person represented;
and this belief and practice continued till the iyth century.
Indeed the superstition still survives in the Highlands of Scotland.
With the renaissance of art in Italy, modelling in wax took a
position of high importance, and it was practised by some of the
greatest of the early masters. The bronze medallions of Pisano
and the other famous medallists owe their value to the art qual-
ities of wax models from which they were cast by the tire perdue
process; and indeed all early bronzes and metal work were cast
from wax models. The tete dc cire in the Wicar collection at
Lille is one of the most lovely examples of artistic work in this
medium in existence. Wicar, one of Napoleon's commissaries,
brought this figure from Italy. It represents the head and shoul-
ders of a young girl. It has been claimed as a work of Greek or
Roman art, and has been assigned to Leonardo da Vinci and to
Raphael, but all that can be said is that it probably dates from
the Italian Renaissance. In Spain beautiful wax figures of saints,
distinguished in form and colouring, were achieved in the realm
of religious art. Till towards the close of the i8th century model-
ling of medallion portraits and of relief groups, the latter fre-
quently polychromatic, was in considerable vogue throughout
Europe, About the end of the i8th century Flaxman executed in
wax many portraits and other relief figures which Josiah Wedg-
wood translated into pottery for his jasper ware. The modelling
of the soft parts of dissections, etc., for teaching illustrations of
anatomy was first practised at Florence, and is now very common.
Such preparations formed part of a show at Hamburg in 1721,
and from that time wax-works, on a plane lower than art, have
been popular attractions. Such an exhibition of wax-works
with mechanical motions was shown in Germany early in the
1 8th century, and is described by Steele in the Taller. The most
famous exhibition is that of Marie Tussaud (<?.i>.) in London.
WAX MYRTLE or CANDLEBERRY, popular names of
species of Myrica, especially M. ten/era and A/, carolittensis
(bay-berry or wax-berry), small shrubs native to eastern North
America, the fruits of which have a waxy covering and are utilized
as a source of vegetable wax, used especially in New England for
making candles. The Sierra wax myrtle or sweet uay (A/. Hart-
wegii) is a similar shrub found in the Sierra Nevada mountains;
the western wax myrtle (M. calijornica), a large evergreen shrub
with resinous wax-covered fruit, occurs along (he coast from Los
Angeles to Washington. M. Gale is the native British gale or
sweet gale (q.v.). Rhus succedanea is the wax-tree of Japan.
WAXWING, a bird (Bomby cilia garndus), the type of the
Passerine family Ampelidae.
It is distinguished from almost all other birds by the curious
expansion of the shaft of some of its wing-feathers at the tip into
a flake that looks like scarlet sealing-wax. An irregular winter
visitant, sometimes in countless hordes, to central and southern
Europe, it was of old time looked upon as the harbinger of war,
plague or death. The waxwing, though breeding yearly in some
parts of northern Europe, is as irregular in the choice of its
summer quarters as in that of its winter retreats. The species
exhibits the same irregular habits in America. It has been found
in Nebraska in "millions, " as well
as breeding on the Yukon and
on the Anderson river.
Beautiful as is the bird with its
full erectile crest, its cinnamon-
brown plumage passing in parts
into grey or chestnut, and re-
lieved by black, white and yellow
— all of the purest tint — the ex-
ternal feature which has invited
most attention is the "sealing-
wax" already mentioned. This is
nearly as much exhibited by the
kindred species, B. cedrorwn, the
cedar-bird or cedar waxwing, of
North America, which is distin-
guished by its smaller size, the
yellower tinge of the lower parts
. . f . . r .
and the want of white on the
CEDAR WAXWING, OR CEDAR BIRD, wings. In B. japonica, of south-
(BOMBYCiUA CEDRORUM) eastern Siberia, and Japan, the
remiges and rectrices are tipped with red, but with no dilatation
of the feather shafts. Both the waxwing and cedar-bird seem to
live chiefly on insects in summer, but are addicted to berries
during the rest of the year, and will gorge themselves if oppor-
tunity allow.
WAYCROSS, a city of Georgia, U.S.A. Pop. 18,068 in 1920
(55% negroes). Waycross ships lumber, naval stores, tobacco,
corn, sugar-cane, and other agricultural products; and has rail-
road shops, meat-packing plants, fruit and vegetable canneries,
lumber mills, a bee-hive factory and other manufacturing estab-
lishments. Th* city was founded in 1870 and chartered in 1909.
WAYLAND, FRANCIS (1796-1865), American education-
ist, was born in New York city on March n, 1796. He graduated
at Union college in 1813 and studied medicine in Troy and in New
York city. In 1816 he studied theology in Andover Theological
seminary, and in 1817-21 was a tutor at Union college, to which
WAYLAND THE SMITH— WAYNFLETE
445
after, five years as pastor of the First Baptist church of Boston he
returned in 1826 as professor of natural philosophy. In 1827 he
became president of Brown university. In the 28 years of his
administration he gradually built up the college, formed a library
and gave scientific studies a more prominent place. He also
worked for higher educational ideals outside the college, writing
text-books on ethics and economics, and promoting the free school
system of Rhode Island. His Thoughts on the Present Collegiate
System in the United States (1842) and his Report to the Cor-
poration of Brown University of 1850 pointed the way to edu-
cational reforms, particularly the introduction of industrial
courses, which were only partially adopted in his lifetime. He died
on Sept. 30, 1865. He was an early advocate of the temperance
and anti-slavery causes. He was one of the "law and order" leaders
during the "Dorr rebellion" of 1842, and was called "the first
citizen of Rhode Island."
His son, FRANCIS WAYLAND (1826-1904) graduated at Brown
in 1846, and studied law at Harvard; he became probate judge in
Connecticut in 1864, was lieutenant governor in 1869-70, and in
1872 became a professor in the Yale Law school, of which he was
dean from 1873 to 1903.
Among Way land senior's numerous published works are: Elements
of Moral Science (1835, repeatedly revised and translated into foreign
languages) ; Elements of Political Economy (1837), in which he
advocated free-trade; The Limitations of Human Responsibility
(1838); Memoirs of Adoniram Judson (1853); Elements of Intellec-
tual Philosophy (1854) ; and a brief Memoir of Thomas Chalmers
(1864).
See The Life and Labors of Francis Wayland (1867) by his sons
Francis and Heman Lincoln; the shorter sketch (Boston, 1891) by
James O. Murray in the "American Religious Leaders" series; and
an article by G. C. Verplanck in vol. xiv. of the American Journal
of Education.
WAYLAND THE SMITH, hero of romance (Scand.
Volundr, Ger. Wieland). The legend of Wayland probably had
its home in the north, where he and his brother Egill were the
types of the skilled workman, but there are abundant local tradi-
tions of the wonderful smith in Westphalia and in southern Eng-
land. His story is told in one of the oldest songs of the Edda, the
Volundarki&a, and, with considerable variations, in the prose
piffrekssaga (Thidrek's saga), while the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and
Dear's Lament contain allusions to it. The first part of the tale
contains obviously mythical features connected with his parentage
arid marriage. The second part concerns Volundr, lord of the
elves, the cunning smith, who, with his sword Mimung, made
famous in German epic poetry, defeated in fight at the court of
king Nijtofjr, the smith Amilias. Nif)of>r, in order to secure V6-
lundr's services, lamed him and established him in a smithy. The
smith avenged himself by the slaughter of Ni^ojtf's two sons and
the rape of his daughter Bodvildr, then soared away on wings he
had prepared. The story in its main outlines strongly resembles
the myth of Daedalus, but the denouement of this tale, which
first appeared in European literature in the DC obedientia (Operay
Venice, 3 vols., 1518-19) of Jovianus Pontanus (d. 1503), is dif-
ferent. The Aaron of Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus was derived
from this source. King Rhydderich gave a sword fashioned by
Wayland to Merlin, anc^ Rimenhild one to Child Horn. English
local tradition placed Wayland Smith's forge in a cave close to the
White Horse in Berkshire.
The earliest extant record of the Wayland legend is the repre-
sentation in carved ivory on a casket of Northumbrian work-
manship of a date not later than the beginning of the 8th century.
The fragments of this casket, known as the Franks casket, were
presented to the British Museum by Sir A. W. Franks. One frag-
ment is in Florence.
See also Vigfusson and Powell, Corpus poet. bor. (i. pp. 168-174,
Oxford, 1883); A. S. Napier, The Franks Casket, (Oxford, 1901);
G. Sarrazin, Germanische Heldensage in Shakespertfs Titus Andronicus
(Herrig's Archiv., xcvii. Brunswick, 1896) ; P. Maurus, Die Witland-
sage in der Liter atur (Erlangen and Leipzig, 1902) ; C. B. Depping
and F. Michel, V eland le Forgeron (Paris, 1833). Sir Walter Scott
bandied the Wayland legend in Kenilworth; there are dramas on the
subject by Borsch (Bonn, 1895), English version by A. Comyn
(London, 1898) ; August Deramin (Leipzig, 1880) ; H. Drachmann
(Copenhagen, 1898) ; and one founded on K. Simrock's heroic poem
on Wieland is printed in Richard Wagner's Gcsammtlti Schriften
(vol. iii. and ed., Leipzig, 1887).
WAYNE, ANTHONY (1745-1796), American soldier, was
born in the township of Easttown, Chester county, (Pa.), on Jan.
i, 1745. He first saw service at the head of a Pennsylvania bat-
talion during the retreat of Benedict Arnold, after the Quebec
campaign. In 1777 he was commissioned brigadier-general, as a
reward for his distinguished service at Ticonderoga. He took a
prominent part in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown,
and at Monmouth he turned the fortunes of the day by his stub-
born and successful resistance. His greatest stroke was the storm-
ing of Stony Point, where in person he led the midnight attack
of his troops over the walls of the British fort. This well-planned
enterprise won for Wayne the popular sobriquet of "Mad
Anthony." Wayne also did much to counteract the effect of Bene-
dict Arnold's treason and of the mutiny of the Pennsylvania
troops. In 1781 he was sent south to join Gen. Nathaniel Greene,
but in Virginia he was deflected to aid Lafayette against Lord
Cornwallis. In 1792 Washington appointed him to succeed St.
Clair in the command of the western army with the rank of major-
general. The Government continued its efforts to induce the
Indians to allow white settlements beyond the Ohio, but upon the
failure of a mission in 1793 Wayne advanced to Greenville, a port
on a branch of the Great Miami. In July of 1794 Wayne's regu-
lars were reinforced by about 1,600 Kentucky militia, and the
combined forces advanced to Fort Defiance on the Miami river.
Here Wayne made a final effort to treat with the Indians, and
upon being rebuffed, moved forward and decisively defeated them
in the battle of Fallen Timbers. This defeat, supplemented by the
treaty of Greenville, which he negotiated with the Indians, on
Aug. 3, 1795, resulted in opening the north-west to civilization.
Wayne retained his position as commander of the army after its
reorganization, and he rendered service in quelling the proposed
filibustering expeditions from Kentucky against the Spanish
dominions, and also took the lead in occupying the lake posts
delivered up by the British. WTiile engaged in this service he died
at Erie (Pa.) on Dec. 15, 1796.
See J. Munsell, (ed.), Wayne's Orderly Book of the Northern Army
at Fort Ticonderoga and Mount Independence (Albany, 1859) ; Boyer,
A Journal of Wayne's Campaign (Cincinnati, 1866) ; William Clark,
A Journal of Major-General Anthony Wavne's Campaign against the
Shawnee Indians (MSS. owned by R. C. Ballard Thruston) ; Charles
J. Stillc, Major-General Anthony Wayne and the Pennsylvania Line
(Philadelphia, 1803) ; H. P. Johnston', The Storming of Stony Point
(New York, 1000) ; J. R. Spears, Anthony Wayne (New York, 1903).
WAYNESBORO, a borough of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., near
the Maryland boundary (the "Mason and Dixon Line")- Pop.
(1920) 9,720 (97% native white). Waynesboro lies 710 ft. above
sea-level, at the foot of South mountain, in the beautiful Blue
Ridge region. Beneath are many caves and caverns. At Mont
Alto, 6 m. N., is the Pennsylvania State Forest school (1903). A
settlement was established here about 1734. F°r 20 years it was
called Mount Vernon; then Wallacetown, until the close of the
Revolution, when it was renamed in honour of Gen. "Mad An-
thony" Wayne. A village was platted in 1797, and in 1818 it was
incorporated as a borough. A municipal-manager form of govern-
ment was adopted in 1922.
WAYNFLETE, WILLIAM (1395-1486), English lord
chancellor and bishop of Winchester, was the son of Richard
Pattene* or Patyn, alias Barbour, of Wainfleet, Lincolnshire
(Magd. Coll. Oxon. Reg. f. 84b), whose monumental effigy,
formerly in the church of Wainfleet, now in Magdalen College
Chapel at Oxford, seems to be in the dress of a merchant. He
went to Oxford. In 1430 he was head master of Winchester col-
lege. In 1440 Henry VI. founded Eton College, and after visiting
Winchester appointed Waynflete provost. Waynflete had to ar-
range for the financing and completion of the buildings at Eton.
In the last year (1446-47) of his provostship the full roll of
scholars, 70, was already complete. The provost was still in high
favour with Henry, for when Beaufort, bishop of Winchester,
Henry's uncle, died (April n, 1447) Henry wrote the same day
to the chapter of Winchester, the prior and monks of St. Swithin's
cathedral, to elect Waynflete as his successor. On July 13, 1447, he
was consecrated in Eton church, when the warden and fellows and
44-6
WAYS AND MEANS COMMITTEE— WAZIRISTAN
others of his old college gave him a horse at a cost of £6, 135. 4(i,,
and 135. 4d. to the boys. Subsequent visits to Winchester inspired
Henry with the idea of rebuilding Eton church on cathedral
dimensions. Waynflete was principal executor of his "will" for
that purpose.
Waynflete, as bishop, lost no time in following the example of
Wykeham and his royal patron in becoming a college founder.
In 1448 he obtained a licence for founding Magdalen College,
Oxford. On Jan. 9, 1449 Waynflete was enthroned in Winchester
cathedral in the presence of the king; and, probably partly for his
sake, parliament was held there in June and July 1449, when the
king frequently attended the college chapel, Waynflete officiating:
When Jack Cade's rebellion occurred in 1450 Waynflete was
employed with Archbishop Stafford, the chancellor, to negotiate
with the rebels at St. Margaret's church, Southwark, close to
Winchester House. A full pardon was promised, but on Aug. i
Waynflete was one of the special commissioners to try the
rebels. The king became insane in 1454. On the death of the
chancellor, John Kemp, archbishop of Canterbury, during the
sitting of parliament, presided over by the duke of York, com-
missioners, headed by Waynflete, were sent to Henry to ask him
to name a new chancellor, apparently intending that Waynflete
should be named. But no answer could be extracted from the
king, and after some delay Lord Salisbury took the seals. During
York's regency, both before and after the battle of St. Albans,
Waynflete took an active part in the proceedings of the privy
council. With a view to an ampler site for his college, Waynflete
obtained on July 5, 1456 a grant of the Hospital of St. John the
Baptist outside the east gate at Oxford and on July 15 licence to
found a college there. Having obtained a papal bull, he founded
it by deed of June 12, 1458, converting the hospital into a college
with a president and six fellows, to which college two days later
Magdalen Hall surrendered itself and its possessions, its members
being incorporated into "the New College of St. Mary Magdalen."
Meanwhile Waynflete himself had been appointed chancellor,
the seals being delivered to him by the king in the priory of
Coventry in the presence of the duke of York, apparently as a
person acceptable to both parties. Jn October 1457 he took part
in the trial and condemnation for heresy of Reginald Pccock,
bishop of Chichester. Only Pecock's books and not the heretic
were burnt. Waynflete presided as chancellor at the parliament
at Coventry in November 1459, which, after the Yorkist
catastrophe at Ludlow, attainted the Yorkist leader;*. It was no
doubt because of this that, three days before the Yorkist attack
at Northampton, he resigned the chancellorship (1460). But
Waynflete does not seem to have been regarded as an enemy by
the Yorkists, though he was a personal friend of Henry's, for the
rights of the bishopric of Winchester were confirmed to him in
1462, and he took an active part in the restoration of Eton College
under Edward IV , and in the building of the church, now called
the chapel, at Eton. Yet he received a pardon in 1469, and in
1471, in the latter case probably because he welcomed Henry on
his release from prison.
In 1474 Waynflete, being the principal executor of Sir John
Fastolf, who died in 1459, leaving a much-contested will, pro-
cured the conversion of his bequest for a collegiate church of
seven priests and seven almsmen at Caistor, Norfolk, into one for
seven fellows and seven poor scholars at Magdalen. In the same
year that college took possession of the alien priory of Sele,
Sussex, the proceedings for the suppression of which had been
going on since 1469. The new, now the the old, buildings at
Magdalen were begun the same year, the foundation-stone being
laid in the middle of the high altar on May 5, 1474 (Wood, 207).
The college was completed in 1480, and this date, not the earlier
one, is usually given as the foundation date. Magdalen College
school was founded at the gates. In September 1481 Waynflete
received Edward IV. in state at the college, where he passed the
night, and in July 1483 he received Richard III. there in even
greater state, when Master William Grocyn, "the Grecian/1 a
fellow of New College, "responded," in divinity. In 1484 Wayn-
flete gave the college the endowment for a free grammar school
at his name-place, Wainflcet, sufficient to produce for the chantry-
priest-schoolmaster £IQ a year, the same salary as the headmaster
of Magdalen School, and built the school which still exists almost
untouched, a fine brick building with two towers, 76 ft. long by
26 ft. broad. The next year saw the appropriation to the college
of the Augustinian Priory of Selborne, Hants.
Waynflete died on May 11, 1486, and was buried in Winchester
cathedral. The effigy in Magdalen College' Chapel at Oxford is an
authentic portrait.
WAYS AND MEANS COMMITTEE: see ESTIMATES;
EXCHEQUER.
WAYZGOOSE, a term for the annual outing of English
printers and their employees. It may be a misspelling for "wase-
goose," from wase, M.E. for "sheaf," thus meaning harvest
goose, the "stubblegoose" mentioned by Chaucer in "The Cook's
Prologue." It is more probable that the merry-making was an imi-
tation of the grand goose-feast annually held at Waes, in Brabant,
at Martinmas. Certainly the goose has long ago parted company
with the printers' wayzgoose/which is usually held in July.
WAZIR, or VIZIER, a minister, usually the principal minister
under a Mohammedan ruler (Arabic wazir). In India the nawab
of Oudh was long known as the nawab wazir, the title of minister
to the Mogul emperor having become hereditary.
WAZIRABAJ}, a town of British India, in Gujranwala dis-
trict of the Punjab, near the right bank of the river Chenab, 62 m.
N. of Lahore. Pop. (1921) 18,645. It is an important railway
junction. The main line of the North-Western railway here crosses
the Chenab by the Alexandra bridge, opened in 1876. Boat-build-
ing and manufactures of steel and iron are carried on.
WAZIRISTAN, a mountain tract in the North-west Frontier
Province of India within the British sphere of influence, the
boundary with Afghanistan having been demarcated in 1894.
Only a portion, consisting of the Tochi valley, with an area of
about 700 sq.m. and a population (1903) of 24,670, is directly
administered. Northern Waziristan has an area of about 2,310
sq.m., and southern Waziristan an area of about 2,734 sq.m.
The Tochi and the Gomal rivers enclose the central dominat-
ing range of Waziristan from north-cast to south-west, geo-
logically connected with the great limestone ranges of the Suli-
man hills to the south, and dominated by the great peaks of Shui-
dar (Sheikh Haidar) and Pirghal, both of them between 11,000
and 12,000 ft. above the sea. From these peaks westwards a
view is obtained across the grass slopes and cedar woods of
Birmal and Shawal (lying thousands of feet below) to the long,
serrated ridges of the central watershed which shuts off the plains
of Ghazni. To the eastward several lines of drainage strike away
for the Indus, and are, as usual, the main avenues of approach
to the interior of the country. They are the Khaisora and the
Shakdu on the north, which, uniting, join the Tochi south of
Bannu, and the Tank Zam (which is also called Khaisor near its
head) on the south. The two. former lead from the frontier to
Razmak and Makin, villages of some local importance, situated
on the slopes of Shuidar; and the latter leads to Kaniguram, the
Waziri capital, and the centre of a considerable iron trade. Kani-
guram lies at the foot of the Pirghal mountain.
The Waziri tribes are the largest on the frontier, but their
state of civilization is very low. They are a race of robbers and
murderers, and the Waziri name is execrated even by the neigh-
bouring Mohammedan tribes, who seem inclined to deny their
title to belong to the faith. Their physique is excellent.
Except in a few of the highest hills, which are well-wooded, the
Waziri country is a mass of rock and stones, bearing a poor growth
of grass and thinly sprinkled with dark evergreen bushes; progress
in every direction is obstructed by precipices or by toilsome stony
ascents, and knowledge of the topography comes only as the result
of long acquaintance. Broken ground and tortuous ravines, by
making crime easy and precaution against attack difficult, have
fostered violence among the people and developed in them an ex-
traordinary faculty of prudence and alertness. The Waziri has de-
veloped into a raider, and a highwayman. The women enjoy more
freedom than amongst most Pathan tribes. The blood-feud is a
national institution.
The Waziris, who number some 48.000 fighting men altogether,
WAZIRISTAN
447
are divided into two main sections, the Darwesh Khei (30,000),
referred to as "Wazirs," and the Mahsuds (18,000), with smaller
sections and attached tribes numbering 18,000 more.
The Darwesh Khel are the more settled and civilized of the
two, and inhabit the lower hills bordering on Kohat and Bannu
districts and the ground lying on both sides of the Kurram river,
between Thai on the north and the Tochi Valley on the south. The
Mahsuds, who inhabit the tract of country lying between the Tochi
Valley on the north and the Gomal river on the south, have earned
for themselves an evil name as the most confirmed raiders on the
border. The Mahsud country, especially that part within reach of
British posts, is more difficult even than Tirah. The Tochi Valley
is inhabited by a degraded Pathan tribe, known as Dauris, who
have placed themselves under British protection since 1895.
British expeditions were needed against various sections of the
Waziris in 1852, 1859, 1860, 1880, 1881, 1894, 1897 and 1902.
The success of Sir Robert Sandeman in subduing the wild
tribes of Baluchistan had led to a* similar attempt to open up
Waziristan to British civilization; but the Pathan is much more
democratic and much less subject to the influence of his maliks
than is the Baluchi to the authority of his chiefs; and the policy
finally broke down in 1894, when the Waziris made a night attack
upon the camp of the British Delimitation Commission at Wana.
The attack was delivered with such determination that the tribes-
men penetrated into the centre of the camp, and it was only with
the greatest difficulty that friend could be distinguished from foe.
A large force of 11,000 British troops subsequently traversed the
tribal country, destroyed their towers and dictated terms, one of
which was that the Tochi Valley should be occupied by British
garrisons. But still there was trouble, which led to the Tochi ex-
-pedition of 1897; and, in spite of the further lessons taught the
Waziris in two expeditions in 1902, the attempt to "Sandemanise"
Waziristan was given up by Lord Curzon. The British garrisons
in the Tochi and Gomal valleys were withdrawn, and two corps of
tribal militia, from 1,300 to 1,500 strong, were gradually formed to
replace the British troops. During the Great War, the Mahsuds
gave constant trouble and during the third Afghan war the militia
were withdrawn, portions going over to the enemy. Three years
of war succeeded the invasion, and it was not till a motor road
was driven from Jandola through the heart of the country to
Bannu, and a large cantonment built at Razmak, close to the
centre of the Mahsud country that order was restored.
See Grammar and Vocabulary oj Waziri Pashto, by J. G. Lorimer
(Calcutta, 1902); Pagct and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884);
Mahsud Waziri Operations (1902), Blue-book.
CAMPAIGNS IN WAZIRISTAN
The Wazirs are Pathans speaking Pushtoo. Consequently, they
have a very close racial and linguistic affinity with the adjacent
Afghan population. The country, moreover, lies midway between
the Khyber and Bolan Passes and has thus remained outside 'the
orbit of the chief campaigns that have been fought on the north-
west frontier. In addition, it had never been subjected to the
administration of the Government of India.
There is no need to recount in detail the course of the earlier
expeditions into Waziristan. In 1860, after some stiff little actions
a column of all arms occupied Kaniguram and Ma kin, the centres
of population in Mahsud country. Again, in 1879, the Mahsuds
were subjected to an economic "blockade." In 1893 a well-
conducted expedition under Sir W. Lockhart overran Waziristan.
In 1896 Wana was occupied at the request of the Wazirs them-
selves. In 1900 a second blockade of the Mahsuds was initiated,
but dragged on for over a year until several columns had devas-
tated the most fertile of the Mahsud valleys. In 1917 a brief ex-
pedition penetrated up the R. Shahur and effected a temporary
submission of the Mahsuds.
The close of the World War was followed in May, 1919, by the
outbreak of the Third Afghan War. For some time past Wazirs
and Mahsuds alike, excited by Afghan propaganda, had been
growing bolder in their brigandage. The climax came when the
evacuation of the military posts maintained in the Tochi and
Gumal Valleys was effected. Both these trade routes had past
been guarded by fortified posts garrisoned by native forces known
as the Northern and Southern Waziristan Militia respectively.
These forces, composed of tribesmen under British officers, with
few exceptions deserted early in 1919, and thereby provided their
Mahsud compatriots with an invaluable stock of rifles and am-
munition; while, more serious still, they formed a nucleus of
skilled leaders for the lashkars. However, in December, 1919,
an expeditionary force was under the command of Major-General
S. H. Cliino, C.B. The total of this force amounted to no less
than 30,000 combatants, figures later augmented.
On Nov. 9 the first move was made up the Tochi Valley, where,
on the lyth, General Climo received unconditional surrender of
the Tochi Wazir tribes at a ceremonial jirga held at Datta Khel.
This result enabled the striking force to be transferred south-
wards to deal with the Mahsuds. It was now decided to move
the striking force to the Tank Zam valley and to advance in
one column by that route to Kaniguram and Makin in the heart
of the Mahsud country. The force was completely assembled at
Jandola on the Tank Zam by December 13, whereupon a be-
ginning was made to piquet the valley on either flank by "crown-
ing the heights" with small fortified works.
On Dec. 17 the Mahsuds made a fierce and somewhat treacher-
ous onslaught on the advanced troops of the striking force, or
"Derajat column," under cover of a parley. They were driven
back and the column moved next day. An attempt to seize Man-
danna Hill, made on the i9th, failed. A second attempt, on the
2oth, conducted by stronger forces as well as supported by
aircraft, met with negligible resistance; the occupation of the
ridge was complete. Leaving 100 men to complete the forti-
fication of a detached post on the hill, the troops returned to
camp. No sooner had they withdrawn than a fierce Mahsud at-
tack swept away the remaining detachment, and the hill was lost
again. A similar attempt to seize Tarakai or Black Hill on the
22nd eventually succeeded, but not before some savage Mahsud
attacks had nearly brought about another similar defeat. The
Mahsud losses, occasioned by some close quarter fighting and ar-
tillery fire, proved very heavy for this class of warfare. Tarakai
was held as the enemy retired.
On the 25th Mandanna Hill was occupied afresh and perma-
nently. An advance of 4 miles was made to Kotkai where the
column remained until Jan. 7, preparing to force a precipitous
defile known as the Ahnai Tangi. A first attempt was made on
the 7th. Owing to the short hours of daylight, the operation was
abandoned. A second attempt, on the 9th, met with no better
result. Once more, on the loth, a third attempt failed. In
view of this situation, now daily growing more unsatisfactory,
General Skeen ordered a night march for the small hours of the
nth. This bold decision, unusual in mountain warfare, was
justified by the result. On the T4th the entire column passed
through the defile.
The task was still formidable. The eastern bank of the Tank
Zam was formed by two long ridges, the nearer being christened
"Flathead Left" and the further "Flathead Right," while to the
north of a deep depression came yet another height dubbed
"Marble Arch." The right flank guard soon became heavily en-
gaged on Flathead Left while the advanced guard met with a
heavy fire from Marble Arch and was checked. After a very
stubborn and savage action at close quarters, Flathead Left was
taken and held throughout the day, aircraft contributing to this
result. The column was then able to encamp undisturbed. After
a night march on the 28th, the column passed through the gorge.
Although the Mahsud resistance was on the wane, Afghan emis-
saries were busy stirring them to further efforts. Two Afghan
mountain guns arrived to reinforce moral persuasion. On Feb. i,
General Skeen once more ordered a night march against the
Mahsud position, held in great strength, near Aka Khel. A strik-
ing success resulted; the enemy's resistance collapsed with no
seeming hope of its reviving; Afghan help did not materialize,
while the two 'mountain guns proved but a dismal failure. From
this moment onwards there was to be no more serious fighting.
But the Mahsuds showed no sign of accepting the Government's
terms and so the column marched further up the Tank Zam
Valley. But there was a change of policy in that there was now
448
WAZZAN— WEALTH
a coercive policy enforced, appropriate measures being taken for
the destruction of Mahsud property.
On Feb. 16 the column arrived at Tauda China, 2 m. distant
from Makin, which centre of population and agriculture, failing
submission by the Mahsuds, was to be ravaged. According to the
terms of an ultimatum, the days of grace expired on Feb. 19,
when, until the 2Qth, the fortified Mahsud villages were sys-
tematically shelled or raided. On March 2 the column moved to
Kaniguram, the only so-called "town" of the the Mahsud country.
The place itself was not occupied, the troops being kept within a
fortified camp constructed at Ladha close by the town. The re-
sulting situation proved embarrassing. A certain number of rifles
were surrendered, but as a whole the Mahsuds remained untamed
and hostile. The column remained at Ladha when, on April 6, it
carried out an important punitive operation north-west of Kani-
guram. This showed the tribesmen to be still as contumacious
and bellicose as ever. Ladha was consequently converted into a
standing camp connected with Tank by a strong series of posts
down the Tank Zam valley. The Waziristan force was reduced,
the Derajat column as such was broken up; one brigade remained
at Ladha while another guarded the road to Tank. Then finally,
in the autumn, the long deferred expedition to Wana was organ-
ized as the Wana Wazirs had failed to comply with the Govern-
ment's demands for reparation for the outrages of 1918-19.
Moreover, the Wazirs were then undoubtedly harbouring Afghan
agents who were intriguing against the Government of India.
On Nov. 12 the Wana column, commanded by Major-General
W. S. Leslie, C.M.G., left Jandola for Sarwekai where a lengthy
pause was made. Then, on Dec. 15, the troops moved again and
reached Wana on Dec. 22. The only incident of the advance was a
spirited little affair at the pass of Granai Mara Narai where a
night march once more dislodged the Wazirs from their position
virtually without fighting. The beginning of 1921 thus found a
brigade of Indian troops at Ladha and Wana respectively with
every prospect of a permanent occupation of Waziristan. But
one important circumstance was about to alter the entire prob-
lem of Waziristan. A great circular motor road was now to be
constructed from Bannu up the Tochi Valley; thence across the
passes to Razmak and so down the whole Tank Zam valley to
Tank. This road would allow of military operations being con-
ducted under very different conditions to those prevailing in
1919-20. Moreover, the Royal Air Force was now in possession
of a new aerodrome at Dardoni in the Tochi Valley. Lastly, two
6-inch howitzers were to be stationed at Ladha.
At the close of 1922, on the impending completion of the new
motor road, the garrison of Ladha was ordered to move into the
new and more salubrious camp of Razmak. The Mahsuds, mis-
taking this change for a symptom of weakness, committed acts
of open hostility. The situation grew so bad that punitive opera-
tions became inevitable. The plan of operations was for one
brigade to advance from Razmak and to unite with the brigade
from Ladha in the Makin area. Before this could be effected
the last stages of the motor road had to be completed and this
proved an arduous task. Starting from Idak in the Tochi Valley
the 7th Brigade reached Razmak on Jan. 23, then effecting a junc-
tion with the 9th Brigade from Ladha on Feb. 4 at Tauda China.
The Makin area was once more devastated; aeroplanes, 6-inch and
3-7 howitzers were all employed in the task. By the i2th enough
destruction had been accomplished, and on the 22nd the last recal-
citrant tribes made their submission.
WAZZAN, a small town, 6om. N.W. by N. of Fez, Morocco,
on the slopes of the Djebel Bu-Hallal. Wazzan, chief town of a,
territory, has 12,910 inhabitants, of whom 594 are Europeans. It
manufactures a coarse white woollen cloth, from which the
hooded cloaks (called jelldbs*) are made. Its proudest name is Ddr
D'manah — House of Safety — as it is sanctuary for any who gain
its limits, on account of the tomb of a sainted Idrisi Sherif, who
lived there in 1727, and was the founder of one of the most
important religious brotherhoods of the Muslim world, called
the Taibiya. After the conquest of Algeria, the sherifs of Wazzan,
chiefs of the brotherhood, were placed under the protection of
France. The French troops entered Wazzan in 1920.
WEAKFISH (Cynoscion regalis), an important North Ameri-
can food-fish, so-called from its tender mouth. It inhabits sandy
shores of the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Florida and is
greenish-brown above, silvery below, with brown markings. The
weakfish is also known as squeteague and sea-trout (its trade
name). It reaches a weight of 30 Ib. (average 5 lb.).
WEALD, THE, a district in south-east England. It includes
the portions of Sussex, Kent and Surrey enclosed between the
North and South Downs. With the exception of the eastern
part, it is drained by rivers running northward and southward
through gaps in the Downs (q.v.). The Weald was formerly cov-
ered by the forest of Andredesleah or Andredsweald ("the wood
or forest without habitations"). About 1660, the total area under
forest was over 200,000 acres. The chief remains of the forests
are Ashdown, St. Leonards and Tilgate, and the nomenclature
often indicates former woodland, as in the case of Hurstpierpoint
(hurst meaning wood), Midhurst, Fernhurst, Billingshurst, Ash-
urst and many others. The forests were interspersed with
lagoons; and the rainfall caused marshes. The Wealden forests
were used extensively for fuel in the former ironworks of Sussex.
The Forest Ridges, running east to west in the centre of the
Weald, preserve its ancient character. Formed of the Hastings
sands they are the main water-parting of the Weald, dividing the
Vale of Sussex from the Vale of Kent. Here the iron industry,
worked by the Romans and earlier, became important in the i6th
and 1 7th century and died out early in the i9th century. The
Andredesleah formed a physical barrier which kept the South
Saxons isolated from other Saxon kingdoms.
WEALTH. In economics wealth may mean either a stock or
fund existing at a given time or a flow of valuable goods and
services during a period of time. In dealing with the production;
exchange, distribution and consumption of wealth, economics is
concerned very largely with the origins of the community's an-
nual income and with the disposition which is made of it. This
annual flow of income, or national dividend, may be conceived of
as comprising all of the valuable commodities which pass into the
hands of their final consumers during the year, together with the
valuable personal services (e.g., the services of the Government, of
physicians, of actors, of household servants) rendered during the
year, apart from those which come to the consumer embodied,
as we might say, in the products of industry and trade. Alterna-
tively, the community's annual flow of wealth may be identified
with its annual product, which comprises the personal services
directly rendered to consumers, as aforesaid, together with the re-
sults of all that is accomplished during the year in forwarding
products towards their final form and destination, and in augment-
ing the community's productive equipment. The two concep-
tions overlap, for both include the products of work which is
performed and comes to its final fruition within the year. But
one conception includes, in addition, the ripened fruits of work
done in the past, while the other includes fruits of present
work which will reach their maturity only in future years. The
money value of what we may call consumers' real income (the
first of the two conceptions) will not, in general, be the same as
the money value of the annual product. In a prosperous com-
munity, where saving is growing relatively to consumption, the
money value of the annual product will be the larger of the two.
It is always approximately equal to the aggregate amount of the
net money incomes received during the year. It lends itself better
to statistical measurement than consumers' real income does, and,
it is the better index of the community's economic welfare.
Viewed as a stock or fund, wealth is an aggregate of scarce and
valuable objects. Some of these valuable objects are given by
nature, others are the products of man's industry and thrift, but
all of them, irrespective of their origins or their cost, are valued
prospectively, looking towards the future, with reference to their
importance as aids to production or to their more direct beneficial
uses. Wealth can be described by means of a stock-taking or
inventory, but it can be summed or measured as a whole only in
terms of its money value. Wealth is always something owned,
whether the ownership be private or public. Its value is the sum
of the values of existing property rights. Securities, such as stocks,
WEALTH
449
shares and bills, are among the objects of property, but if these
are to be counted as wealth, account must be taken of the circum-
stance that they are offset by an equal amount of "negative wealth"
— the liabilities of their issuers. In arriving at the wealth of the
people of a given country or region (as distinguished from the
wealth within that country or region), the net balance of external
assets and external liabilities must be included.
It is obvious that the degree of a country's economic well-being
depends upon the character and extent of its unappropriable re-
sources— sunshine, rainfall, rivers, harbours — as well as upon the
appropriable objects of wealth within its borders. Is not a navi-
gable river, therefore, as much an item in a nation's wealth as a
railway or a canal? Yes, in the sense that a nation's wealth is
larger because of an abundance of these natural advantages. No,
if is meant that no evaluation of a nation's wealth is complete if
separate account is not taken of such things. (See also ECO-
NOMICS and CAPITAL.) (A. Yo.)
WEALTH, NATIONAL. The wealth of a country may
mean either the value of the objects found within its boundaries,
regardless of the ownership of those objects in part by people
living abroad, or the wealth of the inhabitants, including their
foreign possessions, and excluding wealth within the country held
by people abroad. The confusion between these two ideas has
played havoc with discussions on such subjects as "The Taxable
Capacity of Ireland." (Vide Stamp's British income Property
p. 369.) It is the latter sense — the wealth of the inhabitants ex-
pressed in current money values — that is mainly under consid-
eration here.
Wealth in private hands (or belonging to individuals) is not
easy to define, for there are various shades of ownership:
(1) Absolute personal disposition of the whole "fee simple"
value of a house, land or other object.
(2) Trust interests, where ownership is more limited and free
disposal is barred, but where the ownership of a source of income
for a period has a capital value.
(3) Collective ownership with only potential specific allocation
to individuals, such as the reserves of companies which may be
of higher value in the hands of the company than the aggregation
of the market value of individual interests therein.
(4) Collective ownership, without the possibility of individual
allocation, or social private wealth, such as churches, clubs, etc.
(a) City and local property, like waterworks, buildings and
trams, having a "value" determinable by deliberate comparison
with privately owned objects.
(b) National property, varying from a museum to a navy,
which can less easily be given a "purchase price."
Uses to Which the Figures of National Wealth Are Put.
— These include:
(1) Tests of "progress," by way of comparisons between dif-
ferent years, to show the accumulation of capital, and really valid
where the level of prices has remained fairly constant; tests of
the distribution of wealth, according to the form or embodiment
which wealth takes, e.g. between houses, lands and bonds; tests
of the effects of changes in the rate of interest, or in the value of
money.
(2) Tests of the relative "prosperity" or resources of different
nations or communities, at the same point of time either as a
whole, or per head of the population, and also in relation to
their national debts and taxation.
(3) Comparisons of income with capital and property.
(4) Consideration of the distribution of wealth according to
individual fortunes, and changes in that distribution.
(5) Consideration of the applicability and yield of schemes of
taxation, e.g., the capital levy.
(6) Questions relating to war indemnities and "ability to pay."
The summary presented to the Royal Statistical Society by Sir
Josiah Stamp in May 1919 endeavoured to present the position
as in 1914. High authorities had argued that the wealth of the-
United Kingdom in 1914 was approximately £10,000,000,000,
others had placed it as high as £24,000,000,000, but in each case
the estimates were associated with polemical matters. Sir Josiah's
figure was £14,310,000,000.
Methods of Computation.— (i) Based on data arising
through the taxation of incomes, (a) Collective Taxation or
Taxation at the Source. The statistics of such taxation covering
the whole profits of corporate bodies, such as public cpmpanies,
before their distribution to individuals and whether actually dis-
tributed or not, obviously lead to comprehensive results. Where
sources of income are attacked for revenue purposes, and the
destination of income is ignored, it is not necessary for elaborate
estimates to be made for income remaining in collective or semi-
collective ownership ; moreover, such a tax system *allows of
profits being presented for different classes of business or income,
and so enables them to be capitalised on an appropriate basis.
There may, however, be a danger that this method will give too
high a result, if sufficient allowance is not made for income going
out of such companies to foreigners or persons living entirely
abroad, which thus forms no part of the national income.
Risk of error arises in three ways :
(i.) Evasion in the tax system itself.
(ii.) Legal omissions from the scheme of tax (i.e., "garden
produce" as non-taxable income, "enjoyment" income from mov-
able property).
(iii.) The basis of capitalisation, viz., the number of years
purchase adopted.
This method, generally known as the "Giffen" method, though
not invented by him, is the main basis for the valuation for the
United Kingdom. It will be found to a limited extent available
in the United States, South Africa and other dominions.
(b) Taxation of income on Individual Returns.
Where statistics of this character are available, they may be
utilised for capital valuations, but only with some difficulty. If
there is a rough division of income into earned income and
income from property, it is, of course, of assistance in the capi-
talisation. The chief defects are:
(i.) The considerable extent to which evasion takes place in
this particular type of taxation.
(ii.) Omission of all income held or accumulated collectively.
(iii.) Difficulty in determining the ratio of income to capital
on the average, which makes capitalisation a far greater difficulty
than under (a) (iii.) above.
(2) Based on Material Provided by the Annual Taxation of
Capital.
(a) Particular Classes of Property , such as Land or Build-
ings.
Obviously these details supply a part only of the whole capital
valuation, and they more properly belong to the "inventory
method" referred to below. Unless the values are regularly re-
vised on uniform lines, without local differences, they form but
a rough basis, and there are always difficulties in determining the
extent to which other forms of wealth (i.e., company shares or
business profits) duplicate these values. Some of the Continental
systems of taxation supply material of this order, and the Aus-
tralian States have regularly revised valuations which are valuable
because they constitute so large a fraction of the total wealth.
(b) General Property Valuation. — The particulars furnished
by a system of annual taxation upon all classes of property, should,
in theory, form an ideal basis for a valuation. As a matter of
fact, however, in practice, even such a tax as the General Prop-
erty Tax in the United States, is full of defects. The valuations
of personal property tend to disappear altogether (as was the
case during the eighteenth century with the British "Land Tax")
or else to be negligible in amount, leaving real property alone to
bear the burden. This real property is assessed on very diverse
lines in different areas, and is admittedly much below the selling
values in many States.
(3) Based on Data arising through Taxation of Capital at
Irregular Periods.
(a) Statistics of "Estates" chargeable with Duties on passing
at Death.
This method has the appearance of being the most satisfactory
and scientific of all A special ad hoc valuation is made periodi-
cally of all wealth held in individual ownership, and it is only
required to ascertain what proportion of the whole comes under
450
WEALTH
review in any given year, or, alternatively, at what intervals of
time the same item of wealth will be recharged to duty on the
average, in order to compute the total wealth belonging to in-
dividuals., But this apparently simple task is, in practice, fraught
with many difficulties, and the method of ascertainment of the
''multiplier," though greatly improved of late years, is still open
to doubt or inquiry upon important points. The adequacy of the
capitalisation of collective wealth and the impossibility of saying
how much is- not reflected in their values are serious drawbacks.
(4) Thl Inventory Method.
This method aims at a valuation, in the aggregate, of each
"form" in which wealth is embodied, without regard to the owner-
ship by individuals, companies, etc. It is often called the "objec-
tive" method. It depends for its success almost entirely upon the
existence of statistical material compiled for other purposes, e.g.,
import and export statistics, local government taxation figures,
expert valuations of mineral resources, statistical enumerations
of objects to which an average value can be applied. Examples
of the last mentioned are the valuation of shipping by reference
to the total tonnage multiplied by an average value per ton, or
of mining capital by the average capital invested per ton of
output, or of live stock by the number of each kind multiplied by
an average price, or even of business, by a co-efficient. There
are few classes of statistics that have not been pressed or coaxed
into service for the "inventory" method, and further illustration
can best be seen below.
The chief defects of the method are:
1. The impossibility of testing how far the ownership of the
wealth is within the country or not. It is obvious, for example,
that if half the farms in a country are mortgaged to or owned by
foreigners, their gross value will give a false statement of na-
tional wealth in the sense defined.
2. The difficulty of determining whether all forms of wealth
have been included.
3. The risk of overlapping, e.g., stock and shares duplicated
with real property owned by companies.
4. The absence of tests of profit earning capacity. For exam-
ple, the carriages, railway lines, stations, etc., of a railway com-
pany are all "valued," and their aggregate comes to, say, £5,000,-
ooo. The railway as a whole may have been losing money for
years, or, may be making several millions a year.
It is contended however that this difficulty may be exaggerated.
As a general rule, on capitalisation of plus and minus "goodwill,"
the differences tend to cancel out, and an aggregate of valuations
as "going concerns" tends to approximate to invested capital,
except when there are striking changes in the value of money and
rate of interest.
British National Wealth.— Sir Josiah Stamp's valuation of
British national wealth for 1914 was as follows: —
Capital value
(Million Q
1. Lands
2. Houses, etc
3. Other profits (Sch. A)
4. Farmers' capital
5. Sch. C, National Debt, etc
6. Railways in the United Kingdom ....
7. Railways out of the United Kingdom
8. Coal and other mines
9. Ironworks
10. Gasworks
11. Waterworks, canals, and other concerns (Sch. A)
12. Indian, colonial, and foreign securities .
13. Coupons
14. Other profits and interest
15. Businesses not otherwise detailed . . .
1 6. Income accruing abroad and not remitted .
17. Income of non-income-tax paying classes derived
from capital . . .
18. Movable property, etc., not yielding income (fur-
niture, etc.)
19. Government and local property ....
Total valuation . .;•'••
Or, in round figures
M55
3,330
22
340
1,148
1,143
655
179
37
182
278
621
383
276
2,770
400
200
800
400
14,319
5. The difficulty of accurately determining any "averages" em-
ployed as factors. If they are the results of impressions, they
may be considerably in error, and even ft they are the product
of actual observations they ought usually to be carefully
"weighted" in their application to the different classes. He has
also given the following record for previous years: —
Date
£ millions.
1800
1812
1822
1,750 (Great Britain) Beeke }\/:,i~r *;»«.% »r^^«,tu
;&> (United Kingdom) Colquhon VlJ£gul -?™£
2,500 Lowe J F > f-
1833
3,600
Pablo de Pabrer
1852
10,000
W. Farr (includes personal capi-
tal)
1845
4,000
)
1868
6,115
>Giffen
1875
8,548
1885
10,037
J
1896
10,125
Milner
1895
1905
1909
10,663
13,036
13,986
) Economist, following Giffen
(1911, p. 1,087)
1902
u»4i3
Money """""
1903
15,000
>
Giffen (50 per cent, added to
1885 figures, "Economic In-
quiries," II. 362)
1905
1911
12,671 „ ., Fabian Society
13,716 (England and E.
Wales) Crammond
1912
16,472 (United Kingdom) E. Crammond S. J., 1914
1914
16,000 ,, ,, Money
Wealth of Various Countries. — Sir Josiah Stamp's summary
of the estimated wealth of eighteen leading countries of the world
at the outbreak of the World War in 1914 is set forth in the ac-
companying table giving the total wealth for each country and
also the amount per caput of the population.
National capital
Country
Estimates based
Approxi-
mation to
Amount
Amount
per head
on the work of
accuracy:
Grade*
in
million £
of impu-
tation
£
United King-
dom
Stamp .
I.
14,500
318
United States.
Official, King
11.
42,000
424
Germany.
Helfferich, etc. .
IT.
16,550
244
France .
Pupin, Th£ry
II.
12,000
303
Italy
Gini
111.
4,48o
128
Austria-Hun-
gary .
Fellner .
III.
6,200
121
Spain
Barthe .
IV.
2,940
144
Belgium .
Official
III.
1,200
157
Holland .
Stuart .
III.
1,050
I67
Russia .
Neymarck .
IV.
12,000
8$
Sweden .
Flodstrom, Fochl-
beck . . .
III.
940
1 68
Norway .
Gini
IV.
220
90
Denmark
Gini
IV.
500
176
Switzerland .
Gini
IV.
800
205
Australia .
Knibbs .
I.
1,530
3i8
Canada .
Bankers* Assocn.
II.
2,285
300
Japan
Stamp . . .
IV.
2,400
44
Argentine
Bunge . . , .
III.
2,400
340
*Grade I. Estimate is not likely to be inaccurate to a greater extent
than 10 per cent.
Grade II. Estimate is not likely to be inaccurate to a greater extent
than 20 per cent
Grade III. Estimate is not likely to be inaccurate to a greater extent
than 30 per cent.
Grade IV. Estimate may be inaccurate to a greater extent than 40
per cent.
Pott-War Estimates^— Owing to economic dislocation, to the
rapid changes in the value of a common measure, gold, and to
still more rapid change of national currencies as well as various
other factors that must be considered, no really reliable estimates
have been possible. Many rough guesses have been made, e.g.,
WEALTH—WEALTH AND INCOME
National Wealth of Certain Countries
45*
Country
Year
National wealth
In sterling at par
In sterling at current rate
of exchange in May 1926
Current rate of exchange
in May 1926
Great Britain .
Canada
India .
United States .
France
Italy .
1923
1923
1922
1923
1923
1923
£20,000 millions
$25.000 „
Rs. 15,000 crores
$355,ooo millions
Fr. 1,200,000 ,,
L. 611,000 „
£ 5,100 millions
£10,000
£72,900
£47,6oo „
£24,222
£20,000 millions
i 5,400
£10,000
£81,200
£14,400
£ 6,100
$4-465«£i
15 "."£1
$4-37 ~£i
82-88 fr.«£i
100 15 32 lire^£i
Wealth of the United States.— The most recent figure of the
wealth of the United States, was a Government estimate for 1922
of 321,000 million dollars, or, say, 65,000 million £. The savings
of the United States since that time indicate ihat the total wealth
at the end of 1928 will amount to $394,500,000,000, an increase of
22-9 per cent, over the 1922 figure. The wealth of the United
States has increased at a faster rate than the population. The
per capita wealth is estimated to have increased from $2,938 in
1922 to $3,287 in 1928. The prospect is that the total wealth at
the end of 1929 will amount to $408,700,000,000 and the per
capita wealth to $3,366.
The following table shows the estimated savings and increase
in wealth of the United States since 1922.
Savings and Wealth of the United States
1<)22
1924
IQ26
IQ27
1928
Total savings
$ 9,200,000,000
10,800,000,000
11,100,000,000
12,100,000,000
12,600,000,000
13,200,000,000
13,700,000,000
14,200,000,000
Total wealth
$321,000,000,000
331,800,000,000
342,900,000,000
355,000,000,000
367,600,000,000
380,800,000,000
394,500,000,000
408,700,000,000
J'cr capita
wealth
$2,938
2,998
3,059
3,077
3,138
3,210
3,287
3,366
The same authorities estimate the wealth of the entire British
Empire as $210,000 million and the whole world at $1,100,000
million. This means that the United States, with only 6-3 per
cent, of the world's population and only 5-3 per cent, of the world's
land area, has approximately 35 per cent, of the world's wealth.
The United States has 78 per cent, of all the automobiles in the
world, 72-5 per cent, of the telephones, 58-5 per cent, of the
telephone and telegraph lines, 38-3 per cent, of the monetary gold,
34 per cent, of the railroad mileage, 23-6 per cent, of the hogs, 21-7
per cent, of the ships, and 21-5 per cent, of the cotton spindles.
The recent stabilisation of currencies in most of the civilized
countries of the world, will enable, as soon as their immediate
effects have been worked into the economic conditions, more sys-
tematic calculations of comparative national wealth to be made.
A defect of all post war estimates up to the present is the absence
of information as to how the most important question of internal
debt has been handled, i.e., whether, if it is treated as wealth in
the hands of bond holders, it has been deducted from the other
gross values of national property or not.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, various
dates, on the "Multiplier." See Leo Chiozza Money, The Nation's
Wealth (1914) ; Sir Josiah Stamp, British Income and Property (1916),
and Current Problems in Finance and Government. (J. S.)
WEALTH, PRIMITIVE. In primitive society the social
character of wealth is more apparent; the freedom of individuals
to dispose of it is limited by the interests of the community as a
whole. The motives which lead to its accumulation are not purely
economic, for ambition and rivalry play an important part. Trans-
fer of it from one person to another is ruled by etiquette, often
onerous, its observance backed by force of custom, Primitive
wealth is embodied in objects of interest, these varying in type
in different cultures. Among many African tribes cattle are the
greatest treasure; the Indians of north-west America chiefly
prize furs, canoes and copper plaques. In some societies human
beings possess an acknowledged economic worth, women and
slaves being transferable wealth. The close dependence of un-
civilized people upon nature renders food a universal object of
value. But primitive wealth is not confined to things of purely
practical interest. Luxury articles are often most prized. In the
Pacific, fine woven mats (Samoa), feather capes and cloaks (Ha-
waii), large polished axe blades (New Guinea), and ornament!
such as whales' teeth (Fiji), greenstone heitiki figures (Nev
Zealand), or shell armlets and necklaces (Melanesia) play a mosl
prominent part in the socio-economic life.
In primitive society rank and wealth usually go hand in hand
By gift, loan and rewards for service chiefs dispose of their in-
come to their people, and, generosity being esteemed a prime vir-
tue, maintain thereby thdr prestige and influence. The importance
of wealth lies in its distribution; hoarding is condemned. But as
the economic and social life is built upon reciprocity, freedom ir
giving is also conducive to material prosperity. Destruction ol
wealth, as in .the Amerindian potlatch, springs from an exaggera-
tion of this attitude of respect for wealth in action.
The manipulation of primitive capital and the financing of na
tive enterprise on a large scale proceeds along these lines. Wher
for example a Maori community desired to build a new house 01
canoe the chief generally took the lead. From his stores of wealth
he provided gifts for specialist craftsmen. At the stages of worli
where a large quantity of labour power was required he assem-
bled the people and by providing them with meals, a feast or gifts
of food, furnished the necessary incentive to them to undertake
the task. The economic activities of a primitive people arc marked
by this constant circulation of wealth.
See B. Malinowski, "Primitive Economics of Trobriand Islanders,"
Economic Journal (1921), Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922);
R. Thurnwald, "Die Gcstaltung der Wirtschaftsentwicklung," Erin-
nerunzsRabe fur Max Weber I. (1923) ; art. "Keichtum" in M. Ebert's
Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte; R. Firth, "Some Features of Primitive
Industry," Economic Journal (1926). (R. F.)
WEALTH AND INCOME, DISTRIBUTION OF..
Modern enquiries into the distribution of capital wealth are
mainly confined to the total wealth of individuals in classes
according to the amount of total fortune in each grade, whereas
enquiries into the distribution of income, while predominantly
similar in the attention given to relative amounts, also extends to
two other fields. There is a consideration of the distribution ac-
cording to trades and occupations (e.g., the shares which agricul-
ture, mining, etc., represent of the aggregate) and the third type
divides income according to its economic character — interest on
capital, economic rent, the reward of work by hand or brain.
Distribution of Capital Wealth Amongst Individuals.—
Information on the question is almost entirely derived from the
government statistics of taxation of estates failing under liability
at death. It is necessary to ascertain by the tables of mortality
the number of people living at any time for each death in each
grade. The highest fortunes tend to be held by the oldest people
and, therefore, the "multiplier" in these grades is quite small
compared with that in the lower grades of fortune where the
average age of those coming under liability to estate duty is lower.
The large fortune with a small multiplier and the small fortune
with a larger multiplier, tend to give some equality to the total
fortunes at each grade in ages. The result of the whole computa-
tion is generally known as the "multiplier," and this is applicable
to the total sum falling under charge in a year in order to ascertain
the aggregate fortune of all inhabitants living. This total is sub-
stantially less than the aggregate wealth of the country, because
of the large sums held collectively by companies (in reserves), by
clubs, trusts, societies and other corporations, which are either not
reflected at all or else only imperfectly reflected in statements of
individual wealth. In the separate grades, each with its separate
452
WEALTH AND INCOME
"multiplier" to get the total fortune in that particular grade, the
system of inter vivos giving the distribution of capital by its
owners during their lifetime, which increases with each increase in
the death duties, affects the results and has to be allowed for by
special adjustments. (See the Colwyn Committee on Taxation
and the National Debt (App. xxiii.)
British Capital Estimate.— By this method the aggregate
value of estates in Great
Britain exceeding £5,000 in the hands ol
living individuals is estimated to be -£11,000,000,000. This aggre-
gate is estimated to be distributed among the living owners ac-
cording to age-group and
according to range of wealth as shown:
Great Britain: Estimated Classification of Capital by Reference to
Value of Estate and A ge of Owner
(Estates exceeding £5,000 only)
£ millions
Range of
Age-groups
Estate
Total
20-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-<>4
fc5-74
75-«4
85 and
over
L
5,000 to
10,000 .
21
no
257
450
418
242
96
17
1,6 1 1
10,000 to
25,000 .
22
95
440
614
690
414
174
32
2,481
25,000 to
50,000 .
60
83
240
3<>6
461
363
13 2
26
1,761
50,000 to
100,000.
48
2
56
349
377
285
1 17
25
1,457
100,000 to
250,000 .
315
355
3«4
302
154
28
i,53«
250,000 to
500,000 .
7*
26
2
237
20C)
i^5
59
9
779
500,000 to
1,000,000
5
I
105
162
154
113
38
IS
593
Exceeding
1,000,000
8
'36
341
117
57
21
780
Total .
180
363
1,623
2,799
3»°34
2,001
827
173
11,000
These figures relate mainly to the position of affairs in 1923-24.
It will be seen that, for all fortunes over £5,000 disregarding
ages, the percentage distribution is as follows:
a b
c
5,000- 10,000.
14-7 14-0
11-6
10,000- 25,000 .
22-6 2^-8
2I«0
25,000- 50,000 .
16-0 14-2
16-4
50,000- 100,000.
13-2 13-0
13-6
100,000- 250,000 .
14-0 17-0
15-4
250,000- 500,000 .
7'i 7'7
9'7
500,000-1,000,000.
5'4 4'i
5'7
1,000,000 and over .
7'i 5'3
°-5
lOO'O 100-0
IQO-O
Col. (a) gives the equivalent of the Inland Revenue table. Col.
(b) gives the results of computations by Sir Josiah Stamp for
1921 for England and Wales only (Current Problems, p. 260). Col.
(c) is derived from information furnished to the Select Commit-
tee on Increase of Wealth (War) by the Board of Inland Revenue
in 1920 (App. to Report p. 236) as an estimate for wealth imme-
diately after the war, say, at June 1919. This deals with a corpus
of post-war Wealth of 13,046 million L distributed as follows:
•
£ millions
Percentage
of total
Not exceeding 5,000
From 5,000- 10,000 ...
3.94S
,054
30*5
8-0
10,000- 25,000 ....
,900
14-6
25,000- 50,000 ....
,500
"'5
50,000- 100,000 ....
>24i
9-5
100,000- 250,000 ....
250,000- 500,000 ....
,400
884
10-8
6-8
500,000- 750,000 ....
750,000-1,000,000 ....
Over 1,000,000
351
169
590
2-7
i'3
4-5
13,046
lOO'O
Sir Josiah Stamp gave the following figures based thereon,
for the total wealth of all classes (Wealth and Taxable
Capacity) :
Distribution of British Fortunes
Million £
4,555
1,917 . . ht
2,202 .
1,731 •
1,432 -
I,6l«J •
•Id I
Persons I
i
>y . . . 169,040 . . . t
. 138,460 .
. 48,810 .
• 20,570 . . .
11,200 .
\>rtune in £
mder 5,000
o 10,000
25,000
50,000
100,000 v
250,000
500,000
750,000
100,000
r 1,000,000
1,020 .
405 .
195 •
68 1 .
2,971 .
... 653. . .
230 .
322 . . ove
15,053 million £ of which 10,500 million £ is held by 302,256 persons.
'Thus we get two-thirds of the wealth held by just under
400,000 people, and the top one-third by 36,000 people. I think
it is difficult to derive much reliable information as to whether
the tendency is for individual fortunes to become increasingly
great, that is for the proportion of wealth held by a fixed per-
centage of the whole population to become greater. The statistics
have to be looked at over a considerable period, and they are
affected by legal changes. The rates of mortality for the different
age groups change slowly and affect the "multiplier" so that it is
difficult to establish a statistical proof of a kind sufficiently rigid
for so important an assertion," ^
It is misleading to say that "two-thirds of the wealth is held by
less than i per cent of the population" for, as Carr Saunders
and Caradog Jones say, "It takes no account of the fact that the
ultimate units in society regarded in relation to wealth are families
rather than persons. The equal distribution of property implies
an equal holding among heads of households rather than an equal
iistribution among all living persons, including babies in their
cradles. It gives a more just impression to take the percentage
of occupied persons over 20. We then estimate that about 2i per
cent of occupied persons over 20 hold about two-thirds of the
wealth, and that about 2j- in 1,000 of occupied persons over
20 hold one-third of the wealth."
Distribution of Income in Great Britain. — Dr. Bowley esti-
mated for the United Kingdom that in 1910 all income receivers
could be divided into two classes, i-i per cent who took 30 per
cent of the whole national income and 98-9 per cent who shared
he rest between them. The national income here apparently
means that part of it accruing to individuals. Another division of
he same total showed that 44 per cent went to only 5 4 per cent
of all income receivers.
Dr. Bowley's conclusions for the pre-war period were: "The
)road results of this investigation are to show that the national
dividend increased more rapidly than the population in the gener-
ation before the war, so that average incomes were quite one-third
greater in 1913 than in 1880. The increase was gained principally
Before 1900, since when it barely kept pace with the diminishing
value of money. The increase was shared with remarkable equality
among the various economic classes. Property obtained a diminish-
ng share of the home product, but an unchanged share of the
whole income when income from abroad is included.
"The only marked alteration that has been found is the increase
of the intermediate class that contains persons with small salaries,
profits or earnings in other forms than wages. These include clerks
and others in retail and wholesale distributive trade, and the
younger or less successful persons in teaching and other profes-
sions.
"Manual labourers have been a diminishing proportion of the
British population. More of the whole effort of the population
las turned to direction, distribution and exchange, and relatively
ess to production. This has been renderedv possible, it may reason-
ably be presumed, by the increasing services of capital to produc-
tion, and probably also by the increased intelligence of labour."
British Incomes in 1801 and 1920. — Sir Josiah Stamp made
a comparison over 120 years (1801 and 1920), the main conclu-
sions of which were as follows :
WEALTH AND INCOME
453
Of the total number of people with incomes over £200 per
annum in 1801, the £200 to £500 class were 61.5 per cent, in 1920
71-3 per cent; the £500 to £1,000 class were 21.3 per cent, in 1920
15-8 per cent; the £1,000 to £2,000 class 10-3 per cent, in 1920
7-8 per cent; the £2,000 to £5,000 class were 5-3 per cent, in
1920 3-7 per cent; the over £5,000 class were then 1-4 per cent,
in 1920 1-3 per cent. In this sense there were in 1920 relatively
fewer rich people; for each class, save the lowest, was in 1920 a
smaller percentage than before. But this result is entirely due to
the 1920 preponderance of the £200 to £500 class. Perhaps it was
by 1920 easier to bring in these people to assessment than it used
to be in 1801, and the numbers then may have been exceptionally
defective. Let us assume that condition, and deal with only the
total number having incomes of over £50,000 per annum. Then
we get a remarkably close parallel.
The £500 to £1,000 class were 56%, in. 1920 55-2%
" £i, ooo " £2,000 " " 26-3%,, " 1920 27.3%
" £2,000 " £5,000 " " 13-9%. " 1920 T3-o%
" over £5,000 " " 3-8%. " 1920 4-5%
This indicates that the people with over £500 a year were in
1920 distributed in income classes practically the same as in 1801.
But if we look at the amounts of income in the classes, the results
are rather different, for there was relatively a larger sum in the
hands of the "over £5,000" class in 1920 than in 1801. He gave a
table for incomes over £500:
1801
1920
£ 50o-£i,ooo
24-4
22-3
I, OOO- 2,000
23-2
21-8
2,000- 5,000
26-7
21-8
Over 5,000
25-7
34-i
This result is consistent with the following theoretical solution:
The total nominal income increased much more than the total
population — the increase surged upwards through all the fixed
classes, so that there was in 1920 a smaller population in the
ranks of the poorest, with a nominal income of say under /8o a
year, and many more in the over £5,000 class, but the slope of
distribution had hardly altered.
Let us examine this in the light of the total numbers and sums
assessed. The population subjected to the tax law had increased
not quite five times, but the people with incomes over £200 had
increased on these tables 25 times, and their income 24 times;
even if we suppose the old tables were only half the truth, there
was in 1920 an increase in numbers and income of 12^ times, or
2-J- times the rate of the increase in population. If we take those
over £500, the numbers are 19 times, and the income 22 times as
great, and halving these again, for precaution, we have, roughly,
an increase at twice the rate of increase of the population.
Before and After the World War. — For a pre-war and post-
war comparison, Bowley and Stamp computed that the proportion
of the national income going to super-tax payers in 1911 has
been estimated at 8 per cent. The super-tax limit was then £5,000.
If allowance is made for the change in the value of money the
comparable figure in 1924 was £9,500. The proportion of persons
with incomes above this amount in 1924 was 5^ per cent. It
would appear, therefore, that, measured by percentage, and allow-
ing for the legal avoidance of super-tax, some ground has been lost
by this section in the period of 13 years.
The following table is given to show the percentage of total in-
come and individuals classified according to the source of income:
Source
Percentage of total
income
Percentage of total
individuals
I9I3-I4
1922-23
1913-14
1922-23
Mines and manufactures
Distribution and transport .
Professions, finance, .etc.
Employments, directors' fees,
etc.
Total. ....
6-9
8-2
8-3
4'3
6-0
8-9
5*1
7-8
10* I
I5'3
12-1
35-S
8-1
12-3
II'O
39-2
27.7
28.7
73-o
70-6
A British Official Estimate of Income Distribution.— The
Board of Inland Revenue gave the Royal Commission on Income
Tax (1920) a complete distribution table of the whole assessed
income for 1919 amounting to 2,073 millions (subject to a con-
siderable margin of error) as follows (revised in their 64th Annual
Report, p. 112): —
Class of income
Actual
Number of
Exceeding
Not exceeding
income
incomes
£
£
£
130
100
488,887,060
3,490,000
. 160
2OO
35S.2SO.ooo
2,031,400
200
250
165,000,000
751,700
250
300
110,700,000
411,000
300
400
I26,206,I()l
372,900
400
500
78,890,000
180,000
500
600
58,696,107
108,700
600
700
47,904,000
74,850
700
800
44,696,000
60,400
800
goo
40,022,000
47,640
goo
T,000
}6, 58^,000
38,920
T,000
1,500
118,088,285
08,430
1,500
2,000
75.554431
44,440
2,000
2,500
51,701,849
24,870
2,500
5,000
i .30,030,000
37,700
5,000
10,000
1 14,870,000
16,720
10,000
15,000
58,650,000
4,850
15,000
20,000
35,005,000
2,043
20,000
25,000
22,022,000
992
25,000
30,000
17,680,000
650
30,000
40,000
23,471,000
685
40,000
50,000
17.333,000
390
50,000
75,000
2I,467?OOO
35«
75,000
100,000
I I,782,OOO
137
100,000
33,690,000
165
Total of incomes £2,000 and over
540,701,849
89,620
Total of income distributed
amongst individuals .
2,287,179,823
7,800,000
Other income not so distributed .
26O,OOO,OOO
Grand total of incomes exceed-
ing £130 a year ....
2,547,I70,S23
7,800,000
United States: Distribution of Income. — The distribution
of national income in the United States has been computed for
1918 as follows: —
Actual
Percentage
distribution
distribution
Income class
Number
'ooo
Amount $
million
Number
Amount
$
Under /ero . .
200
-125
•5324
•22
o- 500
1,828
685
4-86
1-18
500- 1,000
12,531
g,8i9
33*35
16-94
1,000- 1,500
12,408
15,206
33'26
26-40
I,500~ 2,000
5,222
8,gi8
13-89
i5'39
2,000- 3,OOO
3f°65
7,3i4
8-15
12-02
3,OOO- 5,OOO
1,383
5*174
3-68
8-93
5,OOO- IO,OOO
587
3,037
1-56
6-79
1O,OOO- 25,OOO
192
2,808
•5112
4-85
25,OOO- 50,000
42
i,399
•1094
2-41
5O,OOO ' IOO,OOO
14
952
•0373
1*64
100,000- 200,000
S
672
•0132
1-16
2OO,OOO- 5OO,OOO
2
570
•0053
•98
500,000 1,000,000
•4
220
•0010
•38
1,000,000 and over .
.2
3i6
•0004
•55
37,56.p.6
57,955
100-0
100-0
In the year 1918, for which the best information exists, it is
estimated that about 86 per cent of those who had earnings had
incomes of less than $2,000 and 14 per cent more than $2,000.
The former class took 60 per cent of the national income and the
latter 40 per cent. It was estimated that the 5 per cent (of those
having earnings) who received the largest incomes, had a share
in the aggregate of 25 per cent, this share having declined from
33 per cent in 1913 to 1916. The National Bureau of Economic
Research, working on rather scanty details, estimated that for
454
WEAPON— WEAPONS
1918 the most prosperous i per cent of income receivers took 14
per cent of the total; the most prosperous 5 per cent took 26 per
cent of the total, the most prosperous 10 per cent took 35 per cent
of the total, and the most prosperous 20 per cent about 47 per cent
of the total. Starting from the top of the income scale, in order
to include one per cent of the income receivers, they had to go
down to people receiving $8,000 a year. Similarly to include 5 per
cent of the income receivers, they had to go down to $3,250;
to include 10 per cent down to $2,350, and to include 20 per
cent down to $750 approximately.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sir J. Stamp: British Incomes and Property (1916) ;
Wealth and Taxable Capacity (2nd ed., 1923) ; Current Problems m
Finance and Government (1924) ; Carr Saundcrs and Caradog Jones:
Survey of the Social Structure of the United Kingdom; Sir Leo Chiozza
Money: Riches and Poverty (new cd. 1913) ; The Nation's Wealth
(1914) ; Reports of the Royal Commission on Income Tax, Select Com-
mittee on Taxation of War Wealth, Colwyn Committee on Taxation
and the National Debt; Stamp and Rowley: The National Income
1924 (1927) ; National Bureau of Economic Research: Income in the
United States. (J. S.)
WEAPON: see ARMS AND ARMOUR; HALBERD, LANCE, SPEAR,
SWORD, GUN, PISTOL, SMALL ARMS and ORDNANCE.
WEAPONS, PRIMITIVE. Among primitive peoples it is
often impossible to say of any object whether it is a weapon of
war or an implement of agriculture or the chase. Thus in Assam
the knife or dao fells trees, kills animals, defends its owner against
human aggression and takes heads for him. A bow and arrow,
may be used for war or for hunting only. Instruments of war
may be roughly classified as those of offence and defence.
Stones. — The earliest missiles which man or sub-man ever
used were the untrimmcd stick or stone, hand-thrown. (For Bow
AND ARROW, BLOW-GUN, and the weapons of civilized peoples
sec separate articles). To give greater force and carrying-power to
stones, devices such as the sling and the pellet-bow have been con-
structed. Of the slings used by far the most common is the cord
sling, which is found sporadically throughout the world. It con-
sists of a wide, short strip of material, which forms a pouch for
holding the stone, to the ends of which one or more strings are
fastened for grasping in the hand. The pellet-bow, a more elab-
orate contrivance found in India, and Farther India, is a bow, fit-
ted with two strings; fixed between these, about half-way down,
is a small pouch for holding the stone or clay pellet.
Throwing-sticks and Clubs.~The stick thrown by hand has
also become a specialized weapon. As an object for piercing it
has developed into the dart, javelin, spear and arrow; as an object
for stunning or crushing into the throwing-stick and throwing-club.
As an implement of the chase the throwing-stick was used in an-
cient Egypt and is still found in Abyssinia, India and among the
Hopi of North America; as a weapon of war, however, the flat
throwing-stick is practically confined to Australia, though two
specimens have also been found in the island of Santo (New
Hebrides, West Pacific). In Australia the fighting boomerang
(q.v.) is rather long and narrow and curved within the plane of the
flattened sides. It differs from the better known returning boom-
erang, which is of lighter build and curved out of the plane of the
sides, which propeller-like twist gives it its returning powers. This
latter is used exclusively for fowling or as a game. The Australian
waddy, and the ulas of Fiji are throwing-clubs; the former has
typically a flat triangular head, the latter is short with a spherical
head and a handle carved to make the grip more sure. Other clubs
are sometimes thrown without being specially designed for the
purpose. The many-bladed throwing-knives of certain tribes in
the Sudan, of those throughout the Congo basin and north to Lake
Chad are metal derivatives of the African wooden throwing club.
Throwing-spears. — As to piercing missiles, such as darts,
javelins and throwing spears, the variety is endless. The simplest
are composed of a single piece of wood one end of which is pointed
and often hardened in the fire. More usually there is a separate
shaft and fore-shaft of which the latter is often heavily barbed by
means of carving or the attachment of separate pieces of bone or
wood. Heads of obsidian or other stone, bone and — especially in
Africa — metal are often added. To give greater range to the
throwing spear certain tribes use mechanical aids, of two main
varieties, the spear-thrower and the beckett. The former, con-
structed of wood or bamboo, performs the function of an extra
joint in the arm. The spear lies along the spear thrower, with its
butt resting against a projecting peg, or, where the thrower is of
bamboo, in the slight socket made by the septum of the node.
This device is typical of Australia ; it is also used in parts of New
Guinea and in some of the islands of Micronesia, and was formerly
used in Central and South America, whether in the chase or war
is not clear. The Eskimo and tribes of the northwest coast of
America also use it for discharging harpoons and fish-spears.
The beckett consists of a short length of cord with a knot at
one end. It is wrapped once round the spear, the knot passing
under the free end and being thereby kept in place. The free end
of the cord is then wrapped round the index finger of the throwing
hand. The resultant action when the spear is thrown is on the
same principle as that of the sling, and the spear is given greater
force in its flight than if thrown by hand, and is made to spin aa
it flies. For 'use in warfare the beckett appears to be restricted
to Oceania, but as a toy it is found both in Australia and Europe.
A similar contrivance was used by the soldiers of ancient Greece
and Rome and also by some North African peoples who may well
have borrowed it from them. It differs from the beckett in that
the cord is attached to the spear and is not retained in the hand.
In East Africa an unusual form of spear-thrower is found. A
shaft of wood terminating in a swollen head has this part hollowed
out ; into it is fitted the butt of the spear. The man then manipu-
lates the thrower as though it were a part of the spear-shaft, but
it does not leave his hand. . ^
Bolas. — An unusual missile now used almost exclusively for
hunting or as a game is the bolas. Among the Patagonians and the
Gauchos of La Plata, who formerly used it in warfare, it is
composed of three (less commonly two) balls of stone connected
with each other at a common centre by thongs several feet long.
One ball is usually smaller than the rest, and this is held while
whirling the bolas. The aim is to entangle the victim in the
thongs rather than to kill him. Among the Ho of Togoland, West
Africa, a long cord with a stone attached at either end is similarly
used for hindering an advancing enemy. Elsewhere a few tribes
in Central and East Africa use the same instrument as a toy. The
Eskimo uses a many-thonged bolas for catching birds.
Thrusting-spears and Clubs.— These are the most important
weapons used in hand-to-hand fighting. The former are very
similar to the throwing-spears, though usually heavier, and, since
nicety of balance is not necessary more often made without a
separate foreshaft. Many of them are heavily barbed as in the
beautiful specimens found in Fiji. Clubs are of diverse kinds.
Primarily they are for bruising or crushing, but some, such as
the bird-headed clubs which are used in New Caledonia are well
adapted for piercing. A distinction can also be made between
those which are all of one piece and those having a head of
different material from the shaft — usually of stone. Among
those of the former type the business end is usually considerably
thicker than the shaft and carved with spikes or rugosities (some-
times in imitation of its prototype the torn-up sapling) which
make it more effective; but in the W. Pacific bat-shaped clubs,
called by the early travellers "swords," are also found, though
to-day they seem to be used more often for ceremonial than for
military purposes. Clubs made entirely of any material other
than wood are not very common, but the nephrite mere and bone
patu of the Maoris are examples, and also the rhinoceros horn
clubs of the Bechuana. These former are not only striking but
also thrusting weapons, and are supplied with sharpened edges
for the latter purpose.
Poisons. — The art of poisoning their weapons is known to
many tribes. The poison is extracted from plants, as the upas
tree in Indonesia, and also sometimes from reptiles and insects.
In many parts of the world, however, weapons are said to be
poisoned but are not, for deaths due to tetanus which so often
followed wounds from these have frequently been mis-attributed
to poison. The belief arose partly from the statements of the
natives themselves, partly from the presence (in the West Pacific)
of a green gummy substance at the base of the arrow or spear-
heads. The latter is, however, only the vegetable cement fastening
WEAR— WEAVING
455
head to foreshaft, while the former refer to the magical power
supposed to be given the weapon by using human instead of animal
bone for the head or barbs.
Primitive Armour.— With the exception of shields, weapons
of defence are not common among primitive peoples, though some
have armour of a sort. In New Guinea, a few tribes wear a body-
covering of basket work, sometimes with a high back to protect
the neck and head. In the Gilbert Islands, owing to the dearth
of timber, native weapons of the ordinary kind are not found,
but in their stead, slender spears and many pronged "swords"
edged with sharks' teeth; as a protection against these, armour
of coconut fibre is worn often covering the whole person, includ-
ing the head. From West Africa and among the Baggara of the
north-east occasional suits of chain mail have been recorded,
probably the result of Arab influence. Plate armour is found in
north-east Asia and on the north-west coast of America, and
among the Haida cuirasses of wooden or bone slats are used, whose
form is reminiscent of this. In Indonesia corselets of hide or
basketry and wadded coats covered with feathers give protection,
and helmets of cane or skin are also found in this area and in
Indo-China, and Assam.
Shields. — Shields vary greatly in material and form. In Africa
hide and basketry are much used, the former mainly in the east
and south among the cattle-rearing people. In Indonesia,
Australia and the Pacific region those of wood are more common,
though basketry ones are also found. The Australian shields are
small and light, suitable for parrying blows, and in this are
similar to those of the Dinka and Mundu of the Sudan ; elsewhere
they are mostly for covering the most vital parts of the body.
The shield is essentially the means of defence for those who use
the club and spear and who fight mainly in the open. It is not
convenient for a bow and arrow people, since it interferes with
the free use of both hands. In New Guinea, however, this diffi-
culty has been overcome. Among the Tapiro pygmies of Nether-
lands New Guinea a small shield is hung round the neck in a net
bag in such a way as to protect the chest. Among the Gulf tribes
of Papua a large wooden shield, which has in its upper edge a
deep slot for the passage of the left arm, is suspended over the
shoulder, so that a man can draw his bow while keeping covered
the whole of his body which is towards the foe.
See Horniman Museum Handbook, Weapons of War and of the
Chase. (C. H. W.)
WEAR, river, Durham, England, rising in the Pennine chain,
and traversing a valley of 60 m. to the North Sea. Through a
narrow and picturesque valley, the stream flows to Bishop Auck-
land, then meanders past the bold peninsula which bears the
cathedral of Durham. Later the river becomes navigable, carry-
ing a great traffic in coal, and having its banks lined with factories.
At the mouth is Sunderland (q.v.).
WEASEL (Putorius nivalis), the smallest European species
of the group of mammals of which the polecat and stoat are
well-known members (see CARNIVORA). The weasel has an elon-
gated slender body, head small and flattened, cars short and
rounded, neck long and flexible, limbs short, five toes on each
foot, all with sharp, compressed, curved claws, tail rather short,
slender, cylindrical, and pointed at the tip, and fur short and
close. The upper-parts are reddish brown, the under-parts white.
In cold regions the weasel turns white in winter, but less regularly
and at a lower temperature than the stoat, from which it is
distinguished by its smaller size and the absence of the black
tail-tip. The length of the head and body of the male is about
8in., that of the tail a^in.; the female is smaller. The weasel is
distributed throughout Europe and northern and central Asia;
and is represented by closely allied animals in North America. It
possesses all the active, courageous and bloodthirsty disposition
of the rest of the genus. Mice, rats, water-rats, moles and frogs
constitute its principal food. It can not only pursue its prey
through holes and crevices and under dense herbage, but follow
it up trees, or into the water, swimming with ease. It constructs
a nest of dried leaves and herbage, placed in a hole in the ground
or hollow tree, in which it brings up its litter of four to six young
ones. The mother will defend her young with the utmost despera-
tion. Instances are known of weasels being met with in packs,
and then occasionally attacking human beings.
Among the American species may be mentioned the long-tailed
weasel (P. novaboracensis) of eastern U.S.A., which is chocolate-
brown above and turns white in winter. The short-tailed weasel
(P. cicognani) is about sin. shorter than the last and is darker in
summer. It inhabits Canada and northern U.S.A. and the fur
is an important source of ermine.
WEATHER: see METEOROLOGY.
WEATHERFORD, a city of Texas, U.S.A. Pop. 6,203 in
1920, 94% native white, estimated at 7,500 in 1928. It is the
seat of a junior college (Methodist Episcopal). The city operates
under a commission. The town was incorporated in 1878.
WEATHERING, in architecture, the sloping surface on the
upper side of a coping, projecting moulding or band course,
arranged so as to throw off rain water, known as wash. The
expression "to the weather" is used to describe the length of a
slate exposed below the edge of the next lapping course.
WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833-1912), American law-
yer and political leader, was born at Dayton (0.), on June 12,
1833. He studied law at Cincinnati (0.), and served on the
Union side in the Civil War. In March 1865 he was breveted
brigadier general of volunteers. He was a representative in
Congress in 1879—81 and in 1885-89, being elected by a Green-
back-Democratic fusion. In 1880 he was the candidate of the
Greenback party for president, and received a popular vote of
308,578; and in 1892 he was the candidate of the People's
party, and received 22 electoral votes and a popular vote of
1,041,021. He died at Des Moines (la.), on Feb. 6, 1912.
WEAVER-BIRD, the name by which a family (Ploceidae)
of birds are usually known, from their often elaborately inter-
woven nests. They are small sparrow-like birds, but the males
are often conspicuously coloured. Perhaps the most remarkable
is the African sociable grosbeak (Philhetaurus socius)\ some 100
or 200 pairs build their grass nests together in one tree, forming
a gigantic mushroom-shaped mass. Each nest is entered from be-
low. The subfamily of the widow-birds (Viduinae) have long
tail-feathers, reaching in Vidua paradisca, a bird the size of a
sparrow, a foot in length. This decoration is confined to the
males. The Ploceidae are closely related to the Fringillidae (see
FINCH), and are distributed over Africa, Australia and the warm-
er parts of Asia.
WEAVING. The process of weaving consists in interlacing,
at right angles, two or more series of flexible materials, of which
the longitudinal are called warp and the transverse weft. Weaving,
therefore, embraces only one section of the textile industry, for
felted, plaited, netted, hosiery and lace fabrics lie outside this
definition. Felting consists in bringing masses of loose fibres, such
as wool and hair, under the combined influences of heat, moisture
and friction, when they become firmly interlocked in every direc-
tion. Plaited fabrics have only one series of threads interlaced,
and those at other than right angles. In nets all threads are held
in their appointed places by knots, which are tied wherever one
thread intersects another. Hosiery fabrics, whether made from
one or many threads, are held together by intersecting a series of
loops; while lace fabrics are formed by passing one set of threads
between and round small groups of a second set of threads, instead
of moving them from side to side.
The invention of spinning (q.v.) gave a great impetus to the
introduction of varied effects; previously the use of multi-coloured
threads provided ornament, for simple structures, but the demand
for variety extended far beyond the limits of colour, and different
materials were employed either separately or conjointly, together
with different schemes of interlacing. Eventually the weaver was
called upon to furnish articles possessing lustre, softness and deli-
cacy; or those that combine strtmgth and durability with diverse
colourings, with a snowy whiteness, or with elaborate ornamenta-
tion. To meet the requirements the world has been searched for
raw materials. From the animal kingdom, wool, hair, fur, feathers,
silk and the pinna fibre have long been procured. From the vege-
table kingdom, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, ramie and a host of other
less known materials are derived. Amongst minerals there are
456
WEAVING
[FABRIC STRUCTURE
gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, glass and asbestos. In addition,
strips of paper, or skin, in the plain, gilt, silvered and painted
conditions are available, Finally, artificial fibres are used, espe-
cially artificial silk, which has come into very extended use.
The processes of bleaching (q.v.), mercerizing (q.v.), dyeing
(q.v.), printing (see TEXTILE PRINTING) and finishing (q.v.)
contribute to the resultant product.
FABRIC STRUCTURE AND DESIGNING
The following classification will be adopted: Group i, to
include all fabrics made from one warp and one weft, provided
both sets of threads remain parallel in the finished article and
are intersected to give the requisite feel and appearance. Group
2, to include (a) fabrics constructed from two warps and one weft,
or two wefts and one warp, as in those that are backed, reversible
and figured with extra material; (b) two or more distinct fabrics
built simultaneously from two or more warps and wefts, as in two,
three and other ply cloths; (c) fabrics built by so intersecting two
or more warps and wefts that only one texture results, as in loom-
made tapestries and figured repps. Group 3, to include fabrics in
which a portion of the weft or warp rises vertically from the
ground-work of a finished piece, as in velveteens, velvets, plushes
and piled carpets. Group 4, to embrace all fabrics in which one
portion of the warp is twisted partially, or wholly, round another
portion, as in gauzes and lappet cloths.
The structure of a cloth, and its ornamentation by weaving, is
worked out by the cloth designer on squared paper. Successive
vertical lines of squares are taken to represent the warp threads,
whilst horizontal lines similarly represent weft threads. A filled-in
square then indicates that the warp thread it represents is above
the weft, whereas a blank means weft above warp. This can be
seen clearly in fig. i. When two or more warps or wefts are used
in a cloth, different colours or kinds of marks are generally used
to show the working of the different warps or wefts. Thus, in
fig. 15 the crosses represent ground warp above ground weft,
whereas the filled squares show ground
warp above the extra or figuring weft.
Fabrics in Group 1. — These are
affected by the nature and closeness of the
yarns employed in their construction, by
colour, or by the scheme of intersecting
the threads. The most important section
of this group is Plain cloth, in which the
warp and weft threads are approximately
equal in thickness and closeness, and pass
over and under each other alternately, as
in fig. i, which shows a design, plan and two sections of plain
cloth. Such a fabric would, therefore, appear to admit of but
slight ornamentation, yet this is by no means the case, for if thick
and thin threads of warp and weft alternate the resultant fabric
may be made to assume a corrugated appearance on the face,
while beneath it remains flat, as in poplins, repps and cords. A
plan and a longitudinal section of a repp
cloth are shown in fig. 2. Colour may also
be employed to ornament plain fabrics,
and its simplest application produces
stripes and checks. But colour may con-
vert these fabrics into the most artistic
productions. Tapestries only differ from
simple plain cloth in having each horizon-
tal line of weft made up of numerous short
lengths of parti-coloured thread. Many
fine specimens of this art have been re-
covered from ancient Egyptian and Peruvian tombs, and many
are still produced in the Gobelins and manufactories of Europe.
Twills are next in importance to plain cloth on account of. their
wide range of application and great variety of effects; in elabo-
rately figured goods their use is as extensive as where they provide
the only ornament. Twills invariably form diagonal ribs in fabrics,
and these are due to the intervals at which the warp and weft are
intersected; thus two or more warp threads are passed over or
FlC. 1. — PLAIN CLOTH
FIG. 2. — REPP CLOTH
under one or more than one weft thread in regular succession.
Twills are said to be equal when similar quantities of warp and
weft are upon the face of a fabric, unequal when one set of threads
greatly preponderates over the other set. Fig. 3 shows the design
for an equal, and fig. 4 that for an unequal
twill, each of which requires four warp and
weft threads to complete the scheme of
intersections. If the ribs form angles of
45 degrees, the warp and weft threads per
inch are about equal in number, but for ah
unequal twill the material most in evidence
should be closest and finest. The angle
formed may be greater or less' than 45 de-
grees, as in figs. 5, 6, which are both de- F i G. 3. — FOUR-THREAD
rived as shown from the same base weave. S TWILL
Twills are simple and fancy; both terms refer to the schemes of
intersecting. In the former the same number of warp threads are
placed successively above or below each weft thread, and the ribs
are of uniform width, as in figs. 3, 4. In the latter more warp
threads may be above one pick than another, the ribs may vary
in width and small ornament may be introduced between the ribs,
as in figs. 5, 6 and 7. Twills may be broken
up into zig-zags, lozenges, squares and
other geometrical designs, all of which may
be produced by reversings in the diagonal
lines, or by reversing the weave of an un-
equal twill. Fig. 8 is a zigzag, namely, a
twill reversed in one direction. Fig. 9 is
a diamond, or a twill reversed in two direc-
tions, and fig. 10 is a diaper, which gives a
•• •••••• • • • •••
• ••i •• •*••• •• •••'
5._upRIGHT Tmu
warp face in one place and a weft face in FIG. 4. — FOUR-THREAD
another. } TWILL
Satins and sateens form another important section of Group
i. In a satin the bulk of the warp, and in a sateen the bulk of
the weft, is on the face of a fabric. If perfect in construction both
present a smooth, patternless appearance, which is due in part to
the scheme of intersections, in part to using fine material for the
surface threads and placing it close enough together to render
the points of intersection invisible; the
threads of the other set being coarser and
fewer in number. Satins differ from twills
in having each warp thread lifted, or de-
pressed, separately, but not successively.
From five to upwards of 30 threads of
warp and weft are required to complete the
various schemes of intersecting. If the
intervals between the intersections are
equal the weave is said to be perfect, as
in fig. n, but if the intervals are irregular
it is said to be imperfect, as in fig. 12. In Damasks a satin is com-
bined with a sateen weave, and since any desired size and shape
of either weave may be produced, great facilities are offered for
ornamentation. But in combination neither the satin nor the sa-
teen can be perfect jn construction, for one requires a preponder-
ance of warp, the other a preponderance of weft; it follows that
every point of intersection is distinctly visible on both surfaces.
Brocades are fabrics in which both sets
of threads may be floated irregularly upon
the surface to produce ornamental effects,
and they may be taken as typical of all
one warp and one weft fabrics that are
figured by irregularly floated materials,
whether the threads are uniformly or ir-
regularly distributed, and whether one
weave or several weaves be employed.
Group 2. — This group includes all FIG. «.-— R E c L i N i N G
backed and reversible fabrics, as well as TWILL
those ornamented with extra material and compounded. Cloths
intended for men's wear are often backed, the object of which is
to give weight and bulk to a thin texture without interfering with
the face effects. Either warp or weft may be used as backing; in
FABRIC STRUCTURE]
WEAVING
457
the former there are two series of warp to one series of weft
threads, while in the latter there are two series of weft to one
series of warp threads. The face material is superposed upon that
of the back, but the ratio of face threads
may be one or two to one of back. In
order to avoid disturbing the face weave,
only those threads are used to bind the
backing that are hidden by the face, as in
fig. 13, which gives the design and a trans-
verse section of a backed fabric. A is face
weft, B back weft, and the circles are
warp threads; of the latter C, D are be-
FIG. 7.— FANCY TWILL neath both B and A. This diagram will
serve equally as a longitudinal section of a warp-backed fabric,
if A represents a thread of face warp, B a thread of back warp
and the circles arc weft threads. Weft backing is capable of giving
a more spongy feel to a fabric than warp,
because softer materials may be used, but
in these fabrics the length output of the
loom is reduced by reason of the wefts be-
ing superposed. Warp-backed fabrics,
whether uniformly coloured or striped, do
not materially reduce the output of a loom,
for every weft thread adds to the cloth
length. Reversible fabrics may have either
FIG. 8. — ZIGZAG two series of differently coloured wefts or
warps to one of the other series, in which event they may be
similarly figured on both sides by causing the threads of the
double series to change places, as in the design and transverse sec-
tion, fig. 14; or, by allowing one series to1
remain constantly above the other, as in
backed cloths, both sides may be similar
or dissimilar in colour and pattern. Fabrics
figured with extra material may have two
series of warp or weft threads to one series
of the other set, and they may yield re-
versible or one-sided cloths. The figuring
t may be done entirely by the extra ma-
FIG. 9. — DIAMOND terial placed above or below a ground
texture, as in fig. 15, or ordinary and extra materials may be used
conjointly for figuring. In fig. 15 the waved lines and circles rep-
resent a section of the plain cloth ground which shows a thread of
extra material. Compound cloths must
have at least two textures, both as distinct
in character as if woven in separate looms.
They have many advantages over backed
cloths, thus: the same design and colour-
ing may be produced on both sides ; where
bulk and weight are required a fine surface
texture may be formed over a ground of
inferior material, and soft weft be passed
between the upper and lower textures; the
FIG. 10.— DIAPER fabric is more perfect and admits of either
simple or elaborate patterns being wrought upon the surface, with
simple ones beneath, as in piques and matelasses. One texture
may be constantly above the other and connected at the selvages
only, as in hose pipes and pillow slips; or
at intervals a thread may pass from one
texture into the other, in which event
both are united, as in many styles of bed-
covers and vestings. As many as from
three to twelve textures may be woven
simultaneously and united, as in woven
beltings; It differently coloured, the tex-
tures may change places at pleasure, as in
Kidderminster carpets. There may be
•SHKHM
Fie. II.— FIVE-T H R E A D from one to three threads of face warp to
8ATCEN one of back, and the wefting may or may
not correspond with the warping. Fig. 1 6 shows the face and back
weaves, the design, and a transverse section of a compound cloth
with two threads of face warp and weft to one of back, and both
are stitched together. The circles in the upper and lower lines
represent face and back warps respectively, and A, B, C are weft
threads placed in the upper and lower textures. In the design,
filled squares show face warp lifted above face picks, crosses
show back warp lifted over back picks,
dots indicate face warp lifted over back
picks, and the oblique marks show the
binding of the two fabrics by back warp
lifted over a face pick. Loom-made tapes-
tries and figured repps form another sec-
tion of Group 2. As compared with true
tapestries, the loom-made articles have
more limited colour schemes, and their fig-
ured effects may be obtained from warp
BACK WCPT
FIG. 13. — WEFT BACKED FABRIC
SATEEN""* ! X'T H * E A D as well as weft, whether interlaced to form
a plain face or left floating more or less
loosely. Every weft thread, in passing from selvage to selvage, is
taken to the surface where required, the other portions being
bound at the back. Some specimens are reversible, others are
one-sided, but, however numerous the warps and wefts, only one
texture is produced. When an extra warp of fine material is used
to bind the wefts firmly together a plain or twill weave shows
on both sides. If a single warp is
employed, two or more wefts
form the figure, and the warp
seldom floats upon the surface.
Where warps do assist to form
figure it rarely happens that more
than three can be used without
overcrowding the reed. Fig. 17
gives the design, and a transverse
section of a reversible tapestry
in four colours, two of which are
warps and two wefts. If either warp or weft is on the surface,
corresponding threads are beneath. The bent lines represent weft
and the circles warp. In this design the marks indicate the colours
showing on the surface of the cloth, and not the lifting of the
warp. Thus, crosses show No. i warp on the surface, filled squares
show No. 2 warp, dots show No. i weft and oblique marks No. 2
weft on the face of the fabric. Each verti-
cal line of squares represents one thread
of each warp and each horizontal line rep-
resents one thread of each weft. Figured
repps differ from plain ones in having
threads of one, or more than one, thick
warp floated over thick and thin weft
alike; or in having several differently col-
oured warps from which a fixed number, of threads are lifted over
each thick weft thread; the figure is due to colour.
Group 3. Piled Fabrics. — In all methods of weaving hitherto
dealt with the warp and weft threads have been laid in longitu-
dinal and transverse parallel lines. In piled fabrics, however,
portions of the weft or warp assume a position at right angles
to the surface of the cloth. If
the former there are two series
of weft threads, one being inter-
sected with the warp to form a
firm ground texture, the other be-
ing bound into the ground at
regular intervals, as in the design
and transverse section of a
velveteen, fig. 18; the circles and
waved lines form plain cloth,
and the loose thread A is a pile pick. After leaving the loom all
threads A are cut by pushing a knife lengthwise between the plain
cloth and the pile. As each pick is severed both pieces rise verti-
cally and the fibres open out as at B. Since the pile threads are
from two to six times as numerous as those of the ground, and rise
from an immense number of places, a uniform brush-like surface
is formed. Raised figures are produced by carrying the threads
A beneath the ground cloth, where no figure is required, so that the
FlG. 14. — WEFT REVER-
SIBLE FABRIC
FlG. 15. — FIGURING
WEFT
WITH EXTRA
WEAVING
[FABRIC STRUCTURE
knife shall only cut those portions of the pile weft that remain on
the surface. The effect upon the face varies with the distribution
of the binding points, and the length of pile is determined by the
distance separating one point
from another. When chenille is
used in the construction of fig-
ured weft-pile fabrics, it is neces-
sary to employ two weaving op-
erations, namely, one to furnish
the chenille, the other to place
it in the final fabric. Chenille is
made from groups of warp
threads that are separated from
each other by considerable inter-
vals; then, multi-coloured wefts
are passed from side to side in ac-
cordance with a predetermined F|G- 1fl "-COMPOUND FABRIC
scheme. This fabric is next cut midway between the groups of
warp into longitudinal strips, and, if reversible fabrics such as
table-covers and curtains are required, each strip is twisted axially
until the protruding ends of weft radiate from the core of warp,
and form a cylinder of pile. In the second weaving this chenille
is folded backward and forward
in a second warp to lay the col-
ours in their appointed places and
pile projects on both sides of the
fabric. If chenille is intended for
carpets, the ends of pile weft are
bent in one direction and then
woven into the upper surface of
a strong ground texture. Warp-
piled fabrics have at least two series of warp threads to one of
weft, and are more varied in structure than weft-piled fabrics,
because they may be either plain or figured, and have their sur-
faces cut, looped or both. Velvets and plushes are woven single
and double. In the former case both ground and pile warps are
intersected with the weft, but at
intervals of two or three picks
the pile threads are lifted over a
wire, which is subsequently with-
drawn; if the wire is furnished
with a knife at its outer extrem-
ity, in withdrawing it the pile
threads are cut, but if the wire is
pointed a line of loops remains,
FlG. 17. — TAPESTRY WITH
WARPS AND TWO WEFTS
Loosi THREAD
FlG. 18. — VELVETEEN
as in terry velvet. Fig. 19 is the design and two longitudinal
sections of a Utrecht velvet. The circles are weft threads, and the
bent line is a pile thread, part of which is shown cut, another part
being looped over a wire. The circles are repeated to show how
the ground warp intersects the weft. In the design the filled squares
show the pile warp lifted over the wires.
Double plushes consist of two distinct
ground textures which arc kept far enough
apart to ensure the requisite length of pile.
As weaving proceeds the pile threads are
interlaced with each series of weft threads,
and passed from one to the other. The
uniting pile material is next severed mid-
way between the upper and lower textures,
and two equal fabrics result. Fig. 20 gives
three longitudinal sections of a double
pile fabric. The circles A, B are weft
19 — UTRECHT VEL-
VET
threads in the upper
and lower fabrics respectively; the lines that interlace with these
wefts are pile warp threads which pass vertically from one
fabric to the other. At C, D the circles are repeated to show how
the ground warps intersect the wefts, and at E the arrows indi-
cate the cutting point. Figured warp-pile fabrics are made with
regular and irregular cut and looped surfaces. If regular, the
effect is due to colour, and this again may be accomplished in
various ways, such as (a) by knotting tufts of coloured threads
UDon a warn, as in Eastern caroets: (b} bv nrintinc a fabric after
it leaves the loom; (c) by printing each pile thread before plac-
ing it in a loom, so that a pattern shall be formed simultaneously
with a pile surface, as in tapestry carpets; (d) by providing
several sets of pile threads, no two of which are similar in colour;
then, if five sets are available, one-fifth of all the pile warp must
WEFT THREADS
Cumiia POINT
^Q^S^^sf^^^^^
TBnr>i i-igfi "V-^'aiY -if-, i-ir>v"Tttti rttts r^tf^3 «•'
WEFT THREADS
WARK INTERSECT win
WARPS INTERSECT Wen
FIG. 20. — DOUBLE PLUSH
be lifted over each wire, but any one of five colours may be
selected at any place, as in Brussels and Wilton carpets. Fig. 21 is
a longitudinal section of a Brussels carpet. The circles represent
two tiers of weft, and the lines of pile threads, when not lifted
over a wire to form loops, are laid between the wefts; the ground
warp interlaces with the weft to bind the
whole together. When the surface of a
piled fabric is irregular, also when cut and
looped pile are used in combination, de-
sign is no longer dependent upon colour,
for in the former case pile threads are only
lifted over wires where required, at other
places a flat texture is formed. In the latter case the entire sur-
face of a fabric is covered with pile, but if the figure is cut and
the ground looped the pattern will be distinct.
Group 4. Crossed Weaving. — This group includes all fabrics,
such as gauzes, in which the warp threads intertwist amongst
themselves to give intermediate effects between ordinary weav-
ing and lace. Also those, such as Lappets, in which some warp
threads are laid transversely in a piece to imitate embroidery.
Plain gauze embodies the principles that underlie the construction
of all crossed woven textiles. In these fabrics the twisting of two
warp threads together leaves large interstices between both warp
and weft. But although light and open in texture, gauze fabrics
are the firmest that can be made from a given quantity and
quality of material. One warp thread from each pair is made to
cross the other at every pick, to the right and to the left alter-
nately, therefore the same threads are above every pick,' but
since in crossing from side to side they pass below the remaining
PLAN OF GAUZE
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
FlG. 22.— PLAIN GAUZE
threads, all are bound securely together, as in fig. 22, which shows
a longitudinal section and also a plan of gauze. Lena is a muslin
composed of an odd number of picks of a plain weave followed by
one pick of gauze. In texture it is heavier than gauze, and the
cracks are farther apart transversely. Fancy gauze may be made
in many ways, such as (a) by using crossing threads that differ in
colour or count from the remaining threads, provided they are
subjected to slight tensile strain; (b) by causing some to twist to
the right, others to the left simultaneously; (c) by combining
with ;mrtthf»r wf»av*» nc rilnin ftvill aafin VtrnrnH** nr nil**
MACHINERY]
WEAVING
459
(d) by varying the number of threads that cross, and by causing
those threads to entwine several ordinary threads; (e) by passing
two or more weft threads into each crossing, and operating any
assortment of crossing threads at pleasure.
Lappet weaving consists in diapering the surface of a plain or
gauze fabric with simple figures. This is done by drawing certain
warp threads into a transverse position and
then lifting them over a thread of weft to
fix them in the texture, after which they
are moved in the opposite direction and
lifted over the following pick, the cloth
being generally woven with the face side
down. The material between one binding
point and another must float loosely, and
this limits the usefulness of lappet figur-
•IG 23 —LAPPET FABRIC lllg' In fig' *3 lhe thkk linCS Sh°W a
pet spot upon.a plain texture.
Notwithstanding diverse structure, intricate machines are not
essential to the production of either simple or complex textures;
the most elaborate and beautiful specimens of the weaver's art
have been manufactured upon simple machinery.
WEAVING MACHINERY
The longitudinal threads of a fabric are called warp, cainc,
twist and organzine, and the transverse threads are weft, shoot,
woof, filling and tram. A loom for weaving these threads into
cloth must provide for: (i) Shedding, i.e., raising and lowering
the warp threads in a predetermined sequence so as to form two
lines between which the weft may be passed. (2) Picking, or
placing lines of weft between the divided warp. (3) Beating-up,
or striking each weft thread into its appointed position in the
fabric. (4) Letting-off, or holding the warp tense and delivering it
as weaving proceeds. (5) Taking-up, or drawing away the cloth
as manufactured. (6) Temples, for stretching the fabric width-
wise in order to prevent the edge threads of a warp from injuring
the reed, and from breaking. Fig. 24 illustrates these operations.
Shedding is generally done by controlling the warp threads by
eyed healds, which are lifted or lowered to form the shed. The
weft is inserted by the shuttle after the shed has been formed,
and beating-up is done by the reed which is moved forward by
the slay or batten. Intermittently driven rollers take up the cloth
and a frictional drag, applied to the warp beam by a weighted
rope or chain, regulates the let-off and warp tension. Power
looms require the above-named contrivances to act automatically;
and, in addition, (7) a weft-fork, to stop the loom when the weft
FIG. 24. — DIAGRAM OF VARIOUS PARTS OF A LOOM
becomes exhausted or breaks. (8) Mechanism for stopping the
loom when the shuttle fails to reach its appointed box. (9) For
weaving cross stripes, multiple shuttle boxes are needed to bring
different colours, or counts of weft, into use at the proper time.
(10) In some looms a device for automatically ejecting a spent
cop, pirn or shuttle, and inserting a full one is requisite, (u)
If a weaver has to attend to a greater number of looms than
usual, a device for stopping the loom when a warp thread fails is
essential. In addition to the loom itself, weaving machinery in-
cludes preparatory machines required to get the warp and some-
times the weft threads ready for the loom. Warp thread — or
rather yarn — generally requires re-winding from the spinning
frame bobbins or cops on to larger bobbins; warping a number
of these yarns side by side on to a beam or into an untwisted
rope; siting the yarn to lay projecting fibres and to strengthen the
FIG. 25. — DIAGRAM OF HAND LOOM
yarn for weaving; finally, winding the sized yarn on to the loom
beam and getting it. ready for weaving in the loom.
The Hand-loom.— During the i;th and the first half of the
1 8th century it was observed that wherever any branch of the
textile industry had been carried to a high state of excellence the
looms used to manufacture a given fabric were similar in essen-
tials, although in structural details they differed greatly. Prior
to the invention of the fly shuttle by John Kay, in 1733, no far-
reaching invention had for generations been applied to the hand-
loom, and subsequently the Jacquard machine and multiple
shuttle boxes represent the chief changes. A hand-loom as used
in Europe at the present time (see fig. 25) has the warp coiled
evenly upon a beam whose gudgeons are laid in open steps formed
in the loom framing. Two ropes are coiled round this beam, and
weighted to prevent the warp from being given off too freely.
From the beam the threads pass alternately over and under two
lease rods, then separately through the eyes of the shedding
harness, in pairs between the dents of a reed, and finally they are
attached to a cloth roller. For small patterns healds are used to
form sheds, but for large ones a Jacquard machine is required.
Healds may be made of twine, of wire or of twine loops into
which metal eyes, called mails, are threaded. But they usually
consist of a number of strings which arc secured above and below
upon wooden laths called shafts, and each string is knotted near
the middle to form a small eye. From two to 24 pairs of shafts
may be employed, but the healds they carry must collectively
FlG. 26. — WEAVER'S REED
The warp threads are passed, generally in pairs or threes, through the dents
or spaces between the reed wires
equal the number of threads in the warp. These healds will be
equally or unequally distributed upon the shafts according to the
nature of the pattern to be woven, and the threads will be drawn
through the eyes in a predetermined order. The upper shafts are
suspended from pulleys or levers, and the lower ones are attached
directly or indirectly to treadles placed near the floor. The weaver
depresses these treadles with his feet in a sequence suited to the
pattern and the scheme of drawing the warp through the healds.
When the treadle is pressed down, at least one pair of shafts will
be lifted above the others, and the warp threads will ascend or
descend with the healds to form a shed for the shuttle to be
460
WEAVING
[MACHINERY
passed through (see SHUTTLE). The reed (fig. 26) is the instru-
ment by which weft is beaten into position in the cloth; it also
determines the closeness of the warp threads, and guides a mov-
ing shuttle from side to side. It is made by placing strips of
flattened wire between two half round ribs of wood, and binding
the whole together by passing tarred twine between the wires
and round the ribs. Such a reed is placed in the lower portion of
a batten, which is suspended from the upper framework of the
loom. In front of the reed, and immediately below the warp,
the projecting batten forms a race for the shuttle to travel upon
from side to side. Before Kay's invention a shuttle was thrown
between the divided warp and caught at the opposite selvage,
but Kay continued the projecting batten on both sides of the
warp space and constructed boxes at each end. Over each box
he mounted a spindle and upon it a driver, or picker. Bands con-
nected both pickers to a stick which the weaver held in his right
hand, while with the left hand he controlled the batten. A treadle
is pressed down by one foot to form a shed; the batten is pushed
back till a sufficient portion of the shed is brought in front of the
reed and the depressed threads lie upon the shuttle race; a clear
way is thus provided for the shuttle. A quick movement of the
stick tightens the cord attached to a picker and projects the
shuttle from one box to the other. The batten is now drawn
GRIFF
CYLINDER
NIKOLI
HOOK
NECK CORD
MAIL
FlG. 27. — JACQUARD MACHINE AND HARNESS
Thli method of i bedding it required for the production of all fabrics orna-
mented by woven floral detlgnt
forward, and the reed beats up the weft left by the shuttle. As
the next treadle is depressed to form another division of the
warp for the return movement of the shuttle, the last length of
weft is enwrapped between intersecting warp threads, and the
remaining movements follow in regular succession.
In cases where the weft forms parti-coloured stripes across a
fabric, also where different counts of weft are used, shuttles, equal
in number to the colours, counts or materials, must be provided.
By Robert Kay's invention of multiple shuttle boxes, in 1760,
much of the time lost through changing shuttles by hand was
prevented. His drop boxes consist of trays formed in tiers and
fitted, into the ordinary shuttle boxes. Each tray is capable of
holding a shuttle, and by operating a lever and plug with the
forefinger and thumb of the left hand the trays may be raised and
lowered at pleasure to bring that shuttle containing the colour next
needed into line with the picker.
The Draw Loom. — Large figured effects were formerly pro-
duced in draw looms, where the warp threads were so controlled
by separate strings that any assortment could be lifted when
required. To the lower end of each string a dead weight, called
a lingoe, was attached, and a few inches above the lingoe a mail
was fixed for the control of a warp thread. The strings passed
through a comber board which held the mails and warp threads
facing the proper reed dents. Still higher up, groups of strings
were connected to neck cords; each group consisted of all strings
required to rise and fall together constantly. If, for example, in
the breadth of a fabric there were 12 repeats of a design, 12
strings would be tied to the same neck cord, but taken to their
respective places in the comber board. These parts of a draw loom
harness are clearly shown in fig. 27 which represents a Jacquard
machine and harness. Each neck cord, after being led through the
perforated bottom board and over a grooved pulley, was threaded
through a ring on the top of a vertical cord called the simple, and
passed horizontally to, and tied upon, a bar rigidly fixed near the
ceiling of the weaving room. The simple cords were similarly
attached to a bar placed near the floor. From one hundred to
several thousands of neck and simple cords could be used^in one
harness. The design to be reproduced in cloth was read into the
parallel lines of the simple by looping a piece of string round each
cord that governed warp threads to be lifted for a given shed;
after which all the loops were bunched together. By pulling at a
bunch of loops the simple cords were deflected and they caused
all warp threads controlled by them to be lifted above the level of
those undisturbed. Similar bunches of loops were formed for
every shed required for one repeat of a design, and they were
pulled in succession by the draw-boy, while the weaver attended
to the batten and picking.
The Jacquard Machine.— This is the most important inven-
tion ever applied to the hand-loom, but it is not the work of one
man; it represents the efforts of several inventors whose labours
extended over three-quarters of a century. This apparatus has
taken the places of the simple, the loops, the pulleys and the
draw-boy of the older shedding motion, but other parts of the
harness remain unchanged. In 1725 Basile Bouchon substituted
for the bunches of looped string an endless band of perforated
paper by which the simples for any shed could be selected. In
1728 M. Falcon constructed the machine since known as the
Jacquard and operated it through the medium of perforated cards,
but it was attached to the simple cords and required a draw-boy to
manipulate it. In 1745 Jacques de Vaucansbn united in one
machine Bouchon's band of paper and the mechanism of Falcon.
He placed this machine where the pulley box previously stood,
and invented mechanism for operating it from one centre.
In a Jacquard machine the warp threads are raised by rows of
upright wires called hooks (fig. 27). These are bent at both
extremities and are normally supported upon a bottom board
which is perforated to permit the neck cords from the harness
beneath to be attached to the hooks. Each of a series of hori-
zontal needles — one of which is shown enlarged and detached at
the foot of the drawing — is provided with a loop and a crank;
the former to permit of a to-and-fro movement, the latter to
receive a hook. The straight ends of the needles protrude about
one-quarter of an inch through a perforated needle board, but
the looped ends rest upon bars placed in tiers. A wire passed
through all the loops of the needles which form one vertical line
limits the extent of their lateral movement, and small helical
springs impinge upon the loops of the needles with sufficient force
to press them and their hooks forward. A frame called a griff,
is made to rise and fall vertically by a treadle which the weaver
actuates with one foot. This frame contains a blade for each line
of hooks, and when the blades are in their lowest position the
hooks are free and vertical with their heads immediately over
WEAVING
PLATE I
mtm$&
* 'X. *
v.jvtjrl^^.'^-i
/*%
.-• ;
"* ff-' . \ 'V, • « '/ i
-/ - , '* •, ./^;l
EXAMPLES OF MEDIAEVAL WEAVING
1. Cologne orphreys woven in silk and gold threads. Faces of the Virgin
and Child are embroidered, (1425-1450). 2. Another specimen of Cologne
orphrey also woven with gold and silk threads and bearing Latin inscrip-
tions, late 15th century. 3. Part of a narrow band with chevron spaces
filled with delicate scroll ornament. Woven in silk and gold thread, 13th
century. 4. Portion of Clavus or narrow band from a ooplio tunic of the
9th or 10th century. 5. (Left) German late 12th or early 13th century
orphrey woven In gold and silk threads with Latin inscription along the
edges. (Right) part of broad band or orphrey woven In gold and silk
threads and bearina fiaures of the Crucifixion and Annunciation. German
work of the 13th century. 6. Italian damask or brocade silk fabric of 15th
century manufacture. 7. Example of Venetian silk weaving. Design shows
Ottoman influence, 16th century. 8. Byzantine weaving, llth century. Red
silk and gold thread used. 9. Fragment of Byzantine silk of the 12th
century. 10. Ottoman silk and gold thread weaving of the 16th century,
with ogival framed ornament. 11. Piece of north Italian silk weaving, 14th
century, pattern planned on original basis with fantastic birds. Cone forms
contain sham Arabic Inscriptions. 12. Apparel of a Dalmatic woven In
Venice late in 15th century. Tho pattern depicts the Virgin in glory
PLATE II
WEAVING
BY COURTESY OF (I, 4, 7, 8) THE MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN, HCVE FOUNDATION, (2, 9, 5, 6) THE DIRECTOR OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM
SPECIMENS OF ANCIENT WEAVING
1. Fragment of fabric woven by the lnca«. Taken from a grave in Pachaca-
mac, Peru. 2 Portion of the silk wrapping of tomb of Charlemagne with
fanciful elephant and sacred tree device in a roundel. Possibly of Baghdad
manufacture, 9th century. 3. Syrian or Anatolian silk weaving of the 5th
century depicting Samson slaying the lion. 4. Inca woven fabric with
figures of persons. Discovered in an ancient grave in Ancon, Peru. 5. Syrian
or Persian silk weaving of the 5th century, showing mounted hunters
engaged In the chase. 6. Syrian and Coptic flax weaving of the 5th or 6th
century. Discovered at Akhmin, upper Egypt. 7. Long narrow strip of Inca
fabric with typical design found in a grave in the Nasca valley. 8. A wider
strip of Inca woven fabric that was also discovered In one of tho Nasca
valley graves
MACHINERY]
WEAVING
461
the blades, hence an upward movement given to the griff would
lift all the hooks and thereby all the warp threads. Only certain
hooks, however, must be lifted with the griff, and the selection
is made by a quadrangular block of wood, called a cylinder, and
cards which are placed upon it. Each face of the cylinder has a
perforation opposite each needle, so that if the cylinder be
pressed close to the needle board the needle points will enter the
holes in the cylinder and remain undisturbed. But if a card,
which is not perforated in every possible place, is interposed be-
tween the cylinder and the needles, the unpunctured parts of the
card close up some of the holes in the cylinder and prevent cor-
responding needles from entering them. Each needle so arrested
is thrust back by the advancing card; its spiral spring is con-
tracted and its hook is tilted. If at this instant the griff ascends,
its blades will engage the heads of all vertical hooks and lift them,
but those that are tilted will remain unlifted. So soon as the
pressing force of a card is removed^from the needles the springs
restore both needles and hooks to their normal positions. Cards
are perforated by special machinery from a painted design, after
which they are laced into a chain and passed over conical pegs
upon the cylinder; the number required to weave any pattern
equals the number of weft threads in that pattern. The cylinder is
Ejcnerally drawn out and turned by each upward movement of the
griff, and restored to the needles by each downward movement,
so that each face in succession is presented to the needles, and
each rotatory movement brings forward a fresh card. As the
?riffe rises with vertical hooks a shed is formed, and a thread of
weft is passed across the warp. The griff then descends and the
operation is repeated but with a new combination of lifted threads
for each card. A Jacquard may contain from 100 to 1,200 hooks
ind needles, and two or more machines may be mounted upon
the same loom.
The Power-loom.— Little is known of the attempts made be-
fore the beginning of the i7th century to control all parts of a !
loom from one centre, but it is certain the practical outcome was j
Inconsiderable. In the year 1661 a loom was set up in Danzig,
for which a claim was made that it could weave four or six webs
it a time without human aid, and be worked night and day; this
was probably a ribbon loom. In order to prevent such a machine
from injuring the poor people the authorities in Poland suppressed
it, and privately strangled or drowned the inventor. M. de Gennes,
a French naval officer, in 1678 invented a machine whose chief
features consisted in controlling the healds by cams, the batten
by cams and springs and the shuttle by a carrier. From 1678 to
1745 little of importance appears to have been done for the me-
chanical weaving of broadcloth, but in the last-named year M.
Vaucanson constructed a very ingenious, self-acting loom, on
which the forerunrier~of the Jacquard machine was mounted; he
ilso adopted de Gennes' shuttle carrier.
During the last quarter of the i8th century it was generally
believed that, on the expiry of Arkwright's patents, so many
spinning mills would be erected as to render it impossible to con-
sume at home the yarns thus produced, and to export them would
destroy the weaving industry. Many manufacturers also main-
tained it to be impossible to devise machinery which would bring
:he production of cloth up to that of yarn. It was as a protest
igainst the last-named assertions that Dr. Edmund Cartwright, a
:lergyman of the Church of England, turned his attention to
mechanical weaving. More fortunate than his predecessors, he
attacked the problem after much initial work had been done, es-
pecially that relating to mechanical spinning and the factory sys-
Lem, for without these no power-loom could succeed. In 1 785 Dr.
Cartwright patented his first power-loom, but it proved to be
valueless. In the following year, however, he patented another
loom which has served as the model for later inventors to work
upon. He was conscious that for a mechanically driven loom to
become a commercial success either one person would have to
it tend several machines or each machine must have a greater
productive capacity than one manually controlled. The thought
ind ingenuity bestowed by Dr. Cartwright upon the realization
of his ideal were remarkable. He added parts which no loom,
whether worked manually or mechanically, had previously been
provided with, namely, a positive let-off motion and warp and
weft stop motions ; and he planned to size the warp while the loom
was in action. With this machine he commenced to manufacture
fabrics at Doncaster, and by so doing discovered many of its
shortcomings, and these he attempted to remedy: by introducing
a crank and eccentrical wheels to actuate the batten differentially ;
by improving the picking mechanism ; by a device for stopping the
loom when a shuttle failed to enter a shuttle box; by preventing
a shuttle from rebounding when in a box; and by stretching the
cloth with temples that acted automatically. In 1792 Dr. Cart-
wright obtained his last patent for weaving machinery. This pro-
vided the loom with multiple shuttle boxes for weaving checks
and cross-stripes. But all his efforts were unavailing, and it be-
came apparent that no mechanism, however perfect, could suc-
ceed so long as warps continued to be sized while a loom was sta-
tionary. His plans for sizing them while a loom was in operation,
and also before being placed in a loom, both failed. Still, provided
continuity of action could be attained, the position of the power-
loom was assured, and means for the attainment of this end were
supplied, in 1803 by William Radciiffe and his assistant, Thomas
Johnson, by their inventions of the beam warper and the dressing
sizing machine.
For upwards of 30 years the power-loom was worked under
numerous difficulties. The mechanism of the loom itself, the pre-
paratory processes and the organization of the industry were all
imperfect. Textile workers were unused to automatic machinery,
and many who had been accustomed to labour in their own homes
refused employment in mills, owing to dislike of the factory
system and the long hours of toil which it entailed. Yet improve-
ments in every branch of the textile industry followed each other
in quick succession, and the loom slowly assumed its present
shape. By using iron instead of wood in its construction, and
centring the batten, or slay, below instead of above the warp line,
the power loom became more compact than the hand-loom.
In the modern power-loom (figs. 28 and 29), motion is com-
municated to all the working parts from a main shaft A, upon
which two cranks are bent to cause the slay to oscillate; by toothed
wheels this shaft drives a second shaft, C, at half its own speed.
For plain weaving four tappets are fixed upon the second shaft —
two, D, for moving the shuttle to and fro, and two others, E, for
moving the healds, L, up and down through the medium of
treadles M, M. For other schemes of weaving shedding tappets
SUY
FlG. 26. — VERTICAL SECTION OF A POWER LOOM
are more numerous, and are either loosely mounted upon the sec-
ond shaft or fixed upon a separate one. In either event they are
driven by additional gearing, for the revolutions of the tappets to
those of the crank shaft must be as one is to the number of picks
in the repeat of the pattern to be woven. The warp beam is often
put under the control of chains instead of ropes, as used in hand
looms, and the chains are attached to adjustably weighted levers,
whereby the effectiveness of the weights may be varied at pleas-
ure. In the manufacture of heavy fabrics, however, it may be
necessary to deliver the warp by positive gearing, which is either
462
WEAVING
[MACHINERY
connected, or otherwise, to the taking-up motion. The cloth is
drawn forward regularly as it is manufactured by passing it over
the rough surface of a roller, I, and imparting to the roller an in-
termittent motion each time a pick of weft is beaten home. This
motion is derived from the oscillating slay, and is communicated
through a train of wheels. The loom is stopped when the weft
fails by a fork-and-grid stop motion, which depends for its action
on the lightly balanced prongs of a fork, N. These prongs come in
contact with the weft, between the selvage of the web and the
shuttle box each time the shuttle is shot to the side at which the
apparatus is fixed. If the prongs meet no thread they are not
depressed, and being unmoved a connection is formed with a vi-
brating lever by which the loom is stopped. On the other hand,
if the prongs are tilted, the loom continues in action. If more
than one shuttle is used it may be necessary to feel for each,
instead of alternate threads of weft. In such cases a fork is placed
beneath the centre of the cloth and lifted above a moving shuttle;
if in falling it meets with weft it is arrested and the loom contin-
ues in motion, but if the weft is absent the prongs fall far enough
beneath the shuttle race for a stop to act upon a lever and bring
the loom to a stand. To prevent a complete wreck of the warp it
is essential to arrest the loom when a shuttle fails to reach its
appointed box. For this purpose there are two devices, which are
known respectively as fast and loose reed stop motions. The first
was invented in 1796 by Robert Miller, and its action depends
upon the shuttle, as it enters a box, raising two blades, K, which
if left down would strike against stops and so disengage the driv-
ing gear. The second was invented in 1834 by W. H. Hornby and
William Kenworthy ; it is an appliance for liberating the lower part
of a reed when a shuttle remains in the warp, thus relieving it,
for the time being, of its function of beating up the weft. On the
release of a reed from the motion of the slay a dagger stops the
loom. Temples must keep a fabric distended to the breadth of
PICKER
SHUTTLI Box
FIG. 2ft.— PICKING PARTS OF POWER LOOM
The illustration ihowi the cone overplck motion, the type generally uted on
the cotton looms of Lancashire and the jute looms of Dundee
the warp in the reed, and be self-adjusting. This is usually accom-
plished by small rollers whose surfaces are covered with fine,
closely set points. The rollers are placed near the selvages of a
web which is prevented from contracting widthwise by being
drawn tightly over the points.
Looms ,are varied in details to suit different kinds of work, but
as a rule fabrics figured with small patterns arc provided with
healds for shedding as at L, while those with large patterns are
provided with the Jacquard and its harness. Healds may be op-
erated either by tappets or dobbies, but the range of usefulness
in tappets is generally reached with 1 2 shafts of healds and with
patterns having 16 picks to a repeat; where they are unsuitable
for heald shedding a dobby is used. A dobby may resemble, in
construction and action, a small Jacquard; if so the selection of
healds that rise and fall for any pick is made by cards. In other
types of dobbies the selection is frequently made by lags, into
which pegs are inserted to pattern in the same manner that cards
FlG. 30. — DOBBY SHEDDING MOTION, WIDELY USED FOR LIGHT CLOTHS
REQUIRING SMALL PATTERNS, AS STRIPED SHIRTINGS AND DRESS FABRICS
are perforated. A dobby of this type is illustrated in fig. 30, which
shows detached the pegging of the pattern lags for a small design,
filled in circles representing pegs. The pattern lags, L, act on
levers which lower hooks into contact with the oscillating griff bars
B, and these lift the required heald shafts. The figure shows
a double acting dobby, one lag, with two rows of pegs, serving for
two picks. Some dobbies are made single acting and some have
rollers instead of pegs to form a pattern. When multiple shuttles
are required for power looms one of two types is selected, namely,
drop or rotating boxes; the former are applicable to either light
or heavy looms, but the latter are chiefly confined to light looms.
As previously stated, Robert Kay invented drop boxes in 1760, but
they were not successfully applied to the power-loom until 1845,
when Squire Diggle patented a simple device for operating them
automatically. Since his time many other methods have been in-
troduced, the most successful of these being operated indirectly
from the shedding motion. Revolving boxes were patented in 1843
by Luke Smith.
Many devices have been added to power looms with a view to
reduce stoppages, among which those for the automatic supply of
weft are probably the most important. These efforts originated
with Charles Parker, who in 1840 obtained the first patent, but no
marked success was achieved until 1894, when J. H. Northrop
patented a cop changer. By his plan a cylindrical magazine, placed
over one shuttle box, is charged with cops or pirns. When fresh
weft becomes necessary the lowest cop in the hopper is pressed
into a shuttle from above, the spent one is pressed out from be-
neath and the new weft is led into the shuttle eye, while the loom
is moving at its normal speed. The mechanism is controlled by
the weft fork, or by a feeler which acts when only a predetermined
quantity of weft remains inside a shuttle. Many inventions are
designed to eject an empty shuttle and introduce a full one; others
change a cop, but differ in construction and action from the
Northrop. By relieving a weaver of the labour of withdrawing,
filling, threading and inserting shuttles it was seen that a large
increase might be made in the number of looms allotted to one
weaver, provided suitable mechanism could be devised for stop-
ping a loom on the failure of a warp thread and for automatically
maintaining a constant tension on the warp. With these devices
as many as 100 looms have been supervised by one weaver.
Warp stop motions date from 1786, when Dr. Cartwright sus-
pended an independent detector from each warp thread until a
fracture occurred, at which time a detector fell into the path of
a vibrator and the loom was stopped. The demand for warp stop
MACHINERY!
WEAVING
463
motions was, however, small until automatic weft supply mecha-
nisms were introduced, and the majority of those devices now in
use are constructed upon similar lines to the invention of Dr.
Cartwright.
Smallware Looms*— -A loom, which was for a long period
operated manually, but to which mechanical power could be ap-
plied, was brought into use more than a century before Dr. Cart-
wright's invention. It was known as the Dutch engine loom, and
was designed to weave from eight to upwards of 40 tapes or rib-
bons simultaneously. This machine may be regarded as a series
of looms mounted in one frame, each having a complete set of
parts, and as the first practical effort to connect and control all the
motions of weaving from one centre. The place and date of its
invention are uncertain, but it is known that in some districts its
use was entirely prohibited, that in others it was strictly limited,
and that it was worked in Holland about 1620. In England the
first patent was obtained by John Kay and John Snell, in 1745,
for additions which enabled it to be worked by hand, by water,
or other force, and in 1 760 John Snell appears to have added the
draw harness for weaving flowered ribbons. In 1 765 a factory in
Manchester was filled with ribbon looms which were either in-
vented by M. Vaucanson, or Kay and Snell, but one weaver could
only attend to one machine. When worked by hand it was known
as the bar-loom, because the weaver oscillated by hand a horizontal
bar that set in motion all parts of the machine. The shuttles and
reeds are actuated from the batten, the former originally by pegs,
but later by a rack and pinion arrangement, which in action shoots
the shuttles simultaneously across a web, to the right and left
alternately, each into the place vacated by its next neighbour.
One small warp beam is required for each web, but tappets, dob-
bies, or Jacquards are available for dividing the threads. Where
differently coloured wefts are needed in one web the shuttles are
mounted in tiers and all raised or lowered at once to bring the
proper colour in line with the shed.
In Swivel weaving, shuttles, similar to those described above, are
added to the battens of broad looms in order to diaper small figure
effects, in different colours or materials, over the surface of broad
webs. Weft from an ordinary shuttle forms the ground texture
with the warp, and after the passage of this shuttle the small
swivel shuttles place the figuring weft where required on the sur-
face of the fabric.
Pile Weaving. — Looms for weaving piled fabrics differ in cer-
tain important respects from those employed for ordinary weav-
ing; they are also made to differ from each other to suit the type
of fabric to be manufactured, as, for example, double and stngle,
plain and figured, textures. In Double pile looms the special fea-
tures are those that control the pile threads and those that sever
the vertical lines of pile. Two ground warps are required, and
unless they arc l^ept a uniform distance apart the piled effects
will be irregular. For plain goods the pile threads are wound upon
two or more beams, and as they move from web to web cloth-
covered rollers deliver them in fixed lengths. Meanwhile, a shuttle
passes twice in succession through each ground warp, and the pile
threads in moving above or beneath the wefts are bound securely.
Both fabrics are furnished with taking-up rollers which draw the
pieces apart and so stretch the uniting pile in front of a knife,
which severs it, thus forming two pieces at once.
The chief feature which renders most single pile looms dis-
similar from others is the mechanism by which wires are woven
upon, and withdrawn automatically from, a ground texture. Wires
are of two kinds, namely, without and with knives. The former,
being flattened and somewhat pointed, are woven above the weft
of a ground texture, but beneath the pile, so that by withdrawing
them looped pile is formed. A wire terminating in a knife with a
sloping blade, on being withdrawn, cuts th6 pile and produces a
brush-like surface. The mechanism for operating the wires is
placed at one end of a loom and consists of an arm which moves
in and out; at each inward movement a wire is inserted, and at
each outward movement one is withdrawn. In weaving tapestry
carpets, and certain other fabrics, a wire and a shuttle move
simultaneously, but the shuttle passes through the ground warp,
while the wire passes beneath the pile. After several wires have
been woven upon the ground texture the one first inserted is with-
drawn by the vibrating arm, and at the next inward movement the
same wire enters the warp near the reed, where it is beaten up
with the weft, and from this point the operation is continuous.
Tapestry carpets require three warps, one for the ground texture,
a second, or stuffing warp, to give bulk and elasticity to the
tread, and a third to form the pile. The last named is printed
upon a large drum, thread by thread to the colour-scheme of the
design, then, when the colours have been fixed and the threads
accurately placed, they are wound upon a beam, and all the warps
are operated by healds. For figured velvets, and Brussels and
Wilton carpets, the pile warp beam is replaced by a creel, in
order that each thread of pile may be wound upon a bobbin and
separately tensioned. This is essential, because, in the weaving
of a design, it is probable that no two threads of pile will be re-
quired in equal lengths. Creels are made in sections called frames,
each of which usually carries as many bobbins as there arc loops
of pile across a web, and the number of sections is the same as
the number of colours. In weaving these fabrics healds are used
to govern the ground warp, but a Jacquard is needed for the pile.
It must form two sheds, the lower one to receive a shuttle, the
upper one to make a selection of threads beneath which the wire
is to pass.
Terry looms for weaving piled textures, of the Turkish towel
type, have the reed placed under the control of parts that pre-
vent it from advancing its full distance for two picks out of every
series that separate one line of loops from another. At such
times the weft is not beaten home but a broad crack is formed. So
soon as the reed again moves through its normal space three
picks of weft are simultaneously driven home, thus closing the
gap and causing part of the pile to loop upward, the remainder
downward. The system is available for plain and figured effects.
Gauze textures are woven in looms having a modified shedding
harness, which, at predetermined intervals, draws certain warp
threads crosswise beneath others and lifts them while crossed.
There is also a tensioning device to slacken the crossed threads
and thus prevent breakages due to excessive strain. At other
times the shedding is normal.
Lappet looms have a series of needles fixed upright in laths,
and placed in a groove cut in the slay, in front of the reed. Each
needle carries a thread which does not pass through the reed.
The needles are lifted for each pick and lowered after the
passage of the shuttle, which is guided, not by the reed but by a
series of pins in front of the
needles and lifted and lowered
along with the latter. After being
lowered the needles are moved
sideways the width of the figure
«1nd again lifted for the next pick.
The edges of the figure are bound
in this way to the ground texture
by the weft.
Preparing Warp and Weft
for Weaving.— The power loom
is only one of a series of machines
which revolutionized weaving.
Although early inventors of the
power loom did much to perfect
its various movements, the com-
mercial results were disappoint-
ing, chiefly because means had
FOR WINDING COLOURED, AND not been devised for preparing
SOMETIMES GREY, WEFT YARNS ON warp and weft in a suitable man-
PIRNS FOR THE LOOM SHUTTLE ner for such a machine. William
Radcliffe, of Stockport, perceived these shortcomings, and con-
cluded that, by division of labour, weaving could be brought into
line with spinning machinery, then recently invented. He there-
fore set himself the task of solving the problems involved, and
by inventing the beam warper, the dressing sizing machine, the
shuttle tongue, and the pin cop, he enabled the power loom to
become a factor in the textile industry.
Weft yarns invariably receive simpler treatment than warp
FIG. 3!.— PIRN WINDING MACHINE,
464
WEAVING
[MACHINERY
yarns; in many cases none at all. Cops and ring spools pass direct
to the loom unless their dimensions are unsuited to the shuttles,
in which case they, together with wefts bleached or dyed in hanks
or used in a saturated condition, require winding upon pirns, or
into cops of suitable sizes. Weft for use with automatic weft
supply mechanism is frequently re-wound on to pirns, which hold
much more than the cops or ring spools. This reduces the
number of changes, lengthens the life of the changing mechanism
and makes less work for the mag-
azine fillers.
Pirn winders differ greatly in
construction but a common type
is illustrated in fig. 31. The spin-
dles are driven at constant speed
and the pirn is built up by the ac-
cumulation of yarn inside the
shaper cup. The rubbing of the
yarn against the cup is a dis-
advantage, and many winders
have shapers which reduce rub-
bing to a minimum. These ma-
chines generally have horizontal
spindles, running at constant
speed, but often the speed is
varied to keep constant rate of
winding on to the varying diame-
ter of the pirn FfG> 32- — D'A<"RAH OF WARP WIND-
tlr . ,.' . , . . ING PROCESS
Warp winding consists in trans-
ferring yarn from cops, ring spools or hanks, either to warpers,
bobbins or cheeses. Machines for this purpose are of two kinds,
which are known respectively as spindle and drum winders (fig.
32). In the former each bobbin is placed upon a vertical spindle
and rotated by frictional contact; a yarn guider meanwhile rises
and falls far enough to lay the threads in even coils between the
bobbin flanges. In the latter each bobbin, or tube, is laid upon a
rotating drum and a thread guide moves laterally to and fro,
slowly for a bobbin but quickly for a tube.
Warping. — Number of longitudinal threads in a web varies
according to their closeness and its breadth. It is the function of a
warper to provide a sufficient number of parallel threads for a web,
all of equal length, and to retain their parallelism. Warpers are of
three types, viz., mill, beam and sectional.
Mill warping (fig. 33) is the oldest type now in extensive use.
A mill warper has a creel in which from 50 to upwards of 300 bob-
bins or cheeses are supported horizontally upon pegs, and the mill
has a vertical axis which carries a reel from 5 to upwards of 2oyd.
FIG. 33. — PROCESS OF MILL WARPING, OFTEN USED IN THE PREPARATION
OF STRIPED COLOURED WARPS
in circumference. The threads from the creel are threaded in suc-
cession through leasing needles, then passed in groups of four to
20 threads between runners, and finally fastened by a peg to the
mill staves. The needles are mounted alternately in two frames
which may be lifted separately, one to elevate odd threads, the
other even ones, and both separations thus formed are retained
upon separate pegs; this is the lease which enables a weaver to
fix readily the position of a broken thread. As the mill rotates
the threads form a tape about lin. wide, and the leasing apparatus
slides down a post to coil the threads spirally upon the reel. When
the full length of warp has been made the mill is stopped, a lease
known as a half -beer lease is picked by hand from the divisions
formed by the runners and is also retained upon pegs. The mill
next reverses its direction of rotation, and as the leasing apparatus
ascends the threads are folded back upon themselves. Hence, if a
reel is 2oyd. in circumference, and 200 threads are in use to make
a warp 6ooyd. long, and containing 2,000 threads, the reel will
WARPER* BEAM
DRIVING DRUM
FlG. 34. — BEAM WARPING MACHINE, THE USUAL PROCESS FOR PREPAR-
ING THE WARP YARN FOR THE SLACKER SIZING MACHINE
make 30 revolutions (600-7-20 = 30) and ten reversals, for at each
reversal 200 additional threads will be added ( 2,000-7-200—10).
Beam warping is the system most extensively used in the cotton
trade. The creels for these machines have an average capacity of
about 600 bobbins, and are often V-shaped in plan. In each leg of
the V the bobbins are arranged in tiers of 16 to 20, and row behind
row. The threads are drawn separately between the dents of an
adjustable reed, then under and over a series of rollers; from here
they are dropped amongst the teeth of an adjustable comb and led
down to a warper's beam, which rests upon the surface of a drum.
As the drum rotates the threads are drawn from the bobbins and
wrapped in even coils upon the beam. On most of these machines
mechanism is attached for arresting motion on the breaking of a
thread, and also for accurately measuring and recording the
lengths of warp made. When full, a warpers beam holds threads of
much greater length than are needed for any warp, but they are
insufficient in number. Thus, if 500 threads are in use, and warps
of the above-named particulars are required, four similar beams
must be filled (2,000-^500=4) and the threads from all are sub-
sequently united. The chief parts of a beam warper may be used
as a substitute for a mill warper, provided that mechanism be
employed to contract the threads to the form of a loose rope and
coil them into a cylindrical ball, which will be subsequently treated
as a jnill warp. Or, one of these warpers may be furnished with
parts which link the roped threads loosely into a chain.
Sectional warping is chiefly employed for coloured threads and
its outstanding features consist in contracting the threads to form
a ribbon of from 3in. to i2in.
wide. This ribbon is coiled upon
a block placed between flanges,
and when completed is set aside
until a sufficient number of simi-
lar sections have been made;
after which they are slipped upon
a shaft and by endlong pressure
converted into a compact mass.
All the threads are then collected
and transferred in the form of a
sheet to a loom beam, each sec-
tion contributing its own width to
that of the warp. Sectional
warps are also made upon hori-
zontal mills by superposing the
coils of a ribbon of yarn upon a YARN OFF ON LOOM BEAM <BOT-
portion of the staves. When the TOII)
first section is formed a second is wound against it, and the opera-
tion continued until all the sections have been made ; after which
the yarn is run upon a loom beam.
Yorkshire Dressing and Scotch Dressing.— These systems
are used to make striped warps from balled warps which have
been dyed in different colours. The operation of Yorkshire dress-
. WINDING
A SECTION
MOUNTINO
SCCTtON* POM
RUNNING ON
TO LOOM BEAM
FlO. 35. — SECTION WARPING.
SHOWING WARP YARN WOUND INTO
SECTIONS (TOP). AND SECTIONS
MOUNTED SIDE BY SIDE TO RUN
MACHINERY]
WEAVING
465
ing is as follows : The requisite number of threads of any colour
is split from a uniformly dyed ball and set aside until warps of the
remaining colours have been similarly treated. The split sections
from the several balls collectively contain as many threads as are
needed for a warp, but those threads have still to be placed in their
proper sequence. This is done by drawing them in groups of two
or four between the dents of a reed to a predetermined colour-
scheme, then all are attached to a loom beam which is supported
in a frame. The beam is rotated and winds the threads upon
itself, but in order to hold the threads taut they are passed be-
tween weighted rollers and deflected by bars arranged ladder-wise,
whilst in passing from one part of the machine to another they are
gradually opened out to the width of the beam. Scotch dressing
is an alternative system of making striped warps from dyed balled
warps. Here, instead of being taken direct to the dressing frame,
the required number of threads of each colour are first wound
on to a beam. The threads from these differently coloured beams
are then combined at the dressing frame and wound on to the
loom beam according to the colour pattern, the yarn being wound
on under considerable tension and the beam consolidated by a
presscr roller. This method gives a firmer beam than Yorkshire
dressing, and the system is well suited to the preparation of sev-
eral similar loom beams which can all be run from one set of
coloured beams.
Sizing. — In cases where single yarns are made from short
fibrous materials, smooth surfaces are obtained by laying out-
standing ends of fibres upon the thread and fastening the fibres
together to impart sufficient strength to resist the strains of weav-
ing. This is accomplished either by coating the threads or by
saturating them with an adhesive paste. In hand-loom days the
paste was applied by brushes to successive stretches of warp while
in a loom. But with the advent of mechanical weaving it was
found necessary to size a warp before placing it in a loom. Two
systems were evolved. One, invented by William Radcliffe, sizes,
dries and beams a warp in one operation, the yarn being made to
pass in the form of a sheet between a pair of rollers, the lower
one being partly immersed in warm size. This roller carries
upon its surface a film of size which it deposits upon the threads,
while, by pressure, the upper roller distributes the size evenly.
Brushes, acting automatically, smooth down the loose fibres and j
complete the distribution of size. As the yarn advances it is sepa- |
rated by reeds and lease rods, so that in passing over steam-chests !
and fans the moisture contained in the threads may be quickly
evaporated. This machine is a duplex one, for the warpers beams
are divided into two sets and placed at opposite ends of the ma-
chine, both sets receiving similar treatment as they move to the
centre, where the loom beam is placed.
While efforts were being made to perfect Raddiffe's dressing
machine a system of sizing ball warps was being gradually evolved
and this system is still largely employed. The machine consists
of a long trough, inside which a series of rollers arc fitted, either
in one horizontal plane or alternately in two horizontal planes,
whilst over the front of the trough a pair of squeezing rollers are
mounted. The trough contains size, which is maintained at a
boiling temperature and in sufficient quantity to submerge the
rollers. Two warps, in the form of loose tapes, may be simul-
taneously led over, under and between the rollers. As the warps
advance, the threads become saturated with size, and the squeez-
ing rollers press out all but a predetermined percentage, the latter
being regulated by varying the pressure of the upper roller upon
the lower one. If more size be required than can be put into the
threads during one passage through the machine, they may be
similarly treated a second time. This process does not lay all the
loose fibres, but the threads remain elastic. After sizing, the warps
are passed round a set of steam-heated cylinders by which the
moisture contained in the threads is evaporated; they are next
either reballed or wound upon a loom beam.
For sizing cotton yarns Radciiffe's dressing machine has to a
large extent been displaced by the slasher, but in some branches j
of the textile industry it is still retained under various modifica- j
tions. In a slasher the threads from a number of warping beams ;
are first combined into one sheet, then plunged into a trough I
filled with size which is kept at a boiling temperature by perfo-
rated steam pipes. The threads are next squeezed between two
pairs of rollers mounted in the trough. The under surfaces of
the sizing rollers are in the size, and the upper squeezing rollers,
which are covered with flannel, rest by gravitation upon the lower
ones. On leaving the size trough the sheet of yarn almost en-
circles two steam-heated cylinders which quickly expel moisture
:T^=» DRYING CYLINDER*
DRiviNt ROLLERS
LOOM BEAM
FlG. 36. — SLASHER SIZING MACHINE. FOR APPLYING SIZE TO THE WARP
YARN AND FOR WINDING IT ON THE LOOM BEAM. ESPECIALLY IF CLOTH
IS TO BE GREY OR ALL OF ONE COLOUR
from the yarn, but so much heat is retained that fans have to be
employed to throw cool air amongst the threads. The yarn is
next measured, passed above and below rods which separate
threads that have been fastened together by size, smeared with
piece marks, and coiled upon a loom beam.
Hank sizing is chiefly, but not exclusively, employed for
bleached and coloured yarns. Machines for doing this work con-
sist of a tank which contains size, flanged revolving rollers and
two hooks. One hook is made to rotate a definite number of
times in one direction, then an equal number the reverse way; the
other has a weight suspended from its outer end and can be made
to slide in and out. Size in the tank is kept at the required tem-
perature by steam pipes, and "doles" of hanks are suspended from
the rollers with about one-third their length immersed in size. As
the hanks rotate all parts of the yarn enter the size, and when
sufficiently treated they are removed from the rollers to the hooks
where they are twisted to cause the size to penetrate the yarn and
to wring out excess size. If sufficient size has not been added by
one treatment, the wrung-out hanks are passed to a similar ma-
chine containing paste of greater density than the first and are
treated a second time; if necessary this may be followed by a
third passage. On the completion of sizing the hanks are removed
either to a drying stove or a drying machine.
Drawing-in, or entering, is the operation of passing warp
threads through the eyes of a shedding harness, in a sequence
determined by the nature of the pattern to be produced, and the
order of lifting the several parts. It is effected by passing a hook
through each harness eye in succession, and each time a thread
is placed in the hook by an attendant it is drawn into an eye by
the withdrawal of the hook. The operation is generally dojie by
hand, but for the simpler cloths, and particularly for repetition
work, mechanical drawing-in is often used.
Twisting consists in twisting, between the finger and thumb,
the ends of a new warp separately upon those of an old one, the
remains of which are still in the eyes of the shedding harness.
The twisted portions adhere sufficiently to permit of all being
drawn through the eyes simultaneously.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— For fabric structure and designing see T. Wood-
house and T. Milne, Textile Design, Pure and Applied (1912) ; W.
Watson, Advanced Textile Design (1913) and Textile Design and
Colour (1921); H. Nisbet, Grammar of Textile Design (1919). For
weaving machinery see F. Bradbury, Jacquard Mechanism and
Harness Mounting (Halifax, 1912) ; T. Woodhouse and T. Milne,
Jute and Linen Weaving (1914) ; T. W. Fox, Mechanism of Weaving
(5th ed., 1922). For preparatory processes see H. Nesbit, Preliminary
Operations of Weaving (vol. i. 1914; vol. ii., 1924); P. Bean,
Chemistry and Practice of Sizing (Manchester, loth ed. 1921). See
also F. Bradbury, Carpet Manufacture (Halifax, 1904) ; L. Hooper,
Weaving for Beginners (1920) and Weaving with Small Appliances
(1922). . (T. W. F.; W. A. H.)
466
WEBB
PRIMITIVE
True weaving consists "of the interlacing at right angles by
one series of filaments or threads, known as the weft or woof, of
another series known as the warp, both being in the same plane."
The warp threads are stretched from a cloth- or breast-beam to
another beam known as the warp-beam. The process of weaving is
then carried out by raising the odd threads, leaving the even ones
HCOOLC Roo
UASN
EVCN THREADS
COUNTER SMCO
Obo THREADS
FlG. 37
in position and passing the woof through the opening thus made.
The odd threads are then lowered, the even ones raised, and the
woof again passed between them. This is continued until the warp
is full. The space between the odd and even threads when the
former ase raised is known as a shed, when the latter are raised as
a counter-shed. The passing of the woof through either is termed
making a pick. After each pick is made the woof is pressed home
into position by a beater -in or sword usually a flat slat of wood.
In some primitive looms the odd and even threads are laboriously
raised by hand, but more commonly a heddle and shed stick are
used. The simplest heddle consists of a bar of wood to which the
odd warp threads are attached— this, the rod heddle, is always
worked by hand. The frame heddle is composed of two parallel
rods connected by a number of thin bars or strands, each with an
eye or loop in the centre through which the odd warp threads
pass (fig. 37). In Africa and Indo-China this is worked with the
feet by means of treadles. The shed stick is a rod, usually of some
thickness, which passes over the odd and under the even threads.
When the heddle is not raised the thickness and weight of the
shed-stick depresses the odd threads and so makes the counter-
shed (fig. 38). A more efficient form of shed-stick is a lath which
is. set on edge to form the counter-shed. « To prevent the warp
threads from becoming entangled, either two slender laths are
passed close to the warp-beam, one over the even and under the
odd, the other over the odd and
under the even threads; this pre-
vents the warp threads from
moving laterally or a warp-spacer
is employed, i.e., two parallel
rods united by a number of rigid
bars between which the warp-
threads are passed in varying
quantities. In many Indonesian
and some African looms this is
placed on the cloth-beam side of
the heddles and serves as a
beater-in as well. It is similar to
the reed of a European hand-
loom. An appliance which is
sometimes used is the temple,
usually a slender rod with a point
at either end, inserted in the fab-
ric horizontally close to the por-
tion under construction, serving Fi0- **
•to keep the width of the web even. Except where the weft
threads are discontinuous, as in the raffia looms of West Africa,
the weft is wound upon a spool. The arrangement is either as on a
European bobbin or the threads may pass lengthwise as on a net-
ting needle. Where the former method is employed, the bobbin is
usually encased in a shuttle, but among primitive peoples the
latter is the more common. In Indonesia and Indo-China the
material used in weaving is generally cotton, and this is also
WARP Bi AM
MTTIMN*
WNICNDONOT
AOAIE
FROM ROTH, "STUDIES IN MIMITIVf LOOMS"
widely used in Africa ; but here and in the west Pacific vegetable
fibre and the filaments of shredded leaves are utilized.
Variants. — Outside Africa the horizontal loom is most com-
mon. In this the warp beam is fixed a short distance off the ground.
The cloth-beam is then either similarly fixed (as in the African
specimens) or to it is fastened a girdle which passes behind the
back of the weaver as she sits at work. By adjusting the position
of her body she is able to regulate the tension on the warp
threads. The looms of ancient Mexico and modern West Africa
differ from other horizontal looms in that they lack a warp
beam; instead the warp-threads are bunched together and anchored
to a pole or to the ground.
The vertical loom is now found among primitive peoples in
Africa, India and parts of North America. It was used in ancient
Egypt and a special variety, with weights instead of a warp beam,
in classical Greece. The African vertical loom has two varieties,
that for weaving cotton anfl that for working raffia. They are
probably related historically, possibly to the ancient Egyptian
form. In them the warp-beam is the upper, the cloth-beam the
lower; that is, the weaver begins his work at the bottom. A
sloping loom is used by the Bushongo, wherein the warp is
stretched at an angle of about 60° and the weaver sits underneath
it, working from the bottom upwards.
Distribution. — The art of weaving occurs sporadically among
primitive peoples. The vertical loom is found in Africa, India
and among the Zuni, Navaho and kindred tribes of North Amer-
ica. The horizontal loom with fixed cloth-beam is mainly African;
that with a back-strap is found in Farther India, Indo-China, in
parts of Indonesia, Micronesia and north, central and south Amer-
ica, among the Ainu of Japan and in a few islands of Melanesia.
In this last area its presence is almost undoubtedly due to
Micronesian influence. In some islands, such as the Banks group
and Santo (New Hebrides), it appears to have become a lost
art, since there is evidence of its having been practised there
formerly.
'Sociological and Religious Aspect of Weaving. — Weav-
ing is often the prerogative of one or other of the sexes. In Africa
all the weavers are men, and though women may spin they are
often prohibited from touching a loom. With the exception of
Oceania the horizontal loom with the back-strap is worked mainly
by women. Weaving may be restricted to villages or families,
and among the Tangkhul Nagas of Assam, if a woman of a weav-
ing village marries and goes to live elsewhere, she usually ceases
to ply her craft. Even certain designs may be owned. In olden
days in Ashanti the king appeared to hold "copyright" of all
new designs, which were treated as a "tartan." Among the Sema
Nagas a woman may not weave while her husband is away hunt-
ing, trading or fighting. The Ashanti hold it wrong to break or
burn any part of a loom, and they therefore throw those which
are past service into a stream. If a man weaver commits adultery
with the wife of a weaver a sheep must be sacrificed in atonement
to the loom as well as to the ancestral stools.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — L. E. Start, "Burmese Textiles," Bank field Museum
Notes, series 2, No. 4, and "Coptic Cloths," Bank field Museum Notes,
scries 2, No. 7; W. H. Holmes, "Textile Fabrics in Ancient Peru,"
Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin No. 7 (1889) ;
Otis T. Mason, Woman's Share in Primitive Culture (1894), The
Origins of Invention (1895), and "A Primitive Frame for Weaving
Narrow Fabrics/' Smithsonian Institution Bureau of Ethnology, Ann.
Rep. (1901) ; C. Hose and W. McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of
Borneo (1912) ; H. Ling Roth, "Studies in Primitive Looms," Bank-
field Museum Notes, series 2, Nos. 8-n (also in Journ. Royal Anthrop.
Soc., vols. xlvi.-xlviii. 1916-18), and "Ancient Egyptian and Greek
Looms," Bankfield Museum Notes, series 2, No. 2 ; J. H. Hutton,
The Sema Nagas (1922) ; R. S. Rattray, Religion and Art in Ashanti
(1927), contain* a very detailed account of the technical processes
and the manifold designs; richly illustrated, (C. H. W.)
WEBB, SIR ASTON (1849- ), British architect, son of
Edward Webb, engraver and painter, was born in London on May
22, 1849 and elected president of the Architectural Association in
2884, and of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1902.
He restored the beautiful church, St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield,
London. He was knighted in 1904 and made K.C.V.O. in 1914.
He designed the new front of Buckingham Palace) and the archi-
tectural settings for the Queen Victoria Memorial there, as also
WEBB— WEBER
467
the Admiralty Arch at the other end of the Mall, London. He com-
pleted the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Royal College of Sci-
ence and other institutions at South Kensington as well as many
private houses, among them Yeaton-Peverey, Shrewsbury. New
buildings for the Army and Navy Co-operative Society are
among his latest work in London, In Jan. 1919 he was elected
president of the Royal Academy, being the second architect to fill
that post. He resigned in 1925, and was made G.C.V.O.
WEBB, MATTHEW (1848-1883), English swimmer, gen-
erally known as "Captain Webb," was born at Dawley, Shrop-
shire on June 18, 1848, the son of a doctor. While still a boy he
saved one of his brothers from drowning in the Severn, and, while
serving on board the training ship in the Mersey, he again dis-
tinguished himself by saving a drowning comrade. He served
his apprenticeship .in the East India and China trade, shipped as
second mate for several owners, and in 1874 was awarded the
first Stanhope gold medal by the Royal Humane Society for an
attempt to save a seaman who had fallen overboard from the
Cunard steamship "Russia." In 1875 Captain Webb became a
professional swimmer. On J uly 3 he swam from Blackwall Pier to
Gravesend, a distance of 20 m. in 4^ hours, a record which re-
mained unbeaten until 1899. ^n the same year, after one unsuc-
cessful attempt, he swam the English Channel, on Aug. 24, from
Dover to Calais in 21 j hours. He lost his life on July 24, 1883,
in an attempt to swim the rapids and whirlpool at Niagara.
WEBB, PHILIP SPEAKMAN (1831-1915), British archi-
tect, was born at Oxford on Jan. 12, 1831. He was educated at
Aynho, Northants, and after being articled to a Reading firm,
entered the office of G. E. Street, Oxford, where he met William
Morris. In 1856 he set up for himself in London, and after the
establishment of the firm founded by Morris (Morris, Marshall,
Faulkner and Co.), produced for them many designs for the most
varied purposes, house decoration, tiles, jewellery, furniture, etc.
Webb designed many fine houses, and one church, at Bramp-
ton, Cumberland (1875), His first house was built for William
Morris (Red House, Upton, 1859). He also made additions to
old houses, for example Berkeley Castle and Pusey House, Berk-
shire. Webb was the inventor of a method by which old build-
ings were strengthened by filling the interior of the walls with
new material. This procedure was often used by the Society for
the Protection of Ancient Buildings, which Webb and Morris
jointly organized and founded in 1877. He died at Worth, Sussex,
on April 17, 1915.
WEBB, SIDNEY (1859- ), English statesman and au-
thor, was born in London on July 13, 1859. He was educated at
private schools in London and Switzerland, at the Birkbeck In-
stitute and the City of London College. He entered the civil
service by open competition as a clerk in the War Office in 1878,
became surveyor of taxes in 1879, an(^ m J88i entered the co-
lonial office, where he remained until 1891. In 1885 he was called
to the bar at Gray's Inn. Webb was one of the early members
of the Fabian Society, contributing to Fabian Essays (1889). He
entered the London County Council in 1892 as member for Dept-
ford, and was returned at the head of the poll in the successive
elections of 1895, 1898, 1901 and 1904. He resigned from the
civil service in 1891 to give his whole time to the work of the
Council (where he was chairman of the Technical Education
Board) and to the study of economics. He served from 1903 to
1906 on the Royal Commission on Trade Union Law and on
other important commissions. He married in 1892 Beatrice Pot-
ter, herself a writer on economics and sociology, the author of
The Co-operative Movement in Great Britain (1891) and a con-
tributor to Charles Booth's Life and Labour of the People (1891-
1903). Mrs. Webb was a member of the Royal Commission on
the Poor Law, and she and her husband were responsible for the
Minority Report (see POOR LAW) and for starting the widespread
movement in its favour.
From 1909 onward, the Webbs played an increasingly impor-
tant part in moulding the opinion of British Labour and supplying
it with an intellectual armoury, They were concerned in the
founding of the weekly New Statesman in 1913, and for some time
before that had been busily promoting the development of the
London School of Economics and Political Science, a department
of the University of London where Mr. Webb was professor of
public administration. In 1915-25, he was a member of the exec-
utive of the Labour party. In 1922 he was returned as M.P. for
Seaham Harbour. In 1919, Webb was a member of the royal
commission on coal mines, and put before it a complete plan
for the nationalisation of the industry; in the same year he
served on the committee on trusts, set up under the Profiteering
acts. His inclusion in the first Labour Government was a matter
of course; but hi* presidency of the Board of Trade (1922-23)
was not marked by any striking innovations. In the MacDonald
cabinet of 1929 he was secretary for the colonies and dominions.
Mr. and Mrs. Webb have published three standard works, The His-
tory of Trade Unionism (1894, rev. cd. 1920), Industrial Democracy
(1897, new cd. 1902) and English Local Government, which reached
its seventh volume in 1927; also The Manor and the Borough (1908) ;
The Break-up of the Poor Law and The Public Organization of the
Labour Market (1909) ; English Poor Law Policy (1910) 5 A Constitu-
tion for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain (1920) ; The
Consumers' Co-operative Movement (1921) ; The Decay of Capitalist
Civilization (1921). In 1926 Mrs. Sidney Webb issued an autobio-
graphical work, My Apprenticeship.
WEBB CITY, a city of Missouri, U.S.A. Pop. (1920),
7,807, 97% native white, and estimated locally at 9,000 in 1928.
Adjoining it on the east is Carterville, with a population in 1920
of 2,434. The two cities are the centre of rich lead and zinc
mines, which were at their peak of production about 1910, when
the combined population reached 16,356. Webb City has large
powder works. White lead was discovered here in 1873 on the
farm of John C. Webb. Systematic mining began in 1877.
WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST
VON (1786-1826), German composer, was born at Eutin, near
Liibeck, on the i8th of December 1786, of a family long devoted
to art. His father, Baron Franz Anton von Weber, a military
officer in the service of the paigrave Karl Theodor, was an
excellent violinist, and his mother once sang on the stage. In
1778 Franz Anton was appointed director of the opera at Liibeck.
In 1779 the prince bishop of Eutin made him his kapellmeister,
and five years later he went to Vienna, placed two of his sons
under Michael Haydn, and in 1785 married the young Viennese
singer Gcnovefa von Brenner. In the following year Carl Maria
von Weber was born — a delicate child, afflicted with congenital
disease of the hip-joint.
Carl Maria von Weber became familiarized with the stage from
his earliest infancy. Franz Anton hoped to see him develop into
an infant prodigy, like his cousin Mozart. The child was taught
to sing and place his fingers upon the pianoforte almost as soon
as he could speak, though he was unable to walk until he was
four years old. Happily his powers of observation and aptitude
for general learning were so precocious that he seems, in spite
of all these disadvantages, to have instinctively educated himself.
In 1798 Michael Haydn taught him gratuitously at Salzburg. In
April the family visited Vienna, removing in the autumn to
Munich. Here the child's first composition — a set of "Six Fughet-
tas" — was published, with a pompous dedication to his half-
brother Edmund; and here also he took lessons in singing and
in composition. Soon afterwards he began to play successfully in
public, and his father compelled him to write incessantly. Among
the compositions of this period were a mass and an opera — Die
Macht der Lkbe und des Weins — now destroyed. A set of "Varia-
tions for the Pianoforte," composed a little later, was lithographed
by Carl Maria himself, under the guidance of Alois Senefelder,
the inventor of the process.
In 1800 the family removed to Freiburg, where the Ritter von
Steinsberg gave Carl Maria the libretto of an opera called Das
Waldmddchen, which the boy, though not yet fourteen years old,
at once set to music, and produced in the following November at
Freiburg.
Carl Maria returned with his father to Salzburg in 1801,
resuming his studies under Michael Haydn. Here he composed
his second opera, Peter Schmoll und seine Nachbarn, which was
unsuccessfully produced at Nuremberg in 1803. In that year
he again visited Vienna, where, though Joseph Haydn and Al-
468
WEBER
brechtsbergcr were both receiving pupils, his father preferred
placing him under Abt Vogler. Through Vogler's instrument-
ality Carl Maria was appointed conductor of the opera at Breslau,
before he had completed his eighteenth year. He began a new
opera called Rubezahl, the libretto of which was "romantic" to
the last degree, and Weber worked at it enthusiastically, but it
was never completed, and little of it has been preserved beyond a
quintet and the masterly overture, which was re-written in 18 11
under the title of Der Beherrscher der Geister. Quitting Breslau
in 1806, Weber removed in the following year to Stuttgart, where
he had been offered the post of private secretary to Duke Lud-
wig, brother of Frederick, king of Wiirttemberg. He worked hard,
and in 1809 remodelled Das Waldmadchen, under the title of
Sylvana. Weber removed to Darmstadt in order to be near his
Old master Abt Vogler, and his fellow-pupils Meyerbeer and
Gansbacher. On Sept. 16, 1810, he reproduced Sylvana at Frank-
fort, but with very doubtful success. His new comic opera Abu
Hassan was completed at Darmstadt in January 1811, after many
interruptions, one of which (his attraction to the story of Der
Freischiitz — see below) exercised a memorable influence upon
his later career.
Weber started in February 1811 on an extended artistic tour,
during which he made many influential friends, and on the 4th
of June brought out Abu Hassan with marked success at Munich.
His father died at Mannheim in 1812. In 1813 Carl Weber's
wanderings were brought to an end by the unexpected offer of
an appointment as kapellmeister at Prague, coupled with the
duty of entirely remodelling the performances at the opera-house.
He retained this post till 1816. He composed no new operas, but
he had already written much of his best pianoforte music, and
played it with ncver-f ailing success, while the disturbed state of
Europe inspired him with some of the finest patriotic melodies in
existence. First among these stand ten songs from Korner's Leyer
nnd Schwerdt, including "Vater, ich rufe dich," and "Liitzow's
wilde Jagd"; and in no respect inferior to these are the splendid
choruses in his cantata Kampf nnd Sieg, which was first per-
formed at Prague, on Dec. 22, 1815.
Weber resigned his office at Prague on Sept. 30, 1816, and on
Dec. 21, Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony, appointed him
kapellmeister at the German opera at Dresden. Weber had pre-
viously meditated turning Der Freischutz into an opera, and, with
the assistance of Friedrich Kind, he produced an admirable li-
bretto, under the title of Des Jdgers Brant. He had dealt with
the supernatural in Rubezahl, and in Sylvan-a with the pomp and
circumstance of chivalry; but the Shadowy impersonations in
Rubezahl are scarcely less human than the heroine who invokes
them; and the music of Sylvana might easily have been adapted
to a story of the igth century. But Weber now knew better than
to let the fiend in Der Freischiitz sing; with three soft strokes
of a drum below an unchanging dismal chofd he brings him
straight to us from the nether world.
Weber wrote the first note of the music of Der Freischutz
on July 2 — beginning with the duet which opens the second act.
But nearly three years elapsed before the piece was completed.
In the meantime the performances at the opera-house were no
less successfully remodelled at Dresden than they had already
been at Prague, though the work of reformation was far more
difficult. Having, after much difficulty, broken off his liaison with
Margarethe Land, Weber married the singer Carolina Brandt, a
consummate artist. The new opera was completed on May 13,
1820. He had engaged to compose the music to Wolff's Gipsy
drama, Preciosa. Two months later this also was finished, and
both pieces ready for the stage.
It had been arranged that both Preciosa and Der Freischutz —
no longer known by its original title, Des Jdgers Braut — should
b« produced at Berlin. Preciosa was produced with great suc-
cess at the old Berlin opera-house on June 14, 1821. On June 18,
the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, the opening of the new
"Schauspielhaus" was celebrated by the production of Der Frei-
schutz. The success of the piece was triumphant. The work was
received with equal enthusiasm at Vienna on Oct. 3, and at Dres-
den on Jan. 26, 1822. Yet Weber's position as kapellmeister was
not much improved by his success.
For his next opera Weber accepted a libretto based, by Frau
Wilhelmine von Chezy, on the story of Euryanthe, as originally
told in the i3th century, in Gilbert de Montreuil's Roman de la
Violette, and repeated with alterations in the Decamerone, in
Shakespeare's Cymbeline, and in several later forms. The work
was produced at the Kiirntnerthor theatre in Vienna, on Oct. 25,
1823, and received with enthusiasm.
Weber's third and last dramatic masterpiece was an English
opera, written for Covent Garden theatre, upon a libretto adapted
by Planche from Wieland's Oberon. It was disfigured by the
spoken dialogue abandoned in Euryanthe ; but in musical beauty
it is quite equal to it, while its fairies and mermaids are as vividly
real as the spectres in Der Freischutz. Though already far gone
in consumption, Weber began to compose the music on Jan. 23,
1825. Charles Kemble had offered him £1,000 for the work, and
he could not afford to rest. He finished the overture in London, at
the house of Sir George Smart, soon after his arrival, in March
1826; and on April 12, the work was produced with triumphant
success. Weber grew daily perceptibly weaker, and, notwith-
standing the care of his kind host, Sir George Smart, and his
family, he was found dead in his bed on the morning of June 5,
1826. For eighteen years his remains rested in a temporary grave
in Moorticlds chapel; but in 1844 they were removed and placed
in the family vault at Dresden, Wagner making an eloquent
speech. *
Besides his three great dramatic masterpieces and the other
works already mentioned, Weber wrote two masses, two sym-
phonies, eight cantatas, and a large number of songs, orchestral
and pianoforte pieces, and music of other kinds, amounting
altogether to more than 250 compositions.
Weber's style rises, in his three greatest works, to heights
which show his kinship with the great classics and the great
moderns. His intellect was quick and clear; but yet finer was
the force of character with which he overcame the disadvantages
of his feeble health, desultory education and the mistakes of his
youth. With such gifts of intellect and character, every moment
of his short life was precious to the world; and it is impossible
not to regret the placing of his training in the hands of Abt
Vogler. Weber's master was an amiable charlatan, whose weak-
ness as a teacher was thoroughly exposed, in perfect innocence,
by his two illustrious pupils. Meyerbeer wished to be famous as
the maker of a new epoch in opera. Weber could not help being
so in reality. But all his determination could not quite repair the
defects of his purely musical training, and though his weaknesses
are not of glaring effect in opera, still there are moments when
even the stage cannot explain them away. Thus the finale of Der
Freischutz breaks down so obviously that no one thinks of it as
anything but a perfunctory winding-up of the story, though it
really might have made quite a fine subject for musical treatment.
In Euryanthe Weber attained his full power, and his inspiration
did not leave him in the lurch where this Work needed large
musical designs. But the libretto was full of absurdities; espe-
cially in the last act, which not even nine rcmodellings under
Weber's direction could redeem. Yet it is easy to see why it
fascinated him, for, whatever may be said against it from the
standpoints of probability and literary merit, its emotional con-
trasts are highly musical. Indeed it is through them that the
defects invite criticism.
WEBER, JOSEPH: see WEBER AND FIELDS.
WEBER, MAX (1864-1920), German economist, was born
at Erfurt on April 21, 1864, and died in Munich on June 14, 1920.
He was professor at Berlin (1893), Freiburg (1894) and at
Munich (1918). Weber's first important work was Die romische
Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung fur das Staats-und Privatrecht
(1891). Later he occupied himself principally with sociology and
social philosophy, as in Die sozialen Grunde des Untergangs der
antiken Kultur (1895).
Other works arc The rural Community, lecture delivered before the
international Congress in St. Louis (1904) ; Russlands Uebergang zum
Scheinkonstitutionalismus (1906). The following works were published
WEBER— WEBER'S LAW
469
after his death: Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Retigionssoziologie (1920,
1921) ; Gesammelte politische Schriften, and Gesammelte Aufsatze zur
Wissenschaftslehre (1922); Wirtschajt und Gesellschajt (1921); Wirt-
schaftsgeschichte (1923) ; Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Soziologie und
Wirtschafts Geschichte (1924) ; Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Soziologie
und Sozialpolitik (1924).
WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891), German
physicist, was bom at Wittenberg on Oct. 24, 1804, and was a
younger brother of Ernst Heinrich Weber, the author of Weber's
Law. He studied at Halle, and at Gottingen, was one of the seven
professors who were expelled for protesting against the action of
the king of Hanover (duke of Cumberland) in suspending the
constitution. In 1849, he returned to Gottingen, where he died
on June 23, 1891.
There was no system either of stating or measuring electrical
quantities; but he showed, as his colleague K. F. Gauss did for
magnetic quantities, that it is both theoretically and practically
possible to define them, not merely by reference to other arbitrary
quantities of the same kind, but in terms in which the units of
length, time and mass are involved. Weber's theory of electricity
was founded on the views of Fechner who considered that positive
and negative charges move in a conductor with equal and opposite
velocities. From this he worked out the law of forces between
charges. Weber's work on electricity did much to stimulate mathe-
matical physicists. He also carried on extensive researches in the
theory of magnetism, and developed Faraday's ideas regarding his
explanation of diamagnetic phenomena. In his observations in
terrestrial magnetism he not only employed an early form of
mirror galvanometer, but, about 1833, devised a system of
electromagnetic telegraphy, by which a distance of some 9,000 ft.
was worked over. In conjunction with his elder brother he pub-
lished in 1825 a well-known treatise on waves, Die Wellenlehre auf
Experiment e gegrundet ; and in 1833 he collaborated with his
younger brother, the physiologist Eduard Friedrich Weber (1806-
1871), in an investigation into the mechanism of walking.
WEBER AND FIELDS, American comedians, were born
in New York city in 1867 and 1868, respectively, and educated
in the New York public schools. They made their initial stage
appearances together in juvenile Dutch sketches in the old
Bowery Music Hall Jan. i, 1878, and continued together in
"knockabout" sketches in small variety theatres until 1885, when
they formed their own company. In 1895 they became joint
managers of the Broadway Music Hall, which was thereafter
generally known as "the Weber and Fields," enacting there a
series of burlesques which added continually to their fame. In
1904 Fields withdrew and formed a partnership with Hamlin and
Mitchell, but continued to appear at WTeber's theatre. In 1912
they re-united in "Hokey-Pokey" at the Broadway theatre, and
their names have been continuously associated in ever popular
sketches in various New York theatres.
WEBERN, ANTON VON (1883- ), Austrian com-
poser, was born in Vienna on Dec. 3, 1883. He studied at Vienna
university, taking the degree of Ph.D. in musicology, and was one
of the first disciples of Schb'nberg, whose principles he has adopted
in his own works. In concentration and intensity he even exceeds
Schonberg, and the fragmentariness and almost complete absence
of tangible melody or effective rhythm in his later compositions
deprives them of any but an intellectual appeal. A characteristic
feature is his use of pianissimo.
His works include: A two string quartet op, 5 and 9 ; Pieces for violin
and piano op. 7; Passacaglia and five Pieces, op. <?, for orchestra;
Geistliche Lieder for soprano with 5 instr., op. 16; and a string trio
(1928). See Paul Stefan, Neue Musik und Wien.
WEBER'S LAW, in psychology, the name given to a prin-
ciple first enunciated by the German scientist, Ernst Heinrich
Weber (1795-1878), who became professor at Leipzig (of anat-
omy, 1818, of physiology, 1840). He was specially famous for
his researches into aural and cutaneous sensations. His law, the
purport of which is that the increase of stimulus necessary to
produce an increase of sensation in any sense is not an absolute
quantity but depends on the proportion which the increase bears
to the immediately preceding stimulus, is the principal generaliza-
tion of that branch of scientific investigation which has come to
be known as psycho-physics
According to Gustav Fechner (q.v.), who has done most to
prosecute these inquiries and to consolidate them under a sepa-
rate name, "psycho-physics is an exact doctrine of the relation
of function or dependence between body and soul." In other
words, it is throughout an attempt to submit to definite measure-
ment the relation of physical stimuli to the resulting psychical or
mental facts, and forms an important department of experimental
psychology. It deals with the quantitative aspects of mental
facts — their intensity or quantity proper and. their duration. Phy-
sical science enables us, at least in the case of some of the senses,
to measure with accuracy the objective amount of the stimulus,
and introspection enables us to state the nature of the subjective
result. Thus we are able to say whether a stimulus produces any
psychical result, and can fix in that way the minimum sensibile or
"threshold of consciousness" for each of the senses. In like man-
ner (though with less accuracy, owing to the disturbing nature
of the conditions) we can fix the sensational maximum, or upper
limit of sensibility, in the different senses, that is to say, the point
beyond which no increase of stimulus produces any appreciable
increase of sensation. We thus determine, as Wundt puts it, the
limit-values between which changes of intensity in the stimulus
are accompanied by changes in sensation. But the central inquiry
of psycho-physics remains behind. Between the quantitative
minimum and the quantitative maximum thus fixed can we dis-
cover any definite relation between changes in the objective in-
tensity of the stimuli and changes in the intensity of the sensa-
tions as estimated by consciousness.
As we have no means of subjectively measuring the absolute
intensity of our sensations, it is necessary to depend upon the
mental estimate or comparison of two or more sensations. Com-
parison enables us to say whether they arc equal in intensity, or
if unequal which is the greater and which is the less. But as they
approach equality in this respect it becomes more and more dim-
cult to detect the difference. By a series of experiments, therefore,
it will be possible, in the case of any particular individual, to deter-
mine the just observable difference in intensity between two
sensations of any particular sense. This least observable dif-
ference is called by Fechner the Untersehiedsschwelle or "differ-
ence-threshold," that is to say, the limit of the discriminative
sensibility of the sense in question. That such a "threshold,"
or least observable difference, exists is plain from very simple
examples. Very small increases may be made in the objective
amount of light, sound or pressure — that is, in the physical stimuli
applied to these senses — without the subject on whom the experi-
ment is made detecting any change. It is further evident that, by
means of this just observable difference, it is possible to compare
the discriminative sensibility of different individuals, or of dif-
ferent senses, or (as in the case of the skin) of different parts
of the same sense organ: the smaller the difference observable
the finer the discriminative sensibility. Thus the discrimination
of the muscular sense is much more delicate than that of the sense
of touch or pressure, and the discriminative sensibility of the
skin and the retina varies very much according to the parts of the
surface affected. Various methods have been adopted with a view
to determine these minima of discriminative sensibility with an
approach to scientific precision. The first is that employed by
Weber himself, and has been named the method of just observable
differences. It consists either in gradually adding to a given
stimulus small amounts which at first cause no perceptible dif-
ference in sensation but at a certain point do cause a difference
to emerge in consciousness, or, vice versa, in gradually decreasing
the amount of additional stimulus, till the difference originally
perceived becomes imperceptible. By taking the average of a
number of such results, the minimum may be determined with
tolerable accuracy. The second method is called by Fechner the
method of right and wrong cases. When two stimuli, A and B, are
very nearly equal the subject will often fail to recognize which
is the greater, saying sometimes that A is greater, sometimes that
B is greater. When in a large number of trials the right and
wrong guesses exactly balance one another we may conclude that
the difference between the two stimuli is not appreciable by the
470
WEBSTER
sense. On the other hand, as soon as the number of correct
guesses definitely exceeds half of the total number of cases, it
may be inferred that there is a certain subjective appreciation
of difference. This method was first employed by Vierordt. The
third method, that of average errors, is very similar to the one
just explained. Here a certain weight (to take a concrete example)
is laid upon the hand of the person experimented upon, and he
is asked, by the aid of subjective impression alone, to fix upon a
second weight exactly equal to the first. It is found that the
second weight sometimes slightly exceeds the first, sometimes
slightly falls below it. Whether above or below is of no con-
sequence to the method, which depends solely on the amount of
the error. After a number of experiments, the different errors
are added together, and the result being divided by the number of
experiments gives us the average error which the subject may be
calculated upon to make, This marks the amount of stimulus
which is just below the difference-threshold for him. This method
was first employed by Fechner and Volkmann. Another method,
known as the "method of mean gradation," was first introduced
by Plateau. It consists in getting the subject to find or select a
stimulus that shall be, or at least appears to him to be, midway
between two given stimuli. The different methods were first
named, and the theory of their application developed by Fechner
in his Elemente der Psychophysik (1860).
A number of experimental variations have since been devised
by Wundt and others, but they are all reducible to the two
types of the "gradation" and "error" methods. These methods
have been chiefly applied to determine the relation of the
difference-threshold to the absolute magnitude of the stimuli
employed. For a very little observation tells us that the smallest
perceivable difference is not an amount whose absolute intensity
is constant even within the same sense. It varies with the in-
tensity of the stimuli employed. We are unable, for example,
to recognize slight differences in weight when the weights com-
pared are heavy, though we should be perfectly able to make the
distinction if the weights compared were both light. Ordinary
observation would lead us, therefore, to the conclusion that the
greater the intensity of the original stimulus at work the greater
must be the increase of stimulus in order that there may be a
perceptible difference in the resulting sensation. Weber was the
first (after a prolonged series of experiments) to clothe this
generality with scientific precision by formulating the law which
has since gone by his name. He showed that the smallest percep-
tible difference is not absolutely the same, but remains relatively
the same, that is, it remains the same fraction of the preceding
stimulus. For example, if we can distinguish 16 oz. and 17 oz.,
we shall be able to distinguish 32 oz. and 34 oz., but not 32 oz.
and 33 oz., the addition being fri each case -fa of the preceding
stimulus. This fraction (supposing it to be the difference-
threshold of the muscular sense) remains a constant, however
light or however heavy the weights compared. The law may be
formulated thus: — The difference between any two stimuli is
experienced as of equal magnitude, in case the mathematical rela-
tion of these stimuli remains unaltered. Or, otherwise expressed,
in order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in arith-
metical progression the stimulus must increase in geometrical pro-
gression.
It is also expressed by Fechner in the form: The sensation
increases as the logarithm of the stimulus.
VARIOUS INTERPRETATIONS
The law has been variously interpreted. Fechner himself desig-
nated it the psycho-physical law, and treated it as the fundamental
formula of the relation between body and mind, thus assigning
to it an ontological dignity and significance. But in this "psycho-
physical" interpretation of his results he has not had a numerous
following. Wundt interprets the law in a purely "psychological"
sense, making it a special instance of the general law of relativity
which governs our mental states. Introspection can give us no
information as to the absolute intensity of the stimulus; for a
stimulus is known in consciousness only through its sensational
resultant. Hence, he argues, we can only compare one psychical
state with another, and our standard of measurement is therefore
necessarily a relative one ; it depends directly upon the preceding
state with which we compare the present. Others (e.g., G. E.
Mtiller) have attempted to give the law a purely physical or
"physiological" explanation. Instead of holding with Fechner
that the law expresses a recondite relation between the material
and the spiritual world, they prefer to regard the quantitative
relation between the last physical antecedent in the brain and the
resultant mental change as prima facie one of simple proportion,
and to treat Weber's law as holding between the initial physical
stimulus and the final action of the nerve-centres. According to
this interpretation, the law would be altogether due to the nature
of nervous action. As a nerve, says Sully, after a temporary
degree of stimulation temporarily loses its sensibility, so the
greater the previous stimulation of a nerve the greater is the
additional stimulus required to produce an appreciable amount
of sensation.
Weber's law, it must be adcled, holds only within certain limits.
In the "chemical" senses of taste and smell experiments are
almost impossible. It is not practicable to limit the amount of the
stimulus with the necessary exactitude, and the results are further
vitiated by the long continuance of the physiological effects.
The same considerations apply with still more force to the or-
ganic sensations, and the results in the case of temperature sensa-
tions are completely uncertain. The law is approximately true
in the case of sight, hearing, pressure, and the muscular sense —
most exactly in the case of sound. As this is the sense whuh
affords the greatest facilities for measuring the precise amount
of the stimulus, it may perhaps be inferred that, if we could
attain the same exactitude in the other senses, with the elimina-
tion of the numerous disturbing extraneous influences at work,
the law would vindicate itself with the same exactitude and cer-
tainty. It is further to be noted, however, that even in those
senses in which it has been approximately verified, the law holds
with stringency only within certain limits. The results are most
exact in the middle regions of the sensory scale; when we ap-
proach the upper or lower limit of sensibility they become quite
uncertain.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Weber's investigations were published as "Der
Tastsinn und das Gemeingefiihl," in WaRner's Handworterbuch der
Physiologic, iii. (1846). Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik (1860)
contains an elaborate exposition of the whole subject. He replied
to his critics in two later works, In Sachen der Psychophysik (1877)
and Revision der Hauptpunkte der Psychophysik (1882). Delboeuf's
6tude psychophysique (1873), Examen critique de la lot psycho-
physique (1883), and Aliments de psycho physique generate et spedale
(1883), and G. E. Miiller's Zur Grun'dlegung der Psychophysik (1878)
are also important documents; and the subject is fully treated in
Wundt's Grundzuge der physiologischen Psychologic, (ed. 1902-1903),
and "t)ber die Methode d. Minimalanderungen," in Philos. Stud.
(Leipzig, 1883), or, more popularly, in his Human and Animal
Psychology (2nd ed., 1892), Lectures 2, 3, 4. See also Ladd's Physio-
logical Psychology (1887), which is based upon Wundt; Meinong, in
Zeitschr. fur Psychologic, xi. (1896) ; Zichen, Leitfaden der physio-
logischcn Psychologic (7th cd., Jena, 1906) ; E. B. Titchencr, Experi-
mental Psychology (ii., 1005) ; Professor James Ward's "Attempt to
Interpret Fechner's Law/' in Mind, i. 452 sqq.; and generally text-
books of psychology, e.g. G. F. Stout's Manual of Psychology, bk. ii.
ch. 7 (following Meinong) ; James's Principles of Psychology t ch. 13;
Kiilpe's Outlines of Psychology, part i. chap, i and 3. See PSYCHOLOGY,
HISTORY or. (A. S. P.-P.)
WEBSTER, DANIEL (1782-1852), American statesman
and lawyer, was born in Salisbury (N.H.), Jan. 18, 1782. His
parents were rugged New England farming people. Daniel was the
delicate one of the family, and not particularly inclined to farm
work. From childhood, however, he loved out-of-door life, was
exceedingly fond of hunting and fishing, and unusually skilful at
them, and this taste, which became strong in his youth, clung to
him through all his long career.
His early schooling was primitive. But he had a passion for
books of all sorts. Bits of the poets and illustrations from the
great historians were always ready to his hand when he needed
them and came out with singular appropriateness in later years.
It has been urged that he was indolent. So was Sir Walter Scott.
But Scott could do more work in a day than other men in a week;
and so could Webster. His mind seized the essence of things.
WEBSTER
47
These intellectual gifts were so manifest that Webster's father
made great sacrifices to send the boy to Phillips academy, Exeter,
and then to Dartmouth college. His college record was good, but
not remarkable; like many men of genius, he preferred other
things to the appointed task. It is said that in early days he was
reluctant to speak in public, but toward the end of his college
career he was known as something of an orator and debater, and
when he was Vi8, a year before his graduation in 1801, he was in-
vited to deliver the Fourth of July address for the town of Han-
over. Some of these early speeches have been preserved, and while
crude, they suggest what was to come.
With a mind like Webster's the law seemed the inevitable voca-
tion, and the little teaching he did was merely a means to an end.
As was the custom in those days, he went into the office of a prac-
tising lawyer in Boston, and the invaluable training of Christopher
Gore no doubt went far in making his pupil the great lawyer that
he afterwards became. He was admitted to the bar in 1805, and in
1807 settled himself to practise in P&rtsmouth. His reputation in
law is quite as great as, perhaps more unclouded than, in states-
manship. His clear, massive, gorgeous, overwhelming eloquence
carried juries with him as well as parliaments, and no estimate of
his eloquence is complete that does not allow for the superb per-
sonality that gave it weight and vigour. He was a notable presence,
even to those who passed him unknown in the street. The dignity
of his solid figure, the rich and varied music of his voice, above all
the penetrating splendour of his eyes, gave his spoken words a
glory which we cannot recover, effective as his speeches often are
in print. Of his jury triumphs the best known is that in the White
murder case. His most celebrated plea before the Supreme Court
in Washington is that for Dartmouth college, in 1818, when the
personal touches, notably, "It is, as I have said, a small college,
and yet there are those who love it," so affected all present that it
was said of Chief Justice Marshall that "the deep furrows of his
cheek expanded with emotion and his eyes suffused with tears."
Party passions, together with the power of his tongue, naturally
took Webster into politics. It is said that even in childhood he
began to study the Constitution as printed on a cotton handker-
chief. From 1813 to 1817 he was a member of the House of Rep-,
resentatives. New England at that time was bitterly opposed to
the Madison Administration, to the Democratic Party, and espe-
cially to the war with England, and Webster's eloquence was used
unsparingly to express these New England prejudices, though he
cannot be connected with the more or less disloyal Hartford Con-
vention. At this early period, in curious contrast to his later views
and arguments, he was hostile to a protective tariff, feeling that it
would complete the ruin of the New England shipping interests,
already sufficiently imperilled by the cost of the war.
While he was out of politics, from 1817 to 1823, Webster dc-
voted himself energetically and profitably to the practise of law.
During these years he was making his great reputation as a histor-
ical orator. In 1820 he delivered the bi-ccntennial speech at Ply-
mouth, celebrating the landing of the Pilgrims, and it is probable
that in the line of general eloquence he never reached a greater
height than this. The significance of America, the political, social
and religious principles that America stood for, and the splendid
development and prospects of the Anglo-Saxon race, were por-
trayed with a dignity and amplitude which good judges consider
worthy to be compared with Demosthenes or Burke. Webster's
impressive delivery, his intense, magnetic hold upon his audience,
were never more fully manifested than upon this occasion. Tick-
nor, who was present, gives a vivid account of his own experience :
"I was never so excited by public speaking before in my life. Three
or four times I thought my temples would burst with the gush of
blood. . . . When I came out I was almost afraid to come
near to him. It seemed to me as if he was like the mount that might
not be touched and that burned with fire. I was beside myself, and
am so still." The address delivered on the anniversary of the battle
of Bunker Hill, in 1825, was another of these historical tributes,
equally successful and well known. On Aug. 2, 1826, Webster gave,
in Faneuil hall, Boston, the eulogy on John Adams and Thomas
Jefferson, who had both died on the Fourth of July previous. This
speech contains the famous words, attributed to John Adams,
"Sink or swim, live or die," etc., which have probably been re-
peated in school declamations as often as any piece of rhetoric in
the English language. In 1823 Webster again appeared in the
House of Representatives, and in 1827 in the Senate, in which he
was to play so great a part for many years. The Missouri Com-
promise (q.v.) of 1820 had for the time apparently settled the
question of slavery, but in reality the rift between the two sections
of the country had been opened, and it was not ever really to be
closed again until after the Civil War.
Webster's position with regard to slavery was taken at this time,
and in spite of his conduct in later years, it cannot be said that his
theoretical attitude was ever altered. He believed, as did so many
good men and leaders, both North and South, that slavery was an
evil, disastrous to the white race as much as to the black. The
earlier great men of the South in the main held this view, and it
was left for Calhoun and Jefferson Davis, under the controlling
influence of cotton, to discover that the enslavement of the blacks
was ordained by God for the benefit of everybody. But Webster
believed first of all in the Constitution. The Constitution recog-
nized slavery, and therefore it was impossible to meddle with it,
except to see that its increase and spread were discouraged by
every means that the Constitution would permit.
On the other sectional issue, that of the tariff, which some per-
sons consider even more vital than slavery, inasmuch as it meant
the growing triumph of the industrial North over the agricultural
South, Webster was more aggressive, and distinctly advocated the
high protection which the Southern leaders felt to be fatal to their
prosperity. But above all Webster ranged himself on the side of
those who opposed sectional division and disunion tendencies
altogether. In 1830 a comparatively minor debate as to the public
lands brought on the Southern attack upon New England, and
Webster, in defending his native state, replied to Hayne with the
glorification of the Union, which probably did more to unify the
country than any single utterance of any man. Hayne and his fol-
lowers often had the technical interpretation of the Constitution
on their side, but Webster had common sense behind him, he was
himself the incarnation of common sense, and he gave the common
sense of a united country a superb, an enduring dignity of expres-
sion which has never been forgotten and never can be. In his argu-
ments with Calhoun over nullification, in 1833, there is the same
striking contrast. Calhoun was perhaps more sound as regards
mere technical logic, but Webster had the weight and the enduring
substance of human truth.
In this nullification quarrel with South Carolina Webster heart-
ily supported Andrew Jackson. But there was no sympathy be-
tween the two. Webster was an aristocratic Whig of the old school,
Jackson an aggressive Democrat of the America to come, and over
the bank and other things they came into violent conflict. It should
be added that Webster's most serious contributions to political
thought are to be found in his discussion of strictly financial mat-
ters. Moreover, when Jackson went out, in 1836, Webster would
have liked to come in, and this was one of the acute crises in the
fever of his presidential desires. It is amusing to see how many of
his biographers deny his ambition. He wanted to Serve his country,
they say; he wanted to be where he could be of the greatest use.
It is the old story, and no one has ever yet succeeded in disentan-
gling the personal from the patriotic motive in these matters. The
Presidency is the f nal seal of success in American politics, and no
man who has given his life to those politics has ever been willing to
see the Presidency slip from him without a sigh of despair. "I
would rather be right than be President," said Henry Clay. But
Clay and Webster and many another have persuaded themselves
that the road to being President was the road to being right. Where
will you find a more ingenuous avowal of ambition than in Web-
ster's words to his friend Plumer: "I have done absolutely noth-
ing. At 30 Alexander had conquered the world; and I am 40."
But Van Buren was elected, and Webster passed by, and for a
time he turned his thoughts to private life. His affairs needed more
attention than he could give them. He had been twice married,
first in 1808, to Grace Fletcher, a love-match; second in 1829, to
Caroline Le Roy. He had an expensive family, and his own tastes
were expensive. He liked social life of all sorts, and social life was
4-72
WEBSTER
costly. He liked eating and drinking, especially the latter. He
was happy on his great farms, in Franklin and at Marshfield.
But the farms and the country life were almost as ruinous as
dissipation, perhaps more so. And the trouble was aggravated by
Webster's business habits, or lack of them. He was a master of
theoretical finance, but he could not keep his own private accounts,
did not even try to keep them systematically. In consequence, he
was always in trouble, always borrowing and renewing. When such
business methods get mixed up with politics, there may not be cor-
ruption, but there is terrible danger of it. Webster's biographers
insist that he was never personally dishonest. But there is a pro-
found remark of Webster himself, which is worth remembering:
"There are means of influence not generally esteemed positively
corrupt, which are competent to produce great effects."
With the failure of his immediate political ambitions, Webster
turned his attention to more general matters, and grew anxious to
see something of Europe. The embassy to England had always
tempted him, and it was even said that he had manoeuvred to get
his friend Everett out of the position so as to succeed him. This
came to nothing, but in 1830 Webster arranged a trip across the
water and he was received by his English friends with every pos-
sible attention and courtesy. He wrote rather extensive letters
home, but it is curious to note, with these, as with all his corre-
spondence, the singular lack of intimate personal revelation. In
reading these lengthy epistles, we may be driven to wonder whether
Webster's external life was so active and varied that it left the
inner life somewhat jejune and bare.
Returning from abroad, Webster found the election of 1840
impending, but his own hopes and aspirations were completely sub-
merged in the spectacular success of Harrison, with the log-cabin
and hard cider and Tippecanoe campaign furore. Again it was evi-
dent that, widely as Webster was esteemed and respected, he had
not the faculty of personal leadership. Men praised him, but they
did not vote for him. Instead of the Presidency, he was forced to
put up with the secretaryship of State, which was given him by
Harrison, and at first continued by Harrison's successor, Vice-
president Tyler. Tyler soon got into trouble with his Whig cabinet,
and they all left him but Webster, who incurred some odium by
remaining. His plea was that he wished to complete the negotiation
with England about the north-eastern boundary. This was settled
with Lord Ashburton by the treaty of 1842, an arrangement which
was entirely satisfactory to neither party, and was therefore prob-
ably as fair a compromise as could have been devised. This is no-
table as being almost the only great constructive achievement of
Webster's career. With all his intellectual and oratorical powers,
the working of circumstances was such that he was almost always
in opposition, and had no opportunity to show how well he could
build for permanence', though the sure logical action of his genius
would seem to have adapted him peculiarly for such work.
After the treaty was disposed of, Webster retired from the cab-
inet and for a time again disappeared into private life. The clouds
seemed to be gathering about him in many ways. The deaths of his
children, culminating in that of his daughter Julia, were a terrible
grief to him. His money complications increased, and though his
earning power was as great as ever, his gift for spending more than
kept pace with it.
When he returned to the Senate in 1845, the political world was
as dark as his own surroundings. He was perscfially attacked by
Ingersoll, with charges of dishonesty during his secretaryship Con-
gressional investigation cleared him of all but carelessness, yet
men always spoke of him with a slur or an apology from the finan-
cial point of view. The menace of the Mexican War was confusing
everything, and making the issue of slavery more threatening and
more difficult to deal with. Webster, like Clay and Calhoun, op-
posed the war, but he sent his son to fight and die, as did Clay also.
The vast accession of territory that resulted from the defeat of
Mexico brought ail sorts of slavery complications with it. Webster
took an active part in these, being in the main anxious to have
slavery repressed and limited, so far as this was compatible with
the Constitution. But when, in 1850, Clay brought forward his
compromise measures, in the desperate attempt to avert actual
civil conflict, Webster joined him, and the combined influence of
the two, after months of heated debate, prevailed to have the com-
promise accepted. Webster's course was abused with the utmost
violence by the anti-slavery section of the North, and Whittier's
wail over Ichabod gave the abuse literary dignity and permanence.
The senator was accused of having betrayed every high principle,
in the vain hope of getting the South to support him for the Presi-
dency. Recent historians have come more and more to reject this
view. They argue that without the compromise, the Civil War
would have been precipitated at that time, and that by postponing
it for ten years, until the North was strengthened by the immense
accession of the growing West, the whole course of American his-
tory was changed. In this view Webster became, not the destroyer
but the saviour of his country, and it must at least be believed that
such salvation was mainly what he aimed at.
Under Fillmore, he had to be content with the secretaryship of
State, and he filled this office until the condition of his health
became so critical that work of any kind was out of the question.
Perhaps the most notable of his later official acts was his sharp
correspondence with the Austrian charge Hulsemann in regard to
the affairs of Hungary. Webster died on Oct. 24, 1852.
The details of Webster's death have been recorded with curious
minuteness by his biographer, Curtis. The dying statesman first
delivered a senatorial oration on religious matters, perhaps, like
most of his talk on such subjects, more eloquent than convincing.
The exhaustion of this prostrated him for the moment. When he
again came to himself, his words were: "Have I — wife, son, doctor,
friends, are you all here? — have I, on this occasion, said anything
unworthy of Daniel Webster?" And the audience unanimously
answered, "no." It would be hard to find a more fitting final utter-
ance for a man who had lived for 50 years in the statuesque pose.
Yet it is fair also to remember that Webster's last preoccupation
on the less personal side was with his country, and he directed that
the American flag should be kept flying at the masthead of his little^
yacht, with a light cast upon it at night, so that he could see it as
long as he could see anything.
Webster's writings are best studied in the complete edition, 18 vols.,
1903. This includes the two volumes of correspondence published ear-
lier by his son. A large amount of further correspondence was pub-
lished by Van Tyne in 1902. The two-volume Life, by Curtis (1869),
is a storehouse of material, but is eminently partial to the subject.
Senator Lodge's "Life," in the American Statesman series, is brilliantly
written, but under strong Republican and anti-slavery prejudices. The
True Daniel Webster, by Fisher (1911), adds nothing of great im-
portance, but is sympathetic, and defends Webster where he most
needs it. The Life by Ogg (1914), is critical and dispassionate. The
Reminiscences of Lanman and Harvey are suggestive, but not always
reliable. The writer of this article, whose grandfather was Webster's
law partner, possesses a desk and a dispatch box which belonged to
Webster. In the desk arc a number of unpublished documents tending
to support the statements made above as to Webster's financial habits.
(G. B.)
WEBSTER, JOHN (fl. 1602-1624), one of the greatest
tragic writers in English literature. Of his life almost nothing is
known. It is said that he was the son of a London tailor; and
we learn from his own Preface to the pageant called Monuments
of Honour that he was a member of the Merchant Taylors' Com-
pany and "born free" of it. But this does not prove that either
he or his father ever actually plied the needle. It might be gath-
ered from the ambiguous classical knowledge exhibited in his
writings that he was educated at some school of repute; but his
close association with so good a scholar as Heywood gave him
many opportunities of picking up the scraps of Martial and Horace
which adorn his pages. Reasons have been given for placing his
birth about 1580; and, as we hear nothing of him after 1625, he
may have died in that year. These uncertainties are intensified by
the fact that several persons of that time are known to have borne
his name.
At what date he "commenced playwright" is uncertain. We
learn from Henslowe's diary that he collaborated with Drayton and
others in Caesar's Fate, 1602, and with Chettle, Dekker and Hey-
wood in Christmas comes but once a year. Somewhat later his
name appears with that of Dekker as part-author of Westward
Hoe and Northward Hoe and in 1604 he contributed the induc-
tion to Marston's Malcontent. In 1607 "Mr. Dickers and Mr.
Webster" appear on the title-page of The Famous History of Sir
WEBSTER
473
Thomas Wyai, a play which had no fewer than five authors and
at least two titles (it is an abridgment of Lady Jane).
This habit of collaboration perplexes the critic who endeavours
to appraise merit or mark progress in style. One collaborator may
easily fall into the manner of the other, and it is not impossible
that the authors themselves, after a few years, would be unable
to name their own portions. Unerringly to trace the hand of Web-
ster through Elizabethan drama is now impossible, though students
still essay the task. Mr. Sykes thinks he had a share in Anything
for a Quiet Life, usually ascribed to Middleton, and in the Fair
Maid of the lnny perhaps by Massinger and Ford but printed as
Beaumont and Fletcher's. Mr. Sykes may be right, and has the
weighty support of Mr. Lucas; but it is certain that others have
been wrong. Thus in 1661 A Cure for a Cuckold and A Thracian
Wonder were ascribed by the publisher Kirkman, probably with-
out the slightest traditional justification, to Webster and Rowley.
The former, as a whole, seems to bear rather the mark of Hey-
wood than of either of the assigned authors; but there is in it
an episode easily detachable from the rest and of some merit,
which Gosse and Spring Rice, in 1885, printed separately under
the title of Love's Graduate, with the wish rather than the assur-
ance that it might be "a piece of silver-work by the sculptor whose
other groups are all of bronze." As The Guise and The Late
Murther of the Sonne upon the Mother (this latter partially by
Ford) are alike lost, conjecture may here disport itself without
danger either of proof or of confutation.
The case of Appius and Virginia is more important, for on the
decision as to its genuineness must rest our idea of the width and
range of Webster's genius. Except for a few remarkable passages,
this excellent play differs in every way from Webster's certain
work. The only external evidence is the statement of an unknown
publisher in 1654, repeated by Humphrey Mosclcy in 1659;
but Webster's authorship was never doubted till in 1911 Rupert
Brooke submitted the play to a careful analysis and finally, on
grounds of style and vocabulary, ascribed it to Hcywood. The
present writer, after carefully considering Brooke's arguments,
and comparing the play with Heywood's undoubted works (espe-
cially with the Rape of Lucrece) is inclined to believe that Brooke
has made out his case. If so, we are, in forming our judgment on
Webster's powers, limited to the three undoubtedly genuine works,
The WMte Devil, the Duchess of Malfy, and the Devil's Law
Case.
The last, though considerably the latest of the three — it is dated
1619 or 1620 — may be taken first, and can be easily dismissed. It
is a clumsy, involved, inartistic tragicomedy, in which the happy
ending is brought about by the violation of all probability. With
many reminiscences of the older and better time, it marks the
transition to the later and worse fashion of the Caroline drama.
Its chief merits lie in occasional flashes of Webster's characteristic
murky imagery and daemonic forcefulness of phrase. There are
also some touches of a shrewd satirical observation which, though
not always dramatic, is in itself exceedingly striking.
But it is on the two great tragedies that Webster's fame must
always rest. The White Devilj based on actual events of then
recent date, was published in 1612, with a preface that interests by
its tersely-worded appreciations of contemporary writers; and,
as we know that Webster was a very slow worker, may be dated
1610. The Duchess of Malfy, founded ultimately on a novel of
Bandello's, cannot be later than 1614; for the researches of
Charles Wallace have shown that William Osteler, who acted in
it, died that year. The two plays, therefore, were written with
the combined daring of youth and solid strength of manhood.
They have been said to belong to the "Tragedy of Blood," and
they certainly have much in common with Kyd's Spanish Tragedy
on the one hand and with Hamlet on the other. But perhaps it
would be better — if classify we must — to regard them as a fusion
of the Blood-Tragedy with the "Machiavellian" type of which
Othello is the supreme example — that type in which further use
is made of the Elizabethan conception of a contemporary Italy,
rich in all the resources of culture, and permeated with all the
vices of decadence. In it the essential element is the villain, en-
dowed with matchless cunning, a hatred of good for its own sake,
and a plentiful lack of conscience. To the exhibition of this con-
ception Webster brought a certain Juvenalian indignatio which
informs the work from beginning to end. The dramatic technique,
coldly considered, is often lamentable; whole scenes are irrelevint,
characters start up at random, and description too often takes the
place of action. With every allowance for the fact that the plays
were greatly shortened for the stage, these defects are serious,
and go far to explain the repugnance of such critics as William
Archer. But they are far outweighed by stupendous merits — in
fact by the irresistible power of genius, often it is true "sufflam-
inandus," but conquering every obstacle like a rushing torrent.
There is nothing of the icily regular about Webster. He dares all,
and either vanquishes or fails. The main secret of his lasting ap-
peal (an appeal perhaps stronger than ever to-day, to a generation
that has supped full of the horrors of war) is his accumulation of
catastrophe on catastrophe, his sense of the ghastly in little things,
his power of symbolic hinting, > and what we may call his sub-
limation of the pathetic into the portentous. To convey all this
he has, when at white heat, a gift of brief expression, charged with
the fullest meaning, unmatched except in Shakespeare. The
famous "Cover her face, mine eyes dazzle, she died young," is
only a supreme instance out of scores. In the face of this, criti-
cism has to hold its peace; or, if it speaks at all, takes the form
of such imitation as Shelley gives us in the Cenci.
Webster's works were edited by Dyce (4 vols., 1830) and inaccu-
rately; W. C. Hazlitt (4 vols., 1857), but all previous editions are
superseded by that of F. L. Lucas (4 vols., 1927, bibliog. in vol. I.).
The White Devil and the Duchess, Symonds (1888) and Sampson
(1904).
Criticism, Lamb, Specimens (1808) ; Swinburne, Age of Shake-
speare (1908) ; Sidney Lee, Diet. Nat. Bivg. (1899) (needs correction
as to facts) ; Gosse, Seventeenth Cent. Studies (1883) ; Symonds,
Italian By-ways (1883). On the story of Vittoria Accoramboni, see
Trollope in All the Year Round, 1860."
The most important recent works are E. E. Stole, John Webster
(1905) ; Rupert Brooke, John Webster and the Elizabethan Drama
(1913) (valuable as the appreciation of a poet by a poet), and for
its bibliog. and Lucas's introductioins (especially on Webster's so-
called plagiarisms from Sidney, Montaigne, etc,). (E. E, K.)
WEBSTER, NOAH (1758-1843), American lexicographer
and journalist, was born at West Hartford, Conn, on Oct. 16,
1758. He was descended from John Webster, of Hartford, gov-
ernor of Connecticut in 1656-57, and on his mother's side from
Governor William Bradford, of Plymouth. He worked on his
father's farm while preparing for Yale, graduated in 1778, taught
in village schools, studied law, and was admitted to the bar at
Hartford in 1781. In 1783-85 he published at Hartford A Gram-
matical Institute of the English Language in three parts, a spelling-
book, a grammar and a reader. This was the pioneer American
work in its field and because of its useful simplification of Eng-
lish spelling and its patriotic nature it soon found a place in most
of the schools of the United States. During the 20 years in which
Webster was preparing his dictionary, his income from the spell-
ing-book was the chief source for the support of his family; and
before 1861 the sale reached more than a million copies a year,
lie did some political writing, and himself regarded his Sketches
of American Policy (1785) as the first distinct proposal for a
U.S. constitution. In 1788 he started in New York the American
Magazine, but it failed at the end of a year, and he resumed the
practice of law at Hartford, where he enjoyed the congenial com-
panionship of the "Hartford wits." In 1793, in order to support
Washington's administration and oppose the designs of Genet, he
established a daily paper, the Minerva (afterwards the Com-
mercial Advertiser), in New York and in connection with it a semi-
weekly paper, the Herald (afterwards the New York Spectator).
The remainder of his life was spent in New Haven, Conn., and
Amherst, Mass., in both places holding various public posts, in-
cluding membership in the Connecticut House of Representatives
and a county judgeship, but he devoted himself primarily to
linguistic studies. In 1806 he brought out A Compendious Dic-
tionary of the English Language which contained much encyclo-
paedic information, and in 1807, A Philosophical and Practical
Grammar of the English Language. He began his great diction-
ary the same year. In 1824-25 he worked on this in France and
474
WEBSTER— WEED DESTRUCTION
England, finishing his manuscript at the University of Cambridge.
The American Dictionary came out in 1828 in two volumes. It
contained 12,000 words and from 30,000 to 40,000 definitions that
had not appeared in any earlier dictionary. An English edition
soon followed. In 1840 appeared the second edition, corrected
and enlarged. Webster completed the revision of an appendix
a few days before his death, which occurred in New Haven on
May 28, 1843. Many revisions and abridgments have since
appeared. Amongst Webster's other works may be mentioned
Dissertations on the English Language (1789); The Rights of
Neutral Nations in Time of War (1802) and A Collection of
Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects (1843) and
Governor John W'inthrop's Journal in 1790.
See Memoir of Noah Webster by his son-in-law, Prof. Chauncey
A. Goodrich, in the quarto editions of the Dictionary; Noah Webster
(1881), by II. E. Scuddcr, in "American Men of Letters"; and Notes
on the Life of Ncwk Webster by a grand-daughter, Emily E. F. Ford
(1912), which contains many letters.
WEBSTER, a town of Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Maan-
exit river. Pop. (1920) 13,258 (28% foreign-born white). Within
the town's area of 12-19 sq.rn. is beautiful Lake Chaubunagun-
gamuug (2 sq.m.). Manufactures of textiles, boots, etc., had a
value in 1925 of $14,114,349. Webster was founded by Samuel
Slater (1768-1835) who established cotton mills here in 1812 and
woollen mills in 1815. The town was formed in 1832 from parts
of Dudley and Oxford, and named after Daniel Webster.
WEBSTER GROVES, a city of St. Louis county, Missouri.
Pop. (1920) 9,474 (89% native white), and was estimated locally
at 16,500 in 1928. It is the seat of Webster college (Roman
Catholic; 1916) and of Eden Theological seminary (Evangelical).
The city was incorporated in 1896.
WEDEKIND, FRANK (1864-1918), German dramatist,
was born in Hanover on July 24, 1864, the son of a doctor. He
was educated at his father's chateau at Lenzburg in Switzerland,
and in 1883 took up journalism. Afterwards he became an adver-
tising manager and then, in 1890, secretary of a circus in Paris
and London. In 1897 he set up as an actor and producer acting
in his own dramas with his wife. His dramatic works include:
Friihlings Erwachen (1891), Erdgeist (1895), Der Marquis von
Keith and Die Kammersdnger (1900), Die Biichse dtr Pandora
(1903), Schloss Wetter stein (1910) and Franziska (1911). Wede-
kind's plays are written in a difficult symbolic style, the characters
always representing types rather than individuals. Their pre-
occupation with erotic themes awoke much opposition, and in
savage irony he was conspicuous, serving a term of imprisonment
in Munich for lese-majestt. Wedekind also wrote poetry (Die
Vier Jahresseiten), novels, Mine-Haha (1906), etc., and essays.
He died in Munich on March 9, 1918. See A. Kutscher, Frank
Wedekind (1922-24).
His Works were published in 8 vols., 1012-19. Certain plays were
translated into English by S, A. Eliot, Jr., New York.
WEDGWOOD, JOSIAH (1730-1795), was born on July
12, 1730, and died on Jan. 3, 1795. He was the youngest child
of Thomas Wedgwood, a potter, of Burslem, and came of a
family of which many members had been notable potters in Staf-
fordshire in the 1 7th century. Soon after the death of his father
in 1739 Josiah learned, and became extraordinarily skilful in,
the art of shaping pottery on the wheel.
In 1744 he was apprenticed to his eldest brother, and in 1752
became manager of a small pottery at Stoke-upon-Trent, known
as Alder's. Within a year or two he became junior partner with
Thomas Whieldon of Fenton, then the cleverest master-potter
in Staffordshire, many of whose apprentices afterwards became
noted potters. In 1759 he began work on his own account at the
Ivy House pottery in Burslem. Salt-glaze and green and yellow
glaze seem to have been his first staples. In 1762 he also leased
the Brick House, alias "Bell" works, at Burslem. The fine white
English earthenware was just reaching perfection, and Wedg-
wood became one of its best-known makers. He was most active
in his efforts for the improvement of turnpike roads, the con-
struction of a canal (the Trent and Mersey) and the founding of
schools and chapels. He presented a service of his improved
cream-coloured earthenware (to which he gave the name of
Queen's Ware) to Queen Charlotte in 1762, and was appointed
potter to the queen and afterwards to the king. Next he turned
his attention to artistic pottery and found his inspiration in
the European renaissance of classic art, fostered by the discov-
ery of Pompeii and the recovery of Greek painted vases from the
ancient graves in Campania and other parts of Italy. Wedgwood
was particularly successful in this direction, for his "dry" bodies
— some of which, like the black and cane bodies, had long been
known in the district, while others, such as the famous Jasper
bodies, he invented after years of laborious effort — lent themselves
particularly well to the reproduction of designs based on the later
phases of Greek art. The most famous of Wedgwood's artists
was John Flaxman. His works at Hanlcy were called "Etruria"
where his descendants have carried on the business and established
a Wedgwood museum of great interest. (See CERAMICS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For detailed accounts of his life see Eliza Mctyeard,
Life of Wedgwood (1865-66) ; L. Jewitt, Life of Wedgwood (1865) ;
F. Rathbone, Old Wedgwood (1893); A. H. Church, Josiah Wedg-
wood: Master-Potter (1894; new ed., 1903) ; W. Burton, History and
Description of English Earthenware and Stoneware (1904) ; J. C.
Wedgwood, A History of the Wedgwood Family (1909) ; F. J. Wedg-
wood, The Personal Life of Josiah Wedgwood (1915).
WEDNESBURY, market town of Staffordshire, England.
Pop. (1921) 30,390. An electric tramway connects with Walsall.
The church of St. Bartholomew, a fine Perpendicular building,
standing high, is supposed to occupy the site of a place of the wor-
ship of Woden or Odin, from which the name Wednesbury (Wod-
ensborough) may be derived. There are iron and steel works*
producing every kind of heavy goods. Similar industries, with
brick-making, are practised at Darlaston, an urban district (pop.
18,208), within the parliamentary borough.
Here Ethelfleda in 916 constructed a castle. The place is not
mentioned in Domesday, but appears to have belonged to the
barony of Dudley. After the Conquest it became a demesne of the
Crown, and was bestowed by Henry II. on the Heronvilles. It
became a parliamentary borough in 1867 and a municipal borough
in r886.
WEED, THURLOW (1797-1882), American journalist and
politician, was born in Cairo, N.Y., on Nov. 25, 1797. Weed was in
1824 elected to the New York assembly on the John Quincy
Adams ticket, serving for a single session (1825). During the
excitement over the disappearance of William Morgan (see
ANTI-MASONIC PARTY), he retired from the Telegraph and threw
himself with enthusiasm into the attack on the Masonic order,
editing for a time the Anti-Masonic Enquirer. In 1830 he estab-
lished and became editor of the Albany Evening Journal, which he
controlled for 35 years. Supporting the Whigs and later the
Republicans, it was one of the most influential anti-slavery papers
in the north-east. He died in New York on Nov 22, 1882.
See The Life of Thwlow Weed (vol. i., Autobiography, edited by
his daughter, Harriet A. Weed; vol. ii., Memoir, by his grandson,
Thurlow Weed Barnes, Boston and New York, 1884). The Memoir is
especially full for the period 1850-67.
WEED DESTRUCTION. Weeds may be defined as plants
growing in the wrong places and the loss due to them may be
illustrated by crops of sugar cane obtained in Hawaii under con-
trolled conditions.
Crop
No fertilizer applied; not weeded . . . 13-10 tons per ac.
»» .» »> crop „ ... 20-38 „ „ „
Fertilizer applied; not weeded . . . . 21-30 „ „ „
ii » crop „ .... 29-70 „ „ „
The improvement in crop due to weeding was thus seven or eight
tons per ac. in each case, and weeding without fertilizing was
almost as profitable as manuring without weeding.
On the other hand, there are circumstances, especially in the
tropics, where a controlled growth of certain covering weeds
amongst the crops serves a useful purpose by preventing undue
evaporation of water, or, in the case of leguminous weeds, by
increasing the store of nitrogen in the soil by .virtue of the ni-
trogen-fixing bacteria in the nodules on their roots.
Preventive Meaiuret.— The worst annual weeds are pro-
lific seed bearers, and preventive measures lie therefore in
WEED DESTRUCTION
475
killing the weeds already on the ground before they are able to
ripen their seed, and in avoiding the introduction of fresh weeds
by sowing cheap crop seed (see SEED TESTING) by cleaning agri-
cultural machinery before moving it from place to place and by
burning up farm rubbish, rick refuse, etc., instead of scattering
it about arable land. Specially harmful seeds, such as dodder
(which is parasitic on and destroys leguminous crops) should
be entirely barred, and in some countries legislation provides
for this. Fully grown perennial weeds such as docks and dan-
delions, if pulled up when in bud, are still able to flower and
ripen seed, and should never be allowed to lie on the ground, but
be burnt or reduced to a compost with the aid of lime. One
valuable method of prevention is co-operation among neigh-
bouring cultivators in the reduction of the worst weeds in a local-
ity. It is of little use for one man to wage constant war on dande-
lions and thistles if on adjoining land these weeds are allowed to
seed unchecked and distribute themselves afresh.
Principles of Eradication.— "Some common annuals, as
chickweed, speedwell, spurrey, groundsel, shepherd's purse, etc.,
ripen seed early, while flowering and fruiting continue over a long
period. Other annuals, as poppy and charlock, have a longer
growing period before flowering, and so offer more time in which
they can be dealt with satisfactorily. Eradication can rarely be
completed in one season, as however carefully seeding may be
prevented further crops of weeds will spring up in several suc-
ceeding years, but if treatment is persevered in, a clearance will
ultimately be effected. Perennial weeds persist from one year
to another by means of underground parts in which supplies of
food are stored up to feed the young shoots when spring growth
starts. With these, therefore, the aim should be to remove as
much as possible of the subterranean parts, or to exhaust them
by cutting off the aerial shoots before the latter have had time to
replenish the reserve stores. The underground structures have a
remarkable tenacity of life and usually if small pieces are broken
off they are capable of growing into independent plants. Perennials
also ripen fertile seed, which eradication methods must prevent.
Eradication by Cultural Methods. — The oldest, simplest and,
where they can be properly carried out, most effective methods
are removing the weeds bodily from the soil by hand-pulling or
cutting the plants down with the plough, spade or hoe, either
turning them into the soil, leaving them to perish on the surface,
or removing them for burning or otherwise destroying them. It
is worse than useless to plough or dig in annuals that have already
seeded, but wholesale destruction may be effected at earlier stages.
Perennials, on the other hand, are broken up by these methods of
cultivation, and it is essential that they should be removed as com-
pletely as possible by harrowing or raking fo prevent the weeds
from becoming still more widespread. On Ught soil many of the
weeds may be dragged off with harrow or rake before the ground
is ploughed or dug over, particularly where couch grass, twitch
or similar weeds are prevalent. Hand- or horse-hoeing is a valu-
able means of eradication after the crops are growing, and should
preferably be done in dry or sunny weather, in order that the
weeds may rapidly wither, otherwise they are apt to take root
again, thus rendering the labour of no avail. Badly infested land
may often be cleared by growing root crops or potatoes for one
or two years in succession, as these need much hoeing in the
ordinary course of cultivation.
On farms and plantations weeds may be smothered by growing
a very dense crop or by mechanical means of covering. Vetches,
tares, lucerne and similar crops spread so quickly over the land
that the weed seedlings are crowded out by competition as they
cannot get enough Ught for growth, trie principle has been
adapted in Hawaii for the cultivation of pineapples and sugar
cane, broad strips of paper made from bagasse or sugar- cane waste
being laid down along the rows and penetrated by the crop plants,
the weeds being completely smothered. On grassland and lawns
small areas infested by dodder, thistles, twitch, daisies, etc., may
be covered with tarred paper or a considerable depth of soil for
a season or more. All vegetation is suppressed, and re-seeding is
necessary when the covering is removed.
Perennial weeds as thisUes, sowthistles, bracken, nettles and
others that occur under every type of cultivation may be dealt
with individually by stubbing or digging out or collectively by
cutting down at appropriate times. Cutting should be postponed
till the new shoots are well grown, in order to exhaust the under-
ground food reserves as completely as possible. If done too
early a number of fresh shoots usually appear in place of the
one removed and the weeds become more flourishing. Thistles
may be eradicated from grassland in two years by three cuttings
during June and July, but if this cannot be managed one cutting
about the middle of June is fairly effective.
Badly infested land may be most effectively cleaned by fallow-
ing for a year, growing no crop but keeping the soil continually
cultivated with plough and harrow or their equivalents. The weed
seeds that are brought to the surface germinate under advan-
tageous conditions, the seedlings are then cut down at the next
cultivation, which at the same time brings up fresh batches of
seed that in their turn start into growth and meet a like fate. Thus
in one season the soil is robbed of large numbers of its buried
seeds, and at the same time the perennials are reduced if the har-
rowing is efficient and the broken parts are gathered up and burnt.
Occasionally certain weeds on cultivated land defy all the usual
methods of reduction and it may be necessary to lay the land down
to grass for a period of years. Wild onion has been successfully
treated by sowing Elliott's mixture, made up of grasses and deep-
rooted plants like chicory, burnet and kidney vetch, the ley being
left down for about six years. Areas in America infested with the
poisonous tall larkspur are valueless for grazing.
In eradicating weeds by cultural methods a well-devised rota-
tion of crops is of extreme value. The diverse methods of culti-
vation needed by cereals, roots and clovers, coupled with the varia-
tion in the times of sowing and harvesting, can be used to advan-
tage in reducing various types of weeds at times \tfien they are
most open to attack. The shorter the rotation the more completely
can weed growth be controlled, as a species that is reduced by the
cultivation of one type of crop is unable to do much towards
re-establishing itself before another crop of similar type recurs
in the rotation, and the weed suffers still further reduction.
Eradication by Chemical Means. — During recent years advan-
tage has been taken of the difference in habit between certain
weeds and crops to kill the weeds with chemical compounds with-
out injuring the crops amongst which they are growing. Solutions
of copper sulphate, iron sulphate, sulphuric acid and similar chem-
icals are sprayed over the affected areas; the mist -like spray clings
to the rough surface of such broad-leaved weeds as charlock,
dries thereon and kills the plants, whereas it rolls clown the more
upright and smooth leaves of cereal crops without causing dam-
age. Spraying should be done in fine weather, and the strength and
quantity of solution to be applied varies with the weed and the
chemicals used. On an average 4 or 5% solutions of copper sul-
phate and 12 to 20% iron sulphate arc effective at the rate of 40
to 50 gal. per ac., but no definite rule can be laid down in this
respect. Dandelions can be eradicated from lawns by spraying
several times during the season, after mowing, with 20% iron
sulphate solutions, and the same has been found effective for
dog-daisies in hay fields; better results with some weeds, as wild
carrot, are obtained by the admixture of a little molasses to make
the spray more adhesive. Recent experiments indicate that about
270 gal. of 10% sodium chlorate solution per ac. will completely
eradicate thistles, but the economic side of this has not yet been
worked out. A 12-5% solution is also very promising against
field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), three sprayings being best
if the infestation is heavy. Sulphuric acid has proved efficient in
2% solutions at 107 gal. per acre. Similar, results can be obtained
with much stronger solutions of certain artificial fertilizers, which
are used in this way instead of being applied directly to the soil.
Corn buttercup, spurrey and charlock can be killed with iV to
2 cwt. ammonium sulphate in 60 gal. water per ac. ; this cannot be
used if clover is included with the crop, as that also is killed. Other
manures have a similar action on certain weeds. Chemicals and
manures may also be used in the dry state with good results, if
they are applied as very nne powder when the leaves are moist
with rain or dew. Wild radish (Rapkanus raphanutrum) may be
476
WEEDS
reduced by dusting with i to i£ cwt. calcium cyanide per ac.,
while kainit, at 6 cwt. per ac., is very useful against charlock and
various other weeds if spread about Feb. or March.
Control by Biological Methods. — In some countries where cer-
tain weeds cover vast areas and cannot be dealt with by ordinary
means attempts are being made at eradication by the encourage-
ment of insect pests which are specifically harmful to these par-
ticular weeds. In Australia much progress has already been made
in the reduction of the obnoxious prickly pear (Opuntia sp.) by
the introduction from America of types of insects which feed on
various parts of the plant. Research is also being made into the
possibility of control by means of fungoid and bacterial diseases.
In the Hawaiian Islands several insect species have been intro-
duced during the last 25 years to attack Lantana, with such suc-
cess in the drier regions that it is now difficult to realize how wide-
spread the weed originally was. Experiments on similar lines are
in progress with regard to the reduction of such weeds as black-
berry, nutgrass, gorse, St. John's wort and ragwort, all of which
are serious pests in certain areas. Special precautions are needed
in connection with this work in view of the possibility that the
introduced insects may prove harmful to the crops.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W. E. Brcnchley, Weeds of Farm Land (1920) ; G.
H. Clark and J. Fletcher, Farm Weeds of Canada (Canad. Dept. of
Agriculture, 1909), contains descriptions of many widespread weeds,
coloured illustrations; H. C. Long, Common Weeds of the Farm and
Garden (1910), Plants Poisonous to Live Stock (1924) ; R. Morse and
R. Palmer, British Weeds (1925). (W. E. BR.)
WEEDS. While there are more than 200,000 species of plants
hardly more than a hundred of these are really troublesome
weeds, because a very small percentage of all plants are able to re-
produce and thrive in the presence of cultivation and other inter-
fering agricultural operations. Most wild plants succumb quickly
to such interference. Pammel has estimated that in Iowa
alone weeds cause an annual loss of $25,000,000. The prickly
pear, several species of Opuntia f cost South Africa and Australia
many million dollars a year.
(i) Annual weeds generally produce a great number of seeds.
A large cocklebur plant bears as many as 8,500 seeds; Jimson
weed, 8,500, and green foxtail, 5,000. A given crop of seeds in
the ground does not all germinate in one year, but the germination
is distributed over many years. Doctor Deal's work on buried
seeds at Michigan Agricultural college shows that out of 23 com-
mon species of seeds, mainly weeds, buried in the earth in moist
sand for forty years, the following ten still had live seeds capable
of germination in the percentage indicated in the table.
Percentage Germination
Brassica nigra, black mustard 18
Oenothera biennis, evening primrose 38
Rumex crispus, curly dock . 18
Portulaca oleracea, purslane ... 2
Plantago major, common plantain ... . 10
Amaranthus retroflcxus, coarse pigweed . . 2
Amaranthus graccizans, tumbleweed . . 66
Lepidium virRinicum, large peppergrass ... . 2
Ambrosia elatior, hogwced . 4
The U.S. Department of Agriculture is carrying on very exten-
sive experiments to determine the length of time that various seeds
can lie in the soil still dormant but capable of germination. One
hundred and seven species were buried including many cultivated
as well as wild forms. These were buried at three different depths
(8, 22 and 42 in.) with enough duplicates to continue the studies
for many years. The last test was made after twenty years in the
soil. The following conclusions are drawn from this work :
The depth at which the seeds were buried had little effect upon
the preservation of their vitality. Cultivated plants appear to depend
largely upon human agencies for their perpetuation. None of the
cereals or legumes whose seeds are used as food germinated on being
dug up. The seeds of weeds or wild plants survived better than those
of cultivated plants. The weed seeds showing the highest germination
and the fewest failures were all from common and persistent weeds
in the locality of Arlington, Va. The docks, lambs' quarters, plantains,
daisies, poke, purslane, jimson and ragweed are examples. Of the
107 species buried in 1902, 71 grew in 1903 after one year, 61 grew
in 1905 after 3 years, 68 grew in 1908 after 6 years, 69 grew in 1912
after 10 years, 50 grew in 1918 after 16 years, and $i grew in 1923
after 20 years. The seeds of most weeds, when ploughed under, will
not perish during the period of any normal crop rotation.
Ohga, a Japanese botanist, has recently discovered seeds of East
Indian lotus that have remained in a peat stratum of a naturally
drained lake bed of Manchuria for several centuries all still capable
of vigorous germination. This is the longest-lived known seed.
(2) Weed seeds or fruits are generally well provided with
means of dispersal. Many fruits have pappus or wings that give
wide distribution by the wind. Here may be mentioned ail sorts
of thistles, dandelions and prickly lettuce. Others bear burs or
hooks that catch in the wool or hair of animals and the clothing of
man and are thus dispersed. In the Russian thistle, tumbling pig-
weed, and others the plants break off at the ground level and roll
before the wind thus distributing their seeds. Gooseberry, currant
and other seeds of fleshy-fruited plants pass through the alimen-
tary canals of birds and other animals without being entirely de-
stroyed and are scattered by this means. A percentage of the
smaller sorts of seeds of dry-fruited weeds escape destruction in
a similar way. So while birds and animals do much good by de-
stroying many weedjjeeds the^ do harm by distributing others that
are not destroyed in their alimentary canals. Weeds are also dis-
tributed by the seeds, fruits or weed refuse floating on water.
Perhaps the most serious means of weed distribution is through
shipment of commercial seeds. Such shipments often occur be-
tween the most remote parts of the world and thus provide very
wide distribution. In 10 oz. of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-
graecum) seeds imported into the United States from south
Europe, Kennedy and Frederick found 18 species of weed seeds of
9 different orders of plants ranging from i to 150 seeds of each*
species. Weed seeds of about the same size as commercial seeds
are especially difficult to remove and are likely to be distributed
in commercial seeds. The general distribution to south Africa,
temperate Australia, New Zealand, and temperate America of the
following very pernicious native European weeds has no doubt
largely occurred in this way; European bindweed, quack grass,
crab grass, Russian thistle, sow thistle, prickly lettuce, sheep sor-
rel, dodders, several species of plantain, wild carrot, common
dandelion and bull thistle.
(3) The third thing that makes weeds hard to combat is the
persistent, spreading underground parts of biennials and peren-
nials. Quack grass, generally distributed over the temperate
zones, and Johnson -grass, a native of Europe and a very serious
weed of southern United States owe their marked persistence to
rapidly spreading and numerous underground stolons capable of
regenerating new plants from small fragments of their rhizomes ;
sow thistle, Canada thistle, sheep sorrel and many other weeds
have underground stolons. The common dandelion is an excellent
example of a weed that persists by regeneration of a plant from a
portion of a tap root. A small portion of any part of the tap root
will regenerate numerous buds capable of growing up through sev-
eral inches of reasonably loose soil. The removal of a large por-
tion of the tap root from a lawn will not insure destruction.
Transported Weeds.— Europe is by no means the sole
source of the world's bad weeds. The prickly pears of south
Africa and Australia are natives of tropical and sub-tropical
America. Several of the pigweeds and Galinsoga parviflora, a very
troublesome little annual weed of Europe and North America,
were introduced from tropical America. The latter persists be-
cause the plant matures from seed in a few weeks and keeps the
soil continuously supplied with an abundance of germinating
seeds. Guam under the commercial activity of the last 30 years
is very rapidly acquiring most of the pernicious weeds of other
tropical regions. Commerce will gradually distribute pernicious
weeds to all regions in which they can thrive.
How Weeds Are Injurious to Agriculture. — Some of the
ways in which weeds injure economic plants are very evident.
They crowd out crop plants either by root competition or by over-
growing and shading them. In semi-arid and sub-humid regions
and even in humid regions at dry times they rob the crops of
needed water. All weeds absorb mineral nutrients and are likely
to leave the crop short of these. The pigweed (Amaranthus
retroflexus) and others are vigorous absorbers of nitrates and rob
the crops of this important nutrient. Climbing weeds like the wild
morning glory and bindweed pull down crops. The dodders are
WEEHAWKEN— WEEVER
477
parasites on crop plants, withdrawing water and food materials
from them. Weeds that have seeds of about the same size and
weight as the crop reduce the value of the seed crop by being
costly or impossible to remove from the economic seeds. This is
true of dodder and buckthorn in clover, of great ragweed and
cockle in wheat, and of wild oats in oats.
There is one weed that literally takes the ground from other
plants and even from man. This is the prickly pear (several species
of Opuntia) in certain regions of South Africa and Australia which
was introduced as a source of succulent stock feed.
Weeds harbour or shelter insects and nematodes. The cut
worms are especially bad in gardens and corn fields adjoining grass
lands. The destructive squash vine borers breed on wild cucumber
and move later to the squash; cabbage aphids and cabbage cur-
culios breed on species of wild mustard and later attack cabbage;
rhubarb curculio feeds on curly dock and later attacks rhubarb;
chinch bugs over-winter on grasses and sedges and move from
these to small grains for oviposition*in the spring. From the small
grains they move to corn in the corn belt of the United States.
This has done much to eliminate the growing of small grains in the
corn belt. It is important to keep cultivated land and its borders
as free as possible from weeds and rubbish that may feed or shelter
insect pests. Weeds also harbour plant diseases. This is well illus-
trated by the barberry and Ribes as alternate hosts of stem rust of
wheat and the white pine blister rust respectively. The disease,
aster yellows, over-winters in the perennial sow thistle or common
plantain, and several other perennials and is transmitted by a
specific leaf hopper (Cicadula sexnotata) to the annuals, China
aster or lettuce. Finally, many weeds of the ranges and even some
of farm pastures are very poisonous and kill or greatly injure stock
when they are eaten. Here may be mentioned the stemless loco
(Oxytropis Lamberti), woolly loco weed (Astragalus mollissimus) ,
and cowbane (Cicnta maculata). Loco weeds have been the
source of enormous losses in the ranges of America, South Africa
and Australia. Many of our weeds are slightly poisonous and may
prove fatal if animals are forced by hunger to eat them in large
quantities. (See POISONOUS PLANTS.) Other weeds do minor
damage, such as tainting milk, or supplying wool with burs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W. E. Brenchley, Weeds of Farm Land (London,
1920) ; F. Duyscn, Umkrautcn (Leipzig, 1925) ; A. J. Ewart and J. R.
Tovcy, Weeds, Poison Plants and Naturalized Aliens of Victoria (1909) ;
F. Eyles, "Noxious weeds of Southern Rhodesia," ///. Rhodesia Agr.
Joitr., vol. xxiv., pp. 551-558 (1927) ; A. Georgia, Manual of Weeds
(1923) ; L. H. Pammel and others, "The Weed Flora of Iowa," Iowa
Geol Survey Bull, no. 4 (1926). (W. CRO.)
WEEHAWKEN, a township of New Jersey. Pop. (1920)
14,485; 1928 local estimate 18,500. It is a narrow strip along the
Hudson, at the southern extremity of the Palisades. On a ledge
below the crest of the Palisades is the famous duelling ground
which was the scene of the encounter between Hamilton and Burr.
Weehawken was incorporated in 1859. The name is an Indian
word, said to mean "maize land."
WEEK, the name given to periods of time, varying in length
in different parts of the world, but shorter than a "month" (from
A.S. wicu, Germanic wikon, probably "change," "turn"). The
month may be divided in two ways : a fractional part may be taken
(decad or pentad), as in east Africa or ancient Egypt (moon-
week) , or the week may be settled without regard to the length of
the month (market-week, etc.). The seven-day week (see CAL-
ENDAR) originated in west Asia, spread to Europe and later to
north Africa (Mohammedan). In other parts of Africa three, four
(especially in the Congo), five, six and eight (double four) day
weeks are found, and always in association with the market.
In ancient Scandinavia a five-day period was in use, but markets
were probably unknown. That the recurrence of the market de-
termined the length of the week seems clear from the Wajagga
custom of naming the days after the markets they visit, as well as
from the fact that on the Congo the word for week is the same as
the word for market. Among agricultural tribes in Africa one day
of the week, which varies from place to place, is often a rest-day,
visiting the market being the only work allowed.
WEEKS, JOHN WINGATE (1860-1926), American pub-
lie official, was born at Lancaster, N.H., on April n, 1860. He
graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1881, and became
assistant land commissioner of the Florida Southern railroad. In
1886 he helped to organize the banking and brokerage firm of
Hornblower and Weeks, Boston, Massachusetts, of which he was
a member until 1912. In 1890 he joined the Massachusetts naval
brigade, and he served in the Spanish-American War. During
19OS"I3 he took an active part in framing the Aldrich-Vreeland
Currency bill. In 1913 he entered the U.S. Senate, but was de-
feated for re-election in 1919. In 1921 he entered the cabinet of
President Harding as Secretary of War, serving also in the same
post under President Coolidge. He died at Lancaster, N.H., on
July 12, 1926.
WEELKES, THOMAS (d. 1623), English madrigal com-
poser. His name first appears in connection with the publication
of his first book of madrigals for three, four, five and six voices
in 1597; and as he alludes in 1598 to his "yeeres yet unripened"
in a volume of Ballet ts and Madrigals, dedicated to Edward
Darcye, groom of the privy chamber, his birth may be placed
somewhere between 1570 and 1580. He was at one time organist
of Winchester college, and on July 16, 1602, took his degree of
Mus. B. from New college, Oxford. An appointment as cathe-
dral organist at Chichester followed, and the rest of his life was
probably spent in that city. There is a six-part madrigal, "As
Vesta was from Latmos," in the Triumphs of Oriana (1601), a
famous collection by Thomas Morley, to whose memory Weelkes
paid a tribute in His "a Remembrance of his Friend Thomas
Morley" in Ayeres or Phantastique Spirit cs (1608). Weelkes's
will was made on Nov. 30, 1623, and he probably died on that
day, as his burial took place on Dec. i, 1623, at St. Bride's, Fleet
Street, London. In 1923 tercentenary tablets were placed in that
Church, at Winchester, and at Chichester.
In addition to the above-mentioned publications, Weelkes brought
out a set of five-part and another of six-part madrigals in 1600.
In the latter part of his life he wrote a great quantity of church
music, of which very little has been printed. This includes 32 anthems,
and six services. His first book of madrigals was reprinted in 1843
by the Musical Antiquarian Society. "Grace, my lovely one" was
edited by W. Barclay Squire from the ms. in the British Museum.
The Ballet ts and Madrigals (1598) and the Ayeres or Phantastique
Spirit es (1608) were published in Arkwright's Old English Edition
(1889-1902). Weelkes also wrote a few pieces for viols.
WEENIX, JAN BAPTIST (1621-1660), Dutch painter,
the son of an architect, was born in Amsterdam, and studied first
under Jan Micker, then at Utrecht under A. Bloemacrt, and at
Amsterdam under Moijaert, and finally, between 1643 and 1647,
in Rome. In that city he acquired a great name and worked
for Pope Innocent and Cardinal Pamphili. He returned to Hol-
land in 1649, in which year he became master of the gild of St.
Luke at Utrecht, where he died in 1660. He was a very productive
and versatile painter, his favourite subjects being landscapes with
ruins and large figures, seaports, and, later in life, large still-life
pictures. His son Jan, Berchem, and Hondecocter were his pupils.
His son, JAN WEENIX (1640-1719), was born at Amsterdam
and was a member of the Utrecht gild of painters in 1664 and
1668. His fame is chiefly due to his paintings of game and of
hunting scenes, and many of the pictures of this genre, formerly
ascribed to the elder Weenix, are now generally considered to
be the works of his son, who even at the age of 20 rivalled, and
subsequently surpassed, his father in breadth of handling and
richness of colour. At Amsterdam he was frequently employed to
decorate private houses with wall-paintings on canvas; and be-
tween 1702 and 1712 he painted an important series of large
hunting pictures for the Prince Palatine Johann Wilhelm's castle
of Bensberg, near Cologne. Some of these pictures are now at
Munich. He died at Amsterdam in 1719. Many of his best works
are to be found in English private collections, though the National
Gallery has but one example, a painting of dead game and a dog.
WEEVER, or WEAVER. The weevers (Trackinus) are small
marine fishes common on the coasts of Europe. They belong to
a family of spiny-rayed fishes (Trachinidae) , and are distinguished
by a long low body with two dorsal fins, the anterior of which is
composed of six or seven spines only, the posterior being long
and many-rayed. The ventral fins are placed in advance of the
pectorals. The upper surface of the head is bony, without skin.
478
WEEVIL— WEIGALL
Several species are known, but two only occur on the British
coasts, viz., the Greater Weever (Trachinus draco) and the Lesser
Weever (T. vipera); the former is frequently found of a length
of lain., whilst the latter grows only to about half that length.
The colouration of both is plain, but the short first dorsal fin is
always deep black. The weevers are bottom fish, burying and hid-
ing themselves in the sand or shingle — the lesser species living
close inshore and the greater preferring deeper water. They inflict
wounds by their dorsal and opercular spines. The spines are
deeply grooved, and the poisonous fluid lodged in the grooves is
secreted by glands at their base. The, flesh is not bad eating.
See Jordan, Guide to the Study of Fishes.
WEEVIL, the name applied to beetles of the division Rhyn-
chophora of the order Coleoptcra. They are characterized by the
prolongation of the head into a rostrum or snout which bears the
mouth-parts at the apex. The antennae are usually elbowed and
clubbed, with the basal portion frequently lodged in a depression
on each side of the rostrum. The tarsi have four evident joints
and there is a single median or gular suture beneath the head.
Their larvae are usually white, curved, fleshy grubs, generally
without legs: the head is darker and well developed, with strong
jaws; eyes are absent or very rudimentary. Both the adults and
the larvae are exclusively vegetable feeders.
The true weevils or Curculionidae form the largest natural
family in the animal kingdom and include over 25,000 known
species, but probably many times that number still await dis-
covery. More than 400 species occur in the British Isles, and
upwards of 1,400 species inhabit America N. of Mexico. Their
most characteristic organ is the rostrum: its function in the
female is often that of a boring instrument, a hole being drilled
by it for placing the eggs, but its significance in the male is not
HCAD AND SNOUT Of THE
MAUL MAtmrtED TO wow
AftftAJMCMCNT OF ANTfNNAB
LARVA, AND ADULT MALE AND FEMALE OF THE BALANINUS GLANOIUM
The Balaninut GUndlum U cloieiy alll«4 to th* common nut w««vil of Groat
Britain, fn several species of its flenus the female deposits an ego inside a
Haiti nut of acorn, (he larva wton developed feeding upon the kernel. The
speoiet illustrated hatch** out from acorns
understood. As a rule the rostrum is better developed in the
female than in the male, a feature that is well seen in the nut
wcevifs. The majority of weevils are sombrely coloured but
others arc attractive objects. In the brilliant green Pkyltebius
and Polydrmus, so common among herbage in Britain, the
colour lies in the covering scales. The Papuan Eupholus is sky
blue, and the diamond-beetles (Entimus) of Brazil are probably
the most resplendent of all. In their larval stages weevils may
feed upon any part of a plant from the roots to the seed: the
vast majority are internal or subterranean feeders, but some
feed openly and a few live in tunnels formed of rolled leaves.
A large number of species are highly injurious either as larvae
or as adults also. The granary weevil (Calandra granaria) de-
stroys the grains of maize, wheat and barley, and has become
widely distributed through commerce. The cosmopolitan rice-
weevil (C. oryzae) affects, besides rice, a great variety of other
dry food products. The cotton-boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis)
is the most serious enemy of the American cotton crop, causing
immense damage to the bolls. It is believed to have entered
Texas about 1802 from tropical America and reached Virginia
by 1924. The allied apple-blossom weevil (A. pomorum) is very
destructive to unopened blossom buds in England and other
parts of Europe. The palm-weevil (Rhynchophorus ferruginous')
affects toddy and coco-nut palms, and the pine-weevil (Hylobius
abietis) is a European enemy of young conifers. The alfalfa-
weevil (Phytonomus posticus) entered the U.S. from Europe in
1904 and is a serious enemy of alfalfa and clovers. Mention must
be made of the North American plum curculio (Contrachelus
nenuphar), a most destructive pest of stone fruits, of the nut-
weevils (Balaninus) and of species of Sitona which attack
leguminous crops.
In addition to the Curculionidae, the Rhynchophora include the
families Scolytidae or bark-beetles, Brent hidae and Anthribidae,
which are described in the article COLEOPTERA. (A. D. I.)
WEFT: see WARP and WEFT.
WEIERSTRASS, KARL (1815-189?), German mathema-
tician, was born at Ostenfelde on Oct. 31, 1815. He studied jurist
prudence at Bonn, and later went to Miinster to study under
Gudermann, who was interested in the theory of functions. Weier-
strass wrote a paper on the development of modular func-
tions for his teacher's examination, and so started the work in
mathematics with which his name is associated. He became a
teacher of mathematics at the "gymnasium" at Deutsche-Crone
(1842-48) and then at the Collegium. Hoseanum in Braunsberg
(1848-56). In 1856 he was appointed extraordinary professor
of mathematics at Berlin and lecturer at the school of technology.
He was appointed ordinary professor in 1864. He died in Berlin
on Feb. 19, 1897.
Weierstrass' work in mathematics was mainly on the theory
of functions ; his was the most notable work on this subject since
that of Abel and Jacobi. He published very little himself, but
embodied his works in his lectures. These were taken down by
the students and afterwards collected in Gdsammelte Abhandlwntg-
en; vols. i,, ii. and iii. (1894-95 and 1903) contained his lec-
tures, vol. iv. (1902) on Abelian functions, vols. v. and vi. (1915)
on elliptic functions, vol vii. on the calculus of variations, and
vol. viii. on analytic functions. He worked on the functions
of real variables, devised tests for the convergence of scries,
and dealt with converging infinite products. He also dealt with
the theory of bilinear and quadratic forms. Weierstrass devejoped
the theory of functions of complex variables to such an extent that
be put this subject on a fresh basis. He also made notable con-
tributions to the theory of periodic functions, elliptic functions
and the calculus of variations. Although his work was on pure
mathematics, he was interested in its applications, and influenced
a number of his students to work on applied mathematics.
He edited Steiner's Gesatnmelte Werke (2 vols., 1881-82), and
was co-editor with Kummer of Crettc's JourttaL
WEIGALL, ARTHUR EDWARD PEARSE BROME
(1880- ), British Egyptologist and author, was born on Nov.
20, 1880, and educated at Hillside school, Marvcrn, and at
Wellington college. After a short time at New College, Oxford
(1900), he joined the Egypt Exploration fund as assistant to
Prof. Flinders Petrie, and later (1905) was appointed inspector-
general of antiquities under the Egyptian Government. He re-
tired in 1914, but continued to write on archaeological subjects.
He received several foreign decorations for his archaeological
work.
His many publications include A Report on the Antiquities of
Lower Nubia (1907); Travels in the Upper Egyptian Deserts
(1909); The Life of Akhnaton, Pharaoh of Egypt (1910, revised
1922); The Life of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt (1914, revised
BEAM SCALE]
WEIGHING MACHINES
479
1924); Egypt from 1798 to 1914 (1915); Ancient Egyptian
Works of Art (1924); A History of the Pharaohs (vol. i. 1925,
vol. ii. 1926); Wanderings,™ Roman Britain (1926); The Grand
Tour of Norman England (1927).
WEIGHING MACHINES. This article deals with mech-
anisms used for weighing goods and commodities, or used for
technical purposes other than those for which the fine balance is
constructed. The latter instrument is fully dealt with in the article
BALANCE, and to that article the reader is also referred for a dis-
cussion of the principles which underlie the construction of the
balance beam and determine its accuracy, sensitivity, period of
vibration and so forth. The beam-scale, or simple balance is, how-
ever, used for commercial as well as for scientific purposes; hence
a brief account of the principal forms is here given.
The Beam Scale: Its History. — It seems certain that the bal-
ance originated in pre-dynastic Egypt, and in the opinion of some
Egyptologists its invention dates back to over 5,000 years before
the Christian era.
The earliest balances of which we have knowledge were of
the cord-pivot type, the beam being suspended at its centre by a
cord attached to a fixed support and the scale pans similarly
suspended from the ends of the beam. At first, to effect these
attachments, holes were drilled diametrically through the beam,
but at a period which may be as early as 2000 B.C., a great im-
provement was initiated which enabled balances of considerable
precision to be constructed. The end-pivot was formed by drilling
a hole into the upper surface of the beam and connecting it with
one drilled longitudinally into the end. The suspension cord
issuing from the latter and secured above the former hole was
always held by the weight of the scale-pan in definite contact
with the end of the beam. Any inequality of arm-length could be
quickly corrected. The central pivot, or fulcrum, was either con-
structed by drilling diametrically through the beam, or by wrap-
ping the suspension cord round the beam, or by attaching the
cord to a metal ring secured to the upper surface of the beam.
The better type of Egyptian balance, as early as 1500 B.C., and
possibly much earlier, was always suspended from a bracket pro-
jecting from a substantial standard. From this bracket a plumb-
line was hung, the heart -shaped plumb-bob of which was placed
immediately below the tip of a downward-depending tongue
("finger" or pointer) of triangular shape, secured to the beam
at its centre.
At a later date, and for ordinary commercial purposes, a more
portable type of beam was used, like that depicted on the kylix
of Arcesilas, a Spartan vase dating from about 550 B.C. The
lotus-shaped ends of the beam are here retained, but the beam is
depicted as hung, by a simple sailors' device, from the lowered
yard of the ship, on the deck of which the king is seated super-
intending the weighing and loading of a cargo of silphium. This
balance is neither equipped with tongue nor plummet. The ancient
method of constructing the cord-pivot beam has survived in India
and China to the present day.
The balance used in classical times was often constructed on
Egyptian lines, but those examples which have survived are
almost entirely of bronze, and are of a quite different type which
possibly originated at Alexandria in Ptolemaic times. The pivots
in these instruments may best be described as hole- or ring-pivots,
and were formed by linking hooks or rings through holes pierced
through the beam. These ring-pivot instruments stand for a gain
in portability and convenience, but for a retrograde step in
accuracy of weighing.
At first no fork ("gallows," "shears," or "cheeks") was used,
as this device had not been invented. In its place a metal hook
or loop of cord was attached to a ring linked through a central
hole.
Later, probably about the commencement of the Christian era
^— but the date is quite uncertain — the fork was invented, and,
being itself suspended, enabled an upward-pointing tongue to be
fitted. In all these classical balances the middle, or fulcrum pin,
was apparently never secured to the beam, but to the fork. The
beam turned loosely on a pin attached to the fork.
It is a remarkable fact that in the case of the steelyard in some
surviving examples (of which one is now in the British Museum)
we find a fixed fulcrum pin secured between lugs shaped in the
body of the beam. It would appear that it was not till towards the
close of the middle ages that such a pin, approximating to the
modern knife-edge, was used in equal-armed balances.
Bullion Balance!.— The finest type of large balance con-
structed in 1929 is used for weighing gold and silver. It is really
a large precision balance and the principles of its construction
need not here be detailed. Very great care in design is necessary
owing to the magnitude of the stresses to which the parts are
subjected. In particular, the design of the relieving cam and the
whole of its connected parts demands technical skill of a high
order.
In the modern form of bullion balance care is taken to preserve
the structural rigidity of the beam by causing the continuous plane
bearing-piece to pass through an aperture in the framework of
the open trussed beam, and thus give support to the continuous
fulcrum knife-edge. This means that the bearing-piece has to
bridge over a space between two supporting columns, and, in
order to ensure freedom from distortion under load, very great
transverse rigidity is necessary.
For ordinary commercial purposes, box-end, Dutch-end, and
"brass-agate" beams arc still often used, but the continuous knife-
edge with continuous bearing is gradually displacing less accurate
forms of pivot.
Counter Machines, or Small Linked Mechanisms. — It is
convenient for most commercial purposes to use scales in which
the scale-pans are placed above the beam. In the United States
such machines are known as "counter trip scales." To effect this
end, linked mechanisms have had to be devised which maintain the
pans always in a horizontal position, and give accurate weighing
irrespective of the position thereon of the load and weights. This
means that each pan must be supported so that a load, wherever
®
FlG. I. — THE ROBERVAL. ENIGMA AND DERIVED MECHANISMS
(A) The Roberval Enigma; (8) Modified form; (C) Ordinary Roberval Coun-
ter Machine; (D) Inverted type of Roberval Balance; (E) Balance decigned to
avoid reversal of stress in stay; (F) Diagram showing change in stay length
due to reversal of stress; (Q) French stay designed to maintain constant
length In tension or compression
it is placed, will exert the same turning moment round the centre
of oscillation of the main beam. This may be effected in various
ways, the object in all cases being to give to every part of a pan
or platform the same virtual velocity.
Two chief groups of mechanisms may be recognized, viz.: (i)
Those directly derived from the Mgme statique (fig. ia) of the
French mathematician, Gilles Personne de Roberval, and (2) those
consisting of a combination of load-carrying levers adapted to
support the scak-pans in such a manner as to comply with the
specified conditions (fig. 2). Roberval invented his static enigma
WEIGHING MACHINES
[COUNTER MACHINES
in 1669, but no completely satisfactory explanation of its action
appears to have been formulated until Poinsot published the 3rd
edition of his filtmens de Statique in 1821. His explanation is
based on the theory of couples, and has the advantage of being
immediate and self-contained.
D'Alembert, in his article on the lever in the EncydopSdie of
1750, had attempted a similar type of solution without complete
FlG. 2. — OUTLINE DIAGRAMS OF COUNTER MACHINES HAVING MORE
THAN ONE WEIGHING LEVEL
(A) Beranger Balance; (B) Phanzeder Balance; (C) Modified form of Phan-
xeder Balance In which the links are all In tension
success. On the other hand, Newton had long previously, by the
enunciation of his principle of Virtual Velocities, provided all the
data for solving the problem, though he has left no note on the
subject. J. T. Desaguliers applied Newton's principle to the
enigma in his Course of Experimental Philosophy (2nd ed., Lon-
don, 1745), and showed that in such a balance the turning mo-
ments exerted by the weights on each side of the centre are pro-
portional to their virtual velocities multiplied by their mass, and
not proportional to their distance from the centre of rotation.
The original form of the enigma is shown in fig. la, while b shows
a modified form using one parallelogram only.
In fig. 2a, AB is an equal-armed beam pivoted on a knife-edge
at C. AD and BE are vertical members pivoted with as little
friction as possible to the beam and also to the link DFE, which
latter is pivoted to the frame at F, the whole linkage forming
two parallelograms. To the vertical legs arc rigidly secured two
bars from which equal weights are adapted to hang. These bars
need not be fastened to the middle of the legs, nor need they pro-
ject horizontally. If the parallelograms are truly equal, the bal-
ance will remain in equilibrium no matter what the position of
the equal weights on the bars. It is obvious that, since the legs
rise and fall vertically, the virtual velocities of the weights for
any given change of inclination of the beam AB are independent
of the distance of the weights from C, and are equal to each
other; and it can be shown that, this being so, the balance of Ijie
system must remain undisturbed when the positions of the weights
are changed. Considering the problem in the light of the principle
of work, it is clear that, for a given inclination of the beam the
vertical displacement of the weights is irrespective of their dis-
tance from the fulcrum C of the beam. Under such conditions
equilibrium is not disturbed by moving the weights along the
bars.
Any divergence of the linkage from perfect parallelism destroys
the characteristics of the balance; and it is important to observe
that the susceptibility to derangement through lack of equality
in the lengths of the parallel members is much greater as regards
the vertical legs than as regards the horizontal lever-arms and
links.
Fig. i b shows a form of the device in which both weights may
be placed spatially on the same side of C, though kinematically
p is on the opposite side to w. A balance based on this form was
made by Phitzer of Oschatz. The two principal counter machines
which have been constructed on the basis of the Roberval enigma
are indicated in outline in figs, ic and id, and do not require
detailed description. Type id— the "inverted Roberval" — is the
better form, as the long vertical legs reduce the magnitude of the
alternating tensional and comprcssive stresses in the "stays" or
links DF and EF'.
In order to ensure that the parallelograms retain their true
shape under load it is important that the attachment of the leg
to the scale-pan supports should be very rigid. In fact, good
weighing with this type of balance depends on thoroughly sound
design and construction.
Reference has been made to the alternation of stress in the
stays or "checks" due to varying positions of the load or weights.
Unless a special type of pivot be employed, providing line-contact ^
on one and the same line irrespective of whether the stay is in
tension or compression, a reversal of stress will always be accom-
panied by a change in the effective length of the stay, and, con-
sequently, by a distortion of the parallelogram in question. This
is shown in fig. if. The beautiful kinematic pivot by which this
distortion is prevented is shown diagrammatically in fig. ig.
Such stays require to be made with great accuracy to give satis-
factory service in modern self-indicating balances, where any
minute differences of load-effect due to variation in the position
of the load are directly visible on the chart. To avoid reversal of
stress in the stays the form of balance shown in fig. ic has been
devised and occasionally manufactured. Other forms have been
constructed. In American practice, round hardened steel pins are
generally used as pivots for the stays or "checks" — a cheaper
form of construction. American counter machines are also gen-
erally equipped with a graduated steelyard, called a side-beam,
placed parallel to the scale-beam and carrying a suitable poise.
By moving this poise to the appropriate notch a balance may be
obtained without the use of small fractional weights. A i6-lb.
capacity scale would have a side-beam of i Ib. capacity graduated
in i~oz. sub-divisions. The use in retail trade of such counter
scales is not allowed in England.
Of counter machines in which more than one load-carrying lever
is employed to keep a scale-pan always parallel to itself through-
out its permitted range of movement, the most typical is probably
that of Beranger, a French scale manufacturer, who patented his
device in the United Kingdom in 1849. This beautiful linkage is
represented diagrammatically in fig. 20, where ACB is the main
beam, of which, as in all these diagrams, only one of the two
side members is shown. At D and D' are pivots equally spaced
from the fulcrum C. To the links DF and D'F' are suspended the
subsidiary levers HFJ and H'F'J', anchored to the base plate
respectively by links HG and H'G', and serving to support, by
means of the links hanging from J and J', the "cradles" E and E',
which latter are also suspended from pivots A and B of the main
beam. By pillars rigidly attached to the cradles the scale-pans
are conveniently supported above the levers. Considering the
left half of the beam, the short arm DC bears the same ratio to
the long arm AC, as the short arm HF of the subsidiary lever
HFJ does to the long arm HJ of the same. Hence it follows that,-
when the balance vibrates, if D falls i in. and A 2 in., J will
also fall 2 in. ; consequently, the cradle E, together with its scale-
pan, will move parallel to itself, and the load, or any part thereof,
will produce the same turning moment about C whether it be
transmitted directly to the main beam through A or indirectly
PLATFORM MACHINES]
WEIGHING MACHINES
481
through J, F and D. Precisely the same considerations hold in
respect of the other half of the mechanism.
Another type of balance, very similar in principle to the Ber-
anger, and much used in European countries, is the Phanzeder.
In fig. 26 the earlier type, using compression links AD and
BD', is shown. The subsidiary levers DEF and D'E'F' are equal-
armed, and it will be observed that each scale-pan has one leg
supported by a pivot, A or B, of the main beam, and the other leg
supported by a link from a pivot of the subsidiary lever on the
opposite side of the fulcrum.
Obviously, to avoid friction, since the arcs described by A
and D, or B and D' are of different radii, AD and BD' must be
pivoted links, and not rigid projections from the scale-pans.
Obviously, too, they are in compression. British practice, as also
American, is generally opposed to the use of such compression
links, which, nevertheless, when correctly designed and con-
structed, are quite reliable. A form of the Phanzeder balance in
which only links in tension are used* is shown in fig. ic.
The Steelyard. — This instrument, designed as a portable
weighing device dispensing with the necessity for using a large
number of weights, must be regarded as in all respects of a sec-
ondary or derivative nature when compared with the balance.
The English word has probably nothing whatever to do with either
"steel" or "yard," being derived from the M.L.German word
stdlhoj, sample courtyard, the name for the London depot of the
Hanseatic merchants, where they displayed samples of their goods,
and where numbers of such instruments were in use. In America,
and in the British dominions, steelyards, especially when sus-
pended from a tripod, are often known as "Weighmaster beams."
The principle of operation of the modern or Roman steelyard
may be gathered from the diagram, fig. 3. AB is the steelyard
freely suspended by its fulcrum knife-edge C from the fixed sup-
port D. E is the load knife-edge, and p the poise, shown sus-
pended at a point F, such that the turning moments about the
FIG. 3.— MODERN TYPE OF BUTCHERS' STEELYARD
A more primitive method of suspending the poise from the graduated yard is
also shown
pivot C due to the weight of the steelyard and its parts, together
with those due to the poise and the load (not shown), are of equal
magnitude on each side of C. Under these conditions the yard is
in equilibrium. Supposing, now, that, with the poise in zero
graduation G, and no load except the shackle and its parts depend-
ing from E, the instrument be in equilibrium, then it is clear that
the centre of gravity of the unloaded steelyard is under the sus-
pension knife-edge C. The weight of the steelyard and its parts,
under such conditions, exerts no turning moment about C. If,
now, a load L be suspended from E, it will exert a turning moment
LX'CE, and obviously this can only be balanced by moving the
poise p away from the centre until, at a point F, the turning
moment pxCF=LxCE. Since CE and p are constants the load
varies directly as CF. Hence the graduations of the steelyard
will be of equal magnitude for equal increments of load. It is
desirable that steelyards should be constructed so that the un-
loaded beam is in balance when the poise is in zero graduation.
The Roman steelyard is an Italian invention, and probably origi-
nated about 200 B.C. in Campania, or in Magna Graecia. It was
apparently unknown to Aristotle, who, in his ''Mechanics,"
describes the so-called Danish steelyard, which we now know
preceded the Roman type in classical antiquity, as also through-
out the greater part of Europe and western Asia. The "Danish"
steelyard consisted of a beam heavily weighted at one end, and
provided at the other with a hook or pivot to which the load
could be suspended. A loop of cord generally constituted the
fulcrum, the graduated beam being moved through the loop until
the load was balanced. The graduations were not equal, but
formed a harmonic series. The Shetland bismar, the Indian dhari,
and other instruments found throughout the East, conform to
this type. The device was probably a Wiro invention, and was
carried by those invaders into western and southern Europe, just
as by the Aryans proper it was taken into India.
The modern "Roman" steelyard, still largely used by butchers,
is a reliable and accurate instrument. The best makes are pro-
vided with devices to prevent undue wear of the graduation
notches, and the yard proper, or blade, is made of a non-corro-
sive steel. The notches are cut by a specially-constructed dividing
engine to a degree of accuracy quite unattainable by other means.
Compound Lever Platform Machine. — Practically all heavy
loads are to-day weighed on some form of platform machine.
Before John Wyatt's brilliant invention of the compound lever,
about the year 1744, it was necessary to use immensely heavy
and inconvenient steelyards for the weighing of loaded carts,
and the operation, even in the case of a small two-wheeled hay
cart, was a very laborious one. Wyatt was a master carpenter or
ELEVATION OF
TRANSFER LEVER
FlG. 4. — WYATT'S WEIGHBRIDGE
Thlt first compound lever platform machine (about 1744) w«t the brilliant
Invention of John Wyatt of Birmingham
mechanic. Apparently most of his weighbridges were built when
he was in the employ of the great Matthew Boulton. He died in
1766. Fig. 4 is a drawing, necessarily somewhat diagrammatic
and lacking in detail, which probably represents correctly the
original "bob-up" form of Wyatt's mechanism. It has been con-
structed from early descriptions and illustrations. (See the 3rd
edition of the Ency. Brit. [1797], under STEELYARD; John Wyatt,
Master Carpenter and Inventor [1885, published anonymously,
but compiled by the late Henry Pooley, of Liverpool], and the
Wyatt mss. in the Birmingham reference library.)
482
WEIGHING MACHINES
[SELF-INDICATING
The two triangular levers are pivoted at A and A', and receive
the load transmitted by the stool legs of the platform F on pivots
B and B'. The arms AB and A'B' are equal, as are also the arms
AC and A'C'. The pivots C and C' transmit the load to the first
order transfer lever D at the same distance FE from its fulcrum
E. G is a table for weights to counterbalance the load. Such a
combination of levers — crude as it is in construction, being devoid
of links and originally having conical points instead of knife-edges
— ensures the transmission to the counterpoising lever or steel-
yard of the same load effect by the same load, irrespective of its
position on the platform. Before the close of the i8th century
English builders were making machines of which the transfer
levers pulled down on the ends of first order steelyards, very
much in the modern manner. Whether the Fairbanks brothers
of Vermont, U.vS.A., were the first to make small platform
machines in which no separate transfer lever was used, but in
which the upper triangular lever was provided with an extension
arm connected to a steelyard, is difficult to ascertain at the present
time; but their platform machines, dating from the year 1831,
undoubtedly marked an advance in construction and convenience
of operation, and had a far-reaching effect on the development
of platform machines throughout the world.
Henry Pooley and Son were the first in Great Britain to build
such machines for general use on railways. A modern compound
lever platform machine for light loads consists of two triangular
bottom levers, link-suspended from the framework, and con-
nected together by a central link, the upper lever having an
CLEARANCE DIMENSIONS
6-3
TO WEIGH 20 TONS
W ft T AVEHY LTD
BIRMINGHAM ENGLAND
FIG. 5.— PLAN AND ELEVATION OF A MODERN WEIGHBRIDGE CONNECTED
TO A "NO-LOOSE-WEICHT" STEELYARD
Thdte bridgtt art tometlmet connected to automatic dials, the lead capacity
of which can be multiplied several timee by the use of counterpoise weights
extension arm at the end of which is a knife-edge connected by
a rod to the counter-balancing and indicating device — a steelyard
or automatic dial. If a steelyard is employed, it is designed to
be operated without the use of any loose weights, a balance being
obtained by means of one large and one small sliding poise.
Fig. 5 shows the construction of a modern weighbridge, char-
acterized by having, among other new features, "oil baths/* or
rather, grease receptacles, fitted round the bottom-lever pivots.
American practice differs in many respects from British, as, for
instance, in a general preference for fixed levers— that is, tri-
angular or "bottom" levers having their fulcra resting on fixed
stools or brackets, whereas the leading British makers prefer to
suspend their levers, especially in the case of high-capacity
bridges, from links depending from brackets secured to the mas-
sive "box-beds" constructed of cast-iron or steel girders which are
a distinguishing feature of British practice.
On the Continent of Europe railway track scales are generally
equipped with means for putting the portion of the track con-
stituting the platform into relief — that is completely disconnect-
ing it from the weighing mechanism — while the engine or other
vehicle is taking up a position thereon. In Britain and the United
States track weighbridges, at the present time, are seldom fitted
with relieving apparatus, but are made sufficiently strong to resist
the shocks due to rolling loads moving at a reasonable speed. A
very large amount of loaded rolling stock is weighed while mov-
ing at speeds varying from i to 3 m. per hour. Platforms sup-
ported so as to be free to swing with a restricted movement in
all directions are in general use. While in Great Britain and in
Europe triangular bottom levers are most frequently employed,
in America four transverse "straight" levers, connecting directly
with two longitudinal extension levers, constitute customary prac-
tice, especially for bridges intended to weigh motor road traffic.
The extension levers are, in turn, linked directly to the steelyard,
or to the intermediate lever of a self-indicating mechanism.
The steelyards are often equipped with ticket-printing devices,
the types being brought into position by a mechanical connection
between the type-carrying bars or wheels and the poises by the*
movement of which a balance of the load is effected.
The accuracy and reliability of high-class modern weighbridges
are rather remarkable. A bridge loaded with from 50 to too tons
will indicate the addition of from 4 to 7 Ib. when properly ad-
justed. In fact, its order of sensitivity is not very different from
that of a chemical balance in customary laboratory use.
Plate Pivot Machines.— Of recent years there has been de-
veloped, in the United States, a type of weighbridge in which
knife-edges are replaced by thin plates or laminae used in com-
pression. These are all derived from the work of A. H. Emery,
who, in the year 1875, successfully applied this type of pivot to
the construction of a remarkably fine testing machine. There
is no doubt that a few admirably reliable and sensitive weigh-
bridges have been constructed with plate-fulcra; but their costli-
ness at present prevents their general adoption. It is claimed
that weighbridges built on this principle remain in accurate and
sensitive adjustment even if subjected to very severe conditions
of use. The plate-fulcra and load pivots are made of chrome-
vanadium steel, and their cross sectional area is sufficient to pro-
vide an ample margin of safety. The amount of flexure to which
they are subjected in use is extremely small. The platform is
restrained from horizontal movements by the tension of horizontal
plates or rods sufficiently flexible to permit the minute vertical
movement required for weighing. The lever system is similar to
that of knife-edge lever machines. E. and T. Fairbanks and com-
pany, of St. Johnsbury, Vermont, U.S.A., constructed the first
"plate-fulcrum" railway track scale in 1915.
Self-indicating Weighing Machines.— The most important
developments in the science of weighing instruments in recent
years have, unquestionably, been associated with the evolution
of the modern visible weigher, or self-indicating machine. All
such weighing machines — except one class of automatic or semi-
automatic weight-depositing instruments, not yet fully developed
— depend on a variable resistant against which the load, or a
fractional portion thereof, automatically balances itself when
deposited on the scale.
The first self-indicating scales appear to have been invented by
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). They are described and drawn
in one of his note-books preserved at Paris. (The mss. are in the
Bibliotheque de 1'Institut. See Les Manuscrits de Leonard de
Vinci, publics en foe-simile, etc., par C. Ravaisson Mollien. [6
vols., 1881-91]. See also The Mechanical Inventions of Leonardo
da Vinci, by Dr. Hart [1923].) His description appears to make
it certain that he had actually constructed one of these instru-
ments. A semi-circular dial, suitably weighted, is suspended, at
SELF-INDICATINGJ
WEIGHING MACHINES
483
the middle of its diameter, on a pivot from which also hangs a
plumb-line, situated so as to serve as an indicator. A scale-pan
hangs from one end of the diameter. The design has a remarkable
characteristic not shared by many modern instruments, viz., that
the accuracy of the indications is not affected by any divergence
from horizontality of the surface on which the instrument is
placed.
A pendulum or bent-lever resistant does not give equal chart
divisions on a circular or segmental chart unless a cam or other
equivalent device is used in the application of the load to the
resistant, so as to counteract what has been called "the circular
error" of the pendulum.
As the pendulous mass is raised by the fall of the load, its
resistance increases as the sine of the angle of displacement from
the vertical. At the same time, unless the load has been applied
by a strap passing round a circular arc concentric with the centre
of rotation, the effective length of the arm to which the load is
applied will vary. Supposing, in th6 most simple case, that when
the instrument is unloaded the load arm is horizontal and the
centre of gravity of the pendulous mass vertically beneath its
pivot, then the application of a load will deflect the system until
a position of equilibrium is attained. During this movement the
effective load arm will become shorter in the ratio of the cosine
of the angle of deflection, and the resistant arm will increase
from zero in the ratio of the sine of the angle. Hence, the load
in all balanced positions will vary as the tangent of the angle
of deflection, and a pointer attached to the pendulum will not
indicate equal chart graduations for equal load increments. Gen-
erally, if the load arm makes an angle $ with the horizontal, and
the pendulum an angle 6 with the vertical, the applied load being
L, the following relationship will hold:
T
Loo
COS0
Obviously, with a small angle of deflection the graduations will
be approximately equal to each other, for the arc traversed will
be nearly proportional to the trigonometrical function of its angle.
Weighing machines have been constructed using such small angles
of rotation in order to get virtual equality of sub-divisions, as is
— 1--
FIG. 6. — THE PENDULUM RESISTANT
(a) Diagram of th* meohanUm el tht Fan SoaU uwd fw wtiQhtag •mall quan-
titltt In reUil shops; (b) Diagram showing how U* arm-ltngtht of tht ttm
vary with the angle through which tht pendulum moves
required by the regulations of the various national weights and
measures authorities. Where * machine is permanently and
securely positioned, and extreme sensitivity is not required, little
exception can be taken to this method of construction, which has
the great advantage of extreme simplicity and robustness of
design.
The sensitivity t>f a pendulum resistant is, however, within
limits imposed by technical considerations, a function of the
amplitude of the angle of rotation; and furthermore, the larger
the angle the less the derangement that will result from such
minute differences of level as may supervene after installation.
Hence has arisen a multitude of designs for utilizing a consider-
able angle of rotation, as 55° for instance, while still obtaining
equality of sub-divisions. Various parallel-motion and tangent-
bar devices have been constructed, but the most generally em-
FlG. 7. — MECHANISM OF THE "TOLEDO ' SELF-INDICATING PLATFORM
MACHINE
(A) Connecting rod attached to weighing lever*. Yoke connected by steel
•traps (6B) to the cams (CC), which are attached to lejiments (DO) and to
pendulums (EE). Segments are suspended from the frame by straps (A'A')>
The bar (F) sensitively pivoted to the centres of the circular Moments <OO)
is raited together with the elasiictlly supported rack <Q) which rota tot the
pinion (H)
ployed method makes use of a cam formed by eccentrically dis-
placing a circular arc in respect of the axis of rotation- To the
periphery of this cam the load is applied by means of a flexible
metallic strap. (See fig. 6, a and b.) A close approximation to
absolute equality of sub-divisions is poshible if the best geo-
metrical configuration is adopted. Fig. 6 * is a diagram of the
mechanism of the well known fan type of self -indicating counter
machine. The combined counterbalancing and indicating unit is
pivoted on a knife-edge housed in V-shaped bearings. Fig. 6 b
is a diagram designed to show that the rate of change of the
products of the "circular cam'' arm-lengths and their respective
loads closely approximates to the rate of change of the pendulum
moment-arms, which latter, as has been stated above, conform to
a sine law. The two rates of change are made to counteract each
other in just the measure necessary to permit of the use of equally
divided charts. The dimension d indicates the linear displacement
of the cam circle from the centre of oscillation.
The well known cylindrical computing Kale embodies a re-
sistant of this type, the cylinder itself being carried on anti-
friction wheels, and rotated by a pinion engaging witb a ver-
tically moving rack connected ptvoUlly with the weighing lever.
Some types of dial mechanism employ a resistant consisting of
two pendulums rotating in opposite senses, thus eliminating the
effects of out-of -level disturbances. In a well known American
WEIGHING MACHINES
[ANTI-FRICTION DEVICES
type of mechanism, knife-edges are dispensed with, the cams,
with their attached pendulums, rolling on vertical straps anchored
to the framework, and being rotated by other straps attached to
a yoke to which the pull transmitted from the weighing levers is
centrally applied. (See fig. 7.)
A more modern type of resistant, the most highly-developed
form of which is illustrated in fig. 8, depends for its effect on the
varying leverage of a cam to the periphery of which a weight is
suspended. No pendulum is employed. In a commercial instru-
ment a combination of cams is required to obtain equality of
sub-divisions on the chart. As the load is increased the strap-
suspended cams rotate in opposite senses, and the pivoted
weighted levers depending from the contoured faces of other
cams rigidly attached to those just mentioned act with a gradually
increasing mechanical advantage, thus opposing a proportionally
greater resistance to the growing load. Such a device has several
technical advantages, one being the absence of the considerable
Jnertia effects generally experienced when pendulous masses are
given a comparatively high angular velocity. This effect of inertia
has to be provided for.
Dash-pots. — When a load is automatically balanced against a
simple variable resistant, only half the energy due to the fall of
the load to a position of equilibrium is utilized in raising the
pendulous mass, or in extending the spring. The remaining
energy, if violent oscillations and shocks are to be avoided, must
be absorbed by some form of dash-pot. The devices generally
used are cylindrical vessels containing oil, in which pistons
pivotally connected with the weighing levers by suitable linkage
are adapted to reciprocate. Ports, in the piston, or in a tubular
part connecting the upper and lower ends of the oil-containing
chamber, enable adjustments to be made to compensate for
changes in the viscosity of the oil due to variations of temperature.
Anti-friction Devices.— In those self-indicating machines in
which a pointer has to be rotated round a circular dial, or in which
a moving dial is used, the weight of the revolving chart is sup-
ported on "frictionless" bearings — either miniature ball-bearings,
anti-friction wheels, or a crossed-strap suspension device. The
first of these is, in many cases, the most commercially convenient,
but does not permit the attainment of the same degree of
sensitivity that is possible with really well-designed anti-friction
wheels.
The Crossed-strap Device, a recent "Avery" invention, con-
stitutes the most frictionless method yet discovered of supporting
and rotating a large indicating unit. No rack and pinion is
necessary. A rotational angle of about 300° is possible. The
weight of the spindle carrying the rotating chart is entirely sup-
ported by two pairs of thin steel bands. These pairs are secured
to, and wrapped in opposed senses about, a small drum attached
to the said spindle. Their upper ends are attached to the opposite
ends of an inverted weighted pendulous segment, pivoted on a
knife-edge working in V-shaped agate bearings. This segment con-
stitutes the variable resistant, and carries a cam or displaced
circular arc so disposed eccentrically to the fulcrum as to give
equal chart sub-divisions for equal fractions of the total load.
The load-effect or "pull" is transmitted from the main weighing
lever to this cam by means of a long flexible steel strap. As the
segment rotates on its knife-edge it unwinds one pair of straps
and winds up the other pair at exactly the same rate, thus
rotating the drum mounted on the floating chart-carrying spindle,
while maintaining it in exactly the same position.
Other resistants beside the bent-lever or pendulum have been
and are used in weighing mechanisms. Of these the chief is the
spring. The most commonly used form is the spiral spring. For
some purposes its employment is quite legitimate; nevertheless,
the chief constructors of self-indicating weighers throughout the
world have, with few exceptions, abandoned it as a resistant in
entirely automatic weighing mechanisms. It has three outstand-
ing defects, two of which are due to its susceptibility to changes
of external temperature. The substance of all steel springs ex-
pands or contracts in length with variations of temperature, and
this generally affects the zero indication of the balance. It can be
shown that, in the case of a properly-proportioned spiral spring
in the unloaded state, the change in length of the wire due to
temperature change makes practically no difference in the actual
length of the spiral; but in a weighing instrument such a con-,
dition of no-load never occurs in practice. Temperature also
affects the specific elasticity of springs. When a spring is warm
it extends more under a given load than when cold. Hence, even
if the scale-pan is empty, the greater extension of the spring
LOAD CAM
SUSPENSION CAM
LEVER CAM
DAfHPOT
FlG. 8. AVERY CAM- RESISTANT MECHANISM
A variable resistant is obtained without the use of pendulums, two sets of
suspended triple cam contours so designed as to give to an increasing load a
diminishing mechanical advantage in its efforts to raise the weighted levers.
These latter are pivoted by steel straps to the periphery of a small circular
disc round which they are free to roll. The balanced pointer Is operated by
rack and pinion
under its initial load due to the weight of necessary parts, dis-
places the zero indication. To a still greater extent the whole
range of indications is affected. In a large measure this defect
can be compensated for by means of a thermostatic device made
of two dissimilar metals, so disposed that the transmitted load-
effect can, by means of a change of leverage, be given a greater
or less mechanical advantage before its application to the spring
resistant.
The third source of error is more serious and cannot be com-
pletely eliminated, though it is proper to note that, under the
actual conditions in which many weighing machines operate, its
effects are negligible. If a spring be loaded and the load be very
gradually removed, it will often be found that the spring does
not return exactly to its original conformation ; hence, the zero
of an instrument embodying such a spring will not be constant.
Other derangements due to this hysteresis of the elastic material
of the spring have been noted. In practice, the very gradual and
shockless deposition or removal of loads referred to seldom takes
place, and vibration — such as that due to neighbouring traffic or
machinery — appears generally to eliminate this trouble in the
case of well-designed spring-operated machines.
Against these drawbacks the spring has the great advantage of
conforming exactly, for all practical purposes, to Hpoke's law;
that is to say, it gives equal chart sub-divisions. Moreover, it is
intrinsically a more sensitive resistant than the pendulum.
The "hydrostatic resistant" has been made in various forms.
WEIGHING MACHINES
PLATE
VARIOUS TYPES OF WEIGHING MACHINES
1. Bullion and testing balance, a sensitive beam weighing machine used
for precious stones and metal
2. Self-indicating scale with part of back removed to show dial mechanism
by means of which weights are indicated on a circular disc for con-
venience in reading
3. Weighmaster beam, or Roman steelyard, used where absolute accuracy
is not required, and valuable for its simplicity and ruggedness
4. Railway track scale used in weighing loaded rolling stock in motion.
5. Platform scale without the compensating cam sometimes used for
obtaining equality of sub-divisions on dial
6. Plate fulcrum track scale showing end and transverse lover connections
7. Plate fulcrum track scale showing movable end section
8. Phantom view of compound lever platform machine, showing separate
parts: 1, beam; 2, poise; 3, bush poise; 4, counterpoise loop; 5,
counterpoise stem; 6, counterpoise cup; 7, weights; 8, fulcrum loop;
9, fulcrum lever beam hook; 10, balance ball; 11, cap; 12, beam
rod; 13, pillar; 14, strap washer; 15, pillar rod nuts; 16, nose iron;
17. long lever; 18, short lever; 19, platform board; 20, platform;
21, frame; 22, corner links; 23, bearing steel; 24, screw and block;
25, check rod; 26, trig loop; 27, cap loop
9. Assembly of modern heavy two-section track scale
XXIII. 484
AUTOMATIC FEEDS]
WEIGHING MACHINES
485
[t depends on the buoyancy of a float and its resistance to ver-
:ical displacement. A mercury resistant embodying the same
principle has also been extensively used.
Computing Scales. — Entirely automatic self-indicating
rounter scales are very generally adapted to indicate, not only the
iveight of the goods, but the particular value of the said weight
rorresponding to a large number of different unitary prices. Col-
linear with each weight graduation is a series of price indications
•—the respective unitary prices, as, for instance, prices per pound
ivoirdupois being marked either on the pointer, if the dial be of
the stationary type, or on the revolving chart itself.
Automatic Feed Scales. — This name is given to a large class
of mechanisms by means of which granular and liquid materials
may be automatically weighed off in pre-determined amounts^ It
s now possible to weigh in this manner practically all materials
which can be induced to flow through a port or valve of reasonable
dimensions. Thus modifications of the same general type of scale
will weigh flour and the most finely ground cement, while others
will weigh coal and ores broken up in lumps not exceeding say 2
ar 3 in. in diameter. In general terms such a machine — one form
af which is illustrated in fig. 9 — may be defined as consisting of
a hopper I, or box terminating a feeding spout, and equipped at
its lower end with a -pivoted gate D, or gates, adapted, when
opened, to permit a flow of material into a scale-hopper C, placed
immediately beneath it. This receptacle depends from one end
of an equal-armed balance beam A, the other end of which carries
a weight box B. When the scale is empty the weighted end of the
beam causes the hopper end to rise, and by contacting with a part
pivotally connected by links to the above mentioned gate or
gates, forces them to open, thus causing the rapid filling of the
FIG. 9— AUTOMATIC FEED SCALE
A diagram of a grain weigher for automatically weighing wheat and other
grains. The material Is stored in the hopper I, the gate 0 being opened by the
upward pressure of the empty receptacle C due to the weights in the scale-
pan B. When the load In the receptacle balances the weights the receptacle
falls, closes the supply gate and opens the discharge-valve E
receptacle with the material being weighed. The bottom of the
scale-hopper is closed by a large discharge valve E, to which is
connected linkage so designed that, when this door is closed, the
linkage forms a locked dead-centre. This device, often called a
toggle, is indicated at the right of the receptacle in the illustra-
tion. Other and different devices, as detent mechanisms, are
sometimes used to keep the bottom door securely fastened unti
the receptacle has received its proper load.
As a state of equilibrium is approached, the weights no longer
hold up the receptacle forcibly against the device which controls
the opening of the hopper valve. Consequently, this valve grad-
ually closes, and the final cut-off is arranged to take place just
when a balance has been obtained. In some types of this mech-
anism the balanced beam, in falling away from the gate-opening
mechanism, causes contact to be made between a lug or peg
attached to the framework, and the linkage or detent-system con-
trolling the discharge valve; or, alternatively, as in fig. 9, a part
connected with the feed gate is adapted to "break" the dead centre
or toggle mechanism of the discharge valve linkage at the moment
when the hopper valve has completely closed. A very small
force, properly applied, suffices to effect this release. The moment
this takes place the discharge valve E opens, and the weighed
material falls into another receptacle, generally connected with a
conveyor or elevator.
Such, in brief outline, is the principle on which practically all
automatic feed weighers act. Many refinements are, however,
necessary in practice, and to the chief of these some reference must
be made. At the moment when the receptacle has received its
true weight of material, and the beam is moving to the balanced
position, there is a considerable weight of material in the act of
falling from the closed feed-port to the receptacle. To com-
pensate for this amount, which would otherwise overload the
balance, a "compensating lever" is employed. This lever is shown
outlined in the illustration as lying parallel to the scale-beam.
It is pivoted to the frame, and adapted by means of an adjustable
poise, not shown, to press upon the load-receptacle, or some con-
nected part, while the said receptacle is being filled. Consequently,
the receptacle tends to fall to the balanced position before it has
obtained its full load, thus closing the feed-port. The weight of
material in the air at the moment of cut-off exactly compensates
for this deficiency. If desired, the accuracy of the weighing can
be immediately checked by raising the compensating lever be-
fore the hopper has had time to fall sufficiently far to cause dis-
charge to ensue, or by preventing discharge in some other con-
venient manner. If the adjustments have been properly made,
the beam will be found in perfect balance. In order to render the
cut-off still more precise, in practically all large weighers a small
valve called a "dribble" valve is used in addition to the main
valve or valves. The main valves are closed before the weighing
is complete, but the dribble port continues open until closed by
the release of a detent, or, in some mechanisms — as in the grain
weigher illustrated in fig. 9 — by the continued movement of the
main valve. In some makes of machine, especially those used for
weighing grain, the edge of the feed valve port is rimmed with
a brush in close proximity to which the closing valve moves very
smoothly and without risk of jamming.
The action of the particular type of weigher illustrated may
now be followed in a little greater detail. F is a lever connected
to the feed valve linkage. When this valve is nearly closed, the
little wheel shown on the vertical link is resting on the steel pin
H, attached to a pivoted counterbalanced lever. Later, when the
loaded receptacle falls to the balanced position, a pin contacts
with the counterbalanced lever and throws H over to the right.
The valve then closes completely, and the free end of the lever
F rises and contacts with the pin G, thus breaking the dead centre
and causing the discharge valve E to open.
Small automatic feed weighers, used for filling packets with
standard quantities of material, are often operated electrically,
as this enables very great accuracy to be attained. In such devices,
the instantaneous and energetic shutting of the feed port is
accomplished by an electro-magnet, the circuit of which is com-
pleted by the fall of the loaded weigh-beam.
Liquid weighers operate on the same general principles as those
already described for weighing granular materials.
Conveyor Weighers.— Of recent years various conveyoi
weighers have been developed, and have filled a useful place in the
bulk weighing of materials where no great accuracy is required
The principle of operation of one form is here briefly outlined
If a conveyor belt be made to pass over rollers supported by *
system of weighing levers, which system is in turn suitably con
nected to a variable resistant, the resistant will respond to the
varying weight of material on the belt. If this weighing device
486
WEIGHT THROWING
as regards its load indications, be connected with a device re-
sponding to the velocity of linear movement of the conveyor
belt in such a manner that the one numerical magnitude is multi-
plied by the other, it is obvious the product may be evaluated to
represent the weight of material passing along the conveyor in a
given time. Various methods, some mechanical and some elec-
trical, have been designed to effect this multiplication.
Totalizer. — This weighing machine is of the automatic mov-
ing poise type, and is generally used for the automatic weighing
and recording of the total of the separate loads contained in4 a
series of receptacles or trucks placed successively on the weigh-
ing platform. As each load is imposed an electrically-propelled
poise moves out along a steelyard connected to the weighing
machine, and effects a balance, at the same time operating a
counting device which records and adds on to the total of previous
weighments the weight of the newly imposed load. Such
mechanisms are capable of very accurate and reliable adjustment.
The divergence of the weight indications of the mechanical
counters, when such a machine is working under reasonably good
conditions, from the true weight of the total loads should not
exceed about one-fifth of i%. About the same standard of
accuracy is often attainable with high-class automatic feed
weighers.
Weighing as a Means of Counting.— A great extension of
this convenient method of counting things of uniform weight has
taken place in recent years. Immense numbers of small parts
and finished articles are produced by modern methods of machin-
ing and fabrication under conditions which ensure that the weight
of each piece will be approximately the same. Hence, if a balanced
system of linked levers be constructed having two receptacles
connected therewith, one large and one small, at points at which
the mechanical advantage of a weight deposited in the small pan
is a hundred times greater than that of the same weight if de-
posited in the larger pan, it is obvious that equilibrium can only
be obtained by placing 100 such weights in the large pan for every
one deposited in the small pan. Hence if, for instance, it is de-
sired to count bolts of uniform pattern in hundreds, one bolt is
placed in the small pan and a quantity in the other, the number
being rapidly adjusted until a balance is obtained.
A large variety of these instruments are available to-day,
adapted to suit particular requirements, but, except in some re-
cently-designed instruments equipped with dials and pointers
for counting odd numbers of articles, the principle of operation
is the same in all cases.
The future of weighing as a science and industry would seem
to. lie in the further evolution of self-indicating weighers and auto-
matic feed and packeting machines. In particular, attention will
be given to the production of more perfect, convenient, and
fraud»proof printing mechanisms. It is already possible to convey
to a distant point the weight-indications of a Weighing machine,
but such devices cannot yet be said to have been made into com-
mercially successful instruments free from liability to error
arising from faulty manipulation. As regards self-indicating in-
struments of large capacity, the most promising line of develop-
ment would seem to lie in the perfecting of weight-depositing
instruments, automatically or semi-automatically controlled, and
operated by mechanical or electrical means. While steelyard in-
struments having mechanically or electrically-propelled poises
will, no doubt, attain a high degree of perfection, the automatic
deposition of weights on one and the same knife-edge to balance
the major portion of a load the fractional portion of which is
balanced against a variable resistant, is more completely in ac-
cordance with the essential principles of a perfect weighing
instrument.
In conclusion, it may be confidently asserted that the rapidity
and accuracy of automatic weighing, with its almost complete
elimination of the fallible human element, make it certain that a
very great extension of this method of weighing may be looked
for in the immediate future.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— For the early history of weighing see Hippolyte
Ducros, Atudes sur les Balances egyptiennes (Annale* du Service des
Antiquites de 1'ftgypte, tomes ix. and x.) ; the article "Libra" in the
Dictionnaire des Antiquitis grecques et romaines, by Daremberg and
Saglio; J. A. Kingdon, The Strife of the Scales (1904) ; Sheppard and
Musham, Money Scales and Weights (1923) ; Benton, "The History of
the Evolution of Weighing Instruments'* in «the Transactions of the
G.W.R., Swindon Engineering Society (1926-27). For the principles
and construction of weighing machines see Ernst Braucr, Die Konstruh-
tion der Wage, 3rd ed., edit, by Fr, Lawackzeck (Leipzig, 1906), and
the Eng. trans, by Walters (Incorporated Society of Inspectors of
Weights and Measures, 1909) ; Airy, "Weighing Machines," Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng., vol. 108; Owen, A Treatise on Weighing Machines (London,
1922) ; Wade, Scales and Weighing, their Industrial Applications (New
York, 1924) ; Benton, " Weighing in the Chemical Industries," Jottrn.
Soc. of Chem. Industry (1927); Malan and Robinson, The Weighing
and Measuring of Chemical Substances (1922). The theory of
articulated systems, as embodied in counter machines, has been fully
discussed by J. A. Bonneau, "Verificateur des Poids et Mesures" in
Instruments de Pesage a Systemes Articulest Premiere Partie Balances
Robenal (Paris, 1908), and Inst. de Pesage Theorie Gincrale (1913)-
He discusses also the views of M. M. Lucciardi and Anger. See also the
publications of the U.S.A. Bureau of Standards, Technologic Papers
Nos. 106, 199, 2oS, etc. , (W. A. BN.)
WEIGHT THROWING. The art of throwing a 56 Ib.
weight to the greatest height or distance. Lifting and hurling
weights of different kinds have been popular pastimes from time
immemorial. Slinging the "half-hundredweight" for distance ap-
proximates most closely, perhaps, to the earliest competitive
weight throwing. This was the roth cleas, or wheel feat, at the Tail-
tin Games of Ireland, held as far back as 1829 B.C. It appears that
the sport was initiated in Ireland and it is still in Ireland that if
enjoys the greatest popularity. In that country the various cham
pionship forms of slinging the 56 Ib. weight, together with records
are as follows: — Without run or follow, J. Mangan, 2 /ft. 4 Jin.
between legs with follow, J. Mangan, 32ft. sin.; with unlimitec
run and follow, T. F. Kiely, 38ft. uin.; from git. circle, J. J. Flan
agan, 3Qft. 2 Jin. In other countries, where the throwing takes
place from a yft. circle for distance only, the records are as fol-
lows:—World and Canada, M. McGrath, U.S.A., 4oft 6 Jin.;
Scottish, S. Smith, 33ft. 3m.; English, J. Barrett, 32ft; U.S.A.,
P. J. McDonald, 38ft. 9 Jin.; Sweden, E. Stromberg, 3$ft. iin.;
World and U.S.A. for height, P. Donovan, i6ft. uiin. Slinging
the 56 Ib. weight was once a common event in Great Britain at
all important athletic sports meetings. It has, however, been
given championship status upon only three occasions, and has but
twice appeared in the Olympic programme, i.e., St. Louis, 1904
(Desmarteau, Canada, 34ft. 4in.), and Antwerp, 1920 (P. J. Mc-
Donald, U.S.A., 36ft. ijin.). The American championship for
distance was instituted in 1878 and is still continued, the best
performance being that of P. McDonald, who, in 1911, threw
38ft, 9^in. Prior to 1888, the ordinary, slightly conical half -hun-
dredweight was used and thrown by the ring attached to the top;
the ring, however, was awkward to grip and a larger triangular
handle was afterwards substituted, while the conical weight was
replaced by a spherical head.
To throw for height the athlete places himself beside the high
jump uprights and endeavours to heave the half-hundredweight
over a cross-bar placed at increasing heights between the stand-
ards. The general championship style of throwing for distance
from an 8ft. circle, without follow, provides the spectator with a
much more lively and entertaining exhibition of strength, speed
and skill. The modern 56 Ib. weight used for competition com-
prises a spherical head of moulded lead, or a brass shell filled with
lead, having embedded in it a forged steel eye as a means of at-
taching the handle. The handle is made of round iron, or steel,
iin. in diameter, bent in a triangular form so that no side meas-
ures more than j{m. The weight is not less than 56 Ib., and the
length over all not more than i6in. The throwing takes place from
a 7ft. circle marked upon the ground, which the thrower must not
quit until his throw has been marked.
Method of Throwing,— At the back edge of the rear half of
the circle the thrower takes his stance, with feet well separated
and the implement resting upon the ground between them. His
back is turned towards the direction in which the throw is to be
made. He grasps the handle with both hands, the palms turned
towards his body, and the cross-piece being against the middle
joints of his fingers. He raises the weight from the ground and
WEI,HAI-WEI— WEIMAR
487
swings it round outside his right leg, so that the backs of his hands
are turned towards him. As the compensating swing forward
starts he gives the weight more speed, swings it once round his
head and, as it is coming down at his right side again, he begins
to pivot on the left foot in the manner of the hammer thrower
(see HAMMER THROWING). All the time he is turning he takes
care to keep his arms out straight and his body travelling well
ahead of the weight, otherwise he will lose control, the weight will
drag him round and he will have neither length of swing nor the
right position from which to produce a powerful delivery at the
end of his one, two or three turns. At the end of the turning move-
ment both feet are on the ground and the athlete's back is facing
the direction in which the throw is to be made. Although his feet
remain firmly planted, his body takes up and continues the turn-
ing movement as he heaves the weight away over his left shoulder.
In the finishing position, in which the arms follow up and right j
through, the body is at full stretch, the legs crossed at the thighs
and the left shoulder is pointing in 'the direction of the flight of
the 56 Ib. weight. An instant after the release of the weight the
thrower's feet are quickly reversed in a compensating movement ;
which enables him to remain inside the circle. A new rule requires
that he shall not quit the circle until his throw has been marked
and that he shall go out by the rear half of the circle.
One of the few really good 56 Ib. weight throwers that England
has produced was the late H. A. Leeke, who won the champion-
ship in 1911. Both Leeke and his father were Cambridge Blues
and English champions in shot putting and also hammer throwing.
H. A. Leeke was, however, not heavy enough for the 56 Ib.
weight event. Matt McGrath, the world's record holder, stood
6 ft. in height and weighed 17 st. 10 Ib. (248 Ib.) in his prime.
See Silfverstrand and Rasmussen, Text Book of Athletics (1926).
(F. A. M. W.)
WEI-HAI-WEI, a naval and coaling station on the north-
east coast of the Chinese province of Shantung, leased (to-
gether with much of the neighbouring territory and waters and
the island of Liu Kung) by Great Britain, through a convention
with the Chinese Government in 1898. The previous Chinese port
had been captured by Japan in 1895, and occupied by their
troops until 1898, when it was given over to Great Britain.
The harbour is formed by the island (Liu Kung) which runs
east and West across the mouth of a small bay, leaving an entrance
at each end. The best anchorage is under the lee of the island.
The native city is walled and has a population of about 2,000.
The chief port and seat of Government is Port Edward. The
leased area comprises, besides the harbour and island, a belt of
mahiland 10 English miles wide, skirting the whole length of the
bay. The coast-line of the bay is some 10 m. and the total area
of the leased district is 285 sq.m.; its population (1921) was
154,416, including 600 on the island of Liu Kung. Within this
area Britain has exclusive jurisdiction, her military rights, how-
ever, extending to 121° 40' E.
The leased territory has many fertile valleys among the finger-
like projections of the Shantung peninsula. The mild climate
makes it an important summer resort. Cereals, vegetables and
fruits are grown, and some silk is produced. The people are
fishers and farmers. The region contains a few metals, but not of
workable value. The imports include bean-cake, candles, cigarettes,
coal, raw cotton and yarn, ground-nuts, kerosene, maize, paper,
rice, sugar and timber, and the exports, are mainly raw cotton and
yarn, fish, ground-nuts (kernels and oil), eggs, sugar and salt.
The port is duty free. The naval base is used for aircraft. (X.)
History. — The territory of Wei-hai-wei was leased to Great
Britain under a convention of July i, 1898, "for so long a period
as Port Arthur shall remain in the occupation 'of Russia." Since
Jan. 1895, prior to which it had been one of China's naval
stations, Wei-hai-wei had been held by Japan pending the payment
of the indemnity which she had imposed on China after defeat-
ing her in war. The Japanese were still in occupation when the
lease of the territory to Great Britain was arranged, the idea of
the lease having originated with the Chinese, who had just agreed
to Germany's possession of Kiaochow. Lord Salisbury at first
rejected the Chinese suggestion but, on reconsideration, instructed
Sir Claude MacDonald to obtain the lease in order to restore the
local balance of power. Wei-hai-wei has been used as a sanatorium
for the British squadron on the China station, and under British
rule has developed considerably. On Feb. i, 1922, however, at the
Washington Conference, Mr. Balfour announced that the British
Government was willing to surrender the lease under conditions
similar to those agreed upon regarding the leased area of Kiao-
chow. Negotiations ensued and a provisional agreement was
reached on May 31, 1923. In 1924, the Peking Government was
overthrown and the agreement had to be postponed. (E. M. G.)
WEILBURG, a town in Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn. Pop.
(1925) 3,603. Weiiburg was in the nth century the property of
the bishops of Worms, from whom it passed to the house of
Nassau. The old town, built on and around a hill almost encircled
by the river, contains a i6th century castle, formerly the residence
of the dukes of Nassau- Weiiburg and later of the grand-dukes of
Luxemburg. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of
Merenberg and Freienfels.
WEIMAR, a city of Germany, chief town of the new republic
of Thuringia, Pop. (1925) 46,003. It existed in the gth century.
Till 1140 it belonged to the counts of Orlamunde; it then fell
to Albert the Bear. In 1247 Otto III. founded a separate Weimar
line of counts. In 1345 it became a fief of the landgraves of
Thuringia, to whom it escheated in 1385. At the partition of
Saxony in 1485 Weimar, with Thuringia, fell to the elder, Ernest-
ine, branch of the Saxon house of Wettin, and was the continu-
ous residence of the senior branch of the dukes of this line since
1572. Under Charles Augustus (1775-1828) and his successors,
Weimar became a centre of Liberalism as well as of German art.
It was at Weimar, in July 1919, that the constitution of the new
German Republic was adopted by the National Assembly.
Weimar still retains much of its mediaeval character owing to
the narrow winding streets of the older part of the town, the
market-place surrounded by houses with high-pitched gables and
roofs and the fragments of the walls, which still survive. Of
the churches the Stadtkirche is a Gothic building dating from
about 1400, but much altered in detail under "classical" influences.
The altar-piece is a triptych, the centre-piece representing the
Crucifixion; beside the cross Luther is represented, with the open
Bible in his hand, while the blood from the pierced side of the
Saviour pours on to his head. The other church, the Jakobs- or
Hofkirche (court church) is also ancient. The most important
building in Weimar is the former palace, erected (1789-1803)
under the superintendence of Goethe, on the site of one burned
down in 1 774. A remnant of the old palace, with a tower, survives.
The interior is very fine, and in one of the wings is a series of
rooms dedicated to the poets Goethe, Schiller, Herder and
Wieland. Of more interest, however, is the house in which Goethe
himself lived from 1782 to 1832. It is a complete example of a
German nobleman's house at the beginning of the i9th century.
Of more pathetic interest is the Sehillerhaus, in the Schiller strasse,
'containing the humble rooms in which Schiller lived and died.
The theatre, built under Goethe's superintendence in 1825, mem-
orable in the history of art not only for its associations with the
golden age of German drama, but as having witnessed the first
performances of many of Wagner's operas, was pulled down and
replaced by a new building in 1907. The most beautiful monument
of Goethe's genius in the town is, however, the park. Just outside
the borders of the park, beyond the Urn, is the "garden house,"
a simple wooden cottage with a high-pitched roof in which Goethe
used to pass the greater part of the summer. Finally, in the
cemetery is the grand ducal family vault, in which Goethe and
Schiller also lie, side by side.
Among the other prominent buildings in Weimar are the Grunes
Schloss (i8th century), containing a library and a valuable col-
lection of portraits, etc.; the did ducal dower-house (Wittums-
palais); and the museum. In 1896 the Goethe-Schiller Archiv,
on the wooded height above the Ilm, containing mss. by Goethe,
Schiller, Herder, Wieland, Immermann, Fritz Reuter, Morike, Otto
Ludwig and others, was opened. Weimar possesses also archaeo-
logical, ethnographical and natural science collections. About 2
m. S. from the town is the chateau of Belvedere, with the open-air
WEINER—WEIR
theatre, of interest because of its use in Goethe's day.
See Kuhn, Weimar in Wort und BUd (Jena, 1905, etc.) ; Francke,
Weimar und Umgebungen (Weimar, 1900, etc).
WEINER. LEO (1885- ), Hungarian musical composer,
was born in Budapest April 16, 1885, and studied in his native
city, becoming a professor at the School of Music there in 1907.
His works include orchestral works: Serenade (1906, awarded the
Budapest Lip6tvdrosi Kaszin6 Prize), Carnival, Scherzo and accom-
panying music to a play by Michel Vorosmartz entitled Csongor
€s Tiinde; chamber music: two string quartets (the second of
which gained the Coolidge Prize in America, 1922), two sonatas
for violin and pianoforte, and a ballad for clarinet and pianoforte
(also for orchestra). Weiner's style is classical and he ignores
both the romantics and the ultra-modern school.
WEINHEIM, a town of Germany, in the republic of Ba-
den, pleasantly situated on the Bergstrasse at the foot of the Oden-
wald, 1 1 m. N. of Heidelberg by the railway to Frankf ort-on-Main.
Pop. (1925) 15,793. It is still in part surrounded by the ruins
of its ancient walls. The Gothic town hall, the ruin? of the castle
of Windeck and the modern castle of the counts of Berckheim,
the house of the Teutonic Order, and three churches are the
principal buildings. The town has various manufactures, notably
leather, machinery and soap, and cultivates fruit and wine. It is a
favourite climatic health resort and a great tourist centre for
excursions in the Odenwald range. Weinheim is mentioned in
chronicles as early as the 8th century, when it was a fief of the
abbey of Lorsch, and it was fortified in the i4th century. In the
Thirty Years* War it was several times taken and plundered, and
its fortifications dismantled.
See Ackermann, Fuhrer durch Weinheim und Umgebung (Weinheim,
1895) ; and Zinkgr&f, Bilder aus dcr Geschichte der Stadt Weinheim
(Weinheim, 1904).
WEINSBERG, a small town of Germany, in the republic of
Wurttemberg, situated on the Sulm, 5 m. E. from Heilbronn by
the railway to Crailsheim. Pop. (1925) 3,658. Conrad III. de-
feated Welf VI. of Bavaria near Weinsberg in Dec. 1140, and
took the town, which later became a free imperial city. In 1331
it joined the league of the Swabian cities, but was taken by the
nobles in 1440 and sold to the elector palatine, thus losing its
liberties. It was burnt in 1525 as a punishment for the atrocities
committed by the revolted peasants. It has an ancient Roman-
esque church and a school of viticulture, which is the chief occu-
pation of the inhabitants. On the Schlossberg above the town lie
the ruins of the castle of Weibertreu. The famous legend of
Weibertreu is connected with the siege of 1140, when Conrad III.
is said to have allowed the women to leave the town with what-
ever they could carry, whereupon they came out with their hus-
bands on their backs.
WEIR, ROBERT WALTER (1803-1889), American por-
trait and historical painter, was born at New Rochelle, New York,
on the 1 8th of June 1803. He was a pupil of Jarvis, was elected
to the National Academy of Design in 1829, and was teacher of
drawing at the United States Military Academy at West Point
in 1834-1846, and professor of drawing there in 1846-1876. He
died in New York City on the ist of May 1889. Among his
better-known works are: "The Embarkation of the Pilgrims" (in
the rotunda of the United States Capitol at Washington, D.C.);
"Landing of Hendrik Hudson"; "Evening of the Crucifixion";
"Columbus before the Council of Salamanca"; "Our Lord on
the Mount of Olives"; "Virgil and Dante crossing the Styx," and
several portraits, now at West Point, and "Peace and War" in
the Chapel there.
His son, JOHN FERGUSON WEIR (b. 1841), painter and sculptor,
became a Member of the National Academy of Design in 1866,
and was made director of the Yale University Art School in 1868.
Another son, JULIAN ALDEN WEIR (b. 1852), studied under his
father, and under J. L. Ger6rae, and became a distinguished
portrait, figure and landscape painter.
WEIR, WILLIAM DOUGLAS WEIR ist BARON (1877-
), British politician and business man, was born May 12,
1877, the son of James Weir of Over Courance, Dumfriesshire.
He was successively Scottish director of munitions (1915), mem-
ber of the Air Board (1917), Air minister (1918), and chairman
of the advisory committee on civil aviation. His firm of G. & J.
Weir, Ltd., Glasgow, constructed the "Weir" steel houses, about
which there was controversy in 1925. He became a knight (1917)
and a peer, and a privy councillor 1918.
WEIR, a barrier placed across a river or canal for raising or
diverting or regulating the water for navigation, irrigation, power
and other purposes. A weir, as distinguished from a dam em-
ployed for purposes of water storage, connotes the discharge o1
water over its crest or through wide openings made for the pur
pose. River weirs are not infrequently termed dams,, and the
French term barrage is often applied to weirs provided witl
sluice openings. In the United States a barrier placed across t
river for any purpose is called a dam, the term weir being usec
to denote the movable wickets or gates forming part of it am
employed for regulating the flow and level of the water. (Set
WATER-SUPPLY, IRRIGATION, DAMS and HYDRAULICS.)
Rough weirs, formed of stakes and brushwood, were erectec
across English rivers in Saxon times for holding up the watei
and catching fish. Fish traps, with iron-wire* meshes and eel
baskets, are still used sometimes at weirs. Weirs exhibit the
greatest variety of form and construction in connection with the
canalisation of rivers. Navigation becomes impracticable at th<
shoals in many rivers during periods of low water. In early time*
boats had to be kept at such places until the discharge of storm
water raised the river sufficiently to carry them over the shallows
An early method of remedying this trouble consisted in buildtog
low weirs to increase the depth of water. Openings formed ir
them could be temporarily closed by stanches usually consisting
of planks supported by movable wooden beams. By removing
these beams suddenly and thus releasing the stanch an artifkia
flood was produced which carried any boat waiting above th(
weir through the opening and over the shoals below. This process
was called flashing. It remained in use on some rivers in Englanc
and France until well on in the igth century.
There are four principal classes of weirs, namely: (i) solic
or overfall weirs; (2) movable weirs which retain the watei
above them for navigation or irrigation during the low stage oi
the river and can be lowered so as to leave the channel quite oper
in flood-time; (3) draw-door weirs, in which doors or gates clos
ing openings are lifted by means of machinery carried on £
permanent overhead structure; and (4) other lifting weirs oi
various forms operated by overhead gear.
1. SOLID WEIRS
The simplest form of weir on an alluvial or erodible foundatior
is a dam of earthwork or rubble-stone faced with stone pitching
or masonry, or fascine mattresses weighted with stone, or witt
timber cribs filled with rubble. Many solid weirs were formerl)
constructed in North America of log-timber or stone-filled cribs
Large modern weirs on alluvial soil are now frequently built o
concrete on piled foundations. When solid weirs are founded on
rock, concrete or masonry construction is usually employed. It
is frequently desirable to maintain a pool of water, by building a
small dam below the weir against the down stream face of the
weir to act as a water-cushion for 'the overflow.
Weirs founded on alluvial deposits are specially liable to under-
mining, and the consequent washing out of the foundation, and
to the scouring action of the water down stream. Undermining
is prevented by impeding the percolation of the water under the
weir by means of a cut-off, either in the form of a deep curtain-
wall of masonry or concrete or of steel interlocked sheet-piling.
Scour below the weir can be prevented by constructing a suitable
apron of rubble-stone or cribwork of sufficient width. Frequently
cut-off walls are formed both under the crest of the weir and
under the apron. In many Indian rivers weirs have been built
with cut-off walls formed of brick or concrete wells. The weirs
across the Damietta and Rosetta branches of the Nile below the
Grand Barrage at the head of the delta (1899-1901) have cut-
off walls of cement-grouted rubble in a dredged trench.
Solid weirs, if properly constructed, possess the advantage of
simplicity, strength and durability, and require no attendance.
WEIR
I'M. ATE
Ti ,..,,,...;Vti. "i *
BY COURTESY OF (I, Z) RANSOMES AND RAPIER, LTD., (3, 4, 5) CLENFIELD AND KINNCOY, LTD., («, 7) CHIEF ENGINEER, NEW YORK STATE BARGE CANALS
1. Stoney Qates at Neuquen Barrage, Argentina, 65' 1" span and 13' 1"
deep. The counterbalance weights are housed in the bridge piers. 2.
Stonebyres Weir, River Clyde, Scotland, 38 ft. span and 8 ft. effective
depth. The crestgates are automatic. 3. Thirty-six Stoney roller gates, at
Vaal River Barrage, South Africa. 4. Hinged steel shutters forming mov-
View shows shutters falling in succession. 5. Stoney roller gate 70 ft. long
and 7 ft. deep on River Irvine, Scotland. One man can raise the gate
13 ft. In 2 minutes. 6. Bridge-suspended weir at Rotterdam, New York.
This is one of eight similar weirs on the Mohawk River. The bridge also
carries a roadway. 7. Taintor gates at Lyons, N.Y. Gate on left is in
WEIR
489
They, however, block up the river channel to the extent of their
leight, and consequently raise the flood-level above them. This
iefect of solid weirs, when the riparian lands are liable to be
njured by inundations, can be slightly mitigated by keeping down
,he crest of the weir a little below the required level, and then
•aising the water level at the low stage of the river by placing
Blanks, called flash-boards, a few feet high along the top of the
veir. The capacity of a solid weir is increased by building it
)bliquely across the river, e.g., some of the Severn weirs; or
:urved in plan, with the con vex* face up-stream.
2. MOVABLE WEIRS
Movable weirs are barriers capable of being lowered so as to
present no obstruction to the flow of water in flood time. They
ire constructed either upon a foundation or sill having its surface
ipproximately level with that of the river bed or on the crest
>f a solid weir structure raised above the river bed.
Needle Weir s. — A simple form o'f needle weir was employed
n France about the end of the i8th century. Small wooden spars
:alled aiguilles (needles), which bore on the bottom against a
nasonry sill and at the top against wooden beams supported on
nasonry piers, formed the barrier. This type, however, only pro-
dded a series of small openings between the piers. Poiree, a
"rench engineer, devised in 1834 the movable frame weir which
)ears his name and can be lowered so as to leave the whole width
)f the river free from obstruction. In its ordinary form the
^oiree needle weir consists of a series of iron frames placed
icross a river, end on to the current, 3 to 4 ft. apart, hinged to
i masonry apron on the bed of the river and carrying a foot-way
icross the top, from which the actual barrier, resting against the
'rames and cross bars at the top and a sill at the bottom, is put
nto place or removed for closing or opening the weir. A winch
s used to handle the frames.
A needle weir built in 1891-97 across the Big Sandy river
it Louisa, Ky., was the first constructed in the United States and
s higher than any in Europe.
Boull Gates. — A modification of the Poiree needle weir is
he Boule" gate introduced in 1874 in which panels of boards or
sheet-iron set in tiers one above another are used instead of
icedles to form the barrier between the frames. The panels are
jet and removed by a small derrick crane travelling on top of
he footbridge. The system has the advantage of forming a tighter
lam which can be more easily although less rapidly manoeuvred
han needles. Boule gates have been used to a considerable extent
n France and on the Moskowa and other rivers in Russia.
Curtain Weirs. — The curtain weir, invented by Came"re*, was
irst introduced in 1876-80 at Port Villez on the lower Seine. In
t wooden curtains that can be rolled up from the bottom were
substituted for the needles in the Poiree weir. The curtains are
•aised and removed, and the frames lowered by winches travelling
Dver the service bridge. The manoeuvring of the frames and
:urtains is a troublesome operation and all the curtain weirs
subsequently constructed have been designed for suspension from
i fixed over-head bridge (vide infra.).
Shutter Weirs.-— The earliest practical application of falling
shutters to overfall weirs was made on the river Orb in France
in the latter part of the i8th century. A gate or shutter turning
3n a horizontal axis at the bottom was supported by a prop when
raised against the stream and fell flat on the apron when the
Drop was drawn aside. The difficulty experienced in raising such
i shutter against a head of water was overcome by Thenard about
1837 who placed a second row of shutters (counter-shutters) on
the up-stream side of the weir which, rising with the stream,
were retained in an upright position by chains and stopped the
How of water while the lower shutters were being raised and
propped. Shutters of modified and improved forms, some of them
lutomatic in action, are in use at many irrigation weirs in India
and other countries. A modern form of shutter falling automati-
:ally is illustrated in Plate, fig. 4.
Chanoine Weirs.— The inconveniences attending the use of
:ounter-shutters of the Th6nard type were overcome by Chanoine,
another French engineer, who, in 1857, at the Conflans weir on
the Seine, employed shutters turning on a horizontal axis a little
above their centre of pressure. The axis rests on an iron trestle
at the back of each shutter, which is hinged to the apron of the
weir and is supported when raised by an iron prop resting against
a shoe fastened on the apron. The weir is opened by releasing the
props from their shoes, either by a sideways pull of a tripping
bar with projecting teeth laid on the apron and worked from
the bank, or by pulling the props clear of their shoes by chains.
The weir is raised again by pulling up the shutters to a horizontal
position by their bottom chains from a special boat or from a
foot-bridge on movable frames, together with their trestles and
the props which are replaced in their shoes. The discharge at the
weir whilst it is raised is usually effected by partially tipping some
of the shutters by chains from a foot-bridge. Occasionally the
balance is so arranged that the shutters tip automatically when
the water level in the upper pool reaches a certain height.
The addition of a foot-bridge facilitates the raising and lowering
of these weirs and the regulation of the discharge, but it makes
the weir more costly than the ordinary needle weir. Moreover,
where large quantities of drift come down with sudden floods, the
frames of the bridge are liable to be carried away and therefore
boats must be relied on for working the weir as on the upper
reaches of the Ohio river. In the United States the type is known
as the Chanoine wicket. The Chanoine shutter is adapted for
use both on overfalls and in navigable passes.
Bear-trap Weirs. — The earliest example of that form of the
shutter weir known as the bear-trap, one of the most commonly
used types in North America, was constructed in 1818 on the
Lehigh river (Pa.). It consists of two timber — or, in recent
types, steel — gates, each hinged on a horizontal axis, inclined
towards one another and abutting together at an angle in the
centre when the weir is raised. The up-stream leaf or gate serves
as the weir and the down-stream one forms its support. Both
gates fall flat on the sill floor when the weir is opened. The weir
is raised by admitting water beneath the gates through culverts
in connection with the upper pool and controlled by valves, and
is lowered by letting the water under the gates escape into the
lower pool. In its original form the bear-trap was open to several
important objections such as the twisting or warping of a wide
gate in raising or lowering, the friction between the leaves, and
lodgement of driftwood or stones under them. Since* about 1896
many improvements in the design of bear-traps have been made
and there are numerous examples on North American rivers with
leaves over 120 ft., wide, and with lifts up to about 17 ft.
Drum- weirs and Sector Gates.— The drum-weirs invented by
Desfontaines and erected on the river Marne between 1857-67
comprise a series of upper and under wrought-iron paddles or
blades which can make a quarter of a revolution round a central
axis laid along the sill of the weir. By means of valves the pres-
sure of the water due to the head of the upper pool can be applied
to either side of the lower and larger paddle, which is contained
in a masonry chamber, or drum, below the weir apron, and thus
the upper paddle can be raised against a head of water or lowered
as required. The disadvantage of the arrangement is the high
cost of constructing the deep chambers below the weir sill, and
its use is generally restricted to over-fall weirs. Several examples
of the type in modified forms and on a large scale have, however,
been erected in Germany, one at Charlottenberg having an upper
paddle 33 ft. long and 9t ft. high.
A form of drum-weir invented by an American engineer, H. M.
Chittenden, has been used in the United States. An early example
was erected about 1895 in a weir on the Osage river near its
confluence with the Missouri where a hollow, wooden sector of
a cylinder having a radius of 9 ft. rotates on a horizontal axis
and is housed when lowered in a drum chamber below the weir
sill. The weir is raised by admitting water from the upper pool
into a wedge-shaped space left below the sector when it is lowered.
Provision is also made for rendering the sector buoyant by forcing
air into it so that it can be raised when the head of water in the
upper pool is insufficient to lift it.
The sector-gate applied to weirs may be said to be a develop-
ment of the Chittenden drum-weir. Two large gates, each 100 ft.
490
WEIR
long and about 16 ft. high, have been constructed across the
Genesee river near Rochester, N.Y. The gates are, when lowered,
housed in concrete chambers formed between the abutments
below the level of the fixed-weir crest. The steel sector-frame
which forms the gate is hinged on its axial line, and the plating
ftxed to the cylindrical face forms the water barrier when the
sector is raised. The gate is operated by admitting water from
CONCMTO PIER
»Y COURTKSY OF RANSOMIg ft RAPICHS
FlG. 1.— MODERN DRUM. WEIR MANGAHOO. NEW ZEALAND, WITH GATES
33'/a FT. SPAN
the higher pool under the sector by means of culverts and valves.
Somewhat similar gates are in use on the river Drac in France;
on the Weser at Bremen; on the Chicago drainage canal; in
Norway, where one gate is 163 ft. long; and in Perak.
Automatic Crest Gates or Weirs — Several forms of gates
or shutters which operate automatically have been devised, par-
ticularly in recent years, for use on the crests of solid weirs
to give increased height. The common feature of these devices
is the automatic lowering of the gate as soon as the water rises
to a certain level. When the water falls below this level, the gate
rises again to its normal position as a barrier.
The Stickney crest gate consists of two leaves joined together
at about right angles and hinged to a masonry base on a horizontal
axis. Under the lower leaf is a quadrant-shaped chamber formed
in the concrete or masonry of the weir which is in communication
by means of water openings with the up-stream pool. The areas
of the leaves are so proportioned that the pressure against the
under side of the lower leaf preponderates until the water rises
above its normal level when the gate falls. These gates have been
made in sections of over 100 ft. in length and for heights of about
8 ft. For long weirs several crest gates, separated by piers, may
be used. Several are in use on the New York State barge canal
system.
Another form of automatic gate consists of single leaves hinged
horizontally at the crest level of the solid weir and balanced by
counter-weights carried by pivoted levers or by chains and pulleys
on piers raised above the weir at intervals of about 50 ft., the
spans between the piers being occupied by the hinged gales,
Various ingenious devices at the fulcrum of the lever or in con-
nection with the pulley wheels are employed to vary automatically
the balance as the gate rises and falls (Plate, fig. 4).
3. DRAW-DOOR WEIRS
The water discharge at a weir can be regulated and considerably
increased in flood time by introducing a series of openings in a
solid weir, with sluice gates or panels which slide in grooves at the
sides of upright frames or masonry or concrete piers erected at
convenient intervals apart. The sluice gates can be raised or
lowered as desired from an overbridge. Ordinary draw-doors of
moderate size and raised against a small head of water can be
readily worked in spite of the friction of the sides of the doors
against their supports; but with large draw-doors and a consider-
able head, the friction of the surfaces in contact offers a serious
impediment in raising them. To overcome this difficulty F. G. M.
Stoney about 1875 introduced roller sluice gates.
Stoney Gates. — In the Stoney sluice gate two frames, con-
taining a number of free, or live, rollers, are interposed between
the fixed framework and the moving face of the gate, so that, in-
stead of a sliding friction, which in very large sluices might
amount to over 300 tons, a rolling friction only has to be over-
come, which is insignificant in amount. The working is facilitated
by counterpoising the gates and roller trains. By these arrange-
ments the friction is so reduced that gates subjected to a water
pressure of over 400 tons can be easily moved by hand-operated
gearing. Water-tight joints are obtained by means of suspended
iron rods or tubes or by rubber strips which are jammed by the
water-pressure against the small apertures between the gates and
the fixed framework (fig. 2 and Plate, fig. 5).
Stoney gates have been us'ed for openings up to 80 ft. in width
and for depths exceeding 35 ft. The first example constructed
in the United Kingdom was at Belleek in 1883 in connection with
the Lough Erne drainage works. A well-known example is the
weir across the Thames at Richmond with three spans of 66 ft.
each closed by doors 12 ft. high (1892-94). In order that the
doors when raised may not impede the view of the river under
the arches, the doors arc rotated automatically at the top by
/•':': :. '. /: '• '/ // "; .V-.V- "• • ARTICULATED Ro
> T
DOWN -STREAM
FlG. 2. — STONEY GATE SECTIONAL PLAN OF VERTICAL ROLLER PATHS
The articulated grooved roller-path can rock freely so as to be self adjust-
ing and I* easily renewable
grooves at the sides of the piers, so as to assume a horizontal
position and pass out of sight in the central space between the
overhead footways.
4. OTHER LIFTING WEIRS
Bridge-suspended Weirs.— The difficulty of operating the
Camere curtains in conjunction with movable frames hinged at
the sill of a solid weir or apron led to the construction, as a part
of the Poses weir on the lower Seine (completed in 1885), of a
fixed overhead-bridge from which the frames and curtains are
suspended. The suspended frames are hinged to the under side
of the bridge and rest against a sill at the bottom when the weir
is in operation. The rolling curtains are raised when necessary
and the hinged-frames lifted to a horizontal position under the
bridge by means of travelling winches and chains. This system,
which has been employed for several weirs on the Seine, on the
Moldau in Bohemia, and on the Danube canal near Vienna, has
the merit of raising all the movable parts of the weir out of the
water, in flood time, into a position where they are not subjected
to the risk of damage, and rendering the working of the weir safe
and easy. On the other hand it involves the expense of wide and
high river piers and a substantial over-bridge.
A bridge-suspended weir with Gamer 6 curtains at the St.
Andrew's rapids on the Red river, Manitoba, was the first of its
WEISMANN— WELDING
491
kind to be built in America (1908-11). The bridge is of 6 spans
of 1 20 ft. each and also carries a roadway.
The Mohawk river, forming a part of the New York State
barge canal system, has been canalized by the construction of a
number of dams, 8 of which are of the suspended weir type.
At each of these weirs the river is crossed by a steel-truss bridge,
usually of three spans, carried upon masonry and concrete piers.
The clear spans vary in width from 120 ft. to 240 ft. Some of
the bridges carry roadways as well as the weir-operating machin-
ery. The only fixed structure in the river other than the bridge
piers is a concrete sill level with the river bed. Against this sill
bear vertical steel beams suspended from the over-bridge at inter-
vals of 15 ft. (see Plate, fig. 6). Steel doors 30 ft. wide mounted
on rollers and arranged in two tiers c,an be moved up on and down
on the up-stream faces of the hanging beams by means of travel-
ling electric winches carried by the bridge. During the navigation
season the hanging beams are kept lowered and are only raised
partly or entirely in cases of extreme* freshets. The discharge of
ordinary floods is provided for by raising the roller doors. At the
close of the navigation season the hanging beams with their
doors are raised to a horizontal position under the bridge floor to
permit the free passage of ice.
Taintor Gates. — The Taintor gate is a form of sector gate
but it differs from the type described in section 2 p. 489 in being
raised, by means of hand-operated gearing and counterweights,
in order to open the waterway. Many of these gates have been
constructed in recent years, particularly on the New York State
barge canal system. (See Plate, fig. 7.) Some of the larger gates
are 50 ft. wide with a water depth of 20 ft. In common with some
other forms of lifting gates they possess the advantage over low-
ering weirs of all working parts being accessible from above water.
Rolling Dams. — A form of movable weir consisting essen-
tially of a rolling gate was first employed on a tributary of the
river Main near Schweinfurt, Bavaria, in 1901. It consists of a
steel drum or pipe, usually cylindrical and sometimes with a pro-
truding rib to increase the retaining height, which closes the open-
ing in a fixed weir when required and which, when the weir is to
be opened, can be rolled by mechanical means up inclines at the
abutments, leaving a clear opening underneath. Several of these
weirs have been built in Germany, Bohemia, France, Italy and the
United States. They have been made up to 115 ft. in length and
with closing heights up to 20 ft.
One of the longest weirs on the Ohio river is a navigable pass,
1,200 ft. long, closed by Chanoine wickets, an overfall weir of
Chanoine wickets 700 ft. in length, three bear-traps occupying 325
ft. and a fixed weir of 715 ft. making a total of 2,940 feet.
An example of a long weir with over-bridge is the Lloyd bar-
rage on the Indus at Sukkur in Scinde (1929) which has 66
Stoney gates each of 60 ft. span and i8i ft. in height. The total
length of the weir, including the piers, is 4,620 feet.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See list of works at end of article CANALS AND
CANALIZED RIVERS, in particular Improvement of Rivers by Thomas
& Watt. Also E. Wegmann, Design and Construction of Dams, 8th
edn. (1927) bibl.; W. G. Bligh, Irrigation Works, 3rd edn. (1927) ; W.
L. Strongc, Indian Storage Reservoirs, 3rd edn. (1928). The annual
Reports of the Chief of Engineers, U.S.A., are invaluable for informa-
tion as to weirs, etc., on rivers in the U.S. A., as also are the Annales
des Fonts et Chausse'es for French rivers. The Proceedings of the Inter-
national Navigation Congresses should also be consulted.
(N. G. G.)
WEISMANN, AUGUST (1834-1914), German biologist,
was born at Frankfort-on-Main, on Jan. 17, 1834. In 1863 he
went to Giessen to study biology under Leuckart, and in 1866
he was appointed extraordinary professor of zoology at Freiburg,
becoming ordinary professor a few years later. His earlier work
was largely concerned with purely zoological investigations, one
of his earliest works dealing with the development of the Diptera.
Microscopical work, however, became impossible to him owing
to impaired eyesight, and he turned hrs attention to wider prob-
lems of biological inquiry. Between 1868 and 1876 he published
a series of papers attacking the question of the variability of
organisms; these were published in an English translation under
the title Studies in the Theories of Descent (1882), Darwin
himself contributing a preface in which the importance of the
nature and cause of variability in individuals was emphasized.
Weismann's name is best known as the author of the germ-plasm
theory of heredity, with its accompanying denial of the trans-
mission of acquired characters — a theory which on its publication
met with considerable opposition, especially in England, from
orthodox Darwinism. His views on the permanence of the germ-
plasm and his rejection of the inheritance of acquired characters
are not without their theological implications. A scries of essays
in which this theory is expressed and in which Weismann de-
clared that there must be a reduction division for the chromo-
some— a prophecy verified a few years later by Plainer and
others — was collected and published in an English translation
(Essays upon Heredity afid Kindred Biological Problems, vol.
i. 1889, vol. ii. 1892). Weismann published many other works
devoted to the exposition of his biological views. He died at
Freiburg in Baden on Nov. 6, 1914. His latest publications were
an estimate of Darwin's work, and Die Selektionstheorie*
For an account of his doctrines the reader is referred to the articles
on HEREDITY, REGENERATION and REPRODUCTION, and CYTOLOGY. See
also E. Gaupp, August Weismann (1917).
WEISSENBURG: see WISSEMBOURC
WEISSENBURG-AM-SAND, a town of Germany, in the
Bavarian district of Middle Franconia, situated at the western
foot of the Franconian Jura, and 3301. by rail S.W. of Nurnberg
by the railway to Munich. Pop. (1925) 7,856. Weissenburg dates
from the 8th century, and in the i4th was made a free imperial
town. It passed to Bavaria in 1806. It is still surrounded by old
walls and towers, and has two Gothic churches and a Gothic
town hall. The town has a mineral spring and remains of a
Roman castle have been discovered. The old fortalice of Wiilz-
burg (2,o6oft.) overlooks the town.
WEISSENFELS, in the Prussian province of Saxony. Pop.
(1925) 36,747. Weissenfels is a place of considerable antiquity,
and from 1656 till 1746 it was the capital of the small duchy of
Saxe- Weissenfels. The body of Gustavus Adolphus was embalmed
at Weissenfels after the battle of Liitzen. The former palace,
called the Augustusburg, built in 1664-1690, lies on an eminence
near the town. Weissenfels manufactures cardboard, rubber,
boots, machinery, ironware, paper and other goods. In the neigh-
bourhood are large deposits of sandstone and lignite.
WEKA-RAIL: see WOODHEN.
WELD (Reseda lutcola), an herbaceous plant of the mignon-
ette family (Resedaceac) formerly cultivated in France, Ger-
many and Austria. It is the oldest European dyestuff known, and
appears to have been used by the Gauls in the time of Julius
Caesar. Of all the natural yellow colouring matters, it yields the
purest and fastest shades, but owing to the small amount of dye
which it contains, and its bulky nature, it has almost disappeared
from the market. Weld contains the yellow colouring matter
luteolin, CuHjoOe. which crystallizes in yellow needles (-fiiH^O)
and melts at 320° C. (See ANTHOCYANINS.) (A. G. P.)
WELDING. Not until comparatively recently was the value
of welding as a standard method of joining metal pieces fully
appreciated. It was during the World War that the various
welding processes came into their own because speed of pro-
duction in every metal-using and metal-fabricating industry
became a vital factor. At first welding was limited to small or
less important parts. Now (1929) welding is employed for an
almost limitless number of applications. The subject of welding
may be divided into the five following processes: (i) forge
welding; (2) arc welding; (3) gas welding; (4) resistance weld-
ing I (5) thermit welding.
Forge Welding.— Until about 1890 this was the only available
method of \velding and it had been in use to some extent for
centuries. After properly shaping the two surfaces to be joined,
the parts are heated to welding temperature *n a forge or furnace
and then hammered, rolled or pressed together, usually with the
aid of some fluxing material. The numerous applications of this
method are well known and its limitations are fairly obvious.
As this was for so long the only method of welding, great in-
genuity and often great expense were involved in applying it to
large or complicated parts.
492
WELDING
Arc Welding may be divided as follows: (i) metal arc
welding with bare electrodes; (2) metal arc welding with coated
electrodes; (3) metal arc welding in a reducing gas flame; (4)
atomic hydrogen arc welding; (5) carbon arc welding; (6) elec-
tronic tornado welding; (7) automatic arc welding. Several of
these divisions may be further sub-divided as to whether the
FIG. I.— COMMON WELDS MADE BY THE BLACKSMITH
current is direct or alternating and whether the operation is
manual, semi-automatic or automatic.
Metal Arc Welding with Bare Electrodes. — An arc is struck
between the electrode, a wire or rod of suitable composition,
and the parts to be welded. These should be properly shaped
and are usually bevelled on both edges when plates are to be joined
in the same plane by a "butt" weld. The metal is fused at both
ends of the arc and the fused electrode deposited in the joint
until it is properly filled. The arc should be as short as possible
in order to avoid oxidation of the metal, the inclusion of harmful
gases and to secure the proper penetration. As the holding of a
short arc by hand requires considerable practice and skill, some
of the arc welding generators are so designed that the arc will be
extinguished after its length exceeds the safe limit.
Welding may be done with direct or alternating current. The
alternating current is usually supplied by a suitable transformer
provided with taps to adjust the current. Several types of direct
current arc welding equipment are available. An arc welding
outfit consists of a welding generator or transformer, a control
panel for varying the current, a voltmeter and ammeter, proper
lengths of cable, an electrode holder and a suitable shield or
helmet for protecting the eyes of the operator.
The Welding Arc. — When direct current is used, one terminal
remains positive and the greater portion of the total heat is
liberated at this terminal. When alternating current is used, the
terminals are alternately positive and negative so that approxi-
mately the same amount of heat is liberated at each terminal.
Usually the piece of metal to be welded is considerably larger
and has more mass than the electrode so that its loss of heat
will be the greater due to conduction into the body of the metal
and hence is made the positive side. In case, however, very thin
metal is being welded, it is frequently advisable to reverse the
polarity to prevent the arc burning through the metal.
Coated Electrodes have been used in some form almost since
the beginning of arc welding. In general the coatings serve as a
fluxing or deoxidizing medium, or provide a protective vapour
around the arc.
Arc Welding in a Reducing Flame. — A cylindrical jet of gas
surrounds the electrode and burns around the arc. Pure hydrogen,
water gas, alcohol vapor and a number of other gas combina-
tions have been tried with considerable success. These welds
are, in general, superior to the bare electrode welds, particularly
in ductility. The reducing flame generally serves the same pur-
pose as the electrode coatings apparently with somewhat better
results.
Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding. — A fine jet of hydrogen is
forced through an arc formed between two tungsten electrodes.
The high temperature of the arc breaks up the hydrogen mole-
cules into hydrogen atoms, which recombine into molecules
after passing through the arc, giving up the heat absorbed during
dissociation in the arc. The result is a jet flame of hydrogen
burning in a hydrogen atmosphere at a temperature higher than
that of any other known flame, but lower than that of the arc
itself. The welding wire is fused in this flame and deposited in
the joint. The intensely reducing character of this hydrogen
flame results in a nearly perfect weld practically as good as the
parent metal.
Carbon Arc Welding was first invented in 1881. An arc is
struck between a carbon (or graphite) electrode and the parts
to be welded. The welding wire is then fed into the arc and
fused into the joint. In some cases the welding rod is laid in the
joint groove and the carbon arc passed slowly along the joint
until the fusion is complete.
Electronic Tornado Welding uses a magnetically controlled
carbon arc which produces welds with good ductility. Oxidation
is largely prevented in this process. Great speeds are possible
although the application is limited to "downward" welding.
Automatic Arc Welding. — The great advantage of the auto-
matic welder is that the arc length and other variables are much
more accurately controllable and constant than with the most
skillful hand operator. It is also a great labour saver and the
speed of welding can be greatly increased. There are also semi-
automatic arc welding machines in which the feed of the electrode
and the arc length are under automatic control, but the "travel"
or movement of the arc along the seam is under hand control.
This largely eliminates the demand for great skill on the part
of the operator and is at the same time applicable to a number
of situations where the full automatic machine could not be
used.
Gas Welding. — This process of fusion welding is generally
carried out by the heat produced by the burning of acetylene in
the presence of commercially pure oxygen, the flame temperature
so attained being probably about 5,500° F, which, in view of the
concentrated flame, is high enough to melt any metal locally, and
so allows pieces to be easily fused together. It is necessary,
when welding thick materials, to bevel the edges to be joined so
they form a "v," which is filled up by melting into it a rod
of suitable composition, the weld metal also being fused to the
base metal. The joint, well made, is clean and sound, free from
injurious defects, and usually as strong or stronger than the
parts joined.
Torches. — Any oxy-acetylene welding torch is an instrument
that thoroughly mixes the two gases, oxygen and acetylene, in
the proper amounts and that permits easy adjustment and regu-
lation of the flame. A small flame and little heat are required for
welding thin gauge metals and a large flame and much heat when
welding heavy sections. This is the reason for the interchange-
able tips furnished by the torch manufacturers. Broadly speaking,
there are two types of torches — pressure and low pressure. In the
pressure type of torch, both acetylene and oxygen are supplied
to the torch under appreciable pressures, the pressures being
increased for each larger size of tip used. In the low pressure
or injector type of torch, the oxygen only is under pressure, The
mixing chamber is made on the same principle as an ordinary
steam water injector so that the volume of acetylene going into
the mixture is dependent upon the velocity, and not the volume
of oxygen.
Flame Adjustment and Manipulation. — It is necessary at all
times that the welding flame be neutral, that is, that there be no
excess of acetylene or oxygen. When there is an excess of acety-
lene the hot inner cone is ragged and poorly defined. When there
is an excess of oxygen the inner cone is short and has a pale
violet colour. The inner welding flame should not play directly on
the welding rod but around it in a semi-circular fashion, the
rod being melted by the radiating heat of the flame. The heat
should be evenly distributed on each side of the joint in order to
melt down the walls and to secure thorough penetration and union
of the adding material and parent metal. It is also essential
that the torch oscillations be regular, otherwise fusion will be
more thorough on one side of the joint than on the other.
Reinforcement. — As the weld proceeds, the rod metal should
WELDING
PLATE
!Y COURTESY Of (I, 2, 3, 6) THE I
(7, 9) THI GENtRAL ELECTRIC CON
NY, (5, «, 10) THI LlNDt AIR
THERMIT AND OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
1. Thermit weld complete with rudder shipped: ship practically ready for
floating
2. Fracture cut out ready for applying wax pattern
3. Detail showing a finished Thermit weld
4. Operator at work on truss structure part of welded building
5. Steel billet 14x24 in. cut in 12 minutes by means of oxy-acetylene
blowpipe
6. Oxwetding a forged nozzle In large pressure vessel
7. Detail showing an 8 in. arc-welded high-pressure steam line joint
8. Photograph showing Thermit reaction in welding a stempost
9. Welding stator frame of 40,000 k.w. generator
10. Oxy-acetylene welded scam at head of large pressure vessel
XXHI
WELDING
493
be added until the surface of the joint is built up a little above
the edge of the plates. This reinforcement is customary in all
welding on steel plate. The small amount of oxide that forms
during welding and impurities remains on the surface as a scale
and can be easily removed when cold, by grinding or machining.
Fluxes. — Except in the welding of wrought iron and steels,
fluxes are usually required for satisfactory results. Impurities
on the surface of the metal or impurities contained in the metal
ELEMENTARY CIRCUIT
(SPOT. Burr AND LINE)
SPOT
LAMINATED COPPER SECONDARY }
100 AMP. ^ 4400 AMP. A.C.
A.C. '
MECHANICAL PRESSURE
FLEXIBLE COPPER CONNECTION
MECHANICAL PRESSURE
BUTT
MECHANICAL PRESSURE
JAW. WATER COOLED
MECHANICAL PRESSURE
AW. WATER COOLED
LINE
MECHANICAL
MECHANICAL PRESSURE
FIG. 2. DIAGRAMS OF CIRCUITS OF VARIOUS WELDING MACHINES
find their way into the weld and must be floated out as slag to
prevent damage to the weld. The combination of a suitable
flux with these impurities produces the slag.
Cutting of Metals by Torch. — The cutting torch differs from
the welding torch in that in addition to having the oxy-acetylene
heating flame it also has another gas stream of pure oxygen under
high pressure which does the cutting after the metal is raised to
the ignition point by the heating flame. The iron and oxygen
combine to form iron oxide, thus burning a narrow slit or "kerf"
in the steel. It is a chemical process and should not be confused
with melting. It is a very rapid form of rusting. Sometimes
hydrogen is used in welding and cutting operations instead of
acetylene.
Resistance Welding. — In this method, invented about 40
years ago by Elihu Thomson, the parts to be joined, after proper
shaping, are pressed together. A large current is then passed
through the joint until it has reached welding temperature, when
further pressure is applied, upsetting the joint and completing
the weld. As the electrical resistance of the contact surface is
much greater than that of the solid metal, most of the heat is
generated at the joint surface where it is desired.
The voltage required is so low and the current so high that the
only convenient source is an alternating-current transformer built
into the welder and as close as possible to the jaws which hold
the parts and transmit the current to them. For work of any
considerable size, these machines are not readily portable, i.e.,
the work must ordinarily be brought to the machine. The simple
type of resistance welding described above is usually known as
butt welding, and has been applied to join sections of widely
varying shapes up to 36 sq.in. in a section.
Flash Butt Welding. — Parts to be welded are clamped, the
primary circuit closed and the ends of parts brought together
slowly. When these ends touch they will "flash," that is, minute
particles of molten metal will fly off; this flashing is continued
until the entire faces of the abutting ends have reached a welding
heat when heavy pressure is applied, forcing the ends together
and completing the weld. This is often regarded as the pre-
ferred method of welding, as the power and time consumption
are small and the personal equation of the operator is less impor-
tant than in any other type of weld.
Spot Welding. — Where air-tightness is not required, a lap
seam may be welded in spots by clamping the seam overlap
between two electrodes and passing the necessary current between
them and through the overlapping edges of the plates. As the
electrical resistance of the surface contact is least in the region
under pressure, most of the current and therefore the weld is
confined to a spot of about the same area as that of the elec-
trodes. For relatively thin metal this method is much more rapid
and economical than any other known method of making a joint
where mechanical strength alone is the chief consideration. The
mechanical strength obviously depends upon the number and size
of the spots.
Seam Welding. — The overlapping edges of sheet metal are
passed between two narrow roller electrodes, the speed, current
and pressure being so adjusted as to produce a continuous seam
weld. This method is usually limited to relatively thin sheets,
but is readily applicable to straight seams or to circular seams.
The employment of this method for the manufacture of barrels,
small transformer tanks and numerous other similar containers,
has resulted in a very large saving in cost.
Alumino-Thermic (Thermit) Welding.— Thermit is a trade
name for a mixture of finely divided aluminium and iron oxide,
which when ignited reacts to produce a superheated liquid steel
at 5, ocx)° F. The underlying principle of the thermit process is
the high chemical affinity of aluminium for oxygen. Up to a
temperature of 2,800° F thermit is an inert mixture. At that
temperature, however, the aluminium unites with the oxygen of
the iron oxide, and the iron is set free and becomes a highly super-
heated liquid steel. It is obvious that if steel at this temperature
is poured around the sections to be united, especially if the sec-
tions have previously been preheated to a bright red heat, it will
melt those sections and amalgamate with them so that the whole
will cool to form a single homogeneous mass, or in other words a
fusion weld.
Making a Thermit Weld. — In making a thermit weld, the parts
to be united are first lined up with a space between the ends to be
welded, the extent of which depends upon the size of the sections
to be welded. The adjacent ends are then thoroughly cleaned by
a sand blast or other suitable means. A wax pattern is then formed
around the ends to be united of the exact shape of the thermit
steel to be cast. A sand mould is next rammed around the wax
pattern and inside a sheet iron box provided with pouring gates,
heating gates and risers. A basin on the top of the mould serves
to catch the slag when the pour is made.
The flame of a compressed air liquid fuel (gasolene or kerosene)
heater, directed into the heating gate melts the wax pattern and
leaves a space for the thermit steel. The heat is continued until
the parts to be united have been brought to a good, red, workable
heat. By that time the mould will have become dried out. In the
meantime the charge of thermit is placed in a conical shaped
POURING GATE
SLAG BASIN >
TYPICAL VENT HOLES
RISER
PERFORATIONS
HEATING GATE
LEGEND
E3 FRAME
•H YELLOW WAX
GB THERMIT MOLDING MATERIAL -SPECIAL MIXTURE OF
SILICA SAND AND PLASTIC CLAY
CD BACKING -PREVIOUSLY USED THERMIT MOLDING MATERIAL
BB IRON PLUG OR SAND CORE
FIG. 3.— METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING MOLDS FOR MAKING THERMIT WELDS
crucible supported over the pouring gate of the mould. When the
sections are red hot and the mould dried, the application of heat
is discontinued, the heating gate plugged up and the thermit
charge in the crucible ignited. In 25 to 35 seconds the thermit
reaction is completed and the thermit steel tapped from the bot-
tom of the crucible into the mould where it flows around and
between the sections to be welded, uniting them into one homo-
geneous mass. (WM. SP.)
494
WELF— WELFARE WORK
WELF or GUELPH, a princely family of Germany, de-
scended from Count Warin of Altorf (8th century), whose son
Isenbrand is said to have named his family Wclfen, i.e., whelps.
From his son Welf I. (d. 824) were descended the kings of upper
Burgundy and the elder German line of Welf. Welf III. (d. 1055)
obtained the duchy of Carinthia and the March of Verona. With
him the elder line became extinct, but his grandson in the female
line, Welf IV. (as duke, Welf I.), founded the younger line, and
became duke of Bavaria in 1070. Henry the Black (d. 1126), by
his marriage with a daughter of Magnus, duke of Saxony, ob-
tained half of the latter's hereditary possessions, including
Liineburg, and his son Henry the Proud (q.v.) inherited by
marriage the emperor Lot hair's lands in Brunswick, etc., and
received the duchy of Saxony. The power which the family thus
acquired, and the consequent rivalry with the house of llohcn-
staufen, occasioned the strife of Guelphs and Ghibellines (q.v.)
in Italy. Henry the Lion lost the duchies of Bavaria and Saxony
by his rebellion in 1180, and Welf VI. (d. 1191) left his hereditary
lands in Swabia and his Italian possessions to the emperor Henry
VI. Thus, although one of the Welfs reigned as the emperor
Otto IV., there remained to the family nothing but the lands
inherited from the emperor Lothair, which were made into the
duchy of Brunswick in 1235. Of the many branches of the house
of Brunswick that of Wolfenbiittcl became extinct in 1884, and
that of Liineburg received the electoral dignity of Hanover in
1692, and founded the Hanoverian dynasty of Great Britain and
Ireland in 1714. For its further history see HANOVER.
See Sir A. Halliday, History of the House of Guclph (1821) ; R. D.
Lloyd, Historical Chart and notes on the origin of the British Victorian
Afonarchy (cover title, Origin of the Guelphs) (1892) ; F. Schmidt,
Die Anfdnge dcs welfischen Gesehlechts (Hanover, 1900).
WELFARE WORK. This term, ;js applied to industry, has
been well defined by Dr. Royal Meeker as "anything for the
comfort and improvement, intellectual or social, of the em-
ployees, over and above wages paid, which is not a necessity of
the industry, nor required by law." Sec INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS;
OFFICE MANAGEMENT.
Welfare Work in Great Britain.— Of course, ever since there
have been employers some of them have done their utmost to pro-
mote the welfare of their employees, but so long as industry was
conducted in small units, no organized welfare work was required.
It was only with the introduction of the factory system that the
personal links between master and man were gradually broken, and
with the development of joint stock limited liability companies,
business became increasingly impersonal. As a rule, unfortunately,
in the early days of large scale manufacture, the attention of the
employing class was devoted almost exclusively to the financial
and mechanical aspects of business; and the workers were re-
garded merely as instruments of production, not as men, women
and children whose individual well-being was a matter of impor-
tance. It is significant that they were generally called "hands,"
while their employer was tacitly assumed to represent the con-
trolling will and brain. Gradually, however, a sense of respon-
sibility for the welfare of these "hands" developed. It was due,
in Great Britain, to many causes, partly to the activities of the
trade unions, partly to the development of education, which
tended to break down class divisions, and to make employers and
workers better acquainted with each other, and partly to the vari-
ous factory acts. These compelled every factory to adopt cer-
tain precautions and safeguards, and drew the attention of the
general public to a side of industry which had been neglected.
But although the attitude of the employing class to the workers
was gradually changing for the better throughout the iQth century,
organised welfare work has only been undertaken on an extensive
scale since 1914. As recently as 1913, a careful investigation into
the facts showed that only about 30 employers in Great Britain
were definitely engaged in welfare work. Fifteen years later the
number had grown to over a thousand.
This great increase in so short a time was due to two causes.
The first was the revolutionary change in the relations between
capital and labour for which the World War was largely respon-
sible. No one acquainted with industry can doubt that the war
developed a more liberal spirit among employers.
The second cause is the great prominence given by the British
Government during the war to welfare in munition factories.
First, a committee was appointed to investigate and report upon
all questions affecting the health of munition workers. It con-
sidered such matters as hours of work, canteen facilities, sanita-
tion and protection against poisons; and it issued a number of
valuable reports, which formed the basis of Government regula-
tions. But another step was taken — namely, the creation within
the Ministry of Munitions, of a welfare department concerned
solely with the development of welfare conditions in the thous-
ands of munition factories controlled by the State. This depart-
ment had a staff of inspectors, who visited the factories and
arranged for the introduction of various welfare measures, and
for the appointment of large numbers of welfare supervisors,
whose duty it was to deal with all matters affecting the health
and comfort of the workers. In these ways, the Government gave
to the whole country a striking object-lesson in organised welfare
work, and we can hardly wonder that such work is now a definite
and important factor in British industry. Two British societies,
one actively presided over by the duke of York, arc engaged in
developing the movement. One of these works primarily with
and through "welfare supervisors," as the officers engaged in
organised welfare are often termed ; the other is concerned with
encouraging firms to undertake organised welfare work, and ad-
vising them as to the best and wisest modes of procedure.
Forms of Welfare Work. — Welfare work takes many forms:
they are briefly indicated in the following summary, drawn up
by the (British) Industrial Welfare Society —
Employment: Interview, Preliminary selection, Waiting list, Records
and progress, Lost time and absentees, Transfers and promotion,
Dismissal, Transport.
Co-operation: Suggestions and Complaints, Works and Welfare
Committees, Works Magazine.
Education: Technical instruction, Continuation Classes, Lectures.
Health: Protective Clothing, Rest and Cloak Rooms, First-aid and
Ambulance, Medical Service, Records and Research, Dental Service,
Optical Service, Sick Visiting, Convalescence, Rest Pauses, Canteen,
Heating, Lighting, Ventilation, Sanitation.
Thrift : Sick and Benevolent Societies, Superannuation and Pension
Funds, Holiday Funds, Tool Funds, etc., Saving Schemes, Protective
Devices.
Accident Prevention: Accident Prevention Campaigns, Safety In-
structions, Inspections, Records, Fire Drill.
Leisure: Outdoor Activities, Indoor Games and Hobbies, Co-opera-
tion with Local Agencies, Lodgings Register, Institute and Hostel
Management, Camps and Holiday Schemes.
Economics of Welfare Work. — It is not, of course, suggested
that all the above activities find a place in every factory which
has definitely undertaken welfare work; but the tendency is cer-
tainly to advance from one activity to another. The perusal of
the somewhat formidable list may suggest two questions which
must be answered in any careful appreciation of welfare work.
The first is: — "Are all these measures really necessary or even
desirable?" and the second is "Does it pay?" The answer which
those who believe in welfare work would give to the first ques-
tion would be along the following lines. Industry is the life-
blood of the modern nation. Most people, during a greater or
less part of their lives spend at least half their waking hours at
work, and if society as a whole is to be healthy, cultured, and
prosperous, no employer can afford to ignore what may be termed
his social obligations towards the workers within his own factory.
In a well organised community, it should be possible for men
and women to live full, healthy lives all the while. Work should
not be regarded as an inevitable deduction from the happiness of
life, but as an integral part of that happiness. Therefore, just as
much consideration should be shown towards members of the
community while at work, as during their leisure hours. The
State, through its factory acts, demands a steadily rising mini-
mum standard in working conditions, but this is necessarily a
soulless and unsatisfying standard. A factory which complied
strictly with all legal requirements might yet be an appalling
place in which to spend nearly half one's waiting life.
Welfare work seeks to remedy this deficiency, and so far as it is
possible, to carry out social ideals in the factory. It regards the
WELHAVEN— WELL
495
workers, therefore, as ends in themselves, not merely as a means to
an end. All welfare questions should be handled by persons care-
fully selected for their intelligent human sympathy. It must be
recognised that the care of the workers is a more expert business
than even the care of the most intricate and delicate machinery.
It cannot be handed over to men who have not the necessary
experience and special qualities. In a large factory the recognition
of this fact will involve the organisation of a carefully staffed
labour department, while in a small one, it may only mean the
handing over of all labour questions to a qualified officer who has
other duties. In either case, if the employment manager or the
welfare supervisor be wise, he will soon learn to avoid the spirit
of paternalism, which was somewhat too characteristic of many
early experiments in welfare work. He must enlist the help of
the workers to achieve the desired ends. This will lead to a
better mutual understanding between employer and employed —
and probably to the establishment of works councils, where an
ever growing list of subjects of joint interest will be discussed by
management and men. The welfare supervisor is really the liaison
officer between capital and labour.
Although, in the definition of welfare work given at the begin-
ning of this article, the question of wages was excluded, the wel-
fare spirit, out of which welfare work springs, cannot disregard
that question. It is riot for the welfare officer to dictate the scale
of wages, but if the management is not paying a living wage, it is
quite within his sphere to call their attention to the fact.
There can be no true welfare unless reasonable living wages
are paid, or, if this is temporarily out of the question, unless
every effort is being made to raise the efficiency of the organisa-
tion to the point at which their payment becomes possible.
The second question referred to above ''Does welfare work
pay?" has in part been already answered. Of course, it is not
possible to draw up a profit and loss account showing the precise
cost of welfare work on the one hand and the precise gain de-
rived from it on the other. What, for instance, is the value, in
pounds or dollars, of a spirit of co-operation between capital and
labour? What is the value of a higher standard of health, due to
an efficient works medical department? These questions defy
strict analysis.
It can, however, be said without a shadow of doubt that wel-
fare work pays whenever it is the natural outcome of a belief on
the part of the management that the welfare of all engaged with
them in their enterprise is a matter of real moment — that industry
is fundamentally a human activity, whose success or failure is
eventually to be measured by its effect on human society. Any
welfare scheme undertaken merely to "make the beggars work"
or to swell the dividends of the shareholders will never succeed.
Some of the finest welfare work is done in little factories,
where the profits earned are not high, but where the employer
has real sympathy with his workers, and does his best to surround
them with the kind of environment he would desire for his own
children. The items to enter on the debit side of his welfare
account might not to any high degree interest the works auditor.
But there are also factories where very large sums are paid for
welfare work. There are costly pension schemes, medical depart-
ments and provisions for education, and recreation. Do" these
pay? Probably the return on the expenditure varies from factory
to factory. It will depend on the spirit in the factory, and the
intelligence with which the expenditure is incurred. But a few
observations may suggest the angle from which this matter should
be considered. Take, for instance, a pension fund. It absorbs a
given sum per annum, and all workers retire at pension age. The
cost of that fund may appear to be high — but how much are many
organisations paying yearly through their wage rolls to men who
ought to be on pension? Again, a factory medical or dental serv-
ice may cost a considerable sum, but there is also a considerable
difference between the value, say, of a purchasing agent who has
a headache, or toothache, and one who is perfectly fit. We must
strike a ratio between the cost of the medical service and the
total wage and salary bill. The former is unlikely to amount to
as much as one half of one per cent of the latter.
Incidentally, reference may be made to a striking example of
the British Government's appreciation of the value of welfare
work. Under the Mining Industry Act of 1920, power was given
to raise a levy of a penny on every ton of coal raised to create a
fund, known as the miners' welfare fund. Up to 1927 over five
million pounds was thus raised, of which £2,726,000 was spent on
recreation and £1,696,000 on hospitals, convalescent homes and
other health services. The fund is administered by a central
committee consisting of owners, miners and other persons ap-
pointed by the Board of Trade, and by a number of district com-
mittees consisting of owners and miners. Under a more recent
act (the Mining Industry Act of 1925) the royalties welfare levy
is producing more funds, available for pit-head baths.
In conclusion, there are three ideas of welfare work. The first
is merely that it is a fad, or a hobby: the second that it is good
because it pays; the third that it is an essential condition of good
management, and an inevitable outcome of modern ideas regard-
ing the relationship of industry to society and the responsibilities
of industrial management. The last idea is the right one.
For the American aspects, see EMPLOYEES, TRAINING OF.
See John Lee, The Principles of Industrial Welfare (1924); B. S.
Rowntree, The Human Factor in Business (1925) ; Edgar T«. Collis
and Major Greenwood, The Health of the Industrial Worker (1921) ;
L. P. Lorkhart, A Short Manual of Industrial Hygiene (1927) ; Chas.
F. Lloyd (ed.), The Factory, Truck and Shops Acts, by the late
Alexander Redgrave (i3th ed., 1924). (B. S. R.)
WELHAVEN, JOHANN SEBASTIAN CAMMER-
MEYER (1^07-1873), Norwegian poet and critic, was born at
Bergen. He first studied theology, but from 1828 onwards de-
voted himself to literature. In 1840 he became reader and sub-
sequently professor of philosophy at Christiania, and delivered a
series of impressive lectures on literary subjects. In 1836 he
visited France and Germany; and in 1858 he went to Italy to
study archaeology. Welhaven made his name as the repre-
sentative of conservatism in Norwegian literature. He repre-
sented clearness and moderation against the extravagances of
Wcrgeland. He gave an admirable practical exposition of his
aesthetic creed in the sonnet cycle Norgcs Daemring (1834). He
published a volume of Digte in 1839; and in 1845 Nycrc, Digte.
! His descriptive poetry is admirable, but his best work was
inspired by his poems on old Norse subjects, in which he gives
himself unreservedly to patriotic enthusiasm.
! His critical work includes Ewald og de norske Digtere (1863), On
Ludwig Holberg (1854). Welhaven's Samlcde Skrijtcr were published
in 8 vols. at Copenhagen (1867-69).
WELL. An artificial excavation or boring that derives some
fluid, usually water, from the interstices of the rocks or soil which
it penetrates. Wells are classified mainly according to the method
of sinking, the depth, character or geologic horizon of the bed
that yields the water, capacity or head of water. Thus, according
to the method of sinking are wells distinguished from borings, the
former being divided into ordinary shallow or surface wells as dis-
tinguished from deep, or sometimes erroneously termed artesian,
wells. Such wells are generally circular excavations ranging from
3 or 4 ft. to 15 ft. or more in diameter, usually lined with brick-
work, concrete or cast iron for some depth down from the surface,
and may be either dug or drilled by special tools.
The term borings is applied to sinkings of smaller size, ordinarily
up to 36 in. in diameter, excavated by means of a drill, either per-
cussion or rotary, which operates either by cutting or by abrasion,
and in which the debris is brought up to the surface by means of
a shell-pump, hollow drill-tool, or by a hydraulic or self-clearing
method. Borings of this kind are usually lined with steel tubes
through unstable materials, the tubes being perforated where in
contact with water-bearing strata. In addition there is the driven
well, which is sunk by driving a casing at the end of which is a
conical point, water being admitted for supply through the point or
through perforations in the casing immediately above it. Fre-
quently, however, a well may consist of a combination of a well
and boring, the boring being sunk through the bottom of the
well; or adits or headings may be driven horizontally from the bot-
tom of a well in different directions into the water-bearing stratum.
The shallow well is sunk into water-bearing strata at or near
the surface, and in populous or cultivated districts the water is apt
496
WELL
to be contaminated by sewage or other surface sources of pollu-
tion. Deep wells, if lined to some depth from the surface, draw
upon deeper zones, and usually afford larger and purer supplies.
The term artesian as popularly applied to wells is ambiguous.
Strictly, artesian water is water which is confined under pressure
beneath an impervious stratum, and, rising up through the pene-
trating well or boring, overflows the surface of the ground above
the normal ground-water surface of the district.
Thus in fig. i there are shown two water-bearing forma-
tions A and C separated by an impervious stratum B of shales and
FIG. 1
clays. The surface of the ground-water, or saturation level, YY in
the bed A stands at a higher level than that of XX in the bed C,
being held down by the impervious bed B. The well i in the shal-
low surface bed is a shallow surface or dug well, which taps the
immediately underlying ground-water, the level of which is below
the surface of the well. The well 2 is a true artesian or artesian-
flowing well. The .well 3, in which artesian water from a lower
stratum is tapped but does not overflow, is known as a non-flowing
or sub-artesian well.
The function of a well is to tap the underground or ground-water
which may occur in the pores of the water-bearing formations, or
if in solid rocks, the water in the fissures, joints, faults, bedding
planes and other openings. Water from porous strata is most
freely and directly obtained from superficial beds of gravels and
sands of alluvial or glacial origin. In hard rocks such as sand-
stones, chalk and conglomerates which are exceedingly porous,
wells are capable of affording copious yields only when the ground-
water is directly tapped in open cavities, such as bedding planes,
fissures and the like, the water in these openings being fed and
maintained by slow seepage from the pores of the rock from a vast
area. Wells in formations such as the chalk, for example, may be
practically dry if sunk in the mass of the rock itself without pene-
trating any fissure or other natural channel with water.
The most successful wells derive their supplies from rocks of
later age than the Palaeozoic formations. With the exception of a
few of the higher strata, such as the Permian limestones and sand-
stones and the Millstone Grits of the Carboniferous, the older
rocks in general are highly consolidated by pressure and their
pores cemented by minerals, hence they are incapable of affording
large supplies of ground-water. The sandstones of the Trias, the
limestones of the Jurassic and the chalk and sands of the Creta-
ceous have yielded the most copious underground supplies in
Britain and the Continent, and generally the world over the Sec-
ondary and later formations are the most prolific. In Britain the
glacial and alluvial gravels and sands of the Post-Tertiary are thin
and not so extensive as elsewhere and in consequence afford only
relatively small supplies, but in many other parts of the world
copious yields are obtained from these later deposits. The water
bearing properties of the crystalline or igneous rocks are similar
to those of the older formations, and underground supplies from
them are dependent upon the presence of fissures or joints, hence
the yields are almost universally small.
Hydraulics of Wells.— Fig. 2 illustrates an ordinary well KH
sunk through a water-bearing stratum to H the surface of an im-
pervious bed at the level GHJ. Normally the surface of the
ground-water lies below the ground at a level AE which is known
as the surface of saturation, water-table, ground-water level, or, in
relation to wells, rest-level. The effect of pumping water from the
well is to lower the water in the well to a level F known as the
working- or pumping-level, which varies according to the rate of
pumping, becoming increasingly lower as the rate of pumping is
increased. Outside the well the effect of pumping is to draw in
radially the surrounding water to the well, and the surface of
saturation in the vicinity assumes the form of an inverted cone or
FIG. 2
bell. This figure BFD is known as the cone of depression, which
dies out along a line theoretically forming a circle around the well,
and known as the circle of influence of radius BC or CD in fig. 2.
In actual practice the circle of influence may be far from a true
circle, forming a figure which extends irregularly in different direc-
tions according to geological circumstances; for only in absolutely
uniform and homogeneous sand or gravel, not found in nature,
could the theoretical conditions
be obtained. The slopes of the
cone are theoretically sub-loga-
rithmic curves, and although ir-
regular in actual practice often
approximate to theory, especially
in deposits of sands and gravels.
In solid rocks again, while borings in the vicinity of a well indi-
cate there is a local depression, it is doubtful if the surrounding
water-levels indicate more than the water-levels in the actual fis-
sures and other openings pene'trated.
The radius of the circle of influence is dependent mainly on two
factors, viz., the transmitting capacity of the water-bearing me-
dium and the rate of pumping, or alternatively the lowering C.F.
at the well ; but a third factor of influence is the natural slope of
the water-table in the vicinity.
Theory and practice have established that, except when exces-
sive, lowering of the water-level in a well in porous media is ap-
proximately proportional to the rate of pumping, and that at a
given rate of pumping, provided that is not greater than the maxi-
mum yield of the well, the water will fall to a definite level and,
subject to seasonal fluctuations, remain stationary at that level.
A further principle of importance has also been established both
by theory and practice, viz., that the effect of size or diameter of a
well is of less importance than might be assumed, borings of only
a few feet in diameter affording copious yields not greatly less than
those of wells of large diameter.
Testing of Wells.— The yields of small wells or borings are
usually tested by pumping continuously over a period ranging from
a few days to a fortnight until a permanent working-level is main-
tained. For large public wells, however, much longer periods are
required, and it may be a year or more before a final state of
equilibrium is obtained.
The term specific capacity is frequently used in relation to test-
ing, and is a numerical expression of the readiness with which a
well furnishes water to the pumps. It depends on the transmis-
sion capacity of the water-bearing stratum, the resistance of the
strainer when present, the thickness of water-bearing stratum pen-
etrated, and to some extent on the diameter of the well. This fac-
tor is merely the yield per foot of lowering of the water in a well,
or the gross yield divided by the working head. Successful public
wells in sands similar to the Lower Greensand have a mean specific
capacity of about 500 gal. per hour, Triassic wells 500 to 800, and
Chalk wells about 1,800 gal. per hour, but the figures are extremely
variable, maximum values being as much as double these figures.
In the case of wells with headings, however, it is doubtful if the
specific capacity is of any value as an index.
Wells in Sands. — Wells in sands, especially where the deposits
are fine-grained, may be lined wells of large diameter, the lining
extending to the full depth of the well. The water is obtained
either by upward percolation from the bottom of the well only, or
by means of perforations, with or without fine wire-gauze strainers,
in the sides of the lining. Where borings are sunk into such mate-
rial the lower portion of the lining tubes may be perforated with
small holes, which may or may not be covered with a straining ma-
terial. Frequently a series of such borings in close proximity are
placed at right angles to the direction of natural flow of the ground-
water and connected to a common suction-pipe.
Records of Actual Wells.— In Britain wells or borings in the
New Red Sandstone have afforded permanent yields up to a maxi-
mum of 4 or 5 million gallons per diem, and the Chalk up to 7
million gallons per diem; but the supplies of large public wells
in these formations usually vary between a few hundred thousand
to one or two million gallons per day. In the Oolite yields up to 3
million gallons per day have been obtained, but these are quite
WELLES— WELLESLEY
497
exceptional. Wells in Millstone Grit and Coal Measures rarely
afford more than 500,000 gallons per day, and other geologic
formations only relatively small supplies. The effect of pumping
in large public wells in Britain does not appear to extend more
than about two miles in (he New Red Sandstone and about one
mile in the Chalk. In California, however, a test of pumping at
rates between 8 and 20 million gallons per day in alluvial deposits
proved the consequent lowering to extend to five miles.
Of wells of record yield in other countries may be mentioned a
well at St. Augustine stated by Slichter (1902) to yield 10 million
gallons a day, and another in South Dakota reported to yield as
much as n^ million gallons a day.
The deepest boring sunk for water is probably that at Putnam
Heights, Connecticut, which reached a depth of over 6,000 ft. in
crystalline rock without obtaining a significant supply. In Aus-
tralia many artesian borings are sunk to depths of over 4,000 ft.
and obtain supplies ranging from 100,000 to 1,400,000 gal. per
day. The deepest borings in the work? sunk for either oil or water
are the Olinda well, Orange County, Calif., and the Ligonier deep
well near Latrobe, Pa. The former is 8,201 feet deep and the latter
7,756 feet deep. In general, except where there are true artesian
conditions on a vast scale, it is little use to sink below 1,500 feet.
The effect of pumping excessive quantities of water from under-
ground sources has frequently been to lower the general water-
level of the district, and this has taken place under London, Bir-
mingham and Liverpool in Britain, and around Chicago, Memphis,
Savannah, the Dakota basin and other districts in the U.S.A.
Artesian Basins. — The chief artesian areas in Europe are
around London and Paris. In the United States the basins of
Dakota, New Mexico, Potsdam and the Atlantic coastal plain are
the most remarkable. In Queensland, New South Wales and South
Australia deep seated artesian water is found in vast quantities,
while in Africa the artesian areas of Cape Colony and the Sahara
desert are of special note.
The London and Paris basins derive their supplies from deep
seated Chalk and Tertiary strata, the former affording supplies
amounting in all to many million gallons per day to hundreds of
wells beneath London.
The Dakota basin which underlies large areas in South Dakota,
Colorado, Nebraska and Kansas, is of special interest, thousands
of borings deriving artesian supplies from the Dakota Sandstone,
which outcrops in the mountains to the west of the area and passes
beneath the basin at depths of 1,000 ft. or more and reappears in
the east at a distance of 200 m. or more from the western outcrop.
The yield of the whole basin is about 125 million gallons per day.
The Roswcll area in south-eastern New Mexico derives its ar-
tesian supply chiefly from creviced and cavernous limestone. The
total annual yield from more than 1,400 wells is about 200,000
acre-feet which is used chiefly for the irrigation of approximately
60,000 acres of farm land. The largest flowing well in the area
yields over 8,000,000 gallons a day. The Atlantic Coastal Plain
extends from Long island in the north to Texas in the south.
The Australian artesian areas, and especially that of Queens-
land, afford remarkable yields. The Queensland basin is esti-
mated to supply a total of over 350 million gallons per day. Over
1,000 borings have been sunk, some exceeding 4,000 ft. in depth.
The New South Wales and South Australia basins are of consider-
ably less importance. The three basins all derive their supplies
from the Cretaceous rocks.
The Cape Colony area derives its supplies from the Karoo beds
of triassic age at shallow depths. Nearly 3,000 boreholes have been
sunk, but the individual yields are small.
The Sahara basin in the vicinity of Algeria is noteworthy, in
that the artesian water is derived from beds of Pliocene sands
which outcrop in the Atlas mountains about 300 miles distant.
The underground water has been found to follow definite open
channels, and small fish, river-crabs and fresh-water molluscs
are brought up in quantities in some of the borings, which vary
from 150 to 800 ft. in depth. Over 100 million gallons per day
is obtained from this basin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Numerous Water Supply and Irrigation Papers of
the United States Geological Survey, in particular No. 67 by C. S.
Slichter (1902), and the igth Annual Report of the U.S. Geological
Survey, Slichter and King (1897-98), where full references are given
to previous investigators, pp. 381-384; W. S. P. 494, "Outline of
Ground-water Hydrology" by O. E. Meinzer (1923) ; W. S. P. 439,
"Occurrence of Ground-water in the United States" by O. E. Meinzer
(1923). Baldwin Wiseman, Min. Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. CLXV. (1905-
06), Pt. in, on "The Flow of Underground Water," where numerous
further references, both theoretical and practical, are given. (See
BORING and DRILLING) . (H. LA.)
WELLES, GIDEON (1802-1878), American political lead-
er, was born at Glastonbury (Conn.), on July i, 1802. He studied
for a time at Norwich University, Vt, but did not graduate.
From 1826 to 1837 he edited the Hartford Times, making it the
official organ of the Jacksonian democracy in southern New Eng-
land. After service in the State house of representatives, he left
the Democratic Party on the Kansas-Nebraska issue, assisted in
the formation of the Republican Party in Connecticut, and was
its candidate for governor in 1856.
On the inauguration of President Lincoln in 1861 he was ap-
pointed secretary of the Navy, a position which he held until the
close of President Andrew Johnson's administration in 1869. Al-
though deficient in technical training, he handled with great skill
the difficult problems which were presented by the Civil War. The
number of naval ships was increased between 1861 and 1865 from
go to 670, the officers from 1,300 to 6,700, the seamen from 7,500
to 51,500, and the annual expenditure from $12,000,000 to $123,-
000,000; important changes were made in the art of naval con-
struction, and the blockade of the Confederate ports was effec-
tively maintained. Welles supported President Johnson in his
quarrel with Congress, took part in the Liberal Republican move-
ment of 1872, and returning to the Democratic Party, warmly
advocated the election of Samuel J. Tilden in 1876. He died
at Hartford (Conn.), on Feb. n, 1878.
While Welles was in President Lincoln's Cabinet, he kept a
diary of the stirring events happening daily. This manuscript,
though greatly amended by Welles in later years, is a valuable
historical source. But the published diary is unreliable because
it makes no distinction between the entries that were contempo-
raneous and those that Welles made in his old age.
In 1874 Welles published Lincoln and Seward, in which he re-
futes the charge that Seward dominated the Administration dur-
ing the Civil War. His Diary was published in the Atlantic Month-
ly (IQOQ-IO).
See Albert Welles, History of the Welles Family (New York, 1876) ;
also "Is the Printed Diary of Gideon Welles Reliable?'*, Amer. Hist.
Rev. vol. xxx., and Life of Gideon Welles, R. H. Wood.
WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY WESLEY (or
WELLESLEY), MARQUESS (1760-1842), eldest son of the ist earl
of Mornington, an Irish peer, and brother of the famous duke of
Wellington, was born on June 20, 1760. He was sent to Eton,
and to Christ Church, Oxford. By his father's death in 1781 he
became earl of Mornington, taking his seat in the Irish House
of Peers. In 1784 he entered the English House of Commons as
member for Beeralston. Soon afterwards he was appointed a
lord of the treasury by Pitt. In 1793 he became a member of the
board of control over Indian affairs and in 1797 accepted the
office of governor-general of India. Wellesley seems to have
caught Pitt's large political spirit during his intercourse with him
from 1793 to 1797. That both had consciously formed the design
of acquiring empire in India is not proved; but the rivalry with
France made Wellesley's rule in India an epoch of enormous and
rapid extension of English power. Clive won and Warren Has-
tings consolidated the British ascendancy in India, but Wellesley
extended it into an empire. For the details of Wellesley's Indian
policy see INDIA : India under the Company.
He found the East India Company a trading body, he left it
an imperial power. He was an excellent administrator, and sought
to provide, by the foundation of the college of Fort William, for
the training 'of a class of men adequate to the great work of
governing India. A firm free trader, like Pitt, he endeavoured to
remove some of the restrictions on the trade between England
and India. Both the commercial policy of Wellesley and his
educational projects brought him into hostility with the court of
directors, and be more than once tendered his resignation, which,
4-98
WELLESLEY— WELLINGTON
howevrer, public necessities led him to postpone till the autumn
of 1805. He reached England just in time to see his friend Pitt
before his death. He had been created an English peer in 1797,
and in 1799 an Irish marquess.
On the fall of the coalition ministry in 1807 Wellesley was
invited by George III. to join the duke of Portland's cabinet,
but he declined, pending the discussion in parliament of certain
charges brought against him in respect of his Indian adminis-
tration. Resolutions condemning him for the abuse of power were
moved in both the Lords and Commons, but defeated by large
majorities. In 1809 Wellesley was appointed ambassador to
Spain. He landed at Cadiz just after the battle of Talavera, and
endeavoured, but without success, to bring the Spanish govern-
ment into effective co-operation with his brother in Portugal. A
few months later Wellesley became foreign secretary in Perceval's
cabinet. He retired in February 1812, partly from dissatisfaction
at the inadequate support given to Wellington by the ministry,
but also because he was convinced that the question of Catholic
emancipation was urgent. With the claim of the Irish Catholics
to justice he henceforward identified himself.
On Perceval's assassination he refused to join Lord Liverpool's
administration, and he remained out of office till i82i> criticizing
with severity the proceedings of the congress of Vienna and the
European settlement of 1814. He was one of the peers who
signed the protest against the enactment of the Corn Laws in
1815. In 1821 he was appointed lord-lieutenant ot Ireland. Wel-
lesley's acceptance of the vice-royalty was believed in Ireland to
herald the immediate settlement of the Catholic claims. But the
hope of the Catholics still remained unfulfilled. On the assump-
tion of office by Wellington, who was opposed to Catholic emanci-
pation, his brother resigned the lord-lieutenancy. He had, how-
ever, the satisfaction of seeing the Catholic claims settled in the
next year by the very statesmen who had declared against them.
In 1833 he resumed the office of lord-lieutenant under Earl Grey's
brief ministry. He died on Sept. 26, 1842.
See Montgomery Martin, Despatches of the Marquess Wellesley
(1840); W. M. Torrens,, The Marquess Wellesley (1880); W. H.
Hutton, Lord Wtllesley ("Rulers of India" scries, 1893) ; and G. B.
Malleson, Wellesley ("Statesmen" series, 1895) ; The Wellesley Papers:
Life and Correspondence of Richard Colley Wellesley by the editor of
"The Windham Papers" (2 vols., 1914).
WELLESLEY, a beautiful residential town of Massachu-
setts, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 6,224; 1928 local estimate 12,000. On
Lake Waban are the grounds of Wellesley college (q.v.) and
opposite it is the Hunnewell estate, with its famous Italian gar-
dens, the first in the United States. The Babson institute and
the Babson statistical centre are in Wellesley and there are four
private schools for girls. Wellesley was settled about 1640 and
incorporated in 1881.
WELLESLEY COLLEGE, an institution for the higher
education of women situated in Wellesley, Mass. It was founded
by Henry Fowle Durant, a Boston lawyer, with the announced
purpose "of giving to young women opportunities for education
equivalent to those usually provided in colleges for young men."
The first charter was granted by the Commonwealth of Massa-
chusetts on March 17, 1870, under the name of Wellesley Female
seminary. This name was changed to Wellesley college by act of
legislature, March 7, 1873. In accordance with the spirit of the
founder, the college is undenominational but distinctively Chris-
tian in its influence, discipline and instruction. The college
grants the degrees of B.A. and M.A., and of M.S. in hygiene and
physical education. Under the stimulus and inspiration of the
founder, Wellesley college opened in Sept. 1875, with a curriculum
remarkably in advance of its period. For example, Wellesley was
the first women's college to open scientific laboratories for student
experimentation. In fact, such work was offered at Wellesley
earlier than at any other institution in the United States for either
men or women with the exception of Harvard and the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology.
The campus of more than 3ooac., the gift of the founder, the
buildings, and fixed equipment, were valued in the treasurer's re-
port, on June 30, 1927, at $7,281,007, and the trust funds at
$8,520,418, of which $5,866,874 are for permanent endowment.
The buildings number 38 of which 20 are halls of residence. Two
other halls of residence were under construction in 1928. In addi-
tion to the library, the most important of the buildings are
Founders hall, opened in 1919, containing lecture rooms and de-
partment offices for the liberal arts; the Farnsworth Art build-
ing; music hall and Billings hall for the department of music;
the Whitin observatory for the department of astronomy; Mary
Hemenway hall containing the gymnasium; the chapel; Alumnae
hall, containing a large auditorium and recreation hall, dedicated
in 1923; and the botany laboratory, dedicated in Nov. 1927, fully
equipped with all modern facilities. There were in 1927, 1,604
students, of which number 44 were registered for the master's de-
gree and 1,533 f°r the bachelor's degree. The official staff num-
bered 251 of whom 166 formed the instructing body.
The college has had six presidents: Ada L. Howard, Litt.D.
(1875-82); Alice E. Freeman (Mrs. George H. Palmer), B.A.,
Ph.D., L.H.D, LL.D. (1882-87); Helen A/Shafer, M.A., LL.D.
(1888-94); Julia J. Irvinfc, M.A., L.H.D. , LL.D. (1895-99);
Caroline Hazard, A.M., Litt.D., LL.D. (1899-1910); Ellen F.
Pendleton, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. (1911- ). (E. F. P.)
WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844-1918), German biblical
scholar and Orientalist, was born at Hameln on the Wcscr, West-
phalia, on May 17, 1844. Having studied theology at the university
of Gottingen under Heinrich Ewald, he established himself there
in 1870 as Privatdozent for Old Testament history. In 1872 he
was appointed professor ordinarius of theology in Greifswald.
Resigning in 1882 owing to conscientious scruples, he became pro-
fessor extraordinarius of oriental languages in the faculty of phil-
ology at Halle, was elected professor ordinarius at Marburg in
1885, and was transferred to Gottingen in 1892. Wellhausen made
his name famous by his critical investigations into Old Testament
history and the composition of the Hexateuch, the uncompro-
mising scientific attitude he adopted in testing its problems
bringing him into antagonism with the older school of biblical
interpreters. He died at Gottingen on Jan. 7, 1918.
The best known of his works are De genlibus ct familiis Judaeis
(Gottingen, 1870) ; Der Text der Bucher Samuelis untersuchl (Got-
tingen, 1871) ; Die Pharisder und Sadducder (Greifswald, 1874) ; Pro-
legomena znr Geschichte Israels (Berlin, 1882; Eng. trans., 1885;
5th German edition, 1899; first published in 1878 as Geschichte
Israels) ; Muhammed in Medina (Berlin, 1882) ; Die Komposition des
Ifexateuchs und der historischcn Bucher des Alien Testaments (1889,
3rd ed. 1899) ; Israelitische und judische Geschichte, (1894, 4th cd.
1901) ; Reste arabischen Ileidentums (1897) ; Das arabische Reich und
sein Sturz (1902); Sklzzen und Vorarbeiten (1884-99); and new
and revised editions of F. Bleek's Einleitung in das Alte Testament
(4-6, 1878-93). In 1906 appeared Die christliche Religion, mit Ein-
schluss der israeUtisch-judischen Religion, in collaboration with A.
Jiilirhcr, A. Harnack and others. He also did useful and interesting
work as a New Testament commentator. He published Das Evangelium
Marci, iibersetzt und erkldrt in 1903, Das Evangelium Mat thai and
Das Evangelium Lucae in 1904, and Einleitung in die drei ersten
Evangdien in 1905.
WELLINGBOROUGH, a town of Northamptonshire,
England. Pop. (1921) 20,357.
In 948 Edred gave the church at Wellingborough to Crow-
land abbey, and the grant was confirmed by King Edgar in 966.
The town received the grant of a market in 1201. It was for-
merly famed for the chalybeate springs to which it owes its name.
After its almost total destruction by fire in 1738 the town was
built on its present site on the hill. The church of St. Luke has
Norman and Early English portions, but is mainly Decorated.
The grammar-schools, founded in 1594 were endowed with the
revenues of a suppressed gild. One is an old Elizabethan struc-
ture. Freeman's school was founded by John Freeman in 1711.
The principal public building is the corn exchange. The town is
a centre of agricultural trade; but the staple industry is in leather.
Boots and shoes, especially uppers, are manufactured. Smelting,
brewing and iron-founding are carried on, as well as the manu-
facture of steam-engines. Iron ore is raised.
WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, IST DUKE
OF (1769-1852), was the fourth son of Garrett (1735-1781)
Wellesley or Wesley, 2nd baron and ist earl of Mornington, now
remembered only as a musician. He was descended from the family
of Colley or Cowley, which had been settled in Ireland for two
WELLINGTON
499
centuries. The duke's grandfather, Richard Colley, ist Baron
Mornington (d. 1758), assumed the name of Wesley on succeeding
to the estates of Garret t Wesley, a distant relative of the 'famous
divine. In Wellington's early letters the family name is spelt
Wesley; the change to Wellesley seems to have been made
about 1790. Arthur (born in Ireland in 1769*) was sent to
Eton, and subsequently to a military college at Angers. He entered
the army as ensign in the 73rd Highlanders in 1787, passed
rapidly through the lower ranks (in five different regiments),
became major of the 33rd (now the duke of Wellington's Regt.)
and purchased the lieutenant-colonelcy of that regiment in 1793
with money advanced to him by his eldest brother. But in all
these changes he did little regimental duty, for he was aide-de-
camp to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland for practically the whole
of these years. Before reaching full age he was returned to the
Irish parliament by the family borough of Trim.
His first experience of active service was in the campaign of
1794-95, when the British force ufider the duke of York was
driven out of Holland by Pichegru. In 1796 he was sent with his
regiment to India, being promoted colonel by brevet about the
same time. It was thus as a commanding officer that he learnt
for the first time the details of regimental duty. He mastered
them thoroughly — it was to the completeness of his practical
knowledge that Wellington ascribed in great part his later success.
It is probable, moreover, that he at this time made a serious study
of the science of war. As soon as he landed in India he began to
devote fixed hours to study, giving up cards and the violin. This
study was directed chiefly to the political situation of India, and
when on his advice his eldest brother, Lord Morninpton, after-
wards Marquess Wellesley, accepted the governor-generalship of
India, he became his trusted though unofficial adviser. In the war
with Tippoo Sahib the 33rd was attached to the Nizam's contin-
gent, and Colonel Wellesley commanded this division in the army
of General Harris. Though bis military services in this short cam-
paign were not of a striking character, he was appointed by his
brother to the supreme military and political command in Mysore,
in spite of the claims of his senior, Sir David Baird.
His great faculties now for the first time found opportunity
for their exercise. In the settlement and administration of the
conquered territory he rapidly acquired the habits and experience
of a statesman, while his military operations against Doondiah,
a robber chief, were conducted with extraordinary energy and
success. When pressed in Mysore, Doondiah moved into Mahratta
territory, whither Wellesley followed him. Here, negotiating and
bargaining with the Mahratta chiefs, Wellesley acquired a know-
ledge of their affairs and an influence over them such as no other
Englishman possessed. Simple and honourable himself, he was
shrewd and penetrating in his judgment of Orientals; and, unlike
his great predecessor Give, he rigidly adhered to the rule of good
faith in his own actions, however depraved and however exasper-
ating the conduct of those with whom he had to deal. The result
of Wellesley 's singular personal ascendancy among the Mahrattas
came into full view when the Mahratta War broke out. In the
meantime, however, his Indian career seemed likely to be sacri-
ficed to the calls of warfare in another quarter. Wellesley was
ordered with a body of troops to Egypt. But at Bombay he was
attacked by fever, and prevented from going on. The troop-ship
in which he was to have sailed went down with all on board.
He returned in May 1801 to Mysore, where he remained until
the Mahratta War broke out. Wellesley, now a major-general,
was placed in command of a division of the army charged with
the task of restoring the Peshwa, overthrown by his rival, to
power. Starting from Seringapatam, he crossed the frontier on
March 12, 1803, and moved on Poona. The march was one
unbroken success, thanks to Wellesley's forethought and sagacity
in dealing with the physical conditions and his personal and
diplomatic ascendancy among the chieftains of the district. A
march of 600 m. was conducted without even a skirmish. The
Peshwa was restored.
Sindhia and Holkar, with the raja of Berar, maintained a doubt-
!At 24 Upper Mcrrion Street, Dublin, or at Dungan castle, Meath,
on April 29 or on May i ; but both place and date are uncertain.
ful but threatening aspect farther north. It was uncertain whether
or not a confederacy of the northern Mahrattas had been formed
against the British Government. Wellesley was charged with "the
general direction and control of military and political affairs in
the territories of the Nizam, the Peshwa and the Mahratta states
and chiefs." Armed with these powers, he required Sindhia, as
a proof of good faith, to withdraw to the north of the Nerbudda.
Sindhia not doing so, war was declared on Aug. 6, 1803, and
Wellesley moved against the enemy. A second division was to
converge from the east, but on Sept. 23 Wellesley suddenly found
that the combined forces of Sindhia and the raja of Berar were
close in f {ont of him at Assaye. Weighing the dangers of delay, of
retreat and of an attack with his single division of 4,500 men,
supported only by 5,000 native levies of doubtful quality, Welles-
ley convinced himself that an immediate attack, though against
greatly superior forces (30,000 horse, 10,000 European-drilled
infantry and 100 well-served guns) in a strong position, was the
wisest course. He threw himself upon the Mahratta host, and,
carrying out a bold manoeuvre under an intense fire, ultimately
gained a complete victory, though with heavy loss. In comparison
with the battle of Assaye, all fighting that had hitherto taken place
in India was child's play. Wellesley brought the war to a close
by a second victory at Argaum on Nov. 29 and the storming of
Gawilghur on Dec. 15. The treaties with Sindhia and the raja
of Berar, which marked the downfall of the Mahratta power, were
negotiated and signed by Wellesley — not yet 35 years old.
His ambitions now led him back to Europe, and in the spring
of 1805 he quitted India. After being sent on the abortive expedi-
tion to Hanover, he was elected M.P. for Rye, in order to defend
his brother in the House, and in the following year he was Irish
secretary for a few months. He was then employed in the
expedition against Copenhagen, in which he defeated the Danes
in the action of Kjoge (Oct. 29). In 1808, however, began the
war (see PENINSULAR WAR) in which his military renown was
fully established. In April he was promoted lieutenant-general
and placed in command of a division of the troops destined to
operate against the French in Spain or Portugal. He landed at
Mondego bay in the first week of August, moved southwards, and
on the 2ist won the battle of Vimeiro. In the midst of this
engagement, however, Sir Harry Burrard landed, and took over
the command. Burrard was in turn superseded by Sir Hew
Dalrymple, and the campaign ended with the convention of
Cintra. which provided for the evacuation of Portugal by the
French, but gave Junot's troops a free return to France. So
great was the public displeasure in England at the escape of the
enemy that a court of inquiry was held. After the battle of
Corunna, Wellesley, who had in the meantime resumed his duties
as Irish secretary, returned to the Peninsula as chief in command.
He drove the French out of Oporto, and then prepared to march
against Madrid. He had the support of a Spanish army, but his
movements were delayed by the neglect of the Spanish Govern-
ment, and Soult was able to collect a large force for the purpose
of falling upon the English line of communication. Wellesley,
unconscious of Soult's presence on his flank, advanced against
Madrid, and defeated his immediate opponent, King Joseph, at
Talavera de la Reina (q.v.) on July 27-28. But within the next
few days Soult's approach on the line of communication was dis-
covered, and Wellesley, disgusted with his Spanish allies, had no
choice but to withdraw into Portugal.
A peerage was conferred upon him for Talavera. He was also
made marshal-general of the Portuguese army and a Spanish
captain-general. But his conduct after the battle was sharply
criticized in England, and its negative results were used as a
weapon against the ministry. Even on the defensive, Wellington's
task was exceedingly difficult. Austria having made peace, Na-
poleon was at liberty to throw heavy forces into the Peninsula.
Wellington, foreseeing that Portugal would now be invaded by
a very powerful army, began the fortification of the celebrated
lines of Torres Vedras, (See FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.) As
summer approached Masse"na moved against Portugal with
70,000 men. Wellington, unable to save Ciudad Rodrigo, retreated
down the valley of the Mondego, devastating the country, and
5°°
WELLINGTON
pausing to inflict a check on the French at Busaco (q.v.). Mass6na
continued to press forward but was held up definitely in front
of the lines. It was with the utmost difficulty that he could keep
his army from starving. At length, when the country was ex-
hausted, he fell back to Santarem. . In the spring of 1811 Welling-
ton received reinforcements and moved forward. Mass&ia re-
treated, but such were the sufferings of his army, both in the
invasion and in the retreat, that the French, when they re-entered
Spain, had lost 30,000 men. Public opinion in England, lately so
hostile, now became confident, and Wellington, whose rewards for
Talavera had been opposed in both Houses, began to be a hero.
In the meantime Soult, who was besieging Cadiz, had moved to
support Massena. But after capturing Badajoz, Soult learnt that
Mass£na was in retreat, and in consequence returned to the south.
Wellington, freed from pressure on this side, and believing Mas-
s6na to be thoroughly disabled, considered that the time had come
for an advance into Spain. The fortresses of Almeida, Ciudad
Rodrigo and Badajoz barred the roads. Almeida was besieged, and
Wellington was preparing to attack Badajoz when Massena again
took the field, and marched to the relief of Almeida. The battle
of Fuentes d'Onoro followed, in which Wellington was only able
to extricate the army from a dangerous predicament which "if
Boney had been there" would have been a disaster. His attack
on Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo failed.
Wellington had from the first seen that, whatever number of
men Napoleon might send against him, it was impossible, owing
to the poverty of the country, that any great mass of troops
could long be held together, and that the French, used to "making
war support war," would fare worse in such conditions than his
own troops with their organized supply service. It was so at the
end of 1811. Soult had to move southwards to live, and the
English were again more than a match for the enemy in front
of them. Wellington resumed the offensive early in 1812, took
by storm Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, although with terrible loss,
and then advanced into Spain. Marmont, who had succeeded
Mass6na, fell back to the Douro, but there turned upon his
assailant, and, by superior swiftness, threatened to cut the English
off from Portugal. Wellington retreated as far as Salamanca
(q.v.), and there extricated himself from his peril by a brilliant
victory (July 22). Instead of immediately following the French,
Wellington thought it wise to advance upon the Spanish capital.
King Joseph retired, and the English entered Madrid in triumph.
The political effect was great, but the delay gave the French
northern army time to rally. "The vigorous following of a beaten
enemy was not a prominent characteristic of Lord Wellington's
warfare," as Napier says. Moreover, Soult, raising the siege of
Cadiz, pressed towards Madrid. Wellington was compelled once
more to retire into Portugal. During this retreat he announced in
general orders that the demoralization and misconduct of the
British army surpassed anything that he had ever witnessed. Such
wholesale criticism was bitterly resented, but indeed throughout
his career Wellington, cold and punctilious, never secured to him-
self the affections of officers and men as Marlborough or Na-
poleon did. He subjugated his army and gave it brilliant victories,
but he inspired few disciples except the members of his own
staff. For Salamanca his rewards included a marquessate.
He was now invested with the supreme command of the Spanish
armies, and, after busying himself with preparations, in May 1813
the hour for his final and victorious advance arrived. The Russian
disasters had compelled Napoleon to withdraw some of his best
troops from the Peninsula. Against a weakened and discouraged
adversary Wellington took the field with greatly increased num-
bers and with the utmost confidence. Position after position was
evacuated by the French, until Wellington came up with the
retreating enemy at Vittoria (q.v.), and won an overwhelming
victory (June 21). Soult's combats in the Pyrenees, and the
desperate resistance of St. Sebastian, prolonged the struggle
through the autumn, and cost the English thousands of men. But
at length the frontier was passed, and Soult forced back into his
entrenched camp at Bayonne. Both armies now rested for some
weeks, during which interval Wellington gained the confidence
of the inhabitants by his unsparing repression of marauding, his
business-like payment for supplies, and the excellent discipline
which he maintained. In Feb. 1814 the advance was renewed. The
Adour was crossed, and Soult was defeated at Orthes. At Toulouse,
after the allies had entered Paris, but before the abdication of
Napoleon had become known, the last battle of the war was
fought. Peace being proclaimed, Wellington took leave of his
army at Bordeaux, and returned to England, where he was created
duke of Wellington.
After the Treaty of Paris (May 30) Wellington was appointed
British ambassador at the French capital. During the autumn
and winter of 1814 he reported the mistakes of the restored
Bourbon dynasty, and warned his Government of the growing
hostility to it. His insight, however, did not extend beyond the
circumstances immediately before and around him, and he failed
to realize that the great mass of the French nation was still with
Napoleon at heart. He remained in France until Feb. 1815, when
he took part in the congress of Vienna. His imperfect acquaintance
with French feeling was strikingly proved in the despatch which
he sent home on learning of Napoleon's escape from Elba. "He
has acted," he wrote, "upon false or no information, and the king
(Louis XVIII.) will destroy him without difficulty and in a short
time." Almost before Wellington's unfortunate prediction could
reach London, Louis had fled, and France was at Napoleon's feet.
The ban of the congress, however, went out against the common
enemy, and the presence of Wellington at Vienna enabled the
allies at once to decide upon their plans for the campaign. To
Wellington and Bliicher were committed the invasion of France
from the north, while the Russians and Austrians entered it from
the east. But Napoleon outstripped the preparations of his adver-
saries, concentrated his main army on the northern frontier, and
on June 14 crossed the Sambre. The four days' campaign that
followed, and the crowning victory of June 18, are described in
the article WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. Wellington's reward was a fresh
grant of £200,000 from parliament — he had already received
£500,000 for the Peninsular War, the title of prince of Waterloo
and great estates from the king of Holland, and the order of the
Saint-Esprit from Louis XVIII.
Not only the prestige of his victories, but the chance circum-
stances of the moment, now made Wellington the most in-
fluential personality in Europe. The emperors of Russia and
Austria were still far away at the time of Napoleon's second
abdication, and it was with Wellington that the commissioners
of the provisional Government opened negotiations preliminary
to the surrender of Paris. The duke well knew the peril of delay-
ing the decision as to the Government of France. The emperor
Alexander was hostile to Louis XVIII. and the Bourbons gen-
erally ; the emperor Francis might have been tempted to support
the cause of Napoleon's son and his own grandson, who had been
proclaimed in Paris as Napoleon II.; and if the restoration of
Louis — which Wellington believed would alone restore permanent
peace to France and to Europe — was to be effected, the allies must
be confronted on their arrival in Paris with the accomplished fact.
He settled the affair in his usual downright manner, telling the
commissioners bluntly that they must take back their legitimate
king, and refusing — perhaps with more questionable wisdom — to
allow the retention of the tricolour flag, which to him was a
"symbol of rebellion."
Further, it was mainly owing to the influence of Wellington,
in conjunction with Castlereagh, that France escaped the dis-
memberment for which the German powers clamoured, and which
was advocated for a while by the majority of the British cabinet.
Wellington realized the necessity, in the interests not only of
France but of Europe, of maintaining the prestige of the restored
monarchy, which such a dismemberment would have irretrievably
damaged. In the same spirit he carried out the trust imposed
upon him by the allies when they placed him in command of the
international army by which France was to be occupied, under
the terms of the second peace of Paris, for five years. By the
terms of his commission he was empowered to act, in case of
emergency, without waiting for orders; he was, moreover, to be
kept informed by the French cabinet of the whole course of
business. If he had no sympathy with revolutionary disturbers
WELLINGTON
of the peace, he had even less with the fatuous extravagances of
the comte d'Artois and his reactionary entourage, and his im-
mense powerful influence was thrown into the scale of the
moderate constitutional policy of which Richelieu and Decazes
were the most conspicuous exponents. Besides the complex ad-
ministrative duties connected with the army of occupation his
work included the reconstruction of the military frontier of the
Netherlands, and the conduct of the financial negotiations with
Messrs. Baring, by which the French Government was able to
pay off the indemnities due from it, and thus render it possible for
the powers to reduce the occupation from five years to three.
The events of the next few months considerably modified his
opinions in this matter. The new chambers proved their trust-
worthy quality by passing the budget, and the army of occupa-
tion was reduced by 30,000 men. Wellington now pressed for the
total evacuation of France, pointing out that popular irritation
had grown to such a pitch that, if «the occupation were to be
prolonged, he must concentrate the army between the Scheldt
and the Meuse, as the forces, stretched in a thin line across France,
were no longer safe in the event of a popular rising. At the
congress at Aix-la-Chapelle in the autumn of 1818, which settled
the question, it was owing to his common-sense criticism that the
proposal of Prussia, supported by the emperor Alexander and
Metternich, to establish an "army of observation" at Brussels,
was nipped in the bud. The definitive financial settlement be-
tween France and the allies was left entirely to him.
On Wellington's first entry into Paris he had been received
with popular enthusiasm, but he had soon become intensely
unpopular. He was held responsible not only for the occupation
itself, but for every untoward incident to which it gave rise; even
Bliicher's attempt to blow up the Pont de Jena, which he had
prevented, was laid to his charge. His characteristically British
temperament was wholly unsympathetic to the French, whose
sensibility was irritated by his cold and slightly contemptuous
justice. Two attempts were made to assassinate him. His work
in Paris, however, was now finished, and on Oct. 30 he took leave
of the international troops under his command. On Oct. 23, while
still at Aix, he had received an offer from Lord Liverpool of the
office of master-general of the ordnance, with a seat in the cabinet.
He accepted, though with some -reluctance.
He organized the military forces held in case of a Radical rising.
It was his influence with George IV. that led to the readmittance
of Canning to the cabinet after the affair of the royal divorce had
been settled. It was only in 1822, however, that the tragic death
of his friend Londonderry (Castlereagh) brought him once more
into international prominence. Londonderry had been on the eve
of starting for the conference at Vienna — later adjourned to
Verona — and the instructions which he had drawn up for his own
guidance were handed over by Canning, the new foreign secretary,
to Wellington, whose official part at the congress is outlined else-
where. (See VERONA, CONGRESS OF.) Unofficially, he pointed out
to the French plenipotentiaries, arguing from Napoleon's ex-
perience, the extreme danger of an invasion of Spain, but at the
same time explained, for the benefit of the duke of Angouleme,
the best way to conduct a campaign in the Peninsula.
Wellington disliked Canning's aggressive attitude towards the
autocratic powers, and viewed with some apprehension his deter-
mination to break with the European concert. He realized, how-
ever, that in the matter of Spain and the Spanish colonies the
British Government had no choice, and in this question he was
in complete harmony with Canning. This was also at first the
case 5n respect to the policy to be pursued in the Eastern Question
raised by the war of Greek independence. Both Canning and
Wellington were anxious to preserve the integrity of Turkey, and
therefore to prevent any isolated intervention of Russia; and
Wellington seemed to Canning the most suitable instrument for
the purpose of securing an arrangement between Great Britain
and Russia on the Greek question, through which it was hoped
to assure peace in the East. In Feb. 1826, accordingly, the duke
was sent to St. Petersburg (Leningrad), ostensibly to congratulate
the emperor Nicholas I. on his accession, but more especially —
to use Wellington's own words— "to induce the emperor of Russia
to put himself in our hands." In this object he signally failed. As
a diplomatist the "Iron Duke" — whom Nicholas, writing to his
brother Constantine, described as "old and broken (easse)" —
was no match for the "Iron Tsar." As for the Greeks, the emperor
said bluntly that he took no interest in ces messieurs, whom he
regarded as "rebels"; his own particular quarrel with Turkey was
the concern of Russia alone. Under stress of the imminence of
the peril, which Nicholas was at no pains to conceal, the duke
was driven from concession to concession, until at last the tsar,
having gained all he wanted, condescended to come to an arrange-
ment with Great Britain on the Greek question. On April 4 was
signed the Protocol of St. Petersburg, an instrument which — as
events were to prove — fettered the free initiative not of Russia,
but of Great Britain. (See TURKEY: History; GREECE: History.)
After the death of the duke of York on December 5, 1826, the
post of commander-in-chief was conferred upon Wellington. His
relations with Canning had, however, become increasingly strained,
and when, in consequence of Lord Liverpool's illness, Canning in
April 1827 was called to the head of the administration, the duke
refused to serve under him. The effect of his withdrawal was
momentous in its bearing upon Eastern affairs. Canning, freed
from Wellington's restraint, carried his intervention on behalf of
Greece a step further, and concluded the Treaty of London,
whereby France, England and Russia bound themselves to put an
end to the conflict in the East and to enforce the conditions of
the St. Petersburg protocol upon the belligerents. Against this
treaty Wellington protested, on the ground that it involved war.
The battle of Navarino followed.
Canning died on Aug. 8, 1827, and was succeeded as premier
by Lord Goderich. The duke was at once again offered the post
of commander-in-chief, which he accepted on Aug. 17. On the
fall of Lord Goderich's cabinet five months later Wellington be-
came prime minister (Jan. 9, 1828). He had declared*some time
before that it would be an act of madness for him to take this
post; but his sense of public duty led him to accept it when it
was pressed upon him by the king. His cabinet included at first
Huskisson, Palmerston and other followers of Canning. The
repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts having been carried in
the House of Commons in the session of 1828, Wellington, to the
great disappointment of Tories like Lord Eldon, recommended
the House of Lords not to offer further resistance, and the meas-
ure was accordingly carried through. In May Huskisson and
Palmerston voted against the Government in the East Retford
question; Huskisson resigned, and the other liberal members of
the ministry followed suit. It was now hoped by the so-called
Protestant party that Wellington, at the head of a more united
cabinet, would offer a steady resistance to Catholic emancipation.
Never were men more bitterly disappointed. The Clare election
and the progress of the Catholic Association convinced both
Wellington and Peel that the time had come when Catholic
emancipation must be granted; and, submitting when further
resistance would have led to civil war, the ministry itself brought
in at the beginning of the session of 1829 a bill for the relief of
the Catholics in the face of opposition from the king and from
Wellington's own supporters. Wellington, who had hitherto always
opposed Catholic emancipation, explained and justified his change
of front in simple and impressive language. He had, however, to
challenge the Earl of Winchelsea to a bloodless duel. No mischief
resulted from the encounter.
As soon as Catholic emancipation was carried, the demand for
parliamentary reform and extension of the franchise agitated
Great Britain from end to end. The duke was ill informed as to
the real spirit of the nation. He conceived the agitation for
reform to be a purely fictitious one, worked up by partisans and
men of disorder in their own interest. Wholly unaware of the
strength of the forces which he was provoking, the duke, at the
opening of the parliament which met after the death of George
IV., declared against any parliamentary reform whatever. This
declaration led to the immediate fall of his Government. Lord
Grey, the chief of the new ministry, brought in the Reform bill,
which was resisted by Wellington as long as anything was to be
gained by resistance. When the creation of new peers was known
502
WELLINGTON— WELLS
to be imminent, however, Wellington was among those who
counselled the abandonment of a hopeless struggle. His opposition
to reform made him for a while unpopular. He was hooted by the
mob on the anniversary of Waterloo, and considered it necessary
to protect the windows of Apsley House with iron shutters.
For the next two years the duke was in opposition. On the
removal of Lord Althorp to the House of Lords in 1834, William
IV. unexpectedly dismissed the Whig ministry and requested
Wellington to form a cabinet. The duke, however, recommended
that Peel should be at the head of the Government, and served
under him, during the few months that his ministry lasted, as
foreign secretary. On Peel's later return to power in 1841 Welling-
ton was again in the cabinet, but without departmental office be-
yond that of commander-in-chief. He supported Peel in his Corn-
Law legislation, and throughout all this later period of his life,
whether in office or in opposition, gained the admiration of dis-
cerning men, and excited the wonder of zealots, by his habitual
subordination of party spirit and party connection to whatever
appeared to him the real interest of the nation. On Peel's defeat
in 1846 the duke retired from active public life. He was now
nearly eighty. His organization of the military force in London
against the Chartists in April 1848, and his letter to Sir John
Burgoyne on the defences of the country, proved that the old man
had still something of his youth about him. But the general char-
acter of Wellington's last years was rather that of the old age of
a great man idealized. To the unbroken splendours of his military
career, to his honourable and conscientious labours as a parlia-
mentary statesman, life unusually prolonged added an evening of
impressive beauty and calm. The passions excited during the
stormy epoch of the Reform Bill had long passed away. Death
came to him at last in its gentlest form. He passed away on Sept.
14, 1852, and was buried under the dome of St. Paul's.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Wellington Despatches, edited by Gurwood;
Supplementary Despatches; and Wellington Despatches, Neiv Series,
edited by the second duke of Wellington, Unlike Napoleon's despatches
and correspondence, everything from Wellington's pen is absolutely
trustworthy: not a word is written for effect, and no fact is mis-
represented. Almost all the political memoirs of the period 1830-50
contain more or less about Wellington in his later life. Those of Greville
and Croker have perhaps most of interest. A good deal of information,
from the unpublished Russian archives, is given in F. F. de Martens'
Recueil des trait h conflns Par la Rustic. See also Sir Herbert Maxwell,
Life of Wellington (2 vols., IQOO) ; J. W. Fortescue, Wellington (1925) ;
and the literature of the Peninsular War (q.v.), Waterloo Campaign
WELLINGTON, a market town in the Wellington parlia-
mentary division of Somersetshire, England, at the foot of the
Blackdown hills, and near the river Tone, 151 m. W. by S. of
London by the G.W. railway. Pop. of urban district (1921),
7,212. The 15th-century church of St. John has a fine Perpen-
dicular tower and chancel; while the clerestoried nave is Early
English. A tower, which stands on the highest peak of the Black-
downs, 2\ m. S., was erected in honour of the duke of Wellington.
WELLINGTON, the capital of New Zealand, the scat of
government, and of a bishop. The governor-general also has his
permanent residence here. Pop. (1927) 126,750. The city lies
on the south-western shore of the North Island, on the inner shore
of Port Nicholson, the site affording a magnificent deep harbour
walled in by abrupt hills. The original flat shore has been reclaimed
for a considerable distance and provides the site for the chief busi-
ness part of the city, in which there are many large and imposing
structures. The residential suburbs extend over the surrounding
hills and terraces, and out to the seaside bays, also across the
harbour to Day's Bay. In recent years the Hutt Valley has been
extensively converted to this use. Two main railway lines leave
the town, one to Auckland and the other to Napier. Reclamation
operations to provide a site for a modern railway station for both
railway systems are well advanced. The principal public buildings
are governmental; the Houses of Parliament (in brick and New
Zealand marble) are partially completed; the town hall is an im-
posing structure founded by King George V. (as duke of York)
in 1901 ; the Victoria University College is a red brick edifice, and
there are fine educational institutions. The national museum is
established here. Several public parks and recreation grounds
adorn the city. Wellington has ample electric tram and motor
services, while its electric supply is from the Mangahao hydro-
electrical head works (Government) near Shannon, 80 miles north.
As a chief port Wellington vies with Auckland. The city was
founded in 1840, being the first settlement of New Zealand
colonists. The capital was transferred from Auckland in 1865.
WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (i798?-iS79), English
poet, was born in London, probably in the year 1798. He was
educated at Cowden Clarke's school at Edmonton, with Tom
Keats, the younger brother of the poet, and with K. II. Home.
He met John Keats, but later quarrelled with him.
In 1822 he published Stories after Nature, and in 1823, under
the pseudonym of H. L. Howard, Joseph and his Brethren. For
the next three years Wells saw Hazlitt, as he said, "every night,"
but in 1827 the two men were estranged. WTells was now prac-
tising as a solicitor in London, but he went to live in the country,
first in South Wales and thpn at Broxbourne, Herts, on account
of his health. In 1840 he left England for good. He settled at
Quimper, in Brittany, where he lived for some years. A story
called Ctaribel appeared in 1845, and one or two slight sketches
later, but several tragedies and a great deal of miscellaneous verse
belonging to these years are lost. Wells stated in a letter to Home
(November 1877) that he had composed eight or ten volumes
of poetry during his life, but that, having in vain attempted to
find a publisher for any of them, he burned the whole mass
of mss. at his wife's death in 1874. The only work he had re-
tained was a revised form of Joseph and his Brethren, which
was praised in 1838 by Wade, and again, with great warmth, by
Hornc, in his New Spirit of the Age, in 1844. The drama was
then once more forgotten, until in 1863 it was read and ve-
hemently praised by D. G. Rossetti. The tide turned at last;
Joseph and his Brethren became a kind of shibboleth — a rite of
initiation into the true poetic culture — but still the world at large
remained indifferent. Swinburne wrote an eloquent study of it
in the Fortnightly Review in 1875, and the drama itself was re-
printed in 1876. Between 1876 and 1878 Wells added various
scenes, which are in the possession of Mr. Buxton Forman, who
published one of them in 1895. After leaving Quimper, Wells
went to reside at Marseilles, where he held a professorial chair.
He died on Feb. 17, 1879.
The famous Joseph and his Brethren, concerning which criti-
cism has recovered its self-possession, is an overgrown specimen
of the pseudo-Jacobean drama in verse which was popular in
ultra-poetical circles between 1820 and 1830. Its merits are those
of rich versification, a rather florid and voluble eloquence and a
subtle trick of reserve, akin to that displayed by Webster and
Cyril Tourneur in moments of impassioned dialogue.
In 1909 a reprint was published of Joseph and his Brethren, with
Swinburne's essay, and reminiscences by T. Watts-Dunton.
WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828-1898), American econo-
mist, was born in Springfield, Mass., on June 17, 1828. He gradu-
ated at Williams college in 1847 and at the Lawrence Scientific
school, becoming assistant professor, in 1851. In 1850-65 he
published with George Bliss an Annual of Scientific Discovery.
His essay on the national debt, Our Burden and Our Strength
(1864), secured him the appointment in 1865 as chairman of the
national revenue commission, which laid the basis of scientific
taxation in the United States. In 1866-70 he was special commis-
sioner of revenue and published important annual reports; during
these years he became an advocate of free trade. The creation of
a Federal bureau of statistics in the department of the Treasury
was largely due to his influence. In 1871 he was chairman of the
New York State Commission on local taxation. He did good work
in the reorganization of the Erie and the Alabama and Chattanooga
railroads and on the board of arbitration for railroads. In 1877
he was president of the American Social Science Association. He
died in Norwich, Conn., on Nov. 5, 1898. He edited many scien-
tific text-books, and wrote Robinson Crusoe's Money (1876),
Our Merchant Marine (1882), A Primer of Tariff Reform (1884),
Practical Economics (1885), Recent Economic Changes (1889),
The Relation of the Tariff to Wages (1888) and The Theory and
Practice of Taxation (1900), edited by W, C. Ford.
WELLS
5°3
See the tribute by W. C. Ford in Harper's Weekly (vol. xlii., Nov.
19, 1898) and one in the Journal of Political Economy (vol. vii.,
Dec. 1898).
WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866- ), English
novelist, sociologist, historian and Utopian, was born at Bromley,
Kent, on Sept. 21, 1866. His father, Joseph Wells, was a profes-
sional cricketer; the young Wells had acquaintance with those
straits, compromises and vicissitudes of the Victorian "lower mid-
dle class," which he was afterwards to describe, in several of his
most famous novels, with such poignant sympathy and rich
humour. Grants and scholarships took him to the Royal College
of Science, at South Kensington; and in 1888 he graduated, with
first-class honours, as B.Sc. of London University. He taught
science for some years, as schoolmaster and private coach; but in
1893 turned to journalism, and in 1895 published his first book,
Select Conversations with an Uncle ^ and began his astonishing
career as a novelist with the short but vivid and powerful romance,
The Time Machine. At this stage, Mr. Wells was one of the
brilliant group known to the 'nineties as "Henley's young men."
But already he had adopted his own line. He was to clothe scien-
tific speculation in the form of fiction. The Wonderful Visit and
The Stolen Bacillus and Other Stories appeared and in 1896 fol-
lowed the grim Island of Doctor Moreau, and The Wheels of
Chance. In this latter novel, Mr. Wells treats the romantic aspira-
tions of the awkward and the shabby; and that strain was, later,
developed more fully in Love and Mr. Lewisham, Kipps and The
History of Mr. Polly. In 1897 came The Plattner Story, a collec-
tion of talcs, and The Invisible Man — another scientific romance.
In The War of the Worlds (1898) and When the Sleeper Wakes
(1899) (subsequently revised, and rc-publishcd under the title The
Sleeper Awakes, 'in 1911), there is again the double interest. Mr.
Wells set himself to ask, not merely what might be, but what
ought to be: and the enthusiasm of the reformer was manifested.
Tales of Space and Time, a collection of short stories, appeared in
1899; and Love and Mr. Lewis ham in 1900. In Anticipations , Mr.
Wells presented his prophecies, as solid essays in constructive
sociology. More essays followed in Mankind in the Making
(1903). To the same period belong The First Men in the Moon
(1901), The Sea Lady (1902), and Twelve Stories and a Dream
(1903). The Food of the Gods (1904) is again scientific-sociologic
romance: in A Modern Utopia (1905) the thought was summed up.
The author was at this time preoccupied with the idea of an order
of "Samurai," self-chosen and self-dedicated aristocrats, in some
degree comparable with the Guardians in Plato's Republic. In this
same year, 1905, came Kipps: the Story of a Simple Soul, a
straightforward novel of contemporary life, which is still by
many considered its author's masterpiece. 1906 saw In the Days
of the Comet and The Future in America, as well as Mr. Wells 's
first incursion into active politics. He had been a member of the
Fabian Society since 1903, but in 1906 came forward with
criticisms of its methods. With these activities are connected
This Misery of Boots (1907), and Socialism and Marriage (1908)
— both Fabian tracts. In New Worlds for Old (1908) and First
and Last Things (revised, 1917) Mr. Wells explained his Socialism.
The War in the Air (1908) was a further scientific romance.
Tono-Bungay (1909) inaugurated that series of novels in which
Mr. Wells dealt with contemporary history. Ann Veronica, also
published in 1909, dealt with the revolt of "emancipated" young
women; and The History of Mr. Polly (1910), is a reversion to
the simple, jolly, pathetic type of Kipps. In the series inaugurated
by Tono-Bungay may be placed The New Machiavelli (1911),
Marriage (igi'2), The Passionate Friends (1913), The Wife of Sir
Isaac Harman (1914) and The Research Magnificent (1915). In
1914 appeared An Englishman Looks at the World and The World
Set Free. Bcalby (1915) seems a mere holiday from serious
labours, and so does the satirical Boon (1915). Mr. Wells has
written on the World War. In Mr. Drilling Sees it Through
(1916), he gave a picture of the "home-front." The titles of What
is Coming? (1916) and In the Fourth Year (1918) speak for
themselves; 1917 saw another philosophical work, God the Invis~
Me King, and in the same year the author attempted to embody
his philosophical ideas in fiction, with The Soul of a Bishop. In
Joan and Peter (1918), three familiar strands are interwoven: his-
tory of a nation at war, destructive criticism of contemporary so-
cial method and constructive educational ideals. Various commen-
taries on post-war trends were: e.g., Russia in the Shadows (1920),
The Salvaging* of Civilisation (1921), Washington and the Hope of
Peace (1922). Obviously, the most important post-war work by
Mr. Wells is The Outline of History (1920). He has also written a
much briefer work of the same scope — A Short History of the
World (1922). In the general elections of 1922 and 1923 he stood
unsuccessfully as Labour candidate for the University of London.
The Undying Fire (1919), Men Like Gods (1923), and The
Dream (1924), are propagandist discussion; Christina Alberta's
Father (1925), is an indictment of the Lunacy Laws; Meanwhile
(1927), in fiction form, gives an account of the General Strike;
and Mr. Blcttsworthy on Rampole Island (1928) uses the vagaries
of abnormal psychology, and the familiar Wellsian creation of
strange tribes and monsters, to produce a satire on the civilisations
that lead to war. We next have the intimate and sensitive "Intro-
duction" to a collection of stories and poems by Catherine Wells
who died in 1927. The Book of Catherine Wells was published in
1928. Mr. Wells himself regards The Open Conspiracy (1928) as
stating "the essential ideas of my life, the perspective of my
world." Of William Clissold, which attempted a contemporary
instead of an age-long conspectus, it was urged that the author con-
fused fact with fiction in an illegitimate way, and expressed as his
characters' opinions what were really his own.
Mr. Wells's qualities have their defects: rapidity of judgment
implies impatience towards slow democratic developments, his
strength of personal conviction entails impatience towards the
convictions of others. But he has exercised an unquestionable
influence upon his generation. (G. Go.)
WELLS, HORACE (1815-1848), 'American dental surgeon,
was born at Hartford, Vt., Jan. 21, 1815. He studied dentistry in
Boston, 1834, and began practice in Hartford, Conn. In 1840 he
first expressed the idea that teeth might be extracted painlessly
by the application of nitrous oxide gas. He tested the efficacy of
the gas in this operation on his own person in 1844 and afterwards
frequently used it in his practice. He was long thought to have
been the first to use an anaesthetic in any operation, and, though
it is now known that he was preceded by Dr. Crawford Long
(q.v.), he deserves the credit of an independent discovery, which
through him was first brought to the world's attention. He died in
New York city Jan. 24, 1848.
WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, IST BART (1818-
1897), English surgeon, was born at St. Albans on Feb. 3, 1818.
He was a member of Council of the Royal College of Surgeons,
Hunterian professor of surgery and pathology (1878), president
(1882) and Hunterian orator (1883). In J8S3 he was made a
baronet. He died on Jan. 31, 1897. Sir Thomas is famed for his
successful and safe revival of the operation of ovariotomy, the
principles of the operation now being applied to the other abdom-
inal viscera. His chief writings are Diseases of the Ovaries (1865-
1872), Notebook for Cases of Ovarian and other Abdominal
Tumors (1865) and On Ovarian and Uterine Tumors (1882).
WELLS [Theorodunum, Fonticuli, Tidington, Welliae, Welle],
a city of Somerset, England. Pop. (1921) 4,369. It lies below the
Mendip Hills and derived its name from St. Andrew's Wells, which
during the middle ages were thought to have curative properties.
There was a Roman settlement on the present site. During Saxon
times Wells was one of the most important towns of Wessex.
King Ine founded a religious house here in 704. In 905 Wells was
made the seat of a bishopric by Edward the Elder. About the
year 1091-1092 Bishop John de Villula removed the see to Bath.
After struggles between the secular clergy of Wells and the regu-
lars of Bath, it was finally arranged in 1 139 that the bishop should
take the title of "bishop of Bath and Wells," and should in future
be elected by representatives of the monks of Bath and of the
canons of Wells who were secular canons of St. Augustine. Wells
became a borough owned by the bishops before 1160, and in that
year Bishop Robert granted the first charter. Wells was repre-
sented in parliament from 1295 to 1868.
504 WELLSTON— WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
The beautiful cathedral was executed principally by Bishops
Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn (1171-1191), Savaricus (1192-1205) and
Jocelyn (1206-1242). The western part of the nave, with the
beautiful series of statues on the facade, is attributed to Bishop
Jocelyn. With him was associated a famous architect in Elias
de Derham, who was his steward in 1236, and died in 1245. The
upper half of the two western towers has never been built. The
central tower, 160 ft. high, was built early in the i4th century;
the beautiful octagonal chapter-house on the north side, and the
lady chapel at the extreme east, were the next important additions
in the same century. The whole church is covered with stone
groining of various dates, from the Early English of the choir to
the fan vaulting of the central tower. Its plan consists of a nave
(161 ft. in length and 82 in breadth) and aisles, with two short
transepts, each with a western aisle and two eastern chapels. The
choir and its aisles are of unusual length (103 ft,), and behind
the high altar arc two smaller transepts, beyond which is the very
rich Decorated lady chapel, with an eastern semi-octagonal apse.
On the north of the choir is the octagonal chapter-house, the
vaulting of which springs from a slender central shaft. The
cloister, 160 by 150 ft., extends along the whole southern wall of
the nave. The extreme length of the church from east to west is
383 ft. The oak stalls and bishop's throne in the choir are
magnificent examples of 15th-century woodwork.
On the south side of the cathedral stands the bishop's palace, a
moated building, originally built in the form of a quadrangle by
Bishop Jocelyn, and surrounded by a lofty circuit wall. The hall
and chapel are beautiful structures, mostly of the i4th century.
Fine remains of the vicars' college, dating from the i5th cen-
tury, and other residences of the clergy stand within and near the
cathedral close ; some of these are beautiful examples of mediaeval
domestic architecture.
The church of St. Cuthbert has a fine tower with spire at the
west end. It was originally an Early English cruciform building,
but was much altered during the Perpendicular period.
Fairs were granted before 1 160. But Wells is now ecclesiastical.
The theological college is well known. The diocese covers all
Somerset except Bedminster.
WELLSTON, a city of Ohio, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 6,687 (98%
native white). Coal and iron are mined extensively, and there are
furnaces, foundries and machine shops. To the north is Lake Alma
park. Wellston, founded in 1871 by Harvey Wells, was chartered
in 1876.
WELLSVILLE, a city of Ohio, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 8,849
(84% native white). The region is rich in clay, coal, oil and gas,
and the manufactures include yellow and white pottery, sewer pipe,
terra cotta, sheet iron, iron castings and machinery. In 1795
James Clark, of Washington county, Pa., bought a tract of 304
acres here, transferring it to his son-in-law, William Wells, after
whom the town was named. It was chartered as a city in 1890.
WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Welsh is
the Celtic language of Wales. Old Welsh (800-1100), is known to
us almost entirely by means of isolated words or glosses. The
term "cymro" or "fellow-countryman" dates from the 7th cen-
tury. It has been therefore impossible to record the phonetic
system or the grammatical structure of the oldest forms in any
detail. The Middle Welsh period (1100-1500) is better known
through a greater supply of valuable material. The symbol // to
denote a voiceless ( appears in middle Welsh. But rh (voiceless
r) dd ( = Eng. /// in "thou") and f = v become regular in the
modern period. As compared with Old Irish the inflectional
system has become simple. There are only faint traces of case
forms, the dual and the neuter gender. The infixation of pro-
nominal objects, between the verbal participle and the verb
itself continues in use to the present day. Four dialectical groups
are known, two Northern — (Powys and Gwynedd), spoken in
Anglesea, Carmarthen and Merioneth, and two Southern, (Dyfed
and Gwent), spoken in Cardigan, Carnarvon and Glamorgan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — John E. Southall, Wales and Her Language (1893) ;
The Welsh Language Census of 1901 (1904, with a linguistic map of
Wales). Sir John Rhys The Welsh People, 4th Edn. (1906), Chap.
XII. (Language and Literature) ; J. Morris Jones, A Welsh Grammar
Historical and Comparative Part I. (1913) with additions and correc-
tions by J. Loth, Rev. Celt. XXXVI. et XXXVII. on the dialects;
Transactions of the Guild of Graduates of the University of Wales
(Cardiff) ; 0. H. Fynes-Clinton, The Welsh Vocabulary of the Bangor
District (1913), and Meredith Morris, A Glossary of the Demetian
Dialect (Tonypandy, 1910).
WELSH LITERATURE
The earliest literature of the Cymry is preserved in about half
a dozen mss., written, with one exception, after the close of the
1 2th century. The most important of these, the so-called Four
Ancient Books of Wales1, are, anthologies or collections of pieces
both traditional and contemporary.
Up to the end of the 6th century, before Northumbrian and
Mercian aggression had confined the Welsh nation to its present
boundaries, the whole of the district west of a line drawn roughly
from the Firth of Forth to the mouth of the Exe was still Celtic
territory, and, with the exception of certain districts to be de-
scribed later, spoke the British tongue, from which Welsh has de-
veloped, just as Italian has" developed from Latin.
Traditional Literature, 550-1150. — It is now generally
agreed that up to the 7th century the dominant language in Gwyn-
edd and Dyved (the north-western and south-western corners of
Wrales) was Irish. These Irish districts were the homes of the
most important portion of the early prose literature, which, in all
its variety, is known as the Mabino&on. Still stronger proof
of the Goedelic origin of the early romances is to be found in the
correspondence between the characters and incidents of the Mab-
inogion and those of the tales of Ireland, more particularly of the
earlier cycle known as the Ultonian.
The northern portion of this ancient Wales, comprising roughly
the districts included between the Wirral peninsula and the Clyde
valley, was called in Welsh Y Gogledd, or the North. In many
respects the literature emanating from this region is the best
authenticated of all the cycles, because the poets of this region
describe themselves and their heroes as Gwyr y Gogledd, "the
men of the North." This poetry represents the original Celtic
tradition in literature, and therefore unites Welsh literature to
the indigenous literature of all Aryan nations. The names of two
poets are connected with this cycle, Taliesin and Aneirin, and it
is unified into one cycle by the fact that we have here a school
of poetry based on a genuine and historical tradition; that is to
say, all the poems contained in it are concerned with historical
heroes who actually lived in Y Gogledd about the 6th century,
and not with the myths of the early gods for which we must
look to the Mabinogion in the Western Cycle. This manner of
song persisted in Wales in its greatest vigour under the princes
of Gwynedd, whose court was at Aberffraw in Anglesey, and
afterwards, after the loss of Welsh independence in 1282, in the
houses of the ttchelwyr, the aristocracy. It underwent a great
quickening under the influence of France in the I4th century
and, after many vicissitudes, still flourishes in our day in what
is known as the Mcsurau Caethion — "Un-free Metres." Its
preservation, as we shall presently see, was mostly due to Gronwy
Owen (1723-69) in the i8th century, and to Sir John Morris-
Jones in our own day. Thus have the primitive modes of the
Aryan heroic poetry descended to us in the 2oth century in a
manner which is probably unparalleled in any other country.
The eastern and central portion of ancient Wales comprised
the country of the ancient Ordovices. This corner of Wales,
which came afterwards to be called Powys, or the "Settlement,"
had as its chief town the ancient Pengwern, not far from the
modern Shrewsbury. It is probable that Powys had been pro-
foundly affected by Roman influences, which are reflected in its
characteristic literature. The product of this district was the
early englyn, a form of epigrammatic verse unknown in the heroic
poetry of the North, and which, if the present writer, following
Sir John Rhys, is right2, was developed directly from the Latin
*They are The Book of Aneirint c. 1250, The Black Book of
Carmarthen, c. 1170-1230, The Book of Taliessint c. 1275, and The
Red Book of Hergest, c. 1375-1425- All four have been copied
and printed by Dr. Gwenogvryn Evans.
2Sir John Morris-Jones in his Cerdd Dafod, maintains that the
hexameter and the englyn are independent developments of the same
Aryan form.
WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
505
elegiac couplet, as recorded on British tombstones. These early
englynion, some of which have been preserved in the oldest ms.
of Welsh poetry (the Juvencus ms. at Cambridge), were assigned
by tradition to Llywarch Hen, and it is probable that the bulk
of them, in their original form, is the work of a poet of that name
flourishing in the 6th or yth century. Whether they have any
direct connection with the Latin hexameter or not, they have
marked characteristics which separate them from the more primi-
tive poetry of Y Gogledd. This song of the East is, compara-
tively speaking, sophisticated and literary; it is elegiac and re-
flective in tone, and is almost exclusively a lament for dead
friends or the glory that is no more. In form, it is marked with
great reserve and bleakness.
That tract of Celtic territory which is roughly included in the
modern counties of Cornwall and Devon, the home of the ancient
Dumnonii, seems to have been left alone by the Romans. By the
triumph of the West Saxons at tl\e battle of Deorham in 577,
the Britons of this district were, with their kinsmen of Somerset
and Gloucester, completely cut off from the rest of Wales. In
the extreme west of their land, however, i.e., in Cornwall, they
still spoke the British tongue well into the i8th century, though
they made no direct contribution to Welsh literature. But they
had a share in the material of literature, which, in its effect upon
the world, is of greater importance than all the rest; for to
them must be given the credit of cradling the legend of Arthur.
The earliest Welsh literature knows little or nothing of Arthur.
The Northern Cycle.— In the additions to the work of the
historian Nennius, dating from about the gth century, we are
told that in the time of Ida son of Eobba (reigned A.D. 549-559),
five poets sang in the British tongue, Talhaearn Father of Song,
Neirin, Talicssin, Bluchbard and Cian. Of the first and the last
two we know nothing, but a large amount of poetry purporting
to be the work of Neirin, or as he is generally known Aneirin,
and of Talicssin has been preserved. Much controversy has raged
around these names, but we here accept the conclusions of Sir
John Morris-Jones, that a large portion of the verse assigned to
Aneirin and Talicssin was actually sung in the 6th century. Aneirin
is the reputed author of the Gododdin, but it is clear that what
we possess to-day is a much later version of the original poem
with additions by later hands. The Gododdin belongs to the Celtic
and Aryan Heroic Age, which had probably come to an end by
the close of the 6th century. But imitations of the manner and
substance of the Heroic Poetry persisted for almost 800 years,
that is to say, throughout the whole period of those bards known
as the Gogynfeirdd, or the post-primitive bards. All the heroic
poetry of the Aryan nations was probably sung or recited when
the heroes whom it celebrated were still in the flesh, and it is
likely that the original poet of the Gododdin described scenes
which he had himself witnessed and heroes with whom he had
caroused in the mead-hall. Aneirin's poem describes the war-
riors, mostly men of the Gododdin, who went to battle at Catraeth
against the Angles of Bernicia and Deira. We know from ancient
geographers that the Gododdin (Votadini) were a tribe in the
south-east of Scotland, and it is generally agreed that Catraeth
was situated at Catterick in Yorkshire. The Gododdin does not
describe the battle itself, but rather the heroes who went to it.
A note of melancholy underlies the whole of the poem, though
it is concerned with two events that are prominent in all heroic
poetry — the carousal ajid the fight. But what marks the Gododdin
as different from most heroic poems is that it tells of heroes who
fought and lost; its champions go singing to battle, but after
that, silence. Other heroes merrily drink the mead, and slay
their enemies in their great joy; here the heroes drink, and their
foes exult over the fallen drunkards.
The poetry of Taliessin is more varied, and somewhat more
primitive in character. Of the mixed collection attributed to him,
we may safely assume that most of the poems dealing with Urien
and his son Owein, lords of Rheged in the North, — the Uryence
and Yvain of Arthurian Romance — are genuine and contempo-
rary with the heroes whom they celebrate. Here we have no
flowers of rhetoric, none of the craftily worded hyperbole of
praise, which is the certain mark of later practitioners of the
bardic art of the Northern Cycle. The diction is simple.
In addition to the historical poems, there are some songs of
Taliessin that deal with the early myths of the Welsh, and it is
probable that these are by a later hand.
The Eastern Cycle* — The earliest poetry in this cycle is prob-
ably not much later than the genuine work of Aneirin and Tali-
cssin. It is written in stanzas of three or four lines called englyn
(pi. englynion), and is important as the probable channel by
which those outside influences travelled which quickened the con-
ventional court poetry of the North. The first examples, tradi-
tionally the work of Llywarch Hen, describe the desolation and
waste that followed in the train of the Mercians who had sacked
the court of Cynddylan at Pengwern. One very special charac-
teristic marks all this englyn poetry, — the poet is always in soli-
tude, and whether he meditates on the unhappy things of old or
the desolation of the present or on external nature, he treats all
his themes from the same point of view. Is the theme war? —
then the poet is the sole survivor of his lord's retinue and his own
family of gallant sons. Is it religion? — then he is an anchorite in
the wilderness, stilling the weary restlessness of his heart with the
sight of a bleak and unfriendly nature. He always stands in the
anghenedl, in the desolate no-man's land, and turns to the only
consolation which is left to him, now that he has no longer the
merry candle-lit mead-hall and the society of his fellows. He turns
to nature, not as Wordsworth did to seek a mystical union, but
objectively to find a new interest, and an analogy to his own bleak
condition. Thus was developed a new kind of verse which is di-
vided into well-marked stages, first the desolation of a ravaged
country side ; then the plaints of a lonely old age ; then the reflec-
tions of a hermit who describes, rather than interprets, the sights
and sounds of nature; then the longing of the lover who unifies
all beauty in the crucible of his own imagination; and finally, in
the poet-princes of the Gogynfeirdd period, we find a new ele-
ment, the love of country and one's own people, though the verse
is no longer in englyn form. This attitude towards nature per-
sisted throughout the whole history of Welsh poetry, and is
nowhere more deeply marked than in the Snowdon poets of the
1 9th century, leuan Glan Geirionydd and Glasynys. The earliest
of these englynion contained in the Juvencus ms., are simple, and
as yet contain no hint of a consciousness of external nature. Later
this kind of poetry degenerated into a conventional gnomic verse
which utilized well-known forms, as in The Hall of Cynddylan,
to introduce a proverb at the end of each stanza. Closely con-
nected with this poetical genre are the Verses of the Graves,
in which some unknown poet lets his fancy wander over the whole
of Wales, and describes the places where the warriors of old are
buried.
The Western Cycle. — In the extreme Western portions of
Wales (i.e., Anglesey with the opposite coast of Arvon, and the
peninsula of Lleyn which still bears its Irish name of "the land
of the Leinster men," and Dyved) the old Irish civilization died
hard. Here grew up the legends which were utilized by some one
to form the Mabinogion, that choicest flower of the Welsh genius.
It is likely, however, that the impulse which caused their final re-
duction to writing came from outside. It was when the Norman,
in the early part of the i2th, or even perhaps in the nth century,
began to reproduce in his own tongue the marvellous stories of
Britain, that Welshmen began to realize the value of their own
traditions. Welsh writers treated those traditions in many dif-
ferent ways, (i) They reduced to writing the cyvarwyddyd, the
spoken talc which formed the stock-in-trade of the lower orders •
of the wandering bards; this became what is called the Four
Branches, the Mabinogion proper, namely, Pwyll, Branwen, Mana-
wydan and Math. (2) They translated into Welsh the stories
which had already been put together in France from Welsh mate-
rial, and thus we have Peredur, the Lady of the Fountain, and
Geraint. These tales were not all treated alike ; to Peredur much
was added from independent Welsh sources, to The Lady of the
Fountain a little less, and to Geraint hardly any at all. (3) They
took an old Arthurian folk-tale of south-west Wales, added to it
material from other sources, much of it Irish in origin, and pro-
duced the charming jumble known as Culhwch and Olwen. (4)
506
WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
British tradition, as distinguished from the British-Irish mate-
rial found in the Mabinogion proper, had already supplied Geoff-
rey of Monmouth with the basis of his great work the Gcsta
Regum; some of this was now re-hashed and mixed with tradi-
tions not known to Geoffrey and became the two stories of the
Dream of Macsen and Lludd and Llevelys. (5) Some time after
1 1 60, when the Arthurian stories had been already disseminated
all over Europe, a purely "literary" cyvarwyddyd was composed,
an independent tale imagined for the first time by the author on
the model of other Arthurian romances, and this was named the
Dream of Rhonabwry.
The Mabinogion, dated about A.D. noo was by no means the
beginning of Welsh prose, but it was the first attempt to utilize
prose for purely artistic purposes. The Laws of the Hywel Dda
in the loth century, shows that Welsh prose had been for cen-
turies used as the vehicle for legal documents. The contrast be-
tween the Mabinogion with their directness, their restraint, their
disciplined selection, and the French Arthurian romances, with
their extreme sophistication is to be noted. Though the Mabino-
gion are a mass of irrelevances, though they would be laughed at
by a school-boy writing a story as a task, yet they are immortal.
The Gogynfeirdd, 1150-1350.— During the dark ages of
Welsh poetry, that is to say, between the 6th and the i2th cen-
turies, little poetry was produced, or at least preserved. It is true
that here and there in the "Four Ancient Books" are found poems
which belong to this period; they are for the most part religious,
composed probably not by the regular bards, but by the inmates
of the monastic institutions where the mss. were copied. Others,
again, such as the fragment, in the Black Book, of a lost Trystan
and Esyllt poem, lead us to suppose that we have preserved
for us only minute fragments of a large corpus of literature dealing
with such legends as underlie the Mabinogion and the romances.
With the consolidation of the principality of Gwynedd under
Gruffudd ap Cynan (1054-1137) and his descendants, a new
song suddenly appears in that province. It is as if a new hope had
informed the activities of the bards, and the first notes tell of
spring and renewed vigour. It is certain, however, that the poems
of the first bards of this period are the culmination of long ages
of literary activity of which there is now no record. Critics of the
last century tried to account for this sudden change by attributing
it to the influence of Ireland, seeing that Gruffudd ap Cynan of
Gwynedd was half an Irishman and had spent his youth in Ireland,
and that his contemporary Rhys ab Tewdwr, king of south Wales
(d. 1093), was thought to have been an exile in Ireland. There
are undoubted traces of Irish influence on the works of the bards,
and especially on music, but as far as poetry is concerned it can
be explained by the fact that Anglesey, where the court of
Gwynedd was situated, had always been the stronghold of the
Irish in Wales. The court poetry of the Gogynfeirdd was the
direct and inevitable development of the work of the primitive
poets (Cynfeirdd) of the Northern Cycle. It was in Gwynedd
that this ancient heritage found its home, and it is in Gwynedd
that the classical tradition flourishes to this day. Thus we may
say that modern poetry in the 'unfree metres' represents the un-
broken tradition of the Northern Cycle modified and augmented
by the contribution of Powys, the Eastern Cycle.
The Bardic System. — The organization and position of the
bards of this period in the social and political life of the coun-
try seem to be peculiar to the Celtic peoples. They were divided
into grades, the upper grade or Penccrdd ("chief of song") being
a high officer of the court, whose duty it was to sing the praises
of his lord and his family, and of God and the saints. He was
forbidden to sing of love and nature, and his field of song was
mapped out and prescribed. He was not only the bard of the
court, but was a kind of metropolitan of poetry for the whole
province; under him came the Bardd Tcnlu (the bard of the
king's guards) who did for the king's household what the Pencerdd
did for the king himself. He also was restricted as to subject, but
he might sing of love and nature, and such songs as would please
the ladies but be distasteful to the virile warrior kings. Last of
all came many kinds of Cerddorion (musicians) who might be
permitted ribaldry and satire, and who told the cyvarwyddyd or
tale which was eventually written as Mabinogion. They might
be conjurors and court entertainers, and even jesters, but they
were forbidden to use the metres or the subjects of the higher
orders. Across this classification, which is somewhat analogous to
a similar division in Ireland, cuts another, based on an entirely
different principle, — the grading of the bards according to degrees
of proficiency. This classification was educational, and lay at
the root of all learning in Wales. There is reason to believe that
these two classifications had widely different origins. The former
was probably inherent in the tribal system of the Celtic con-
querors of Wales; the latter was of religious origin, and grew out
of the druidic system. It was this latter classification which re-
mained in Wales after the loss of its independence; its essential
feature, the relation of disciple and teacher, has persisted almost
to our day. In the time of Henry IV. it led to the holding of an
eisteddfod, or session of the bards, to confer certificates of pro-
ficiency, and to prevent the lower orders from flooding the coun-
try and drifting into mere mendicancy. The modern "National
Eisteddfod" is a development of the end of last century, which
goes back to small eisteddfodau held by learned societies at the
end of the i8th century. It was at the end of the iSth century,
too, that the "Gorsedd of the Bards" was devised.
One of the natural results of a bardic system of this type was an
unparalleled conservatism in literature. Most of the i3th century
bards, presently to be discussed, use a conventional diction which
was consciously archaic, not only in its vocabulary, but even in its
grammar and idiom. It could not possibly be understood by any
but those classes whose education had included the study of
poetry; indeed it is doubtful whether the princes to whom this
poetry was addressed, and who spoke a language not widely dif-
ferent from our modern Welsh, could understand these Gogyn-
feirdd any better than we can to-day. This archaicism was one of
the means by which they produced that "exquisiteness," the aim
of all bardism, and non-Celtic critics often find it extremely hard
to appreciate an artistry the methods of which differ so widely
from those of their own.
Bardism often went, by families, and the first names of the
new period are those of Meilir, his son Gwalchmai, and his grand-
son Meilir ap Gwalchmai, who were attached to the court of
Gwynedd at Aberffraw. Gwalchmai (fl. 1150-90) has left on rec-
ord his Gorhoffedd or "Boasting," a spring-song typical of much
that was contemporary in Ireland. Unfortunately the text is ex-
tremely defective, and we can only pick out the meaning of the
poem here and there. In his Praise of Owein, he displays one char-
acteristic of all the Gogynfeirdd, description of water, whether
of river or sea. Nearly all the great poets of this period get their
finest effects when they picture the waves red with the blood of
their enemies. The traditional master of the archaic was Cynd-
dclw (fl. 1150-1200), the court bard of the prince of Powys.
The official bards of this period all used the same material and
used it in the same way. Song and its modes were prescribed for
them, and to go beyond the stated limits was to be un-bardic. In
the igth century, Islwyn in his greatest poem cried that the muse
should have "eternity for its path"; it was the cry of the great
revolt against the conventions that have often clogged all thought
in Welsh poetry. But then, the poetry of the bardic tradition was
not measured by the depth and extension of its thought, but by its
exquisiteness; its value was ornamental, and to be in a position to
judge Cynddelw and his contemporaries^ one must think of a
culture that sought not to interpret life but to adorn it. Now and
then would burst into song a prince of the royal house, who was
not of the order of the bards, but who sang because God had set
a song in his heart and on his lips. Two such princes, Owein
Cyfeiliog of Powys (d. 1197) and Hywel ab Owein of Gwynedd
(d. 1170), stand out in clear distinction from the contemporary
bards. Owein Cyfeiliog's most famous work is the Hirlas (The
Long Grey Drinking Horn), in which he describes his warriors
making merry over the mead after a victorious fight. Hywel ab
Owein, soldier, lover and patriot, was killed with his foster-
brothers fighting against his own kin at the battle of Pentraeth in
Anglesey in 1170. His departure from convention is even more
striking than that of Cyfeiliog; for the first time in Welsh litera-
WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
507
ture we get the love of country, its scenery, its people, and its
language, extolled as objects worthy of song. Hywel loved beauty,
in the modern sense; that is to say, he found that land and sea
and women and the Welsh speech spoken in cultured accents by
his lady, all awoke in him the emotion of awe and wonder, and
he unifies in his own experience all these beautiful things; they
depend one upon the other; they are not merely beautiful for
their own sakes, they are part of a universal beauty. He thus
strikes what seems to us, satiated with the bardic praises and
battle songs, a very "modern" note. The Gogynfeirdd alternate
throughout this period between marwiiad (praise of the dead)
and moliant (praise of the living) till the time when the English
conquest of Wales removed from Welsh life the occasion of both.
The period ends with the most famous of all the Welsh marwnadau
sung by Gruffudd ap yr Ynad Coch, after the death of Llywelyn
the last prince of Wales.
The Later Gogynfeirdd. — With the princes and their pag-
eantry, there passed away the older modes and conventions of
Welsh poetry. For the next 100 years, that is to say, from about.
1280 to 1380, a new kind of poetry held the field. The audience
that could once accept and understand the intricate and involved
awdl of the old period could no longer find the means to educate
themselves for the understanding of it. The old metres still re-
mained, but the language became simpler. The poetical conven-
tions which governed the old poetry having been thus in part re-
linquished, it was necessary to invent a new presentation of poetry,
which contained some element that could be regarded as a substi-
tute for them. The poets who sang in the years between the
English Conquest (1282) and Dafydd ap Gwilym seem either to
have returned to an earlier poetic fashion or to have been greatly
influenced by new ideas from Ireland. The probability is that
both suppositions are true, that is to say, that the poets of the
bardd tculu class, whose work has not been preserved, were
greatly influenced in the nth century by the poetry of Ireland,
but that this influence did not penetrate into the work of the
penceirddiaid until the loss of Welsh independence had made them
more directly dependent on what (to use an anachronism) might
be called middle-class opinion.
Whereas in the early period "exquisitcness" was sought in ar-
chaic precision and in the suggestion of older modes, the new poets
employed colour and form to an extent hitherto unknown in Welsh
poetry, and unparalleled in later times. Dress, jewels, armour,
are described in such a way as to convey to the mind of the mod-
ern reader exactly the same suggestion as he gets from the old
Irish jewels, such as the Tara brooch. In the same way a lady's
hair and cheeks, her form and gestures, even her silences are amply
and precisely described in poetic words. The famous names
in this period arc those of Gruffudd ap Maredudd, Gruffudd
ap Davydd, and Casnodyn, who all flourished in the first half of
the i 4th century.
The Golden Age of the Cywydd, 1350-1450. — The conquest
of Wales by Edward I. did not put an end to the poetry associated
with the royal courts of Gwyncdd and Powys. Its effect was to
transfer its patronage from the princes to the smaller land-owners,
and to diminish the prestige which it enjoyed in Wales. Hence-
forth there was to be no legal recognition of the pencerdd and
his particular department of song at the expense of the bardd
teulu\ all the political changes in Wales served to diminish the
prestige of the bards who had been associated with the native
princes, and to give an opportunity to the lower orders whose work
had not hitherto been regarded as meriting preservation by the
coypists. Indeed, in south Wales, where the Normans had been
established for a whole century before the conquest of Gwyncdd
in 1282, the old song had probably died out, and the lower orders
in the South had thus had an earlier opportunity of becoming
vocal. While Gruffudd ap Maredudd and Casnodyn in Gwynedd
were still, though in a simpler form, following the old conventions
of the gwawd, the pencerdd's song, the unknown bards of south
Wales were developing an entirely new literature of which we have
no trace in the mss. before the work of Davydd ap Gwilym, who
like his contemporary Chaucer in England, may be regarded, in
his own land, as the father of modern poetry.
Davydd ap Gwilym. — Davydd ap Gwilym was probably born
about 1320. His family are associated with Dyvcd, but he seems
to have spent most of his time at the home of his patron Ivor
Hael in Morgannwg.
In the first of his periods he wrote according to two entirely
distinct traditions. His awdlau to his patrons, his uncle Llywelyn
and Ivor Hael, follow the strictest conventions of the later Gogyn-
feirdd; he sang these as a penderdd. At the same time, he pro-
duced a large body of poetry in what must be regarded as the
tradition of the bardd tculu. These are cywyddau and trac-thodlau.
The cywyddau are in couplets of seven syllables, one rhyme being
accented and the other unaccented; in this first period they are
not regularly in cynghanedd (alliteration) as the rules of the
pencerdd' s song demanded. His other form, the tract kodl, is also
in couplets of seven syllables, but both rhymes are unaccented and
there is no cynghancdd at all. From the fact that his cywyddau
are the earliest known, and that his name was always associated
with the cywydd by his contemporaries, he has come to be re-
garded as the inventor of the cywydd. There is, however, ample
reason to suppose that Davydd's wrork was only the culmination
of a long process of development among the bcirdd teulu in south
Wales who, both politically and socially, had been for a century
cut off from the main tradition of Welsh poetry.
His important advance was in diction. Up to this time, poetry
was written in a conventional and deliberately archaic language.
Davydd ap Gwilym, in his cywyddau, discarded altogether the
old archaisms, and wrote in the ordinary language of the educated
Welshmen of his own time. His successors followed his lead, and
the old diction was discarded for ever. He thus established the
standards of modern Welsh.
The substance also of his poetry was new. Up to his time, the
bards were confined by regulation to a few well-defined sub-
jects, and the poetic art had now degenerated into a kind of
jugglery with cliches. Davydd however had listened to the songs
which were then delighting the ordinary educated man in Europe,
and he reproduced them in his cywyddau. Much has of late been
written about his sources, and the question is not yet settled. But
we can trace the chief influences on his work, namely the song
of the clerici vagantes, the wandering minstrels, and of the trou-
vcres of France. His own county Glamorgan had a bilingual aris-
tocracy speaking both Welsh and French, and was thus especially
open to outside influence. The conventional divisions into which
the poetry of the troubadours and trouveres is divided, aubade,
serenade, tensonj pastourelle, and so on, are faithfully and mi-
nutely reproduced in his work. Besides this, a large part of his
poetry is derived from the popular songs of wandering minstrels
in Latin, French, and probably in English; in other words, what-
ever had become the theme of song in the Europe of the i^th
century was introduced by Davydd into his cywydd. He has,
without much discrimination, been hailed as the greatest of love
poets, but this is certainly to misunderstand his work. Of love
poetry, as such, he has very little; love is a peg on which he hangs
his exquisite nature poems, and it is in these that we must, find
his greatest contribution to the poet's interpretation of life. In
his nature poems he made use of two conventions, the foreign
convention of the llatai or love-messenger, and the purely native
tradition of the dyvaliad or descriptive poem. The first part of
the poem is generally a conventional statement of his love for a
lady, the second a short address to a bird, or a fish, or a natural
feature, such as the cloud or the wave, praying it to take a mes-
sage to the lady; the third and main portion is a minute description
of the messenger. Davydd has been called the ''Wordsworth of
Wales," but there is no comparison between him and Wordsworth
as nature-poets. To Davydd, nature is purely external, it has no
mystical significance. But his treatment of it, curiously like that
of his countryman W. H. Davies, invests it with a new wonder
and significance.
Davydd ap Gwilym's Contemporaries. — Davydd's influ-
ence was twofold; not only was the cywydd established as the
leading form, but the new subjects came to be recognized as themes
fit for poetry. One of his oldest contemporaries, Gruffudd ab
Adda (fl. 1350), wrote a cywydd "to a birch-tree that had been
5o8
WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
made into a maypole at Llanidloes," which goes much further
than Davydd in the direction of the modern conception of nature.
It has now been proved that lolo Goch (c. 1320-1400) was not
Owen Glyndwr's family bard, and that most of the poems to
Glyndwr popularly attributed to him were written neither to
Glyndwr nor by lolo Goch. His greatest work is a cywydd to the
Llafurwr (Husbandman) which shows traces of contemporary
English ideas as seen, for instance, in Piers Plowman. Llywelyn
Goch amhcurug Hen (ft. 1360-1400) wrote some of his earlier
poems in the Gogynfeirdd tradition, but his Elegy to Llencu
Llwyd, his best-known work, is a cywydd and combines with
striking success the Welsh tradition of the elegy with the im-
ported form of the serenade. Other poets almost contemporary
with Davydd were Gruff udd Llwyd ap Davydd (fl. 1380-1410),
who sang two superb cywyddau to Owen Glyndwr, and Rhys Goch
Eryri (c. 1365-1448) who is chiefly famous for his literary quarrel
on the nature of true poetry with Sion Cent and Llywelyn ap y
Moel, the author of a cywydd which gives a spirited description
of one of Glyndwr's battles. The most elusive figure in this period
is Sion Cent, to whom are attributed a large number of cywyddau
brud or semi-political songs, and cywyddau'r byd, similar in every
respect to the poems du temps jadis, so popular in every country
in Europe at the beginning of the i4th century, and exemplified
in the works of Villon, Dunbar, Menot and Manrique. It is prob-
able that these poems are by many hands, but the dominant
thought of them all is so characteristic that it is found convenient
to refer them to the traditional name of Sion Cent.
Davydd ap Gwilym's Successors. — With the dawn of the
1 4th century the cywydd enters a new period. The poets purified
the cywydd from the last traces of the old convention.
Davydd Nanmor (c. 1435-95) in treatment of his subject and
in imagination is inferior to most of Davydd ap Gwilym's con-
temporaries, but in his mastery of the cywydd form he has no
equal. His poem to "Llio's Hair" and his "Maiden's Elegy,"
among others, mark the zenith of that conception of poetic art
which aimed at simplicity. Lewis Glyn Cothi (fl. 1450-85) and
GutoV Glyn (fl. 1433-69) show a further advance in the handling
of the cywydd metre. In their work we detect for the first
time a real consciousness of nationhood among the Welsh. Other
poets of this period were Maredudd ap Rhys (fl. 1430-50), Hywel
Swrdwal (fl. 1460), Tudur Penllyn (fl. 1470) and Davydd Llwyd
ap Llywelyn (fl. 1447-86).
The Silver Age of the Cywydd, 1450-1650. — For a short
time there arose a school of literary formalists. The chief of this
school was Davydd ab Edmwnd (c. 1425-1500), who at the Eis-
teddfod of the Bards held at Caermarthen in 1451 rearranged the
24 recognized metres. His poetry, apart from its great ingenuity,
has little significance. His poetic heir was his nephew Tudur Aled
(d. 1526) who made a further rearrangement of the rules of
poetry, and whose poems, in execution, mark the very zenith of
the bard's craft as conceived in that age. Unfortunately he re-
introduced the trychiad and the geiriau llanw in their worst form,
and his work, as a whole, marks a reaction towards the poetry of
lolo Goch and other poets of Davydd ap Gwilym's period. His
contemporary Gutun Owain, though too much of his moliant
consists of intolerable genealogical details, could, in his dyvaliadau,
rival even Davydd ap Gwilym in his description of nature.
In the latter part of this period, two events of supreme impor-
tance occurred — the Protestant Reformation and the accession
of the Tudors. The former had little immediate influence on litera-
ture, except indirectly through its effect upon the language, since,
with the decline of the old Catholic educational system, the
general appreciation of literature was diminished. The Tudor
policy of encouraging the spread of English at the expense of
Welsh, and of inducing the Welsh aristocracy to emigrate to Eng-
land, almost destroyed the old Welsh culture which was altogether
bound up with the language. Yet for more than a century after
Henry VII. the bards plied their craft, though patronage was much
diminished. Sion Tudor (c. 1520-1602) satirized the new aris-
tocracy of profiteers. Edmwnd Prys (1541-1623), archdeacon of
Meirioneth, is best known for his "contention" with William Cyn-
wal, and for his biting satire on contemporary manners; William
(1535-80) and Sion Phylip (c. 1543-1620) are among the
great poets of the Silver Age of the cywydd.
The Rise of Modern Prose.— One of the most striking features
of Welsh literature is the almost entire absence of prose between
1300 and 1550. The two political movements during this period,
the revolt of Glyndwr and the accession of Henry VII. had suf-
ficient of romance in them to repel the historian and to capture
the poet. What prose the nation required it found in the tales
of romance, in the legends of Arthur, of the Grail, and of Charle-
magne. The little prose that was produced consisted of exercises in
extravaganza called Araith, similar to the Rithairec of Ireland.
The first Welsh book, Yn y Lhyvyr hwn, published in 1546,
consisted of extracts in Welsh from the Scriptures and the prayer
book. Probably in the same year was published William Sales-
bury's Oil Synnwyr Pen, a collection of proverbs. From now on
Welsh prose literature begins to take definite form, and may be
studied under four headings: (i) The Reformation (2) The
Counter-Reformation (3) The Welsh Renaissance (4) Puritanism.
The Reformation. — The most important name among this
group of writers is that of William Salesbury (c. 1520-95) who
devoted a long life to supply what he considered the means of
salvation for the Welsh people, namely the Scriptures in Welsh
and the ability to read and understand those Scriptures. His work,
begun in 1546, culminated in his translation of the New Testa-
ment published in 1567. This work was largely experimental, as
Welsh prose had not hitherto been used to express abstract ideas.
If we consider accuracy of idiom and fidelity to the original,
Salesbury's Testament must be called a great pioneer work. Un-
fortunately it is marred by his philological foibles and the mechan-
ical means which he employed to make the language intelligible in
every part of Wales. In the same year, 1567, was published the
Welsh prayer book, translated by Richard Davies, bishop of St.
David's (1501-81). In 1588 was published the Welsh Bible
translated by William Morgan, bishop of St. Asaph (1541-1604),
aided by Edmwnd Prys. This translation revised and amended
by Richard Parry, bishop of St. Asaph (1560-1623), and John
Davies (1570-1644) was republished in 1620, and that is the
version which is used to this day. It would be difficult to exag-
gerate the importance of these three translations, the Testament
of 1567 and the Bible of 1588 and 1620, in the development of
Welsh literature. The translators were in a sense forming a new
prose language, and for their material used the standard language
of the bards as stabilized by Davydd ap Gwilym. Their success
was at once obvious because from 1588 onwards there has been
no break in the production of Welsh prose books. The first of
these were naturally translations from English and Latin written
with the purpose of grounding the Welsh nation in the principles
of the Reformation. The following arc some of the most important
books under this heading: Deffyniad y Ffydd (1595), a transla-
tion of Bishop Jewel's Apologia, by Morys Kyffin (c. 1555-98);
Perl Mewn Adfyd (1595), a translation of Coverdale's A Spiritual
and most Precious Pearl, by Huw Lewys (1562-1634) ; Homiliau
(1606), a translation of the Homilies, by Edward James (1570-
1610); Llwyhr Hyffordd (1630), a translation of Dent's Plain
Pathway, by Robert Llwyd (1565-*;. 1650); Yr Ymarfer o Ddu-
wioldeb (1630), a translation of Bayly's Practice of Piety, by
Rowland Vychan (c. 1590-1667); Llyfr y Resolution (1632), a
translation of Parson's Christian Directory, by Dr. John Davies
of Mallwyd (c. 1570-1644). To these must be added a work which
was never published, the History of Ellis Gruffydd (b. c. 1500).
This document is now at the National Library. It sheds much light
on the life of the court and the army.
The Counter-Reformation.— During the years in which the
reformed religion was being established in Wales, Welsh society
and the Welsh language were at their lowest ebb. Rome had left
Wales without spiritual guidance, and the principles of the Ref-
ormation had not taken hold.
Every book during this period bewails the general ignorance.
It is probable that it was during this period that the Welsh v
language came nearest to extinction. The Catholic writers of the v
Counter-Reformation regarded the new religion as something im-
ported from England, and they thought that the way to preserve
WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
509
the old religion was to insist on the old Catholic culture. This was
why Gruff ydd Robert (c. 1535-1611), canon of Milan, published
his Dosbarth Byrr, the first printed grammar of the Welsh tongue.
This book is not a mere grammar; it consists of a series of dis-
cussions between teacher and disciple, and in beauty of style
it stands among the greatest monuments of Welsh prose. Other
works stimulated by the desire to preserve the old religion were
Gruffydd Robert's Drych Cristianogawl (1585) ; Theater du Mond
(1615), a translation from the French, and two other books in
1609 a"d 1611 by Dr. Rhosier Smyth (c. 1546-1625); Athravaeth
Gristnogawl by Morys Clynnog (c. 1525-81); and Eglurhad
Helaethlawn (1618), a translation from the Italian by John Salis-
bury. All these and some others were published on the Continent.
The Welsh Renaissance. — Just as Italy and other European
countries under the Renaissance turned to the Latin and Greek
classics, so Wales turned to its own classical tradition of bardism.
The result was the publication during this period of some of the
most important Welsh grammars. Ciruffydd Robert's Dosbarth
Ryrr has been already mentioned; it was followed in 1592 by the
Cambrobrytannicae . . . Institutiones of Dr. Sion Davydd Rhys
(i534-c. 1617), which was an attempt to set out before the learned
world regulations of bardic poetry and principles of the Welsh
language. This work is the foundation of all later grammatical
studies, though Rhys was far surpassed in scientific knowledge by
Dr. John Davies of Mallwyd, who published his Antiquae Linguae
. . . Rudimenta in 1621 and his great dictionary Dictionarium
Duplex in 1632. The Latin-Welsh portion of this dictionary was
based on the work of Thomas Williams of Trefriw (c. i$5o-c.
1618), which is still in manuscript.
Puritanism. — So far the writers of Welsh prose had contented
themselves with translation. It was left to a Puritan, Morgan
Llwyd (1619—59), to make an original contribution to Welsh
religious thought. He came under three influences from the out-
side world, namely, the Quakers, the Fifth Monarchy Men, and
Jacob Boehme, the German mystic. His chief work Llyjr y Tri
Aderyn (The Book of the Three Birds) (1653) is a disquisition in
two parts, on the theory of government, and on religious liberty,
under the form of a disputation between the Eagle (Cromwell or
the secular power), the Raven (the Anglicans or organized
religion) and the Dove (the Nonconformists or the followers of
the inner light). In this and in many other works, notably
Llythur ir Cymru (1653), he expounded a mystical gospel, which
(unfortunately as some think) had very little influence, though
many editions of his books were published.
From the time of Morgan Llwyd till well in the i9th century,
translations, mostly of theological works, continued to pour out of
the Welsh press, and it is almost impossible to thread one's way
amongst these thousands of books. Many of them were inspired
by the activities of the S.P.C.K., and among the clergy who pro-
duced books of this description were Edward Samuel (1674—
1748), who published among other works Holl Ddyledswydd Dyn,
a translation of The Whole Duty of Man (1718); Moses Wil-
liams (1684-1742), a most diligent searcher into Welsh mss. and a
translator; Griffith Jones of Llanddowror (1683-1761), the father
of Welsh popular education; lago ab Dewi (? 1644-1 72 2) and
Theophilus Evans (1694-1769), the famous author of Drych y
Prif Oesoedd (1716 and 1740). This book, like Llyjr y Tri Aderyn
and Y Bardd Cwsc, has an established position for all time in the
annals of Welsh literature.
We come now to the greatest of all Welsh prose writers, Ellis
Wynn o Lasynys (1671-1734). His first work was a translation
of Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living, under the title of Rh'eol Buchedd
Sanctaidd(ijio). His next work was the immortal Gweledigaetheu
y Bardd Cwsc (1703). The foundation of this work was
L'Estrange's translation of the Suenos of the Spaniard Quevedo.
The Rise of Popular Poetry, 1600-1750.— When Henry VII.
ascended the throne, the old hostility of the Welsh towards the
English disappeared. Naturally enough the descendants of the
old Welsh gentry began to look towards England for recognition
and preferment, and their interest in their own little country began
to wane. The result was that the traditional patrons of the Welsh
could no longer understand the language of the poets, and the poets
were forced to spek some more profitable employment. Besides,
the old conditions were changing; it gradually and imperceptibly
came about that the poets of the older school had no audience.
The only poets who still followed the old tradition were the rich
gentlemen-farmers who "sang on their own food," as the Welsh
phrase goes. A new school, however, was rising. The nation at
large had a vast store of folk-song, and it was this, despised and
unrecorded, that became the groundwork of the new literature.
The first landmark in this new development was the publication
in 1621 of Eclmwnd Prys's metrical version of the Psalms, and in
1646 of the first poem of the Welshmen's Candle (Cannwyll y
Cymry) of Rhys Pritchard, vicar of Llandovery (1569-1644).
These works 'were not written in the old metres peculiar to Wales,
but in the free metres, like those of English poetry. The former
is of great importance, as these Psalms were about the first met-
rical hymns in use. The latter work, the first complete edition of
which was published in 1672, consisted of moral verses in the
metres of the old folk-songs (Penillion Telyn). Many other poets
of the early part of this period wrote in these metres, such as
Rowland Fychan, Morgan Llwyd and Williamd Phylip (d. 1669).
Poetry in the free metres, however, was generally very crude, until
it was given a new dignity by the greatest poet of this period, Huw
Morys o Bont y Meihion (1622-1709). Most of his earlier com-
positions, which are among his best, and which were influenced to
a great extent by the cavalier poetry of England, are love poems,
perfect marvels of felicitous ingenuity and sweetness. Towards the
end of the period comes Lewys Morys (1700-65). His poetry
alone does not seem to warrant his fame, but he was the creator
of a new period, the inspirer and patron of Gronwy Owen. Like his
brothers Richard and William, he was an accomplished scholar.
His poetry, except a few well known pieces, will never be popular,
because it does not conform to the modern canons of taste.
The Revival, 1750.— The middle of the i8th century was, after
the I4th, the most fruitful period of Welsh literature. Up to this
time, Wales had lain in a terrible stagnation, both social and
literary; a people, who had till now never lacked self-expression in
literature, had become inarticulate. It was clear that one of two
things was essential if Welsh was to survive as a language of
culture — either a re-creating literary influence from the outside,
or some great spiritual or intellectual revival which would stir the
people once more into articulate expression. It was a coincidence
that both these events should happen in Wales at the same time.
The first event was the adoption by Gronwy Owen, inspired by
Lewys Morys, of the literary standards of the English Augustan
classicists; the result was the re-introduction into Welsh poetry of
the cywydd and the awdl in all their traditional correctness of
form, but with a new and larger content. Around Gronwy Owen
were grouped other poets who thus established a classical school
of poetry which is alive to this day; the more important among
them were William Wynne of Llangynhaval (1704-60), and Evan
Evans (1731-89). Much of the literary activity represented by
this school was associated with the Welsh community in London,
and with the establishment of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion.
The direct result of the efforts of the London Welshmen to pre-
serve and spread the knowledge of Welsh literature was the estab-
lishment of local eisteddfodau which were periodically held in
different parts of Wales under the auspices of the learned societies.
These eisteddfodau, by offering a chair for an awdl (this practice
it must be noted only dates from the end of the i8th century),
perpetuated the classical form, i.e., cynghanedd and the unfree
metres, which would have otherwise certainly disappeared. Thus
Gronwy Owen is the fountain-head of modern classicism and it
is natural that his works should be the basis of modern literary
studies at the schools and in the university. His successors, the
eisteddf odic bards, though greatly inferior to him in poetic power,
did much to reintroduce the knowledge of the classical forms;
chief among these was Dafydd Ddu Eryri (1760-1822) who, both
as a writer of awdlau and as a grammarian was the teacher of the
i9th century. His successor, Dewi Wyn o Eivion (1784-1841),
was the first to deviate from the strictness of the old tradition,
and much of his work is strikingly deficient in quality. Eben
Vardd (1802-63) was the last of the i9th century eisteddf odic
WELSH LAWS
bards who made any real contribution to literature; he is the
greatest poet of the descriptive school. After him eisteddfodic
poetry, i.e., poetry in the classical tradition, suffered eclipse; the
last 40 years of the igth century, though an enormous mass of
so-called poetry was produced, saw what was probably the nadir
of popular taste. The end of the igth century was marked by a re-
action back to Gronwy Owen and Davydd ap Gwilym.
The Free Metres, 1750-1890.— The classicists of the i8th
century were quite unaware of the Methodist Revival, but it was
the intensity of the religious emotion now set free for the first
time that broke the inarticulateness which had befallen Wales.
The vast store of experience and expression which had been
accumulating out of sight in the Pemllion Telyn (Tolk Poetry)
was at last displayed in the hymns of William Williams Pantycelyn
(1717-91), almost the first poet to use the free metres for a
serious purpose. Pantycelyn's hymns in time became by them-
selves a kind of national literature, and it was on this basis that
all modern poetry in the free metres rests, so that in judging Welsh
poetry, it must always be remembered that the modern form
of it is less than two centuries old. Pantycelyn was followed by
many hymn-writers, the last and greatest being Anne Griffiths
(1776-1805) who alone shows a trace of that mysticism which
was lost in Wales after Morgan Llwyd. The literary importance
of the hymns lies in their preparation of the Welsh language for
secular poetry. All the poetry of the iQth century betrays its
religious origin, the later poetry no less than the earlier. John
Blackwell (Alun) (1797-1840) may be regarded as the father of
the modern secular lyric. Much of his inspiration came from
contemporary English songs and in originality he is inferior to
leuan Glan Geirionydd (1795-1855) who founded the "Eryri"
school of poetry inspired by the natural scenery of Snowdonia;
the best known member of this school is Glasynys (1828-70).
These earlier lyric writers were followed by a more Bohemian
group consisting of Talhacarn (1810-69), Mynyddog (1833-77)
and Ceiriog (1832-87). Ceiriog was the greatest lyrical writer
of the century. He was the last of the WTelsh Victorians. Only
one poet, Islwyn (1832-78), made a success of the long poem.
His Ystorm, which is a series of mystical meditations on life and
art, is in the first rank.
Prose, 1750-1880.— For a long time after 1750 Welsh prose
though abundant in quantity had a very narrow range. Few writers
rose above theological controversy, and the humaner side of litera-
ture was almost altogether neglected. The end of the i8th century,
however, in Wales as well as in England, saw much activity in
political thought, which was the direct result of the French Rev-
olution. The most important of the early political writers was
John Jones Glan y Gors (1767-1821), the author of two political
pamphlets, much influenced by Tom Paine. Later when modern
Liberalism began to emerge, political writing, after the establish-
ment of the periodical press, became an important part of Welsh
literature. The greatest political thinker and writer of the century
was Samuel Roberts (1800-85), who, with Gwilym Hiraethog
(1802-83), may be regarded as having, through his prose writings,
formed the habit of thought still prevalent in Wales.
Literary criticism up to the middle of the i9th century had been
confined to the work of eisteddfod adjudicators who were still
acting on the old classical theory, ut pictura poesis. The first
appearance of a criticism which might be said to follow European
standards was in the articles of Lewis Edwards (1809-87), the
founder and editor of the Traethodydd, though his ideas were
dominated by the Edinburgh school. Literary criticism made no
progress at all until the great revival in the 2oth century. It was in
this period that Wales had her national novelist, Daniel Owen
(1836-95), a writer of the Dickens school, who like his master
"wrote mythology rather than fiction." His novels, in spite of
their rather obvious sentimentality, must always remain the most
important document for the study of this extraordinary period of
theocracy in Wales.
The Second Revival — The most important event in Welsh
literature was the founding of the university (1878-1905). Tke
immediate result was a great widening of the horizons, accom-
panied by a strong reaction towards the old Welsh classical ideas.
The two men who had most influence on this new movement
were Sir Owen Morgan Edwards (1858-1920) and Sir John
Morris-Jones. The former in his numerous books, both by the
charm of his style and by the lure of his imagination, made the
Welsh conscious of their literary identity, and he was certainly
the inspiring genius of the new movement on its purely literary
side. The latter, by insisting that correctness was the first
essential of style and sincerity the first essential of the literary
art, revolutionized first the product of the Eisteddfod, and then
literature in general. Another critic, whose worth is only slowly
being recognized, and whose fearless essays stung the nation
into sincerity was Emrys ap Iwan (1851-96).
The extent of the new literary revival is hardly credible to
anyone whose study of Welsh ends with 1900. Almost every de-
partment of literature is represented by work which may bear
comparison with similar work in any country in Europe. Poetry
has again become significant. Thomas Gwynn Jones has shown
that the cynghanedd and the 'old tradition can answer any demand
made upon it by the modern interpretation of life; his work is,
however, not confined to the un-free metres. Robert Williams
Parry has brought back to poetry the gift of poetic observation,
expressed in a faultless technique, which had disappeared from
Welsh poetry with Davydd ap Gwilym. The more popular poets,
Eivion Wyn (d. 1926), \Vil Ifan, and Crwys, though still under
the domination of the old sentimental view of life, are as much the
product of the new Revival of Learning as the more academic
"poets.
In prose there has been equal progress. A new literary criticism
has been enriched by the influence of European ideas, which can
be most clearly seen in the work of Saunders Lewis. No long
novel of great merit has been written, though the work of Tegla
Davies bears many traits of pure genius. The younger prose
writers have developed the art of the short story to a high de-
gree; the early promise of Dewi Williams has not been fulfilled,
but Kate Roberts's work stands by itself as a striking example
of the impact of contemporary Welsh life on a sensitive nature.
Starting with no traditions, drama has made considerable progress,
though it has been retarded by material reasons. Two dramatists
deserve special mention, D. T. Davies and R. G. Berry. The
Report of the Government's Departmental Committee on Welsh
suggests that the language will be more fully used in education.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (Note: only books dealing with literature in general
or with a section of it are included. Editions of poetical works, etc.,
are only mentioned when they contain an introduction dealing with
literature.) T. Stephens, Literature of the Kymry (2nd ed., 1876) ;
Gweirydd ap Rhys, Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1300-1650 (1885) ;
C. Ashton, Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1651-1850; J. Loth, Les
Mabinogions (2nd ed., 1913), Contributions d V Etude des Romans de
la Table Ronde (1912) ; T. Shankland, Diwygwyr Cymru, reprinted
from Seren Corner (1099); G. Lleyn, Llyjryddiaeth y Cymry (2nd
ed., Llanidloes, 1869) ; C. Ashton, Bywyd ac Amserau yr Esgob
Morgan (Treherbert, 1891) ; I. Ffoulkcs, /. Ceiriog Hughes, ei Jywyd
at waith {Liverpool, 1887) ; I. Williams, Dafydd ap Gwilym ai
Gyfoeswyr (Bangor, 1914) ; I. Williams and H. Lewis, lolo Goch ac
Eraill (Bangor, 1926) ; J. Morris-Jones, Cerdd Dafod (1925) ; T.
Gwynn Jones* Gwaith Tudur Aled (Cardiff, 1926) ; Llenyddiaeth y
Cymry (Denbigh, 1915) ; Th. M. Chotzen, Recherclm sur la Poisie
de Dafydd ab Gwilym (Amsterdam, 1927) ; W. J. Gruffydd, Llenydd-
iaeth Cymru, 1450-1600 (Liverpool, 1922) ; Llenyddiaeth Cymru,
1540-1660 (Wrexham, 1926); Math vab Mathonwy (Cardiff, 1928).
See also many articles in the Cymmrodor; Transactions of the Hon.
Society of Cymmrodorion: Zeitschrift fur Celtische Phil&logie; Revue
Celtique ; Cymru (Carnarvon and Wrexham) ; Beirniad (Liverpool) ;
Geninen (Carnarvon) ; Llenor (Wrexham). (W. J. GR.)
WELSH LAWS or LEGES BRITANNIAE. The earliest
and best manuscripts of these, whether in their original Welsh or
Latin, do not date from before 1175-1200. Confessedly recen-
sions and reflecting current politics, they bear notwithstanding
so striking a general resemblance to one another, that it is hard
not to credit their common tradition, namely, that they hail from
one original codification of British law and custom by King Howel
Dda (i.e., the Good), who died 950. The Welsh manuscripts
fall into three classes, each of which begins with its own type of
preface, (i) Those which refer exclusively to the king of
Aberffraw in north-west Wales and give other indications that
they pertain to that kingdom, i.e., Gwynedd or Venedotia, of
WELSHPOOL— WENCESLAUS
which Aberffraw in Anglesey was the chief royal residence. The
jurist lorwerth ap Madog (c. 1200) would seem to be responsible
for this recension, which Aneurin Owen in 1841 dubbed, not
inappropriately, "the Venedotian code." (2) Those which refer
exclusively to the king of Dinefwr (anglice Dynevor) in "the
South," but would seem from the preface to have prevailed in
Powys. The jurists favoured are Morgeneu and his son Cyfnerth.
Owen unfortunately called these "the Gwentian code" as pertain-
ing to south-east Wales, of which the manuscripts provide no
indication. (3) Those which refer to both the kings of Dinefwr
and Aberffraw, stating expressly that of all the kings in Wales
gold is payable only to these two. But as they put Dinefwr be-
fore Aberffraw and refer to Rhys ap Gruffudd (d. 1197), one of
the Dinefwr kings, and contain a special section on Dyfcd or
Demetia in south-west Wales, they certainly pertain to "the
South." Owen, however, called them insufficiently "the Dimetian
code." The jurist named in the preface is Blegywryd, who is
otherwise known as having intervened in a dispute in 955, where
he is described as "that most famous man" (Bk. of Man Dav,
219). He is also known from some ancient Latin verses to have
been a teacher of law in Howel's court and to have written a book
of laws for the king, which book the king gave "ad partem dex-
teram," i.e., to "the South," in Welsh Deheubarth, which stands
for "Dextera Pars Britanniae," the south part of Britannia or
Wales (omitting however Morgannwg, the country from Swansea
to Chepstow).
That these three classes really represent law books in vogue in
Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth, respectively, seems to be
implied or reflected in the preface of the last mentioned class,
where we are told that "Howel ordered three law books to be
made, one for the daily court to be always with him, another
for the court of Dinefwr, the third for the court of Aberffraw, so
that the three divisions of Wales, to wit, Gwynedd, Powys and
Deheubarth should have the authority of law in their midst, at
their need, always and ready." Readers for their guidance should
bear in mind: (i) That the earliest mss. extant were written when
the Norman French had long interfered in Welsh affairs and had
already permanent possession of most of the petty kingdoms
of south Wales; when also Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of
the Kings of Britain was further confirming men's minds in the
bizarre notions of the Welsh past, which had originally been set
going by the book called De excidio Britanniae used by Bede.
(2) That Howel Dda was not an original begetter of Welsh Jaw.
What Howel did was to "put together the laws of Britannia"
(i.e., Wales) with the consent and after the consideration of the
wise men of his realm, assembled in one place. (3) That it is not
conducive to sound knowledge to accentuate the "tribal" nature
of the Welsh laws. No term for "tribe" appears. To read "tribes,"
therefore, into the Welsh laws is not only to force the text, but to
obfuscate the emergence of Wales into the Dark Age from
Romano-British Christian civilization.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. Owen, Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales
(1841) ; A. W. Wade-Evans, Welsh Mediaeval Law (1909) ; T. Lewis,
Llanstephan Ms. 116 (Cardiff 1912) ; J. E. Lloyd, History of Wales
(1912) pp. 283-356; G. Evans, Facsimile of Chirk Codex. (1921);
T. P. Ellis, Welsh Tribal Law (1926) Aberystwyth Studies, x. (1028).
(A. W. W-E.)
WELSHPOOL, a town of Montgomeryshire. Pop. (1921)
5,682. Welshpool was thrice burnt by the Llewellyns in 1233,
1257 and 1275, and often stands out in connection with conflicts
around the red castle of the princes of Upper Powys (i2th
century onwards) ; this castle is now the seat of the earl of Powys.
The park contains some of the largest oaks in the country.
WELWITSCHIA: see GYMNOSPERMS.
WEMBLEY, an urban district of Middlesex, England. The
population was nearly quadrupled between 1901-21, when it was
16,187, and it is still growing rapidly. Wembley Park was the site
for the British Empire Exhibition in 1924-25. This covered a
semi-circular tract of about i\ m., with railways north and
south and in the grounds. A main thoroughfare, Kingsway,
leading from the north entrance, was flanked by the palaces
of industry and of housing and transport, and by the buildings
for Australia and Canada, and gave at the southern end
upon the stadium, which had an area of 10 ac. and accom-
modated nearly 100,000 people. Here were staged numerous
ceremonies, spectacles and athletic contests. Besides those men-
tioned above, each major division of the empire overseas had its
pavilion, the most notable being those of India, South Africa,
New Zealand and Malaya. There was a British government
pavilion, with exhibits by various government departments and
a scientific exhibit organized by the Royal Society. There were
also a palace of arts, an amusement park, an artificial lake and
many other features designed at once to demonstrate the vast
resources of the empire and to attract the public. (See also EX-
HIBITION: BRITISH EMPIRE.) Part of the exhibition site is now
being used for new factories, film studios, etc. The manor of
Wembley belonged to the priory of Kilburn until that foundation
was dissolved by Henry VIII.
WEMYSS (wemz), EARLS OF, title of a Scottish family
who had possessed the lands of Wemyss in Fifeshire since the
i2th century. In 1628 Sir John Wemyss, created a baronet in
1625, was raised to the peerage as Baron Wemyss of Elcho;
and in 1633 he became earl of Wemyss, and Baron Elcho and
Methel, in the peerage of Scotland. He took part with the
Scottish parliament against. Charles I., and died in 1649. On
the death of David, 2nd earl of Wemyss (1610-1679), the estates
and titles passed to his daughter Margaret, countess of Wemyss,
whose son David, 3rd earl of Wemyss, succeeded on her death
in 1705. His son James, 4th earl (1699-1756), married Janet,
daughter of Colonel Francis Charteris, who had made a large
fortune by gambling. His son David, Lord Elcho (1721-1787),
was attainted for his part in the Jacobite rising of 1745, the
estates passing to his younger brother James, while the title
remained dormant after his father's death, though it was assumed
by Elcho's brother Francis, who took the name of Charteris on
inheriting his maternal grandfather's estate. A reversal of the
attainder was granted in 1826 to his descendant Francis Charteris
Wemyss Douglas (1772-1853), who had been created Baron
Wemyss of Wemyss in the peerage of the United Kingdom in
1821, and had assumed the name of Charteris Wemyss Douglas
on inheriting some of the Douglas estates through a female
ancestor. Thenceforward the title descended in the direct line.
WEMYSS, parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, embracing the vil-
lage of East Wemyss, the burgh of barony of West Wemyss
and the police burgh of Buckhaven (with Mcthil and Inner-
leven), a fishing port on the north of the Firth of Forth. Coal
mining is the principal industry. A new dock was opened at
Methil in 1913. Pop. of Buckhaven, Mcthil and Innerleven
(1921), 16,232; of Wemyss parish, 24,530. Nets are made at
Buckhaven and there are a brewery and a linen factory at East
Wemyss. On the shore are two square towers attributed to Mac-
duff's castle; and near them are the remarkable caves with archaic
sculptures from which the district derives its name (weems, from
the Gaelic, uamka). Wemyss castle is the ancient seat of the
family of the name. It was at Wemyss castle that Mary,
queen of Scots, first, met the earl of Darnley, in 1565, and her
room is still known as "the Presence Chamber."
WEN. The popular name for a sebaceous cyst, i.e., an ade-
noma (see TUMOUR), formed from a sebaceous gland and there-
fore occurring in the neighbourhood of hairy parts, particularly
the scalp and neck. The fatty or sebaceous material collects in the
centre of the mass and the normal opening of the duct of the gland
is often recognizable on the surface as a minute point. A wen may
be as large as a hen's egg. The treatment is surgical removal.
WENATCHEE, a city of central Washington, U.S.A. Pop.
(1920) 6,324 (91% native white) ; (1928 estimate) 12,000. We-
natchee is the distributing centre for four fertile valleys which
constitute a vast apple orchard, with 40,000 ac. under cultivation,
producing annually 18,000 car-loads of the finest fruit. A blossom
festival is held every spring. There are lakes, Alpine gardens, and
mountain resorts within an hour's drive. Wenatchee was chartered
in 1892.
WENCESLAUS (1361-1419), German king, and, as Wences-
laus IV., king of Bohemia, was the son of the emperor Charles IV.
512
WEN-CHOW-FU— WENSLEYDALE
and Anna, daughter of Henry II., duke of Schweidnitz. Born at
Nuremberg on Feb. 26, 1361, he was crowned king of Bohemia
in June 1363, and invested with the margraviate of Brandenburg
in 1373. In September 1370 he married Joanna (d. 1386) daughter
of Albert I., duke of Bavaria, and was elected king of the Romans
or German king at Frankfort on June 10, 1376, and crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle on July 6 following. He took some part in the
government of the empire during his father's lifetime, and when
Charles died in November 1378 became sole ruler of Germany
and Bohemia, but handed over Brandenburg to his half-brother
Sigismund. Germany was torn with feuds, the various orders for
the establishment of peace were disregarded, and after 1389 the
king paid very little attention to German affairs. In 1383 he
inherited the duchy of Luxemburg from his uncle Wenceslaus
and in 1387 assisted his half-brother Sigismund to obtain the
Hungarian throne.
For some time Wenceslaus ruled Bohemia successfully, but he
quarrelled with the nobles; and in 1394 the king was taken
prisoner and only released under pressure of threats from the
German princes. Having consented to limitations on his power
in Bohemia, he made a further but spasmodic effort to restore
peace in Germany. He then met Charles VI., king of France at
Reims, where the monarchs decided to persuade the rival popes
Benedict XIII. and Boniface IX. to resign, and to end the papal
schisms by the election of a new pontiff. Many of the princes were
angry at this abandonment of Boniface by Wenceslaus, who had
also aroused much indignation by his long absence from Germany
and by selling the title of duke of Milan to Gian Galleazzo Vis-
conti. The consequence was that in August 1400 the four Rhenish
electors met at Oberlahnstein and declared Wenceslaus deposed.
Though he remained in Bohemia he took no steps against Rupert
III., count palatine of the Rhine, who had been elected as his
successor. He soon quarrelled with Sigismund, who took him
prisoner in 1402 and sent him to Vienna, where he remained in
captivity for nineteen months after abdicating in Bohemia. In
1404, when Sigismund was recalled to Hungary, Wenceslaus re-
gained his freedom and with it his authority in Bohemia.
His concluding years were disturbed by the troubles which arose
in Bohemia over the death of John Huss, and which the vacillat-
ing king did nothing to check until compelled by Sigismund. In
the midst of these disturbances he died at Prague on Aug. 16,
1419. His second wife was Sophia, daughter of John, duke of
Bavaria-Munich, but he left no children.
See Th. Lindner, Gesehichte des deutschen Reiches vom Ende des
I4ten Jahrhnnderts bis zur Reformation, part i. (Brunswick, 1875-
80), and "Die Wahl Wenzels," in the Forschun^en zur deutschen Ge-
schichte, Band xiv. (Gottingcn, 1862-86) ; F. M. Pelzel, Lebens-ge-
schichtc des romischen und bohmischen KoniK* Wenceslaus (Prague,
1788-go) ; F. Palacky, Gesehichte von Bohmen, Bande iii. and iv.
(Prague, 1864-74) 5 «• Mau, Kdni% Wenzel und die rheinischen
Kurfursten (Rostock, 1887). The article by Th. Lindner in the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Band xli., should also be consulted
for a bibliography, and also the same writer's work, Das Urkunden-
wescn Karls IV. und seiner Nachfolger (Stuttgart, 1882).
WEN-CHOW-FU, a city in the province of Che-Kiang,
China, and one of the five ports opened by the Chifu convention
(1876) to foreign trade, situated on the river Gow, about 20 m.
from the sea. The population is estimated at 80,000.
The site is said to have been chosen by Kwo P'oh (A.D. 276-
324) a celebrated antiquary, and the town became known as Tow,
or Great Bear, from a supposed topographical similarity of the
neighbouring hills to the constellation. Later, through another
legend, it became known as the Deer city, or Luh. During the
Ming dynasty (1368-1644) it received its present name ("mild
district"). The city is enclosed in a wall built in the loth cen-
tury, which is about 4 m. in circumference.
WENDEN or VENDEN, now Cesis or Tseziz, a small town
of Latvia on the Gauja river. Here are the ruins of a former
castle of the Brethren of the Sword, afterwards (from 1237) of
the grandmaster of the Teutonic Knights. In 1577 the garrison
blew it up to prevent it from falling into the hands of Ivan the
Terrible of Russia. It was rebuilt, but was burned in 1 748.
WENDOVER, a market town In Buckinghamshire, England.
Pop. (1921) 2,366. It is situated in a shallow defile of the Chil-
tern hills. Wendover is on the Upper Icknield Way and traces of a
British settlement have been found. John Hampden and Edmund
Burke represented the borough. From the time of Edward IV.
weekly markets were held for over four hundred years, and fairs
have been held in October and May from that day to this.
WENDT, HANS HINRICH (1853- ), German Prot-
estant theologian, was born in Hamburg on June 18, 1853. He be-
came in 1885 professor ordinarius of systematic theology at Hei-
delberg, and in 1893 was called to Jena. His work on the teaching
of Jesus (Die Lehre Jesu, 1886-90; Eng. trans, of second part,
1892) made him widely known. He also edited several editions
(5th to 8th, 1880-98) of the Commentary on the Acts of the
Apostles in H. A. W. Meyer's series.
His works include: Die. christliche Lehre von der menschlichen
Vollkommenheit (1882), Der Erjahrungsbeweis fur die Wahrheit des
Christentums (1897), and Das Johanncsevangelium (1900; Eng. trans.,
1902).
WENGEN (4,190 ft.), a health resort and winter sports cen-
tre situated on a ledge on the slopes of the Jungfrau in the
Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. The place is linked with Inter-
laken and Lauterbrunnen by a rock railway. From the Little
Scheidegg a branch leads to the Jungfraujoch (11,340 ft.) where
is the highest station in Europe.
WENLOCK, borough of Shropshire, England, on the river
Severn. Pop. (1921) 13,714. It includes the towns of BROSELEY,
MADELEV and MUCH WENLOCK (q.v.). The parish of Mudeley
includes Ironbridge and Coalport, with part of COALBROOKDALE
(q.v.). The district contains limestone quarries, some coal-mines
and iron-works.
Wenlock (Weneloche) is said to be of pre-Roman origin, but
owed its early importance to the nunnery founded c. 680 by St.
Milburg. This was destroyed by the Danes but refounded as a
priory by Earl Lcofric in 1017. It was again deserted after the
Conquest until Roger de Montgomery founded a house of the
Cluniac order on its site. The town was a borough by prescrip-
tion, and its privileges began with the grants made to the priory
and its tenants. It was incorporated by Edward IV. in 1468 and
the charter was confirmed in 1547 by Henry VIII. and in 1631 by
Charles I. In the report of 1835 the borough is said to consist
of 17 parishes and to be unfit for corporate government. By the
charter of Edward IV. the town obtained the right of sending two
members to parliament, but was disfranchised in 1885. The first
grant of a market and fair is dated 1227. The right is still valid.
WENNERBERG, GUNNAR (1817-1901), Swedish poet,
musician and politician, was born at Lidkoping, of which place
his father was parish priest, on Oct. 2, 1817. In his twentieth
year he became a student at Upsala. In 1843 he became a mem-
ber of the musical club who called themselves "The Juvenals,"
and for their meetings were written the trios and duets, music
and words, which Wennerberg began to publish in 1846. In the
following year appeared the earliest numbers of Gluntarne (or
"The Boys"), thirty duets for baritone and bass, which continued
to be issued from 1847 to 1850. These remarkable productions,
masterpieces in two parts, presented an epitome of all that was
most unique and most attractive in the curious university life of
Sweden. In 1850 Wennerberg travelled through Sweden, singing
and reciting in public, and his tour was a long popular triumph.
In 1860 he published his collected trios, as The Three. He suc-
ceeded Fahlcrantz in 1866 as one of the eighteen of the Swedish
Academy. He was minister for education (Ekklesiastikminister)
in the Adlercreutz government (1870-75), and sat first in the
lower, then in the upper house of the legislature until he was nearly
eighty. He died, on Aug. 24, 1901, at the royal castle of Lecko.
WENSLEYDALE, JAMES PARKE, BARON (1782-
1868), English judge, was born near Liverpool on March 22, 1782.
He was educated at Macclesfield Grammar school and Trinity
college, Cambridge. He was a junior counsel for the Crown in
the Queen's trial. In 1834 he was transferred from the king's
bench to the court of exchequer, where for some 20 years he
exercised considerable influence. The changes introduced by the
Common Law Procedure Acts of 1854, 1855, proved too much for
his legal conservatism and he resigned in December of the latter
WENSLEYDALE— WERFEL
513
year. The Government, anxious to have his services, as a law '
lord in the House of Lords, proposed to confer on him a life
peerage, but this was opposed by the House of Lords (see PEER-
AGE), and he was eventually created a peer with the usual re-
mainder (1856). He died at his residence, Ampthill Park, Bed-
fordshire, on Feb. 25, 1868, and having outlived his three sons,
the title became extinct. Parke was perhaps the last of the great
"block-letter lawyers," the men to whom technicalities were the
breath of life. Of his devotion to the intricacies of pleading the
stories are innumerable; best is perhaps that of his taking one
of his special demurrers to read to a dying friend. "It was so
exquisitely drawn," he said "that it must cheer him to read it."
In Serjeant Hayes* Cugate's Case, printed in Holdsworth's His-
tory of English Law, Parke figures as "Baron Sussebutter."
See E. Nanson, Builders of Our Law (London, 1904) .
WENSLEYDALE, the upper valley of the river lire in
Yorkshire, England. The valley wjdens into the Vale of York.
As far up as Hawes, broken limestone crags of the valley walls
with high lying moors beyond them contrast with the fertile valley
bottom. Beyond Hawes, towards the source, the valley becomes a
bleak, wide, shallow drift-covered area with much wilder scenery.
On both sides, throughout the dale, steep sided tributary valleys
with torrent streams are numerous. Magnificent morainic hills
may be seen between Masham and Jervaulx. The dale is
characterized by terraced hills caused by the fact that the lime-
stone beds are thin and form sequences with shales and sand-
stones, and by abundant waterfalls. The chief falls are Ays-
garth Force where the Ure descends in three cascades extending
over i£ m. in length and with a total fall of over 100 ft. ; Hardraw
Force near Hawes, the finest of all, which leaps over a projecting
ledge of limestone 96 ft. high, leaving a clear passage behind it;
and Mill Gill Force on a tributary near Askrigg. In the bed of
the Mill Gill above the falls are narrow canyon-like gorges with
peculiar solution drainage, which is also found in the Buttertubs
pass near Hawes and in Oxnop Gill north of Askrigg.
At Bainbridge are the remains of a square Roman camp.
Jervaulx abbey, the ivy-clad ruins of which stand on the right
bank of the river, was founded in 1 156 by Cistercians from Byland
who had previously settled near Askrigg. The remains are mainly
transitional Norman and Early English and are not extensive.
The chapter house, refectory and cloisters remain in part.
Above the small town of Middleham rises the massive Norman
keep of a I2th century castle; subsidiary buildings surrounding
the tower date down to the i4th century. The castle was a
stronghold of Warwick the "King-maker." In Coverdale, near
Middleham, are the curious remains of the Premonstratensian
abbey of Coverham, founded here in the i3th century and re-
taining the gatehouse and other portions of Decorated date.
Farther up the valley, standing high on the north side, is Bolton
castle, founded in the time of Richard I. Its walls, four corner
towers, and fine position still give it an appearance of great
strength. Wensley must have been an important centre in very
early times. Eight pre-Norman sculptured stones, dating from
the 8th to the nth centuries have been discovered in the walls of
the church. The present church was built in the i3th century.
It possesses some interesting carved woodwork dating from about
1510, a large proportion of which was brought from Easby abbey
at the period of the dissolution of the monasteries.
WENTWORTH, the name of an English family, various
members of which are separately noticed. (See also FITZWILLIAM,
ROCKINGHAM, SlRAFFORD, CLEVELAND, LOVELACE.) The Went-
worths trace their descent to William Wentworth (d. 1308) of
Wentworth Woodhouse, Yorks. Thomas Wentworth (1501-
*559) was summoned to parliament as Baron Wentworth of
Nettlestead in 1529. The last baron Wentworth in the male line
was Thomas (1613-1645), son of Thomas Wentworth, ist earl
of Cleveland (q.v.). His daughter Henrietta Maria became
Baroness Wentworth in her own right on her grandfather's death.
This lady, who was the duke of Monmouth's mistress, died un-
married in 1686. The barony of Wentworth then reverted to
Cleveland's daughter Anne, who married the and Lord Lovelace,
from whom it passed to her grand-daughter Martha (d. 1745),
wife of Sir Henry Johnson, and afterwards to a descendant of
Anne's daughter Margaret, Edward Noel, who was created Vis-
count Wentworth of Wellesborough in 1762. The viscountcy be-
came extinct at his death, and the -barony again passed through
the female line in the person of Noel's daughter Judith to the
latter's daughter Anne Isabella, who married Lord Byron the
poet; and from her to Byron's daughter Augusta Ada, whose hus-
band was in 1838 created earl of Lovelace. The barony of Went-
wort)i was thereafter held by the descendants of this nobleman in
conjunction with the earldom of Lovelace.
WENTWORTH, PETER (1530-1596), English politician,
was a prominent Puritan leader in parliament, which he first
entered as member for Barnstaple in 1571. He was examined by
the Star Chamber in connection with a speech delivered in parlia-
ment on Feb. 8, 1576, and spent some time in the Tower. He
was enduring a third imprisonment in the Tower when he died on
Nov. 10, 1596. While in the Tower he wrote A Pit hie Exhortation
to her Majesty for establishing her Successor to the Crown, a
famous treatise preserved in the British Museum. Peter Went-
worth was twice married ; his first wife, by whom he had no chil-
dren, was a cousin of Catherine Parr, and his second a sister of
Sir Frances Walsingham, Elizabeth's secretary of State. His third
son, Thomas Wentworth (c. 1568-1623), recorder of Oxford, was
an ardent opponent of royal prerogative in parliament, where he
represented Oxford from 1604 until his death.
A grandson, SIR PETER WENTWORTH (1592-1675), represented
Tamworth in the Long Parliament, but refused to act as a com-
missioner for the trial of Charles I. He was a member of the
council of State during the Commonwealth; but was denounced
for immorality by Cromwell in April 1653, and his speech in reply
was interrupted by Cromwell's forcible expulsion of the Com-
mons. By his will he left a legacy to John Milton, and consider-
able estates to his grand-nephew Fisher Dilke, who took the name
of Wentworth; and this name was borne by his descendants until
dropped in the i8th century by Wentworth Dilke Wentworth,
great-grandfather of Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke (<7-i>.).
WENTWORTH, WILLIAM CHARLES (1793-1872),
the "Australian patriot," was born in 1793 in Norfolk Island, the
penal settlement of New South Wales, the son of D'Arcy Went-
worth, the government surgeon of the settlement. The son was
educated in England, but he spent the interval between his school-
ing at Greenwich and his matriculation (1816) at Peterhouse,
Cambridge, in adventurous exploration in the Blue Mountains,
Australia. Having been called to the bar, he began to practise in
Sydney. With a fellow barrister, Wardell, he started a newspaper,
the Australian, in 1824, to advocate the cause of self-government
and to champion the "emancipists" — the incoming class of ex-con-
victs, now freed and prospering— against the "exclusivists" — the
officials and the more aristocratic settlers. With Wardell, Dr
William Bland and others, he formed the "Patriotic Association/'
and carried on a determined agitation both in Australia and in
England, where they found able supporters.
They attacked the governor, Sir Ralph Darling, who was re-
called in 1831 to give evidence before a select committee of the
House of Commons on his administration. The Constitution Act
of 1842 was generally recognized as mainly Wentworth's work. In
the first legislative council, he led the "squatter party."
He was the founder of the University of Sydney (1852), he led
the movement which resulted in the new constitution for the
colony (1854), and in 1861 'became president of the new legis-
lative council. For some years before 1861 he lived chiefly in
England, where in 1857 he founded the "General Association for
the Australian Colonies," with the object of obtaining from the
government a federal assembly for the whole of Australia ; and in
1862 he definitely settled in England, dying on March 20, 1872.
His body was taken to Sydney and accorded a public funeral.
WERDEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the
river Ruhr, 6 m. by rail S. of Essen. Pop. (1925) 13,201. Werden
grew up around the Benedictine abbey, dissolved in 1802.
WERFEL, FRANZ (1890- ), German writer, was born
in Prague on Sept. 10, 1890, and lived successively in Prague,
Hamburg, Leipzig, Vienna and Breitenfeld, near Vienna. His early
5M-
WERGELAND— WERNIGERODE
poems, Der Weltfrcund (1912), Wir Sind (1913), Einander
(1915) and Der Gerichtstag (1919), were difficult but beautiful
in expression, and were animated by the idea of the community of
souls in all living things. The World War and subsequent political
troubles gave Wcrfel's work a strongly revolutionary tinge; his
brotherhood seemed best attained by the destruction of obstacles
erected by tradition. His two novels, Nicht der M order, der
Ermordcte ist schuld (1920) and Der Abituriententag, deal with
the problems and revolt of adolescence, but are less fine than his
verse, which ranks with the most powerful in modern German lit-
erature. His dramatic works include an adaptation of Euripides'
Troades (1915); a very brilliant symbolic trilogy, Der Spiegel-
mensch (1920); the more conventional Juarez und Maximilian
(1924); Paulus untcr den Juden (1926) and Der Tod des Klein-
burgers (1926). He also wrote a novel on the opera Verdi (1924).
See A. Luther, Franz Wcrjcl und seine besten Buhnenwerke (1922).
WERGELAND, HENRIK ARNOLD (1808-1845), Nor-
wegian poet and prose writer, was born at Christ iansand on June
17, 1808. He was the eldest son of Professor Nikolai Wergeland
(1780-1848), who had been a member of the constitutional
assembly which proclaimed the independence of Norway in 1814
at Eidsvold. He established libraries, and tried to alleviate the
widespread poverty of the Norwegian peasantry. But his numer-
ous and varied writings were coldly received by the critics, and
a monster epic, Skabelsen, Mcnnesket og Messias (Creation, Man
and Messiah), 1830, showed no improvement in style. It was
remodelled in 1845 as Mcnnesket. From 1831 to 1835 Wergeland
was submitted to severe satirical attacks from J. S. le Welhaven
and others, and his style improved in every respect. His popularity
waned as his poetry improved, and in 1840 he found himself a
really great lyric poet, but an exile from political influence. In
that year he became keeper of the royal archives. He died on
July 12, 1845. In 1908 a statue was erected to his memory by
his compatriots at Fargo, North Dakota. Ilis Jan van Huysums
Blomsterstykke (1840), Svalen (1841), Joden (1842), Jodinden
(1844) and Den Engelske Lods (1844), f°rm a series of interest-
ing narrative poems in short lyrical metres.
Wergeland's Samlede Skriftcr (Q vols., Christiania, 1852-1857) were
edited by H. Lassen, the author of I-fenrik Wergeland OR hans Samtid
(1866), and the editor of his Breve (1867). See also H. Schwancnfliigcl,
Henrik Wergeland (Copenhagen, 1877) ; and J. G. Kraft, Norsk
Forf alter- Lcxikon (Christiania, 1857), for a detailed bibliography.
WERMUND, an ancestor of the Mercian royal family, a son
of Wihtlaeg and father of Off a. He appears to have reigned in
Angel, and his story is preserved by certain Danish historians,
especially Saxo Grammaticus. According to these traditions, his
reign was long and happy, though its prosperity was eventually
marred by the raids of a warlike king named Athislus, who slew
Frowinus, the governor of Schleswig, in battle. Frowinus's
death was avenged by his two sons, Keto and Wigo, but their
conduct in fighting together against a single man was thought
to form a national disgrace, which was only obliterated by
the subsequent single combat of Off a. It has' been suggested
that Athislus, though called king of the Swedes by Saxo, was
really identical with the Eadgils, lord of the Myrgingas, men-
tioned in Widsith. As Eadgils was a contemporary of Ermanaric
(Eormenric), who died about 370, his date would agree with the
indication given by the genealogies which place W'crmund nine
generations above Penda. Frowinus and Wigo are doubtless to
be identified with the Freawine and Wig who figure among the
ancestors of the kings of Wessex.
For the story of the aggression against Wermund in his later years,
told by the Danish historians and also by the Vitae duorum Offarum,
see OFFA; also Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, edited by A.
Holder, pp. 105 ff. (Stntssburg, i860) ; Vitae duorum Offarum (in
Wats's edition of Matthew Paris, London, 1640). See also H. M.
Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907).
WERNER, ABRAHAM GOTTLOB (1750-1817), father
of German geology, was born in Upper Lusatia, Saxony, on Sept.
25, 1750- He was educated at Bunzlau, Silesia, and in 1764 joined
his father at Count Solm's iron-works at Wehrau and Lorzendorf,
with the idea of ultimately succeeding him as inspector. In
1769, however, he entered the mining school at Freiburg, and in
1 7 71 -went to Leipzig, where he studied law and mineralogy. In
1775 he was appointed inspector and teacher in the mining school
at Freiberg. He devoted himself for 40 years to the development
of the school, which rose to be one of the centres of scientific
intelligence in Europe. He died at Freiburg on June 30, 1817.
One of the distinguishing features of Werner's teaching was
the care with which he taught lithology and the succession of
geological formation; a subject to which he applied the name
geognosy. His views on a definite geological succession were
inspired by the works of J. G. Lehmann and G. C. Fuchsel (1722-
73). He showed that the rocks o/ the earth follow each other in
a certain definite order. He had never travelled, and the sequence
of rock-masses which he had recognized in Saxony was believed
by him to be of universal application. (See his Kurze Klassijlka-
tion und Beschreibung der verschiedcnen Gcbirgsarten, 1787.)
He taught that the rocks were precipitates of a primaeval ocean,
and followed each other in successive deposits of world-wide ex-
tent. Volcanoes were regarded by him as abnormal phenomena,
probably due to the combustion of subterranean beds of coal.
Basalt and similar rocks, already recognized by other observers
as of igneous origin, he believed to be water-formed accumula-
tions of the some ancient ocean. Hence arose one of the great
historical controversies of geology. Werner's followers preached
the doctrine of the aqueous origin of rocks, and were known as
Neptunists; their opponents, who recognized the important part
taken in the construction of the earth's crust by subterranean
heat, were styled Vulcanists. R. Jameson, the most distinguished
of his British pupils, was for many years an ardent teacher of
the WTernerian doctrines. Though much of XVerner's theoretical
work was erroneous, science is indebted to him for so clearly
demonstrating the chronological succession of rocks.
See S. G. Frisch, Lebensbesckreibung A. G. Werners (Leipzig, 1825) ;
Lyell, Principles of Geology (1830) ; and Sir A. Gdkie, Founders of
Geology (1897; 2nd ed., 1906).
WERNER, ALFRED (1866-1919), French-Swiss chemist,
was born at Mulhouse on Dec. 12, 1866. In 1886 he went to
Zurich to study, and later worked at. Zurich with Lunge and in
Paris with Berthelot, but returned in 1893 as extra-ordinary pro-
fessor of chemistry at Zurich. In 1895 he was made ordinary
professor of chemistry, an appointment he held until his death on
Nov. 15, 1919. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1913.
Werner's earliest work was with Hantzach on the stereochemis-
try of the oximes (q.v.), but his greatest contribution to chemistry
was the co-ordination theory of Valency (q.v.), which he put
forward in 1893. By means of this theory not only was a simple
method of classifying complex inorganic compounds made avail-
able, but new and unsuspected cases of geometrical and optical
isomcrism were brought to light. (Sea ISOMKRISM.) Although
W'erner's views met with some opposition and had to be modified
slightly they undoubtedly gave a great stimulus to the develop-
ment of certain branches of chemistry. Attempts are being made
to bring the theory into line with the modern views on the struc-
ture of the atom. (See N. V. Sidgwick, The Electronic Theory of
Valency, 1927.)
Werner wrote Ncuere Anschauungen auf dem Gebiet der anorgan
Chemie; it has been translated into English. See obituary notice
in Jour. Chem. Soc., p. 1639 (1920).
WERNHER, SIR JULIUS CHARLES, IST BART (1850-
1912), British South African financier, was born at Darmstadt
in 1850. After working as a clerk in Frankfurt and London, he
entered the German army on the outbreak of the Franco-German
war. He was sent to Kimberley in 1871 by Jules Forges, diamond
merchant, and eventually became a partner in the firm, returning
to London in 1880 as British representative. In 1888 he became a
life governor of the De Beers Corporation. Beit (q.v.) was now
a member of the firm, and in 1889 when Forges retired the name
of the firm was changed to Wernher, Beit & Co. Sir Julius Wern-
her, who was created a baronet in 1905, spent large sums on pub-
lic objects, including education. He gave £10,000 to the National
Fhysical Laboratory and, with Beit, endowed the South African
university with £500,000. He died in London on May 21, 1912.
WERNIGERODE, a town in Prussian Saxony, on the north
slopes of the Harz mts. Pop. (1925) 20,163.
WESEL— WESLEY
515
The counts of Wernigerode, who can be traced back to the early
1 2th century, were successively vassals of the margraves of Bran-
denburg (1268) and the archbishops of Magdeburg (1381). On
the extinction of the family in 1429 the county fell to the counts
of Stolberg. The latter surrendered its military and fiscal inde-
pendence to Prussia in 1714.
WESEL, JOHANN RUCHRAT VON (d. 1481), German
theologian, was born at Oberwesel early in the i5th century. He
appears to have been one of the leaders of the humanist move-
ment in Germany, and to have had some intercourse and sym-
pathy with the leaders of the Hussites in Bohemia. Erfurt was in
his day the headquarters of a humanism which was both devout
and opposed to the realist metaphysic and the Thomist theology
which prevailed in the universities of Cologne and Heidelberg.
Wesel was one of the professors at Erfurt between 1445 and
1456, and was vice-rector in 1458. In 1460 he was appointed
preacher at Mainz, in 1462 at Worms, and in 1479, when an
old and worn-out man, he was brought, before the Dominican
inquisitor Gerhard Elten of Cologne. The charges against him
were chiefly based on a treatise, De indulgentiis, which he had
composed while at Erfurt twenty-five years before. lie had also
written De potentate ecclesiastica. He died under sentence of
imprisonment for life in the Augustinian convent in Mainz in
1481.
The best account of Wcsel is to be found in K. Ullmann's Reformers
before the Reformation. His tract on Indulgences is published in
Walch's Monumcnta Medii Aevi, vol. i., while a report of his trial is
given in Ortuin Gratius's Fasciculi** rerum expetendarum el fugien-
darum (cd. by Browne, London, 1690), and d'Ar^entre's Collectio
judiciorum de novis erroribns (Paris, 1728). Sec also Otto Clemen's
art. in IlerzoR-Hauck's Rcalcncyklopddic fiir prot. Thealogie ttnd
Kirche (3rd cd., Leipzig, 1908), xxi. 127.
WESEL, a town in the Prussian Rhine province at the conflu-
ence of the Rhine and the Lippc, 46 m. S.W. of Miinster and 35
m. N.W. of Duisburg. Pop. (1925) 24,027. Wesel, formerly
known as Lippcmlinde, was one of the points from which Charle-
magne directed his operations against the heathen Saxons. In-
corporated in 1241, it became a flourishing commercial town, and
though repeatedly subject to the counts of Cleves, was a member
of the llanscatic League, and as late as 1521 a free imperial city.
It was occupied by the Spaniards, the Dutch and the French in
turn, and was ceded to Prussia in 1814. There is a junction of
seven railway lines and it is also a centre for river traffic. Wcsel
contains some quaint old houses, and a town hall dating from 1396,
with an elaborate facade, and containing a valuable old silver
plate.
WESER, one of the chief rivers of Germany, 440 m. long,
formed by the union of the Werra and the Fulda at Miinden,
flowing generally north and entering the North sea below Bremer-
haven, between Jade bay and the estuary of the Elbe.
The Wescr on the whole is shallow, and navigation above
Bremen is sometimes interrupted by drought. The fairway up to
Bremen has a minimum depth of 18 ft. Boats of 350 tons can
ascend generally as far as Mtinden. A system of waterways con-
nects the estuary with that of the Elbe; a canal between the Hunte
and the Leda gives connection with the Ems. Above Bremen the
navigation, which is interrupted by occasional rapids, is assisted
by locks and weirs. The Wcrra and Fulda are both navigable when
they unite to form the Wcser, the Fulda being canalized between
Cassel and Fulda, the Aller, Wumme, Gceste and Hunte are also
navigable. Below the junction of the Hunte the Weser, hitherto
a single stream is divided into several channels by islands. The
principal town on the Weser is Bremen.
WESLEY (FAMILY). The Wesley family sprang from
Welswe, near Wells in Somerset. Their pedigree has been traced
back to Guy, whom Athclstan made a thane about 938. One branch
of the family settled in Ireland. Sir Herbert Westley of West-
leigh, Devon, married Elizabeth Wellesley of Dangan in Ireland.
Their third son, Bartholomew, studied both medicine and the-
ology at Oxford, and, in 1619, married the daughter of Sir Henry
Colley of Kildare. In 1660 he held the rectories of Catherston
and Charmouth in Dorset valued at £35, ros. per annum. He was
ejected in 1662 and gained his living as a doctor. He was buried
at Lyme Regis on Feb. 15, 1670.
His son, JOHN WESTLEY, grandfather of the founder of Method-
ism, was born in 1636 and studied at New Inn Hall, Oxford, where
he became proficient in Oriental languages and won the special
regard of John Owen, then vice-chancellor. Cromwell's Triers ap-
proved him as minister of Winterborn-Whitchurch, Dorset, in
1658. The following year he married the daughter of John White,
the patriarch of Dorchester. In 1661 he was committed to prison
for refusing to use the Book of Common Prayer. His candour
and zeal made a deep impression on Gilbert Ironside the elder,
Bishop of Bristol, with whom he had an interview. He was ejected
in 1662 and became a Nonconformist pastor at Poole. He died in
1678; his widow survived him for 32 years. One of his sons,
Matthew, became a surgeon in London, where he died in 1737.
Another son, SAMUEL, was trained in London for the Noncon-
formist ministry, but changed his views, and, in Aug, 1683, entered
Exeter college, Oxford, as a sizar. He dropped the "I" in his
name and returned to what he said was the original spelling,
Wesley-. In 1689 he was ordained and married Susanna, youngest
daughter of Dr. Samuel Annesley, vicar of St. Giles, Cripplegute,
and nephew of the ist earl of Anglcsea. Annesley gave up his
living in 1662, and formed a congregation in Little St. Helen's,
Bishopsgate. Samuel Wesley was appointed rector of South
Ormsby in 1691, and moved to Epworth in 1697. He had 19
children, of whom eight died in infancy. His lawless parishioners
could not. endure his faithful preaching, and in 1705 he was con-
fined in Lincoln castle for a small debt. Two-thirds of his par-
sonage was destroyed by fire in 1702 and in 1709 it was burnt to
the ground. He managed to rebuild the rectory, but his resources
were so heavily strained that 13 years later it was only half
furnished. Samuel Wesley wrote a Life of Ctirist in verse (1693),
The History of the Old and New Testament in Verse (1701?),
a noble Letter to a Citrate, full of strong sense and ripe experience,
and Dissertations on the Book of Job (1735 ). He died at Epworth
in 1735. Susanna \Vesley died at the Foundry, London, in 1742
and was buried in Bunhill Fields.
Their eldest son, SAMUEL WESLEY (1690-1739), was born in
London, entered Westminster school in 1704, became a Queen's
scholar in 1707 and in 1711 went up to Christ Church, Oxford.
He returned to Westminster as head usher, took orders and
enjoyed the intimate friendship of Bishop Atterbury, Harley earl
of Oxford, Addison, Swift and Prior. He became headmaster of
Blundcll's school at Tiverton in 1732 and died there on Nov. 6,
1739 . He was a finished classical scholar, a poet and a devout man,
but he was never reconciled to the Methodism of his brothers. His
poems, published in 1736, reached a second edition in 1743, and
were reprinted with new poems and a Life by W. Nichols (1862),
CHARLES WTESLEY (1707-1788) was the iSth child of the Rector
of Epworth, and was saved from the fire of 1709 by his nurse. He
entered Westminster school in 1716, became a King's Scholar and
was captain of the school in 1725. He was a plucky boy, and won
the life-long friendship of the future carl of Mansfield by fighting
battles on his behalf. Garret Wesley of Ireland wished to adopt
his young kinsman, but this offer was declined and the estates
were left to Richard Colley on condition that he assumed the name
Wesley. Charles Wesley was elected to Christ Church in 1726.
John had become fellow of Lincoln the previous March. Charles
lost his first 12 months at Oxford in "diversions," but whilst John
was acting as their father's curate, his brother ''awoke out of his
lethargy." He persuaded two or three other students to go with
him to the weekly sacrament. This led a young gentleman of
Christ Church to exclaim: "Here is a new set of Methodists
sprung up." The name quickly spread through the university, and
Oxford Methodism began its course. In 1735 Charles Wesley was
ordained and went with his brother to Georgia as secretary to
Colonel, afterwards General, Oglethorpe, the Governor. The work
proved uncongenial, and after enduring many hardships his health
failed and he left Frederica for England on July 26, 1736. He
hoped to return, but in Feb. 1738 John Wesley came home, and
Charles found that his state of health made it necessary to resign
his secretaryship. After his evangelical conversion on Whit Sun-
day (May 21, 1738), he became the poet of the Revival.
5i6
WESLEY
He wrote about 6,500 hymns. They vary greatly in merit, but
Canon Overton held him, taking quantity and quality into con-
sideration, to be "the great hymn-writer of all ages." Their early
volumes of poetry bear the names of -both brothers, but it is gen-
erally assumed that the original hymns were by Charles and the
translations by John Wesley. For some years Charles Wesley took
a full share in the hardships and perils of the Methodist itinerancy,
and was often a remarkably powerful preacher. After his mar-
riage in 1749 his work was chiefly confined to Bristol, where he
then lived, and London. He moved to London in 1771 and died
in Marylebone on March 29, 1788. He was strongly opposed to
his brother's ordinations, and refused to be buried at City Road,
because the ground there was unconsecrated. He was buried in the
graveyard of Marylebone Old Church.
Charles Wesley married Sarah Gwynne, daughter of a Welsh
magistrate living at Garth, on April 8, 1749. She died in 1822 at
the age of ninety-six. Five of their children died as infants and are
buried in St. James's Churchyard, Bristol. Their surviving daugh-
ter Sarah, who was engaged in literary work, died unmarried in
1828. Charles Wesley, Jr. (1759-1834), was organist of St.
George's, Hanover Square. He published Six Concertos for the
Organ and Harp in 1778. He also died unmarried. Samuel, the
younger brother (1766-1837) (q.v.), was even more gifted than
Charles as an organist and composer; he was also a lecturer on
musical subjects. Two of his sons were Dr. Wesley, sub-dean of
the Chapel Royal, and Dr. Samuel Sebastian Wesley (q.v.}
(1810-1876), the famous organist of Gloucester cathedral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A volume of Charles Wesley's sermons with memoir
appeared in 1816; Lives by Thomas Jackson (1841) and John Telford
(1886) ; Journal and Letters with Notes by Thomas Jackson (1849) ;
The Early Journal (1736-39) with additional matter (1910) ; Poetical
Works of John and Charles Wesley (13 vols., 1868) ; Methodist Hymn
Book Illustrated by J. Telford (1906); Adam Clarke's Memoirs of
the Wesley Family (1822) ; Dove's Biographical History of the Wesley
Family (1832); G. J. Stevenson, Memorials of the 'Wesley Family
(1876); Tyerman's Life and Times of Samuel Wesley, M.A. (1866).
(J. TE.)
WESLEY, JOHN (1703-1791), English divine, was born at
Epworth Rectory on June i7th (O.S.) 1703. He was the isth
child of Samuel and Susanna Wesley. (See WESLEY FAMILY.)
His mother's training laid the foundation of his character, and
under her instruction the children made remarkable progress.
On Feb. 9, 1709, the rectory was burnt down, and the children
had a narrow escape. On the duke of Buckingham's nomination,
Wesley was for six years a pupil at Charterhouse. In June 1720
he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with an annual allowance
of £40 as a Charterhouse scholar. His health was poor and he
found it hard to keep out of debt, but he made good use of his
opportunities. A scheme of study which he drew up for 1722
with a time-table for each day of the week is still to be seen in
his earliest diary.
The standard edition of Wesley's Journal (1909) has furnished
much new material for this period of Wesley's life, Curnock
having unravelled the difficult cipher and shorthand in which
Wesley's early diaries were kept. He reached the conclusion that
the religious friend who directed Wesley's attention to the writ-
ings of Thomas a Kempis and Jeremy Taylor, in 1725, was Miss
Betty Kirkham, whose father was rector of Stanton in Gloucester-
shire. Wesley frankly disclaimed inward holiness.
He was ordained deacon on Sept. 19, 1725, and admitted
to priest's orders on Sept. 22, 1728. In 1726 he had been fellow
of Lincoln. His private diaries, seven of which are in the hands
of Mr. Russell J. Colman of Norwich, contain monthly reviews of
Wesley's reading. It covered a wide range, and he made careful
notes and abstracts of it. He generally took breakfast or tea with
some congenial friend and delighted to discuss the deepest sub-
jects. At the coffee house he saw the Spectator and other period-
icals. He loved riding and walking and was an expert swimmer.
He preached frequently in the churches near Oxford in the
months succeeding his ordination, and in April 1726 he obtained
leave from his college to act as his father's curate. The new
material in the Journal describes the simple manner of his life.
He read plays, attended the village fairs, shot plovers in the fen-
land, and enjoyed a dance with his sisters. In October he returned
to Oxford, where he was appointed Greek lecturer and moderator
of the classes. He gained considerable reputation in the dis-
putation for his master's degree in February 1727. He was now
free to follow his own course of studies and began to lose his love
for company, unless it were with those who were drawn like
himself to religion. In August he returned to Lincolnshire, where
he assisted his father till Nov. 1729. During those two years he
paid three visits to the university. In the summer of 1729 he was
up for two months. Almost every evening found him with the
little society which had gathered round Charles.
The Holy Club. — When he came into residence in November
he was recognized as the father of the Holy Club. It met at first
on Sunday evenings, then every evening was passed in Wesley's
room or that of some other member. They read the Greek Testa-
ment and the classics ; fasted on Wednesday and Friday ; received
the Lord's Supper every week; and brought all their life under
review. In 1730 William Morgan, an Irish student, visited the
gaol and reported that there was a great opening for work among
the prisoners. The friends agreed to visit the Castle twice a week
and to look after the sick in any parish where the clergyman was
willing to accept their help. Wesley's spirit at this time is seen
from his sermon on "The Circumcision of the Heart," preached
before the university on January i, 1733. In 1765 he said it "con-
tains all that I now teach concerning salvation from all sin, and
loving God with an undivided heart." Wesley rose at four, lived
on £28 a year and gave away the remainder of his income.
William Law's books impressed him and on his advice the young
tutor began to read mystic authors, but he soon laid them aside.
Wesley had not yet found the key to the heart and conscience of
his hearers. He says, "From the year 1725 to 1729, I preached
much, but saw no fruit to my labour. Indeed it could not be that
I should; for I neither laid the foundation of repentance nor of
preaching the Gospel, taking it for granted that all to whom I
preached were believers, and that many of them needed no re-
pentance. From the year 1729 to 1734, laying a deeper foundation
of repentance, I saw a little fruit. But it was only a little; and no
wonder; for I did not preach faith in the blood of the covenant.
From 1734 to 1738, speaking more of faith in Christ, I saw more
fruit of my preaching." Looking back on these days in 1777,
Wesley felt "the Methodists at Oxford were all one body, and, as
it were, one soul; zealous for the religion of the Bible, of the
Primitive Church, and, in consequence, of the Church of England;
as they believed it to come nearer the scriptural and primitive
plan than any other national church upon earth." The number of
Oxford Methodists was small and probably never exceeding
twenty-five. John Clayton, James Hervey, Benjamin Ingham and
Thomas Broughton, were members of the Holy Club, and George
Whitefield joined it on the eve of the Wesley's departure for
Georgia.
Mission to Georgia. — Wesley's father died on April 25, 1735,
and in the following October John and Charles took ship for
Georgia, with Benjamin Ingham and Charles Delamotte. John
was sent out by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel,
and hoped to labour as a missionary among the Indians, but
though he had many interesting conversations with them the mis-
sion was found to be impracticable. The cabin of the "Simmonds"
became a study for the four Methodists. The calm confidence of
their Moravian fellow-passengers amid the Atlantic storms con-
vinced Wesley that he did not possess the faith which casts out
fear. Closer acquaintance with these German friends in Savannah
deepened the impression. Wesley needed help, for he was beset
by difficulties. Mrs. Hawkins and Mrs. Welch poisoned the
mind of Colonel Oglethorpe against the brothers for a time.
Wesley's attachment to Miss Hopkey also led to much pain and
disappointment. All this is now seen more clearly in the standard
edition of the Journal. Wesley was a stiff High Churchman, who
scrupulously followed every detail of the rubrics. He insisted on
baptizing children by trine immersion, and refused the Com-
munion to a pious German because he had not been baptized by
a minister who had been episcopally ordained. At the same time
he was accused of "introducing into the church and service at
the altar compositions of psalms and hymns not inspected or
WESLEY
S17
authorized by any proper judicature." The list of grievances
presented by Wesley's enemies to the Grand Jury at Savannah
gives abundant evidence of his unwearying labours for his flock.
The foundation of his future work as the father of Methodist
hymnody was laid in Georgia. His first Collection of Psalms and
Hymns (Charlestown, 1737) contains five of his incomparable
translations from the German, and on his return to England he
published another Collection in 1738, with five more translations
from the German and one from the Spanish. In April 1 736 Wesley
formed a little society of thirty or forty of the serious members
of his congregation. He calls this the second rise of Methodism,
the first being at Oxford in November 1729. The company in
Savannah met every Wednesday evening "in order to a free con-
versation, begun and ended with singing and prayer." A select
company of these met at the parsonage on Sunday afternoons.
In 1781 he writes, "I cannot but observe that these were the first
rudiments of the Methodist societies."
In the presence of such facts we can understand the significance
of the mission to Georgia. Wesley put down many severe things
against himself on the return voyage, and he saw afterwards that
even then he had the faith of a servant though not that of a son.
In London he met Peter Bohler who had been ordained by
Zinzendorf for work in Carolina. By Bohler Wesley was con-
vinced that he lacked "that faith whereby alone we are saved."
On Wednesday, May 24, 1738, he went to a society meeting in
Aldersgate Street where Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the
Romans was being read. "About a quarter before nine, while he
was describing the. change which God works in the heart through
faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did
trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and an assurance
was given me that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and
saved me from the law of sin and death." Mr. Lecky points out
the significance of that event. "It is scarcely an exaggeration to
say that the scene which took place at that humble meeting in
Aldersgate Street forms an epoch in English history. The con-
viction which then flashed upon one of the most powerful and
most active intellects in England is the true source of English
Methodism" (History of England in Eighteenth Century, ii. 558).
Wesley spent some time during the summer of 1738 in visiting
the Moravian settlement at Herrenhut and returned to London
on Sept. 16, 1738, with his faith greatly strengthened. He preached
in all the churches that were open to him, spoke in many religious
societies, visited Newgate and the Oxford prisons. On New
Year's Day, 1739, the Wesleys, Whitefield and other friends had
a Love Feast at Fetter Lane. In February Whitefield went to
Bristol, where his popularity was unbounded. When the churches
were closed against- him he spoke to the Kingswood colliers in
the open air, and after six memorable weeks wrote urging Wesley
to come and take up the work. Wesley was in his friend's con-
gregation on April T, but says, "I could scarcely reconcile myself
to this strange way of preaching in the fields . . . having been
all my life (till very lately) so tenacious of every point relating
to decency and order, that I should have thought the saving of
souls almost a sin, if it had not been done in a church." Next
day Wesley followed Whitefield's example. His fears and prej-
udices melted away as he discerned that this was the very method
needed for reaching the multitudes.
Foundation of the "Society ."—On May i, 1738, he wrote in
his journal: "This evening our little society began, which after-
wards met in Fetter Lane." Among its "fundamental rules" we
find a provision for dividing the society into bands of five or ten
persons who spoke freely and plainly to each other as to the
"real state" of their hearts. The bands united in a conference
every Wednesday evening. The society first met at James Hut-
ton's shop, "The Bible and Sun," Wild Street, west of Temple Bar.
About Sept. 25, it moved to Fetter Lane. Wesley describes
this as the third beginning of Methodism. After the field preach-
ing began converts multiplied. They found all the world against
them, and Wesley advised them to strengthen one another and
talk together as often as they could. When he tried to visit them
at their homes he found the task beyond him, and therefore
invited them to meet him on Thursday evenings. This meeting
was held in the end of 1739 at the Foundry in Moorfields which
Wesley had just secured as a preaching place. Grave disorders
had arisen in the society at Fetter Lane, and on July 23, 1740,
Wesley withdrew from it. About 25 men and 48 women also left
and cast in their lot with the society at the Foundry. The cen-
tenary of Methodism was kept in 1839.
Wesley's headquarters at Bristol were in the Horse Fair, where
a room was built in May 1739 for two religious societies which
had been accustomed to meet in Nicholas Street and Baldwin
Street. To meet the cost of this Captain Foy suggested that
each member should give a penny per week. When it was urged
that some were too poor to do this, he replied, "Then put eleven
of the poorest with me; and if they can give anything, well: I
will call on them weekly, and if they can give nothing I will give
for them as well as for myself." Others followed his example and
were called leaders, a name given as early as Nov. 5, 1738, to those
who had charge of the bands in London. Wesley saw that here
was the very means he needed to watch over his flock. The lead-
ers thus became a body of lay pastors. Those under their care
formed a class. It proved more convenient to meet together and
this gave opportunity for religious conversation and prayer. As
the society increased Wesley found it needed "still greater care
to separate the precious from the vile." He therefore arranged
to meet the classes himself every quarter and gave a ticket
"under his own hand" to every one "whose seriousness and good
conversation" he found no reason to doubt. The ticket furnished
an easy means for guarding the meetings of the society against
intrusion. "Bands" were formed for those who wished for closer
communion. Love-feasts for fellowship and testimony were also
introduced, according to the custom of the primitive church.
Watch-nights were due to the suggestion of a Kingswood collier
in 1740.
Wesley issued the rules of the united societies in February
1743. Those who wished to enter the society must have "a desire
to flee from the wrath to come, to be saved from- their sins."
When admitted they were to give evidence of their desire for
salvation "by doing no harm; by doing good of every possible
sort; by attending upon all the means of grace." It was expected
that all who could do so would contribute the penny a week sug-
gested in Bristol, and give a shilling at the renewal of their
quarterly ticket. Wesley had at first to take charge of the con-
tributions, but as they grew larger he appointed stewards to re-
ceive the money, to pay debts, and to relieve the needy. The
memorable arrangement in Bristol was made a few weeks before
Wesley's field of labour was extended to the north of England in
May 1742. He found Newcastle ripe for his message. English
Christianity seemed to have no power to uplift the people. Dram-
drinking was an epidemic. Freethinkers' clubs flourished.
The doctrine of election had led to a temporary separation
between Whitefield and the Wesleys in 1 741. Wesley believed that
the grace of God could transform every life that received it. He
preached the doctrine of conscious acceptance with God and
daily growth in holiness. Victory over sin was the goal which he
set before all his people. He made his appeal to the conscience in
the clearest language, with the most cogent argument and with
all the weight of personal conviction. Hearers like John Nelson
felt as though every word was aimed at themselves. No preacher
of the century had this mastery over his audience. His Evangeli-
cal Arminianism is shown in his four volumes of sermons and his
Notes on the New Testament.
Itinerary Work.— Up till 1742 Wesley's work was chiefly con-
fined to London and Bristol, with the adjacent towns and villages
or the places which lay between them. On his way to Newcastle
that year Wesley visited Birstal, where John Nelson, the stone-
mason, had already been working. On his return he held memor-
able services in the churchyard at Epworth. Methodism this year
spread out from Birstal into the West Riding. Societies were also
formed in Somerset, Wilts, Gloucestershire, Leicester, Warwick-
shire, Nottinghamshire and the south of Yorkshire. In the sum-
mer Charles Wesley visited Wednesbury, Leeds and Newcastle.
Next year he took Cornwall by storm. The work in London was
prospering. In 1743 Wesley secured a west-end centre at West
5i8
WESLEY
Street, Seven Dials, which for fifty years had a wonderful history.
In August 1747 Wesley paid his first visit to Ireland, where he
had such success that he gave more than six years of his life
to the country and crossed the Irish Channel forty-two times.
Ireland has now its own conference presided over by a delegate
from the British conference. Wesley's first visit to Scotland was
in 1751. In all, he paid 22 visits.
Such extension of his field would have been impossible had not
Wesley been helped by a heroic band of preachers. Wesley says :
"Joseph Humphreys was the first lay preacher that assisted me in
England, in the year 1738." That was probably help in the Fetter
Lane Society, for Wesley then had no preaching place of his own.
John Cennick, the hymn-writer and schoolmaster at Kingswood,
began to preach there in 1739. Thomas Maxwell, who was left to
meet and pray with the members at the Foundry during the
absence of the Wesleys, began to preach. Wesley hurried to Lon-
don to check this irregularity, but his mother urged him to hear
Maxwell for himself, and he soon saw that such assistance was of
the highest value. The autobiographies of these early Methodist
preachers are among the classics of the Evangelical Revival. As
the work advanced Wesley held a conference at the Foundry in
1744. Besides himself and his brother, four other clergymen
were present and four "lay brethren." It was agreed that "lay
assistants" were allowable, but only in cases of necessity. This
necessity grew more urgent every year as Methodism extended.
One of the preachers in each circuit was the "assistant," who had
general oversight of the work, the others were "helpers." The
conference became an annual gathering of Wesley's preachers.
In the early conversations doctrine took a prominent place, but
as Methodism spread the oversight of its growing organization
occupied more time and more attention. In February 1784
Wesley's deed of declaration gave the conference a legal constitu-
tion. He named one hundred preachers who after his death were
to meet once a year, fill up vacancies in their number, appoint a
president and secretary, station the preachers, admit proper per-
sons into the ministry, and take general oversight of the societies.
In October 1768, a Methodist chapel was opened in New York.
At the conference of 1769 two preachers, Richard Boardman and
Joseph Pilmoor, volunteered to go out to take charge of the work.
In 1771, Francis Asbury, the Wesley of America, crossed the
Atlantic. Methodism, grew rapidly, and it became essential to
provide its people with the sacraments. In September 1784
Wesley ordained his clerical helper, Dr. Coke, superintendent (or
bishop), and instructed him to ordain Asbury as his colleague.
Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Vasey were ordained by Wesley,
Coke and Creighton to administer the sacraments in America.
Wesley had reached the conclusion in 1746 that bishops and
presbyters were essentially of one order. (Sec METHODISM:
United States.)
He told his brother in 1785: "I firmly believe that I am a
scriptural e7ri<7K07ros as much as any man in England or in Europe;
for the uninterrupted succession I know to be a fable, which no
man ever did or can prove." Other ordinations for the admini-
stration of the sacraments in Scotland, the colonies and England
followed. The interests of his work stood first with Wesley. He
did everything that strong words against separation could do to
bind his societies to the Church of England; he also did every-
thing that legal documents and ordinations could do to secure
the permanence of that great work for which God had raised him
up. In the words of Canon Overton and Rev. F. H. Relton (Hist,
of Eng. Ch. 1714-1800): "It is purely a modern notion that the
Wesleyan movement ever was, or ever was intended to be, except
by Wesley, a church movement," Despite his strong sayings, it
was Wesley who broke the links to the church, for, as Lord
Mansfield put it, "ordination is separation."
Wesley's account of his itinerancy is given in his famous
Journal, of which the first part appeared about 1739. Mr. Birrell
has called it "the most amazing record of human exertion ever
penned by man." The development of his work made a tre-
mendous strain upon Wesley's powers. He generally travelled
about 5,000 miles a year and preached fifteen sermons a week.
His rule was always to look a mob in the face.
Wesley's writings did much to open the eyes of candid men
to his motives and his methods. Besides the incomparable Journal,
his Appeals to Men of Reason and Religion also produced an
extraordinary effect in allaying prejudice and winning respect. He
constantly sought to educate his own people. No man in the i8th
century did so much to create a taste for good reading and to
supply it with books at the lowest prices. Sir Leslie Stephen
pays high praise to Wesley's writings, which went "straight to
the mark without one superfluous flourish." As a social reformer
Wesley was far in advance of his time. He provided work for
the deserving poor, supplied them with clothes and food in seasons
of special distress. The profits pn his cheap books enabled him
to give away as much as £1,400 a year. He established a lending
stock to help struggling business men and did much to relieve
debtors who had been thrown into prison. He opened dispensaries
in London and Bristol and was keenly interested in medicine.
W7esley's supreme gift was his genius for organization. He was
by no means ignorant of this'. "I know this is the peculiar talent
which God has given me." Wesley's special power lay in his
quickness to avail himself of circumstances and of the suggestions
made by those about him. The class-meeting, the love-feast, the
watch-night, the covenant service, leaders, stewards, lay preach-
ers, all were the fruit of this readiness to avail himself of sugges-
tions made by men or events.
In 1751 Wesley married Mary Vazeille, a widow, but the union
was unfortunate and she finally left him. John Fletcher, the
vicar of Madeley, to whom Wesley had turned as a possible suc-
cessor, died in 1 785. He had gone to Wesley's help at \Vest Street
after his ordination at Whitehall in 1757 arid had been one of
his chief allies ever since. He was beloved by all the preachers,
and his Checks to Antinomianism show that he was a courteous
controversialist. Charles Wesley died three years after Fletcher.
During the last three years of his life John Wesley was welcomed
everywhere. His visits were public holidays.
Wesley preached his last sermon in Mr. Belson's house at Leath-
erhead on Wednesday, Feb. 23, 1791; wrote next day his last
letter to Wilberforce, urging him to carry on his crusade against
the slave trade; and died in his house at City Road on March 2,
1791, in his eighty-eighth year. He was buried on March 9, in
the graveyard behind City Road chapel. (J. TE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The standard edition of the Journal, enlarged from
the original mss., with irotes from Wesley's unpublished diaries, etc.,
was edited by N. Curnock (8 vols., 1909-16). The standard life of
Wesley is J. S. Simon's John Wesley, the Master Builder (1927).
Wesley's Standard Sermons were edited by E. H. Sugden (1921).
See also W. A. Gifford, John Wesley: Patriot and Statesman (1922) ;
J. H. Holmes, John Wesle v and the Methodist Revolt, (102.0 ; F. L.
Barber, The Philosophy of John Wesley (1923) ; J. Telford, The
Life of John Wesley (1924) and Sayings and Portraits of John Wesley
(1924) ; G. Kayrs, John Wesley, Christian Philosopher and Church
Founder (1926) ; W. H. Hulton, John Wesley (1927) ; D. D. Thomp-
son, John Wesley as a Social Reformer (1928) ; W. Wakinshaw, John
Wesley (1918). See also METHODISM, the articles on the separate
Methodist bodies, and WESLEY FAMILY.
WESLEY, SAMUEL (1766-1837), English musical com-
poser, son of Charles Wesley, was born at Bristol, Feb. 24, 1766.
Though suffering for many years from an accidental injury to the
brain, Wesley was one of the most brilliant organists and most
accomplished extemporaneous performers of his time. He may
indeed be regarded as the father of modern English organ-playing,
for he it was who, aided by his friends Benjamin Jacob and C. F.
Horn, first introduced the works of Sebastian Bach to English
organists, not only by his superb playing, but by editing with
Horn, in 1810, the first copy of Das wohltempcrirte Clavier ever
printed in England. Wesley died on Oct. IT, 1837, leaving a vast
number of ms. and printed compositions.
WESLEY, SAMUEL SEBASTIAN (1810-1876), English
composer and organist, natural son of Samuel Wesley, the emi-
nent composer, was born in London on Aug. 14, 1810. He was
one of the Children of the Chapel Royal from 1819, held various
unimportant posts as organist from the age of fifteen and later on
in 1832 he was appointed to Hereford Cathedral. He was suc-
cessively organist at Exeter Cathedral, Leeds parish church, Win-
chester and Gloucester Cathedrals. He again conducted the Three
Choirs Festivals of 1865, 1868, 1871 and 1874. A civil list pension
WESLEY AN METHODIST CHURCH
519
of £100 a year was conferred on him in 1873; he died at Glouces-
ter on the igth of April 1876, and was buried at Exeter. Wesley
was the first English organist of his day. As a composer he is still
highly esteemed for the dignity and beauty of his anthems, the
finest of which are "Blessed be the God and Father," "The Wilder-
ness," "Ascribe unto the Lord" and "0 Lord, Thou art my God."
His service in E, published with a rather trenchant preface in
1845, became widely known.
WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH, one of the chief
branches of Methodism. See METHODISM and WESLEY, JOHN.
In 1790 there were 294 preachers and 71,668 members in Great
Britain, 19 missionaries and 5,300 members on the mission sta-
tions; 198 preachers and 43,265 members in the United States.
The crisis was serious. The large proportion of Wesley's members
had been taught to observe the sacraments and desired that pro-
vision should be made to administer them in their chapels. But
on May 4, 1791, eighteen laymen met at Hull and expressed
their conviction that the usefulness bf Methodism would be pro-
moted by its continued connection with the Church of England.
A trenchant reply was prepared by Alexander Kilham (q.v.), one
of the younger Methodist preachers.
The conference met in Manchester on the 26th of July, 1791.
A letter from Wesley (dated Chester, April 7, 1785) was read,
beseeching the members of the Legal Conference not to use their
powers for selfish ends but to be absolutely impartial in stationing
the preachers, selecting boys for education at Kingswood School,
and disposing of connectional funds. The conference at once
resolved that all privileges conferred by Wesley's Poll Deed should
be accorded to every preacher in full connection. To supply the
lack of Wesley's supervision the circuits were now grouped
together in districts. As to the sacraments and the relations of
Methodism to the Church of England the decision was: "We
engage to follow strictly the plan which Mr. Wesley left, us."
This was ambiguous and was interpreted variously. Some held
that, it forbade the administration of the sacraments except where
they were already permitted; others maintained that it left Metho-
dism free to follow the leadings of Providence.
The conference of 1792 was so much perplexed that it resorted
to the casting of lots. The decision was thus reached that the
sacraments should not be administered that year. This was really
shelving the question, but it. gave time for opinion to ripen, and
in 1793 it was resolved by a large majority that "the societies
should have the privilege of the Lord's Supper where they unani-
mously desired it." In 1794, this privilege was definitely granted to
ninety-three societies. The feeling in Bristol was very strong. The
trustees of Broadmead, who were opposed to the administration
of the sacrament by the preachers, forbade Henry Moore to oc-
cupy (hat pulpit. Nearly the whole society thereupon withdrew to
Portland Chapel. The conference of 1795 had to deal with this
controversy. It prepared a "Plan of Pacification" which was ap-
proved by the conference and by an assembly of trustees, and
was welcomed by the societies. The Lord's Supper, baptism, the
burial of the dead and service in church hours were not to be
conducted by the preachers unless a majority of the trustees,
stewards and leaders of any chapel approved, and assured the
conference .that no separation was likely to ensue. The consent
of conference had to be given before any change was made.
In 1796, Alexander Kilham, who refused to abstain from agi-
tation for further reform, and accused his brethren of priestcraft,
was expelled from their ranks and the New Connection was formed
with 5,000 members (see METHODIST NEW CONNECTION). The
conference of 1797 set itself to remove any ground for distrust
among the societies and to enlist their hearty support in all
branches of the work. Annual accounts were to be published of
various funds. The Circuit Quarterly Meeting had to approve
• the arrangements for the support of the preachers. Local preachers
had to be accepted by the local preachers' meeting, and the powers
of trustees of chapels were considerably extended. The constitu-
tion of Methodism thus practically took the shape which it re-
tained till the admission of lay representatives to conference in
1878. No period in the history of Methodism was more critical
than this, and in none was the prudence and good sense of its
leaders more conspicuous. Advance was quietly made along the
lines now laid down. The preachers had agreed in 1793 that all
distinction between those whom Wesley had ordained and their
brethren should cease. In the minutes of conference for 1818
"Rev." appears before the names of preachers who were members
of the Missionary Committee. Jabez Bunting (q.v.}, who had be-
come the acknowledged leader of the conference, wished to have
its young ministers set apart by the imposition of hands, but this
scriptural custom was not introduced till 1836. The introduction
of laymen into the Wesleyan Conference in 1878 was com-
memorated by a Thanksgiving Fund of £297,500.
Meanwhile, Methodism was growing into a great missionary
church. Its work in the West Indies was firmly established in
Wesley's lifetime. In 1786 eleven hundred negroes were members
of the society in Antigua. The burden of superintending these
missions and providing funds for their support rested on Dr.
Coke, who took his place as the missionary bishop of Methodism.
In 1813 he prevailed on the conference to sanction a mission to
Ceylon. He sailed with six missionaries on the 3oth of December,
but died in the following May in the Indian Ocean. To meet these
new responsibilities a branch Missionary Society had been formed
in Leeds in October 1813, and others soon sprang up in various
parts of the country. Methodist Missions really date from 1786
when Dr. Coke landed at Antigua. The area of operations gradu-
ally extended. Missions were begun in Madras, at the Cape of
Good Hope, in Australia, and on the west coast of Africa. Two
missionaries were sent to the Friendly Islands in 1826, and in 1835
a mission was undertaken among the cannibals of Fiji, which
spread and deepened till the whole group of islands was trans-
formed. The work in China began in 1851 ; the Burma mission was
established in 1887. The rapid progress of the Transvaal and Swa-
ziland missions has been almost embarrassing. The Missionary
Jubilee in 1863-1868 yielded L 179,000 for the work abroad. As
the growth of the missions permitted conferences have been
formed in various countries. Upper Canada had its conference in
1834, France in 1852, Australia in 1855, South Africa in 1882. The
missionary revival which marked the Nottingham Conference of
1906 quickened the interest at home and abroad and the foreign
Field (monthly) is prominent among missionary periodicals.
In 1834 Hoxton Academy was taken as a training place for min-
isters. Didsbury College was opened in 1842, Richmond in 1843.
Headinglcy was added in 1868, Handsworlh in 1881.
The Centenary of Methodism was celebrated in 1839 and
£221,939 was raised as a thank-offering: £71,609 was devoted to
the colleges at Didsbury and Richmond; £70.000 was given to the
missionary society, which spent £30.000 on the site and building
of a mission-house in Bishopsgate Within; £38,000 was set apart
for the removal of chapel debts, etc.
In 1837 Methodism had nine infant schools and twenty-two
schools for elder children. A grant of £5,000 was made from the
Centenary Fund for the provision of Wesleyan day-schools. The
conference of 1843 directed that greater attention must be given
to this department, and a committee met in the following Octo-
ber which resolved that 700 schools should be established if pos-
sible within the next seven years, and an Education Fund raised
of £5,000 a year. In 1849 tne Normal Training College for the
education of day-school teachers was opened in Westminster, and
in 1872 a second college was opened in Battersea for school-
mistresses. Besides its day-schools, Methodism possesses the Leys
School at Cambridge, Rydal Mount at Colwyn Bay and boarding-
schools for boys and girls.
The Forward Movement in Methodism dates from the period
of the Thanksgiving Fund. Large mission-halls have been built
in the principal towns of England, Scotland and Ireland. The
Forward Movement of the 'eighties will always be associated with
the name of Hugh Price Hughes (q.v.). Village Methodism shared
in the quickening which the Forward Movement brought to the
large towns. Chapels which had been closed were reopened; an en-
trance was found into many new villages. Weak circuits were
grouped together and gained fresh energy and hope by the union.
The great event of Methodist history in the present century
was the Twentieth Century Fund begun by Sir Robert W. Perks
52°
WESSEL— WEST
in 1898. From the total sum of £1,073,782 grants were made as
follows: General Chapel Committee, £290,617; Missionary So-
ciety, £102,656; Education Committee, £193,705; Home Missions,
£96,872; Children's Home, £48,436. The Royal Aquarium at
Westminster was purchased and a central hall and church house
as the headquarters of Methodism erected. For this object
£242,206 was set apart.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For recent statistics see article METHODISM, and
for biographical reference see WESLEY (JOHN). An extensive bibli-
ography is given by J. S. Simon (see below). See also Dr. George
Smith and others, A New History of Methodism (1909) ; Poetical
Works of J. and C. Wesley; Wesley's Works (1771-74, 1809-13; ed.
Benson, 1829-31; ed. Jackson 1856-62). Standard ed. of Wesley's
Journal (ed. N. Curnock, 1910) ; Cam. Mod. Hist., vol. vi.; L.
Tyerman, Life of George Whitefreld (1876) ; J. H. Overton, The
English Church in the Eighteenth Century (new ed., 1887) ; J. H.
Overton and F. Relton, The English Church (1714-1800) (1906) ;
J. S. Simon, Revival of Religion in England in the Eighteenth Century
(1907) "Methodism" in Hastings' Ency. of Religion and Ethics;
W. E. H. Lccky, Hist, of England in the Eighteenth Century (new ed.,
1892) ; J. H. Rigg, The Living Wesley (3rd ed., 1880), The Church-
manship of J. Wesley (1887); R. Green, Bibliography of the Works
of J. and C. Wesley (2nd ed., 1906) ; Wesley's Veterans; Lives of
Early Methodist Preachers (Finsbury Library).
WESSEL, JOHAN (c. 1420-1489), Dutch theologian, whose
real name was Wessel (Basil) Harmens Gansfort, was born at
Groningen. He was educated at the famous school at Deventer,
which was under the supervision of the Brothers of Common Life,
and in close connection with the convent of Mount St. Agnes at
Zwolle, where Thomas a Kempis was then living. At Deventer
Wessel imbibed that earnest devotional mysticism which was
the basis of his theology and which drew him irresistibly, after
a busy life, to spend his last days among the Friends of God in
the Low Countries. From Deventer he went to Cologne and then
to Paris to pursue his studies. After a visit to Rome, where he
was in contact with the leading humanists he returned to Paris
where he gathered round him a band of enthusiastic young stu-
dents, among whom was Reuchlin. In 1475 he was at Basel and
in 1476 at Heidelberg teaching philosophy in the university. After
thirty years of academic life he went back to his native Groningen,
and spent the rest of his life partly as director in a nuns' cloister
there and partly in the convent of St. Agnes at Zwolle. His re-
maining years were spent amid a circle of warm admirers, friends
and disciples, to whom he imparted the mystical theology, the zeal
for higher learning and the deep devotional spirit which charac-
terized his own life. He died on Oct. 4, 1489, with the confession
on his lips, "I know only Jesus the crucified."
See Vita Wesseli Groningensis, by Albert HardenberK, published
in an incomplete form in the preface to Wessel's collected works
(Amsterdam, 1614; this preface also contains extracts from the works
of several writers who have given facts about the life of Wessel) ;
K. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation — the second volume
of the German edition is a second and enlarged edition of a previous
work entitled Johann Wessel, ein Vorgdnger Luthers (1834) ; A. Ritschl,
History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation
(Edinburgh, 1872) ; E. W. Miller, Wessel Gansfort; Life and Writings.
Principal Works translated by J. W. Scudder (2 vols., New York,
WESSEX, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain. Ac-
cording to th« Saxon Chronicle, it was founded by two princes,
Cerdic, and Cynric his son, who landed in 494 or 495 and were
followed by other settlers in 501 and 514. After several success-
ful battles against the Welsh they became kings in 519 around
the southern part of Hampshire. In 530 Cerdic and Cynric are
said to have conquered the Isle of Wight, which they gave to two
of their relatives, Stuf and Wrihtgar. Cerdic died in 534. Cynric
defeated the Britons at (Old) Salisbury in 552 and again in con-
junction with his son Ceawlin at Beranburh, probably Barbury
hill near Surndon, in 556. At his death in 560 he was succeeded
by Ceawlin, who is mentioned by Bede as the second of the
English kings to hold an imperium in Britain. With him we enter
upon a period of more or less reliable tradition. How far the
earlier part of the story deserves credence is still much debated.
It is worthy of note that the dynasty claimed to be of the same
origin as the royal house of Bernicia.
Whatever may be the truth about the origin of the kingdom,
we need not doubt that its dimensions were largely increased
under Ceawlin. In his reign the Chronicle mentions two great
victories over the Welsh, one at a place called Bedcanford in 571,
by which Aylesbury and the upper part of the Thames valley fell
into the hands of the West Saxons, and another at Dyrham in
Gloucestershire in 577, which led to the capture of Cirencester,
Bath and Gloucester. Ceawlin is also said to have defeated Aethel-
berht at a place called Wibbandun in 568. In 592 he was expelled
and died in the following year. Of his successors Ceol and Ceol-
wulf we know little though the latter is said to have been engaged
in constant warfare. Ceolwulf was succeeded in 611 by Cynegils,
whose son Cwichelm provoked a Northumbrian invasion by the
attempted murder of Edwin in 626. These kings are also said to
have come into collision with the Mercian king Penda, and it is
possible that the province of the Hwicce (q.v.) was lost in their
time. After the accession of Oswald, who married Cynegils's
daughter, to the throne of Northumbria, both Cynegils and
Cwichelm were baptized. Cynegils was succeeded in 642 by his
son Cenwalh, who married and subsequently divorced Penda's
sister and was on that account expelled by that king. After his
return he gained a victory over the Welsh near Pcn-Selwood, by
which a large part of Somerset came into his hands. In 66 1 he
was again attacked by the Mercians under Wulfhere. At his
death, probably in 673, the throne is said to have been held for a
year by his widow Scxburh, who was succeeded by Acscwine, 674-
676, and Centwine, 676-685. According to Bede, however, the
kingdom was in a state of disunion from the death of Cenwalh
to the accession of Ceadwalla in 685, who greatly increased its
prestige and conquered the Isle of Wight, the inhabitants of which
he treated with great barbarity. After a brief reign Ceadwalla
went to Rome, where he was baptized, and died shortly after-
wards, leaving the kingdom to Ine. By the end of the /th century
a considerable part of Devonshire as well as the whole of Somerset
and Dorset had come into the hands of the West Saxons. On
the resignation of Ine, in 726, the throne was obtained by Aethel-
heard, apparently his brother-in-law, who had to submit to the
Mercian king Aethelbald, by whom he seems to have been attacked
in 733. Cuthred, who succeeded in 740, at first acted in concert
with Aethelbald, but revolted in 752. At his death in 756 Sige-
berht succeeded. The latter, however, on account of his mis-
government was deserted by most of the leading nobles, and with
the exception of Hampshire the whole kingdom came into the
hands of Cynewulf. Sigeberht, after putting to death the last
of the princes who remained faithful to him, was driven
into exile and subsequently murdered; but vengeance was after-
wards taken on Cynewulf by his brother Cyneheard. Cynewulf
was succeeded in 786 by Berhtric, who married Eadburg, daughter
of the Mercian king Offa. Her murderous conduct led to the
king's death in 802. Berhtric was succeeded by Ecgberht (q.v.),
who overthrew the Mercian king Beornwulf in 825. This led to
the establishment of West Saxon supremacy and to the annexa-
tion by Wessex of Sussex, Surrey, Kent and Essex.
Aethelwulf (q.v.), son of Ecgberht, succeeded to the throne of
Wessex at his father's death in 839, while the eastern provinces
went to his son or brother Aethelstan. A similar division took
place on Aethelwulfs death between his two sons Aethelbald
and Aethelberht, but on the death of the former in 858 Aethel-
berht united the whole in his own hands, his younger brothers
Aethelred and Alfred renouncing their claims. Aethelberht was
succeeded in 865 by Aethelred, and the latter by Alfred in 871
This was the period of the great Danish invasion which culminated
in the submission of Guthrum in 878. Shortly afterwards the
kingdom of the Mercians came to an end and by 886 Alfred's
authority was admitted in all the provinces of England which
were not under Danish rule. From this time onwards the history
of Wessex is the history of England.
See Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle and Plummer (Oxford,
1892-99); Bede, Hist. Eccl. and Continuatio, edited by C. Plummer
(Oxford, 1896) ; "Annales Lindisfarnenses," in the Monumenta Germ.
hist. xix. (Hanover, 1866) ; Asser, Life of Kbit Alfred, ed. W. H.
Stevenson (Oxford, 1904) ; W. de G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum
(London, x88jHM>. (F. G. M. B.)
WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820), English historical and
WEST— WEST AFRICA
521
portrait-painter, was born on Oct. 10, 1738 at Springfield,
Pennsylvania, of an old Quaker family from Buckinghamshire.
He showed artistic talent at an early age, and at the age of
eighteen settled in Philadelphia as a portrait-painter. He then
removed to New York, and in 1760, through the assistance of
friends, he was enabled to visit Italy, where he remained nearly
three years. On leaving Italy he settled in London as an historical
painter. George III. took him under his special patronage and
commissions flowed in upon him from all quarters. In 1768 he
was one of the four artists who submitted to the king the plan
for a royal academy, of which he was one of the earliest members;
and in 1772 he was appointed historical painter to the king. He
painted large pictures on historical and religious subjects, con-
ceived, as he believed, in the style of the old masters, and so
high did he stand in public favour that on the death of Sir
Joshua Reynolds, in 1792, he succeeded him as president of the
Academy. He died in London on March n, 1820, and was buried
in St. Paul's. West's large "Death bf Wolfe" is interesting as
introducing modern costume.
An account of West's life was published by Gait (The, Progress of
Genius, 1816). See also H. T. Tuckerman, Book of the Artists
(N.Y., 1868).
WEST, THE, a term of special significance in the United
States because the major direction of settlement has always been
westward. To New Englanders at the beginning of the igth cen-
tury "west" meant western New York, and to those of the
Middle Atlantic shore it meant the Ohio valley. As settlement
proceeded the "west" was continually carried forward and fol-
lowed the retreating frontier across the country. Before the Civil
War the Mississippi valley was "west" but for the next generation
this region had become the "Middle West" (q.v.) and a "Far
West" had grown up beyond. For the characteristics of this tran-
sitory "west" and its significance in American life see the article
THE AMERICAN FRONTIER.
Since the disappearance of a definite frontier about 1890 the
use of terms has become more stable, but the West still begins in
a different place, for every person. For easterners it usually be-
gins at the Mississippi river, for some others the natural place
of delimitation would seem to be where the prairies blend into
the plains, a line slightly beyond the western border of the first
row of States west of the Mississippi. From this line to the Pa-
cific stretch three successive geographical divisions, the plains,
the mountains and the Pacific slope. The last is the oldest in
settlement. Migration leaped across the arid plains and the for-
bidding mountains to the fertile agricultural valleys of Oregon
or to the gold placers of California. It then dribbled back
through the mountains separating and collecting again where ever
mineral wealth was found. Lastly it spread thinly over the plains
in the ranching frontier, which after 1890 was largely replaced
by the denser homesteading population. The Pacific slope has
come to be known as the "Coast." The real West, then, is made
up of the last frontiers, the mountains and the plains. Its popu-
lation is more varied in character than in any other major portion
of the country. Settled during and after the Civil War by south-
erners, middle-westerners, and easterners, it possesses different
characteristics from the older sections. Except in the few cities
developed social strata are scarcely noticeable. Out of the west,
or the "Coast" have come the more democratic governmental
ideas, notably the initiative, referendum and recall. Wyoming as
a territory provided for woman suffrage and was the first State
of the Union and perhaps the first in the world to do so. Property
rights of women were also early made more nearly equal to those
of men. In all cultural fields, though people carried with them the
ideas of their backgrounds, the lack of established traditional
institutions made modification and experiment easier. De-
pendence on the public schools became greater as the influence of
other institutions declined.
WEST AFRICA. As a geographical region West Africa may
be taken to include the coast lands from Cape Blanco to the
estuary of the Congo, the basins of the Niger, the Senegal and
Gambia, and of the Volta and other rivers entering the Gulf of
Guinea. Eastward it extends to Lake Chad, and northward it
merges into the Sahara. While it includes the Cameroons and
the Gabun it does not include Angola, which is properly West-
Central Africa. As defined, West Africa has an area of about
3,000,000 sq.m. not reckoning the Sahara region. The population
is about 40,000,000.
Physical Features.— In physical features West Africa pre-
sents a fairly simple structure. The coast makes a great bend
from south to east, and then south again, but it is of a remark-
ably regular outline, and the only good natural harbours are in
the estuaries or mouths of the rivers. A coast plain varying from
a narrow strip to 50 or 60 m. deep is succeeded by an area of
dense forest. In some places, as in the Niger delta, the forest
comes to the water's edge and then consists of mangroves. The
coast, line is usually low and often ill-defined, and behind it run
lagoons and creeks, so that considerable areas are forested swamp.
North of the forest area the ground rises to a comparatively low
plateau, forming mountain ranges parallel to the coast. In the
east rise the mountains of Adamawa, which are the outliers
of the plateau which there marks the limit of the Congo basin.
From Adamawa a volcanic range runs south-west, culminating
at the coast in Mt. Cameroon. From a submerged peninsula ex-
tending from Mt. Cameroon rise the islands of Fernando Po,
Principe, St. Thomas and Annobon. From the western face of
the Adamawa mountain streams descend to form the Benue. More
important to hydrography of the country are the Futa Jallon
mountains, which are parallel to the coast.
Climate. — The climate of the coast and forest regions is hot
and excessively humid. Variations of temperature are normally
not great and the average is about 80° F. The yearly rainfall is
from 80 to 100 in. in most districts; in the Kasamance region
of Senegal and in the Niger delta the fall is frequently 150 in.
in a year. The climate of the interior is, as a rule (Senegal is an
exception), hot and dry, with temperature often higher than on
the coast, but with much greater daily variations. In the inland
regions the rainfall is generally not above 30 in. a year, but in
some places may be 60 in., while in the north — as at St. Louis,
Senegal — it is but 12 inches. In the coast regions the rainy
season lasts nine months or more ; in the interior that is usually
the length of the dry season. The difference is largely due to
the fact that the coast is subject to the moisture-laden winds from
the Atlantic, and that the rise to the plateau intercepts these
winds, while the interior is more subject than the coast to the
harmattan, the dry, hot wind from the desert. Malaria, dysentery
and other diseases prevail, and no part of West Africa is suitable
for permanent occupation by Europeans, though in some regions,
such as the Bauchi plateau, whites can live.
Forest and Plain. — The great forest belt extends from the
Gambia to the Congo and covers probably some 700,000 sq.m.
Along the shores, lagoons and creeks there are mangrove forests,
behind which are great areas of oil palms. Besides the oil palms
are other palms, including the coconut palm. Other characteristic
trees of the dense forest are mahogany, cedar, ebony and walnut.
The rubber vine and rubber trees are abundant. In the more open
forest are giant baobabs and shea butter trees, and in the north
gum-yielding acacia. The open country usually begins about 7°
N. latitude. Its general character is that of a granite and sand-
stone plateau forming undulating plains traversed by the allu-
vial valleys of the great rivers. West of the Niger at Timbuktu,
as far as Mopti, the Niger valley is a wide, marshy, fertile plain.
Within the Niger bend in the French Sudan, and east of the
river to Lake Chad, are considerable areas of grassland giving
pasture to large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats, and
much arable land. These plains cover over 1,000,000 sq.m., with-
out reckoning the open country on the Cameroons plateau. In the
extreme west, in Senegal, the country north of the Gambia is a
sandy plain without surface water for eight months of the year,
but with excellent pasturage after the rains. Two large regions,
the French Niger Colony, which lies immediately north of (Brit-
ish) Nigeria, and Mauretania, the country north of the lower
Senegal, which between them have an area of over 500,000 sq.m.,
are half or more than half Saharan in character. In small part
they have cultivated land and a considerable area of pasture.
522
WEST AFRICA
Natives and Europeans. — The vast majority of the people
are of the negro race, but in the region north of the great forest
belt other races have been represented from the earliest period
of which there is record. Egyptian influences spread westward
from the Nile valley in ancient times, and in all likelihood there
were migrations of various clans. Jt is possible that the Fula
people came originally from the East. Again the Sahara proved
no barrier comparable to that of the forest zone, and Berbers
from North Africa crossed the desert and settled in the region
north of the lower Senegal, along the middle course of the Niger
and in the Lake Chad region. Thus the negro peoples were in
contact with the Mediterranean world and to some extent shared
its civilization. After the Arab conquest of North Africa in the
yth century, Arab tribes settled in the Lake Chad and other dis-
tricts, and the influence of Islam spread over a wide area. By
the nth century Mohammedanism had become the religion of
many of the negroes, and pilgrims travelling eastwards to Mecca
renewed, or strengthened, the connection of West Africa with
Nubia and Egypt. Long before the rise of Islam the peoples of
this northern part of West Africa, consisting largely, as has been
seen, of open plains watered by large and navigable rivers, had
developed well organized States, of which the oldest known,
Ghana (or Ghanata), is thought to have been founded in the
3rd century A.D. Later arose the empire of Melle and the more
famous and more powerful Songhoi (Songhay) empire. These
were mainly west of the Niger; east of that river the Hausa — still
largely pagan— founded several States and around Lake Chad grew
up the powerful empire of Bornu. Marking the importance, com-
mercial arid political, of these States, large cities were founded.
The trade of all these countries was, to a small extent, east-
ward to the Nile valley, but chiefly across the Sahara to the
Barbary States, the principal routes leading to Morocco and
Tripoli. The barrier presented by the forest belt appeared almost
insuperable to trade with the south, though there was some traffic
with its warlike inhabitants. The routes across the Sahara were
well known ; along them passed great camel caravans with slaves,
gold dust, ostrich feathers and leathern goods curiously wrought.
The modern occupation of North Africa by European Powers,
begun with the capture of Algiers by the French in 1830, did not
lead to any revival of trade, partly because one of its main sup-
ports was the sale of slaves. The bringing of the western Sudan
into the orbit of Western influence and the development of a new
and richer commerce with the outer world was accomplished from
the south, with the breaking of the barrier of the forest belt.
The inhabitants of the dense forest and of the Guinea coast
had not been affected by the contact with the outer world which
their northern brethren had possessed. Pure negroes, these south-
ern folk were very primitive, nor did they develop any sea-
faring instinct which might have led them to the discovery of
other lands. But among them the Yoruba, the Ashanti, the
Dahomi and the Beni created well organized and powerful king-
doms. All the southern tribes had a profound belief in religion,
chiefly shown in spirit, that is, ancestor worship and in the power
of spirits to control the life of the living. In communal organi-
sation there was a thoroughly democratic element; the most pow-
erful king was subject to the control of a council of chiefs. These
peoples were made known to Europe by the discoveries of the
Portuguese navigators in the 15th century, and for over 300 years
their contact with the outer world was mainly through providing
slaves, ivory, peppers and spices and gold to the Europeans, and
getting from them gin, gunpowder and guns, beads, cotton cloths,
and "Kafir truck" generally. For over a century the Portuguese
were left undisturbed by European rivals on the Guinea coast,
Spain not interfering, in accordance with the bull of Pope Alex-
ander VI. of 1493 and the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494. But
after the Reformation the Protestant Powers paid no attention
to the papal bull (which the Spaniards later on also disregarded).
The English were among the first to challenge the Portuguese;
they were trading on the Gold Coast by the middle of the i6th
century, and were quickly followed by other nations, the Dutch
and the French proving the most formidable. In 1642 the Portu-
guese were forced by the Dutch to withdraw from the Gold Coast,
and thereafter, partly through inertia, they were ousted by rivals
from other places until, in the end, they were able to retain only
the small patch of territory known now as Portuguese Guinea.
Among the other Powers the struggle was keenest for the Gold
Coast — with its double attraction of gold and slaves. Here a
perfect patchwork of forts was built — Dutch, British, Danish,
Swedish, even German (the Braddenburgers). It was not until
late in the igih century that the coast became definitely British.
(See GOLD COAST.) On the Guinea Coast generally the Dutch were
for a time the most powerful European State. Their power waned
in the iyth century and they gave up Senegal to the French in
1678, and though Senegal was afterwards seized by the British,
it became definitely French after the downfall of Napoleon. The
Gambia had been contended for by British and French, the former
gaining possession of the lower river. Towards the end of the
i8th century the British laid the foundations of Sierra Leone,
making there a home for ex-slaves; the first settlement of Ameri-
can negroes was made in what is now Liberia in 1821 ; the British
acquired Lagos in 1861 as a step to ending the slave trade in the
Bight of Benin, and the French claim to the Gabun had begun
with the establishment in 1840 of Libreville as a home for former
slaves. The Spaniards acquired the island of Fernando Po towards
the end of the iSth century with settlements on the Muni river.
Fora long while the European Powers established on the Guinea
coast made no attempt to exercise jurisdiction outside the limits
of their forts, but gradually the authority of the whites was
acknowledged by the coast peoples. France was the first nation
seriously to undertake the conquest of the interior. From 1854
they pushed inland from Senegal — tackling the forest belt last
and mainly from the north. At that period, however, the British
had begun to penetrate inland by way of the Niger and the Benue,
while along the coast, apart from the French possessions, their
influence was paramount, notably in the Niger delta and the
Cameroons. While this influence was exercised no claim to sov-
ereignty was made in those regions and when, in 1884-85, the
"scramble" for Africa became acute, Germany was able to drive
the Togoland wedge between the Gold Coast (British) and Da-
homey (French) and also to secure the Cameroons. For the rest,
Great Britain secured Nigeria and a fairly large area for the Gold
Coast, the greater part of the hinterland falling, however, to
France. (The "scramble" and partition are described in the article
AFRICA.) The giving to France and Great Britain, after the World
War, the mandate to administer the former German colonies,
added responsibilities of those Powers in \Vcst Africa.
By the establishment of peace and by the building of railways
and roads through the forest belt, and by placing steamers on
the Niger and other rivers, the northern countries were at length
brought into communication with the outer world by a shorter
and much safer route than the Sahara, and the commerce of the
Guinea coast was reinforced by the produce of the north. The
great development in trade from about 1890 was due, however,
to the insistent demands of European and American industry
for "jungle produce," notably oil and rubber. The coast-people
first, and later the tribes of the interior, were brought into ever
growing contact with Western civilization.
Contact with Europeans also led to new wants, intellectual and
social, and in various districts to a keen demand for education.
This development took place under the guidance of French and
British administrators. If Liberia be excepted, nowhere was there
an independent African State left. In general the effect of the
contact between the white and black was favourable to the
African. What result would ultimately flow from the different
systems pursued by the French and the British in their dealing
with the African remained to be seen. Here only the main differ-
ence can be stated. The British, as far as possible, maintained
in existence, naturally under ultimate control by the colonial ad-
ministration, the native States with their own rulers, Gov-
ernments and treasuries. This was the system known as indirect
rule. The French governed their colonies directly, that is, Euro*
pean officials were everywhere in charge of the administration.
Former rulers lost all attributes of sovereignty, and native chiefs,
employed for purely local purposes, were, in effect, Government
WESTARP— WESTBURY
523
officials. The French sought also to infuse French ideas into
the African; the British essayed the difficult task of trying to
build up a civilization which, while taking what was suitable from
the West, would be essentially African.
As indicated, the greater part of West Africa belongs to France,
and all the French colonies are joined one to another to form a
continuous block, while each of the British protectorates is
neighboured by foreign territory. Of some 3,000,000 sq.m. France
administers about 2,600,000 (the Cameroons and the Gabun
colony included). The British share is about 430,000 sq.m.;
the negro republic of Liberia covers approximately 40,000 sq.m.;
the small remainder consists of Portuguese or Spanish enclaves
and a fraction of the Belgian Congo. But on the population basis
the British possessions lead with roughly 21,500,000 inhabitants,
while the French area has no more than 16,000,000 people. The
regions most densely populated are on the coast and in the forest
belt, notably the Gold Coast, Dahomey, the Niger delta and
Yorubaland (while there are many large towns).
Products and Trade.— The outstanding product is oil in vari-
ous forms. Besides palm oil itself, palm kernels, ground nuts,
benniseed, sesame, copra and shea butter are exported for their
oils. Senegal and the French Sudan, the Gambia and Northern
Nigeria are conspicuous for the cultivation of the ground nut;
the Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Dahomey, the Niger delta and
the Cameroons export great quantities of palm oil and palm ker-
nels. Other products of prime importance are cocoa, principally
from the Gold Coast, which, since the World War, has become
one of the main sources of the world's supply. Cocoa is also in-
creasingly cultivated in Nigeria and the Cameroons. Cotton grow-
ing for export dates from 1905 and is likely to become important.
Of sylvan products other than oil, "wild rubber" was of great
value in the closing years of the igth century and for a few years
after. Since about 1910 it has been largely ousted by plantation
rubber from the Far East, but in the Cameroons, the Gabun,
Nigeria and elsewhere there are now rubber plantations, and plan-
tations on a vast scale have been begun in Liberia. The export
of timber is the chief industry in the Gabun and in almost all
the other coast, districts timber, largely mahogany, is exported.
Fishing is of some account in various districts; the French have
given much attention to the fishing grounds off the coast of
Mauretania. The internal trade is large and active.
Mineral production, up to 1929, was almost wholly from the
Gold Coast and Nigeria. In Nigeria tin and coal are extensively
mined ; the Gold Coast has not only its gold mines, but vast beds
of manganese, which were discovered in 1914, and bauxite. The
Gold Coast also produces "sand" diamonds, some 26 to the carat,
which find a ready market. Gold is found in the rivers of Senegal
and in Bambuk; salt comes from north-east of Timbuktu.
External trade has grown very greatly since the beginning of
the 2oth century, largely, if not chiefly as the result of the opening
up of the country by the building of railways. In British West
Africa in 1900 the trade was valued at £7,896,000; in 1927 it was
valued at £63,797,000. In French West Africa, owing to the post-
war fluctuations in the value of the franc and to differences in
methods of returns, comparison is not so exact, but £5,000,000 for
1900 and £25,000,000 for 1927 represent approximately the vol-
ume of trade. The chief ports are Dakar (French), Freetown
(Sierre Leone), Takoradi (Gold Coast), Lagos, Port Harcourt
(all British) and Duala, in the Cameroons. All these have good
sheltered harbours and have railway connection with the inland
markets; most of the other ports are open roadsteads.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Annual reports on French West Africa are issued
by the Colonial Office, Paris. A bibliography is given in the Annuaire
Gintrd (Paris, 1928 eel.) ; French West Africa, a British Foreign
Office handbook (1920). For the British West African possessions
see The Dominions and Colonial Office List (London, yearly, with
lists of parliamentary papers) ; The Statesman's Year Book ; the
"British West African number" of The Times (Oct. 30, 1928) ; J.
Hutchinson and J. M. Dalziel, Flora of West Tropical Africa (1928) ;
Oman Newland, West Africa: A Handbook of Practical Information
(1922). See also the articles GUINEA, FRENCH WEST AFRICA, NIGERIA,
LIBERIA, GOLD COAST, SENEGAL, etc. (F. R. C.)
WESTARP, KUNO, COUNT (1864- ), German politician,
was born at Ludom. Aug. 12. 1864, and educated at the universi-
ties of Tubingen, Breslau, Leipzig and Berlin. He entered the
civil service in 1886, becoming Djrector of Police in Schoneberg
(1904), President of Police (1908) and Oberverwaltungsgerichts-
rat (1908). In 1920, after the establishment of the German Re-
public, he retired. In 1908 he had entered the Reichstag as a
Conservative. In 1919 he opposed the government on the ques-
tion of fulfilling the terms of the Allied ultimatum. From 1925
he was chairman of the Reichstag group of the German Na-
tional People's party. After the revolution the Conservative party
was embodied in the Nationalist party, without entirely losing
its own identity. At the beginning of 1928 it issued an appeal
for votes for the candidates of a "people's National Bloc" in
opposition to the Nationalist party candidates, together with a
programme advocating the restoration of the monarchy by legal
means. This action led to the resignation of Count Westarp from
the leadership of the party.
WESTBOROUGH, a town of Massachusetts, U.S.A., occu-
pying 22 sq.m. Pop. (1925) 6,348. It was the birthplace of Eli
Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin. It was settled about 1659.
WEST BROMWICH, town in Staffordshire, England, 6 m.
north-west of Birmingham. Pop. (1921) 73,647. Although of
ancient origin, the appearance of the town, like its growth as
an industrial centre of the Black Country, is modern. The church
of All Saints, formerly St. Clement, was given by Henry I. to the
convent of Worcester, from which it passed to the priors of
Sandwcll, who rebuilt it in the Decorated period, the present
structure (1872) following their plan. The chief public buildings
are the town hall, the Institute, the free library and law-courts.
The picturesque Oak House (i6th century), was opened as a
museum and art gallery in 1898. There is a special school for
daughters of clergymen at. Sandwell Hall, a former scat of the
carls of Dartmouth and at an earlier date a Benedictine priory
WESTBROOK, a city of Maine, U.S.A. Pop. (1920)
9,453 (80% native white); 1928 local estimate 11,000. The river
provides water-power, and the city manufactures paper, silks
and cotton goods. Westbrook was separated from Falmouth in
1814 and incorporated as the town of Stroudwater, adopting its
present name in 1815, in honour of Col. Thomas Wcstbrook, an
Indian fighter. A charter was granted in 1889.
WESTBURY, RICHARD BETHELL, IST BARON (1800-
73), lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son of Dr. Richard
Bcthcll, and was born at Bradford, Wilts., on June 30, 1800. He
was educated at Wadham college, Oxford, and in 1823 was called
to the bar at the Middle Temple. He was appointed vice-chancel-
lor of Lancaster in 1851. His most important public service
was the reform of the then existing mode of legal education, a
reform which ensured that students before call to the bar should
have at least some acquaintance with the elements of the subject
which they were to profess. In 1851 he obtained a seat in the
House of Commons, where he continued to sit, first as member for
Aylesbury, then as member for Wolverhampton, until he was
raised to the peerage. Attaching himself to the liberals, he became
solicitor-general in 1852 and attorney-general in 1856 and again
in 1859. On June 26, 1861, on the death of Lord Campbell, he
was created lord chancellor, with the title of Baron Westbury of
Westbury, county Wilts. The ambition of his life was to set on
foot the compilation of a digest of the whole law, but for various
reasons this became impracticable. While personal corruption is
not imputed to him, he acted with some laxity, and after Parlia-
mentary enquiries, he resigned (1865).
In 1872 he was appointed arbitrator under the European
Assurance Society act 1872. Perhaps the best known of his
judgments is that delivering the opinion of the judicial commit-
tee of the privy council in 1863 against the heretical character
of certain extracts from Essays and Reviews. His principal legis-
lative achievements were the passing of the Divorce act 1857, and
of the Land Registry act 1862 (generally known as Lord West-
bury's act), the latter of which in practice proved a failure.
What chiefly distinguished Lord Westbury was the possession of
a blistering tongue. He waged a remorseless war on the clergy
in general and bishops in particular. He died on July 20, 1873,
within a day of the death of Bishop Wilberforce, his special an-
524
WESTBURY— WESTERMARCK
t agonist in debate among the clergymen of England.
See T. A. Nash, Life of Lord ^estbury (2 vols., 1888).
WESTBURY, an urban district of Wiltshire, England. Pop.
(1921) 3,712. All Saints' church is Norman and later, with
a magnificent nave. A chained black-letter copy of Erasmus'
"Paraphrase of the New Testament" is preserved in the south
chapel. In the suburb of Westbury Leigh is the "Palace Garden,"
a moated site said to have been a royal residence in Saxon times.
Westbury figures in Domesday as a manor held by the king.
The earliest mention of the town as a borough occurs in 1442-
1443. The charter of incorporation is lost (tradition says it was
burnt), and the town possesses no other charter. The borough
returned two members to parliament from 1448. In 1832 the num-
ber was reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged
in that of the county.
WEST CHESTER, a borough of south-eastern Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 11,717 (78% native white and 16%
negroes). It is the seat of a State normal school (1871) and sev-
eral academies of long standing. The Turk's Head inn dates from
1762. On the outskirts of the town are a number of fine estates,
where thorough-bred horses and cattle are raised. West Chester
was settled in 1713, succeeded Chester as the county seat about
1784, and was incorporated as a town in 1788, as a borough in
1799. The Battle of Brandywine (Sept. n, 1777) was fought 7 m.
to the south, and on Sept. 20 Gen. Wayne, with a small force,
was surprised and routed by the British at Paoli, 8 m. N.E.
WESTCOTT, BROOKE FOSS (1825-1901), English
divine and bishop of Durham, was born on Jan. 12, 1825, near
Birmingham. His father, Frederick Brooke Westcott, was a bota-
nist of some distinction. Westcott was educated at King Edward
VI. school, Birmingham, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He
took his degree in January 1848, obtaining double-first honours. In
mathematics he was twenty-fourth wrangler, Isaac Todhunter
being senior. In classics he was senior, being bracketed with C. B.
Scott, afterwards headmaster of Westminster. Westcott then re-
mained for four years in residence at Trinity. In 1849 he ob-
tained his fellowship, and took holy orders. Among his pupils at
Cambridge were his school friends J. B. Lightfoot, E. W. Benson
and F. J. A. Hort (qq.v.). He devoted much attention to philo-
sophical, patristic and historical studies, but it soon became evi-
dent that he would throw his strength into New Testament work.
In 1852 he became an assistant master at Harrow, where he
taught for nearly twenty years under C. J. Vaughan and Montagu
Butler. The writings which he produced at this period created a
new epoch in the history of modern English theological scholar-
ship. These are History of the New Testament Canon (1855),
which, frequently revised and expanded, became the standard
English work upon the subject; Characteristics of the Gospel
Miracles (1859); Introduction to the Study of the Gospels
(1860), expanded from his Norrisian essay; The Bible in the
Church (1864); The Gospel of the Resurrection (1866); and a
History of the English Bible (1869).
In 1868 Westcott was appointed examining chaplain by Bishop
Connor Magee (of Peterborough); and in the following year he
accepted a canonry at Peterborough, which necessitated his leaving
Harrow. But the regius professorship of divinity at Cambridge
fell vacant, and Westcott was elected to the chair on Nov. i, 1870.
This was the turning-point of his life. He now occupied a great
position for which he was supremely fitted, and at a juncture in the
reform of university studies when a theologian of liberal views,
but universally respected for his massive learning and his devout
and single-minded character, would enjoy a unique opportunity
for usefulness. Supported by his friends Lightfoot and Hort, he
threw himself into the new work with extraordinary energy. His
Commentaries on St. John's Gospel (1881), on the Epistle to the
Hebrews (1889) and the Epistles of St. John (1883) resulted
from his public lectures. One of his most valuable works, The
Gospel of Life (1892), a study of Christian doctrine, incorporated
the materials upon which he was engaged in a series of more pri-
vate and esoteric lectures delivered on week-day evenings. Be-
tween the years 1870 and 1881 Westcott was also continually en-
gaged in work for the revision of the New Testament, and, simul-
taneously, in the preparation of a new text in conjunction with
Hort. In the year 1881 there appeared the famous Westcott and
Hort text of the New Testament, the outcome of nearly thirty
years of incessant labour. The reforms in the regulations for
degrees in divinity, the formation and first revision of the new
theological tripos, the inauguration of the Cambridge mission to
Delhi, the institution of the Church Society (for the discussion of
theological and ecclesiastical questions by the younger men), the
meetings for the divinity faculty, the organization of the new
Divinity School and Library and, later, the institution of the
Cambridge Clergy Training School, were all, in a very real degree,
the result of Westcott's energy and influence as regius professor.
To this list should also be added the Oxford and Cambridge pre-
liminary examination for candidates for holy orders.
In 1883 Westcott was elected to a professorial fellowship at
King's. Shortly afterwards he was appointed by the crown to a
canonry at Westminster, and became examining chaplain to Arch-
bishop Benson. He held his canonry at Westminster in conjunc-
tion with the regius professorship. The strain was heavy but
preaching at the Abbey gave him a welcome opportunity of deal-
ing with social questions. His sermons were generally portions of
a series; and to this period belong the volumes CJiristns Consum-
mator (1886) and Social Aspects of Christianity (1887).
In March 1890 he succeeded his friend Lightfoot as bishop of
Durham. The new bishop surprised the general public, which had
supposed him to be a recluse and a mystic, by the practical inter-
est he took in the mining population of Durham and in the great
shipping and artisan industries of Sunderland and Gateshead.
In 1892 he procured a peaceful solution to a long and bitter coal
strike. He was a staunch supporter of the co-operative move-
ment. He was practically the founder of the Christian Social
Union, and an ardent supporter of foreign missions. His last
book, Lessons from Work (1901), was dedicated to the memory
of his wife, who died in that year. He preached a farewell sermon
to the miners in Durham cathedral at. their annual festival on
July 20, and died on July 27.
The following is a bibliography of Westcott's more important writ-
ings, giving the date of the first editions: — Elements of the Gospel
Harmony (1851) ; History of the Canon of First Four Centuries
(1853) ; Characteristics of Gospel Miracles (1850) ; Introduction to the
Study of the Gospels (1860) ; The Bible in the Church (1864) ; The
Gospel of the Resurrection (1866) ; Christian Life Manifold and One
(1869) ; Some Points in the Religious Life of the Universities (1873) ;
Paragraph Psalter for the Use of Choirs (1879) J Commentary on the
Gospel of St. John (1881) ; Commentary on the Epistles of St. John
(1883) ; Revelation of the Risen Lord (1882) ; Revelation of the Father
(1884) ; Some Thoughts from the Ordinal (1884) ; Christns Consum-
mator (1886); Social Aspects of Christianity (1887); The Victory of
the Cross: Sermons in Holy Week (1888) ; Commentary on the Epistle
to the Hebrews (1889) ; From Strength to Strength (1800) ; Gospel of
Life (1892) ; The Incarnation and Common Life (1893) ; Some Lessons
of the Revised Version of the New Testament (1897) ; Christian
Aspects of Life (1897") ; Lessons from Work (IQOI).
See the Life by his son B. F. Westcott (1903), and also that by
J. Clayton (1906).
WESTERLY, a town of Rhode Island, U.S.A., separated
from Connecticut by the Pawcatuck river. Pop. (1920) 9,952
(26% foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate 15,000. It em-
braces the villages of Westerly and Bradford, and Watch Hill,
a seaside resort with a summer population of 5,000. Westerly
was settled in 1661 and the town was organized in 1669.
WESTERMANN, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (d. 1794)
French general, was born at Molsheim in Alsace. He accompanied
Dumouriez on his campaigns and was arrested as an accomplice
in his negotiations with the Austrians. He succeeded in proving
his innocence, and was sent with the rank of general of brigade
into La Vendee, where he distinguished himself by his extraor-
dinary courage. He was then summoned to Paris, where, pro-
scribed with the Dantonists, he was executed on April 5, 1794.
See P. Holl, Nos genereux alsaciens . . . Westermann (Strasbourg,
1900).
WESTERMARCK, EDWARD ALEXANDER, (1862-
), Finnish anthropologist, was born at Helsingfors on Nov. 20.
1862. He was educated at a lyceum in his native town, and at
the University of Finland where he later became professor of
WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE
525
moral philosophy. In 1890 he went to England, and in 1907 was
appointed professor of sociology at the University of London.
He made a special study of primitive marriage and ethical origins,
and published The Origin of Human Marriage (1889); The
History of Human Marriage (1889, 5th cd. rewritten in 3 vol.
1921) ; The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (1906) ;
Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco, 2 vol. (1914).
WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE from Egypt to
Archaic Greece. Racially, as well as geographically, the whole
Mesopotamian region is one. The Chaldaeans of the earlier
settlements — a mixture of Sumerian and Semitic elements — the
Babylonians and the Assyrians, all had the same broad character-
istics in their architecture as in their beliefs. The vast plain,
watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, was liable to flooding.
Hence, the terraced platform was an indispensable preparation
for all Mesopotamian building. The ziggurat, or terraced pyra-
mid, was its principal feature but would have been impossible,
by itself, without a base on which 'to stand. Herein lies the
great contrast between the architecture of Babylonia and Assyria
and that of the dry, firm sand of Egypt.
Chaldaca. — Under this head may be included the architecture
of the lower Mesopotamian region from the earliest times till the
effective rise of Assyria, c. 1275 B.C. The principal factors are (i)
the early Sumerian centres of Ur, Erech, Larsa and Lagash, dating
from r. 3500 B.C. or earlier, to c. 2200 B.C.; (2) the overlapping
power of Akkad which became the dominating power c. 2700-2600
B.C. under Sargon T. and Naram Sin; and (3) the rise of Babylon,
c. 2200 B.C., culminating in the reign of the great lawgiver, Ham-
murabi. Each important Chaldaean settlement was primarily the
home of the reigning god and of the local ruler as his priest. Ur
was devoted to the cult of the moon-god, Nannar, and of his wife,
Nin-Gal. The zigpurat — 200 ft. by 150 ft. and still 70 ft. high-»-
is a solid mass of brick in high stages and built with bitumen
instead of mortar, standing on a brick-paved terrace having a
clear front space 300 ft. long and 174 ft. wide. It is the work of
Ur Engur, 3rd dynasty king of Ur (c. 2300 B.C.) and of his son,
Dungi. There is no doubt that the final or temple stage was
finished with great richness. At Abu Shahrein there were evidences
that the topmost chamber was lined with a mosaic of agate,
alabaster, marble and gold, fixed with gold-headed copper nails.
This technique has been borne out by recent finds at. Ur (q.v.).
The retaining walls of the terrace at Ur are massively con-
structed of sun-dried brick with sloped faces having a series of
shallow buttresses. Burnt clay cones are built in at intervals and
the circular inscribed ends of these show on the face. On the
terrace were cultural buildings and the houses of the god and his
wife. Remarkable results have been disclosed by recent excava-
tion. The earliest tomb structures, far below terrace level, go
back to c. 3500 B.C. and show astonishing facility in the construc-
tion of barrel vaults and semi-domes of crude brick. Bricks, both
crude (of sun-dried) and burnt, were the great building material
of Mesopotamia, a natural result of the rich stiff clay which was
the subsoil everywhere. "The walls, constructed and repaired
with bricks stamped with names of lords of the locality, contain
in themselves alone an almost complete history" (Maspero). Plas-
ter was the usual finish on this brickwork. An important decora-
tive work is the "stela" (inscribed tablet or pillar) of Ur Engur,
15 ft. high and 5 ft. wide, with carvings in panels of unequal
heights — arranged horizontally — and an inscription (cf., the later
Assyrian stela of Shalmaneser II. in the British Museum). At
Tell-el-Obeid, near Ur, was a temple of c. 3500 B.C. "At the door
stood statues of lions made of copper and on each side of the door
were columns encrusted with mosaic in mother-of-pearl and red
and black stones" (Woolley, Times report, 1925). There is a
Greek perfection in the green stone door socket at Ur, "shaped
as a serpent with a hollow in the top of its head, wherein the
pivot of the door hinge turned" (ibid.).
At Lagash (Tello) -there is a palace platform 174 ft. by 69 ft.,
rising 40 ft. above the plain. It belongs to the time of Gudea,
c. 2600 B.C. There is a distinct arrangement in the setting-out of
the buildings and the treatment of portions of the external wall is
characteristic — deep rectangular grooves arranged vertically at
regular intervals, or rows of semicircular projecting pilasters, like
"gigantic organ pipes." At Erech (Warka) the treatment is ren-
dered more decorative by diaper, chevron and spiral patterns,
coloured, which are formed of tcrra^cotta cones sunk deep into
solid plaster. Tello is justly celebrated for the quality of its
sculpture (now in the Louvre) in excessively hard stone, which
is comparable with the early dynastic work of Egypt.
Assyria. — The plan of an Assyrian palace can be seen in Sar-
gon's great centre at Khorsabad, on the east bank of the Tigris.
The whole palace area is some 7 j ac., of which about 3 rd. is given
over to the palace, the remainder being platform area containing
the ziggurat and other ritual buildings; but the palace was placed
on the centre of the river front of a square enclosure containing
the town, occupying, roughly, a square mile and surrounded by a
fortified wall strengthened with towers at intervals. The court-
yard system is at once evident in the palace and there is more
symmetry (or at least deliberate grandiose arrangement) than is
apparent at first sight. It is also impossible to judge of the effect
of such a work as this from a plan only and without taking into
account the accessories of Assyrian architecture — the coloured
tile decorations, the gigantic human-headed bulls or lions of the
entries and, above all, the magnificent reliefs which are so evident
from the show cases of the British Museum. For precision and
delicacy of treatment, fine sense of design and mastery in the
rendering of animal form, these reliefs can compare with the
architectonic sculpture of any age. The entire absence of the
column in all Mesopotamian buildings is noticeable.
Babylon.— The latest rebuilding of Babylon by Nebuchad-
rezzar II. in 604 B.C., after the destruction of Nineveh by the
Mcdcs, Babylonians and Scythians, exhibits one of the greatest
building achievements that has ever been attempted. It was to
some extent a continuation of earlier work by the later Assyrian
kings and Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadrezzar. The palace
(or rather palaces) proper, as at Khorsabad, can only be con-
sidered as incidents in an immense area which lay on the east
bank of the Euphrates for the most part, but also crossed it. The
outer wall on the cast side consists of two thicknesses of brick-
work, respectively 23 ft. and 25^ ft., with an intervening space
of 40 ft. This was filled in and a roadway 86 ft. wide constructed
on the top. The labour involved recalls the building of the
pyramids of Egypt. Various coloured stones were used as
paving slabs.
The decorations" of the palace were in the prevailing Baby-
lonian style of coloured and glazed tiles — lions, bulls, dragons,
flower forms and formal patterns, executed with extraordinary
verve and richness of colour. Inscriptions record that uthe cham-
ber of Marduk, lord of the gods" was "furnished with shining
gold" and that eight bronze serpents at the doorways were cov-
ered with silver. The Ishtar gate is in a remarkable state of
preservation and gives a clear indication of the character of the
chains of towers that encircled the palace. The building activi-
ties of Nebuchadrezzar were continued by his successor Nabo-
nidus, who became a restorer of sacred sites in Chaldaea. He
effected a great levelling up and rebuilding scheme at Ur.
The greatest ziggurat of Mesopotamia — the Birs Nimrud — n
m. S. of Babylon, was completely restored by Nebuchadrezzar.
It was the more usual type which had its origin in early Chaldaea.
Its irregular form facilitated ascending stepways between the
stages. The whole intention was radically different from the tomb
idea of the Egyptian step pyramid (see EGYPTIAN ARCHITEC-
TURE). The Mesopotamian ziggurat was a "mountain" built in
solid stages having a shrine for the divinity at its summit.
Saturated with the idea of man's conflict with invisible powers,
the art expression of Mesopotamia is remote from the humanistic
thought of Greece and the modern world. Nevertheless, it con-
tained some forms of great importance in the history of archi-
tectural development, (i) The fortified walls with their square
towers, especially at gateways, entered into the mediaeval use of
Europe; (2) the round pilaster strips of external walls reappear
in the Sassanid palaces of the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D., as well
as in the Romanesque churches of Italy; (3) lions or other
carved pedestals as bases for columns also reappear in Italian
526
WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE
Romanesque work; (4) the bronze bands of the gates of Shal-
maneser II. (860 B.C. — now in the British Museum) were so per-
fect that a very complete restoration of the gates is possible and
they remain one of the finest examples extant of metal-craft
on such a large scale before mediaeval times; (5) the magnifi-
cent output of glazed tile relief which, originating in Babylonia,
was characteristic of Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian work, was
translated into new forms by later Persian artists and became the
greatest contribution of the Middle East to architectural deco-
ration; (6) lastly and most important of all there is the first use
of the arch, vault and semi-dome — with all that is meant by that
— anticipating the construction of Rome, not a few centuries
but some 3,000 years later.
Persia. — The Neo-Babylonian empire was founded in an inse-
cure age and perished, with all its splendour, in 538 B.C., only 66
years after the final collapse of Assyria. The real masters of
western Asia during this period were the Medes in the first in-
stance, followed by the Persians, to whom they were allied but
by whom they were subsequently conquered (550 B.C.). The
Medes overran Asia Minor and subdued the great Ionian State
of Lydia — an important event, as it brought western Asia into
direct contact with Greek culture. The 6th century temple of
Artemis at Ephcsus was built by Croesus, king of Lydia; and
Cyaxares, the Mede, may have seen this as well as the temple
of Sardis, the capital. There are comparatively few architectural
remains from this warlike period and from the succeeding one
of Cyrus, the great Persian, conqueror of Media and Babylonia.
The most important is the "tomb of Cyrus" at Passargadae —
a very interesting stone-built monument recalling the tombs of
Lycia and certainly foreign to its district; though it has been sug-
gested that it may be a Persian adaptation of the stepped towers
of Mesopotamia. Cambyses, son of Cyrus, effected the complete
conquest of Egypt, and his successor Darius (521 B.C.) con-
solidated the empire and founded Persepolis. Xerxes, following
him, continued building at Persepolis, invaded Greece and after
a ten years* conflict was finally routed at Plataea (479 B.C.).
We nqte the geographical position of Media and Persia on
the Iranian plateau, at a high elevation above and to the east
of the Tigris valley. Stone of superb quality was abundant in
this region and may partly account for the entirely new plan
principle that is discovered in Persian architecture. The Persian
palaces at Persepolis and Susa were built on raised platforms
enclosed by terrace walls and approached by step-ways, recall-
ing in this way those of Mesopotamia; but the structures above
were columnar halls, like those of Egypt. The largest of these —
the hall of the 100 columns at Persepolis — is 225 ft. square,
though its columns were only 37 ft. high as against 67 ft. in
the smaller hall of Xerxes on the same site. In many respects
also the details were partly Egyptian and partly Greek. The
gateways of the hall of Xerxes have the colossal winged genii
associated with Assyrian palaces and the staircase leading to the
terrace has wild-beast reliefs on its balustrade (though these are
not purely Mesopotamian in feeling), but the cornices over the
doors are Egyptian in form and the side posts of the doors in
the hall of 100 columns have a surface decoration in low-relief
set in panels, the idea of which is strongly reminiscent of Egypt.
The much discussed columns of the hall of Xerxes are frankly
bizarre. They had no permanent influence on future work. But
the halls of the Persians were probably the finest that have ever
been built and their decorative craft work of the early $th century
B.C. was equal to any Greek work of similar technique.
The Hittites. — Hittite architecture must be considered an anti-
climax after the developments previously described, but it con-
stituted an element of stability influencing the whole of the east
Mediterranean region at a most important period, from c. 1500-
1000 B.C., a period in which Mesopotamia was comparatively qui-
escent and which survived the zenith and decline of Aegean art.
The earlier Hittite palace of importance was at Boghaz-Keui in
north Anatolia; the later was at Carchemish, on the Upper
Euphrates, and on the same latitude as the Assyrian sites but
some 300 miles to the west. The architectural evidences were of
a rude and primitive kind and the sculpture similarly so; but
there are abundant examples of the latter in vigorous reliefs. At
Carchemish, also, there were some carved lions of a rather fine
though archaic type, which appear to have carried columns,
though this is not certain; but of their decorative function as
guardians of an entrance there can be no doubt.
Crete. — Not even the discoveries of 1925 to 1928 in south-
ern Babylonia have been so arresting as the disclosure of the civili-
zation in Minoan Crete which forms the connecting link between
Egypt (see EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE) and Greece (see GREEK
ARCHITECTURE). The island formation of Crete was favourable
to settled development, as the sea formed an insuperable obstacle
to nomadic tendencies. This may of itself have accounted for
the steady progression of Crete in systems of rectangular con-
struction, which rapidly absorbed all circular or oval construc-
tions (except for certain tomb structures) and culminated in
palaces of great size. The immensely important site of Knossos
— situated some four miles inland from Candia, the mediaeval
capital of Crete — contains on its palace site the clearest evidence
of unbroken continuity in development from early Neolithic
times till about 1400 B.C. We have here therefore a Mediter-
ranean tradition which, though it had contacts with Egypt and
Mesopotamia, is neither African nor Asiatic and which became
one of the life-giving sources of all later European art.
The vital force of Minoan building development lies in its
amazing output of palace construction which reached its culmi-
nating point during the third Middle Minoan period (c. 1700-
1580 B.C.). Many centuries before history and in a remote island
of the Mediterranean there were building developments which
were not. matched in a domestic sense till the era of the greatest
palaces of the Renaissance. There was a certain amount of faced
masonry but a thorough system of wooden construction pre-
vailed as a framework to a general infilling of — for the most
part — such very rough rubble that it. survives practically as mere
earth. The inner walls, where not faced with large, thin gypsum
slabs, were covered with lime plaster of superb quality, varying
in thickness from 2 or more in. to the thinnest possible coating
of stucco. The ultimate finish was colour, on a slip of the finest
stucco, forming a true fresco. It is remarkable that so much of
this apparently flimsy construction and finish should have sur-
vived for more than 2,500 years in a semi-northern climate by no
means altogether dry.
Knossos. — The frescoes at Knossos enable us to re-construct
the entire life of the period. The variety and scale of the sub-
jects represented were extraordinary — life-size figure processions
and bull-grappling scenes; landscapes with figures, animals, birds
and marine creatures, set as definite picture-subjects within bor-
ders; ceremonial scenes, often with crowds of figures and archi-
tectural backgrounds — the last mentioned extremely valuable in
their structural suggestion and in their proof that the buildings
of the palace were themselves coloured. The floors of the prin-
cipal rooms were paved with gypsum slabs covered with thin hard
coloured stucco. Some of the ceilings must also have been of
coloured plaster, in semi-geometrical or running patterns. The
principle of coloured decoration was carried through the whole of
the palace : even the storage rooms of the basement were finished
with deep-red plaster, having skirtings and dado lines in grey and
white. The fresco finds show that the elaborately dressed Minoan
ladies were able to watch spectacular displays from windows with
great facility; also that windows were large and had "muUions."
XTolumns must have been of wood and have formed part of
the colour scheme. Column bases of circular or oval form pro-
jected slightly above the floor and were of gypsum or limestone.
A few were of coloured marble or beautifully variegated stone,
indicating a technique of which no further details are available.
Of architectural details and accessories the most important are
some wonderfully carved stone bands with rosettes and other
patterns; the gypsum benches that lined the walls of some of
the rooms (those in the "Throne Room," 'dating from the last
phase of the late Minoan period, being associated with a gypsum
throne of unique character, showing clear indications of a wooden
origin) ; the stepped balustrades of the staircases and of the low-
level tanks that were probably associated with religious rites;
WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE
527
and, even more important, the niched seat or throne raised three
steps as a centrepiece behind a low parapet at one end of the
principal suite of apartments in the "Royal Villa," with its strong
suggestion of the raised altar and apse of later Christian usage.
The layout and economy of the great centre which contained
these features has been preserved almost entire in its ground plan.
Broadly, it is a square of about 400 ft. with a central open court
175 ft. long and nearly 100 ft. wide. At the northern end of this,
towards the sea, is the main entrance passageway, but this en-
trance was masked and probably strongly guarded. The main
State entrance was on the west side, an indirect entry looking
on to a great paved court and leading to the south terrace. Here
the king may have "sat in the gate." The impressive size of the
entry — which has a large central column dividing a total span of
37 ft. — and the frescoed richness of the processional way lead-
ing from it, formed a fitting approach by a double turn to a great
suite of State apartments going northwards and raised some 8
ft. above the central court. The greater part of this western area
was carried on the massive basement walls which are now exist-
ing, the floor being below the level of the central court. The out-
standing feature of this basement is its great series of storage
magazines, over 200 ft. in length.
On the east side of the central court the ground descended
smartly to a pleasant river valley. A deep cut in this slope held
the most perfectly preserved portion of the palace — the domes-
tic quarter — accessible from the central court by a fine staircase
in tiers of two Hights round a newel wall. This staircase affords
conclusive evidence of three storeys; in all probability there was
a fourth storey. The domestic quarter at Knossos is the most
complete epitome of Minoan planning on a grand scale that
exists. The open balustraded area on the farther (east) side of
the grand staircase was one of a system of five internal areas
which gave light and air to the whole group of apartments. These
areas were faced with limestone and paved with pebble cement,
in contrast to the gypsum finish of covered quarters. Descend-
ing shafts and a perfect system of underground drains, all stone-
built, carried away the roof water and other drainage. Two
smaller staircase systems served the treasury and the queen's
apartments respectively. On the upper floors must have been
bedrooms and nurseries and other rooms for general use. The
whole system ends gracefully on a columned piazza with a spa-
cious verandah above, overlooking the river.
Phaestos, Hagia Triadha, Gournia, etc. — The palace of
Phaestos, near the south coast of the island, is distinctly inferior
to Knossos in size and importance, but it was probably the seat
of a king, though perhaps a tributary one. It supplements in an
admirable way many things that Knossos has lost, owing to the
fortunate fact that the great stepway leading to its State apart-
ments still exists complete and is here a truly monumental fea-
ture, about 42 ft. across. The peristyle character of at least a
considerable part of the central court at Phaestos is clearly evi-
dent and also the existence of smaller courts of peristyle type.
The little summer palace of Hagia Triadha, near Phaestos, is
more complete in a domestic sense. Its fragment of "cat and
bird" fresco is one of the greatest treasures of Minoan art. There
were other centres in the eastern part of Crete, of which Gour-
nia, close to the north coast, is the most perfect Minoan town
that has so far been discovered. Its whole extent is less than that
of the palace at Knossos, but it contains streets, houses and a
tiny palace. It also illustrates, equally with Knossos and Phaestos,
the skilful choice of a Minoan site.
The last two centuries of the late Minoan period were a time
of decadence and re-occupation, following conquest (c. 1400 B.C.)
by some outside power, probably Mycenae on the mainland of
Greece. Architectural remains which are pre-Greek and yet sub-
sequent to 1000 B.C. are practically non-existent. The most impor-
tant Is a unique temple building, of which considerable fragments
were found, at Prinias in Crete (c. 700 B.C.). The doorway of
this — cut out of soft stone and now in the Candia museum — is
strongly reminiscent of Egypt. There is the same tendency to put
shallow relief sculpture on architectural members. The horse
appears for the first time in these reliefs. The lintel has an
opening above it, flanked by seated figures of semi-Egyptian char-
acter, while the lintel itself has a full-length female figure carved
on its underside, probably the mother-goddess of the earlier age.
Mycenae and Tiryns, — Mycenae is the outstanding example
of a mainland architectural development intimately associated
with the zenith and decline of Crete. There are the same motives
in palace planning, and the same decorative outlook; but Mycenae
— and even more pronouncedly the neighbouring fortress of Tiryns
— show a cyclopean method of construction hardly found in Crete.
The most impressive single feature is the Lion gate of the citadel
of Mycenae; the greatest structural works are the "beehive"
tombs of the same centre, particularly the largest and best pre-
served— the so-called "Treasury of Atreus," which was undoubt-
edly a tomb. The galleries (or side entrance passages) of Tiryns
can justly be placed beside them. We see quite clearly that this
massive building development in stone reflects an age of insecurity,
when powerful kings built fastnesses which were key positions, in
periods succeeding one another approximately from 1500 to
1200 B.C. The Lion gate is an appropriate incident in such a fast-
ness. Its rude but semi-scientific cyclopean construction absorbs
a feature which has made it famous — the great slab above the
lintel, carved with two majestic maneless lions fronting a cen-
tral pillar. The beasts' heads are gone and may have faced the
spectator, but whether in alabaster or bronze we do not know.
The existing remains, are in a very hard breccia stone.
The beehive tomb shows by contrast, a fine method of con-
struction. The doorway to this tomb, even in its nearly stripped
condition, is the most important purely architectural work of
prehistoric times in Europe. Its scale is impressive; the inner
lintel is 29 J- ft. long, 16^ ft. deep, 3 ft. high and 120 tons in
weight. The finish was given by attached half columns, applied
rosettes and bands of various forms, all richly carved in grey-
green and purple porphyry-like stones. Some considerable frag-
ments of these are in the British Museum. The tomb itself — which
is nearly 50 ft. wide — is a pointed dome, but (as in more ruined
Cretan examples) is built with overhanging stones laid flat. There
is no sign of a true radiating arch or vault anywhere, the key-
stones of the vaulted galleries at Tiryns being the nearest ap-
proach to such construction.
Troy. — The city of Hissarlik, or Troy, on the eastern shore
of the Dardanelles, is the remaining work of Mycenaean times
on the mainland which need be noticed. It can show nothing of
positive architectural value which cannot be seen at Tiryns or
Mycenae. The great value of Troy is its burg or fortified site
showing successive strata dating from c. 3000 to 1000 B.C. As
at Mycenae and Tiryns, the central round hearth is found, which
was practically unknown in Crete. That this was a northern
feature is certain. Another fact of interest is the use of crude
brick for walling — an important link with Mesopotamia.
So far as we are aware, there was no continuity of tradition
between the architectural forms of the Aegean civilization and
those of historic Greece (see GREEK ARCHITECTURE), but there
were several root forms, particularly in the plans of buildings
which are common to both and bring Greek structures much
nearer to Aegean ones than to any others, (i) The idea of the
Greek temple plan can be seen clearly in the me gar on (hall) with
its extended side walls at Mycenae and the contemporary Troy;
(2) the plan of the Athenian propylaea or great entrance gate-
way to the Acropolis is based directly on forms in Crete and on
the mainland; (3) the high course of upright marble slabs at
the base of the cella wall in the typical Greek temple of the 5th
century B.C. can be seen in the west wall of the palace of Knossos
and other Minoan sites; (4) the use of the column for various
purposes is very much the same in both epochs. The decorative
use of fresco in Cretan houses and palaces deserves special men-
tion, as its influence on Greek and subsequent painted decoration
may have been profound, but only the threshold of this enquiry
has, so far, been reached. The sense of decorative values and
the acute observation of natural forms conventionally rendered,
all produced in pure colour, bring the best Cretan fresco into
line with Chinese and Japanese painting; and the oriental touch
is surer than in the somewhat parallel art of Tel-el-Amarna (see
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE; ARCHITECTURE; PERIODS OF ART).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For Chaldaea, much information is contained in
Times reports of excavations at Ur (Jan. 1925 to March 1928) pending
publication in more permanent form. See also J. E. Taylor in Journ.
of R. Asiatic Socy. xv. (185$) ; W. K. Loftus, Travels and Researches
in Chaldaea and Susiana (1857) ; E. de Sarzec, Decouvertes en Chaldee
(1884-1912, for Tello) ; G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I' Art
dans I'Antiquite, vol. ii. (1884). All these are admirably summarized
in G. Maspero, Dawn of Civilization (trans. M. L. McLure, 1914).
For Assyria, Sir H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (1853) ; G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, op. cit. and Hist, of Art in Chaldaea and Assyria
(trans. W. Armstrong, 1883).
For Babylon, R. Koldcwey, Das wieder erstehende Babylon (1925,
also trans, by A. S. Johns), Das Ischtar Tor in Babylon (1918).
For Persia, M. Diculafoy, L'Art antique de la Perse (1885) and
L' Aero pole de Sitsc (1890); G. N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian
Question (1892); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Hist, of Art in Persia
(Eng. trans. 1892).
For the Hittites, O. Puchstein, Bogaskoi, die Bauwerke (1912) ; J.
Garstang, The Land of the Hittites (1910) ; D. G. Hogarth and L. C.
Woolley, Carchemish (1914 and 1921). A good general account cover-
ing the whole field is E. Bell, Early Architecture in Western Asia
(1924).
For the Aegean area (Crete), refer also to periodicals. For struc-
tural aspects, I). Mackenzie, Cretan Palaces and the Aegean Civiliza-
tion, Annual of the British School at Athens, XI., XII., XIII. and XIV.
For fresco, D. T. Fyfe, 'Tainted Plaster Decoration at Knossos,"
Journ. of R. Inst. of Brit. Architects, X. 4 (1902) ; N. Heaton,
"Mural Paintings of Knossos," Journ. R. Soc. of Arts (1910) ; "Minoan
Lime Plaster and Fresco Painting," R.I.B.A. Journ., XVIII. (1911) ;
and in Tiryns (see below). See also article on AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.
For Aegean area (mainland) refer to article on AEGEAN CIVILIZA-
TION; particularly (for fresco) G. Rodenwaldt and others, Tiryns
(1912 et seq,). (D. T. F.)
A general account covering the whole field (not quite up to date
on Crete) is E. Bell, Prehellenic Architecture in the Aegean (1926).
WESTERN AUSTRALIA, the largest of the States,
occupying 975,920 sq.m. The length is about 1,480 m. and the
breadth about 1,000 m. while over one-third of the total area
(3 7.3% = 364,000 sq.m.) lies north of the tropic of Capricorn.
Its distance from the populous eastern parts of the continent is
offset by its position with regard to the ocean routes leading to the
homeland, to which it is the nearest, and from which it is, — in
spite of the Panama Canal — the first Australian land of call.
Physiography. — The broken coast-line of the north-west,
formed by the marginal submergence of a deeply dissected pla-
teau, contains several fine areas of enclosed waters which flank a
main gateway between the Pacific and Indian oceans. Large tidal
ranges — up to 38ft. in Hanover bay — and in some cases tidal cur-
rents (e.g., King Sound) are a disadvantage.
Moreover, southward from this the sandy Ninety Mile
Beach, and further on, the low, straggling, and often shallow
inlets, promontories and islands, fringed in places by coral reefs,
form part of a relatively undistinguished and inhospitable coast
where exposure and silting (due partly to recent coastal ele-
vations) present difficulties to harbour construction. The estu-
ary of the Swan River forms a notable exception, Fremantle being
one of the best and most commodious of natural harbours, while
Geographe Bay is also relatively protected. From Cape Natural-
iste onwards much of the south and south-west is flanked by high,
rocky and exposed coasts in which such inlets as King George
Sound form excellent harbours (Albany), while further east this
passes over into the unbroken cliffs of the Nullarbor Plain area
(q.v.). As a whole Western Australia is a closed land-mass and
has no relatively large maritime indentations.
To water-supply, owing to the climate, peculiar importance
attaches. Four main, besides parts of smaller, artesian basins
lie wholly or in part within the State; the Eucla or South-
eastern (i.e., approximately the Western Australian portion of
the Nullarbor Plain) ; the Coastal Plains basin in the south-west
(Cape Leeuwin— Dongarra) ; the North-western or Carnarvon
basin (Gantheaume bay — Onslow); and the Desert or Broome
basin. The extent and capacity of the Eucla and Broome basins
has not yet been fully tested though they are both, and par-
ticularly the latter, large, and, in general, apart from the Coastal
Plains basin, the resources have as yet not been fully exploited
(1926: 230 bores, yielding 66,760,000 gal; depths from 3,325-39
feet).
In the Perth area some 50 bores supply water to the city,
Fremantle and adjoining districts while the northern basins largely
underlie coastal lowlands and enhance their natural pastoral
value. The wells in the Perth area are notably fresh, but around
Eucla and some in other parts they are saline. Fresh discoveries
of artesian or sub-artesian supplies are from time to time reported
e.g., in the Northern Goldfields pastoral area, and there are, in
addition, considerable reserves of shallow-seated sub-surface
waters (e.g., in the Perth and other coastal lowlands). In the
interior large areas can be made available for the carrying and
movement of stock (e.g., Murchison area and cf. the Wiluna-HaH's
Creek route) by means of wells many of which are natural — solu-
tion pits in limestones, "native wells," "gnamma holes," etc. Un-
fortunately these shallow supplies are saline over considerable
tracts (e.g., in the Wheat Belt and Kalgoorlie areas), while the
vast number of "lakes" in the interior are little more than saline
flats akin to the widespread clay-pans. The lack of adequate
fresh water in the interior south-west has been met by a vig-
orous policy of surface (rainfall) storage and reticulation.
Chief amongst such schemes is the Gold-Fields Water-supply
Scheme by which water derived from a catchment in the
Darling ranges behind Perth is stored in the Mundaring reservoir
(760 ac.; 4,650 million gal.) and conducted thence by means
of a pipe-line with 8 pumping stations to a service reservoir
(12,000,000 gal.) at Bullabulling 307 miles distant. Thence the
water is reticulated by gravity to Kalgoorlie (44 in.); it is also
supplied to 30 towns "en route," to mines, and to agricultural areas
(500 extensions). (Total area covered: 16,000 sq.m.; total length
of mains [1926]: 1,454 miles; total consumption: 1,161,000,000
gal. per ann. — railways, c. 8%; mines, 22%; "other," 70%.
Capital cost, £3,642,000; revenue, £179,400; expenditure, £218,-
950.) There is an extensive system of water-supply to towns
(1926: 23 towns, pop. c. 14,000; 108,000,000 gal, including rail-
ways) and to agricultural areas.
Climate. — Western Australia covers such a wide area that
several distinct climatic regions are included in it, though obser-
vations for considerable areas are scanty or lacking, (a) The
north has a "monsoon" climate, with prevailing high temps.
(85°-7o°), a markedly summer rainfall (November-April with
max. December, January, February) brought by depressions
("lows") from the tropical seas to the north-west. The rains are
heavier in the north and tail off southwards and they are irregular
and often torrential, causing severe floods in the valleys; (b) the
north-west, lying south-west from the above, is characterized by
its high summer temps. — there is a large area with averages over
90°; by its long and severe heat spells — at Marble Bar temps,
over 100° have been recorded on 103 consecutive days — and by
an extremely erratic rainfall (10-20 in.). Thus in the north rain
falls mainly Jan.-March but further south winter rains pre-
dominate and these reach occasionally as far north as Broome.
This region is visited in summer, but at irregular intervals (45
during 50 years) by intensely developed cyclonic depressions
coming from the north-west (u Willy-Willies"). The Cossack
and Onslow areas in particular suffer from their destructive
violence, (c) the South-western "winter-rain" region comprises
most of the south-west of the State. Temperatures here range
from 5o°-8o° with occasional short heat-spells, though condi-
tions are progressively less equable towards the interior. The
weather is dominated by the passage (west-east) of large anti-
cyclonic (high-pressure) and cyclonic (low-pressure) systems
which involve variations (chiefly short-period) of temperature,
wind-direction, etc. Occasional rains penetrate southwards from
the north and fall in summer, but the chief rainfall is brought by
the "lows" from the Indian Ocean and this falls in winter (May-
Oct.) and is relatively reliable, (d) Of the vast interior little
definite is known, but of the more settled portions it may be
said in general that they partake of the character of the areas
described and form inland extensions of them. (See KALGOORLIE.)
Rainfall, however, decreases to 10 in. or (av. ann.) less and
it also becomes less reliable. The range of temperature (ann.
and diurnal) becomes greater (up to 30° or more), and in
parts the climatic conditions become those of a desert. This
MINING AND AGRICULTURE]
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
desert approaches the coast in the north-west and runs thence
broadening in an east and south-cast direction into the winter
rainfall area, the rather higher (average) rainfall in the north
being counteracted by higher temperatures. Of the Western Aus-
tralian climate it may be said that, in spite of the heat, dryness,
humidity and dust which afflict parts in various degrees and sea-
sons, in general it is not unhealthy.
Vegetation, Timber, etc.— Most of the State is clothed,
though unevenly, with vegetation, even arid portions having
some scrub, heath, or wiry grasses. In the north (Kimberley
Divisions) the coastal lowlands, river valleys and ranges carry
in parts patches of forest which may contain some useful timber.
But the predominant type is grassland with trees, savanna
adapted to the annual dry season. Inland and southwards, as
rainfall diminishes, this type degenerates into scrub and passes
into the scrub ("desert gums") and spinifcx of the sandier in-
terior. Along part of the north-west coast lies a belt of grass-
lands backed by scrub which affords useful grazing, and man-
groves, common farther north, line parts of the coast here also.
But farther south the poor country approaches close to the
coast (see. above. Climate), and from hereabouts stretches south-
eastwards into the little-known east-central interior the scrub
and spinifex type which at best has poor pastoral value. On the
southern side of this poor belt in the north-west "shoulder" of
the State (Ashburton, etc.), a better type of scrublands begins
to appear and south and east from the Gascoyne River (i.e., from
the beginning of the regular winter rainfall area) begins the
mulga pastoral country possessing also good sub-surface waters.
This extends south-eastwards inland to c. lat. 29° S. where it
passes over into the beginnings of the southern forest country —
the Salmon gum open-forest lands of the Kalgoorlie, etc. gold-
fields. This forest has proved invaluable to the mining industry
by supplying mining timber and fuel. In the south-western cor-
ner of the continent — i.e., the portion lying south-west of a line
running approximately from Sharks bay (c. lat. 25° S.) to near
Israelite bay (c. lat. 33° S.; long. 124° E.) — the belts of vege-
tation, as indicated above, appear to follow rather closely the
belts of (winter) rainfall. Thus the gold-fields forest (Morrell —
Salmon gum) passes southwards, in the belt of 10-20 in. av.
aim. rainfall, into the mallee, jam and wandoo forests farther
south-west, though malice and saltbush country prevail towards
the southern (Bight) coast. The prevailing types are now euca-
lyptus— the "jam" is an acacia — and the belts referred to (jam,
wandoo, York gum, marri or red gum) form a transition
zone in which trees of increasingly better growth pass over into
the real forest area of the State. This lies S.W. of (approxi-
mately) the 15 in. rainfall line and is c. 350 miles long and 50-
100 m. wide, about i of the total forested area of the State
(i.e., c. 20,000,000 out of c. 100,000,000 ac.) being contained
herein, though probably only some 3,000,000 acres carry mer-
chantable timber. A line drawn from about G!ng'n to rather
east of Albany marks off what is perhaps the most valuable
timber area in Australia. Here the distribution of types is
markedly dependent upon rainfall and soils. Behind the immedi-
ate coastal fringe in the south lie, in the areas of 40-30 in. rain-
fall, c. 250,000 ac. of karri forest composed of handsome giants
200-250 ft. in height yielding tough wood valuable, when "powell-
ised," for constructional purposes, etc. From near Busselton to
about Marginiup (N. of Fremantle) the 5 m. wide strip of
coastal limestones supports tuart (average height c. 150 ft.)
growing in more open formation. But the greater part of the
area (40-25 in. rainfall) north of the karri forests is occupied
mainly by jarrah interspersed with marri (c. 8,000,000 ac., of
which some 2,750,000 ac. are commercially useful). The jarrah
prefers lateritic soils and the trees, which in good areas average
100 ft. in height, yield first-class hardwood resistant to weather-
ing and insects which is in demand for paving-blocks, piers and
other out-door constructional purposes. The area "dedicated"
to forests has been recently largely extended (1,832,000 ac.)
and a total of 3,000,000 ac. is aimed at. Vigorous measures are
now being taken to control and regenerate the timber reserves
and the planting of pines (soft-woods) on a large scale has been
commenced (e.g., Mundaring and South Perth). Saw-millin
an important industry. In 1925-26 some 329 million supei
were cut, much of the product being used locally but consi
ahje quantities are exported abroad largely through Bunl
(q.v.). Other forest products are sandalwood, a shrub (c. li
high) which grows sporadically upon sandy soils over mud
the south-west interior. It yields a wood especially value-
China, to which it is exported, and also an essential oil. M;
bark has valuable tanning properties. Wasteful exploita
caused production to decline, but reforestation is now
progress. (See also AUSTRALIA: Forestry, and below. Statis
Survey s.v, Manufacturing Industries, in which "Wood-work
refers largely to saw-milling; also s.v. Trade: exports.)
Mining. — This industry has declined greatly in recent y<
Western Australia (1926) was the second largest produce
minerals (after New South Wales) but the value of her t
output was relatively small (£2,372,000, cf. New South W
£16,319,000), the number of men employed had fallen to 5,
and mineral exports represented only 10-9% of the total v
of experts (cf. 1903: 84-5%). Gold is the most impor
mineral produced (68-25% of the Commonwealth total), fl
of the well-known fields are still being worked but the C
gardie, Mount Margaret and Murchison areas were by far
most important (e.g., E. Coolgardie gold-field: 50% of mil
and 73% of output, of gold in State). More recently there ]
been indications of a slight revival in Western Australian mi
and great prospects undoubtedly lie before the Wiluna gold-
(Q.V.). Coal: The only field being worked (1927) was at C
(7 collieries producing 501,000 tons). The coal is consumed wi
the State (largely by railways), the coal reserves being a partic
boon in view of Western Australia's position and her reh
shortness of power resources. Recent borings for oil in the n
(Kimberley Division) though inconclusive give some pror
(See also: AUSTRALIA: Minerals; Mining and Metallurgy.
KALGOORI-IE; and below, Statistical Survey: Production; Mi
[giving figures for 1927]; Exports; above, Water-supply.)
Land Settlement, Agriculture, Dairying, etc. — Wes
Australia, though founded as a colony as early as 1829, \
slowly and in 1890 when it became a self-governing State
population was only 46,290. The gold-boom of the "ninel
nearly quadrupled this total (1900: 179,708). Thereafter car
lull, followed by a decline ow'ng to the war of 1914—18.
present the population is again increasing steadily (1927—28
15,000). These statistics are significant in that they reveal
vital factors controlling Western Australian development.
1914 Western Australia had barely begun to emerge from
more purely pastoral and mining regime which formed the ea
stage in the development of most Australian States. She is
fully launched upon a course of intensive land settlcrr
She is attracting men and capital not only from overseas
from her Eastern neighbours; the area of occupied land
rapidly expanding — during each of the last two years, 192!
and 1927-28, some 13 million ac. of new lands were taker
(1927-28: conditional purchase and farms: c. 418,000
grazing and pastoral leases: 12,823000 ac.) and the proj
continues. The "3,000 farm scheme" now being inaugurate
"probably the largest single (land-settlement) scheme which
ever been undertaken by a Government in Australia." It
at establishing 3,000—3,500 new 1,500 ac. wheat-and-wool fi
in the block of country (c. 12,500 sq.m. or 8,000,000 ac.) v
lies southwards from Southern Cross and the main (gold-fi<
railway line, eastwards of the Esperance-Norseman railway
and west of the existing rail-heads in the South-western Divi
Some 600 miles of railway line and 6,000 m. of roads, be
large water-conservation works, will be required and s
£8,000,000 expenditure will be involved of which the Comi
wealth and British Governments will supply shares.
Wheat. — In the first 70 years of her existence Western
tralia produced altogether only c. 15 million bu. of wl
m the year 1927-28 she produced 35,187,195 bushels. Al
southern States have increased their wheat areas in recent :
but Western Australia has probably shown the greatest rel
530
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
[PASTORAL INDUSTRIES
increase. In 1927-28 422,000 ac. were added and in the period
1920-21 and 1928-29 nearly 2,000,000 ac. (excluding wheat areas
cut for hay: 1928-29, 250,000 ac. estimated), an increase of
156% (South Australia, 56%; Victoria, 22% in the same period).
Moreover while the yield per ac. is very fair (11-12 bu. per ac.;
cf. Australian average ten years 1916-26: 12-41 bu.), the sea-
sonal fluctuations have been less marked than in some of the
eastern States:
N.S.W.
Victoria
S. Aust.
W. Aust.
1926-27 .
1927-28 .
Increase (~f-) or
decrease ( — ) .
47'37
27-01
-20-36
46-88
26-16
— 20- 7 2
35-5^
24-06
— 11-50
30-02]
35-T8lmill.
( bus.
+ 5-16J
Further, Western Australia's exports of wheat have mounted in
value from virtually nil to nearly £7,000,000 within the 22 years
1905-06 — 1927-28. The reasons for this lie to some extent in
physical circumstances. Some 93,500 sq.m. of territory in the
south-west of the State receive an average rainfall of loin, or
over during the winter growing season (April-Oct. inclusive),
and the belt of country climatically suited to wheat-growing is
bounded by a line running from the coast north of Geraldton
(c. lat. 27° 30' S.) south-eastwards via Southern Cross and
Norseman to the sea coast at about Israelite bay (lat. 33° S.;
long. 124° E.). On the south-west the limits are partly geological
(soils) but mainly set by heavier rainfall, and coincide in the
main with the eastern limits of the heavy (jarrah) forest area.
Within this io-2oin. rainfall area, though there is much rocky,
saline and otherwise unsuitable terrain, the surface is generally
flat, often monotonously so. The rainfall, though fluctuating, is
relatively reliable, so that a smaller fall is economically as valu-
able as the heavier but more erratic falls in some of the wheat-
lands of the Eastern States. Experience, seed-selection, "dry-
farming," and an appreciation of the value of light lands and
increasing skill in dealing with them, the growing use of artificial
manures — almost entirely superphosphates — the extension of
mixed wheat-and-sheep farming, and water conservation have
all played a part in the expansion referred to, the work of the
State agricultural services, the State Agricultural Bank, etc.
being also largely responsible. A hot sunny summer for ripening
the harvest is shared by the eastern States, as is also the general
benefit of an expanding world market, and perhaps the reliable
winter rainfall, cheap land, and an enterprising railway-construc-
tion and settlement policy are the chief factors in attracting
settlers and capital from the eastern States. Clearing is lightest
in the eastern (Salmon gum, etc.), heaviest in the western
(Wandoo, etc.) part of the wheat-belt, and the agricultural sea-
sons — ploughing, sowing, harvesting, etc. — become progressively
later as the wetter south-west and southern coastal areas are
approached, where, however, heavier yields are apt to be obtained
(e.g., 30-42 bu. in the Gnowangcrup district north of the Stirling
range). Dependent on wheat -growing is the manufacture of
agricultural machinery and the making of superphosphates (e.g.,
fertilizer factories near Perth and in construction at Geraldton.
Output, 1923: 93,000 tons; 1926-27: 187,000 tons. In 1927-28
217,000 tons were carried over the State railways). Western
Australian wheat is of good quality. The value of wheat exports
in 1927-28 was £6,994,528, Fremantle alone shipping 5,683,000
bags.
The export trade is now being greatly strengthened by the
Government policy of (voluntary) inspection and guarantee and
it is significant of Western Australia's commercial position that
amongst her customers she includes South Africa, India and
Egypt. Oats are the cereal second in importance to wheat. The
yield of grain was (1926-27) nearly three million bu. (12*4 bu.
per ac.) and for 1928-29 some 559,000 ac. are sown. The grain
is not of such good quality as that which comes from wetter
climates (e.g., Tasmania) and a considerable area is cut for hay.
Hay, as elsewhere in Australia, is an important crop since roots
and similar fodders are not so plentiful as in the moister lands
of north-west Europe. Wheat, barley and oats all provide hay,
the drier lands of the eastern wheat-belt, where the crops will
grow but will not seed, being largely used. With the increase irt
grain production and the growth of more intensive farming
(see below) the area under hay has significantly declined (1923:
431,600 ac.; 1928: 354,000 ac.). The product is mainly con-
sumed locally. Dairying, Fruit-growing, etc.: The belt of coastal
country which extends from about Gingin (c. 50 m. north of
Perth) and runs southwards past Bunbury round to about
Albany, and which is served by the South-Western railway and
also, farther east, by the Great Southern Railway systems, con-
tains the bulk of the natural dairying, mixed-farming and fruit
areas of the State. Its natural condition is largely forest-land
(see above), with plentiful surface water, mild climate (30-40 in.
av. ann. rainfall) and varied but predominantly good soils, being
distinguished from the jarrah belt proper which has lateritic soils
more .suitable to forests. Clearing is difficult and expensive and
progress has been slow but there is developing here one of the
great dairying districts of Australia. Dairying is only in its in-
fancy in Western Australia but the number of dairy cattle is
rapidly increasing (1916: 31,000; 1927: 67,000), scientific
methods arc becoming general — largely owing to the teaching
and example of the State dairy farm at Denmark — and the yield
per animal is increasing. In 1927 Western Australia produced:
butter, 4^ million lb.; cheese, 164,000 lb.; bacon and hams, c.
2,000,000 lb. (cf. 1914: 415,000 lb. ; 1,675 lb. ; 112,400 lb. re-
spectively) and should, at the present rate, soon dispense with
the dairy products it has so far imported from the eastern States
(see Statistical Survey: Imports). The revolution, for such
it is, which is taking place, is due partly to the adoption of "sub-
terranean" clover cultivation with superphosphates. Sheep also
almost everywhere form a part of the mixed fanning regime in
the "south-west" and very heavy carcasses and fleeces are grown.
Fruit-growing is also practised, the forests cleared from the well-
drained hill slopes being replaced by orchards. The fruit mainly
grown so far is apples, but a beginning has been made of growing
oranges and other sub-tropical fruits. Vines are also cultivated,
mainly along the inner margins of the coastal belt north and
south from Perth (cf. the Swan River valley), the grapes, raisins,
currants and wine (1926-27: 292,000 gal.; 1927-28, c. 350,000
gal.) having found an increasing market. The sandy and swampy
coastal margins which are near Perth are also found very suit-
able for market-gardening and large quantities of vegetables are
now being grown, while in addition to the above poultry-farm-
ing is also a rising industry.
Pastoral Industries — Various. — As elsewhere in Australia
the pastoral industry was a pioneer, though in places it followed
upon, and partly subserved, mining (e.g., Goldfields area). Simi-
larly it yields, broadly speaking, to closer settlement as cattle
yield, upon lands suitable to both, to the more profitable sheep.
Important exceptions, however, are the mixed sheep-and-arable
and also the dairy farming systems already noted, where the
agricultural and pastoral economy interpenetrate, or rather co-
operate, to intensify and stabilize production. Thus the south-
west portion of the State contains perhaps 50% of the total sheep
population, and a fair amount of stock-fattening (meat) is carried
on here also. Sheep as an independent product are favoured by
the light and relatively dry climate of the south-east, centre and
north-west portions of the State; in the north, with its heavier
(summer) rainfall and rank-growing grasses, they yield in impor-
tance to cattle. The Western Australian Nullarbor Plains (q.v.)
have not yet been developed; the wide area between these and the
wheat belt (i.e., approximately around the Kalgoorlie goldfields)
suffers from lack of good water-supply, though the after-growth
of the cleared forests affords a fair pasturage. Along the west
and north-west coasts, as far as about Port Hedland and also
for some 150-250 m. inland the natural vegetation (mulga, salt-
bush, grasses, etc.) affords pasture varying locally in quality but
mostly good, and here also supplies of good sub-surface water
are widespread. Recent progress has also been reported in the
flocks of the northern area (Fitzroy basin around Derby). The
far eastern interior has probably little pastoral value, but an
enormous tract comprising the west-centre of the State (North-
TRADE AND TRANSPORT]
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
era Coolgardie, Murchison, Mount Margaret gold-fields areas up
to c. lat. 25° S.) has excellent underground waters, good fodder,
and is now one of the leading sheep areas. As settlement has
advanced, so fencing, well-sinking, water-conservation (including
the provision of stock-routes, e.g., along the west coast; Hall's
Creek-Wiluna, etc.), stock-management and breeding improve and
become more widespread, though rabbits, and in some areas (e.g.,
the Wandoo forest) poison plants, cause losses. Western Aus-
tralia now carries some 8,500,000 sheep (nearly all merino) which
yielded (1927) 59,350,000 Ib. of wool, the average weight of
fleece having advanced to c. 7-1 Ib. or approximately the Com-
monwealth average, and the all-round progress in the industry
has been marked. An indication of the distribution and relative
importance of the sheep areas is afforded by the wool exports
of their respective ports: (iQ28) Fremantle, 55,340,0.00 Ib.;
Geraldton, 2,230,000; Carnarvon, 1,710,000; Port Hedland, i,-
430,000; Onslow, 270,000; Albany, 150,000; Roebourne, 96,000
Ib. (See Statistical Survey: Exports.) Cattle for slaugh-
ter purposes are kept to some extent in the south-west and also
in the rougher lands (e.g., upper river basins) throughout the
west interior wherever sufficient water and fodder are available.
But by far the greater number of the State's 850,000 head are
in the north (Fitzroy basin, with centre Derby) and in the
extreme north-east (Antrim plateau and Ord basin, with centre
Wyndham). Here plains (1,000-20,000 ac.) are interspersed with
rougher ridge and hill country and the 30-50 in. summer rainfall
produces rank, though not wholly satisfactory, fodder. Land and
black labour are cheap and here is the region of vast cattle runs
(500,000 ac. and upwards) held by such firms as Messrs. Bovril
(Australia) Estates, Vestey Bros., etc. The Government freezing
works at Wyndham are efficiently managed, they work for the
five winter months (April-September) and deal with c. 25,000
head of cattle per season. The white workers (200-300) are
brought up each season from Fremantle.
Note on the Northern Areas (Kimberley Division). —
Mining has proved profitable, but the area has not been thor-
oughly tested. Pearl-shell fishing centring on Broomc is of tried
value (1925: 246 boats, employing 1,750 men [largely Asiatics],
obtained c. 1,400 tons of pearl-shell [£210,000] and pearls [£6o,-
300]). The proposal of the Commonwealth Government that the
area should be handed over to Federal control was rejected. The
air service (see below) marks an advance.
Towns, Manufacturing Industries, Communications,
Trade.— The greater part of the interior of the State is, and
will probably remain, apart from relatively impermanent mining
centres, sparsely populated by human beings whatever its sheep
and cattle population may ultimately be. Most of the increase
is taking place around or near the coasts, the south-west corner
being chiefly notable. In this zone of coastal, or sub-coastal, settle-
ment ports naturally play a prominent part. Perth (q.v.), with its
port Fremantle, holds a key position upon what is perhaps the
most important part of the coast. Commercially if not physically
it lies midway between north and south. Convenient to important
goldfields and also to the still more important and developing
south-west, it lies besides, upon or near a world sea-route and is
terminal to the shortest land-route to the eastern States. With its
population of c. 192,000 the metropolitan area contains nearly half
of the total population of the State. Apart from Perth and some
ports — of which Albany, Bunbury, Geraldton (qq.v.) may serve
as examples — the towns of Western Australia generally known
hitherto have been associated with mining (e.g., Coolgardie —
Kalgoorlie, q.v.). The settlements of the south-west, destined one
day perhaps to become important are as yet mainly small agricul-
tural and, usually also, railway centres of which in their youth it is
perhaps sufficient to remark that they are numerous. Manu-
factures, in the stage of development indicated, are naturally
confined mainly to the metropolitan — and particularly to the
Fremantle (q.v.) — area, to the gold-fields, and to the primary
producing centres (sawmilling; butter and cheese making; ba-
con curing; ore crushing and concentrating). Nevertheless,
in the relative isolation of the community, industrial activity has
made considerable progress in recent years, noteworthy being
ABORIGINES OF THE KIMBERLY DIS-
TRICT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
the manufacture of superphosphates and railway engineering
(Midland Junction, etc.), while the supply of electrical power
has also assumed large proportions (see Statistical Survey: Manu-
facturing Industries).
Communications.— Over large parts of the interior camels
(1927: 4,837), mules and donkeys (1927: 10,300) still form in*
dispensable means of transport, and in the northern interior the
bullock-waggon has barely begun to yield to the motor-tractor.
Elsewhere, as settlement and
roads advance, or even before
that stage, the flat terrain en-
courages motors while the aero-
plane here, as in north-east Aus-
tralia, must be looked upon as
a pioneering vehicle. The Perth-
Derby (1,467 m.) service, call-
ing at Geraldton, Carnarvon,
Onslow, Roebourne, Whim
Creek, Port Hedland, Broome
uen route," is carried out by
West Australian Airways Ltd.
subsidised by the Common-
wealth Government. This com-
pany completed in June 1928 its first million miles of com-
mercial flying and had then carried 1,250,000 letters and 70
tons freight with very little serious mishap but with almost
untold benefits — including urgent medical assistance — to the
settlers in the far north. In April 1929 will be inaugurated an
air-service (by the same company, also with Commonwealth
subsidy) from Perth-Adelaide with 4 large machines having a
normal cruising speed of 105 miles per hour. Railways were first
developed in the coastal lands behind Geraldton (Geraldton-
Northampton, 1879), Albany-Fremantle to connect various
mining, timber and agricultural areas with their ports and
one another. Later the great mineral lines were run out far into
the almost unknown interior — Perth to Kalgoorlie: 375m., with
extension to Laverton, 586 miles; Geraldton to Meckatharra:
334 m. ; to Sandstone: 309 m.; Perth to Meekatharra: 600 m.,
etc. ; and in the north-west an isolated line, Port Hedland-Marble
Bar: 114 m. These lines have also proved invaluable in open-
ing up the pastoral interior. In the railway-system of the south-
west, with its curious herring-bone pattern, can still be distin-
guished the timber, the mineral, and the agricultural lines, but
the outstanding feature of recent construction is the development
of wheat-belt lines reaching out long arms eastwards to draw grain
and wool in to the main trunk systems (cf. the similar develop-
ment in the South Australian Mallee [sec SOUTH AUSTRALIA]
and the Victorian Wimmera [see VICTORIA]). In the north these
debouch upon Geraldton, but by far the greater number upon
Fremantle. Of this development the Norseman-Esperance (q.v.;
Kalgoorlie-Esperance : 258 m.) line now being completed is a
logical continuation, as will be the extension across to it of the
existing grid from the present rail-heads on the west (see above
re the "3,000 farm scheme"). The Western Australian railways
are, somewhat unfortunately, of narrow (3'-6") gauge, and though
like most Australian railways they are often built for develop-
mental purposes (see AUSTRALIA: Railways), recent returns have
been encouraging. The railways are mainly State-owned, but there
are considerable lengths of private (mineral and timber) lines of
semi-permanent nature but mostly open to general traffic. Of the
transcontinental (Commonwealth Government, 4'-8i") line, 454
m. lies in Western Australia, and, apart from its increasing pas-
senger and goods services (see below), it will doubtless help to
develop considerable areas of pastoral lands provided adequate
(non-saline) water-supplies can be uncovered. (See Statistical
Survey: Railways.)
Trade, the general nature and extent of which can be gauged
from the foregoing, and also from the appended statistics (Trade;
Shipping; Ports: see also above Pastoral Industries: wool ex-
ports) has in recent years been increasing in volume and variety,
Fremantle taking the lion's share. As an index of growth, there-
fore, the trade of this port is valuable.
532
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
[STATISTICAL SURVEY
Shipping Statistics
1903-04
1927-28
Shipping tonnage (net) .
Cargo tonnage .
Revenue collected .
Wheat shipped .
Flour shipped .
Shed floor space
Oil fuel bunkered
626,602
560,000
£79,36i
3,132 bags
nil
72,000 sq.ft.
nil
3,462,776
1,679,545
£58i,849
5,683,104 bags
52,132 tons
340,000 sq.ft.
103,583 tons
A considerable portion of Western Australian trade is with
other Australian States and it is significant that in the year 1927-
28 imports to the value of £621,000 entered Western Australia by
the overland railway line from eastern States, while only £15,500
worth of exports proceeded east by that route. Shipping services
include (a) the main overseas lines which now make Fremantle
(not Albany) their first Australian port of call, and Fremantle
is the largest oil-bunkering port in Australia; (b) services plying
to other States; (c) coasting services plying, mainly, northwards
up the coast and back. From Western Australia submarine cables
connect (i) Broome through Java (Banjoewangie), etc., to Lon-
don, Broome being connected by an overland line with Perth and
thence, via Albany, Eucla, and Port Augusta, with South Australia
and the eastern States, (2) Fremantle with Durban, (3) Freman-
tle-Adelaide (alternative to the overland line), (4) Broome via
Java — as in (i) — and Cocos Island with South Africa.
Statistical Survey.— Area and Land Occupation: 975,920
sq.m. (624,588,800 ac.) =32-81% of Commonwealth — 364,000
sq.m. ( = 37-3% of total area) within tropical zone. Coast-line:
4,350 miles. Alienated or in process of alienation (1928) : 33,322,-
223 acres; leases and licences: 237,428,424 ac.; unoccupied: 353,-
838,153 ac. (pastoral leases: c. 233,400,000 acres; mining: c.
84,000 acres; timber: c. 1,676,000 acres).
Population (June 1928): 400,048 (males: 216,530; females:
183,518. In addition: aboriginals [1927]: c. 23,000) —c. 6-3% of
population of Commonwealth, c. 0-4 persons per sq. mile. Birth
rate: c. 22, death rate c. 9 per 1,000. Total increase, including
immigration, (average 1923-27, five years): 9,700 per annum
(1927: 13,546). Metropolitan (1927): c. 191,800 = ^. 49% of
total population in Perth and suburbs (87,563 acres).
Occupations (Census 1921: total population: 332,732): Bread-
winners: 146,926, of whom: primary producers, 49,400; industrial,
32,794; commercial, 21,960; transport and domestic, each, c.
14,200; professional, 13,500.
Production (estimated annual value during last three years) :
c. £30,000,000. Agricultural: £10-11 millions; manufacturing,
£5-6 millions; pastoral, £5,500,000; forestry and fisheries, £2,-
500,000; mining, £2,320,000; dairying, etc., £1,600,000.
Mining: (1926) Total: £2,720,400. Gold: £1,735,000 (78-75%
of total Western Australian mining output and 64-7% of total Aus-
tralian gold output) (sinking) ; silver and lead, £30,500 (fluctuat-
ing); tin, £13,300 (fairly constant); copper, nil (1923: £65,100);
coal (1928) all Collie: 514,800 tons, £414,450 (rising).
Agriculture: Area devoted to cultivation and being cleared
(1927): 10,475,000 ac. (under crop, 3,325,000 ac.; fallow, 1,677,-
ooo acres). Wheat: 2,571,000 acres; 30,022,000 bu. (11-12 bush-
els per acre) (1928: c. 3 million acres, 35,134,000 bushels). Hay:
359,000 ac., 424,000 tons. Oats: 235,000 ac., 2,717,000 bushels.
Orchards: 18,500 acres. Vineyards: 5,275ac., 2 9 2,000 gal. wine.
Pastoral anvd Dairying (1927): Horses, 165,000; cattle, 847,-
ooo; sheep, 8,448,000; pigs, 59,800. Production (1926-27): but-
ter, 3-83 million Ibs.; bacon and ham, 2-7 million Ibs.
Manufacturing Industries: Factories (1926-27): 1,216, employ-
ing 20,424 hands. Value added by process: £6,907,000. Food and
drink factories 212 (employing 2,725 hands); clothing, 167 (3,150
hands); wood-working, 161 (5,775 hands); machinery, etc., 147
(4,000); vehicles, saddlery, etc., 137 (1,240).
Trade, Commerce, Communications: (a) Trade: Total (1927-
28): £36,528,650. Exports: £18,240,775. Value per caput (1926-
27): *39-95- (Interstate: £1,345,000; overseas, £16,896,000.)
Wheat: £6,994,500 (15,716,000 centals) ; flour, £1,008,000 (1,708,-
ooo centals). Wool: £4,963,000 (61,244,600 lb.). Timber: £i,-
26<C.ooo: sandalwood. £147.000. Cattle toroducts* heefr ^t 16.000
(n million lb.); hides, etc., £553,000. Gold: £660,700. Fruit:
£192,000; Pearl shell: £186,000. Imports; £18,287,876. Value
per caput (1926-27): £48-45. (Interstate: £9,276,329; overseas,
£9,011,547.) Clothing, etc., £4,039,000; machinery, etc., £2,100,-
ooo; hardware, £1,535,000; motors, etc., £1,165,000; dairy prod-
ucts, £1,105,000; tobacco, etc., £715,000.
(b) Shipping (all categories: 1926-27): Cleared: 799 vessels
(3,796,500 tons). Cargo: discharged, 793,650 tons; shipped, i,-
000,800 tons. Total overseas cargoes (discharged and shipped) :
1,401,000.
(c) Ports: Total trade (1927-28); Fremantle, £30,639,000;
Bunbury, £2,256,700; Geraldton, £1,124,100; Albany, £708,-
ooo, Wyndham, £263,500; Carnarvon, £253,000; Busselton,
£213,500; Broome, £195,200; Port Hedland, £109,200.
(d) Railways. State Government lines (1928): 3,977 m. (3' 6"
gauge). Commonwealth Government (transcontinental line, West-
ern Australian section Kalgoorlie — South Australian border) : c.
454 m. (4' 8}" gauge). In addition, c. 884 m. private railways
(mainly 3' 6"), of which c. 277 m. open for general traffic. The
State railways in 1928 showed a net profit of £26,671. During
1928, 152 miles were under construction, surveys for 240 m. (Gov-
ernment lines) were completed and surveys for 294 m. were in
progress.
Finance (1927-28): Revenue: £9,807,950 (£25-009 per caput);
expenditure: £9,834,410 (£25.076). Public debt (net) : £67,528,-
626; average interest payable: 4-52%; £168.801 per caput.
Cheque-paying banks (10): liabilities (2nd quarter, 1928): £18,-
223,851; assets, £22,138,245. Commonwealth Savings Bank
(W.A.) (1928): deposit accounts: 87,980, amounting to £2,823,-
500 (£32.092 per deposit). State Savings Bank: deposits, c,
189,000; £7,695,935 (c. £40.250 per caput). Schools Savings Bank:
deposits: 51,860; £89,890 (£1.732 per caput). (0. H. T. R.)
See: E. de C. Clarke: "Natural Regions in Western Australia" in
Journal Royal Soc. Western Australia, vol. xii., No. 14 (1926) ; W. C. S.
McLintock: The Swan Geography (1923) ; Western Australia: An
Official Handbook (1925).
HISTORY
Both the western and northern coasts of the colony are pretty
accurately laid down on maps said to date from 1540 to 1550,
where the western side of the continent terminates at Cape
Lccuwen. The discovery of the coast may be attributed to
Portuguese and Spanish navigators, who were in the seas north-
ward of Australia as early as 1520. The Dutch explored the coast
in the i7th and the French in the i8th century.
The earliest settlement was made from Port Jackson, at the end
of 1825, when, owing to a fear that the French might occupy King
George sound, Major Lockyer took formal British possession of
it with a party of convicts and soldiers, 75 in all, though Van-
couver had previously done so in 1791. Yet the Dutch had long
before declared New Holland, which then meant only the western
portion of Australia, to be Dutch property. This convict estab-
lishment returned to Sydney in 1829. In 1827 Captain Stirling
surveyed the coast from King George sound to the Swan river,
and Captain Frcmantle, R.N., in 1829 took official possession of
the whole country. Stirling's account stimulated the emigration
ardour of Sir F. Vincent and Peel, Macqueen, etc., who formed
an association, securing from the British Government permission
to occupy land in Western Australia proportionate to the capital
invested, and the number of emigrants they despatched thither.
In this way Mr. Peel had a grant of 25o,oooac., and Colonel
Latour of 103,000. Captain (afterwards Sir James) Stirling
founded the Swan River Settlement, the towns of Perth and Fre-
mantle, and was appointed lieutenant-governor in 1829. The
people were scattered on large grants. The land was poor, and
the forests heavy, provisions were at famine prices; and many
left for Sydney or Hobart Town. The overland journey of Eyre
from Adelaide to King George sound in 1839-40, through a
waterless waste, discouraged settlers; but Grey's overland walk
in 1838 from Shark's bay to Perth revealed fine rivers and good
land in Victoria district, subsequently occupied by farmers, gra-
ziers and miners. The diffirtiltieft nf th* *pttl*»r«j Viad rnmru»11^
WESTERN INDIA STATES AGENCY— WEST HAM
533
them to seek help from the British treasury, in the offer to accept
convicts. These came in 1850, but transportation ceased in 1868,
in consequence of loud protests from the other colonies.
The progressive history of Western Australia may be said to
commence in 1870, with the beginning of partial representative
government under the presidency of Governor Sir Frederick Weld.
The colony was fortunate in possessing two explorers of the best
practical type — the brothers, John and Alexander Forrest. The
object of, their expeditions was to find more land available for
pastoral or agricultural settlement. Perhaps the most famous of
these journeys was that accomplished by Mr. (afterwards Sir)
John Forrest between Eucla and Adelaide in 1870. Other ex-
plorers— notably Mr. Ernest Giles, the Gregorys and Mr. Austin
— also contributed to the growing knowledge of the resources
of the vast territory. In 1882 the government geologist reported
indications of auriferous country in the Kimberley district, and
the first payable goldfield was shortly afterwards "proclaimed"
there. Within five years goldfields Were proclaimed at Yilgarn,
about 20om. to the east of Perth, and the discovery of patches
of rich alluvial gold in the Pilbarra district quickly followed,
but the rush for the Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie goldfields did
not begin until 1893.
A bill enabling the queen to grant a constitution to Western
Australia received the royal assent on Aug. 15, 1890. This pro-
vided for a governor, a legislative council and a legislative as-
sembly, the two bodies to be appointed by the governor until
the population reached 60,000. In 1893 the Colonial Parliament
passed an act so amending the constitution.
For a long time the advantages of federation were not so
apparent to the people of Western Australia as to those of the
eastern colonies. They were slow to grasp the principles of the
bill framed at the Federal Convention which had held its sittings
since 1886 in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne; and they hesi-
tated to join the Commonwealth without receiving a pledge for
the retention of their own customs dues for five years. Early in
1900 Sir John Forrest as premier made an unsuccessful attempt
to obtain this concession. On a referendum of the electors, a
majority of over 25,000 votes decided in favour of federation, as
the Constitution Act provided that this state should have the
right to enact her own tariJ as against the sister states for the
desired five years, decreasing annually at the rate of one-fifth
of the amount of the original duty until the whole disappeared.
By two Constitution Acts, Amendment Acts (1899 ancl I911)'
the legislative council is limited to 30 members representing 10
electoral provinces. The members retain their seats for six
years, must be 30 years of age, have had two years' residence in
the state, and be either natural-born British subjects or natural-
ized for five years. The legislative assembly consists of 50 mem-
bers, elected for three years.
WESTERN INDIA STATES AGENCY, an agency for
Indian States in Kathiawar, Cutch and Palanpur, formed in 1924.
The States included are Bhavnagar, Cutch, Dhrangadhra, Dhrol,
Gondal, Jafarabad, Junagadh, Demdi, Morvi, Nawanagar, Palan-
pur, Palitana, Porbandar, Radhampur, Rajkot, Wadhwan, Wan-
kaner. Formerly under Bombay, they now have direct relations
with the Imperial Government through an agent in Rajkot.
WESTERN PACIFIC RAILROAD CORPORATION,
THE, incorporated under the laws of Delaware, on June
29, 1916, is a holding company and the owner of the entire pre-
ferred and common capital stock, except directors' qualifying
shares, of the Western Pacific Railroad Company (the operating
company). The corporation, along with other valuable assets,
owns a one-half interest, or 150,000 shares of the no-par value
common stock of the Denver arid Rio Grande Western Railroad
Company, as well as the equity in 50,000 shares or one-half of the
capital ptock of Utah Fuel Company. The capital structure of the
corporation is as follows: Capital stock, 6% preferred (par $100),
$40,000,000 outstanding; common stock (par $100), $60,000,000
outstanding. The funded debt consists of $5,175,000 in 4% gold
notes, due Oct. i, 1930.
For the year 1927, the Western Pacific Railroad Company, sub-
sidiary of this corporation, showed total operating revenue of $16,-
433,463, the largest in the history of the company.
Beginning early in 1927, the operating company began an ex-
tensive programme of improvements covering the next few years ;
this contemplated an expenditure of approximately $18,000,000,
of which $10,000,000 will be charged to operating expenses, the
balance to capital. In addition, a further expansion of this pro-
gramme was decided upon in 1928 under which it was proposed to
extend and improve present facilities and to acquire or to con-
struct new lines to serve territory not adequately provided with
transportation. This second programme involved the additional
expenditure of approximately $24,000,000, all with the ultimate
objective of placing the properties in a position to compete prop-
erly with other transcontinental lines and to take care of antici-
pated increase in business. (M. J. C.)
WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COMPANY, THE,
was incorporated in New York, April, 1851, as The New York
and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company to construct,
own and operate a telegraph line from Buffalo, N.Y., to St. Louis,
Mo., via Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati. The capital was
fixed at $360,000. In 1856 the name was changed to The Western
Union Telegraph Company. By construction, consolidations (more
than 535 telegraph companies having been absorbed) and exten-
sions, the plant and business grew until on Jan. i, 1929 the
capital stock was $105,000,000; the funded debt $73,005,000;
the plant comprised 216,169 m- of P°le lines; 1,852,069 m. of
wire; 3,545 m. of landline cables; 30,680 knots of ocean cables;
24,842 telegraph offices. For the year 1928 operating revenues
were $131,771,000 and expenses were $120,310,255. The com-
pany's telegraph service is universal in the United States, and
through its cable system extends to Great Britain and Europe,
South America, West Indies, Mexico and Canada. By connec-
tions it goes to all parts of the world. (N. C.)
WESTER WEMYSS, ROSSLYN ERSKINE
WEMYSS, IST BARON cr. 1919, G.C.B., 1918, (1864- ),
British sailor, was born in London on April 12, 1864. He entered
the navy in 1877. Rear-admiral of 2nd Battle Squadron 1912-13
and of the i2th Cruiser Squadron 1914, he was made vice-admiral
1916 and admiral of the fleet 1919. He commanded a squadron
during the landing of the British troops in Gallipoli (1915), was
commander-in-chief in the East Indies and Egypt (1916-17),
deputy first sea lord, and afterwards first sea lord of the Ad-
miralty (1917-19) and a member of the War Cabinet (1918).
In 1924 he published The Navy in the Dardanelles Campaign.
WESTFIELD, a city of Massachusetts. Pop. (1920)
18,604 (24% foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate 22,000.
The streets of the city are arched with fine old elms. It is the
seat of a State normal school (1844). Its manufactures (including
boilers and radiators, paper, envelopes, bicycles and baby carriages,
underwear, thread and pasteboard boxes) were valued at $13,733,-
236 in 1925. The manufacture of whips and lashes, begun early
in the igth century and engaging more than 40 concerns at its
height, was the city's leading industry until the multiplication of
automobiles cut down the market. Westfield academy (1800-66)
was a famous secondary school. A trading post known by the
Indian name Woronoko was established here about 1640, and in
1669 Westfield was set off from Springfield and incorporated.
It was incorporated in 1914, but rejected the act; and again in
1920, accepting 1921. There js a municipal airport.
WESTGATE-ON-SEA, a watering-place in the Isle of
Thanet. Pop. (1921) 5,096. There are gardens and promenades
over i m. in length, a marine drive along the cliffs, and golf links.
BIRCHINGTON, to the west (pop. 3,503), is also a growing resort.
The church of All Saints is Perpendicular, with an Early English
tower, and contains some interesting monuments.
WEST HAM, a borough of Essex, England, forming an east-
ward suburb of London. Pop. (1921) 300,810. The old church of
All Saints has a good Perpendicular tower, and in the restoration
of 1866 some* early mural painting was discovered, and a Tran-
sitional Norman clerestory, remaining above the later nave. West
Ham Park (80 ac.) occupies the site of Ham House, the residence
of Samuel Gurney, the banker and philanthropist. Few large
houses now remain, but the smaller houses have greatly increased.
534
WEST HAVEN— WEST INDIES
[PHYSICAL FEATURES
Within the borough are the extensive railway works of the
L.N.E, railway at Stratford. This industrial centre is continued
eastward to East Ham, where the old village church of St. Mary
Magdalene retains Norman portions,
At the time of the Conquest West Ham belonged to Alestan
and Leured, two freemen, and at Domesday to Ralph Gernon
and Ralph Peverel. It received the grant of a market and annual
fair in 1253. The lordship was given to the abbey of Stratford,
and, passing to the Crown at the dissolution, formed part of the
dowry of Catherine of Portugal, and was therefore called the
Queen's Manor. It was incorporated in 1886. West Ham returns
4 members to parliament.
WEST HAVEN, a town of Connecticut, U.S.A. Population
over 20,000 in 1928. ' It is mainly a residential and industrial
suburb of New Haven. Savin Rock, rising out of Long Island
sound, is a popular pleasure resort. West Haven was taken from
New Haven in 1822 and united with North Milford to form the
town of Orange. It was incorporated as a borough in 1873;
reverted to Orange town after 1910; and in 1 92 1 was incorporated
as an independent town.
WEST INDIES, THE, sometimes called the Antilles (g.o>.),
an archipelago stretching in the shape of a rude arc or parabola
from Florida in North America and Yucatan in Central America
to Venezuela in South America, and enclosing the Caribbean
sea (615,000 sq.m.) and the Gulf of Mexico (750,000 sq.m. in
area). The land area of all the islands is nearly 100,000 sq.m,,
with an estimated population of about 9 millions; that of the
British islands about 12,000 square miles. The islands differ widely
one from another in area, population, geographical position and
physical characteristics. They are divided into the Bahamas,
the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti and Porto Rico), and
the Lesser Antilles (comprising the remainder). The Lesser
Antilles are again divided into the Windward islands and Leeward
islands. Geographically, the Leeward islands are those to the
north of St. Lucia, and the Windward, St. Lucia and those to the
SOUth of it; but for administrative purposes the British islands
in the Lesser Antilles are grouped as is shown in the table given
later.
Geology. — The West Indies are the summits of a submerged
mountain chain, the continuation of which towards the west must
be sought in the mountains of Honduras. In Haiti the chain
divides, one branch passing through Jamaica and the other through
Cuba, the Cayman islands and the Misteriosa Bank. In Cuba and
Haiti there are schists which are probably of pre-Cretaceous age,
and have, indeed, been referred to the Archaean; but the oldest
rocks which have yet been certainly identified in the West Indies
belong to the Cretaceous period. Throughout the Greater Antilles
the geological succession begins, as a rule, with volcanic tuffs and
conglomerates of hornblende-andesite, etc., in the midst of which
are intercalated occasional beds of limestone with Rudistes and
other Cretaceous fossils. These are overlaid by sediments of terri-
genous origin, and the whole series was folded before the deposi-
tion of the next succeeding strata. The nature of these Cretaceous
deposits clearly indicates the neighbourhood of an extensive area
of land; but during the succeeding Eocene period and the early
part of the Oligocene, a profound subsidence led to the deposition
of the Globigerina chalks and white Radiolarian earths of Jamaica,
Cuba and Haiti. The Greater Antilles must, at this time, have
been almost completely submerged/ and the similar deposits of
Barbados and Trinidad point to a similar submergence beyond the
Windward islands. In the middle of the Oligocene period a mighty
upheaval, accompanied by mountain folding and the intrusion of
Plutonic rocks, raised the Greater Antilles far above their present
level, and united the islands with one another, and perhaps with
Florida. A subsequent depression and a series of minor oscilla-
tion* finally resulted in the production of the present topography.
The geology of the Lesser Antilles is somewhat different In
some of the islands there are old volcanic tuffs which may possibly
be the equivalents of the Cretaceous beds of Jamaica, but volcanic
activity here continued throughout the Tertiary period and even
down to the present day. Another important difference is that
except in Trinidad and Barbados, which do not properly belong to
the Caribbean chain, no deep-sea deposits have yet been found
in the Lesser Antilles and there is no evidence that the area ever
sank to abysmal depths.
The mineral wealth of the islands is not remarkable. Gold,
silver, iron, copper, tin, platinum, lead, coal of a poor quality, co-
balt, mercury, arsenic, antimony, manganese and rock salt either
have been or are worked. Asphalt is worked to considerable ad-
vantage among the pitch lakes of Trinidad. Opal and chalcedony
are the principal precious stones.
Climate. — As in most tropical countries where considerable
heights are met with — and here over 15,500 sq.m. lie at an eleva-
tion of more than 1,500 ft. above sea-level — the climate of the
West Indies (in so far at least as heat and cold are concerned)
varies at different altitudes, and on the higher parts of many of
the islands rather low temperatures are found. These islands
all lie in the path of the north-easterly trade winds and their
climatic conditions are typical of islands in this belt. With
the exception of part of the Bahamas, all the islands lie be-
tween the annual isotherms of 77° and 82° F. The climate, how-
ever, is everywhere marine, and the extreme heat is greatly tem-
pered by the steady trades, by the daily sea breezes, and by cool,
refreshing nights. Frost occasionally occurs in the cold season,
but snow is unknown. The seasons may be divided as follows:
The short, wet season, or spring, begins in April and lasts from
two to six weeks, and is succeeded by the short dry season, when
the thermometer remains almost stationary at about 80° F, In
July the heat increases and continues until September or October/"
when the great rainfall of the year begins, accompanied frequently
by tremendous and destructive hurricanes. This season is locally
known as the "hurricane months." The annual rainfall averages
about 60 inches. December marks the beginning of the dry season,
which, accompanied by fresh winds and occasional showers, lasts
till April. The average temperature of the air at Barbados, which
may be taken as typical, is, throughout the year, 80° F in the fore-
noon, and about 82° in the afternoon. The maximum is 87°, and
the minimum 75°.
Flora. — The flora of the islands is of great variety and richness,
as plants have been introduced from most parts of the globe, and
flourish either in a wild state or under cultivation; grain, vege-
tables and fruits, generally common in cool climates, may be seen
growing in luxuriance within a short distance of like plants which
only attain perfection under the influence of extreme heat, nothing
being here required for the successful propagation of both but
a difference in the height of the lands upon which they grow. The
forests, which are numerous, produce the most valuable woods
and delicious fruits. Palms are in great variety, and there are
several species of gum-producing trees. Some locust trees have
been estimated to have attained an age of 4,000 years, and are
of immense height and bulk. Pimento is peculiar to Jamaica.
For centuries almost the whole care of the planters was be-
stowed upon the cultivation of the sugar-cane and tobacco plant,
but in modern times attention has been turned to the produc-
tion of other and more varying crops. Crops of tobacco, beans,
peas, maize and Guinea corn are popular, and a species of rice,
which requires no flooding for its successful propagation, is largely
produced. Ilymenachne striatum covers many of the plains, and
affords food for cattle.
Fauna. — The fauna of the region is Neotropical, belonging to
that region which includes South and part of Central America, al-
though great numbers of birds from the North American portion
of the Holarctic realm migrate to the islands. The resident birds,
however, 18 genera of which are certainly Neotropical, show be-
yond doubt to which fauna] region the islands properly belong.
The non-migrating birds include trogons, sugar-birds, chatterers,
and many parrots and humming birds. Waterfowl and various
kinds of pigeons are in abundance. Mammals are, as p most
island groups, rare* The agouti abounds, and wild pigs and dogs
are sufficiently numerous to afford good sport to the hunter, as
well as smaller game, in the shape of armadillos, opossums, musk-
rats and raccoons. Reptiles are numerous : snakes—both the boa
and adder— are innumerable, while lizards, scorpions, tarantulas
and centipedes are everywhere. Insects, too, are very numerous, and
WEST INDIES
SCENES IN THE
1. View of St. Thomas (Charlotte Amalle), the only town on the U.S.
island of St. Thomas. It is a coaling station and possesses one of the
finest harbours in the West Indies
2. "La Ferriere," the citadel of Henri Chrlstophe (ruled 1811-20), second
negro king of Haiti. Erected on a peak near Cape Haitlen, this
citadel Is a remarkable monument to the early years of the first State
in the world governed constitutionally by negroes
3. Aerial view of the coast of Cuba, the largest Island and one of the three
republics of the West Indies, estimated area, 41,634 sq.m.
4. Weaving hats in Curasao. The island has been a Dutch possession since
1634 and the principal town, Willemstad, is built in the Dutch style.
The negroes speak a curious dialect consisting of Spanish, English,
Dutch and native words
5. The grounds of Codrlngton College at Bridgetown, capital of Barbados,
a British island, the most easterly of the West Indies, area 155 sq.
m. The college was founded by Col. Christopher Codrington (1668-
XXIII. 534
WEST INDIES
1710) and is affiliated with the University of Durham
6. Natives on the way to market In Martinique, a French colony of the
Lesser Antilles, area 380 sq.m.
7. Typical hut and peasants (jibaros) In Porto Rico. The house*, which
never contain more than one room, are raised on poles as protection
against insects, and thatched with grass and palm leaves
8. Country scene in Porto Rico, most easterly of the Greater Antilles, and
a possession of the United States
9. Native hut in Jamaica. Jaymac* Is a native word, meaning the Island
of springs
10. Cutting and loading sugar cane in Porto Rico. The cultivation of sugar
cane, successfully undertaken throughout the islands, is an important
industry of Porto Rico, where sugar has been produced since 1548
11. View of St. George, a town on the Island of the same name In the
Bermudas. About 680 m. from the American coast, the Bermudas
are much visited for health and pleasure
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS]
WEST INDIES
535
re often annoying. Among domestic animals mules are largely
eared, and where the country affords suitable pasture and forage
attic-breeding is practised^ Goats abound, and large flocks of
beep are kept for the sake of their flesh alone, as the climate
I not adapted for wool-growing.
Area and Population.— The following list of the West Indian
ilands gives their area and population: —
Name
Area,
square
miles
Population, 1921
British-
Bahamas
4,404
53,031
Jamaica
4,207
858,188
Turks island
224
5,612
Leeward islands:
Virgin islands
58
5,o82
St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguiia .
150
38,214
Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda .
108
29,767
Montserrat
32
12,120
Dominica
305
37,059
Barbados
166
156,312
Windward islands:
St. Lucia
233
53,221 (1922)
St. Vincent
150*3
46,220(1922)
Grenada ......
*33
66,302
Trinidad
1,862
Tobago
114
f 365,9*3
French —
Guadeloupe, St. Martin (part), etc. .
688
229,839(1922)
Martinique
385
244,439
Dutch —
St. Martin (part)
17
2,527(1922
Curacao
210
34,482 1922
Bonaire
OS
8,829 1922
Aruba
60
7,288 1922
St. Eustatius
7
1,213 1922
Saba .
S
1,699 1922
United States —
St. Thomas
28
10,191 1917)
St. John
20
959 1917
)
St. Croix
84
14,001 1917
)
Porto Rico
3)435
1,299,809 1920
)
Republics —
Haiti
Cuba (and adjacent islands)
10,204
44,164
2,045,000(1923)*
3,123,040(1922)
Dominican Republic ....
19,332
897,405
'Estimate.
Racially, the character of the West Indies has undergone a
larked transformation since their occupation by European na-
ions. The aboriginal race has almost entirely disappeared. Only
n a few of the islands, particularly St. Vincent and Dominica,
re there natives left. Even here they are but few in number and
f mixed race rather pure-blooded. Elsewhere the West In-
ian Carib is virtually extinct. His place has been taken only
\ part by the invader. Although the white race (either from Spain
r north-western Europe) was the conqueror and first settler on
11 of the islands, and although for a century or so it seemed
iat the West Indies, like the mainland of the New World, would
ecome rilled with a European population, most of the islands
ave not proved suitable for permanent settlement by this race,
n Cuba and Porto Rico the whites have become firmly estab-
shed and now constitute about 75% of the total population. But
pon all the other islands the white race has failed to hold its
wn. In nearly every other part of the archipelago Africans now
astly outnumber all other races. These people, brought in to
icet the needs of tropical agriculture, have survived the condi-
ions presented by the tropics far better than their masters, and
tie West Indies have become virtually a racial extension of
Africa. In the republic of Haiti some nine-tenths of the popula-
ion are negroes and the remaining tenth is mulatto. In Martinique
niy about i% is not black or coloured (mulatto). In Barbados
lie negroes outnumber the whites eight to one. According to the
ensus of 1921 there were in Jamaica 817,643 coloured and black,
:> 14,476 whites. Most of the other islands present a similar
icial composition. In the Dutch islands, in some of the Bahamas
ad in Trinidad the proportion of negroes is somewhat smaller.
Government.~-The British West India colonies are either
Crown colonies— that is to say, their government is absolutely
under the control of the British Colonial Office, the official mem-
bers of their councils predominating, and the unofficial members
being nominated by the Crown, as in the Windward and Leeward
islands — or they have a measure of representative government,
as in the Bahamas, Barbados and Jamaica, in which all or part
of the legislatures are elected and are more or less independent of
Crown control. The laws of the various colonies are English,
with local statutes to meet local needs. The governors and high
officials are appointed by the Crown ; other officials are appointed
by the governor. Each governor acts under the advice of a privy
council. In matters of detail the colonies present a variety of
forms of government. (See the separate articles.) Federation has
been widely discussed and is held desirable by many, but in view
of the insular character of the colonies, the considerable distances
separating some of them, and in many instances the lack of com-
mon interests (apart from certain broad issues), the project
appears to be far from realization.
The only fortified places in the British West Indies are Jamaica,
Barbados and St. Lucia — all of importance as coaling stations.
In many of the islands there are local volunteer forces.
In the French islands the Guadeloupe group and Martinique
have each a governor-general and an elective council, with, fur-
thermore, representation in the French parliament. The Dutch
colonies are governed much as are the English, but have less share
in the administration. Porto Rico is organized as a territory of
the United States, having a governor appointed by the President
of the United States, a local legislature of senate and house of
representatives elected by popular vote, and is represented in the
national Congress by a resident commissioner. The government
of the Virgin islands of the United States is civil, not military or
naval, and consists of a governor appointed by the President of
the United States, aided by a colonial council in each municipality.
In most matters Danish law still prevails.
Economic Conditions.— The West Indian islands have suf-
fered from periods of severe economic depression, though from
the early years of the 20th century there has been good evidence
of recovery and development. An obvious reason for temporary
depression is the liability of the islands to earthquakes and hurri-
canes, in addition to eruptions in the volcanic islands, such as
those in St. Vincent and Martinique in 1902.
The islands do not offer opportunities for ordinary labouring
immigrants. Barbados is the only island where the land is entirely
settled, but the settlement, planting and development of lands
elsewhere involve a considerable amount of capital, and manual
labour is provided by the natives or East Indian coolies. Attempts
to settle European labourers have been unsuccessful.
Besides sugar, the principal products of the islands are tobacco,
coffee, cocoa, fruits and cotton. Grenada is almost entirely, and
Trinidad, Dominica and St. Lucia are largely, dependent upon
cocoa. The fruit and spice trade is of growing importance, and
there is a demand for bottled fruit in Canada and elsewhere. The
variety of fruits grown is great; the bananas and oranges of
Jamaica, the limes of Montserrat, Dominica and St. Lucia, and
the pine-apples of the Bahamas may be mentioned as characteris-
tic. It must be borne in mind, however, that the islands as a;
whole cannot be said to possess a community of commercial in>
terests. Even the industries already indicated are by no meacns
equally distributed throughout the islands; moreover, there Are
certain local industries of high importance, such as the manufac-
ture of rum in Jamaica, the production of asphalt and the work dug
of the oil-fields in Trinidad, and the production of arrowroot tin
St. Vincent. Sponges are an important product of the Bahamtfjis,
and salt of the Turks islands. Rubber plantations have been su<c-
cessful in several islands, such as Trinidad, Dominica and &>t.
Lucia. (See further articles on the various islands.) t
Modern Developments in the British West Indies«-~Thf£
World War and the boom which followed brought about a remark-i
able temporary access of prosperity to the British West Indies,
their total trade rising from £20,993,559 in 19x3 to £54,691,648
in 1920. The chief staples, sugar, rum, molasses, cacao, cotton
536
WEST INDIES
[ARCHAEOLOGY
and arrowroot, all commanded greatly enhanced prices. The
total exports are about £15,000,000; imports about £20,000,000
The Sea Island cotton industry, which owed its development in
the West Indies to the ravages of the boll-weevil in the United
States, received a check in 1920, through the appearance of the
still more dreaded boll-worm in St. Kitts and Montserrat, to
which it was brought by a Brazilian vessel. A comparatively new
industry, which has made rapid progress in British Guiana, is that
of rice. The colony used to import large quantities of rice for the
Indian immigrants, but in 1905 was already able to cover her
own requirements and in 1926 exported rice to the value ol
£44,000.
Almost as rapid has been the development of the petroleum in-
dustry in Trinidad. The existence of petroleum deposits in Trini-
dad has long been recognized. As far back as 1864 oil was struck
but it proved impossible to make a financial success of the enter-
prises concerned. About 1900 Mr. Randolph Rust, a local resident
(mayor of Port of Spain in 1921), imported modern oil-boring
machinery and successfully struck oil at Aripero in 1901. Other
prospectors came on the scene, and in 1910 followed the success-
ful flotation of the Trinidad oil-fields, and Trinidad enjoyed an
extraordinary boom. The new industry, which was officially in-
augurated in 191 1, developed rapidly. With many new wells being
drilled it is certain that the production of oil, which in 1927
amounted to 5,200,000 barrels and in 1928 to about 6,200,000,
will undergo further material expansion.
As the outcome of the report of a committee appointed by Lord
Milner in 1919, the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture was
founded in 1921, with headquarters at St. Augustine, about 7 m.
E. of Port of Spain, Trinidad. An important feature of the
college is the provision for research and investigation work which
its laboratories and fields afford. The site was given by the Gov-
ernment of Trinidad and Tobago, whose planters gave £50,000
towards the erection of the college building. Maintenance is pro
vided for by Imperial grants and contributions from the Govern-
ments of certain West Indian and West African colonies. Attached
to the college is an instructional sugar factory, towards which the
British sugar machinery firms contributed plant to the value of
£20,000.
Imperial Preference. — The British Finance Act of 1918 pro-
vided for the granting of a preference of one-sixth off the duties
on sugar, molasses, tobacco, coffee, cacao and other products
imported from within the Empire into the United Kingdom, and
a preference of 2s. 6d. per gallon on rum. The preference on
sugar was increased in 1925 and stabilized for 10 years by the
Finance Act of 1925.
Canadian Preference. — Following an inquiry in 1909 by a
Royal Commission, a conference was held at Ottawa in 1912 be-
tween representatives of the Dominion and the British West
Indian colonies, the Bahamas, British Honduras and Jamaica ex-
cepted, to consider the question of closer trade. On April 9, 1912
a reciprocal trade agreement was signed, the basis of which was
a mutual preference of 20% on the chief products of the countries
concerned.
In 1920 a second conference was held at Ottawa at which all
the West Indian colonies, and also the Imperial Government, were
represented. A new agreement was signed on June 18, 1920, and
brought into force in May 1921, under which Canada agreed to
give to British West Indian products a tariff preference of 50%,
whilst the British West Indies similarly agreed to extend to Cana-
dian products tariff preference of 50% in the case of Barbados,
British Guiana and Trinidad, 33$% in that of British Honduras,
the Leeward Islands and the Windward Islands, 25% in Jamaica
and 10% in Bahamas, the legislature of which colony afterwards
voluntarily increased the preference to one of 25%. Certain
products were specifically dealt with, the preference on Cana-
9ian flour entering the West Indies being not less than is. per
£96 lb., and that on West Indian sugar being not less than 83*712
/cents per 100 lb. on 96° test.
In 1925 a new and more comprehensive agreement was signed
under which West Indian produce (other than tobacco, cigars and
alcohol) was to enjoy a preference of 50% off the full duty on
entering the Dominion. Canada was to withdraw the benefit of
the British preferential tariff from any British colony producing
cacao beans which did not extend to her a satisfactory reciprocal
preference. She was to admit, free of duty, bananas produced in
British colonies and impose a duty of 50 cents per bunch on
foreign bananas. The West Indies on their part were to give in-
creased tariff preferences, namely 25. per barrel or bag of 196 lb.
of Canadian flour, and in the case of Jamaica, the Bahamas and
British Honduras a preference not less than 30% on dairy prod-
ucts, meat and apples, and in the other colonies a preferential
duty of not less than one-third of the general rate. With a guar-
antee against loss ensured by the colonies, Canada has undertaken
to maintain new freight, mail and passenger services among the
West Indian group. (X.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— A. E. Aspinall, The British West Indies, Their
Present Position and Prospects (1921) ; Handbook of the British West
Indies (1926); W. G. A. 0. Gore, The West Indies To-Day, articles
reprinted from The Times (i<>22) ; A Shipley, Islands. West Indian-
Aegean (1924); G. Manington, The West Indies (New York, 1925).
See Colonial Reports (Annual) and the Colonial Office list.
ARCHAEOLOGY
At the time of Columbus the West Indian groups of
islands were inhabited by tribes of two distinct South American
ethnic stocks; the Greater Antilles by a branch of the Arawak
people (known as Tainan) ; the Bahamas by another Arawak
branch (the Lucayan) ; and the Lesser Antilles by the Carib.
The West Indies, in the first instance, seem to have been"*
populated by a wave of Arawak immigration, followed by a
second wave of Carib immigrants, who, by the end of the fifteenth
century had exterminated the male population of the Lesser
Antilles, and had even obtained a foothold on the eastern end
of Porto Rico. The culture of the two races appears to have
been very similar, though the Tainan were superior in crafts-
manship. The Carib practised cannibalism, a custom which was
rare (even if it existed at all) among the Tainan. It is possible
that certain Maya influences from Yucatan had affected the
ethnography of, at any rate, western Cuba; and there are indica-
tions that the Lucayan inhabitants of the Bahamas were in touch
with the tribes of Florida, though, in this case, they appear to have
given more than they received. The Tainan lived under the rule
of a number of hereditary chieftains, known as Cacique, whose
rule was mildly despotic, who were leaders in war, and also
exercised certain priestly functions. Inheritance of rank seems
to have passed to the eldest son, or failing male issue to the eldest
son of the late Cacique's sister. As to property, among the
general populace, the sister's son was the normal heir. The Carib
organization appears to have been rather more democratic. The
chiefs were essentially war-leaders, and the adult members of the
Carbet (or "Men's House") constituted a sort of council. Chief-
tainship was not necessarily hereditary, but depended to a great
extent on personal prowess. The difference was the natural out-
come of circumstances. The surviving Tainan had been in long
occupation of the larger islands, and were comparatively sedentary.
The Carib, with only small islands at their disposal, were still
a semi-migratory people, engaged in the conquest of fresh ter-
ritory. Though all the islanders practised agriculture (maize
3eing the most important crop), cultivation played a more im-
portant part in Tainan culture, while the fishing industry was more
important among the Carib. Carib organization, which was de-
vised to provide for long fishing-excursions or military raids, gave
rise to rumours of "Amazon'* tribes in the Caribbean, since the
early explorers occasionally encountered islands peopled, appar-
ently, only by women. Again, the practice of the Carib of taking
he Arawak women as wives, after killing the men, led to a dual
linguistic system on certain islands; the women (and their
daughters) speaking Arawak, while the men and elder boys (who
'rom an early age accompanied their fathers in their various
^oyages) spoke Carib.
The religion of both peoples was a form of nature-worship.
A number of aetiological myths have been preserved, mostly of a
very inconsequential nature (for details see bibliography). Cer-
tain high powers, connected with the sky and rain, were pro-
HISTORY]
WEST INDIES
537
pitiated, and the spirits of ancestors and tree-spirits, were
objects of common worship. Most of the idols fall under the
class of "fetishes/* to which the word Zemi was applied. This
term is almost exactly parallel to the Peruvian word Huaca, and
has as wide a connotation, including both the great powers, and
images of wood and cotton (the latter often enclosing the bones
of ancestors), and amulets and even ceremonial paintings on the
body. Both Tainan and Carib were expert in the handling of
stone, though the former were superior. The practice of flaking
was practically non-existent, and implements and ceremonial
objects were prepared by polishing. The comparative superiority
of the Tainan rested to a great extent on the fact that they had
access to a larger, and more varied, supply of raw material. In
fact on certain of the Carib islands (notably Barbados) workable
stone was non-existent, and implements were carved from fossil
shell. Certain stone products of the Tainan artisan show remark-
able proficiency, especially the large "horse-collar" fetishes (prin-
cipally from Porto Rico, and probauly connected with tree-wor-
ship); the so-called "three-pointed stones*' (also chiefly related
to Porto Rico, and probably connected with the cult of the cas-
sava) ; and the pestles and axe-blades of Jamaica, of which the
latter, in qualities of form and polish, challenge comparison with
the celts of any other region of the world. In the Greater Antilles
gold was collected from the rivers, or by excavation, and worked
into ornaments by means of hammering, the process of casting
being unknown. Pottery, of rather a rude nature, was made, more
particularly by the Tainan, but in no case approximated to the
wares of Central America or Peru.
One product, which possessed both an economic and religious
significance, was the tobacco-plant, known as Cohiba or Cogiuba,
the smoke of which was inhaled through tubes termed Tabaco.
The name of the tube became transferred to the plant, and has
survived in modern civilization. The inhalation of tobacco-smoke
was practised at important ceremonies, and eventually reduced
the officiating priest to a state of coma, during which he ex-
perienced visions which were regarded as divine revelations.
(T. A. J.)
HISTORY
The archipelago received the name of the West Indies from
Columbus, who hoped that, through the islands, he had found a
new route to India. The name of Antilles was derived from the
fact that Columbus, on his arrival here, was supposed to have
reached the fabled land of Ant ilia. Columbus first landed on
San Salvador, generally identified with Watling island of the
Bahamas, and several voyages to this new land were made in
rapid succession by the great discoverer, resulting in the finding
of most of the larger islands, and a more intimate knowledge of
those already known. The importance of its latest possession
was at once recognized by the court of Spain, and, by 1540, Span-
ish settlements had been made on all of the larger islands and
upon many of the smaller ones. The natives were promptly re-
duced to a state of serfdom or virtual slavery, being distributed,
with the lands upon which they lived, among the conquistador es,
in the form of encomiendas or repartamientos, institutions which
were designed to bring the Indians into subjection to Spanish au-
thority, to provide them with the instruction necessary for be-
coming Christians, and to furnish the Spanish settlers in these
tropical islands a labour supply for the fields and mines. The
system resulted in great oppression and brought about the deci-
mation of the native population. The small remnant that sur-
vived mingled with the Spanish population to such an extent that
few individuals of pure Indian blood could be found on the
principal islands.
Spain was not long allowed to retain an undisputed hold upon
the West Indies. British, Dutch, French and Danish seamen, com-
ing down the path of the trade winds in their sailing vessels and
thus touching at the islands as the first outposts of the New
World, soon asserted their claims to parts of this region whose
fabled wealth had stirred all Europe and a persistent warfare
began to be waged for its possession, in consequence of which
the Spaniards found themselves gradually but surely forced from
many of their vantage grounds.
In 1625 the British began their colonization of the West Indies
by establishing a settlement upon the diminutive island of St.
Christopher (St. Kitts) 23 m. long by 5 broad. This was quickly
followed by other settlements on St. Eustatius, Barbados, Tobago
and St. Croix (all in the same year, 1625), and upon Nevis
(1628), Antigua and Montserrat (1632). Other English settle-
ments were made within the next few decades and by 1713 Britain
had such a firm hold in the West Indies that the Treaty of
Utrecht recognized her claims to the Bahamas, Jamaica, the Cay-
mans, the Caicos and Turks, as well as to most of the islands
upon which the settlements above listed had been made and to
some others of lesser importance. The first care of the English
was to find out the agricultural possibilities of the islands, and
they diligently set about planting tobacco, cotton and indigo.
About 1650 sugar-cane came to be systematically planted, and
it is from this crop that the greatest prosperity of the West Indies
has come. Plantation agriculture has long been the basis of eco-
nomic, social and political development.
Meanwhile the French also had been attracted to the islands.
A French West India company was incorporated in 1625 and a
settlement established on the island of St. Christopher, where a
small English colony was already engaged in clearing and culti-
vating the ground. These were driven out by the Spaniards in
1630 but only to return and again assume possession. Another
colony was planted by the French beside the English settlement
on St. Eustatius, and Grenada was occupied at the same time, both
in 1625. Dominica followed in 1632 and Martinique in 1635,
while Guadeloupe, St. Bartholomew and St. Martin were settled
upon in 1648. The Treaty of Utrecht confirmed France in pos-
session of most of the above islands and in addition, the western
half of the island of Haiti (St. Dominique), Desirade, St. Lucia
and St. Croix. St. Martin she was to share with the Dutch. Sev-
eral lesser islands also were included in her domain.
Although the Dutch were slightly later in getting a secure foot-
hold in the West Indies, the treaty of 1713 allowed them to
retain St. Eustatius, Saba, a part of St. Martin, and the group of
islands (Aruba, Curasao and Bonaire) along the coast of Tierra
Firme (Venezuela). This latter group had long been the strong-
hold of Dutch contraband trade with the Spanish main, carried
on principally from the well-protected lagoon harbour of the
Schattegat (St. Ann's bay). The Danes, too, had planted colonies
on at least one of the West Indies islands and the Treaty of
Utrecht left them in possession of St. Thomas and St. John, to
which St. Croix was later added. The Spanish thus had lost
nearly all of the smaller islands and their holdings were limited
principally to Cuba, Porto Rico and the eastern half of His-
paniola (Haiti). The West Indies had become a region of great
political complexity, with nearly all the maritime nations of west-
ern Europe represented on the map.
During the I7th century and into the beginning of the i8th,
the celebrated buccaneers, French, British and Dutch, infested
the Caribbean and neighbouring seas, doing much damage to
legitimate trade and causing commerce to be carried on only under
armed protection and with much difficulty and danger. In fact,
piracy lingered off the coasts down to the early years of the igth
century.
Few important political changes were made in the West Indies
after the Treaty of 1713 until the period of the wars for inde-
pendence in America, when both the Spanish and the French
parts of the island of Haiti were able to break away from the
mother countries and establish the new nations of Haiti and the
Dominican Republic, 1804 and 1844 respectively. The next great
change in the political map was made in 1898 when the Spanish-
American War brought independence to Cuba and the acquisi-
tion of Porto Rico by the United States. In 1917 the Danish
West Indies also passed into possession of the United States by
purchase, Denmark receiving $25,000,000 for her three islands of
St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix, which are now known as
the Virgin islands of the United States.
One of the most important developments in the history of the
West Indies was the abolition of slavery. In the French, British,
WESTINGHOUSE— WESTMACOTT
Dutch and Danish islands the negro and mulatto element had
become so numerous that it was no longer possible to hold them
in bondage. Long continued agitation and repeated revolts, par-
ticularly in the French colony of Haiti, where the white popu-
lation was nearly exterminated, made it necessary to remedy the
evil. In 1838 the British freed all the slaves in their West Indies
possessions, the French and Danes following ten years later.
The reform came more slowly in the Dutch and Spanish colonies,
and it was not until 1873 that the former freed all their slaves,
while in the Spanish islands of Cuba and Porto Rico slavery
continued until 1886. Emancipation, while marking an im-
portant advance in human liberty, brought serious consequences
in its train. The freed men have been unable to maintain the
economic prosperity of former times, while, wherever they are
not under the direct control of foreign government, political and
social conditions leave much to be desired.
Since the opening of the Panama Canal the West Indies have
acquired increased importance, due to their strategic location
athwart the ocean highway leading to that interoccanic commu-
nication. This has not added greatly to the economic value of
the islands but has made their numerous excellent harbours rank
high as naval bases. Cuba has granted to the United States the
use of two of her strategically situated bays, Guantanamo and
Bahfa Honda, the latter covering the Straits of Florida, and the
former guarding the Windward passage into the Caribbean be-
tween Cuba and the island of Haiti. On Porto Rico the harbour
of San Juan serves the same purpose, guarding the gateways to
the east and the west of this island, while the spacious, nearly
land-locked harbour of St. Thomas in the Virgin islands of the
United States guards the Virgin passage, — the principal feature
that led the United States to desire this group of small islands,
and to secure them from Denmark at a fabulous price. Jamaica,
Barbados and St. Lucia play somewhat the same part among the
British holdings in the West Indies, constituting a series of forti-
fied points that place Great Britain in a strong position in the
Caribbean.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sir C. P. Lucas and C. Atchley, A Historical Geog-
raphy of the British Colonies, vol. ii. (Oxford, revision of 1905) ; C. W.
Eves", C.M.G., The West Indies (4th ed., London, 1897) ; A. Caldccott,
B.D., The Church in the West Indies (London, 1898) ; Robert T. Hill,
Cuba and Porto Rico, with the other Islands of the West Indies
(London, 1898) ; Amos Kidder Fiske, History of the West Indies
(New York, 1899) ; H. de R. Walker, The West Indies and the British
Empire (London, 1901) ; J. H. Stark, Guides to the West Indies
(London, 1898, seq.) ; A. E. Aspinall, Guide to the West Indies
(London, 1907) ; J. A. Froudc, The English in the West Indies
(London, 1888) ; J. Rodway, The West Indies and the Spanish Main
(London, 1896) ; Sir Harry Johnston, The Negro in the New World
(London, 1910) ; J. W. Root, The British West Indies and the Sugar
Industry (1899) ; Colonial Office Reports; Reports of Royal Commis-
sions, 1897 and 1910; J. W. Spencer, "Reconstruction of the Antillcan
Continent/' Bull. Geol. Soc, Amer., vol. vi., p. 103 (1895) (Abstract in
Geol. Mag., 1894, pp. 448-451): see also a series of papers by J. W.
Spencer in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Ixvii., Ixviii. (IQOI, 1902) ;
R. T. Hill, "The GeoloRy and Physical Geography of Jamaica," Bull.
Afus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899) ; Chester Lloyd Jones,
Caribbean Interests of the United States (New York, 1919) ; H. C. Hill,
Roosevelt and the Caribbean (N.Y. 1927) ; Charles H. Sherril, "Islands
for Debts," N. Am. Rev. (Jan. 1928) ; A. W. H. Hall, Report on the
Economic and Financial Conditions in the British Wtst Indies, Lon-
don, 1922 ; C. S. S. Hicham, The Development of the Leeward Islands,
1660-1688, Cambridge, 1921; F. W. Pitman, The Development of the
British West Indies, London, 1918; A. H. Verrill, Isles of Spice and
Palm, New York, 1916; H. Wrong, Government, of the West Indies,
London, 1923; W. M. Davis, The Lester Antilles, New York, 1925.
(G. M. McB.)
WESTINGHOUSE, GEORGE (1846-1914), American in-
ventor and manufacturer, was born at Central Bridge (N.Y.), on
Oct. 6, 1846. He entered the Union Army in the Civil War in
1863, but in 1864 was appointed third assistant engineer in the
navy. In 1865 he invented a device for replacing derailed cars
and also a reversible steel railway frog. In 1869 he patented his
air-brake and organized the Westinghouse Air Brake company.
In 1872 he invented the automatic air-brake. This brake was
quickly adopted by railways in America and gradually in Europe.
He also developed a system of railway signals, operated by com-
pressed air with the assistance of electrical contrivances. In
June 1912 he received the Edison Gold Medal for "meritorious
achievement in connection with the development of the alternat-
ing current system for light and power." In 1893 this system was
installed at the Chicago exposition. He built dynamos for the
power plants at Niagara Falls, for the rapid transit systems of
New York city, and for the London Metropolitan Railway.
Westinghouse also devised a method for conveying gas through
long-distance pipes, thus making it a practicable fuel. He died in
New York on March 12, 1914.
WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC AND MANUFAC-
TURING COMPANY, situated at East Pittsburgh, Pa.,
U.S.A., was founded by George Westinghouse (?.*>.)• In 1882,
Westinghouse began the manufacture of direct-current electric
lighting generators. After a study of alternating current devel-
opment and the purchase of many patent rights, George Westing-
house set up, with the assistance of William Stanley, a system
which is the basis of present-day alternating-current generation
and distribution. The first commercial alternating-current light-
ing plant was installed in Buffalo, N.Y., in 1886.
Later developments have been the alternating-current sys-
tem; the induction (Tesla) motor; the rotary converter; the
single-reduction-gear street-railway motor; the electro-pneumatic
system of multiple-unit train control; the alternating-current sys-
tem of railway electrification, as exemplified by many American
railroads ; the single-double-flow turbine ; the turbo-generator ; the
floating-frame reduction gear for turbine-driven ships; and con-
tributions to the art of radio broadcasting. For the year ending
March 31, 1927, the sales were $185,543,087 and the number of
employees was about 40,000, The outstanding capital stock was
$118,503,250. The company is now reorganized as the Westing-
house Electric International Company. (E. M. HE.)
WEST LOTHIAN or LINLITHGOWSHIRE, south-
eastern county, Scotland, has an area of 76,861 ac. (excluding
water). The surface rises gradually from the Firth to a hilly
district in the south, with summits up to 1,000 feet.
History-— Traces of the prehistoric inhabitants still exist.
Stone cists have been discovered at Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newlis-
ton and elsewhere ; on Cairnnaple is a circular structure of remote
but unknown date; and at Kipps is a cromlech that was once sur-
rounded by stones. The wall of Antoninus lies for several miles
in the shire, and Roman camps can be distinguished. The his-
torical associations mainly cluster round Linlithgow (q.v.)
Agriculture and Industry.— About three-fourths of the
county, the agriculture of which is highly developed, is under cul-
tivation. The best land is found along the coast, as at Carriden
and Dalmeny. The farming is mostly arable, permanent pasture
being practically stationary (at about 23,000 ac.). Dairy farming
provides fresh butter and milk for Edinburgh.
There are large shale oil works at numerous places, and im-
portant ironworks; coal is also largely mined, and steel is made
at Armadale. Fire-clay is extensively worked. Old silver mines
near Bathgate have been reopened recently. Limestone, freestone
and whinstone are all quarried. Paper is made at Linlithgow and
Bathgate, and distilling carried on at Linlithgow and Bo'ness.
Bo'ness is the principal port.
Communications.— The L.N.E. Railway company's line from
Edinburgh to Glasgow controls the approaches to the Forth
bridge. The Union canal (31 m. long), connecting Edinburgh
with the Forth and Clyde canal, crosses the county.
Population and Administration. — In 1921 the population
was 83,962; 224 persons spoke Gaelic and English. The chief
towns, with populations in 1921, are Bathgate (8,504), Borrow-
stounness or Bo'ness (10,162), Broxburn (4,777), Linlithgow
(3,880), and Armadale (4,927). The shire returns one member
to parliament, and is part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians, Sel-
kirk and Peebles, with a resident sheriff -substitute at Linlithgow.
The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are acad-
emies at Linlithgow, Bathgate and Bo'ness.
WESTMACOTT, SIR RICHARD (1775-1856), British
sculptor, was born in London in 1775. As a boy he worked in the
studio of his father, a sculptor of some reputation. In 1793 he
went to Rome and became a pupil of Canova, then at the height
WESTMEATH— WESTMINSTER
539
of his faijie. Hence, his real sympathies were with pagan rather
than with Christian art. In 1805 he was elected an associate, and
in 1811 a full member of the Royal Academy, London. In 1827
he succeeded Flaxman as Roydl Academy professor of sculpture.
Westmacott is best represented by his pedimental figures
over the portico of the British Museum, completed in 1847, and
his colossal nude statue of Achilles in bronze, copied from the
original on Monte Cavalio in Rome and set up in 1822 by the
ladies of England in Hyde Park as a compliment to the duke
of Wellington. He died on Sept. i, 1856.
WESTMEATH, a county of Ireland in the province of
Leinster. The area is about 709 sq. miles. Pop. (1926) 56,796.
Westmeath is a county of carboniferous limestone.
The only heights are Knocklayde (795 ft.), Hill of Ben (710
ft.) and Knockayon (707 feet). A considerable system of eskers,
notably north of Tullamore, diversifies the surface of the lime-
stone plain. A large surface is occupied by bog. The loughs of
the county have a combined area of .nearly 17,000 acres. In the
north, on the borders of Cavan, is Lough Sheelin, with a length
of 5 m., and an average breadth of between 2 and 3 m., and
adjoining it is the smaller Lough Kinale. In the centre of the
county is Lough Derravaragh, 6 m. long by 3 m. broad at its
widest part. To the north of it are Loughs Lene, Glore, Bawn and
others; and to the south, Loughs Iron and Owel. Farther south
is Lough Ennell or Belvidere, and in the south-west Lough Ree,
a great expansion of the river Shannon, forming part of the
boundary with Roscommon. The loughs are noted for their trout.
Westmeath was severed from Meath (q.v.) in 1543. The insur-
rection of 1641 was concerted at Multifarnham abbey, and
both in the wars of this period and those of 1688 the majority
of the estates in the county were confiscated. There arc a con-
siderable number of raths or encampments: one at Rathconrath
is of great extent ; another at Ballymore was fortified during the
wars of the Cromwellian period and those of 1688 and was after-
wards the headquarters of Gen. Ginkell, when preparing to be-
siege Athlone; and there is a third near Lough Lene.
The soil is generally a deep rich loam well adapted both for
tillage and pasturage. The occupations are almost wholly agri-
cultural, dairy farming predominating. Flour and meal are
largely produced. The only textile manufactures are those of
friezes, flannels and coarse linens for home use. The county
would benefit from the proposed extension of the Shannon elec-
tricity scheme to Lough Ree. Water communication with Dublin
is furnished by the Royal canal. The counties of Longford and
Westmeath return five members to Dail Eireann.
WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF.
The title of marquess of Westminster was bestowed in 1831 upon
Robert Grosvenor, 2nd Earl Grosvenor (1767-1845), whose
grandson, Hugh Lupus Grosvenor (1825-1899), was created duke
of Westminster in 1874. The family of Grosvenor is of great
antiquity in Cheshire. The ancestors of the dukes of Westminster,
the Grosvcnors of Eaton, near Chester, were cadets of the knightly
house of Le Grosvenur. Their baronetcy dates from 1622.
SIR THOMAS GROSVENOR, the 3rd baronet (1656-1700), in 1676
married Mary (d. 1730), heiress of Alexander Davies (d. 1665), a
scrivener, who brought to the Grosvenor family certain lands
now covered by some of the most fashionable quarters of the
West End. His grandson, SIR RICHARD GROSVENOR (1731-1802),
was created Baron Grosvenor in 1761 and Viscount Belgrave and
Earl Grosvenor in 1784. The ist earl, a great breeder of race-
horses, was succeeded by his only surviving son ROBERT, 2nd carl
(1767-1845), who rebuilt Eaton Hall and developed his London
property, which was rapidly increasing in value. In the House of
Commons, where he sat from 1788 to 1802, he was a follower of
Pitt, who made him a lord of the admiralty and later a commis-
sioner of the board of control, but after 1806 he left the Tories j
and joined the Whigs. He was created a marquess at the corona-
tion of William IV. in 1831. HUGH LUPUS (1825-1899), grand-
son of the preceding, was created a duke in 1874, and was a
member of parliament for Chester (1847-69), and master of the
horse under Gladstone (1880-85), but he left the Liberal party
over Home Rule for Ireland. He was succeeded by his grandson
Hugh Richard Arthur, 2nd duke (b. 1879).
WESTMINSTER, a part of London, England; strictly a city
in the administrative county of London, bounded east by "the
City," south by the river Thames, west by the boroughs of Chel-
sea and Kensington, and north by Paddington, St. Marylebone
and Holborn. Westminster was formed into a borough by the
London Government Act of 1899, and by a royal charter of the
29th of October 1900 it was created a city. The city comprises
two parliamentary divisions known as the Abbey and St. George's,
each returning one member. Area, 2,502-7 acres. Pop. (1921)
141,578. The City of Westminster, as thus depicted, extends
from the western end of Fleet Street to Kensington Gardens, and
from Oxford Street to the Thames, which it borders over a dis-
tance of 3 m., between Victoria (Chelsea) Bridge and a point
below Waterloo Bridge. It thus contains a large number of
national and imperial public buildings from the Law Courts in the
east to the Imperial Institute in the west, including Buckingham
and St. James's palaces and the National Gallery. But the
name of Westminster is more generally associated with a more
confined area, namely, the quarter which includes the Abbey, the
Houses of Parliament, the government and other buildings in
Whitehall, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the parts immedi-
ately adjacent to these.
Westminster Abbeys—The Abbey of St. Peter is the most
widely celebrated church in the British empire. The Thames was
bordered in early times by a great expanse of fen land from
Chelsea and Battersea, while near the point where the Abbey
stands was a low island perhaps three-quarters of a mile in cir-
cumference, known as Thorney or Bramble islet. Tributary
streams from the north formed channels through the marsh, flank-
ing the island north and south, and were once connected by a
dyke on the west. These channels belonged to the Tyburn, which
flowed from the high ground of Hampstead. There have been
stories of a temple of Apollo and of a church founded under "King
Lucius"; there is more probability in the statement of Stow that
King Sebert founded a church of St. Peter on Thorney Isle, and
legend relates the coming of St. Peter himself to hallow his new
church. A charter of Off a, king of Mercia (785), deals with the
conveyance of certain land to the monastery of St. Peter; and
King Edgar restored the church, defining by a charter dated 951
(not certainly genuine) the boundary of Westminster, extending
(in modern terms) from the Marble Arch south to the Thames and
east to the City boundary, the former river Fleet. Westminster
was a Benedictine foundation. In 1050 Edward the Confessor took
up the erection of a new church, cruciform, with a central and
two western towers. It was consecrated in 1065 before the Con-
fessor died, but building was continued afterwards. In 1245 Henry
111. set about the rebuilding of the church east of the nave.
The Church. — The present Abbey is a cruciform structure con-
sisting of nave with aisles, transepts with aisles (but in the south
transept the place of the western aisle is occupied by the eastern
cloister walk), and choir of polygonal apsidal form, with six
chapels (four polygonal) opening north and south of it, and an
eastern Lady chapel, known as Henry VII. 's chapel. There are
two western towers, but in the centre a low square tower hardly
rises above the pitch of the roof. The main entrance in common
use is that in the north transept. The chapter-house, cloisters and
other conventual buildings and remains lie to the south. The
total length of the church (exterior) is 531 ft. and of the transepts
203 ft. in all. The breadth of the nave without the aisles is 38 ft.
7 in. and its height close upon 102 ft. These dimensions are very
slightly lessened in the choir.* The exterior is finely proportioned,
but the building has been much altered. Wren designed the
western towers, completed in 1740 after his death, and Sir Gilbert
Scott and Pearson rebuilt the north front.
Within, the Abbey is a superb example of the pointed style.
The body of the church is remarkably uniform, because, although
the building of the new nave was continued with intermissions
from the i4th century until Tudor times, the Early English de-
sign in the eastern part was carried on. The choir, with its radiat-
ing chapels, plainly follows French models. Exquisite ornament
is seen in the triforium arcade, and between some of the arches
540
WESTMINSTER
in the transept are figures, specially finely carved though much
mutilated, known as the censing angels. Henry VII. 's chapel
replaces an earlier Lady chapel, and is the most remarkable
building of its period. It comprises a nave with aisles, and an
apsidal eastward end formed of five small radiating chapels. A
splendid series of carved oak stalls lines each side of the nave,
and above them hang the banners of the Knights of the Bath.
The fan-traceried roof, with its carved stone pendants, is ex-
quisite.
The choir stalls in the body of the church are modern. The
reredos is by Scott, with mosaic by Salviati.
Ceremonies and Monuments. — From William the Conqueror
onward every sovereign has been crowned in the Abbey except-
ing Edward V. The coronation chairs stand in the Confessor's
chapel. That in use dates from the time of Edward I., and con-
tains beneath its scat the stone of Scone, on which the Scottish
kings were crowned. It is of Scottish origin, but tradition
identifies it with Jacob's pillow at Bethel. Here also are kept
the sword and shield of Edward I1L, still used in the corona-
tion ceremony. The second chair was made for Mary, consort
of William III. Subsequent to the Conquest many kings and
queens were buried here, from Henry III. to George II. A
part of the south transept is famed under the name of the Poets'
Corner. The north transept contains many monuments to states-
men, and the abbey is crowded with tombs and memorials of
famous British subjects, the custom of burial here being tradi-
tionally linked with the presence of it he shrine of Edward the
Confessor. The burial of "The Unknown Warrior" in the centre
of the nave after the World War is a notable commemoration
of the sacrifice made by the people in that war. A number of un-
distinguished persons also have their tombs in the Abbey.
Conventual and Other Buildings. — The monastery was
dissolved in 1539, and Westminster was then erected into a
bishopric, but only one prelate, Thomas Thurleby, held the office
of bishop. In 1553 Mary again appointed an abbot, but Elizabeth
reinstated the dean, with twelve prebendaries. Of the conventual
buildings, the cloisters are of the i3th and I4th centuries. On
the south side of the southern walk remains of a wall of the
refectory are seen from without. From the eastern walk a porch
gives entry to the chapter house and the chapel of the Pyx. The
first is of the time of Henry III., a fine octagonal building, its
vaulted roof supported by a slender clustered column of marble.
It was largely restored by Scott. There arc mural paintings of the
i4th and isth centuries. The chapel or chamber of the Pyx is
part of the undercroft of the original dormitory, and is early
Norman work of the Confessor's time. It was used as a treasury
for the regalia in early times, and here were kept the standard
coins of the realm used in the trial of the pyx now carried out at
the Mint. The undercroft is divided into compartments by walls;
above it is now the chapter library. To the south-east lies the
picturesque Little Cloister, with its court and fountain. Near it
are slight ruins of the monastic infirmary chapel of St. Catherine.
West of the main cloisters are the Deanery, Jerusalem chamber
and College Hall, the building surrounding a small court and
dating mainly from the i4th century. This was the abbot's house.
Its most famous portion is the Jerusalem chamber, believed to
be named from the former tapestries on its walls, representing the
holy city. The College Hall, adjoining it, is now the dining-hall
of Westminster School.
Westminster School.— St. Peter's College, commonly called
Westminster School, is one of the ancient public schools of Eng-
land. A school was maintained by the monks from very early
times. Henry VIII. took interest in it, but the school owes its
present standing to Queen Elizabeth. The school buildings lie
east of the conventual buildings, surrounding Little Dean's Yard,
which, like the cloisters, communicates with Dean's Yard. The
buildings are modern or largely modernized. The Great Schoolroom
is a fine panelled hall. Ashburnham House, containing one of
the school houses, the library and many class-rooms, is named
from the family for whom it was built, traditionally but not cer- '
tainly, by Inigo Jones. The finest part remaining is the grand j
staircase. There arc a number of scholarsrcallcd King's Scholars, i
while a number of scholarships and exhibitions are awarcjed at the
older universities. In the College dormitory a Latin play is an-
nually presented, in accordance with ancient custom. The boys
have the privilege of acclaiming the sovereign at the coronation
in the Abbey. There is a long standing custom of struggling for
the possession of a tossed pancake on Shrove Tuesday. The win-
ner of this Pancake Greaze is rewarded by the Dean.
St. Margaret's. — On the north side of the Abbey, close beside it,
is the parish church of St. Margaret. It was founded in or soon
after the time of the Confessor, but the present building is Per-
pendicular, of greater beauty within than without. St. Margaret's
is officially the church of the House of Commons.
Westminster Palace: Houses of Parliament. — A royal palace
existed at Westminster under Canute, but the building spoken of
by Fitzstephen as an "incomparable structure furnished with a
breastwork and a bastion" is supposed to have been founded by
Edward the Confessor and enlarged by William I. The Hall, called
Westminster Hall, was built by William Rufus and altered by
Richard II. In 1512 the palace suffered greatly from fire, and
thereafter ceased to be used as a royal residence. St. Stephen's
chapel, originally built by King Stephen, was used from 1547 for
the meetings of the House of Commons, which had been held
previously in the chapter house of the Abbey; the Lords used
another apartment, of the palace.
A fire in 1834 destroyed the whole palace save the historic hall
and the present buildings were erected on the site 1840-67. The
south-western Victoria Tower is 340 feet high. The Clock Towqf
329 feet high contains the clock called Big Ben after Sir Benjamin
Hall, First Commissioner of Works at the time when the clock
was erected. Of the modern rooms, the House of Lords is an
ornate chamber, 97 ft. in length; that of the Commons is 70 ft.
long.
Westminster Hall.— The original Hall was finished in 1099,
during which year it is recorded that King William Rufus held his
first court in the Hall. Little remains of Rufus's Hall beyond its
walls which have been encased with modern linings. The unsur-
passed open timber roof was erected by King Richard II. in 1394,
when Richard appointed John Gedeney to supervise the work of
repair to the Hall, with power to engage any necessary masons,
carpenters and labourers. Hugh Herland, a master carpenter in
the service of the king, was appointed controller to Gedeney and
it is probably to Hugh Hcrlancl that we owe the creation of the
magnificent roof. The span of the roof is 67 ft. 6 in. without
any intermediate supports, and its construction presented a prob-
lem the solving of which had not previously been attempted. The
roof was designed with an upper triangulated framed structure
consisting of the main collar beam, principal rafters, and queen
posts, with a crown post centrally supporting the heavy ridge
piece. This upper triangular framed structure was supported
on two cantilever structures embodying the lower principal rafter,
the hammer post, the hammer beam, the wall post and the curved
strut between wall post and hammer beam, the whole roof being
tied together by a great curved brace or arch springing from the
corbel at the foot of the wall post passing the hammer beam, the
hammer post with its crown at the centre of the main collar beam.
Evidence is available of repairs being carried out to the struc-
ture and the roof on many occasions, but the most drastic restora-
tion work was undertaken in recent years and was not completed
until 1922. This restoration became an urgent necessity owing
to the ravages of the "Death-watch beetle" (the Xestobinm Tos-
sellatum) whose operations during many years had caused the
roof to become entirely unsafe. Investigation undertaken by His
Majesty's Office of WTorks revealed an actual danger of a collapse
of a portion of the roof. The ends of many of the principal
rafters, the purlins and some of the main collar beams were found
to be hollowed out to a thin shell by the attacks of the beetle.
In the restoration various expedients were tried to destroy the
beetle and its eggs, the most satisfactory result being obtained by
spraying the affected timbers after they had been thoroughly
cleaned with a solution of ortho-para-dichlor-benzene. A system of
steel reinforcement was adopted for supporting the roof structure,
and this was so placed as to be invisible.
WESTMINSTER— -WESTMINSTER BANK LIMITED
Westminster Hall was the seat of the chief law court of Eng-
land fo* centuries and it witnessed the trials of, among others,
Wallace, Richard II., Sir Thomas More, Thomas Campion,
Charles I., Titus Gates, Warren Hastings and Queen Caroline. It
is thus one of the chief centres of English history.
Whitehall. — Northward from Parliament Square a broad,
slightly curving thoroughfare leads to Trafalgar Square. This
is Whitehall, which replaced the narrow King Street. Here, be-
tween the Thames and St. James's Park, formerly stood York
House, a residence of the archbishops of York from 1248. Wolsey
beautified the mansion and kept high state there, but on his
fall Henry VIII. acquired and reconstructed it, employed Holbein
in its decoration, and made it his principal residence. Inigo
Jones designed a new palace for James I., but only the banquet-
ing hall was completed (1622), and this survived several Ares,
by one of which (1697) nearly the whole of the rest of the
palace was destroyed. The hall, converted into a royal chapel by
George I., and now housing the rrrtaseum of the Royal United
Service Institution, the buildings of which adjoin it, is a fine
specimen of Palladian architecture, and its ceiling is adorned
with allegorical paintings by Rubens.
The principal government offices are situated in Whitehall. On
the left, following the northerly direction, arc the Boards of Edu-
cation, Trade, Local Government, etc. The Home, Foreign, Co-
lonial and India Offices occupy the next block. Downing Street,
separating these from the Treasury, contains the official resi-
dences of the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chancellor of
the Exchequer. The Horse Guards was built in 1753 on the site
of a guard-house dating from 1631. The portion of the Admiralty
facing Whitehall dates from 1726 and is plain and sombre; but
there are new buildings on the park side. On the right of White-
hall, besides the banquet hall, are the War Office, and Montagu
House. The Cenotaph, erected in memory of those who fell in
the World War, stands in Whitehall.
Trafalgar Square is an open space sloping sharply to the north.
On the south side, facing the entry of Whitehall, is the Nelson
column (1843), 145 ft. in height, a copy in granite from the
temple of Mars Ultor in Rome, crowned with a statue of Nelson.
Behind the terrace on the north rises the National Gallery (1838),
with its splendid collection of paintings. The National Portrait
Gallery is on the north-east side of the National Gallery.
Westminster Cathedral.— A short distance from Victoria St.
towards its western end, stands Westminster Cathedral (Roman
Catholic). Its site is somewhat circumscribed, but it is a remark-
able modern building (1896-1905) in early Christian Byzantine
style with a stately domed campanile.
WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF, two English Statutes
passed during the reign of Edward I. Parliament having met at
Westminster on April 22, 1275, passed the statute of Westminster
I. In the words of Stubbs (Const. Hist. cap. xiv.) : —
"This act is almost a code by itself; it contains 51 clauses, and
covers the whole ground of legislation. Its language now recalls
that of Canute or Alfred, now anticipates that of our own day;
on the one hand common right is to be done to all, as well poor
as rich, without respect of persons; on the other, elections are
to be free, and no man is by force, malice or menace, to disturb
them. The spirit of the Great Charter is not less discernible: ex-
cessive amercements, abuses of wardship, irregular demands for
feudal aids, are forbidden in the same words or by amending
enactments. The inquest system of Henry II., the law of wreck,
and the institution of coroners, measures of Richard and his
ministers, come under review as well as the Provisions of Oxford
and the Statute of Marlborough."
The second statute of Westminster was passed in the parlia-
ment of 1285. Like the first statute it is a code in itself, and con-
tains the famous clause De donis conditionalibus (q.v.), "one
of the fundamental institutes of the mediaeval land law of Eng-
land." Stubbs says of it: "The law of dower, of advowson, of
appeal for felonies, is largely amended; the institution of justice*
of assize is remodelled, and the abuses of manorial jurisdiction
repressed; the statute De religiosis, the statutes of Merton and
Gloucester, are amended and re-enacted. Every clause has a
bearing on the growth of the later law."
The statute Quia Emptores of 1290 is sometimes called the
statute of Westminster III.
WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF. Under this heading are
included certain of the more important councils of the English
Church held within the present bounds of London. Though
the precise locality is occasionally uncertain, the majority of the
mediaeval synods assembled in the chapter-house of old St. Paul's,
or the former chapel of St. Catherine within the precincts of West-
minster Abbey or at Lambeth. The councils were of various
types, each with a constitutional history of its own. Before the
reign of Edward I., when convocation assumed substantially its
present form (see CONVOCATION), there were convened in London
various diocesan, provincial, national and legatine synods; dur-
ing the past six centuries, however, the chief ecclesiastical assem-
blies held there have been convocations of the province of Can-
terbury. From the time of Edward VI. on, many of the most
vital changes in ecclesiastical discipline were adopted in convoca-
tions at St. Paul's and in the Abbey.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For acts of synods prior to the Reformation see
W. Lynwood, Provinciate (1679), and best of all Wilkins; for the
canons and proceedings of convocations from 1547 to 1717 consult E.
Cardwcll, Synodalia (2 vols., 1842) ; for translations and summaries,
Landcn, Manual of the Councils of the Holy Catholic Church (1893)
and Hrfele, Concilitngeschichte, vol. iv. ff.; see also T, Lathbury, A
History of the Convocation of the Church of England (2nd enlarged
edition, 1853) J A. P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Westminster
Abbey (4th revised ed.r 1876), 411-413, 495-504; 11. H. Milman,
Annals of St. Paul's Cathedral (2nd ed., 1869).
WESTMINSTER BANK LIMITED. British joint stock
banking company, one of the "Big Five" of British banking.
The London and Westminster Bank, in which it had its begin-
ning, was the pioneer of joint-stock banking in London, and was
founded, in the face of strenuous opposition, in 1834. Its incep-
tion was the outcome of the persistent efforts of W. R. Douglas
and a group of friends, who, dissenting from the popularly held
belief that the Bank of England had legally a complete monopoly
of joint-stock banking within a radius of 65111. of London, and
interpreting the restriction to apply only to banks of issue, re-
solved to test their case, and applied to parliament for a defini-
tion of the Bank of England's powers. The law officers of the
Crown upheld the view that the bank's charter did not prevent
the formation of joint-stock banks in the London area, provided
that they did not issue notes, and the legality of such institutions
was affirmed by the Bank Charter Renewal Act of 1833.
On the removal of this legal obstacle, Douglas's committee
formed a bank of deposit which they termed the London and
Westminster Bank. In March 1834 the bank commenced opera-
tions, with a paid-up capital of only £50,000, and with £30,000 in
its tills. In 1854, admission to the London Bankers' Clearing House
was secured, and the bank became a limited liability company in
1880.
The company absorbed from time to time a number of private
and joint-stock banks. In 1909 amalgamation was effected with
the London and County Banking Company, which had an impor-
tant business in London and the home counties. The London
County and Westminster Bank (Paris), of which the entire capital
was held by the parent bank, was established in 1913, and opened
branches in France and Belgium. The ' affiliation of the Ulster
Bank, Ltd., took place in 1917, and other amalgamations followed:
with Parr's Bank, Ltd. (1918), with the Nottingham and Notts
Backing Company (1919); the Yorkshire banking-houses of
Beckett and Company (1919), etc. The bank has built up a strong
position as an issuing house, especially in relation to the stocks
of British Dominions and Corporations.
The title of the institution was shortened in 1923 to West-
minster Bank, Ltd., and at the same time the foreign auxiliary
became Westminster Foreign Bank, Ltd. At the beginning of
1928, the bank had 970 offices, of which 189 were in the metro-
politan area. Its authorized capital was £33,000,000, of which
*30'533>I27 had been subscribed, and £9,320,157 paid up. The
reserve equalled the paid-up capital. Current, deposit and other
accounts totalled £280,612,019. The head office of the bank is in
Lothbury, London. (L. C. M.)
54-2
WESTMORLAND
WESTMORLAND, EARLS OF. Ralph Neville, 4th Baron
Neville of Raby, and ist earl of Westmorland (1364-1425), eldest
son of John, 3rd Baron Neville, and his wife Maud Percy (see
NEVILLE: Family), was knighted by Thomas of Woodstock, after-
wards duke of Gloucester, during the French expedition of 1380,
and succeeded to his father's barony in 1388.
He was repeatedly engaged in negotiations with the Scots, and
his assistance to the court party against the lords appellant was
rewarded in 1397 by the earldom of Westmorland. He married as
his second wife Joan Beaufort, half-sister of Henry of Lancaster,
afterwards Henry IV., whom he joined on his landing in York-
shire in 1399. He already held the castles of Brancepeth, Raby,
Middleham and Sheriff Hutton when he received from Henry IV.
the honour and lordship of Richmond for life. The only rivals
of the Nevilles in the north were the Percies, whose power was
broken at Shrewsbury in 1403; and the wardenship of the west
marches was now assigned to Westmorland, whose influence was
also paramount in the east, which was under the nominal warden-
ship of the young Prince John, afterwards duke of Bedford. In
May the Percies were in revolt, with Thomas Mowbray, earl
marshal, and Archbishop Scrope. Westmorland met them on
Shipton Moor, near York, on May 29, 1405, and suggested a parley
between the leaders. By pretending accord with the archbishop,
the earl induced him to allow his followers to disperse. Scrope
and Mowbray were then seized and handed over to Henry at
Pontefract on Jan. 3. The improbabilities of this narrative have
led some writers to think, in face of contemporary authorities, that
Scrope and Mowbray must have surrendered voluntarily. If West-
morland betrayed them he at least had no share in their execu-
tion. Thenceforward he was busily engaged in negotiating with
the Scots and keeping the peace on the borders. He did not play
the part assigned to him by Shakespeare in Henry V., for during
Henry's absence he remained in charge of the north, and was a
member of Bedford's council. Of his daughters, Catherine mar-
ried in 1412 John Mowbray, second duke of Norfolk, brother
and heir of the earl marshal, who had been executed after Ship-
ton Moor; Anne married Humphrey, first duke of Buckingham;
Eleanor married, after the death of her first husband, Richard le
Despenser, Henry Percy, 2nd earl of Northumberland; Cicely
married Richard, duke of York, and was the mother of Edward
IV. and Richard III. The earl died on Oct. 21, 1425, and a fine
alabaster tomb was erected to his memory in Staindrop church
close by Raby castle.
See J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV. (4 vols.,
1884-98).
CHARLES, 6th earl (1543-1601), eldest son of Henry, 5th
carl, by his first wife Jane, daughter of Thomas Manners, ist
earl of Rutland, was brought up a Roman Catholic, and was
further attached to the Catholic party by his marriage with Jane,
daughter of Henry Howard, carl of Surrey. He was a member
of the council of the north in 1569, when he joined Thomas Percy,
7th earl of Northumberland, and his uncle Christopher Neville,
in the Catholic rising of the north, which aimed at the liberation
of Mary, queen of Scots. On the collapse of the ill-organized in-
surrection Westmorland fled with his brother earl over the borders,
and eventually to the Spanish Netherlands, where he died on
Nov. 1 6, 1601. He left no sons, and his honours were forfeited by
his formal attainder in 1571. Raby castle remained in the hands
of the Crown until 1645.
The title was revived in 1624 in favour of Sir Francis Fane
(c. 1574-1629), whose mother, Mary Neville, was a descendant
of a younger son of the first carl. He was created baron of
Burghersh and carl of Westmorland in 1624, and became Lord
le Despenser on his mother's death in 1626. His son Mildmay
Fane, 2nd or 8th earl of Westmorland (c. 1602-1666), at first
sided with the king's party, but was afterwards reconciled with
the parliament. John Fane, 7th or i3th earl of Westmorland
(1682?-! 762), served with distinction in various campaigns under
Marlborough, and was made in 1739 lieutenant-general of the
British armies.
JOHN FANE, nth or i;th earl (1784-1859), only son of John,
roth earl, was known as Lord Burghersh until he succeeded to the
earldom in 1841. He entered the army in 1803, and in 1805 took
part in the Hanoverian campaign as aide-de-camp to General Sir
George Don. He was assistant adjutant -general in Sicily and
Egypt (1806-07), served in the Peninsular War (1808-13), was
British military commissioner to the allied armies under Schwar-
zenberg, and marched with the allies to Paris in 1814. He was
subsequently promoted major-general (1825), lieutenant-general
(1838) and general (1854), although the latter half of his life
was given to the diplomatic service. He was British resident at
Florence (1814-30), and ambassador at Berlin from 1841 to 1851,
when he was transferred to Vienna. He retired in 1855, and died
at Apthorpe House, Northamptonshire, on Oct. 16, 1859. He
composed several operas, took a keen interest in the cause of
music in England, and in 1822 made proposals which led to the
foundation in 1823 of the Royal Academy of Music. His wife
Priscilla Anne (1793-1879), daughter of William Wcllesley-Pole,
3rd earl of Mornington, was a distinguished artist.
His published works include Memoirs of the Early Campaigns of
the Duke of Wellington in Portugal and Spain (1820), and Memoir of
the Operations of the Allied Armies under Prince Schivarzenberg and
Marshal Blilchcr (1822). See also Correspondence of Priscttla, Countess
of Westmorland, 1812-1870 (1909).
FRANCIS WILLIAM HENRY, i2th or i8th earl (1825-1891),
fourth son of the preceding, served through the Punjab campaign
of 1846, and at Gujrat on Feb. 21, 1849. He went to the Crimea
as aide-de-camp to Lord Raglan.
WESTMORLAND, a north-western county of England. It
reaches the sea in the Kent estuary in Morecambe Bay. Area
(exclusive of water) 775-7 sq.m. Prof. Marr recognizes three
major and three minor physical divisions. The largest, the slate
tract, is west of a line from the foot of Ullswatcr to Ravenstone-
dale. In this we find Ordovician (Borrowdale volcanic scries) and
Silurian rocks (see LAKE DISTRICT) which form a region of moun-
tains and fells with deep-cut valleys. The chief peaks are Hel-
vcllyn (3,118 ft.), Bow Fell (2,960), Fairneld (2,863), Cringle
Crags (2,816), Red Screes (2,541), High Street (2,663), High
Raise (2,634) and Langdale Pikes (2,401) with the lakes of
Ullswater, Haweswater, Grasmere, Rytlalwater, Elterwater and
Windermere (in part in the county). The second division embraces
the New Red Sandstone tract of the upper Eden valley with its base
through Penrith reaching to near Kirkby Stephen. Most of the
area lies between the 500 and 1,000 ft. contour. To the east is
the third major division, that part of the Pennine hills within the
county boundary. It is a moorland tract with Milburn Forest
(2,780 ft/), Duften Fell (2,403), Hilton Fell (2,446) and other
heights. The high ground (average 1,000 ft.) in the triangle be-
tween Kendal and the southern boundary of the county includes
Kendal Fell, Farleton Knott and Whitbarrow. The chief rivers
are the upper waters of the Eden (with the Lowther and the
Eamont), the Tees, the Lune and the Kent.
History and Early Settlement. — Implements of ground or
polished stone have been found in Westmorland, some of rather
special types such as certain supposed "sinkers/' objects shaped
like two acorns base to base with a transverse groove between
them; they seem not to have been hammers. A group of monu-
ments extends from Little Salkeld near Penrith in Cumberland
to near Shap in Westmorland; it includes a circle, near Penrith,
called Long Meg and her daughters, 68 stones with "Long Meg"
extra, standing apart, another called Mayborough, another (an
earthwork) called King Arthur's Round Table, all in Cumberland.
At Gunnerheld (near Shap) is a double circle. A barrow at Crosby
Garrett is of special importance. Canon Grenwell considered that
the Romans probably found a considerable indigenous population,
necessitating defence on their part, and their roads and camps are
a feature especially east of the Eden.
The earliest English settlements were by Anglian tribes, in the
6th century in the neighbourhood of Kendal. The northern dis-
trict remained unconquered, until the close of the 7th century
when Ecgfrith drove out the Britons and established the Nor-
thumbrian supremacy over the district. The Danes arrived in the
9th century and the Norsemen in the loth. Westmorland is men-
tioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 966. At the time of the Domes-
day Survey the barony of Kendal belonged to the crown. The
WEST NEW YORK— WESTPHALIA
543
annexation of the northern portion of Westmorland to the crown
was accomplished by William Rufus, in 1092. Westmorland was
established as an administrative county by Henry I. in 1131, by
the separation of the northern part from the land of Carlisle.
The division of Westmorland into wards originated with the
system of defence against the Scots, each barony being divided
into two wards, and each ward placed under a high constable.
From early times the political history of Westmorland is a
record of continuous inroads and devastations from the Scots.
Appleby was frequently raided and in 1388 it was sacked and al-
most completely ruined. In the Wars of the Roses, Westmorland
favoured the Lancastrians and in the Civil War of the iyth cen-
tury the chief families were Royalists. Appleby Castle surren-
dered in 1648, but the Royalist feeling was shown in the joy which
greeted the news of the Restoration. The Jacobite rising of 1745
found many adherents in Westmorland, and a skirmish took place
on Clifton Moor.
There are very few notable ecclesiastical buildings, though the
ruins of Shap Abbey, near the market town of that name should
be remarked. The Perpendicular western tower and other frag-
ments remain. Late Norman work is preserved in some of the
churches, as at Kirkby Lonsdale, and in a few castles. Among the
castles are Appleby, Brough, Brougham and Kendal. In the Ken-
dal district are the houses, Levens Hall dating from the i6th cen-
tury, and Sizcrgh Hall embodying part of an ancient castle. The
formal gardens at Levens Hall are remarkable. Lowther Castle,
near Penrith, is a fine modern mansion.
The economic development of Westmorland has been slow and
unimportant, the rugged nature of the ground being unfavourable
to agricultural prosperity, while the lack of fuel hindered the
growth of manufactures. Sheep-farming was carried on in the
moorland districts, however, and the Premonstratensian house at
Shap exported wool to Florentine and Flemish markets in the
1 3th and i4th centuries. Kendal was a centre of the clothing
industry in the i4th century. In 1589 the county suffered severely
from the plague.
Climate and Agriculture. — The county may be considered
to lie within an area having 40 to 60 in. mean annual fall. The
summer temperature is mild. The helm-wind (q.v.) is char-
acteristic of this district. Less than one-half of the total area is
under cultivation, and of this 61% is in permanent pasture, both
cattle and sheep being largely kept. The fell land furnishes
nourishment for the hardier breeds of sheep. The sale of these,
stock cattle, horses and pigs, and dairy produce is the staple of
the farmers' income. A large part of Westmorland was formerly in
the hands of "statesmen" (see CUMBERLAND) whose holdings
were usually small. The proportion of landowners of this class
has greatly decreased,
Manufactures and Communications, — Woollen manufac-
ture, chiefly confined to Kendal, is the chief industry. Bobbin
making, paper making, the manufacture of explosives and several
small industries are carried on, and use the water-power and hydro-
electric power available at points. Granite, roofing slate, marble,
graphite and a little coal, iron, lead and barytes are obtained.
The main lines of the L.M.S.R. traverse the county, ascending
heavy gradients, of which the most severe crosses Shap Fells.
The railways connect, east and west, by means of branches.
Population and Administrations—The population in 1901
was 64,303; in 1921, 65,746. It is the only county in England
which has a density of population of less than 100 per sq.m. The
general character of the dialects of Westmorland is that of a basis
of Anglian speech, influenced to a certain extent by the speech
current amongst the pre-Anglian peoples of Strathclyde. The
people show a well-marked Scandinavian influence. Three distinct
dialects can be made out.
The municipal boroughs are Appleby, the county town (pop.
1,785) and Kendai (14,146). The urban districts are Ambleside
(2,876), Bowness and Windermere (6,495), Grasmere (1,173),
Kirkby Lonsdale (1,393) and Shap (1,005). The county is in the
northern circuit, and the assizes are held at Appleby. It has one
court of quarter sessions and is divided into six petty sessional
divisions. Kendal has a separate commission of the peace. West-
morland is in the diocese of Carlisle. The county returns one
member to parliament.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Victoria County History, Westmorland; J. C. Cox,
Cumberland and Westmorland, County Churches (1913) ; J. E. Marr,
Westmorland (1909), Geology of the Lake District (1016) ; W. J.
Scdgefield, The Place-names of Cumberland and Westmorland (1915) ;
D. Scott, Cumberland and Westmorland (1920).
WEST NEW YORK, a town of New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
Hudson river. Pop. (1920) 29,926 (30% foreign-born white);
1928 local estimate 45,000. The town had 161 factories in 1925,
producing goods valued at $16,921,073. It was incorporated in
1898.
WESTON, a city of West Virginia, U.S.A., the county seat of
Lewis county. Pop. 5,701 in 1920 (92% native white); esti-
mated locally at 9,000 in 1928. The city lies 1,025 ft. above sea-
level, in a rich blue-grass region, containing immense coal de-
posits, oil and gas wells and great stands of poplar and oak. It
is the headquarters of nine lumber companies, and has various
manufacturing plants. The town was incorporated in 1818, and
was chartered as a city in 1847.
WESTON-SUPER-MARE, a seaside resort of Somerset-
shire, England, on the Bristol channel, 137^ m. W. by S. of London
by the G.W.R. It is served also by the Weston, Clevedon &
Portishead Railway. Pop. of urban district (1921) 31,643. It is
sheltered from the north and east by Wrorlebury hill. Intermittent
springs exist, which are affected by the ebb and flow of the tide.
WEST ORANGE, a town of Essex county, New Jersey.
Pop. (1920) 15,573 (22% foreign-born white). In Llewellyn
Park is the home of Thomas A. Edison, who has had his labora-
tories in West Orange since 1887.
WESTPHALIA (Ger. Wcstfalen), a province of Prussia.
The area of the province is 7,806 sq.m., its length both from north
to south and from east to west is about 130 miles.
Nearly half of Westphalia is an extension of the great North-
German plain, which is broken by outcrops of the underlying
Cretaceous beds, and is not very fertile, except in the Hellweg, a
zone between the Haarstrang and the Lippe. There are extensive
fens in the north and west, and north of Paderborn is a sandy
waste called the Senne. The plain is drained in the north by the
Ems and in the south by the Lippe, which rise close together in
the Teutoburger Wald. Between their basins are the Vechte and
other small rivers flowing into the Zuyder Zee. The triangular
southern portion of Westphalia, most of which is included in
Sauerland ("south land"), is a rugged region of slate hills and
wooded valleys drained chiefly by the Ruhr with its affluents the
Lenne, Mohne, etc., and in the south by the Sieg and Eder. The
hills rise in the south-east to the Rotlager or Rothaargebirge,
culminating in the Winterberg plateau with the Kahler Asten
(2,713 ft.), the highest summit in the province. The Rotlager-
gebirge, Eggegebirge and Teutoburger Wald form the watershed
between the Weser and the Rhine and Ems. The Weser divides
the Wiehengebirge from the Wesergebirge by the narrow pass
called Porta Westfalica.
The climate is temperate except in the south, which is cold in
winter and has a heavy rainfall. The crops include grain of all
kinds, peas and beans, buckwheat, potatoes, fruit and hemp. The
cultivation of flax is very extensive, especially in the north-east.
Swine, which are reared in great numbers in the plains, yield the
famous Westphalian hams; horse-breeding and the rearing of
cattle and goats are also important.
The mineral wealth is very great, especially in coal and iron.
The production of coal is greater than that of any other province
of Prussia. The great Ruhr coal-field extends from the Rhine-
land into the province as far as Unna, the centre being Dort-
mund, and there is a smaller coal-field in the north at Ibbenbiiren.
The production of iron ore, chiefly south of the Ruhr, is exceeded
in Prussia only by that of the Rhine province. After coal and
iron the most valuable minerals are zinc, lead, pyrites and copper.
Antimony, quicksilver, stone, marble, slate and potter's clay are
also worked, and there are brine springs in the Hellweg and
mineral springs at Lippspringe, Oynhausen, etc.
The manufacturing industry of the province, which chiefly de-
pends upon its mineral wealth, is very extensive. Iron and steel
544
WESTPHALIA
goods are produced in the so-called "Enneper Strasse," the valley
of the Enncpe, a small tributary of the Ruhr with the town of
Hagen, and in the neighbouring towns of Bochum, Dortmund,
Iserlohn and Altena, and also in the Siegen district. The brass
and bronze industries are carried on at Iserlohn and Altena,
those of tin and Britannia metal at Ludenscheid; needles are made
at Iserlohn and wire at Altena. The very important linen industry
of Bielefeld, Herford, Minden and Warendorf has flourished in
this region since the I4th century. Jute is manufactured at Biele-
feld and cotton goods in the west. Paper is extensively made on
the lower Lcnne, and leather around Siegen. Other manufactures
are glass, chemicals, sugar, sausages and cigars. An active trade
is promoted by several trunk lines of railway which cross the
province and by the navigation of the Weser (on which Minden
has a port), Ems, Ruhr and Lippe. Beverungcn is the chief
market for corn and Paderborn for wool.
The population in 1925 was 4,806,713, or about 616 per sq.m.
It is very unevenly distributed, and in the industrial districts has
been increasing very rapidly; it includes a considerable element
of Polish workpeople. As at the peace of Westphalia, the bishop-
rics of Munster and Paderborn and the former duchy of West-
phalia are Roman Catholic, while the secularized bishopric of
Minden and the former counties of Ravensberg and Mark (former
possessions of Brandenburg) and Siegen (Nassau) are predomi-
nantly Protestant.
The province is divided into the three governmental depart-
ments (Regientngsbezirke) of Minden, Munster and Arnsberg.
Miinster is the scat of government and of the provincial university.
The inhabitants are mainly of the Saxon stock and speak Low
German dialects, except in the Upper Prankish district around
Siegen, where the Hessian dialect is spoken.
History. — Westphalia, "the western plain" (in early records
Westfalani), was originally the name of the western province of
the early duchy of Saxony, including the western portion of the
modern province and extending north to the borders of Friesland.
When Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony fell under the ban of the
empire in 1180, and his duchy was divided, the archbishop of
Cologne, Philip of Heinsbcrg, received from the emperor Fred-
crick I. the Sauerland and some other districts which became the
duchy of Westphalia. The duchy received a constitution of its
own, and was governed for the archbishop, afterwards elector,
by a marshal (Landmarschall, after 1480 Landdrost) , who was
also stadtholder, and presided over the Westphalian chancellery.
This system lasted till 1803. By the settlement of 1803 the Church
lands were secularized, and Prussia received the bishopric of
Paderborn and the eastern part of Munster, while the electoral
duchy of Westphalia was given to Hesse-Darmstadt.
After the peace of Tilsit, the kingdom of Westphalia was
created by Napoleon I. on Aug. 18, 1807, and given to his brother
Jerome (see BONAPARTE). It included the present governmental
department of Minden, but by far the larger part of the kingdom
lay outside and chiefly to the east of the modern province, and
comprised the Hanoverian department of Hildesheim and in part
that of Arensberg, Brunswick, the northern part of the province
of Saxony as far as the Elbe, Halle, and most of Hesse-Cassel.
The area was 14,62 7sq.m., and the population nearly two millions.
Cassel was the capital. A constitution on the French imperial
pattern granted by the king remained practically inoperative, an
arbitrary bureaucratic regime was instituted, the finances were
from the beginning in a hopeless condition, and the country was
drained of men and money for Napoleon's wars. In Jan. 1810
most of Hanover was added, but at the end of the same year
half the latter, together with the city of Minden, was annexed to
the French empire. At the congress of Vienna (1815) Hesse-
Darmstadt surrendered her share of Westphalia to Prussia, and
the present province was constituted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. S. Seibertz, Landes- und Rechtsgeschichte des
fferzogtums Westfalen, 4 vote. (Arnsberg, 1839-75); R. Wilmans,
Die Kaiserurkunden dcr Provinz Westjalcn, 2 vols. (Munster, 1867-
81) ; M. Janson, Die Herzogsgewalt der Erzbischofe von Koln in
Westfalen (Munich, 1895) '» O. Weddigcn, Westfalen, Land und Leute
(Paderborn, 1896) ; G. Schulze, Heimatskunde der Provinz Westfalen
(Minden, 1900) ; E. Haselhoff, Die Entwkkelung der Landskultur im
der Provinz Westfalen in loten Jahrhundert (Munster, 1900) ; G.
Scrvieres, L'Allemagne fran^aise sous Napoleon ler (1904) ; H. Lem-
berg, Die Hiitten- und Afetallindustrie Rheinlands und Westfalens, 4th
ed. (Dortmund, 1905) ; J. A. R. Marriott and C. G. Robertson, The
Evolution of Prussia (1915).
WESTPHALIA, TREATY OP, the name given to two
treaties concluded on Oct. 24, 1648, by the Holy Roman Empire
with France at Munster and with Sweden and the Protestant
estates of the Empire at Osnabrikk, by which the Thirty Years'
War (q.v.) was brought to an end.
As early as 1636 negotiations had been opened at Cologne at
the instance of Pope Urban VIII., supported by the seigniory of
Venice, but failed owing to the disinclination of Richelieu to
stop the progress of the French arms, and to the refusal of
Sweden to treat with the papal legate. In 1637 the agents of
the emperor began to negotiate at Hamburg with Sweden, though
the mediation of Christian IV., king of Denmark, was rejected
by Sweden, and the discussipns dragged on for years without re-
sult. In the meantime the new emperor Ferdinand III. proposed
at the diet of Regensburg in 1640 to extend the peace of Prague to
the whole empire, on the basis of an amnesty, from which, how-
ever, those Protestant estates1 who were still leagued with foreign
powers were to be excluded. His aim was by settling the internal
affairs of the empire to exclude the German princes from partici-
pation in negot'ations with foreign powers; these efforts failed.
The Comte d'Avaux, French envoy at Hamburg, proposed in
1641 that negotiations should be transferred to Miinster and Osna-^
brikk. A preliminary treaty embodying this proposal was con-
cluded between the representatives of the emperor, France, and
Sweden at Hamburg on Dec. 25, 1641. The two assemblies were
to be regarded as a single congress, and neither should conclude
peace without the other. The date fixed for the meeting was July
ii, 1643, but many months elapsed before all the representatives
arrived, and the settlement of many questions of precedence and
etiquette caused further delays. England, Poland, Muscovy, and
Turkey were the only European powers unrepresented. The war
continued during the deliberations.
The chief representative of the emperor was Count Maximilian
von Trautmansdorff , to whose sagacity the conclusion of peace was
largely due. The French envoys were nominally under Henry
of Orleans, duke of Longueville, but the marquis de Sable and
the comte d'Avaux were the real agents of France. Sweden was
represented by John Oxcnstierna, son of the chancellor, and by
John Adler Salvius, who had previously acted for Sweden at
Hamburg. The papal nuncio was Fabio Chigi, afterwards Pope
Alexander VII. Brandenburg, represented by Count Johann von
Sayn-Wittgenstein, played the foremost part among the Protes-
tant states of the empire. On June i, 1645, France and Sweden
brought forward propositions of peace, which were discussed by
the estates of the empire from Oct. 1645 to April 1646. The
settlement of religious matters was effected between Feb. 1646
and March 1648. The treaty was signed at Munster by the mem-
bers of both conventions on Oct. 24, 1648, and ratifications were
exchanged on Feb. 8, 1649. The papal protest of Jan. 3, 1651,
was disregarded.
Sweden received western Pomerania with Riigen and the mouths
of the Oder, Wismar and Poel in Mecklenburg, and the lands
of the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden,
together with an indemnity of 5,000,000 thalers. The privileges
of the Free Towns were preserved. Sweden thus obtained control
of the Baltic and a footing on the North Sea, and became an
estate of the empire with three deliberative voices in the diet.
The elector of Brandenburg received the greater part of eastern
Pomerania, and, as he had a claim on the whole duchy since the
death of the last duke in 1635, he was indemnified by the bishop-
rics of Halberstadt, Minden, arid Kammin, and the reversion of
the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which came to him on the death
of the administrator, Prince Augustus of Saxony, in 1680. The
elector of Saxony was allowed to retain Lusatia. As compensation
for Wismar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin obtained the bishoprics of
Schwerin and Ratzeburg and some lands of the Knights of St.
H.e. Reichsstande, princes, nobles, and cities holding immediately of
the emperor.
WEST POINT
545
John. Brunswick-Luneburg restored Hildesheim to the elector of
Cologne, and gave Minden to Brandenburg, but obtained the
alternate succession to the bishopric of Osnabrikk and the church
lands of Walkenried and Groningen. Hesse-Cassel received the
prince-abbacy of Hersfeld, the county of Schaumburg, etc. The
elector of Bavaria was confirmed in his possession of the Upper
Palatinate, and in his position as an elector which he had obtained
in 1623. Charles Louis, the son and heir of Frederick V., the
count palatine of the Rhine, who had been placed under the ban
of the Empire, received back the Lower Palatinate, and a new
electorate, the eighth, was created for him.
France obtained the recognition of the sovereignty (which she
had enjoyed de facto since 1552) over the bishoprics and cities
of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, Pinerolo in Piedmont, the town of
Breisach, the landgraviate of Upper and Lower Alsace, the Sund-
gau, the advocacy (Landvogtei) of the ten imperial cities in
Alsace, and the right to garrison Philippsburg. During the Thirty
Years' War France had professed to be fighting against the house
of Austria, and not against the empire. It was stipulated that
the immediate fiefs of the Empire in Alsace should remain in
enjoyment of their liberties, but it was added as a condition that
the sovereignty of France in the territories ceded to her should
not be impaired. The intention of France was to acquire the full
rights of Austria in Alsace, but as Austria had never owned the
landgraviate of Lower Alsace, and the Landvogtei of the ten free
cities did not in itself imply possession, the door was left open
for disputes. Louis XIV. afterwards availed himself of this ambig-
uous clause in support of his aggressive policy on the Rhine. The
independence of Switzerland was at last formally recognized, as
was that of the United Netherlands in a separate tr?aty.
Apart from these territorial changes, a universal and uncondi-
tional amnesty to all those who had been deprived of their posses-
sions was declared, and it was decreed that all secular lands should
be restored to those who had held them in 1618. Some exceptions
were made in the case of the hereditary dominions of the emperor.
Even more important than the territorial redistribution was
the ecclesiastical settlement. By the confirmation of the treaty
of Passau of 1552 and the religious peace of Augsburg of 1555,
and the extension of their provisions to the Reformed (Calvinist)
Church, toleration was secured for the three great religious com-
munities of the empire. Within these limits the governments were
bound to allow at least private worship, liberty of conscience, and
the right of emigration, but these measures of toleration were
not extended to the hereditary lands of the house of Habsburg.
The Protestant minority in the imperial diet was not to be coerced
by the majority, but religious questions were to be decided by
amicable agreement. Protestant administrators of church lands
obtained seats in the diet. Religious parity was established in the
imperial chamber (Reichskammergericht), and in the imperial
deputations and commissions.
The difficult question of the ownership of spiritual lands was
decided by a compromise. The edict of restitution of 1629 was
annulled. By the important provision that a prince should
forfeit his lands if he changed his religion an obstacle was placed
in the way of a further spread of the Reformation. The declara-
tion that all protests or vetoes by whomsoever pronounced should
be null and void dealt a blow at the intervention of the Roman
curia in German affairs.
The constitutional changes made by the treaty had far-reaching
effects. The territorial sovereignty of the states of the empire
was recognized. They were empowered to contract treaties with
one another and with foreign powers, provided that the emperor
and the empire suffered no prejudice. By this and other changes
the princes of the empire became absolute sovereigns in their own
dominions. The emperor and the diet were left with a mere
shadow of their former power. The emperor could not pronounce
the ban of the empire without the consent of the diet. The diet,
in which the 61 imperial cities gained the right of voting on all
imperial business, and thus were put on an equality with the
princes, retained its legislative and fiscal powers in name, but
practically lost them by the requirement of unanimity among the
three colleges.
Not only was the central authority replaced almost entirely by
the sovereignty of about 300 princes, but the power of the empire
was materially weakened in other ways. It lost about 40,ooosq.m.
of territory, and obtained a frontier against France which was
incapable of defence. Sweden and France as guarantors of the
peace acquired the right of interference in the affairs of the em-
pire, and the former gained a voice in its councils. For many
years Germany thus became the principal theatre of European
diplomacy and war. But if the treaty of Westphalia pronounced
the dissolution of the old order in the empire, it facilitated the
growth of new powers in its component parts, especially Austria,
Bavaria, and Brandenburg.
The treaty was recognized as a fundamental law of the German
constitution, and formed the basis of all subsequent treaties until
the dissolution of the Empire.
See the text in Dumont, Corps universel diplomatique, vi. 429 ff.
(The Hague, 1726-31); J. G. von Meiern, Acta pacts Westphalicae
publica (Hanover and Gottingcn, 1734-36), Instrumenta pads Cae-
sareo-Suedcae et Caesareo-Gallicae (Gpttingen, 1738) ; "A.A." (Bishop
Adam Adami), Arcana pads Westphalicae (Frankfort, 1698), ed. J. G.
von Meiern (Leipzig, 1737) ; K. T. Heigel, "Das Westfalische Friedens-
werk von 1643-48" in the Zeitschrift ' fur Geschichte und Politik
(1888) ; F. Philippi and others, Der Westfdlische Frieden, tin Gedenk-
buch (Minister, 1898) ; Journal du Congrls de Munster par F. Ogier,
aumonier du comte d'Avaux, ed. A. Boppe (1893) ; Cambridge Modern
History, iv. p. 395 ff. and bibliography, p. 866 ff.; J. Brycc, The
Holy Roman Empire, ch. xix. (A. B. G.)
WEST POINT, a national military post on a 3,500 ac. reserva-
tion on the west bank of the Hudson river in Orange county, N.Y.,
U.S.A., 50 m. N. of New York city. The West Shore railway, the
Hudson River Day Line and the Storm King highway all serve
West Point.
The United States Military Academy, located at West
Point, trains young men for commissions in the military service.
By law, the supervision of the Military academy is vested in the
War Department. Candidates for admission must be unmarried
and between 17 and 22. The course is four years. The academic
year extends from Sept. i to June 4; the remainder of the year
is devoted to military training in summer camp at West Point.
The annual pay of a cadet is $1,072, which is sufficient to meet his
actual needs. Upon graduation a cadet may be commissioned a
second lieutenant in the regular army.
The authorized strength (1928) of the corps of cadets is 1,374.
By the acts of Congress approved on May 4, 1916 and June 8,
1926, cadets may be appointed from the following sources: four
from each State at large, two from each congressional district, two
from each Territory, four from the District of Columbia, two
natives of Porto Rico, 122 from the United States at large and
i So from among the enlisted men of the regular army and
National Guard. Four Filipinos are also authorized, but they may
be commissioned only in the Philippine scouts.
There are two methods of meeting the educational requirements
for admission to the Military academy: By passing an entrance
examination or by submitting a satisfactory educational certificate
from an institution accredited by the Military academy. Phys-
ically, the candidate must be at least 5 ft. 4 in. tall, of sound body
and free from any disorder of an infectious or immoral character.
Upon admission each cadet takes an oath of allegiance to his
country and agrees to serve in the U.S. army for eight years unless
sooner released by proper authority.
The basis of military training at West Point is discipline. Cadets
are taught absolute and unquestioned obedience. The training is
progressive, from the simplest duties of the soldier to the com-
mand of small combat units under simulated war conditions. Ele-
mentary training in all branches of the service is given to all men,
but no arm of the service is emphasized. The military training
aims to develop leadership. With the exception of drills after
classes in autumn and spring months, and the study of minor
tactics during the school year, no other military work is given dur-
ing the academic year. The summer is devoted entirely to military
training; then the first, or senior class, goes to Ft. Monroe, Va.,
where it fires fixed and mobile long-range guns. Nearbv, at Ft.
Eustis, these cadets fire light artillery and at Langley field they
study aeronautics and actually pilot planes.
546
WEST VIRGINIA
The West Point system of training aims to balance the develop-
ment of body, mind and character. Athletic teams represent the
academy in competition with other colleges in football, basketball,
baseball, track, lacrosse, cross-country running, hockey, tennis,
golf, swimming, boxing, wrestling, fencing, rifle and pistol shooting,
soccer and polo. Eighty per cent of the upper classmen are
members of some corps team.
All cadets take the same technical course, which is rigorously
thorough rather than extremely difficult. Mathematics is stressed
more than any other subject. The other subjects covered are
English, French, surveying, tactics, drawing, history, chemistry,
natural and experimental philosophy, Spanish, engineering, ord-
nance and gunnery, economics, government, hygiene, military art
and military law.
With the majestic Hudson on one side and graceful mountain
ranges in the background, the site of the Military academy is one
of the most beautiful spots to be found anywhere. The Gothic
buildings of native grey stone seem to be a part of their natural
surroundings. The riding hall is one of the largest in the world.
The library, built in 1841, contained 120,000 vols. in 1928 and
many rare manuscripts, maps and trophies. Here are some original
paintings by Stuart and Sully and sketches by Whistler. Here also
are memorials to former cadets, James McNeill Whistler and
Edgar Allan Toe. Cullum Memorial hall, completed in 1899, re-
sembles the second Erechtheum which stood on the Acropolis
(400 B.c,). The new Cadet chapel, completed in 1910, is the
most beautiful building at West Point.
Around the 60 ac. plain are the following monuments: "Dade
and his Command," erected in honour of Maj. F. L. Dade, who
with no of his men was ambushed and killed by the Seminole
Indians of Florida in 1835; the French monument which was
presented to the corps of cadets by the students of the L'ficole
Poly technique of France in 1917 ; a granite statue to Col. Sylvanus
Thayer, the "Father of the Academy," and its superintendent
from 1817 to 1835; a bronze statue of Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick,
who was killed in action at Spottsylvania in 1864; Battle monu-
ment, erected to the memory of the 2,230 Regular Army officers
who fell, during the Civil War, in defence of the Union ; the eques-
trian statue of Gen. Washington, with his arm extended blessing
the institution for which he was one of the first to see the need;
and Kosciuszko's monument, erected by the corps of cadets in 1828
in honour of this Polish patriot.
In the hills behind the academy are seven old redoubts and
connecting trails, built during the Revolutionary War. Forts Put-
nam, Clinton and Constitution were also built during this war.
Trophy Point is rich in trophies of all American wars. In the
West Point cemetery lie the remains of graduates and fellow
officers of all wars, from the Revolution to the World War.
Historical Sketch. — The land now occupied by the reservation
originally belonged to the British Crown. In 1723 and later in
1747, tracts were granted to settlers by royal letters-patent. The
first settlement at West Point probably dates from 1723. Con-
stitution island (280 ac.) was the gift (1908) of Mrs. Russell
Sage and Miss Anna B. Warner.
At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, both the colonists
and the British realized the importance of gaining possession of the
Hudson River valley, and West Point became the strategic centre.
In July 1779, Gen. Washington established his headquarters at
West Point in the Moore House, which stood in what is now known
as Washington valley. His headquarters remained there until
November. In 1880 Maj. Gen. Benedict Arnold, who had assumed
command of West Point and the surrounding dependencies, com-
mitted treason in attempting to turn West Point over to the
British. The plot was discovered, but Arnold fled to the British.
As early as May 1776, Gen. Knox had proposed a military
school for the United States, and in October of the same year
Congress passed a resolution, "Resolved, That a Committee of
five be appointed to prepare and bring in a plan of a Military
Academy at the Army." No action was taken until after the
close of the Revolution. Gen. Washington and his military leaders
agreed that West Point had been the key to the whole United
States and should always be fortified. Accordingly, Washington
recommended the establishment of a military school at West
Point. In his annual message to Congress in 1793, and in his last
message in 1796 he again strongly presented his plea for, "A
Military Academy where a regular course of instruction is given/'
At last, March 16, 1802, Congress passed a bill providing for the
establishment of a military academy and located it at West Point.
The academy, with ten cadets, was first opened on July 4, 1802.
By the act of Congress of April 29, 1812, the academy was reor-
ganized with 250 cadets. In 1817 the academy was organized along
its present lines. Since the establishment of the academy 16,371
cadets have been admitted and 8,486 graduated (1928).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. C. Boynton, History of West Point (1863) ;
H. C. Dane, The West Point Centennial (1878) ; J. P. Farley, West
Point in the Early Sixties (1902) ; E. S. Holdcn, The Centennial of the
United States Military Academy (1904) ; M. Schaff, The Spirit of Old
West Point (1907) ; R. C. Richardson, West Point, An Intimate Picture
of the National Military Academy (1917) ; the Annual Reports of the
superintendents; The West Point Guide Book. (B. F. F.)
WEST VIRGINIA, a State in the Appalachian Mountain re-
gion of the eastern United States, lying between lat. 37° 10' and
40° 40' N., and long. 77° 40' and 82° 40' W. The boundaries
give the State an oval shape except for two extensions, the one to
the north between Ohio and Pennsylvania, and the other to the
east between Maryland and Virginia, which are usually called
"panhandles" and give the State its nickname, "the Panhandle
State." The area is 24,170 sq.m., of which 148 sq.m. is water.
Physical Features. — The State is divided into two distinct
physiographic areas (i) the Allegheny plateau on the west, coA-
prising perhaps two-thirds of the area of the State, and forming
a part of the great Appalachian plateau province which extends
from New York to Alabama; and (2) the Newer Appalachian or
Great valley region on the cast, being a part of the large province
of the same name which extends from Canada to Central Alabama.
The Allegheny plateau consists of nearly horizontal beds of lime-
stone, sandstone and shales, including important seams of coal;
inclines slightly toward the north-west, and is intricately dissected
by streams into a maze of narrow canyons and steep-sided hills.
Along the Ohio river, these hills rise to an elevation of 800 to 1,000
ft. above sea-level, while toward the south-east the elevation in-
creases until 3,500 and 4,000 ft. are reached along the south-east
margin of the plateau, which is known as the Allegheny Front.
The entire plateau area is drained by the Ohio river and its tribu-
taries. Starting at the north the first of these tributaries is the
Monongahela, which crosses into Pennsylvania before it joins the
Ohio. Its headwater valleys in the north-central part of the State
are among the most beautiful and fertile in West Virginia. A sys-
tem of dams renders the Monongahela navigable as high as Fair-
mont. Farther south, entering the Ohio river at Parkersburg, is
the Little Kanawha river which drains seven or eight central
north-western counties. About 40 m. below, at Point Pleasant, the
Great Kanawha river, the principal tributary in West Virginia,
enters the Ohio. This river drains over one-third of the State and
its headwaters reach far back into the long mountain valleys. On
its banks the capital of the State, Charleston, is situated, and along
its main valley and branch valleys several of the principal rail-
way lines are built. The river itself is navigable as far as Mont-'
gomery, about 30 m. above Charleston, and is used regularly by
barge lines. In the south-west the Gayandotte, Twelve Pole, Big
Sandy and Tug rivers complete the plateau drainage system. All
of West Virginia enjoys complete drainage; and not a square mile
of marsh land is to be found.
In the Newer Appalachian region, the same beds which lie hori-
zontal in the plateau provinces were long ago thrown into folds
and subsequently planed off by erosion, leaving alternate belts of
hard and soft rock exposed. Uplift permitted renewed erosion to
wear away the soft belts, leaving mountain ridges of hard rock
separated by parallel valleys. The mountain ridges vary in height
to over 4,000 ft., the highest point in the State being Spruce Knob
(4,860 ft.). The parallel valleys are drained by streams flowing
north-east and south-west those in the north-east being tributary
to the Potomac, which flows to the Atlantic ocean, and those
farther south tributary to the Great Kanawha, which enters the
Ohio and then flows to the Gulf of Mexico. The valleys between
WEST VIRGINIA
547
the ridges, although not always easy of access, provide broad areas
of nearly level agricultural land. The rivers flowing north-east and
south-west, after running between parallel ridges for long dis-
tances, often turn suddenly through transverse passes formed by
erosive cutting of "gaps" through ridges. One of the best known
is Harper's Ferry where the Potomac has cut through the Blue
Ridge.
Flora. — The plateau portion of the State is still largely covered
by hardwood forests, but along the Ohio river and its principal
tributaries the valuable timber has been long removed and con-
siderable areas have been wholly cleared for farming and pasture
lands. Among the most important trees of this area are the white
and chestnut oaks, the black walnut, the yellow poplar and the
• cherry, the southern portion of the State containing the largest
reserve supply. The eastern Panhandle region has a forest region
similar to that of the plateau district; but between these two areas
of hardwood there is a long belt where spruce and white pine cover
the mountain ridges. Other trees common in the State are the
persimmon, sassafras, and, in the Ohio Valley region, the syca-
more. Hickory, chestnut, locust, maple, beech, dogwood and paw-
paw are widely distributed. Among the shrubs and vines are the
blackberry, black and red raspberry, gooseberry, huckleberry,
hazel and grape. Ginseng is an important medicinal plant. Wild
ginger, elder and sumach are common, and in the mountain areas,
rhododendrons, mountain laurel and azaleas.
Climate. — Like most mountain States West Virginia has a
healthful climate. It does not suffer from great extremes of heat or
cold. Winter temperatures range from a mean of 26° in the north-
eastern mountains to 34° in the south-west along the Ohio river;
the summer temperatures are 67° and 74°, respectively. Between
the last killing frost in the spring and the first killing frost in the
fall there is an ample growing season which in the Ohio valley is
about a month longer than in the more exposed plateau and moun-
tain districts. Precipitation is greatest in the mountains (over 50
in. annually) ; and it is smallest over the Ohio valley, the eastern
Panhandle, and the extreme south-east (35 to 40 in. annually).
Snows are frequent during the winter and sometimes deep in the
higher plateau and mountain regions.
Population. — The population of West Virginia at the various
censuses since its organization as a State has been as follows:
442,014 in 1870; 618,457 in 1880; 762,794 in 1890; 958,800 in
1900; 1,221,119 in 1910; 1,463.000 in 1920. The Census Bureau
WEST VIRGINIA
MAP OF THE MAIN ROADS OF WEST VIRGINIA
estimate for July i, 1928, was 1,724,000. The 19-9% increase in
population between 1910-20 was less in rate than the increase of
the four preceding decades (39-9%, 23-3%, 25-7% and 27-4%).
The density of population increased from 18-4 per square mile in
1870 to 50-8 in 1910 and 57-4 in 1920.
The original settlers of West Virginia were generally English,
Scotch-Irish or Pennsylvania German. To these were added a
large number of Irish between 1830 and 1850 and a considerable
number of Germans after 1848. The next wave of settlement came
after the Civil War, when the exploitation of the coal, petroleum
and natural gas resources attracted increasing numbers of Ameri-
cans from neighbouring States, principally Virginia, Ohio, Penn-
sylvania, Kentucky, Maryland and North Carolina. Later there
came an increasing number of foreigners. In 1920 foreigners num-
bered 61,906, or 4-5% of the white population, and were chiefly
Italians, Hungarians, Poles, Austrians and Russians employed in
the coal mines. Whites born of native parentage composed 89-5%
of the white population. In ad-
dition, there were 86,345 negroes
and 121 of all other races. The
negro population had approxi-
mately doubled since 1900. Forty
of the 59 counties showed an in-
crease in population between
1910-20, those having the highest
rate being Logan (183-3%), Han-
cock (90%), Raleigh (6590.) and
Harrison (54-6%). The increases
were chiefly in mining and indus-
trial centres, several of the agri-
cultural counties showing a de-
crease. The percentage of popu-
lation living in cities of more than
OCCUPATIONS OF THE 491.116 PER-
SONS TEN YEARS OF AGE AND OVER
ENGAGED IN GAINFUL EMPLOY-
WENT, 1920
2,500 inhabitants increased from 18-7 in 1910 to 25-2 in 1920. The
ten largest cities with their population for 1925 as estimated by the
Census Bureau were Huntington, 63,485; Wheeling, 56,208;
Charleston, 49,019; Clarksburg, 30,402; Parkcrsburg, 21,299;
Fairmont, 20,959; Blueficld, 17,529; Morgantown, 13,811; Mar-
tinsburg, 13,544; Moundsville, 11,660.
Government. — The present Constitution which superseded the
first Constitution of 1863, was adopted Aug., 1872. This Constitu-
tion may be amended (i ) by a constitutional convention, the mem-
bers of which shall be elected by the people and the acts of which
shall be ratified by the people, or (2) by amendments which must
be passed by a two-thirds majority of each house of the legislature
and approved by a majority of the voters at the next general elec-
tion. All citizens above 21 years of age have the right of suffrage
provided they have resided in the State one year and in the county
in which they expect to vote 60 days.
The executive department consists of the governor, secretary of
State, superintendent of free schools, auditor, treasurer, attorney-
general and commissioner of agriculture, all elected, by the people
at the time of the presidential election and for a period of four
years. The governor is ineligible for re-election for a second con-
secutive term. He appoints, subject to the consent of the senate,
all State officers whose selection is not otherwise provided for.
The legislature, consisting of the senate and the house of dele-
gates, meets at the capital on the first Wednesday in January of
odd-numbered years. The senate is composed (1927) of 30 mem-
bers, chosen from 15 districts for a term of four years, one-half
the membership retiring biennially. The house of delegates is
composed (1927) of 94 members elected biennially, each county
choosing at least one. A constitutional amendment, ratified in
1920, provided that all regular sessions of the legislature should
convene for a period not to exceed 1 5 days, during which all bills
are to be presented, but none but emergency bills passed or re-
jected. A recess of both houses must then be taken until the
Wednesday after the second Monday of March following, where-
upon the legislature reassembles to consider and vote upon the
bills. In the reconvened session no bill may be introduced except
with the consent of three-fourths of all the members elected to
each house. The governor may veto a bill, or in case of an appro-
priation bill, the separate items, but this veto may be overridden
by a simple majority of the total membership of each house. The
governor may convene the house in extraordinary session if he
deems it necessary.
The judicial power is vested in the supreme court of appeals,
the circuit courts, such inferior courts as may be established,
county courts, the powers and duties of which, however, are chiefly
police and fiscal and justices of the peace. The supreme court of
appeals, consisting of five judges, elected for terms of 1 2 years,
holds regular terms twice a year at Charleston and special terms
WEST VIRGINIA
at such times and places as may be designated by the court. The
circuit court is composed of 23 circuits with 24 judges. Inferior
courts are established by special act of the legislature to relieve
the circuit judges, and are found in eight counties of the State.
Generally they have criminal jurisdiction only.
As in Virginia, the county is the unit of local government,
though an unsuccessful attempt to introduce the township system
was made in the first Constitution.
Finance. — The total wealth of the State as estimated by the
Federal Census Bureau increased from $660,000,000 in 1900 to
$4,678,000,000 in 1922. The per caput wealth in 1922 averaged
$3,040. The assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $2,095,-
430,997. Of the 1927 valuation real estate amounted to $1,225,-
178,580, personal property to $387,198,230 and public utilities to
$483,054,187. Counties with the highest assessed valuation in
order were: Kanawha, Cabell, Harrison, Ohio, Marion and Monon-
galia.
On the assessed valuation in 1925 ($2,133,491,000) a direct tax
totalling $48,761,528 was levied by the State, counties, school dis-
tricts and municipalities. Out of each $100 levied, $6.12 was
levied by the State, $32.18 by counties, $49.25 by school districts
and $12.45 by municipalities. Besides the direct property tax,
the State collected during the fiscal year ending June 30. iQ26> a
total of $6,959,287 from special taxes. Of this $3,159,152 was
derived from a gross sales tax. A sales tax of two cents a gallon
on gasolene (raised to four cents in 1927) netted $2,766,005. An
inheritance tax contributed $802,761. The remainder was ob-
tained from miscellaneous sources. Total receipts of the State for
the same fiscal year were $81,057,978, and total disbursements
were $77,479,291. For the year ending June 30, 1928, the re-
ceipts were $80,821,246 and the disbursements $88,989,495 leav-
ing a balance of $5,680,273. In 1915 the amount of the debt to
Virginia, which had been in controversy since the Civil War, was
fixed by the U.S. Supreme Court at $12,393,929, plus 5% interest
until paid. Besides this debt, the State had incurred a bonded
debt of $47,000,000 for highway construction. Money to pay the
annual interest and sinking fund is derived from auto licences and
the gasolene sales tax. The total bonded indebtedness on June 30,
1928 was $56,499,700.
On June 30, 1926, there were in the State 346 banks (124 of
them national banks) with resources and liabilities totalling $446,-
653,000. The capital, surplus and undivided profits amounted to
$73,339,000. The deposits were $329,644,000, of which $154,822,-
ooo were on time accounts.
Education. — Rapid progress in education between 1920 and
1925 is shown by the increase in the public school enrolment from
346,256 to 392,823, the increase in the days of attendance per
pupil from an average of 102-8 to 128 per year, and the increase in
public school expenditures from $11,402,000 to $23,777,000, or
from $26.00 to $49.00 per child of school age. The days of at-
tendance per pupil and the expenditures per pupil are still below
the averages throughout the United States as a whole, but they
represent an increase sufficient to place West Virginia in the lead
of all other States south of the Mason and Dixon line except
Maryland and Delaware. Of the 1925 enrolment 360,399 were in
the kindergartens or elementary schools. High school enrolment
increased from 16,360 in 1920 to 33,603 in 1927, and the number
of high schools from 164 to 225 in 1927. There were in 1927,
12,062 elementary and 2,775 high school teachers to whom a total
of $17,001,094 was paid in salaries. There were, in 1924, 8,571
pupils in private schools.
The New River State school at Montgomery and the Potomac
State school at Kcyser came into existence as State-supported pre-
paratory schools at a time when chere was a dearth of public
high schools. They continue to offer the final two years of prepara-
tory work and have added the first two years of college work, so
that they operate as junior colleges. There were in 1928 six State
normal schools for whites. Three of them, located at Huntington,
Fairmont and Athens, gave complete four-year teacher's courses.
One, located at Glenville, gave a two-year normal course, while
the remaining two, located at West Liberty and Shepherdstown
gave both a two-year normal and a two-year junior college course.
Bluefield Coloured Institute at Bluefield, serving the coloured
population in the southern part of the State, gives a regular high
school course, plus normal and junior college courses. West Vir-
ginia Collegiate Institute at Institute, also serves the coloured
population, offering preparatory, normal and college courses. There
are State schools for the white deaf and blind at Romney and for
the coloured at Institute. West Virginia university is located at
Morgantown, and is divided in its organization into colleges of arts
and science, engineering, agriculture, law and school of medicine
and pharmacy. Private denominational colleges of importance are
Bethany college at Bethany, West Virginia Wesleyan college at
Buckhannon, Davis and Elkins at Elkins, Greenbriar college (for
women) at Lewisburg, Salem college at Salem and Morris Harvey
college at Barboursville.
Charities and Corrections. — In 1925 there were 14 State
charitable, correctional or penal institutions in operation, all of
them managed and governed by the State board of Control. The
governor appoints the chief' executive officer or head of each in-
stitution. There is a Slate board of children's guardians which
has control and custody over dependent and neglected children.
Mines and Quarries. — The extraction of minerals is the most
important industry in the State. Mineral products were valued at
$412,866,535 in 1923, and $350,000,000 in 1927. In 1923 West
Virginia ranked second among the States in total value of its min-
eral output, but in 1925 it dropped to fifth place. The decrease in
the value of the coal output and the increased value of petroleum
produced in other States were chiefly responsible for the decrease*
in rank. Next to coal the chief minerals, according to the value of
their 1925 output, were: natural gas, petroleum, clay products,
natural gas gasolene, stone, sand and gravel and lime.
The production of coal has increased with remarkable rapidity.
In 1923, for the first time the State's production exceeded
100,000,000 tons. In 1925 it amounted to 123,061,985 tons, and
in 1926 it reached 147,209,000 tons, an increase of approximately
40,000,000 tons in two years, but in 1927 it declined to 146,088,121
tons. In 1926 the output was but. slightly below that of Pennsyl-
vania, the leading State in the production of bituminous coal. It
amounted also to more than one-fourth the supply of bituminous
coal mined in the United States in that year. During the year
1925 there were 793 companies reporting 1,208 operating coal
m'nes. The total of all men employed in connection with the coal
-150
-100
COAL MINED, 1892-1927
mines was 117,748. During the year 1925 the average price re-
ceived by the pick miner was $0.51 per ton, or an average annual
wage of $1,502. Mines operated an average of 155 days in 1924
and 194 days in 1925. The State department of mines regularly
inspects all mines and maintains mine rescue stations at Charles-
ton, Kilsythe, Elkins, Meadowbrook and Williamson. Between
1910 and 1923 labour troubles were frequent in the mining dis-
tricts, due mainly to the determined attempts of the unions to
[ organize the West Virginia miners. During the strikes of bitumi-
I nous miners in 1927 and 1928, however, West Virginia remained
HISTORY]
WEST VIRGINIA
549
generally quiet. At the present rate of consumption West Virginia '
alone could supply the whole United States with coal for 250
years to come.
From 1909 to 1924 West Virginia held first place among the
States in the production of natural gas, but in 1924 dropped to
third place, being passed by Oklahoma and California. The
gradual decrease in production is revealed by contrasting the
244,004,000,000 cu.ft. produced in 1915 with 180,000,000,000
cu.ft. produced in 1927. In 1925, 74,250,000,000 cu.ft. were con-
sumed in West Virginia and the remainder in Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Kentucky and Maryland to which it was transported by under-
ground pipe lines. A large share was used in the production of
gasolene. In 1924 there were 152 plants which produced 61,549,000
gal. valued at $7,154,000. There were also 18 plants producing
carbon black from natural gas, the output of which was valued
at $1,125,000 in 1924.
Between 1880 and 1910 West Virginia was one of the leading
petroleum producing States of the Union. The peak of production
was reached in the year 1900 when the State ranked second in
output. Production then began to decline. From 1911 to 1915
the annual average was 10,487,000 bbl; in 1926 it amounted to
5,975,000 barrels. The rank in 1926 was i9th; activity continued,
nevertheless.
In 1924 there were 57 stone quarrying plants producing
2,618,290 short tons of stone valued at $3,040,154. Of this
2>334>25° tons were limestone and 284,040 tons were sandstone.
Much limestone was also used for burning lime. West Virginia
is also the centre of the sand supply for its own 65 glass plants
(in 1928), as well as those in eastern Ohio and western Pennsyl-
vania. Sand used for this purpose in 1924 amounted to 516,638
short tons, valued at $1,188,093. Other sand and gravel valued
at $2,012,555 was used for building and road-paving purposes.
Salt fields on the Gauley river, on the Kanawha from Kanawha
falls to Pt. Pleasant and up the Ohio river to Pomeroy Bend arc
still active and use the evaporative process. Iron deposits in
Hampshire, Hardy and Grant counties may be valuable.
Agriculture and Live Stock.— Agriculture plays an impor-
tant role in the State. In 1925 there were 90,380 farms upon
which 455,204 people, or 27-8% of the total population, made
their .homes. Farm lands occupied 8,979,847 ac. of the 15,374,080
ac., estimated land area of the State. Of this farm acreage,
1,921,139 ac. was reported as crop land. The value of farm
property in 1925 amounted to $374,841,159 (land, $251,792,653;
buildings, $104,360,000; implements and machinery, $15,686,000) ;
the value of livestock on farms was estimated at $36,318.000.
In 1925 and 1926 the crop value amounted to $75,700,000 and
$74,700,000 respectively.
For a long period after settlement agriculture was backward in
West Virginia. Pioneer conditions lasted longer in the mountains,
transportation was poor, and the hills and streams discouraged
all but a limited and patchy cultivation of crops. Farmers passed
the State by for the more level fields of the prairie west. After
1880 development was constant until about 1910. The World
War was responsible for a temporary increase in activity and pro-
duction, but the period of agricultural depression that followed
resulted in a serious setback. Between 1920 and 1925 there was
a decrease of 22,720 in farm population; a decrease in area of
farm land amounting'to 589,941 ac., a decrease of $55,000,000
in value of farm land; a decrease of $28,000,000 in value of farm
livestock. Counties with the greatest percent of their area in farm
lands were: Jackson (91-5%), Gilmer (91-1%), Lewis (8S-i%),
Cabell (88%), Marshall (86-8%), Clay (86-4%), Roane (85-5%).
The acreage of important crops in 1926 was as follows: tame
hay, 771,000; Indian corn, 499,000; oats, 207,000; wheat, 147,000;
potatoes, 47,000; buckwheat, 36,000; rye, 12,000; tobacco,
10,000. The total value of important crops was in 1926 as fol-
lows: tame hay, $19,691,000; Indian corn, $15,479,000; potatoes,
$8,320,000; oats, $3,420,000; wheat, $3,175,000; tobacco,
$1,615,000; buckwheat, $684,000; sweet potatoes, $528,000 and
rye, $172,000. Besides field crops there are orchard crops valued
annually from $8,000,000 to $10,000,000. Fruit is raised chiefly
in the eastern and northern Panhandles. The leading apple
counties in 1926 were Berkeley, Hampshire, Jefferson and Morgan.
Tobacco is cultivated mainly in the south-west near the Kentucky
border. The other crops are well distributed.
A large share of the crop of the State is fed to the live stock.
An incentive to live stock raising is the large amount of excellent
pasture land on the hillsides or in the stream bottoms. Water
for the animals is everywhere abundant. In 1927 there was a total
of 1,330,000 animals, valued at $37,982,000, a decrease in valua-
tion of $406,000 since 1925. There were 484,000 cattle (207,000
of them milk cows), 133,000 horses, 509,000 sheep, 189,000 swine
and 15,000 mules. Chickens in 1925 were valued at $4,164,255.
About 5,000,000 are raised annually.
Manufactures. — There has been a steady advance in manu-
facturing. In 1914 there were 2,749 establishments employing
71,078 wage earners at a total of $43,784,000 in wages and pro-
ducing an output valued at $193,511,000. In 1925 the establish-
ments had decreased to 1,395, or almost half, but wage earners
had increased to 80,700, wages had more than doubled, amount-
ing to $105,892,000, and the value of products was close to i\
times that of 1914, or $470,821,582. In 1927 the capital invested
amounted to $536,282,093 and the value of the products was
$576,688,822. Leading, with a value of $92,565,227 in 1925, are
the products of the 16 steel works and rolling mills in the State.
Products of the 64 glass factories were second with a value of
$47,884,426. Third, with a value of $33,347,557, were the prod-
ucts of car and general construction in repair shops of steam
railroads. Lumber and timber products amounted to $26,787,495,
to which may be added products valued at $8,247,546 of planing
mills. Other leading industries and their values in 1925 were:
slaughtering and packing, $14,620,703; leather (tanned, curried
and finished) , $13,348,975; petroleum refining, $11,865,085;
pottery, including porcelain ware, $10,535,436 and coke,
$10,109,703. Wheeling, Huntington and Parkersburg are the
chief industrial centres.
The State is rich in power resources which should have much
to do with the future growth of industry. The vast coal re-
sources are close at hand. Natural gas in many instances furnishes
a still cheaper power. Finally, with one exception, the State has
greater potential water-power in her rivers than any State east
of the Mississippi river.
Transportation and Commerce. — Railway development in
West Virginia has been due largely to the exploitation of the coal
and lumber. The mileage increased from 2,228 in 1900 to 3,996
in 1920 and 4,595 in 19:8. Despite the increased use of motor
vehicles no railroad mileage has been abandoned as in other
States. Since the issue of bonds to the amount of $50,000.000
in 1919, road building has proceeded with great rapidity. Of the
3,785 m. in the State system in 1928 there were 2,366 m. paved
and 878 m. graded or partly graded. Motor vehicles increased in
number from 13,279 in i9ij to 227,836 in 1926. The river and
its branches are used fcr the shipment of coal.
History. — The western part of Virginia was not explored until
long after considerable settlements had been made in the east.
In 1671 Abraham Wood, able trader and frontiersman, sent out
a party under Capt. Thomas Batts, which ascended the Roanoke
river in south-western Virginia and crossed near its headwaters
to the New river, a westward flowing stream. This river they
descended to the point where it breaks through Peter's mountain
at Peter's falls on the Virginia-West Virginia boundary. The pass
was later to be one of the chief highways of early western trade
and settlement. Other explorations in the i7th century are un-
known. Doubtless after 1700 pioneer traders with the Indians
frequently penetrated the Potomac region above Harper's Ferry,
but with the exception of Van Metre, who in 1725 traversed the
valley of the South Branch, they left no record. In 1726 or 1727
the first known cabins in the State were built at Shepherdstown
by some Germans from Pennsylvania who crossed the Potomac
at the "Old Pack Horse Ford" and by Morgan Morgan on Mill
Creek in Berkeley county. Within a few years other settlers
from Pennsylvania and Maryland settled on various creeks flow-
ing into the Potomac as far west as the South Branch. In 1736
an exploring party traced the Potomac to its source. Advance
5.5°
WEST WARWICK
up the South Branch was rapid. The diary kept by George
Washington, who between 1748 and 1751 surveyed much of this
land for Lord Fairfax, recorded many squatters, largely of Ger-
man origin, in the region. The insecurity of title on the Fairfax
grant prompted many to go still higher up the branch and its
forks into Pendleton county. By 1750 a few of the frontiersmen
were crossing the Allegheny divide into the Greenbriar and other
rivers whose waters eventually reached the Ohio. Christopher
Gist, a surveyor in the employ of the first Ohio company, in 1751-
52 explored the country along the Ohio river north of the mouth
of the Great Kanawha. Later the Ohio company, merged with
the Walpole company, sought to secure from the king the forma-
tion of a I4th colony with the name "Vandalia." The westward
advance was abruptly terminated by the outbreak of the French
and Indian War (1754-63) and many of the settlements were
forced back by Indian depredations. At the close of this war the
English king, hoping thereby to prevent future conflicts with the
Indians, issued (1763) a proclamation forbidding further settle-
ment beyond the divide until arrangements could be made with
the Indians, but this proclamation was ignored Between 1764
and 1774, when settlement was again temporarily stopped by
Indian attacks, it is estimated that the line of settlement advanced
across the Allegheriies and through the wilderness to the Ohio at
an average rate of 17 m. per year. The valleys first settled were
those of the Monongahela, Greenbriar and the New Rivers and
thence down the Great Kanawha to the Ohio. By 1775 it, is esti-
mated that there were 30,000 people in the West Virginia region.
In the face of this relentless advance the savages grew more hos-
tile. The result was Dunmore's War of 1774. The governor of
Virginia, Lord Dunmore, led a force over the mountains, and co-
operating with a body of militia under Gen. Lewis, dealt the
Shawnee Indians under Cornstalk a crushing blow at Point Pleas-
ant (q.v.) at the junction of the Kanawha and Ohio rivers. During
the Revolutionary War which followed closely, the settlers in
West Virginia were generally active Whigs and many served in the
Continental army.
Social conditions in western Virginia were entirely unlike those
existing in the eastern portion of the State. The population was
not homogeneous, as a considerable part of the immigration came
by way of Pennsylvania and included German, the Protestant
Scotch-Irish and settlers from the States farther north. During
the Revolutionary War the movement to create another State
beyond the Alleghenies was revived, and a petition (1776) for
the establishment of "Westsylvania" was presented to Congress,
on the ground that the mountains made an almost, impassable
barrier between the west and the east. The rugged nature of the
western country made slavery unprofitable, and time only in-
creased the social, political and economic differences between the
two sections of the State. The convention which met in 1829 to
form a new Constitution for Virginia, against the protest of the
trans-Allegheny counties, continued to require property qualifica-
tion for suffrage, and gave the slave-holding counties the benefit
of three-fifths of their slave population in apportioning the
State's representation in the lower Federal House. As a result
every county beyond the Alleghenies except one voted to reject
the Constitution, which was nevertheless carried by eastern votes.
Though the Virginia Constitution of 1850 provided for white
manhood suffrage, the distribution of representation among the
counties was such as to give control to the section east of the
Blue Ridge mountains. Another grievance of the West was the
disproportionate expenditure for internal improvements at State
expense in the east.
The Civil War merely furnished the occasion for separation
from the mother State. In 1861 when the Virginia convention
adopted the Ordinance of Secession only nine of the 46 delegates
from the present State of West Virginia voted to secede. After
the ordinance had been ratified by the people, a convention of
newly elected trans-Allegheny members of the legislature, and
other delegates, met at Wheeling (June 11, 1861) and declared
the acts of the Secession Convention void, and declared vacant
the offices of those in the Virginia government which adhered to
it. A second Wheeling convention formed the "reorganized" gov-
ernment of Virginia, chose Francis H. Pierpont as governor and
provided for the election of other officials and a legislature. In
August the convention reassembled at Wheeling and adopted an
ordinance providing for a popular vote on the formation of a new
State. At the subsequent election there were 18,489 votes cast
for a new State and only 781 against. A constitutional conven-
tion (delegates to which were elected on Oct. 24) met at Wheeling
in Nov. 1861, and in Feb. 1862 submitted a Constitution which
was ratified by the people in April. In May 1862 the legislature
of the ''restored Government" voted its consent to the erection
of the proposed new State. Application for admission to the Union
was then presented to Congress, which granted its permission
subject to the insertion of a Constitutional provision for the
gradual abolition of slavery. On June 20, 1863, following the
addition of this provision the State was admitted.
During the Civil War trans-Allegheny West Virginia suffered
comparatively little. McClelland forces gained possession of the
greater part of the territory in the summer of 1861, and Union
control was never seriously threatened. In 1863, however, Gen.
Imboden, with 5,000 Confederates, overran a considerable por-
tion of the State. Bands of guerrillas burned and plundered in
some sections and were not entirely suppressed until after the
war ended. The State furnished about 36,000 soldiers to the
Federal armies and somewhat less than 10,000 to the Confederate.
After the war partisan feeling ran high. In 1866 the State adopted
a constitutional amendment disfranchising all who had given aid
to the Confederacy. In 1871, however, even before the Democratic
Party secured political control, the amendment was abrogated by
the adoption of the Flick amendment. In 1872 an entirely new
Constitution was adopted under Democratic control. The Dem-
ocrats continued to carry the State until 1896 when the elections
were carried by the Republicans. Republican rule thereafter was
not broken till 1916, when a Democratic governor was chosen.
Republican strength is due to the increasing industrial develop-
ment of the State, which has brought capital and settlers from
neighbouring Northern States.
The largest chapter in the history of the State is doubtless that
dealing with this great industrial awakening. The East had an
increasing demand for timber, coal and oil and West Virginia
was close at hand. The former handicap of lack of transportation
was overcome after the Civil War by the rapid extension of rail-
way lines up the principal valleys. Petroleum, first obtained in
large quantities on the Little Kanawha river in 1860, increased
in production slowly until 1889 and thereafter, with the discovery
of new sands and new drilling methods, rapidly until 1900 when
the State ranked second in the Union in output. Coal mining,
which had scarcely begun before the Civil War, increased slowly
until the nineties when it responded to the demands of Pittsburg
and other cities. It is now an important economic factor in the
life of the State.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The West Virginia Handbook and M a nual published
annually by the clerk of the senate contains much important informa-
tion of miscellaneous nature. The reports of the State departments and
commissions arc brought together biennially in West Virginia Public
Documents, and are invaluable. For general description see H. Gan-
nett, "Gazetteer of West Virginia/* being Bulletin 233 of the U.S.
Geological Survey (1904). For detailed descriptions of counties and
natural resources see the County Reports and Bulletins of the West
Virginia Geological Survey. For history see V. A. Lewis, History of
West Virginia (1889) ; T. C. Miller and H. Maxwell, West Virginia and
her People (1913) ; J. M. Callahan, Semi-Centennial History of West
Virginia (1914) and History of West Virginia Old and New (1923);
M. L. Callahan, Evolution of the Constitution of West Virginia
(1909); J. C. McGregor, The Disruption of Virginia (1922); West
Virginia Education Dept., History of Education in West Virginia (rev.
ed.t 1907) ; Joseph Doddridpe, Notes on the Settlement and Indian
Wars of the Western Parts of Virginia and Pennsylvania (1824 et seq.) ;
A. S. Withers, Chronicles of Border Warfare (1831, 1895) ; Biennial
Reports of the Dept. of History and Archives (1904 et seq.) ; West Vir-
ginia Historical Magazine Quarterly (1901-05); The West Virginia
Review (1923- in progress). (J. M. CA.)
WEST WARWICK, in Rhode Island, U.S.A. Pop. (1920)
15.461 (31% foreign-born white) and 18,215 in 1025 (State
census). It embraces several manufacturing villages with large
cotton mills, and the aggregate factory output in 1925 was valued
at $10,148,112. West Warwick was organized in 1913.
WETHERSFIELD— WEXFORD
551
WETHERSFIELD, a town of Hartford county, Connecticut,
U.S.A. Population (1920) 4,349; 1928 local estimate 7,000.
It is a beautiful old town, a residential suburb of Hartford and
the seat of the Connecticut State prison. Among the interesting
old buildings are the Webb house, in which Washington and
Count de Rochambeau met in 1781 to plan the Yorktown cam*
paign; the First Church of Christ (Congregational), built in
1761; and the old academy building (1804) now used for town
offices and the public library. There is a giant elm on Broad
Street Green with a girth of 26-5 feet. Wethersfield was settled
in 1634, by colonists from Watertown, Mass., and is the oldest
permanently inhabited town in the State. With Hartford and
Windsor in 1639 ^ framed the Fundamental Orders of the Colony
of Connecticut.
WETTIN, the name of a family from which several of the
royal houses of Europe have sprung. The earliest known an-
cestor is one Dietrich, count of Hassegau or Hosgau, on the left
bank of the Saale, who was killed in 982. His sons Dcdo I. (d.
1009) and Frederick (d. 1017) received lands taken from the
Wends, including the county or Gau of Wet tin on the right
bank of the Saale. Dedo's son Dietrich II. married Matilda,
daughter of Ekkard I, margrave of Meissen. Their son Dedo
II. obtained the Saxon east mark and lower Lusatia in 1046, but
in 1069 quarrelled with the emperor Henry IV. and was compelled
to surrender his possessions. He died in 1075, and his lands
were granted to his son Henry I., who in 1089 was invested with,
the mark of Meissen. In 1103 Henry was succeeded by his
cousin Thimo (d, 1104), who built a castle at Wettin, and was
called by this name. Henry II., son of Henry I., followed, but
died childless in 1123; his cousin, Conrad I., son of Thimo,
claimed Meissen, of which he secured possession in 1130, and
in 1135 the emperor Lothair II. added lower Lusatia to his
possessions. Conrad, abdicating in 1156, his lands were divided
between his five sons, when the county of Wettin fell to his
fourth son Henry, whose family died out in 1217. Wettin then
passed to the descendants of Conrad's youngest son Frederick,
and in 1288 the county, town and castle of Wettin were sold
to the archbishop of Magdeburg, eventually becoming incorpo-
rated in the kingdom of Prussia.
Conrad I. and his successors had added largely to their pos-
sessions, until under Henry I., the Illustrious, margrave of
Meissen, the lands of the Wettins stretched from the Oder to the
Werra, and from the Erzgebirge to the Harz mountains. The
subsequent history of the family is merged in that of Meissen,
Saxony and the four Saxon dukedoms. In June 1889 the Sooth
anniversary of the rule of the Wettins in Meissen and Saxony
was celebrated with great splendour at Dresden.
See G. E. Hofmeister, Das Haus Wettin (Leipzig, 1889) ; K.' Wenck,
Die Wettiner im i^Un Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1877) ; Kammel, Fest-
schrift zur 800 jiihrigen Jubelfeier des Hauses Wettin (Leipzig, 1889) ;
and H. B. Meyer, Hoj- und Z entralv envoi tun g der Wettiner (Leipzig,
1902).
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded north by Wicklow, east and south by St. George's
Channel, and west by Waterford, Kilkenny and Carlow. The area
is 576,757 acres or about 902 sq. miles. Pop. (1926) 95,812.
Owing to the number of sandbanks navigation is dangerous near
the shore. The only safe harbour on the east coast is Wexford
Harbour, which, owing to a bar, is not accessible to large vessels
at ebb-tide. The artificial harbour of Rosslare, outside Wexford
Harbour to the south, was therefore opened in 1906. On the
south coast the great inlet of Waterford Harbour separates the
county from Waterford and Kilkenny, and among several inlets
Bannow Bay is the largest. South from Crossfarnogue Point are
the Saltee Islands, and Coningmorc and Coningbeg, beyond the
latter of which is the Saltee lightship. South-east from Greenore
Point is the Tuskar Rock.
An elevated ridge on the north-western boundary forms the
termination of the granitic range in Wicklow, and in Croghan
Kinshela, on the borders of Wicklow, rises to a height of 1,985
feet. On the western border, another range, situated chiefly in
Carlow, extends from the valley of the Slaney at Newtownbarry
to the confluence of the Barrow with the Nore at New Ross, and
reaches 2,409 ft. in Blackstairs Mountain, and 2,610 ft. in Mount
Leinster on the border of Co. Carlow. In the southern district,
a hilly region, reaching in Forth Mountain a height of 725 ft.,
forms with Wexford Harbour the northern boundaries of the
baronies of Forth and Bargy, a peninsula of flat and fertile land.
The river Slaney enters the county in the north-west and flows
south-east to Wexford Harbour. Its chief tributary, the Bann,
flows south-westwards from the borders of Wicklow. The Barrow
forms the western boundary of the county from the Blackstairs
mountains till its confluence with the Suir at Waterford Harbour.
The northern portion of Wexford was included in Hy Kinselagh,
the peculiar territory of the Macmorroughs, overlords of Leinster,
who had their chief residence at Ferns. Dermod Macmorrough,
having been deposed from the kingdom of Leinster, asked help of
Henry II., king of England, secured the aid of Strongbow, and
obtained assistance from Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice Fitz-
gerald of Wales. In 1169 Fitzstephen landed at Bagenbon on the
south side of Fethard, and captured the town of Wexford. After
this Dermod granted the territory of Wexford to Fitzstephen and
Fitzgerald. Alacmorrough having died in 1172, Strongbow became
lord of Leinster. At first Henry II. retained Wexford, but in 1174
he committed it to Strongbow.
Wexford was one of the twelve counties into which the con-
quered territory in Ireland is generally stated to have been
divided by King John, and formed part of the possessions of
William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. It ultimately passed to John
Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who in 1446 was made earl of Water-
ford and baron of Dungarvan. In 1474 George Talbot was sene-
schal of the liberty of Wexford. The district was actively con-
cerned in the rebellion of 1641 ; and during the Cromwellian cam-
paign the town of Wexford was carried by storm in 1649. Wexford
was the chief seat of the rebellion of 1798, the leaders there being
the priests.
Evidences of the Danish occupation are seen in the numerous
raths, or encampments, especially at Dunbrody, Enniscorthy and
New Ross. Among the monastic ruins special mention may be
made of Dunbrody abbey, of great extent, founded about 1178
for Cistercian monks by Hcrvey de Montmorency, marshal of
Henry II.; Tintern abbey, founded in 1200 by William Marshal,
earl of Pembroke, and peopled by monks from Tintern abbey in
Monmouthshire; the abbey of St. Sepulchre, Wexford, founded
shortly after the invasion by the Roches, lords of Fermoy; Ferns
abbey, founded by Dermod Macmorroush (with other remains
including the modernized cathedral of a former see, and ruins of
a church) ; and the abbey of New Ross, founded by St. Alban
in the 6th century. Old castles include Ferns, dismantled by
Parliamentary forces in 1641, and occupying the site of the old
palace of the Macmorroughs; Enniscorthy, founded by Raymond
le Gros; Carrick Castle, near Wexford, the first built by the Eng-
lish ; and the fort of Duncannon.
The soil of the county of \Vexford consists mostly of a
cold stiff clay resting on clay-slate. Prc-glacial sands and gravels
are used for liming fields, under the name of "manure gravels,"
on account of the fossil shells which they contain. The interior
and western districts are much inferior to those round the coasts.
In the south-eastern peninsula of Forth and Bargy the soil is a
rich alluvial mould mixed with coralline sandstone and limestone.
The peninsula of Hookhead, owing to the limestone formation, is
specially fruitful. In the western districts of the county there are
large tracts of turf and peat-moss. The principal crops are barley,
oats, potatoes and turnips. The numbers of cattle, sheep, pigs and
poultry are well maintained. Except in the town of Wexford the
manufactures and trade are of small importance. The town of
Wexford is the headquarters of sea and salmon fishing districts,
and there are a few fishing villages on the inlets of the south
coast.
A branch of the Great Southern railway enters the county from
the north-east and serves Wexford by way of Enniscorthy, with
a branch westward to New Ross from Macmine Junction. Palace
East, on this branch line, is also served by the Kildare line of
the same system. Wexford has railway connections with Rosslare,
and a line across the south of the county connects it also with
552
WEXFORD— WEYLER
Waterford (Co. Waterford). There is water communication for
barges by the Slaney to Enniscorthy; by the Barrow for larger
vessels to New Ross, and by this river and the Grand Canal for
barges to Dublin.
The administrative county of Wexford returns five members
to Dail Eireann.
WEXFORD, a seaport and the county town of Co. Wexford,
Ireland. Pop. (1926) 11,870. Wexford was an early colony of the
English, having been taken by Fitzstephen. It was the second
town that Cromwell besieged in 1649. It was garrisoned for
William III. in 1690. In 1798 it was made the headquarters of the
rebels, who, however, surrendered it on the 2ist of June. In 1318
the town received a charter from Aymer de Valence, which was
extended by Henry IV. in 1411, and confirmed by Elizabeth
in 1558. By James I. it was in 1608 made a free borough cor-
porate. Wexford Harbour, formed by the estuary of the Slaney,
is about 5 m. from north to south and about 4 from east
to west. There are quays extending nearly 900 yd. A bar at its
mouth prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more than 12
ft. An artificial harbour was therefore opened at Rosslare in
1906, and this is connected with Wexford by a railway (8J m.)
owned by the Great Southern company, and is served by the pas-
senger steamers of the Great Western railway of England from
Fishguard. Some remains exist of the old walls and flanking
towers. The Protestant church, near the ruins of the ancient abbey
of St. Sepulchre or Selsker, is said to occupy the spot where the
treaty was signed between the Irish and the English invaders in
1169. At Carrick, 2 m. W., the Anglo-Normans erected their first
castle. The principal exports are agricultural produce, live stock
and whisky. Shipbuilding is carried on, and also tanning, malting,
brewing, iron-founding, distilling and the manufacture of arti-
ficial manure, flour, agricultural implements, and rope and tw'ne.
Wexford is the headquarters of salmon and sea fishery districts.
WEYBRIDGE, an urban district in Surrey, England; Pop.
(1921) 6,684. It lies in the flat valley of the river Wey, i m.
above its junction with the Thames. The river is locked up to
Godalming, and navigation is assisted by cuts. The Roman Catho-
lic church of St. Charles Borromco was the temporary burial place
of Louis Philippe, who lived at Claremont in Esher, and other
members of his family. In 1907 the Brooklands racing track for
motor-cars was opened near Weybridge. It has a circuit of 2J-£
m. round the inner edge, and including the straight finishing track
is 3} m. in total length; its maximum width is 103 ft., and it will
take ten cars abreast.
WEYDEN, ROGIER VAN DER [originally ROGER DE LA
PASTURE] (c. 1400-1464), Flemish painter, was born in Tournai,
and there apprenticed in 1427 to Robert Campin. He became a
gild master in 1432 and in 1435 removed to Brussels, where he
was shortly after appointed town painter. His four historical
works in the Hotel de Ville have perished, but three tapestries in
the Bern museum are traditionally based on their designs. In
1449 Rogicr went to. Italy, visiting Rome, Ferrara (where he
painted two pictures for Lionel d'Este) and Milan. The well-known
little Madonna with four saint* at Frankfort, was probably
painted at Florence. The "Entombment" in the Uffizi was probably
also painted in Italy. On returning (1450) he executed the
triptych with half-length figures of Christ, the Virgin and saints in
the Louvre; and for Pierre Bladelin the "Magi" triptych, now in
the Berlin gallery. Van der Weydeivs style is dry and severe
as compared with the painting of the Van Eycks, his colour is
less rich than theirs, and he lacks their sense of atmosphere. On
the other hand, he cared more for dramatic expression, particu-
larly of a tragic kind, and his pictures have a deeply religious in-
tention. Comparatively few works are attributed with certainty
to this painter; early works are: "The Decent from the Cross"
in the Chapter House of the Escorial; the John the Baptist three-
panel altar-piece in the Berlin Museum; the three-panel altar-
piece of the Virgin, two panels of which are in Granada Cathedral
and the third in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; the
"Crucifixion" at the Vienna gallery: that in the Johnson collection,
Philadelphia. The "Seven Sacraments" altar-piece at Antwerp is
almost certainly his, likewise the triptych of the Beaune hospital.
Notable portraits are: Lionello d'Este in the Friedman collection,
New York and Charles the Bold in the Berlin Museum. Among his
later works are "The Annunciation" in the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York, and the triptych with the "Adoration of the
Kings," the "Annunciation" and the "Presentation" in the Munich
Pinakothek. Van der Weyden attracted many followers and his
influence was widespread. It is evident in the work of Dierich
Bouts, Memline and Martin Schongauer. He died at Brussels on
June 1 6, 1464 and was buried in the church of St. Gudule.
See Sir Martin Conway, The Van Eycks and their Followers
(1921); M. Friedlandcr, Roger van der Weyden, Die alt nieder-
landische Malerei (1925).
WEYGAND, MAX (1867- ), French soldier, was born
at Brussels Jan. 21, 1867. Having entered the military college at
St. Cyr in 1885, as a foreigner, he proceeded to the cavalry school
at Saumur. He was appointed sub-lieutenant in 1888 and after
successsive promotions commanded the 5th Hussars in 1912. On
Sept. 21, 1914, as a temporary colonel, he was appointed chief of
the general staff of an army, and in Aug. 1916 he was made a
general of brigade. From the outset of the World War he was the
immediate assistant of Marshal Foch, whom he succeeded as the
French representative on the Inter-Allied General Staff in 1917.
In April 1918 he resumed his work as Chief of the General Staff
under Marshal Foch, which post he held during the remainder of
the War; and in this capacity he was considered by many to be
what Berthier was to Napoleon.
But, and here the balance was in his favour, he proved himself
capable of personally directing operations on a very large scale
in Poland. In Aug. 1920, when Warsaw was surrounded and
threatened by a Soviet army, at a distance of only 20 km., Gen.
Weygand arrived, and speedily reconstituting the disorganised
Polish army, launched an offensive against the Bolsheviks1 vul-
nerable points. In December the enemy was in retreat. When
the people of Warsaw acclaimed him, he said: "My role was
merely to fill up the gaps; it was the heroic Polish nation itself
which won the victory."
Weygand became a member of the Cornell Superieur de la
Guerre, and was made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour on
Sept. i, 1920. In Nov. and Dec. 1922 he served as military expert
on the French delegation to the Lausanne Conference, and in
Jan. 1923, he was sent to the Rhine to inspect the Allied troops.
The same year he succeeded Gen. Gouraud as high commissioner
in Syria, where he proved himself to be a remarkable organiser.
He was recalled to Paris on Nov. 29, 1924, and placed in charge of
the Centre des Hautes fitudes Militaires.
WEYLER Y NICOLAU, VALERIA.NO, marquess of
Tencrif e ( 1 839- ) , Spanish soldier of Prussian descent, born at
Palma de Majorca. He entered at sixteen the military college of
infantry at Toledo, and when he attained the rank of lieutenant,
passed into the staff college, from which he came out at the head of
his class. Two years afterwards he became captain, and was sent to
Cuba at his own request. He distinguished himself in the expedi-
tion to Santo Domingo, especially in a daring reconnaissance with
few men into the heart of the enemy's lines, for which he got the
cross with laurels of San Fernando. From 1868 to 1872 he served
also brilliantly against the Cuban rebels, and commanded a corps
of volunteers specially raised for h'm in Havana. He returned to
Spain in 1873 as brigadier-general and took an active part against
the Carlists in the eastern provinces of the Peninsula in 1875 and
1876, for which he was raised to the rank of general of division.
Then he was elected senator and created marquess of Tenerife.
He was captain-general in the Canary Isles (1878-83) and after-
wards in the Balearic islands and in the Philippines (1888) —
where he dealt very sternly with the native rebels of the Carolines,
'of Mindanao and other provinces. On his return to Spain in 1892
he was put in command of the 6th Army Corps in the Basque
Provinces and Navarre where he soon quelled agitations, and then
became captain-general at Barcelona until Jan. 1896. In Catalonia,
with a state of siege, he made himself the terror of the anarchists
and socialists. On the failure of Martinez Campos to pacify Cuba,
Weyler was sent out by the Conservative government of Cdnovas
del Castillo, and this selection met the approval of most Spaniards,
WEYMAN— WHALEBONE
553
who thought him the proper man to crush the rebellion. Weyler
attempted to do this by a policy of inexorable repression which
raised a storm of indignation and led to a demand from America
for his recall. This recall was granted by the Liberal Government
of Sagasta, but Weyler afterwards asserted that, had he been left
alone, he would have stamped out the rebellion in six months.
After his return to Spain his reputation as a strong and ambitious
soldier made him one of those who in case of any constitutional
disturbance might be expected to play an important r61e, and his
political position was naturally affected by this consideration ; his
appointment in 1900 as captain-general of Madrid resulted indeed
in more than one ministerial crisis. Twice minister of war (1901,
1905), he was captain-general at Barcelona (Oct. 1909) and,
without bloodshed, quelled the disturbance connected with the
execution of Francisco Ferrer.
WEYMAN, STANLEY JOHN (1855-1928), English
novelist, was born at Ludlow, Shropshire, on Aug. 7, 1855, the
son of a solicitor. He was educated at Shrewsbury School, and
at Christ Church, Oxford. He was called to the bar at the Inner
Temple in 1881, joining the Oxford circuit. He had been prac-
tising as a barrister for eight years when he made his reputation
as a novelist by a series of romances dealing with French history:
The House of the Wolf (1889), A Gentleman of France (1893),
Under the Red Robe (1894), Memoirs of a Minister of France
(1895), and others. He died on April 10, 1928.
Among his later novels were: Shrewsbury (1897), The Castle Inn
(1898), Sophia (1900), Count Hannibal (1901), In King's Byways
(1902), The Long Night (1903), The Abbess of Vlaye (1904), Starve-
croiv Farm (1905), Chipping (1906), The Wild Geese (1908), The
Great House (1919), Ovington's Bank (1922), The Traveller in the
Fur Cloak (1925), Queen's Folly (1925).
WEYMOUTH, a town of Massachusetts, U.S.A., Pop. (1920)
15,057 (82% native white); 1928 local estimate 20,000. The
town's area of 19 sq.m. includes four islands besides the peninsula
between the Weymouth Fore River and the Weymouth Back
River. On the latter, about 2 m. from its mouth, is a U.S. naval
magazine. The surface of the country is rough: Great Hill (at
one of the narrowest parts of the peninsula) is about 140 ft. above
the rivers. In the township are the Fogg Library (1898, in South
Weymouth) founded by a bequest of John S. Fogg; and the Tufts
Library (1879, in Weymouth village), endowed by Quincy Tufts
and his sister Susan Tufts. Traffic on the two rivers in 1925
amounted to 1,085,516 tons, valued at $9,861,331. In 1635 the
plantation of Wessaguscus (settled by Thomas Weston in 1622)
was incorporated as a town. In 1637, Round and Grape islands
were annexed.
WEYMOUTH and MELCOMBE REGIS, a seaport,
of Dorsetshire, England. Pop. (1921) 24,556. It is formed of
Weymouth, on the Wey, and Mclcombe Regis on the north-east
of the river, the two towns being contiguous. The situation
is enclosed to the south by the Isle of Portland. A mile S.W. of
Weymouth is Sandsfoot Castle, a fort erected by Henry VIII.
for the protection of the shipping. The exports include Portland
stone. The G.W.R. provides passenger steamers to Guernsey and
Jersey.
Bronze weapons and Roman interments have been found, but
first mention of "that place called Weymouth" occurs in charters
of King Aethelred, dated 866-871 and 895-940. The first charter
was granted in 1252 by the prior and convent of St. Swithin, to
whom the manor had been granted by Edward the Confessor. By
this Weymouth was made a free borough and port for all mer-
chants, the burgesses holding their burgages by the same customs
as those of Portsmouth and Southampton. The demand of six
ships from the town by the king in 1324 shows its importance in
the 1 4th century, but there is no mention of a mayor until 1467.
Probably the town suffered at the hands of the French early in
the 1 5th century, though in 1404 the men of Weymouth were
victorious over a party which landed in the Isle of Portland.
Commercial disputes with Melcombe led to amalgamation in 1571,
and the town received its charter from James I. in 1616.
Melcombe Regis first returned two members to parliament in
1307, and Weymouth in 1319, four members being returned by
the united boroughs until 1832, when the representation was re-
duced to two and ceased in 1885. The mediaeval fairs are no
longer held. As early as 1293 trade was carried on with Bayonne,
and six years later a receiver of customs on wool and wool-fells
is mentioned at Weymouth, while wine was imported from Aqui-
taine. In 1586 sugar is mentioned as an import, and in -1646 deal
boards were brought from Hamburg. The town suffered severely
during the Civil War, being garrisoned by the parliamentary
troops in 1642, taken by the earl of Carnarvon in 1643, and sur-
rendered in the following year. The town is described as "but
little" in 1733, but a few years afterwards it gained a reputation
as a watering-place, and George III. in 1789 paid Weymouth the
first of a series of visits wh'ch further ensured its popularity.
See H. J. Moule, Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters, Minute
Books, and other Documents of the Borough of Weymouth and
Welcome Regis, A.D. 1.250 to 1860 (Weymouth, 1883) ; John Hutchins,
History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset ( $rd ed., Westminster,
i860).
WEYPRECHT, KARL (1838-81), German polar explorer,
was born on Sept. 8, 1838, at Konig in Odenwald, Germany. In
1856 he became a cadet in the Austrian navy and in 1861 an officer.
He made several voyages to the Orient and to America and spent
two years on a coast-survey of Dalmatia. At his instance two
expeditions were sent out to explore Novaya Zemlya and to at-
tempt a northeast passage. That of 1871 reached 78° 48' north.
In 1872 the second got caught in the ice off Novaya Zemlya and
drifted north and west for over a year. On Aug. 30, 1873, Wey-
precht and his men caught sight of Franz Joseph Land, previ-
ously unknown. They wintered on one of the islands and spent
the first half of the summer in 1874 making extensive explorations.
In the autumn they returned to Novaya Zemlya, having spent
almost three years in the Arctic. Weyprecht urged that scien-
tific methods and investigation should dominate polar exploration
and advocated a series of simultaneous, co-operative observations
from polar observing stations. His plan was reported favorably
by the International Meteorological Congress and studied by
two successive international polar conferences held at Hamburg
and Berne. As a result 15 expeditions were sent out by n coun-
tries, the historic Greeley expedition being one of the two financed
by the United States. Weyprecht published Die- Met amor pho sen
dcs Polarcises (1879), and Praktische Anlcitung zur Beobachtung
der PolarUchter und der nuignetischen Erscheinnngcn in hohen
Breiten (1881). The best account of the Franz Joseph Land expe-
dition is the translated account of his lieutenant J. Payer; New
Lands Within the Arctic Circle (2 vol., 1876). Weyprecht died in
Michelstadt on Mar. 29, 1881.
See also Karl Weyprecht, Erinwrungcn itnd Bricfc (1881).
WEYR, RUDOLF VON (1847- ), Austrian sculptor,
was born on Mar. 22, 1847, at Vienna, and received his art educa-
tion at the academy in his native city. He concerned himself
most with decorative sculpture, chiefly in the revived rococo
style. This he executed with great facility and rapidity, excelling
especially in relief. His work perhaps shows no great depth of
thought but does reveal an amazing faculty of decorative inven-
tion. Special mention should be made of the frieze of the Triumph
of Bacchus in the Hofburg theatre, his Furies and Graces in the
Raimund theatre, the frieze in the rotunda of the Art Museum of
Vienna glorifying the Hapsburgs as patrons of art, decorations in
the Natural History Museum, the reliefs from Grillparzer's
dramas on his monument at the entrance of the Volksgarten, the
fountain representing Naval Power on the fagade of the Hofburg
and his statue of the painter Hans Canon in the Stadt-Park.
WHALE: see CETACEA.
WHALEBONE, the inaccurate name under which the ba-
leen plates of the right whale are popularly known; the trade-name
of whale-fin, which the substance receives in commerce, is equally
misleading. Whalebone is formed in the palate on the roof of
the mouth and is an exaggeration of the ridges, often horny in
character, which are found on the roof of the mouth of all mam-
mals. Three kinds are recognized by traders — the Greenland,
yielded by the Greenland whale, Balaena mysticetus; the South
Sea, the produce of the Antarctic black whale, B. australis; and the
Pacific or American, which is obtained from B. japonica. Of these
the Greenland whalebone is the most valuable. It formed the only
554
WHALE FISHERIES
staple known in earlier times, when the northern whale fishery was
a great and productive industry. This whalebone usually comes
into the market trimmed and clean, with the hairy fringe which
edges the plates removed. To prepare whalebone for its economic
applications, the blades or plates are boiled for about 12 hours,
till the substance is quite soft, in which state it is cut either into
narrow strips or into small bristle-like filaments, according to the
use to which it is to be devoted.
Whalebone is light, flexible, tough and fibrous, and its fibres run
parallel to each other without intertwisting. One of its earliest
uses, referred to by William le Breton in the ijth century, was to
form the plumes on helmets. Steel is now used for several pur-
poses to which whalebone was formerly applied, especially in the
umbrella and corset industries. Whalebone is, however, still in
demand among dressmakers and milliners and for brushes for
mechanical purposes, a use patented by Samuel Crackles in 1808.
When whalebone came into the English market in the lyth
century it cost at first about £700 per ton. In the i8th century
its price ranged from ^350 to £500 per ton, but early in the igth
century it fell as low as £25. Later it varied from £200 to £250;
but with the decrease in whaling the article has become very
scarce, and upwards of £2,000 per ton has been paid for Green-
land whalebone.
WHALE FISHERIES. The dangerous craft of whaling
undoubtedly occurred in times too early for systematic record.
The Eskimos traded the "bone" to the Greenland whalers, having
apparently attacked the whales when they rose to breathe in the
narrow water-lanes among the ice — a position the great whaling
fleets of the Antarctic to-day find favourable for their operations.
.In the gth century whaling was carried out by the Northmen, as
is clear from Ochthere's account of his voyage, given to King
Alfred; and according to a later statement it took place off the
Flanders coast in the same century. Alfric, archbishop of Canter-
bury, mentions whaling in the nth century, though it is not clear
that he claims it as an English fishery. The Basques also made a
very early start, and by the i3th century had made whaling an
important industry. At first only whales approaching close to
the shore were attacked — very possibly, in the first instance, only
those which accidentally had stranded. Later, watch was kept
from specially built towers, and on a whale being sighted near
shore the men put out in boats to the attack, armed with harpoons
and lances, killed the whale and towed it to shore. The whales
becoming more inaccessible, either from lessening numbers or
from increased wariness, or from both these causes, and the possi-
bility of boiling down (or "trying out") the blubber on a ship
having been demonstrated, ships of as much as 100 tons burden
were built for whaling, ships of a specially seaworthy type, and
the whalers went further afield. They reached Newfoundland
waters, apparently, before the end of the i4th century, and later
those of Greenland, where they took a different whale, evidently
the right Greenland whale, Balaena mysticetus, and not the Biscay
whale, B. biscayensis of their own coasts.
Early Whaling.— The next important whaling was that of
Spitsbergen. The English were the first participants in the fishery,
which arose from observations made in 1557 by voyagers of the
Muscovy company. They were shortly followed by the Dutch,
with whom they shared (and contested) the industry throughout
the first part of the iyth century, though Biscayan, Danish and
other ships took part. A whaler about the opening of this period
was of 200 tons burden, with a crew of 55 men, and was provided
with five pinnaces (for which 48 oars were carried). The whales,
of which eight kinds are mentioned, were taken at first in the
bays, and one of the reasons for the Dutch predominance, which
was well developed by about 1650, was that when the whales dis-
appeared from the coast they followed them along the ice more
constantly than did the British ships. The boats carried 300
fathoms of rope for their "harping irons" or harpoons. On shore
the boiling vats were built in, with a stokehold below. Extensive
stations grew up in the islands; Smeerenburg or "Blubbertown," a
Dutch station had bakeries, traders in spirits and tobacco, and a
church, and was visited by a thousand whalers annually. Early in
the 1 8th century the whaling had spread as far as Davis straits,
and over 350 ships took part in it.
The Dutch predominance continued until the middle of the cen-
tury, whose lattet half witnessed a recrudescence of British whal-
ing, assisted by bounties, which at first did much for American
(then colonial) whaling also. Hull, Liverpool, Whitby, became
whaling ports, and Leith, Dunbar and Dundee participated. The
whaling vessels were of some 350 tons burden, carried 50 men
and six whaleboats. They used to barrel the blubber for trying
out on return; but later the Scottish brought it back in bulk in
large tanks; the whalebone was brought whole, as was, for its oil,
the jawbone. The rest of the carcase was abandoned. The high
price of whalebone, reaching at times £500 per ton, was a material
factor in the success of whaling during this period, particularly in
America. The fishing was prosecuted vigorously; at times as
many as 50 ships being in sight of one another on the grounds,
Before the middle of the igth century, however, it had begun to
wane, owing apparently both to the growing scarcity of right
whales and the use of substitutes for whale products, particularly
of coal gas as an illuminant. Hull, the last English port for the
Greenland grounds, ceased whaling in 1868; Dundee and Peter-
head, owing in part to a strong local demand in the jute factories
for whale oil, continued to a later date, but, in spite of the intro-
duction of whalers with auxiliary steam power, and the capture of
seals and other animals as well as whales, their fleets decreased
and ultimately disappeared.
Whaling in the main Atlantic, the Pacific and the Antarctic was
developed chiefly from the Newfoundland posts, Nantucket and
Bedford in particular. Before 1700 the industry had passed
through most of the coastal stages. Part was taken in the Green-
land fishery, and from the capture of a sperm whale (Physeter
catodon) offshore in 1712, American whaling spread down the
whole length of the Atlantic, and before 1800 had reached. the
Pacific. The industry grew rapidly and was well established by
the Revolution. Notwithstanding the vicissitudes of wars, from
which American whaling suffered, perhaps, even more than did the
European industry, a marked power of recovery was always shown.
Shortly before 1850 the fleet numbered 680 sail in all; and all but
40 odd ships were employed in the Pacific, in the pursuit of sperm
and right whales. About the same date the right whales found in
the neighbourhood of Bering strait, the bowheads, were hunted
for the first time. The value attached to sperm oil, which was used
for both ointments and candle making, had much to do with this
development. A similar recovery followed
the American Civil War; but the use of
petroleum for lighting, and the more con-
stant prospects offered to capital in other
industries, caused American whaling to
dwindle away. By 1900 the sperm whaling
was nearly entirely dead, and the main
whaling that of the small fleet following
the bowhead. The grey whale, Rhacinactes
glaucus, was also hunted in the lagoons
of the western coast, but did not long en-
dure the destruction. In the fisheries of
_ the open sea mentioned above (all south
•v coutTESY or WHAUNO MU- Of the Arctic) Great Britain took an active
part. They were first in the Pacific and
SLUBBER HOOK USED IN predominated for a time in the. Indian
THE OLD DAYS OF WHALE ocean ; their participation, however, began
in '"5 and lasted less than a century.
rpi i » » . * , /• i • i
The hardships of these fisheries, known
collectively as the Southern Whaling, must
have been extreme. The ships were away three or more years and
provisioned accordingly. Their crews must endure and work in
tropical conditions, and in the rigorous climate of South Georgia
and even of more southern latitudes. The attack by open boats
(though usually four worked together) in mid ocean, with the
added possibility of being towed out of sight of the mother ship,
and the risk of fire in such whalers as tried out the blubber on
board, must have made the calling hazardous in the extreme.
Modem Whaling.— The Sven Foyn gun was first used near
the Norwegian coast ; it was carried on small steamers, and the
WHALE
WHALE FISHERIES
PI.ATK I
, ^, _ .
^^r^r^ J- ^ '' ' "r^ i?r -I ^«&^*, '"a*-"
'^IL '
f^^^* „- ("*"f , " I?
^ ' 'AH, r'r*. , '. > < , ' *'', '.. ,ftJL LL*..
WHALES AND WHALING
1. School of whales feeding and spouting. The spouting Is caused by forc-
ing heated air from the lungs after long periods of holding breath
2. Whaling ship nearing a school of whales. Gunner preparing to fire
harpoon gun. The harpoon has a pointed bombhead which explodes
on impact. Wide barbs open with the explosion and hold harpoon
firmly in flesh of whale
3. Whalo "buoyed" for towing In. The carcass with seal birds swimming
about it, has been inflated by forcing a sharp perforated steel tube
into the stomach and pumping it full of steam and air. The company
flag is planted in the body. This method is used only when the whale
is to be taken to a shore factory
4. Towing home the catch. The dead whale, with flukes removed to pre-
vent their wearing the vessel, has been made fast alongside
5. A second shot showing tho explosive effect of the bomb attached to the
harpoon head. In rough weather, three or more shots are often neces-
sary before the whale is struck in a vital spot
6. A whale catcher. These ships, 90-140 tons burden, are seaworthy,
easily handled and capable of making 15 knots per hour. Tho harpoon
gun Is mounted high on the fore-castle. The crow's nest for the look-
out is unusually high. The ships are fitted with steam winches fixed
to the bedplates in the forward hold where the whaling gear is stowed
XXIll. 554
PLATE II
WHALE FISHERIES
.ING AND SiALINO COMPANY, LTD., (2, 4) THE SOUTH AFRICAN RAILWAYS, (3) THI NEW ZEALAND HIGH COMMISSION, (6) TH. SORLLE
WHALES AND WHALING
1. Right whale or whalebone whale being drawn on shore to flensing plane.
This species fields true baleen (whalebone) and attains a length of
65 feet
2. Flensing a humpback whale, Durban, Natal. The humpback has black-
and-white markings with white splotches on its under surface. The
latter are probably scars left by barnacles and parasites. Large
catches of this species are made in the Mozambique Channel and off
the Cape of Good Hope
3. Flensers beginning to strip blubber from fin whale. The longitudinal
slits are made with flensing knives and the blubber is then stripped
off by means of steam winches
4. Cutting up whale carcasses after blubber has been stripped. The car*
Casses are used in the manufacture of oil and fertilizer, and in some
countries, as Japan, for food. Blood of the whale is dried and used
for fertilizer
5. View on board a floating blubber factory. Captured whales are stripped
and dissected In the water and the pieces heaved on the deck of the
ship where they are cut into smaller pieces for trying out
6. Westfold Whaling Station on South Georgia Island, which is the centre
of the South Atlantic and Antarctic whale fisheries
WHALE FISHERIES
555
whales, being taken near shore, were towed back to harbour for
flensing and extraction of oil. The harpoon, which weighs over
too lb., is some 4 ft. long. The cap contains an explosive and a
time fuse, which sets it off three seconds after striking. The head
behind the cap has four hinged 1 2 in. barbs, which open out in the
body of the whale. The warp is attached to a ring, which is free to
slide along a groove running nearly the whole length of the shank;
•V COURTESY OF OLD DARTMOUTH HISTORICAL SOClKTY AND WHALING MUSEUM
IMPLEMENTS USED IN WHALE FISHING. ABOVE. A BLUBBER FORK;
CENTRE, DARTING GUN; BELOW, A HARPOON OF LATE TYPE WITH SWIVEL
HEAD
when ready for use, the head, forepart of the shank and ring are
in front of the gun-barrel, and the first part of the warp is coiled
on a plate projecting over the ship's bows and immediately below
the gun. A charge of 220 grammes of explosive such as ballisite or
of black powder is used, in a cotton bag which is fastened to an
hourglass-shaped wooden buffer, ended with rubber discs, and fit-
ting the barrel. This buffer acts as tamping, and disappears on dis-
cfcarge. With the explosive named the barrel remains clean. The
guns used arc mostly muz/,1 e loaders, though breech loaders are
available. The range is usually 30 to 40 yards. The first discharge
is sometimes immediately fatal, and slaughter is, in many cases,
quicker than with the older methods.
The "catchers" have grown in size, power and speed. They can
now, though not without difficulty, travel from the Cape to South
Georgia under their own power. Essentially they are small steam-
ers with fore-foot much cut away for facility in turning, with a
high bow on which the gun is mounted, built with a pronounced
flare to minimize the shipping of water at the gun. A first class
boat will exceed 200 tons gross, and is about 130 ft. long. She has
a powerful winch, and to reach it the warp passes from the bows
over a sheave or pulley on the mast, which in turn is suspended
by a warp which communicates with two powerful accumulator
springs lying along the keel of the ship; excessive and sudden
strain on the warp is in this way minimized. The main length of
warp is not on the winch drums, but in bins on each side of the
hold, from which it is paid out to them. A good catcher will have
a speed of 14 knots and a complement of 1 1 men, under the gunner,
who is also the master. Several catchers, usually from three to six,
work in co-operation with one factory.
Factory Processes. — Parts of the tail flukes of the dead whale
are removed to reduce resistance, and a chain is passed round
the shank, by which the carcase is towed to the factory. Steam
power is much used at the factory. By it the whale is drawn up
the slope or ramp to the flensing stage. Here skilled flensers cut
axV-shaped flap at the head, and secure in it a hook; a warp to
which this is attached is then taken to a winch, by which a strip
of blubber the whole length of the whale is peeled off. It is cut
into "hook" pieces of some 20 kg., and dragged to the intakes
of the boilers. After the blubber, the best of the meat is selected
and removed (at such stations as the meat is utilized for food).
The remainder of the carcase is then cut into pieces for the meat
and bone boilers, steam saws being employed very largely. The
material is more finely divided by revolving knives and, in some
cases mincers, before boiling down. All modern boilers are pres-
sure boilers, the heat being supplied by steam, usually at 65 lb.
pressure, acting in closed vessels. The boiler is fitted internally
with removable platforms, fitted gradually as it is filled. This
prevents blocking/ and provides channels for the steam and oil.
Usually one boiler can give about 20 barrels of oil (3$ tons) a
day. A factory, however, possesses batteries of such boilers.
There are various improved types, designed to speed up production
or to economize fresh water, of which a great supply otherwise is
necessary; the Hartmann plant, for instance, in which the material
is inside a rotating horizontal cylinder pierced by sharply bevelled
holes, can yield 150 barrels a day from mixed material, or 225 bar-
rels from blubber. It should be added that extensive use is made
of mechanical transport, the meat, etc., being raised in large hop-
pers working up inclined runners outside the factory to the level
of the boiler top. All oil is now brought to post in bulk in large
tanks. The material taken from the boilers after oil has been
extracted is specially dried as whole meal or as guano. The most
recent development is the use of large ships furnished with a ramp
in the hull, usually at the stern, up which the whale can be drawn
bodily for treatment. Such ships, if need be, work in the open sea,
whereas the factory alongside which the whale is flensed must be
in the shelter of shore or ice. Old Atlantic liners have been
adapted for the work, and 17,000 tons burden is a not uncommon
size. A vessel of 12,500 tons, to take an instance, is furnished
with seven Hartmann boilers, one especially for bone and 12
ordinary boilers. With her three catchers, she has a complement
of 1 80 men, and can deal with 12 whales a day. Shore stations are
temporary settlements, with hospital, cinema, etc.
Products. — Whale meat is used in Japan. On Norwegian sta-
tions it is utilized fresh. Cut into 20 kg. blocks, it is refrigerated
for shipment by special railway cars. It is sold at about half the
price of beef. Only the best meat is used, but in a 50 ft. whale
this will reach 2^ tons. Whalebone, though Jess valuable and in
the whales now hunted less abundant, is still useful, that from the
fin whale being used mainly for brushes. Oil, however, is the chief
product of modern whaling. (See WHALE OIL.)
Ambergris, which is used as a fixative for perfumes, is found
in a small percentage of sperm whales, and is a pathological prod-
uct ; it is never abundant, and is usually searched for owing to its
great value. Whale meal is a valuable constituent of both cattle
and chicken food, and whale guano has general utility as manure.
Spread and Extent of Modern Whaling. — The Svend Foyn
gun was used first for whales off the Norwegian coast ; and finnus
(Balaenoptera physalus), bottlenose (Hypcroodon rostratus), and
sei (Balaenoptera borsalis) are still taken there. Its use spread to
Scottish and other waters, and in 1904 Capt. Larsen founded the
first company for Antarctic whaling. This whaling rapidly grew
to be the chief part of the industry. Norwegian, Brit ish and Argen-
tine companies are at work, though the main part of the operations
are in all cases carried out by Norwegian. The chief bases are in
the dependencies of the Falkland Islands — South Georgia, South
Orkneys, South Shetlands and South Sandwich, and these in recent
years have (excluding Japan) accounted for nearly two-thirds of
the world's productions. In the 1927-28 season, possibly owing
to unusually favourable conditions due to ice distribution, whaling
showed a tendency to spread from the more southerly stations
along the ice edge; in that season the total production of these
dependencies was 804,000 barrels, or 136,000 tons. Since 1925
the Ross sea has been laid under contribution.
The tendency to employ pelagic whalers, i.e., those capable 6<
embarking and treating the whale in the open ocean, is undoubtedly
increasing, and great sums of money have already been invested
in these craft. Apart from the Antarctic, they have been employed
on the African coast, where the humpback (Megaptera nodoza)
is the chief species taken. Evidently the extension of whaling
far from land bases will greatly increase the destruction entailed,
already immense. A large (89 ft.) blue whale (Balaenoptera mus-
culus) may yield nearly 28 tons of oil, but this, though now the
chief species hunted, is far above the average of even that large
species; the catch probably represents over 12,000 whales.
Regulation. — It is natural that a destruction so rapid should
awaken fears that the rate of destruction is greater than the stock
of whales can replace. Whales breed slowly, the females giving
birth to young (as a rule one only) probably once in two years at
most. It has been said that the discovery of the Greenland whale
alone saved the Biscay whale from extinction. The Norwegians,
the greatest whaling nation, took in all seas 51,400 barrels of oil
556
WHALE OIL— WHALLEY
in 1904; in 1927 they took 704,000 barrels. The need of some
regulations is felt almost universally, and some are in force. The
Falkland Islands Government prohibits the capture of right
whales and, except by permit, of humpbacks. This and other
Governments prohibit the shooting of calves and cow whales with
calves. Many authorities insist on the total utilization of the
carcase as far as practicable, and the Falklands permit whaling
only under licences which prescribe the number of catchers to be
employed. None of these regulations deal with operations in the
open ocean.
About the year 1926, a well-equipped marine laboratory at
South Georgia, the R.R.S. "Discovery," and a vessel ("William
Scoresby"), specially built for marking whales for the purpose of
tracing their movements began investigating these problems. A
cruise to study conditions along the ice edge was projected by
Christiansen of Sandefjord. Attempts are made at co-ordinating
all results by a committee of the International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea, which works in touch with the Economic
committee of the League of Nat'ons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — T. Bcale, The Natural History of the Sperm-Whale
(London, 1837) ; VV. S. Tower, A History of the American Whale Fish-
ery (Philadelphia, 1907) ; J. R. Spears, Story of New England Whaling
(New York, 1908) ; C. R. Markham, "On the Whale- Fishery of the
Basque Provinces of Spain," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1881) ; T.
Southwell, "Notes on the Seal and Whale Fishery," Zoologist (London,
1884-1907) ; and "On the Whale-Fishery from Scotland, with some
Account of the Changes in that Industry and of the Species Hunted,"
Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. (1904) ; G. M. Allen, "Some Observations on
Rorquals off Southern Newfoundland," American Naturalist (1904) ;
R. C. Haldane, "Whaling in Shetland, 1904," Ann. Scott, Nat. Hist.
(1905) ; and "Whaling in Scotland," I.e. (1907) ; E. L. Bouvier,
"Quelques impressions d'un naturaliste au cours d une campagnc scien-
tifique de S.A.S. le Prince de Monaco, 1905," Bull, de I'Inst. Occano-
graph. (Monaco, 1907). (J. 0. B.)
WHALE OIL. The oils derived from whales fall into two
sharply defined classes : Sperm oil, obtained from the head cavity
of the sperm whale or cachalot, Physeter catodon, and the oils
obtained from the right whales (genus Balaena) and the rorquals
(genera Balaenoptera and Megaptera). Sperm oil is not a true
fatty oil, inasmuch as it usually contains only traces of glycerides;
it consists mainly of fatty adds in combination with higher mono-
hydric aliphatic alcohols, and is therefore included in the cate-
gory of liquid waxes.
Sperm whales, when fully grown, may yield up to 145 barrels
of oil each; on the average the cows yield about 25 barrels, and
the bulls from 75 to 90 barrels (each barrel containing about
ajolb. of oil). Large amounts of spermaceti are present in the
crude oil, especially in that from the head, which is clear and
liquid immediately after removal from the animal, but soon
solidifies. In the refineries the oil is allowed to stand in refrigera-
tors for several days at a temperature of 32° F. and pressed in
hydraulic presses. The oil so obtained (about 75% of the crude)
will not deposit stearine at 38° F. ("cold test"), and is known as
winter sperm oil. Oils having a cold test of 32° F. have also been
prepared, the yield being 67%. The press residues are twice
re-pressed, first at a temperature of 50° to 60° F. yielding about
9% of spring sperm oil and secondly at 80° F., yielding a further
5% of oil. The press cake (about 11% of the crude oil) consists
of crude spermaceti. Spermaceti, which consists principally of
cetyl palmitatc, also occurs in smaller proportions in the oils
from other Cetacea. (For uses see SPERMACETI.)
Sperm Oil. — Sperm oil is a pale yellow oil with a slightly
fishy smell: it may be recognized by the low specific gravity,
0-875 to 0-880, the low saponification value, 125 to 130, and the
high proportion of unsaponifiablc matter (about 40%).
Sperm oil is largely used for the lubrication of spindles and
other light machinery. It is valued on account of its free-
dom from gumming tendencies, and also because the viscosity
decreases less with increase of temperature than is the case with
mineral oils.
Arctic sperm oil, a kindred oil closely resembling sperm oil
in its constitution, is obtained from the bottlenose whale,
Hyperoodon restrains. Each animal yields about eight barrels of
the oil, which has a distinctly lower value than true sperm oil,
Whale
Yield in
3l'S
barrels of
gallons
Right whale, Pacific
25 t
0 250
,, ,, Atlantic .
25
ISO
Humpback whale, Pacific
10
no
,, ,, Atlantic
10
TOO
Finback whale, Pacific .
10
70
„ ,, Atlantic
20
60
Californiari grey whale .
.
IS
60
Orca or killer whale
i
6
Beluga or white whale .
•
•
i
3
owing to its more pronounced tendency to gum.
The oil obtained from the blubber, that is, the layer of fat
immediately beneath the skin, from all species of whales other
than the two mentioned above, is a true fatty oil, consisting
almost entirely of glyceridcs. It was formerly known as "train
oil" (German "Tran"). The amount of oil obtainable from the
fully-grown animal varies with the species, as is shown in the
following table: —
Treating the Blubber. — The "sulphur-bottom" whale is
stated to yield 6 tons of oil, 3^ tons of guano and 3 cwt. of
whalebone. The first quality oil is that yielded by the right
whale, the "southern oil" being of lower quality. The "finner
whale oil" is a still lower grade. Some whalers still "try" the
blubber on board ship, although this practice has been almost
superseded by the modern procedure of rendering the blubber in
central stations on shore. In these stations the blubber is stripped
clean from every particle of ilesh as soon as possible* after the
capture of the whale, and cut into strips, which are then further
divided in chopping machines. The mass is then placed in large
pans and boiled with open steam. The oil which first runs off
varies in colour from pale yellow to almost water-white. This
oil has a very slight fishy smell and is known as "whale oil No.
o." "Whale oil No. i," the oil obtained on further boiling the
comminuted mass, is slightly darker in colour and possesses a
more pronounced odour. These two oils are stored in large vessels
in the cold, and the deposited stcarine or "whale tallow" (consist-
ing largely of palmitin) is removed by pressing in a hydraulic
press. After removal of oil No. i, the mass is subjected to steam
in digesters at a pressure of from 40 to 50!!). per sq.in., whereby
"whale oil No. 2" is obtained, which is brown in colour with
a strong odour. A still darker oil, "whale oil No. 3," is obtained
by adding the flesh, cut into rough lumps, together with the bones,
and again digesting under steam pressure. Finally, "whale oil
No 4" ("carcase oil") is obtained after the mass has putrefied;
in some cases the bones are worked up separately, yielding "Whale
Bone Oil." The better qualities of oil contain only small amounts
of free fatty acids, and can be bleached by treatment with fuller's
earth. The lower qualities of oil, however, may contain upwards
of 50% of free fatty acids, and cannot always be bleached
successfully. In common with other marine oils, whale oil con-
tains considerable amounts of highly unsaturated fatty acids,
including members of the dupanodon'c acid group, in which the
molecule contains four pairs of doubly-linked carbon atoms.
It has yet to be seen whether blubber oils contain, as do cod-
liver and some fish body oils, any notable proportion of the
fat-soluble vitamins.
The best quality whale oils are used as burning oils and for
soap-making. When the margin of price between liquid and solid
fats permits, large quantities of pale whale oil are hydrogenated
(hardened), producing a white tallow-like fat suitable for edible
purposes. Whale oil is also used for batching jute and other vege-
table fibres, for quenching steel plates and for leather-dressing.
It figures as an ingredient of lubricants for screw-cutting ma-
chines. The magnitude of the whaling industry may be gauged
from the following figures: for the years 1925 and 1926 the pro-
duction of whale oil was 1,072,000 and 1,120,000 barrels respec-
tively. The United Kingdom imported nearly 51,000 tons in
1926. (See also OILS AND FATS.) (E. L.; G. H. W.)
WHALLEY, EDWARD (c. 1615-^. 1675), English
regicide, was the second son of Richard Whalley, who had been
sheriff of Nottinghamshire in 1595, by his second wife Frances
WHARTON— WHATELY
557
Cromwell, aunt of Oliver Cromwell, On the outbreak of the
Civil War he took up arms for the parliament, became major
of Cromwell's regiment of horse, and fought with distinction
in the campaigns of 1643 to 1647. When the king was seized by
the army, he was entrusted to the keeping of Whalley and his
regiment at Hampton Court. Whalley refused to remove Charles's
chaplains at the bidding of the parliamentary commissioners,
and treated his captive with due courtesy, receiving from Charles
after his flight a friendly letter of thanks. In the second Civil
War, Whalley again distinguished himself as a soldier, and
when the king was brought to trial he was chosen to be one of
the tribunal and signed his death-warrant. He took part in Crom-
well's Scottish expedition, was wounded at Dunbar, and in the
autumn of 1650 was active in dealing with the situation in north
Britain. Next year he took part in Cromwell's pursuit of Charles
II. and was in the nght at Worcester. He followed and supported
his great kinsman in his political career, presented the army
petition to parliament (August 1652?, approved of the protecto-
rate, and represented Nottinghamshire in the parliaments of 1654
and 1656, taking an active part in the prosecution of the Quaker
James Naylor. He was one of the administrative major-generals,
and was responsible for Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Warwick
and Leicester. He supported the "Petition and Advice," except
as regards the proposed assumption of the royal title by Cromwell,
and became a member of the newly constituted House of Lords
in December 1657. On the Protector's death, at which he was
present, he in vain gave his support to -Richard; his regiment
refused to obey his orders, and the Long Parliament dismissed
him from his command as a representative of the army. In
November 1659 he undertook an unsuccessful mission to Scotland
to arrange terms with Monk. At the Restoration, Whalley, with
his son-in-law, General William Goffe, escaped to America, and
landed at Boston on July 27, 1660, living successively at New
Haven and at Hadlcy, Massachusetts, the government at home
failing to procure his arrest.
AUTHORITIKS. — An account of Whalley 's life is in Mark Noble's Liven
of the English Regicides, and also of his family in Noble's Memoirs of
the Protectoral House of Cromwell, vol. ii. (1787, 2nd ed.) ; see besides
Gardiner's and Clarendon's histories of the period; Peck's Desiderata
curiosa (1779; Whalley's account of the king's flight); Ezra Stilos's
History of three of the Judges of Charles I. (1794, etc.). The article
by C. H. Firth in the Diet. Nat. Biog, is an admirable summary.
Whalley's sojourn in America is dealt with in numerous papers pub-
lished by the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in the Hutchinson
Papers published (1865) by the Prince Society; see also Atlantic
Monthly, vi. 89-93 J Pennsylvania Mag., i. 55-66, 230, 359 ; F. B.
Dexter's Memoranda concerning Whalley and Goffe, New Haven Col,
Hist, Soc. Papers, ii. (1877) ; Poem commemorative of Goffe, Whalley
and Dixwell, with abstract of their history, by Philagathos (Boston,
1793) ; Palfrey's Hist, of New England, ii. (1866) ; Notes and Queries,
5th series, viii. 359 (bibliography of American works on the regicides).
WHARTON (FAMILY). The Whartons of Wharton were an
old north of England family, and in 1543 THOMAS WHARTON
(1495-1568) was created a baron. The fifth baron, THOMAS
WHARTON (1648-1715), was created in 1706 earl and in 1714
marquess of Wharton. The ist marquess is famous as the
author of the political ballad, Lilliburlero, which "sang James II.
out of three kingdoms." Wharton was lord-lieutenant of Iceland
in Anne's reign, and incurred the wrath of Swift, who attacked him
as Verres in the Examiner (No. 14), and drew a separate "char-
acter" of him, which is one of Swift's masterpieces. Addison
dedicated to him the fifth volume of the Spectator, giving him a
very different "character" from Swift's. His first wife, ANNA
WHARTON (1632-1685), was an authoress, whose poems, including
an Elegy on Lord Rochester, were celebrated by Walter and Dry-
den. His son, PHILIP WHARTON (1698-1731), duke of Wharton,
succeeded to his father's marquessate and fortune, and in 1718
was created a duke. But he earned for himself, by his profligacy
and reckless playing at politics, Pope's satire of him as "the scorn
and wonder of our days'7 (Moral Essays, i. 179). After spending
his large estates he went abroad and gave eccentric support to the
Old Pretender. He was outlawed in 1729, and at his death the
titles became extinct.
For the history of the family see E. R. Wharton's Whartons of
Wharton Halt (1898).
WHARTON, EDITH NEWBOLD (1862- ), Amer-
ican writer, the daughter of George and Lucretia Jones, was born
in New York city, and was educated at home, but spent most of
her later life in Italy and France. In 1885 she married Edward
Wharton, a Boston banker, and a few years later she began her
literary career by contributing poems and short stories to Scrib-
ner's Magazine. The House of Mirth (1905) definitely estab-
lished her reputation. The very brief novel Ethan Frame (1911)
is comparable only to the work of Hawthorne in the grimness of
its tragedy of New England love and frustration. Her splendid
sense of character, her cutting irony, her technique — in which she
shows a decided kinship to Henry James — have secured for her a
high place in American literature. Mrs. Wharton's long residence
in Europe has caused her to write a number of books of travel,
such as Italian Villas and Their Gardens (1904), but her reputa-
tion rests chiefly on her novels and short stories. Among these
arc: Crucial Instances (1901); The Fruit of the Tree (1907);
Xingu and Other Stories (1916); The Age of Innocence (1920);
A Son at the Front (1923); the four volumes portraying the life
of old New York: False Dawn, a story of the '405, The Old
Maid, the '505, The Spark, the *6os, and New Year's Day, the
'/os, published together in 1924; Twilight Sleep, a novel (1927),
and The Children, a novel (1928). She discusses her own method
and point of view in The Writing of Fiction (1925).
See L. M. Mclish, Bibliography of the Collected Writings of Edith
Wharton (1927) and R. M. Lovett, Edith Wharton (1925).
WHARTON, FRANCIS (1820-1889), American legal
writer and educationist, was born in Philadelphia, Penn., March
7, 1820. After holding various professional and ecclesiastical
posts, he settled in Washington, D.C., where in 1885-88 he was
lecturer and professor of criminal law at Columbian (now George
Washington) university and solicitor of the Department of State.
Wharton wrote many legal treatises and was a leading American
authority on international law. He died in Washington, D.C.,
Feb. 21, 1889.
See the Memoir (Philadelphia, 1891) by his daughter, Mrs. Vide,
and several friends; and J. B. Moore's "Brief Sketch of the Life
of Francis Wharton," prefaced to the first volume of the Revolutionary
Diplomatic Correspondence; Asa W. Russell, "Francis Wharton, L.L.D.,
D.D., Lawyer, Publicist, Editor, Professor, Author and Clergyman,"
Case and Comment, vol. 18 (1911).
WHARTON, HENRY (1664-1695), English writer, was
descended from Thomas, 2nd Baron Wharton (1520-1572), born
at Worstead on Nov. 9, 1664, studied at Gonville and Caius
college, Cambridge. In 1687 he was ordained deacon, and San-
croft, archbishop of Canterbury, made him one of his chaplains
and appointed him in succession to two Kentish livings. He died
on March 5, 1695, and was buried in Westminster abbey.
Wharton's most valuable work is his Anglia sacra, a collection of
the lives of English archbishops and bishops, which was published
in two volumes in i6gr. In the Lambeth library there are 16 volumes of
Wharton's manuscripts. A life of Wharton is included in George
D'Oyly's Life of W. Sancroft (1821).
WHATELY, RICHARD (1787-1863), English logician and
theological writer, archbishop of Dublin, was born in London on
Feb. i, 1787. He was educated at a private school near Bristol,
and at Oriel College, Oxford. In 1811 he was elected fellow of
Oriel, and in 1814 took orders. During his residence at Oxford he
wrote his Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon Bonaparte, a very
clever jeu d* esprit directed against excessive scepticism as applied
to the Gospel history. After his marriage in 1821 he settled in
Oxford, and in 1822 was appointed Bampton lecturer. The lec-
tures, On the Use and Abuse of Party Spirit in Matters of Re-
ligion, were published in the same year. In August 1823 he re-
moved to Halesworth in Suffolk, but in 1825, having been ap-
pointed principal of St. Alban Hall, he returned to Oxford. His
treatise on Logic (1826), originally contributed to the Encyclo-
paedia Metropolitans, gave a great impetus to the study of logic
throughout Great Britain. A similar treatise on Rhetoric, also
contributed to the Encyclopaedia, appeared in 1828. In 1829
Whately became professor of political economy at Oxford, but
lectured only for two years, as he was appointed archbishop of
Dublin in 1831. One of his first acts was to endow a chair of
558
WHAUP— WHEAT
[BOTANY AND CULTIVATION
political economy in Trinity College out of his private purse.
In 1837 he wrote his well-known handbook of Christian Evi-
dences, which was translated during his lifetime into more than
a dozen languages. At a later period he also wrote, in a similar
form, Easy Lessons on Reasoning, on Morals, on Mind and on the
British Constitution. Among his other works may be mentioned
Charges and Tracts (1836), Essays on Some of the Dangers to
Christian Faith (1839), The Kingdom of Christ (1841). He also
edited Bacon's Essays, Paley's Evidences and Paley's Moral Phil-
osophy. His cherished scheme of unsectarian religious instruction
was defeated by the opposition of the new Catholic archbishop of
Dublin, and Whately felt himself constrained to withdraw from
the Education Board. From the beginning Whately was a keen-
sighted observer of the condition of Ireland question, and gave
much offence by openly supporting the state endowment of the
Catholic clergy as a measure of justice. During the terrible years
of 1846 and 1847 the archbishop and his family were unwearied
in their efforts to alleviate the miseries of the people. Whately died
on Oct. 8, 1863.
Whately may be said to have continued the typical Christian-
ity of the 1 8th century — that of the theologians who went out to
fight the Rationalists with their own weapons. It was to Whately
essentially a belief in certain matters of fact, to be accepted or
rejected after an examination of "evidences." Hence his en-
deavour always is to convince the logical faculty, and his Chris-
tianity inevitably appears as a thing of the intellect rather than of
the heart. Whately's qualities are exhibited at their best in his
Logic, which is, as it were, the quintessence of the views which he
afterwards applied to different subjects. He wrote nothing better
than the luminous Appendix to the work on Ambiguous Terms.
In 1864 his daughter published Miscellaneous Remains from his
commonplace book and in i860 his Life and Correspondence in two
volumes. The Anecdotal Memoirs of Archbishop Whately, by W. J.
Fitzpatrick (1864), enliven the picture.
WHAUP: see CURLEW.
WHEAT. Among the three or four most important cereals
utilized as food by man wheat (Triticum) occupies the first place.
It is the cereal above all others from which good bread can be
made and in this form is consumed by the
most highly civilized nations of the world.
The grain from which the plant is grown
is a caryopsis or nut-like fruit containing
a single seed. The thin shell or pericarp of
the fruit and the coat of the seed are so
closely united when ripe that they cannot
be separated. The colour of the grain is
usually a pale creamy tint or some shade
of red but in certain Abyssinian wheats it
is purple. The surface is smooth except at
the tip which is covered with hairs; the
dorsal side is convex, the ventral side hav-
ing a longitudinal furrow. At the base of
the grain on the dorsal side is an oval
wrinkled patch which covers the embryo
of the seed. The embryo possesses several
rudimentary 'rootlets and a terminal bud,
or plumule, from which the stem and
leaves of the future plant develop. Its MOI( OROOM. -lLIMIMTMlr 10T.
position, relative size and parts, as well as **Y" <« •«LL * *°*«>
the structure of the rest of the grain are F|G- i —INFLORESCENCE
shown in the longitudinal section given in OF WHEAT
fig. 2. Beneath the epidermis are a few layers of cells belong-
ing to the pericarp; within these is the seed coat which sur-
rounds the embryo and the endosperm or floury part of the
seed. The outer layer of the endosperm consists of cubical
cells containing minute aleuron grains composed of protems.
The rest, which makes up the bulk of the endosperm, is a mass
of thin-walled ceils within which are vast numbers of starch
grains imbedded in a matrix of proteins from which the gluten so
essential to the manufacture of good porous bread is derived.
Life-history, — Germination of the grain occurs in a few days
when sown in warm soil; the rootlets, breaking out first, are soon
followed by the plumule leaves. The main axis or stem extends a
little and the lateral buds upon it grow into short stems upon
which buds also arise, and these in turn produce short stems and
buds; such branching of the young plant, termed "tillering," which
occurs close to the ground, continues for a variable length of time
dependent on the variety of the wheat, the time of sowing, con-
dition of the soil and other factors. The many short stems pro-
duced are at first hidden by the leaves; later they rapidly elongate
or "shoot" upwards forming the straws of
the crop. The much branched axis of a
strongly "tillered" plant may thus give
rise to 5, 10, 20 or even 100 straws and
ears, all of which have come from the
embryo of a single grain.
The inflorescence or ear of wheat con-
sists of a notched axis or rachis which
bear,s on alternate sides from 18-25
flattened spikelets, one at each notch.
ANY- («. IBLL • SONS) Each spikelet has a thin central axis — the
FIG. 2.—A SPIKELET OF Achilla. At the base are two boat-shaped
WHEAT chaffy scales, the empty glumes; then
follow a number of flowers arranged alternately along the rachilla,
each enclosed between a flowering glume and palea, the former of
which may or may not terminate in a long beard or awn. The
flower is very simple, consisting of three stamens and a feathery-
styled ovary, at the base of which are two minute membranous
scales termed lodicules. The number of flowers in a spikelct
varies in different races of wheat, but in
ordinary bread wheat is 4-6 or more, of
which usually not more than two or three
develop into grain, the rest being abortive.
After the ear escapes from the uppt.-r
leaf sheath flowering takes place in five or
six days, when the glumes surrounding the
flowers are pushed apart by the lodicules
which swell and become turgid at this
period. The filaments of the flower
lengthen rapidly and the anthers dehisce at ANr" <•• "LU * SONi>
their tips. Some of the abundant pollen £IHGEAT3'~~F LO w E R OF
falls on the feathery stigmas, often before
the flower opens, the rest being shed into the air. Normally the
glumes remain separated about 15-20 minutes and then close;
self-pollination and self-fertilization is the rule, but crossing from
pollen brought to the flower by air currents before the glumes
close is common in warm climates and not infrequent in Britain
in some seasons. Flowering goes on throughout the day. The
lowest flower of each spikelet opens first,
the rest following in succession upwards.
The first spikelet to flower lies in the
middle third of the ear, and flowering
progresses upwards and downwards from
this point, the last to open being those of
the terminal and basal spikelets respec-
tively. The whole ear completes its flower-
ing in five or six days in warm weather, but
is prolonged to six or eight days when the
sky is overcast.
After fertilization the grain begins to
develop, its volume increasing day by day.
rr\ • t xl_ j -it.' FIIOW CUOOM. "ELIMINTAHY BOT-
I he pericarp expands as the seed within ANY- <c. MLL * *»*>
enlarges, and reaches its maximum size in Fio, 4.— DIAGRAM OF
four or five weeks, when the water con- FLOWER
tent is about 70% of the weight of the gram. Later the dry
weight increases, the water content gradually decreasing to
12-14% when the grain is ripe. At the time of maximum vol-
ume the grain is green, the embryo almost completely formed and
the cells of the endosperm contain a large amount of water. At
this stage the grain is said to be "milk ripe;" on squeezing it yields
a white liquid in which float vast numbers of starch grains. In the
"yellow ripe" stage which follows, the grain has assumed its
creamy or reddish tint,— the chlorophyll of the cells of the peri-
carp having disappeared,— and the endosperm now kneads like
BOTANY AND CULTIVATION]
WHEAT
559
•ELL ft SONS)
FIG. 5. — DISSECTED
FLOWER
wa* or dough. In two or three days the "ripe" stage is reached
when the characteristic colour of the grain, i* clearly marked, its
endosperm becomes harder and the flinty or mealy character is
established.
The time taken in the ripening process depends on the variety
of the wheat, and the climate of the locality in which it is grown;
in the south of England the time elapsing between the date of
appearance of the ear from the
leaf-sheath and the production of
ripe grain is from 8-9 weeks for
most wheats.
Species and Races. — The
classification of the vast number
of forms of wheat presents num-
erous difficulties, and many at-
tempts have been made by bot-
anists since the time of Linnaeus
(17S3) who recognized five
species. Most of these schemes
are based upon differences in the
morphology of the ear, and the
majority refer to a comparatively
few of the known forms and
these chiefly herbarium speci-
mens. The most comprehensive
classification based upon the
study of living plants of prac-
OF tically all known kinds growing
under similar conditions is that
given in Professoi Percival's monograph, The Wheat Plant. In this
work are recognized eleven cultivated species or races, which
fall into three groups as follows: — Group I. Einkorn (Triticum
monococcum L.). Group II. Emmer (T. dicoccum Schiib.); Mac-
aroni wheat (7\ durum Desf.); Rivet wheat (T. turgidum L.);
Egyptian Cone wheat (T. pyramidale Perciv.); Khorasan wheat
(T. orientate Perciv.); Polish wheat (T. polonicum L.). Group
III. Bread wheat (T. vulgar e Host.); Club wheat (T. compaction
Host.); Indian Dwarf wheat (T. sphaerococcum Perciv.); Spelt
or Dinkel (T. Spelta L.). The
chromosome number of the
wheats of group I. is 14, that of
group II. is 28, while that of
group III. is 42.
Einkorn (German, one grain) ;
Engrain (French; Small spelt).
The wheats of this race have
bearded, thin flat ears from 5-9
cm. long. The spikelets generally
contain only a single grain. The
rachis of the ear when ripe is
brittle and disarticulates at each
node or joint when thrashed. The
grains are small, laterally com-
pressed and pointed at each end.
It is an ancient race cultivated
only by primitive peoples in
Europe, Asia Minor and Mo*
rocco, and chiefly used as food
for cattle and horses.
Emmer. — The ears of this race
are bearded and flattened, the
spikelets containing two grains
which are narrow and generally
pointed at each end. In the typical Emmer the rachis is brittle,
and the grain firmly held between the sharply keeled glumes can
only be obtained free from the latter with difficulty. Archaeologi-
cal evidence shows that Emmer is one of the most ancient of the
wheats; it was extensively grown by Neolithic peoples of Central
Europe and was the only wheat cultivated in Egypt in pre-
dynastic and early dynastic times. At present it is grown for
human food by primitive races in India, Persia, the Caucasus,
Abyssinia and Morocco, and a small quantity in South Germany
FROM MRCIVAL, -THI WHKAT PLANT" (DUCK-
WORTH)
FlG. 6. — SMALL SPELT
WORTH)
FlG. 7. — MACARONI WHEAT
and the Basque districts of Spain, Small amounts are also grown
in other parts of the world for horse and cattle food.
Macaroni wheats are tall solid-strawed kinds with bearded ears
and sharply keeled glumes. The grain is narrow, pointed at each
end, with hard translucent endosperm specially suitable for the
manufacture of macaroni and other similar pastes. These wheats
have glabrous leaves and resist drought well, giving good crops
of grain in districts with a low rainfall. They are cultivated
throughout the Mediterranean
region, in Central Asia, India,
South Africa and the warmer
regions of North and South
America.
Rivet or Cone wheats are tall
solid-strawed forms with heavy,
bearded ears, sharply keeled
glumes and large, plump, blunt-
tipped grains with a characteristic
dorsal hump. The endosperm of
of the grain is soft and starchy,
more suited to the biscuit-maker
than the baker of bread. Some
varieties of rivet, often named
mummy, miracle or seven-headed
wheats, have branched ears. The
rivet wheats have soft, velvety
leaves and require a warm climate
for full development, They are
grown chiefly in countries along
the northern side of the Mediterranean from Portugal to the
Caucasus, though small amounts of some varieties are met with
in the warm parts of other countries.
In addition to the three races of wheat mentioned above and
belonging to the Emmer group, are three comparatively small
uncommon races, viz. — Egyptian cone, Polish and Khorasan
wheats.
The Egyptian cone wheats are endemic in Egypt; they re-
semble the rivet wheats in their velvety leaves, and dorsally-
humped grain, but have short
straw, comparatively short dense
ears and are early.
Polish wheat is a tall-strawed
kind endemic in Spain and spo-
radically found in other countries
along the Mediterranean; the
origin of the name Polish is ob-
scure. The empty glumes are of
extraordinary length (i-ii in.);
the grains of the common vari-
eties which are very long and nar-
row, are used for the manufac-
ture of macaroni. Some Abyssin-
ian forms have short grains some-
what like those of Emmer wheats
with which they appear to have
relationship.
Khorasan wheat is a small race
found only in limited amounts in
Khorasan and parts of Iraq and
Egypt. The ears are bearded and
lax, with elongated, sharply
keeled empty glumes and long
narrow grain.
Bread Wheat.— This is by far the most important and most
widely distributed race of wheats; included in it are all the kinds
from which the bread supply of the world is derived. Both
bearded and beardless varieties are found and among the many
hundreds of forms which are known there is seen the greatest
variation in length and density of ear, form of empty glume, habit
of growth, period of ripening, resistance to disease, adaptability
to various climatic conditions, and cropping capacity. The
gluten of the flour of these wheats is superior to that of all other
FIG. S. — BREAD WHEAT
560
WHEAT
[DISEASES AND PARASITES
races in the physical qualities upon which the manufacture of a
large spongy loaf depends. So far as the bread-making qualities
are concerned millers and bakers divide wheat into "strong"
and "weak" varieties. To the former belong those in which the
gluten is highly elastic, the bread made from them being
especially porous and digestible; similar amounts of flour of
"weak" wheats give smaller, denser and less easily digested loaves.
The great bread wheat countries are the United States, Canada,
Russia, Argentina, India and Australia, but larger or smaller
amounts arc grown in all countries wherever wheats of any race
can be cultivated.
Club Wheat. — This race is closely related to the preceding, re-
sembling it in grain qualities and general morphological char-
acters. The chief differences are seen in the ears which are very
short— often not more than two inches in length — with densely
packed spikelets. Club wheats are widely distributed in mixture
with the bread wheats, pure crops of them being uncommon
except in Central Asia, China and the northern Pacific States of
America.
Indian Dwarf Wheat. — A remarkable race of few varieties,
sometimes erroneously classified with the club wheats from which
they are quite distinct. The straw is short and stiff, and the cars
dense with inflated empty glumes in which are enclosed small
round grains. These wheats are almost entirely confined to
northern India, where they are found to resist drought well.
Spelt or Dink el. — The term "spelt" has unfortunately been
employed in two different senses by botanists. It is given to all
wheats in which the ear has a brittle rachis; in this sense it in-
cludes Einkorn, Emmcr and Dinkel as well as the wild wheats
mentioned below. It is also applied in a special sense to the
Dinkel race alone (T. Spelt a).
Typical Dinkel or. Spelt (German, Spelz) has long lax ears,
which may be bearded or beardless. On thrashing, the rachis
breaks at the nodes, a single spikelet remaining attached to each
internodal portion of the rachis. The spikelets usually contain
two grains tightly enclosed in the glumes from which they can
only be freed by special milling machinery. The empty glumes
are tough, keeled and have a broad truncate apex.
Dinkel is a hardy wheat grown chiefly in south Germany, the
Tyrol, parts of Switzerland and northern Spain. The naked
grains are used in soups and to a lesser extent ground into flour
for confectionery.
Origin of the Wheats. — The cultivation of one race or an-
other of wheat extends far back into prehistoric times. In the
earliest historic periods wheat growing was already an ancient
industry and the origin of the crop a matter of tradition only.
Obscurity still prevails and the ancestry of many of the races of
wheat remains problematical. There is, however, no doubt that
the cultivated Einkorn has been derived from Triticum aegUo-
poides Bal., a wild species of grass found in hilly districts in
south-eastern Europe and Asia Minor; the differences between
the cultivated and wild plants are very small and their botanical
relationships obvious.
The brittle-eared emmcr closely resembles Triticum dicoc-
coides Kb'rn, a wild species of wheat found in the mountainous
parts of Syria, and has doubtless descended from it. The other
wheats of the emmer group have probably arisen by mutation and
crossing within the group.
It is in regard to the origin of the wheats of the bread wheat
group that the greatest obscurity and uncertainty exists, and no
plant has yet been discovered which resembles any of these
wheats. Some botanists have suggested that the wild ancestor has
become extinct, others hope that it may possibly be found by
further search in south-western Asia. From a prolonged study
of many hundreds of forms Professor Pcrdval concludes that the
bread wheat group with its vast number of varieties has arisen by
hybridization of a wheat of the emmer group with Aegilops ovata
and A. cylindrica, two wild species of grass found in southern and
eastern Europe and western Asia. Both these cross readily with
emmer and bread wheats, and although the hybrids are usually
sterile a few fertile hybrids have been obtained.
From very early times attempts have been made to improve
the wheat crop, either in yield, quality of grain, earliness, dis-
ease resistance or some other desirable character. Among the
ancient Romans mass selection was practised, a number of the
best ears or largest grains being chosen annually from the crops
and the produce used as seed for the succeeding crop; in this
manner a high average yield was maintained.
Some of the world's most famous improved wheats have been
selections of single ears or plants exhibiting superior characters,
such individuals being picked out of an ordinary crop, or found
growing casually on roadsides, in hedges, or among other crops
on cultivated ground.
Hybridization has also been practised with a view of obtaining
improved wheats. At first crossing was carried out in order to
secure a greatly varying offspring, from which it was hoped to
select plants of superior merit. Since the discovery by Mendel
of the laws of inheritance (see HEREDITY, MKNDELISM), interest
in hybridization has been greatly stimulated, and in all wheat-
growing countries the crossing of wheats is being, extensively
pursued, the aim being to combine in one plant the good qualities
found in two or more separate individuals. The most important
character from the point of view of the fanner is total yield of
grain, a hereditary quality largely influenced by environment.
Attempts to combine this character with earliness, baking quality,
winter hardiness, disease resistance and other desirable qualities
have been only partially successful.
Wheat is one of the most widely distributed of the cereals,
and is grown in almost all countries of the world, except those
in the hot and humid regions of the tropics. The great areas from
which the world's supplies of wheat are derived lie in the northern
hemisphere between 30-60 N. latitude, but crops are grown near
the equator in the mountainous parts of Africa and South
America, and their cultivation extends as far north as the Arctic
Circle, or slightly beyond it in certain parts of Europe, Asia and
North America.
Wheat may be grown at sea level or at elevations up to 10,000
feet or more in Tibet, Abyssinia and the highlands of Ecuador
and Colombia.
Some varieties will withstand a temperature of 20 C below
freezing point without injury, if the plants are protected by a
covering of snow. In countries with severe winters spring kinds
are cultivated; the more prolific autumn sown varieties of west-
ern Europe being only adapted to districts with comparatively
mild winters.
Wheat will thrive in almost any kind of soil except dry sands
and wet peaty soils; it succeeds best, however, upon deep, well
drained loams and clays.
The yield of grain per acre depends on a number of independent
factors, such as the variety of wheat, climate and soil; time of
sowing, amount of seed and other conditions, the maximum return
being only obtained when all the conditions named are favourable
and exerting their influence simultaneously — an extremely rare
occurrence. In ordinary farm practice the yield of grain varies
from about 10-20 bushels t 600-720 Ib.) in the warm countries
of southern Europe, North Africa, Argentina, India and Aus-
tralia, to 30 or 40 bushels (1,800-2,400 Ib.) per acre in the United
Kingdom and the adjacent countries of north-western Europe,
The average yields of the United States and Canada is about
15-20 bushels (900-1,200 Ib.) per acre. In exceptional circum-
stances small areas of a few acres in extent have given up to
100 bushels (6,000 Ib.) per acre.
Diseases and Parasites.— Like other crops, wheat is subject
to the attacks of parasitic fungi which cause diseases. Among
those most feared by the wheat grower is the disease known as
black stem rust, annual losses from which amount to many millions
of pounds.
In early summer arc seen narrow elongated rust coloured
pustules on the stems and leaves; these are the sori of the\rust
fungus, Pticcinia graminis, from which are shed vast numbers of
reddish-yellow uredospores. When placed on the leaf or stem of
the wheat plant the spores germinate and penetrate its tissues
giving rise in a short time to another sorus; in this manner the
disease is spread rapidly through the crop during summer. Later
PRODUCTION AND TRADEJ
WHEAT
561
in the season the sori are almost black, producing dark-brown
teleutospores which do not germinate until the following spring,
when they give rise to small secondary spores ; these cannot in-
fect wheat but readily attack the leaves of the barberry (Ber-
beris vulgaris). Within" the leaves of the new host the fungus
grows and bears aecidia or cluster-cups, which break through the
epidermis and shed large numbers of aecidiospores ; the latter are
unable to re-infect the barberry, but when carried to a wheat
plant germinate and penetrate the young leaves producing there
an internal mycelium from which uredospores like those first
mentioned are given off.
Several biological species of the black stem rust fungus are
known, which though similar in morphological characters are
different in their parasitism. One biological species attacks wheat,
barley, rye and several wild grasses; another is parasitic only on
oats and certain grasses, a third lives upon rye and barley and
will not infect wheat or oats, while three or four are only capable
of using certain grasses as hosts. •
In districts or countries from which barberry is absent suc-
cessive crops of wheat are often very seriously infected with
rust; the explanation usually given for the prevalence of the
disease under these circumstances is that the parasite persists
from one season to another in the uredo stage upon stray wheat
plants or wild grasses. There is still, however, considerable ob-
scurity regarding the origin of attacks of black stem rust in
barberry-free regions.
No specific remedies for rust diseases are known, but black
stem rust is less prevalent in areas from which the barberry host
has been eradicated. Varieties of wheat differ considerably in
their susceptibility to these parasites, and it is hoped that by
selection of immune kinds or (he production of resistant hybrids,
the damage to crops may be checked or largely reduced.
Another disease of serious import to the wheat grower is bunt
or stinking smut, TUletia tritici. Bunted grains produced by dis-
eased plants have a disagreeable odour of decaying fish, and are
filled with a mass of black spores which are set free during the
threshing process, becoming attached to the coats of the healthy
grains. Germination of the bunt, spores and the contaminated
grains occur at the same time when sown, and the fungus infects
the young plant soon after it makes its exit from the grain. The
parasite lives in the wheat plant without seriously affecting its
growth, progressing upwards in the stem and finally entering the
developing grain where the mycelium of the fungus is transformed
into a mass of bunt spores. The disease can be checked by steep-
ing the seed grain in solutions of copper sulphate, formalin or
other fungicides which destroy the spores on the contaminated
grains without damaging the embryos within them.
Allied to bunt is common smut of wheat, Ustilago tritici, a
parasite having a life-history similar to that of bunt, but it
gains an entrance into its host through the flowers.
For further knowledge consult The Wheat Plant: a Monograph,
by J. Percival (Duckworth and Co., 1921). (J. P.)
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
Great Britain. — In 1929 wheat occupied only about one-
seventh of the arable acreage in England and Wales as a whole and
little more than one-twentieth of the total cultivated area. These
proportions are somewhat lower than those which obtained in
the decade immediately preceding the World War; and while
the proportion of the arable land devoted to this crop has become
almost constant — varying mainly with soil and weather conditions
at the time of sowing — there is still an annual shrinkage of arable
acreage, and with it a reduction in the wheat crop.
Although, from its present position in British agriculture,
wheat would hardly appear to be a crop of prime importance, yet
the fluctuations in acreage must be observed with great in-
terest; they largely indicate the prosperity or adversity of
arable cultivation on heavy clay soils, particularly in the eastern
and southern portions of England, where climatic conditions
favour the ripening and harvesting of a good sample of grain.
Wheat is the principal source of revenue from arable crop pro-
duction on heavy land. This class of soil is unsuitable for other
cash crops, such as potatoes, sugar beet or barley, which enable
the light land farmer to continue arable cropping with more or
less satisfactory financial results. The conversion of arable land
to permanent grass in Great Britain has been closely associated
with the abandonment of wheat cultivation on heavy soils;
and it may be suggested that the revival of tillage in England can
come about only with the return of more renumerative prices or
less costly production of the wheat crop.
The close connection between wheat prices and the area under
tillage may be illustrated by the fact that in the years 1871-7$)
when wheat averaged 125. 9d. per cwt., there were 14,766,000
acres of arable land in England and Wales, of which nearly 25%
were devoted to wheat. With the decline in price to 6s. 6d. per
cwt. in 1901-05, however, the arable area had diminished to
11,914,000 acres, and of this less than 14% was cropped with
wheat. The percentage devoted to wheat in 1871-75 and 1901-05
respectively indicates that it is the wheat-growing class of land
that has gone out of arable cultivation.
Wheat is regarded as a heavy land crop more because it excels
the other cereals on strong soils than because of its preference for
this class of land. By suitable manurial treatment heavy yields
can be obtained from light soils also, as is the case in Norfolk
parts of Lincolnshire, Lancashire and the Lothians, where wheat
occupies a regular place in light loarn farming. Although her
average yield is very high, Denmark has no land sufficient^
strong to comply with the English conception of typical wheat
and bean soil.
In Britain, wheat cultivation is conducted under the most
favourable climatic conditions on the drier eastern side of the
country. While conditions on the western side are favourable tc
the vegetative development of the plant, wet weather in August
and September frequently impedes the harvesting of the crop anc
injures the milling quality of the grain. As regards temperatures
the warmer summer conditions of the southern counties of Eng-
land cause the crop to ripen a little earlier there than in the
Lothian counties of Scotland; and while this does not ensure a
higher yield per acre, it produces a better quality of grain foi
milling or for seed, and the earlier removal of the crop favours
autumn tillage operations.
Little wheat is grown in Britain as far north as Aberdeen, al-
though in Scandinavia and Russia this cereal is cultivated ir
latitudes beyond that of the Shetland islands. High altitudes ir
Hritain, being associated with heavy rainfall and late ripen-
ing, arc not favourable to wheat growing. In Derbyshire, foi
example, this crop is rarely cultivated at elevations higher thar
600 ft., except on southern slopes where the limit may be 800 ft
In the more southern latitudes of the Alps, however, wheat i<
grown at altitudes exceeding 3,000 ft. Provided that sufficien!
moisture is available, wheat in one or other of its several form;
can be grown in any latitude between the northern limits abov<
mentioned and that of about 5° from the equator.
Comparative Wheat Yields. — As indicating the comparative
yields in various countries it may be said that, on the basis o
figures averaged for 1923-26, the yields per unit of area were a:
follows: —
Yield
22 quintals per hectare
Country
United Kingdom
Denmark . . .
Holland 27
Belgium 26
Germany . i.S
France 14
Canada i .?
United States 10
Australia o
India S
Argentina S
Russia 7
As regards the intensity of cultivation it seems to be impos
sible to get any more adequate test than the yield per unit o
area, for the nearer and more real test is related to the annu;i
outlay on the crop per unit of area and per unit of yield, and thi
can hardly be available for many years.
The fact that more than 80% of the wheat consumed in th
562
WHEAT
[PRODUCTION AND TRADE
United Kingdom comes from overseas has been frequently stated
to be a weakness in British defence organisation, but is not at
present looked upon as liable to incur shortage of bread corn in
peace times. Except for a short period during and immediately
after the World War, it has not recently been part of the na-
tional policy to induce the British farmer to grow wheat instead
of grass. Although the possibility of serious competition with
other countries similarly dependent on imported supplies of bread
stuffs is commonly regarded as too remote for consideration, it
is nevertheless deserving of notice that Eastern races are tending
more and more to replace rice by wheat in the national ration.
For the live years 1909-13 the world's wheat crop was ap-
proximately 100,000,000 tons. The crops of the years 1923, 1924
and 1925 were 103,- 92,- and 105,000,000 tons, respectively, indi-
cating little change in total output. Of the wheat harvested in
1925, the United States of America contributed 18-1 million tons,
Russia 15-7, Canada 11-2, France 9-0, India 8-8, Italy 6-6, Argen-
tina 5-2, Spain 4-4, Germany 3-2, Australia, North Africa and
Rumania each 2-9, and Hungary 2-0. The most important changes
in the output since 1909-13 were a decrease of 3,000,000 tons in
Russia, an increase of nearly 6,000,000 tons in the Canadian pro-
duction, and an increase of about 1,000,000 tons in that of the
Argentine.
Some of the most important producing countries, however, are
large consuming centres, and either have little surplus to export
or actually import wheat for home consumption. The greater
part of the wheat upon which importing countries depend for
their supplies is produced in North America, Argentina and
Australia. On the average of the three years 1924-27, the quan-
tities exported from various sources were as follows: — Canada
7,000,000 tons, United States 5, Argentina 3$, Australia 2$, other
countries, 2^; total 20^- million tons. "Other countries" includes
Hungary, the Balkans, Russia, North Africa, India, Chile and
Uruguay.
The chief importing countries and the quantities received by
each, on the average of the three years 1924-27 were as follows: —
Great Britain and Ireland 6,000,000 tons, Italy 2^, Germany 2,
France ij, and Belgium i. The remaining 7$ million tons were
imported by the following countries: — Holland, Czechoslovakia,
Scandinavia, the Baltic States, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, Japan
and Egypt. There are, however, other importing countries includ-
ing Hungary, the Balkans, Russia, North Africa, India, Chile and
Brazil.
Wheat Supply.— The question of when the production of food
stuffs will begin to lag behind the increasing needs of the swelling
population of the world is not a new one. Since Malthus issued
his warnings in the i8th century, the world population has in-
creased from 850,000,000 to 1,750,000,000 without apparent dan-
ger of general food scarcity. Sir Daniel Hall, however, in his presi-
dential address to the agricultural section of the British Asso-
ciation at Oxford in 1926, questioned the possibility of providing
for any much greater increase in the number of people by the
same method as had been adopted during the past century, viz.,
by bringing new land under agriculture. On the basis of 2^ acres
per individual, the increase of 5,000,000 in white population alone
would require an additional 12,500,000 acres of land brought into
cultivation each year — an area one-third the size of England and
Wales — and he contended that it is difficult to find land at that
rate. The conclusion to which his argument led was that it
would be necessary to intensify the production of the land already
under cultivation. At the same time, it is highly probable that
very considerable areas of hitherto unutilized land will be brought
under cultivation as mankind realizes the need for it.
Although no statistical survey of the potential wheat growing
possibilities of the world has been fnade, it is evident that there
are still vast areas of uncultivated or semi-cultivated land avail-
able for future development. At the above mentioned Oxford
meeting Lord Bledisloe stated that Canada had a total of 300,-
000,000 acres fit for growing wheat — including the recently-
discovered frost-resistant variety. The present area of wheat in
Canada is about 23,000,000 acres. Argentina is another country
with great possibilities in wheat production, and Australia has
many millions of acres awaiting development. Rapid as has been
the expansion of wheat cultivation in Australia, from 3,500,000
acres in 1895 to 11,500,000 acres in 1926, only a small portion
of the available area has yet been brought into service. It is
estimated that the area of land in Australia with climate and soil
suitable for wheat growing is not less than 150,000,000 acres.
While the above figures do not cast the possibility of land
shortage into the remote future, they do indicate that there is
little likelihood of such a cause affecting the acreage of wheat
grown in Britain for many years. Without the addition of new
areas and without the full exploitation of intensive production on
existing wheat lands, a considerable surplus of wheat is already
produced in the chief exporting countries that never leaves the
country in which it has been grown. In the years 1926-27, ac-
cording to the statistics of the International Institute, about
3,300,000 tons available for export were not actually sold for
that purpose. On the other hand, it must toe recognised that the
appearance of over production (circa 1928) is due in part to the
fact that large sections of people are not able to exercise their
pre-war demand for food, but owing to poverty are living at a
lower level of consumption.
The British Wheat Position. — Although the larger propor-
tion of the wheat consumed in Great Britain is imported, the
quantity of home-produced wheat is fairly considerable. It is
officially estimated that 75% of the total home crop is marketed,
so that British farmers sell 1,000,000 to 1,100,000 tons of wheat
per annum, to the value of about £12,500,000. Marketings are
much the heaviest in the autumn and winter, so that as a rule
three-fourths of the total sales take place in the six months Sep-
tember to February, and there is very little British wheat on the
market in the summer. Farmers offer their grain at the local
markets throughout the country, the sales being by private treaty
to millers and corn merchants. Formerly the grain was taken to
the markets in bulk, but. nowadays the usual practice is to show
samples only. Of the wheat purchased from farmers by corn
merchants the bulk is ultimately made into flour, but there is a
growing demand for British wheat for feeding to poultry, and
individual farmers find this a useful market. With the increasing
efficiency of the large mills, the smaller country mills become
steadily fewer, so that an increasing proportion of home-grown
wheat passes through the hands of merchants on its way to the
larger mills.
About half the wheat produced in Great Britain is grown in the
eastern counties, and it is in these counties that the most impor-
tant markets for this grain are to be found. In 1926 over 23,000
tons of British wheat were sold on the Norwich market, and
nearly as much in Lincoln, while about 37,000 tons were sold
at Hull. From 10,000 to 15,000 tons were sold at each of the
following towns in the eastern counties: Cambridge, Chelmsford,
Colchester, Boston, Spalding, Peterborough and Ipswich. Sales
in London totalled 24,000 tons, and in Bristol and Manchester
rather over 20,000 tons. Leeds and Salisbury were the only other
towns in the country at which as much as 10,000 tons of British
wheat were sold.
The quantity of wheat imported is approximately 5,000,000
tons per annum, to the value of about -£60,000,000 sterling. The
imports in the five years 1922-26 were practically the same in
quantity as in the ten years before the World War, when their
value averaged £40,000,000 sterling per annum. Forty years
earlier, in the 'sixties of the i9th century, imports of wheat were
only about 1,500,000 tons, so that they were increased more than
threefold during that period.
Of the total imports of wheat into Britain about one-half comes
from Empire countries, Canada being now the chief source of
supply within the empire, More wheat is received from the
United States than any other non-British country, so that North
America supplies 60% of the total imports. In the five years
1922-26 imports from Empire countries averaged 2,481,000
tons per annum, Canada furnishing over 60% of this quantity,
Australia about 23% and India about 13%. In the same period
imports from other countries averaged 2,593,000 tons, of which
the United States supplied 60% and Argentina 34%, with Ger-
UNITED STATES]
WHEAT
563
many and Russia the next most important suppliers. These last
two countries sent rather over 100,000 tons each in 1926.
Since immediately before the World War there has not been
any very appreciable change in the proportion of the total
British imports obtained from the Empire and Other coun-
tries, respectively, but there have been appreciable changes in the
proportions obtained from individual countries. In the five years
1909-13 the average annual imports from India were larger than
from any other country, but in 1922-26 India took only the fifth
place, supplies from that country having declined by two-thirds.
Supplies from both Canada and the United States, on the other
hand, have increased by about two-thirds, while Russia, which in
1909-13 supplied about 15% of the total imports, in 1922-26
furnished less than i%.
The average annual British imports of wheat have been as
follows : —
Countries from which consigned <
1900-13
1922-26
Argentina
Chile
Germany
Russia
United States
Tons
835,000
38,000
t3,°oo
789,000
934,000
Tons
877,000
29,000
44,000
44,000
1,567,000
Total non-British countries*
2,678,000
2,593,000
Australia
Canada
India
588,000
908,000
969,000
574,000
i,555.ooo
328,000
Total British countries*
2,488,000
2,481,000
Total
5,166,000*
5,074,000*
^Includes imports from countries not named.
The trade in wheat is worldwide, prices in practically all coun-
tries being affected as much by the total world supplies as by the
yields of local crops. In the latter half of the year the trade is
chiefly influenced by the yields or prospective yields in Europe
and North America, whereas in the early months of the year the
crops of Argentina and Australia have an important effect on the
trade. It is to be remembered that the trade is worldwide; that
in every month of the year wheat is being harvested in some part
of the globe; and that in very many countries wheat is sown in
the autumn, so that the crop is subject to the good and bad in-
fluences of weather for long periods. For these reasons prices
fluctuate daily according to the reports received on the markets
regarding the changing prospects of the yields and the actual re-
sults of the harvests in different countries. Important changes in
price levels, however, most often take place in the British sum-
mer and early autumn, when the crops of the northern hemisphere,
which produces much the larger proportion of the world's yield,
are being harvested. (H. C. L.; J. R. B.)
WHEAT PRODUCTION IN AMERICA
Wheat was introduced to the infant English colonies in Vir-
ginia and Massachusetts soon after their settlement in 1607 and
1620, respectively. It had been introduced to Mexico by the Span-
ish, however, probably as early as 1530. Strangely enough, how-
ever, it was not wheat but maize, or Indian corn, that became the
staple meal of these English colonists in America, and more than
once saved them from starvation.
There were good reasons for the superiority of corn over wheat
on the Atlantic coast. The soil and climate were better suited to
it. Maize was much easier to plant, cultivate, and harvest in the
rough clearings, among stumps and stones. Maize was more easily
ground and cooked with primitive kitchen utensils.
Wheat production developed commercially with the westward
progress of settlement to better wheat soils and climates, with
the increasing of towns and cities, and with improved facilities
for handling the crop in field and mill. The first American wheat
belt stretched from Delaware and Maryland to central New York.
This district still grows much wheat. The States of the Ohio val-
ley were the next centre of commercial wheat production. They
are to-day a centre for the production of the soft red winter
wheats. The opening of canals in the Potomac valley and New
York enabled the movement of this wheat to the more populous
eastern seaboard, and the building of railroads greatly speeded and
extended the process.
The most rapid expansion of American wheat production took
place immediately after the Civil War, and occupied the period
from 1866 to about 1890. It was due to three principal factors.
First, the development of large-scale harvesting and threshing
machinery, which had been the goal of inventors for years prior
to the war. Secondly, the advance of settlement from the rolling
forested lands of the East to the relatively level open prairies and
plains of the great West, with their better wheat soils, and suit-
ability to machine operations. Thirdly, the release of a large body
of adventurous young spirits from the armies, with a desire for
the strenuous life of the new frontiers.
Wheat was the dominant crop in this new inland empire. Fa-
vourable soil and climate, level open fields, and large machinery
units made production profitable on low-priced land, much of it
homesteaded. Wheat was a concentrated crop, readily storable
under frontier conditions, and haulable by team for relatively long
distances in summer or winter. Being a staple food crop, it always
was readily saleable.
Distinct wheat-growing areas have developed, based on differ-
ences in the kinds of wheat grown, or in the methods of growing
them. Most of the country grows winter wheat, but two classes of
spring wheat are grown near the northern boundary. The five
great commercial classes of wheat in America are: (i) Soft red
winter, (2) hard red winter, (3) hard red spring (common), (4)
durum (hard amber spring), and (5) white wheat, which con-
sists of both winter and spring wheats, both club and common, but
all having white kernels.
The soft red winter wheats occupy the humid eastern United
States from the Atlantic Ocean westward to about the line of 30-
inch rainfall, which runs from eastern Texas to north-western
Iowa, and thence eastward to the Great Lakes. They are used
primarily for making pastry flours, and for blending with the
stronger hard wheats in the manufacture of bread flour.
The hard red winter wheats occupy the southern two-thirds of
the Great Plains area, and also eastern Montana and some dry-
land areas in Idaho and Oregon. These wheats are used directly
for making bread flour for domestic use and for export as wheat
or flour, or for blending with soft wheats for both domestic and
export purposes.
The hard red spring wheats predominate in Minnesota, the
Dakotas, eastern Montana, and far northward into Canada, where
an isolated production district is found in the Peace River Valley
at about latitude 56° N. They are used for blending with the soft
wheats in the making of bread flours and command premium prices
when of high quality.
The durum wheats are found in western Minnesota and the
adjacent eastern portions of the Dakotas. These extra hard
wheats are grown primarily for the making of semolina; a fine
meal from which are manufactured the various edible pastes such
as macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and noodles. Some is milled
and manufactured in America and some is exported.
The white wheats occupy a small district in New York and
adjacent Ontario, and larger districts in the Pacific Northwest and
in California. They are used for making pastry flours and for
blending with harder wheats in the making of bread flours. Large
quantities are exported.
The wheat-growing areas of the United States may be divided
climatologicaliy into humid (more -than 30 inches of precipita-
tion), semi-arid (15-30 inches), and arid (less than 15 inches). In
the humid areas, soft red winter wheat is grown in a rotation with
corn and hay or pasture. In the semi-arid Great Plains area, the
hard red winter wheat and the hard red and durum spring wheats
are grown in rotation to some extent with corn or sorghums, and
to a small extent with legumes, such as alfalfa, sweet clover, and
red clover. In the arid region west of the Rocky Mountains the
precipitation of two years is necessary to produce one crop of
wheat. The land is bare-fallowed in the alternate season to con-
564
WHEAT
[UNITED STATES
serve moisture for the succeeding crop. Very little rotation of
crops can be practiced.
In general, wheat is a cool-weather plant. About two-thirds of
the American wheat crop is of winter varieties, germinating and
making vigorous root growth with diminishing temperatures in the
fall, and vigorous shoot growth with the slowly increasing tem-
peratures in the spring and early summer. Spring wheats must be
sown as early as possible, just as soon as the frost is out and
the land can be worked, so that their early growth may be in cool
weather. Ripening occurs in warm to hot weather.
The northern limit of successful production of winter wheat has
been moving steadily northward during the last fifty years. North
Dakota is now the only one of the wheat-growing States of the
northern boundary which does not produce winter wheat. The
production of hard red winter wheat extends across the Ca-
nadian boundary from Montana into southern Alberta. The north-
ern limit of spring wheat production also is moving north with the
development of earlier varieties and better methods.
Wheat grows best on relatively heavy soils, such as clays, clay-
loams, and loams, but does not do well on sandy loams, and
sands, to which rye is much better adapted. In general, the higher
the fertility of the soil the better the wheat yields.
The wheat crop is subject to many hazards during its growth
and harvesting. Some are climatic; others are biologic. The chief
climatic hazard is winterkilling, due to one or more of several
causes, including fall drought, winter drought, alternate freezing
and thawing, soil blowing, low temperatures without snow cover,
and smothering by ice. Other causes of climatic injury are
spring or summer drought, hot winds, hail storms and wind storms.
Among the chief biologic factors arc rodents, insects and fungous
diseases. Rodents usually are not very destructive to wheat,
although squirrels, rabbits and prairie dogs take their annual toll.
Insects often cause heavy losses. The most destructive are Hes-
sian fly, joint worms, aphids ("green bugs"), grasshoppers, white
grubs and wire worms. Fungous diseases, individually and collec-
tively, may be tremendously destructive to the wheat crop. The
heaviest losses are caused by two stinking smuts, loose smut,
stem rust, leaf rust, seedling blights, scab and foot-rots.
Average yields of all wheat in the United States vary around
14-5 bushels per acre. This often is cited against America because
yields in England and Germany are rather more than double this
quantity. There is no fair comparison. England and Germany
are both wholly in the cool humid climate so favorable to wheat.
The United States, with its enormous area, covers much territory
which is relatively hot and dry, and where yields naturally are low.
American farmers, using large-scale machinery and much land,
produce enormously more wheat per man than the farmers of
Europe, where land is scarce, wages are lower, and much hand
labour is used.
Consumption of wheat per capita increased in America until
about the end of the last century. This was due to increasing
prosperity, abundance of cheap wheat, improved milling and bak-
ing, and increasing population in cities where bread was largely
used in a somewhat restricted dietary. More recently per capita
consumption seems to be decreasing. Among the causes are (a)
increasing buying power of the workers in industry, (b) broaden-
ing dietary due to greater production of truck crops around cities,
refrigerator transportation, cold storage, and household refrigera-
tion, (c) campaigns against white bread (probably a temporary
influence), and (d) relatively higher price of wheat. While the
influence of these different factors may vary in the future, it is
doubtful if the per capita consumption ever will rise to its former
level. On the other hand, many peoples in other lands, now sub-
sisting chiefly on millets, grain sorghums, and rice, may eat more
wheat when it is economically possible. (C. R. BL.)
Wheat Trade of the United States.—About two-thirds of the
wheat crop of the United States enters into domestic trade and
a little more than one-fifth of the crop is exported. In the past
five seasons (1923-27) production has averaged a little more than
810,000,000 bushels. The total supply has been utilized about as
follows: seed, 85,000,000 bushels; feed, 60,000,000; flour for
domestic use, 485,000,000 bushels and wheat, including flour for
export. 180,000,000. A large part of the wheat used in making
flour for domestic use and small quantities of the grain used for
feed and seed enter into trade. Between 1923 and 1927 about
560,000,000 bu. were shipped annually from wheat-growing
districts of the United States.
Most of the wheat entering into trade is produced west of the
Mississippi river. The Great Plains States from Texas north and
Oregon, Washington and Idaho produce large quantities of wheat
in excess of local requirements. Most of the surplus of the north-
ern Great Plains moves to Minneapolis, a large milling centre, or
to Duluth for shipment to eastern mills or to the Atlantic Coast
ports for export. Much of the grain from the central Great Plains
moves through Chicago, St. Louis and Milwaukee for eastern mill-
ing centres and for export, and from the central and southern
Great Plains to Kansas City or smaller primary markets for mill-
ing, or to New Orleans and Galvoston for export. The most im-
portant primary market or concentration point on the Pacific
Coast is Portland.
The diversity of the wheat of the United States is an important
factor in its marketing. Each of the five leading commercial
classes of wheat is produced within a reasonably well defined
region from which it is regularly marketed. Most of the
hard red spring is produced in the northern States, Minnesota,
North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana. Most of the durum
is produced in North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana. The
hard red winter wheat is the product of the southern and central
Great Plains, whereas the soft red winter wheat is the .product of
the more humid southern and eastern parts of the United States.
There are two chief centres of white wheat production, the
eastern lake states, the Pacific Coast states and Idaho. A very
large part of the hard red spring wheat is marketed through
Minneapolis or Duluth and practically all of it is annually con-
sumed within the United States. A large proportion of the durum
is marketed through Minneapolis and Duluth and a large, part of
the durum marketed is for export, mostly through Duluth. The
most important hard red winter wheat market is Kansas City but
large quantities of this wheat also move through Chicago, St
Louis, New Orleans and Galveston. There is nearly always a sur-
plus of this wheat for export. A large proportion of the soft red
winter wheat is consumed within or near the areas of production.
St. Louis is the most important primary market for this kind of
wheat. Considerable quantities are distributed through eastern
markets and small quantities are exported. On the average, how-
ever, there is very little soft red winter wheat available for export.
Small quantities are normally produced for export from the Pacific
Coast states. Most of the white wheat produced in the eastern
states is used locally while considerable quantities of western
white wheats are exported. In years of normal production in all
classes considerable quantities of hard red winter, durum and
white wheats are exported, but only small amounts of soft red
winter and hard red spring wheats.
Wheat: Exports jrom the United States, by classes, 1922-27
Year
Hard
red
spring
Durum
Hard
red
winter
Soft
red
winter
White
Total*
IQ22 .
IQ2J
IQ24 .
1925
1926 .
I927t.
1,000
bushels
17,046
3,i52
37,143
3,159
1,562
6,806
1,000
bushels
41,837
16,546
31.278
30>33i
21,875
21,780
1,000
bushels
58,891
26,002
107,520
10,742
75,000
"3>9 70
1,000
bushels
23,243
J3>395
7,820
2,528
31,250
13,6*3
1,000
bushels
13,045
19,698
11,729
16,429
26,563
29,948
1,000
bushels
i54,95i
78,793
195,400
63,189
i 5", 250
136,126
United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural
Economics, Foreign News on Wheat, F. S.-WH-i8, June 14, 1928.
Totals reported by the Department of Commerce. Distribution by
ses made on basis of inspections for export and Canadian inspection
clasi
of United States wheat.
fTen months.
Small quantities of wheat are annually imported from Canada,
most of it to be mixed with United States domestic wheat to
produce flour for foreign markets. This wheat is imported and
WHEATEAR— WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE
565
ground in bond. In years when the hard red spring wheat crop
of the United States is very short small quantities may be im-
ported, duty paid, for domestic consumption.
Futures exchanges are important in the marketing of the wheat
crop, much of the future trading being negotiated at Chicago and
some at Minneapolis and Kansas City. The United States has ex-
ported a surplus of wheat in every year of its history except
1836. The first great stimulus to
exports was the repeal of the
British Corn laws which went into
effect in 1850, but the greatest
expansion came after the Civil
War, from i860 to 1880. Exports
reached a high point in the World
War period and then declined,
but continued in large volume. A
large proportion of the exports
of both wheat and flour are for
northern Europe, with the United
Kingdom the most important
buyer. Central and South Ameri-
ca furnish a stable market and
shipments to the Orient are in-
creasing. (0. C. S.)
WHEATEAR, Oenanthe
acnanthe, one of the earliest
spring migrants, often reaching
England by the end of February.
The cock bird, with his bluish-
grey back and light buff breast,
set off by black ear-coverts,
wings, and part of the tail, is
rendered conspicuous in flight by
his white rump. When alarmed
both sexes have a sharp mono'
syllabic note that sounds like
chat.
676.429.000 BU.
$957.907.000
CHART SHOWING HOW THE VALUE
! OF THE WHEAT CROP IN THE UNITED
The nest is placed under- STATES CHANGES ACCORDING TO
ground; a large amount of soft THE SUPPLY
material is collected, and on it from five to eight pale blue eggs are
laid. Wheatears were formerly trapped for the table in enormous
numbers on the Downs. The wheatear ranges throughout the Old
World, extending in summer far within the Arctic circle, from Nor-
way to the Lena and Yana valleys, while it winters in Africa be-
yond the equator and in India. It also breeds in Greenland and
some parts of North America. About eight species arc included in
the European fauna; but the majority are inhabitants of Africa.
Several of these are birds of the desert.
Amongst allied genera is Saxicota which includes two well-
known British birds, the stonechat (q.v.) and whinchat (q.v.).
The wheatear and its allies belong to the family Tnrdidact the
thrushes (q.v.).
WHEATLEY, JOHN (1869- ). British statesman, was
born on May 18, 1869. Educated in village schools in Lanark-
shire, he worked in the coal mines till 1891. After serving two
years on the Lanarkshire county council, he was elected to the
Glasgow city council in 1912, becoming a baillie, and acting as
leader of the Labour group. He was also chairman of the Scottish
National Housing Council. In 1922 he was elected M.P. for
the Shettleston division of Glasgow. A member of the Inde-
pendent Labour party from 1908, he was on its administrative
council in 1923 and 1924. As minister of health in the Labour
Government he was responsible for the Housing Act of 1924,
which provided - for a continuous building programme over a
period of 15 years, designed to secure the erection of 2,500,000
houses to be let at rents within the means of the working class
population.
WHEATON, HENRY (1785-1848), American lawyer and
diplomat, was born at Providence, R.I., on Nov. 27, 1785. He.
graduated at Brown University in 1802, was admitted to the
bar in 1805, and, after two years' study abroad, practised law at
Providence (1807-12), and at New York city (1812-27). He was
a justice of the marine court of the city of New York from 1815
to 1819, and reporter of the United States supreme court from
1816 to 1827. In 1825 he was a reviser of the laws of New York.
His diplomatic career began in 1827, with an appointment to
Denmark as charge d'affaires, followed by that of minister to
Prussia, 1837 to 1846. During this period he had published a
Digest of the Law of Maritime Captures (1815); twelve volumes
of Supreme Court Reports, and a Digest; a great number of his-
torical articles, and some collected works; Elements of Interna-
tional Law (1836), his most important work, of which a 6th
edition with memoir was prepared by W. B. Lawrence and an
eighth by R. H. Dana (q.v.)\ Histoire du Progres du Droit des
Gens en Europe, written in 1838 for a prize offered by the French
Academy of Moral and Political Science, and translated in 1845
by William B. Lawrence as A History of the Law of Nations in
Europe and America; and the Right of Visitation and Search
(1842). The History took rank at once as one of the leading
works on the subject of which it treats.
Wheaton's general theory is that international law consists of
"those rules of conduct which reason deduces, as consonant to
justice, from the nature of the society existing among independent
nations, with such definitions and modifications as may be estab-
lished by general consent." He died at Dorchester, Mass., on
March n, 1848.
WHEATON, a city of Illinois, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 4,137
(88% native white); estimated locally at 8,000 in 1928. The city
was founded in 1837, and incorporated in 1859.
WHEATSTONE, SIR CHARLES (1802-1875), English
physicist and the practical founder of modern telegraphy, was
born at Gloucester in Feb. 1802. Whcatstone was educated at
several private schools, lie became a musical instrument maker
and carried out a number of experiments in acoustics. Wheat-
stone was so excessively shy that he was unable to lecture in
public and many of his inventions were first described by Faraday
in his Friday evening discourses at the Royal Institution. By
1834 his originality and resource in experiment were fully recog-
nized, and he was appointed professor of experimental philosophy
at King's College, London, in that year. About this time Wheat-
stone made his determination, by means of a revolving mirror,
of the speed of electric discharge in conductors, a piece of work
leading to enormously important results. The great velocity of
electrical transmission suggested the possibility of utilizing it for
sending messages; and, after many experiments and the practical
advice and business-like co-operation of William Fothergill Cooke
(1806-1879), a patent for an electric telegraph was taken out in
their joint names in 1837.
Whcatstonc's best work was in the invention of complicated
and delicate instruments. He was interested in cryptography; he
deciphered a number of the mss. in the British Museum, and
invented a cryptographic machine. He wrote papers on the trans-
mission of sound in solids, the explanation of Chladni's figures
and the invention of new musical instruments, e.g., the con-
certina (q.v.). He invented the kaleidophone which presented
visible the movements of a sounding body and the stereoscope.
He also wrote papers on the eye, the physiology of vision, binocu-
lar vision and colour. W'heatstone snowed that the electrical
sparks from different metals give different spectra. His most
important inventions are in electricity; he played a prominent part
in the development of telegraphy on landwires and carried out
the first experiments with submarine cables. He devised the
"A. B.C." telegraph instrument, an automatic transmitter, and
various forms of electrical recording apparatus.
Wheatstonc became F.R.S. in 1837; and sin 1868, after the
completion of his masterpiece, the automatic telegraph, he was
knighted. He died on Oct. 19, 1875.
Wheatstone's Scientific Papers were collected and published by the
Physical Society of London in 1879. Biographical notices of him will
be found in the Proc. Inst. C.JE., xlvii. 283, and Proc. Roy. Soc., xxiv.,
xvi. For his connection with the growth of telegraphy, see Nature, xi.
510, and xii 30 seq.
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE, a network of six conduc-
tors of which four, AB, BC, CD and DA form a closed circuit
566
WHEEL— WHEELOCK
while the others, AC and BD, contain a battery and a galva-
nometer respectively. When the resistances of the first four are
so adjusted that no current from the battery in AC flows through
the conductor BD containing the galvanometer it follows that
the resistance of AB : that of BC : : the resistance of AD : that
of DC. Hence the resistance of DC is determined if the ratio
of the first pair (the "ratio arms") is known together with the
exact magnitude of the third (AD). This is the principle of the
Post Office Box, the Metre Bridge, the Carey Foster Bridge, the
Callcndar-Griffiths Bridge, and of many other devices for the
comparison of resistances, inductances, and capacitances. The
arrangement was devised by S. H. Christie in 1833, and used by
Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1847 (Scientific Papers, p. 129, or Phil.
Trans. 1847). (See INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL.)
WHJEEL, a circular frame or solid disc revolving on an axis,
of which the function is to transmit or to modify motion. See
MECHANICS. Vehicular wheels in the earliest times were circular
discs, cither cut out of solid pieces of wood or formed of sep-
arate planks of wood fastened together and then cut into a cir-
cular shape. Such may be still seen in use among primitive peoples
to-day. The ordinary wheel consists of the nave (0. Eng. naju;
cj. GtT. Nabe, allied with "navel"), the central portion or hub,
through which the axle passes, the spokes, the radial bars inserted
in the nave and reaching to the peripheral rim, the felloe or felly.
(O. Eng. felgc, Ger. Felge, properly that which fitted together,
Teut. felhan, to fit together.)
See also CARRIAGE; CHARIOT; HORSE-DRAWN VEHICLES; MOTOR-
CAR; MOTOR-CYCLE; BICYCLE.
WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE, a form of torture (q.v.)
or of execution formerly in use in France and Germany, where the
victim was placed on a cart-wheel and his limbs stretched out
along the spokes. The wheel was made to revolve slowly, and the
man's bones broken with blows of an iron bar. Sometimes it was
mercifully ordered that the executioner should strike the crim-
inal on chest or stomach, blows known as coups de grace, which
at once ended the torture, and in France he was usually strangled
after the second or third blow. A wheel was not always used. In
some countries it was upon a frame shaped like St. Andrew's
cross that the sufferer was stretched. The punishment was abol-
ished in France at the Revolution. It was employed in Germany
as late as 1827. A murderer was broken on the row or wheel at
Edinburgh in 1604, and two of the assassins of the regent Len-
nox thus suffered death.
WHEELER, JOSEPH (1836-1906), American soldier, was
born at Augusta, Ga., in 1836, and entered the U.S. cavalry from
West Point in 1859. He resigned to enter the Confederate
service. In a short time he became colonel of infantry and took
part in the desultory operations of 1861 in Kentucky and
Tennessee. He commanded a brigade at the battle of Shiloh, but
soon afterwards he returned to the cavalry arm, in which he won
a reputation second only to Stuart's. After the action of Perry-
villc he was promoted brigadier general, and in 1863 major general.
Thenceforward throughout the campaigns of Chickamauga, Chat-
tanooga and Atlanta he commanded the cavalry of the Con-
federate army in the west, and when Hood embarked upon the
Tennessee expedition, he left Wheeler's cavalry to harass Sher-
man's army during the "March to the Sea." In the closing
operations of the war, with the rank of lieutenant general, he com-
manded the cavalry of Joseph Johnston's weak anny in North
Carolina, and was included in its surrender.
At the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, in 1898, Presi-
dent McKinley commissioned Wheeler as major general of United
States volunteers. He commanded the cavalry in the actions of
Guasimas and San Juan, was afterwards sent to the Philippines
in command of a brigade, and in 1900 was commissioned a
brigadier general in the regular army. He died on Jan. 25, 1006.
He wrote The Santiago Campaign (1898).
See John Witherspoon Du Bose, General Joseph Wheeler and the
Army of Tennessee (1912) ; W. C. Dodson, Campaigns of Wheeler and
his Cavalry (1890), from material furnished by Wheeler.
WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887), vice
president of the United States from 1877 to 1881, was born at
Malonc, N. Y., June 30, 1819. He studied at the University of
Vermont for two years and in 1845 was admitted to the bar.
First as a Whig, and then, after 1856, as a Republican, he was
prominent for many years in State and national politics. He was
a member of the State assembly in 1849-50, a member and presi-
dent pro tempore of the State Senate in 1858-59, and a member
of the national House of Representatives in 1861-63, and again
in 1869-1877. He was the author of the so-called "Wheeler Com-
promise," by which the difficulties between contending political
factions in Louisiana were adjusted in 1875. Nominated for vice
president by the Republicans in 1876 on the ticket with President
Hayes, he was installed in office through the decision of the
Electoral Commission. He died at Malone, June 4, 1887.
See biographical sketch in W. D. Howells, Sketch of R. B. Hayes
(1876).
WHEELER, WILLIAM MORTON (1865- ), Ameri-
can zoologist, was born at Milwaukee March 19, 1865. He gradu-
ated from the German-American Normal College in 1884; re-
ceived the Ph.D. degree, 1892, from Clark University; Sc.D. from
the University of Chicago, 1916. He was assistant professor of em-
bryology, University of Chicago, 1896-99; professor of zoology,
University of Texas, 1899-1903; curator of invertebrate zoology,
American Museum of Natural History, 1903-08. In 1908 he
was made professor of economic entomology and dean of Bussey,
and in 1926 professor of entomology, at Harvard. He is
a member of the National Academy of Sciences and is asso-
ciate editor of the Biological Bulletin, Journal of Morphology
and of the Journal of Animal Behaviour. His publications in-
clude: Ants, Their Structure, Development and Behaviour
(1910) ; Social Life Among the. Insects (1923) ; Foibles of Insects
and. Men (1928), and monographs on numerous species of ants.
He also translated and annotated The Natural History of
Ants, from the French of Rene Antoine F. de Reaumur (1926).
WHEELING, a city of West Virginia, U.S.A. Pop. 56,208
in 1920, 87% native white; estimated locally at over 70,000 in
1928. The city's area of u-8 sq.m. comprises a narrow strip of
bottomland (640 ft. above sea-level), hills rising behind it on
the east and an island over a mile long. Bridges connect with
Bellaire, Bridgeport and Martins Ferry, Ohio. In addition to
several parks and 20 playgrounds within its limits, the city has
a country recreation centre of 750 ac., bequeathed by E. W. Ogle-
bay. There is a municipal market, combined with a large audi-
torium. The city operates under a council-manager.
Wheeling is surrounded by vast coal-fields, and is plentifully
supplied with natural gas and steam-generated electric power.
It has over 200 diversified manufacturing plants, with an output
in 1927 of $85,000,000 including iron, steel, tin plate, proprietary
medicines, hand-rolled stogies, china and porcelain, nails, glass and
paper. Bank debits in 1926 aggregated $567,631,000. The assessed
valuation for 1927 was $121,540,963.
Wheeling was founded in 1769 by Col. Ebenezer Zane (1747-
1811) of Virginia, and two brothers. In 1774 a strong stockade
was built at the top of Main street hill, and named Ft. Fincastle
in honour of the then governor of Virginia, but after 1776 called
Ft. Henry, after Patrick Henry. Attacks from hostile Indians were
frequent. During one of them (Sept. r, 1777) when the ammu-
nition in the fort failed, Elizabeth Zanc, an 18 year old sister of
the founder, faced the fire of the enemy to bring a keg of powder
from a cabin 60 yd. away. In Sept. 1/82, the fort was success-
fully defended by 42 inhabitants against a detachment of British
soldiers and 250 Indians. The town was laid out by Col, Zane
in 1793, incorporated in 1806 and chartered as a city in 1836.
The national road was completed to this point in 1818, and for
some years Wheeling was its western terminus as later it was
for some years of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad. Wheeling was
the headquarters of the Virginians opposed to secession, was the
capital of the new State until 1869 and again from 1875 to 1885.
The old capitol is now the city hall.
WHEELOCK, ELEAZER (1711-77), American educator,
born at Windham, Conn,, April 22, 1711. He graduated at Yale
in 1733, studied theology, and in 1735 became a Congregationalist
preacher at Lebanon, Conn. He also took young men into his
WHELK— WHIG
567
house to fit them for college. One of these was a Mohegan Indian,
Samson OcCum, who made such excellent progress, that Wheelock
decided to found a free school where both whites and Indians
could be educated. With aid from various sources he conducted
such a school at Lebanon from 1754-67, but without a large
attendance. Desiring a more favourable location, Eleazer ac-
cepted the offer of Gov. Wentworth of New Hampshire of a
township of land on the Connecticut river. Thither he went with
some 30 students in 1770, and with other settlers, they founded
the town of Hanover. In recognition of the patronage of Lord
Dartmouth the new college was named Dartmouth College. He
died at Hanover, April 24, 1777.
His son, John Wheelock (1754-1817), succeeded him as presi-
dent of Dartmouth.
WHELK, the name given to a large number of marine gas-
tropod molluscs (see GASTROPODA, MOLLUSCA) with solid spiral
shells, and in particular to the members of the genus Buccinum
in which the common whelk (Buccinum undatum) is placed.
Pusus antiquus, the "hard whelk" of British fishermen, is another
common form of whelk. The rock whelks (Murex) and dog-
whelks (Purpura) are allied forms. All these molluscs are placed
in the sub-order Rachiglossa of the streptoneurous Gastropoda
and are distinguished by their carnivorous and aggressive habits
and the modification of their mouth-parts as an eversible pro-
boscis. The radula (rasping tongue) is simple as compared with
that of the plant-eating gastropods, and consists usually of three
large teeth suited for tearing animal tissues. The nervous system
is condensed by the approximation of the constituent ganglia and
the shortening of the commissures. The eggs are deposited in
horny capsules which are usually aggregated in clusters.
The common whelk has a wide distribution in the North At-
lantic and ranges from the eastern seaboard of North America
to the coast of Siberia. On the east side of the Atlantic the
southern limit of its distribution seems to be the south end of the
Bay of Biscay. It is found at all depths from low water mark
down to about 100 fathoms and on many kinds of bottom. Cer-
tain varietal forms are said to occur at greater depths. It is a
carnivore, eating both living animals and carrion, especially other
molluscs, e.g., clams and scallops. Indeed Petersen considers that
in. Danish waters the whelks prey on the plaice when caught
in nets. Danish fishermen have estimated that one-third of the
year's catch is lost in this way. In the British Isles the whelk is
caught by the use of wicker crab-pots baited with living crabs, by
dredging and by "trotting" (line-fishing with crabs tied together
as bait).
See W. J. Dakin, "Buccinum," Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biological
Society (1912). (G. C. R.)
WHETSTONE, GEORGE (iS44?-is87?), English drama-
tist and author, was the third son of Robert Whetstone (d. 1557).
In 1572 he joined an English regiment on active service in the
Low Countries, where he met George Gascoigne and Thomas
Churchyard. Gascoigne was his guest near Stamford when he
died in is 77, and Whetstone commemorated his friend in a long
elegy. He wrote: Rocke of Regarde. (1576), tales in prose and
verse adapted from the Italian; The right excellent and famous
History e of Promos and Cassandra (1578), a play in two parts,
drawn from the 8$th novel of Giraldi Cinthio's Hecatomithi;
Heptameron of Civill Discourses (1582, reprint in Hazlitt's
Shakespeare's Library, vol. iii. 1875), a collection of tales which
includes The Rare Historic of Promos and Cassandra. From this
prose version apparently Shakespeare drew the plot of Measure
for Measure, though he was doubtless familiar with the story in
its earlier dramatic form. Whetstone accompanied Sir Humphrey
Gilbert on his expedition in 1578-79, and the next year found
him in Italy. The Puritan spirit was now abroad in England, and
Whetstone followed its dictates in his prose tract A Mirour for
Magestrates (1584), which in a second edition was called A
Touchstone for the Time. In 1585 he returned to the army in
Holland, and he was present at the battle of Zutphen.
His other works are a collection of military anecdotes entitled The
Honourable Reputation of a Souldier (1585) ; a political tract, the
English Myrror (1586), numerous elegies on distinguished persons,
and The Censure of a Lay all Subject (1587). See the edition of
Promos and Cassandra by J. S. Farmer, 1910, in Tudor Facsimile
Texts.
WHEWELL, WILLIAM (1794-1866), British philosopher
and Master of Trinity, historian of science, was born on May 24,
1794, at Lancaster. He was an exhibitioner of Trinity college,
Cambridge, second wrangler in 1816, became fellow and tutor of
his college, and, in 1841, succeeded Dr. Wordsworth as master. He
was professor of mineralogy from 1828 to 1832, and of moral
philosophy (then called "moral theology and casuistical divinity")
from 1838 to 1855. He died on March 6, 1866.
Whewell was a famous Cambridge figure of his day, and there
are many amusing stories about him. His first work, An Ele-
mentary Treatise on Mechanics (1819), co-operated with those
of Peacock and Hcrschel in reforming the Cambridge method of
mathematical teaching; to him in large measure was due the
recognition of the moral and natural sciences as an integral part
of the Cambridge curriculum (1850). In general, however,
especially in later years, he opposed reform: he defended the
tutorial system, and in a controversy with Thirlwall (1834)
opposed the admission of Dissenters; he upheld the clerical
fellowship system, the privileged class of "fellow-commoners," and
the authority of heads of colleges in university affairs. He opposed
the appointment of the University Commission (1850), and wrote
two pamphlets (Remarks) against the reform of the university
(1855). He advocated as the true reform, against the scheme of
entrusting elections to the members of the senate, the use of col-
lege funds and the subvention of scientific and professorial work.
His philosophical reputation rests mainly on his History of the
Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time (1837),
which was intended as an introduction to the Philosophy of the
Inductive Sciences (1840).
Whewell's other works include Elements of Morality, including Polity
(1845); the essay, Of the Plurality of Worlds (1854), in which he
argued against the probability of planetary life; the Platonic Dialogues
for English Readers (1859-61) ; Lectures on the History of Moral
Philosophy in England (1852) ; an edition and abridged translation of
Grotius, De iure belli el pads (1853), and an edition of the Mathe-
matical Works of Isaac Barrow (1860).
Full bibliographical details arc given by Isaac Todhunter, W.
Whewell: an Account of his Writings (2 vols., 1876).
WHICHCOTE (or WIIITCHCOTK), BENJAMIN (1609-
1683), English divine and philosopher, was born at Whichcote
hall, Stoke, Shropshire, and educated at Emmanuel college, Cam-
bridge, where he became fellow in 1633. In 1644 he became
provost of King's college, Cambridge, in place of Samuel Collins
who was ejected. In 1650 he was vice-chancellor of Cambridge
university. Cromwell in 1655 consulted him over extending toler-
ance to the Jews. His Puritan views lost him the provostship
of King's college at the Restoration of 1660, but on complying
with the Act of Uniformity he received the living of St. Anne's,
Blackfriars, London and in 1668, of St. Lawrence Jewry, London.
He is regarded as the founder of the school of Cambridge Plato-
nists. He died in May 1683.
See John Tulloch, Rational Theology, ii. 50-84 (1874) ; and Masters
in English Theology, edited by A. Barry (1877).
WHICKHAM, urban district in Durham, England. Pop.
(1921) 19,155. The church of St. Mary has Norman and Transi-
tional portions, and in the neighbourhood is the mansion of
Gibside (i;th century).
WHIG and TORY, the names used to denote two opposing
political parties in England, were nicknames introduced in 1679
during the heated struggle over the bill to exclude James, duke
of York, from the succession to the Crown. The lerm "Whig"—
whatever be its origin in Scots Gaelic — was used of cattle and
horse thieves and was thence transferred to Scottish Presbyterians.
Its connotations in the iyth century were therefore Presby-
terianism and rebellion; and it w^as applied to those who claimed
the power of excluding the heir from the throne when they
deemed it desirable. "Tory" was an Irish term suggesting a Papist
outlaw and was applied to those who supported the hereditary
right of James in spite of his Roman Catholic faith. The names
were party badges until the iQth century. The Tories placed reli-
ance on the Crown ; the Whigs on the greater nobility. It may
568
WHIG PARTY
be fanciful to trace this cleavage as far back as Magna Carta ; but
at least it must be remembered that the later ideals of popular or
democratic government are entirely irrelevant to the creeds of
Whig and Tory. The revolution of 1688-89 changed the position,
forcing a majority of Tories to recognize allegiance to other
than hereditary right to the Crown; and for a time they were
thrown back on their opposition to religious toleration and to
foreign entanglements, the expression of two cardinal principles
of the older Toryism. Again in 1714 the failure of the Tory
ministers to act together and themselves to determine who should
succeed Anne, and the subsequent flight of their leader, Boling-
broke, discredited the Tories as Jacobites, and gave 50 years of
political power to the Whigs. During this period the Whig land-
owners, with no effective king to fear, secured their hold on
parliament by controlling a large proportion of the borough
representation; and the Tories came to advocate, not only an
effective balancing force in the Crown, but also the safeguard
of a wider franchise and a purified electoral system.
When George III. came to the throne in 1760 the name of Whig
covered many personal factions, for their long prosperity had
brought disunion; and the new king, attempting to restore the
monarchy to influence, could easily attach to himself some of these
groups. The following 25 years were complicated by the formid-
able body of "king's friends," who cannot properly be called by
either name. Even the American revolution cannot be considered
in terms of the two parties. The nation emerged from the mixing
bowl in 1784, with a new Toryism, led by the younger Pitt
and a new Whiggism, leavened by the industrial interests and
by the beginnings of a Radicalism which took up the demand
for electoral and philanthropic reform. In contrast to Whig
changes, the Tory party began to acquire the reputation of
resistance to change; but the Reform Bill of 1832 and the
willingness of Canning and Peel to face change, even through
party disunion, led to the transformation of Toryism into
the Conservatism of Disraeli, which while retaining its devotion
to the Crown and the Established Church, expanded its fervent
nationalism into a wider imperial outlook, a legacy from those
Chathamite Whigs who were rarely at ease within the ranks of
their nominal allies. Meanwhile, the commercial and radical wing
of the great Whig party, abandoned by its more conservative
members, became the main body of the Liberal Party, and
Whiggism ceased to have any important political meaning. (See
also CONSERVATIVE PARTY; LIBERAL PARTY.) (G. H. G.)
WHIG PARTY, a political party prominent in the United
States from about 1824 to 1854. The name had been in use
immediately before the Revolution and during that war to desig-
nate those who favoured the colonial cause and independence.
The first national party system of the United States came to an
end during the second war with Great Britain. The destruction
of the Federalist Party (q.v.) through a series of suicidal acts
which began with the alien and sedition laws of 1798, and closed
with the Hartford convention of 1814-15, left the Jeffcrsonian
Republican (Democratic) Party in undisputed control. Soon,
however, the all-inclusive Republican Party began gradually to
disintegrate and a new party system was evolved, each member
of which was the representative of such groups of ideas and
interests, class and local, as required the support of a separate
party. Each new party, disguised during the early stages of
organization as the personal following of a particular leader or
group of leaders, kept on calling itself Republican. Even during
the sharply contested election of 1824 the rival partisans were
known as Jackson, Crawford and Calhoun, or as Clay and Adams
Republicans (see DEMOCRATIC PARTY). It was not until late
in the Administration of John Quincy Adams (1825-29), that the
supporters of the President and Henry Clay, the secretary of
State, were first recognized as a distinct party and began to be
called by the accurately descriptive term National Republicans.
But after the party had become consolidated, in the passionate
campaign of 1828 and later, in opposing the measures of Presi-
dent Jackson, it adopted in 1834 the name Whig, which, through
memorable associations both British and American, served as a
protest against executive encroachments, and thus facilitated
| union with parties and factions, such as the Anti-Masonic Party
(q.v.). The new name announced not the birth but the maturity
of the party, as the inaugural address and the messages to Con-
gress of President J. Q. Adams had set forth clearly its national-
izing, broad-construction programme.
The ends for which the Whigs laboured were: first, to main-
tain the integrity of the Union; second, to make the Union
thoroughly national; third, to maintain the republican character
of the Union; fourth, while utilizing to the full the inheritance
from and through Europe, to develop a distinctly American type
of civilization; fifth, to propagate abroad by peaceful means
American ideas and institutions. Among the policies or means
which the Whigs used in order to realize their principles were the
broad construction of those provisions of the Federal Constitu-
tution which confer powers on the National Government; pro-
tective tariffs; comprehensive schemes of internal improvements
under the direction and at the cost of the National Government ;
support of the Bank of the'United States; resistance to many acts
of President Jackson as encroachments on the legislative branch
of the Government and therefore hostile to republicanism; coali-
tion with other parties in order to promote national as opposed to
partisan ends; resort to compromise in order to allay sectional
irritation and compose sectional differences; and the expression of
sympathy with the liberal movement in other lands.
The activity of the Whig Party together with the activities
of the disparate elements which preceded their formation into a
party, covered a period from the election of 1824 to the repeal
of the Missouri Compromise in 1854. In two respects, namely,
the rise of the new radical democracy under Andrew Jackson,
and the growth of sectionalism over the slavery issue, this period
was highly critical. In view of these events the most difficult task
of the Whigs, under the patriotic and conservative leadership of
Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, was to moderate and enlighten,
rather than antagonize, the new democracy and to attempt to
overcome the disrupting iniluence of the slavery issue.
The election of 1828 gave to Andrew Jackson the Presidency,
and to the people, in a higher degree than ever before, the control
of the Government. Opposition to Jackson's radical policy
brought about, under Whig leadership, a coalition of parties which
influenced deeply and permanently the character, policy and for-
tunes of the Whig Party. It became the champion of the bank,
of the right of Congress, and of the older and purer form of the
civil service. In strict accord with their own principles, however,
the Whigs supported the President during the nullification contro-
versy (sec NULLIFICATION). The majority of the Northern Whigs,
with the entire Southern membership of the party, disapproved
the propaganda of the Abolitionists on the ground of its tendency
to endanger the Union, and many from a like motive voted for
the "gag rules" of 1835-44 (see ADAMS, J. Q.), which in spirit, if
not in letter, violated the constitutional right of petition. In the
election of 1832 Clay was the nominee of the National Republican
Party for the Presidency. Gen. W. H. Harrison was nominated
by the anti-Jackson groups in 1836, and in 1840 purely on the
grounds of expediency he was the nominee of the Whig Party.
The election of Gen. Harrison in the ulog cabin and hard cider"
campaign of 1840 proved a fruitless victory; the early death of
the President and the anti-Whig politics of his successor, John
Tyler (q.v.), shattered their legislative programme.
In 1844 Clay was the Whig candidate, and the annexation of
Texas, involving the risk of a war with Mexico, was the leading
issue. The Whigs opposed annexation and the prospect of suc-
cess seemed bright, until an injudicious letter written by Clay
turned the anti-slavery clement against him and lost him the
Presidency. The triumph of Polk in 1844 was followed by the
annexation of Texas and by war with Mexico. The Whigs opposed
the war largely for political reasons, but on patriotic grounds
voted supplies for its prosecution. The vast territorial expansion,
at the cost of Mexico, brought to the front the question of
slavery in the new domain. The agitation that followed continued
through the presidential election of 1848 (in which the Whigs
elected Gen. Zachary Taylor), and did not subside until the
passage of the "Compromise Measures of 1850" (q.v.). To its
WHINCHAT— WHISKY
569
authors this compromise seemed essential to the preservation of
the Union ; but it led directly to the destruction of the Whig Party.
In the North, the fugitive slave law grew daily more odious,
but a committal of the party to the repeal of the law would have
driven the Southern Whigs into the camp of the Democrats. In
an endeavour to allay sectional strife, the national Whig conven-
tion of 1852, the last that represented the party in its entirety,
gave to the Northern Whigs the naming of the candidate — Gen.
Winfield Scott — and to the Southern the framing of the platform
with its "finality" plank which committed the party to an accept-
ance of the laws regulating slavery as final. Two years later the
repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the Kansas-Nebraska Act
demonstrated that "finality" could not be maintained, and that in
committing the Whig Party to the policy of its maintenance the
convention of 1852 had signed the death-War rant of the party.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— J. A. Woodburn, Political Parties and Party Prob-
lems in the United States (1903) ; Eber M. Carroll, Origins of the Whig
Party (1925) ; A. C. Cole, The Whig Party in the South (191.0. Much
valuable material can be obtained from the biographies, works, mem-
oirs, etc., of the public men of the period.
WHINCHAT (Saxicola rubetra), a bird allied to the wheatear
(q.v.) and stonechat (q.v.). The whinchat is a summer migrant,
somewhat larger than the stoucchat and preferring enclosed land.
It ranges over Europe and West Asia, wintering in Africa.
WHIP, in English parliamentary usage, denotes a member,
chosen by the leader or leaders of a political party for the special
duty of securing the attendance of the other members of that
party on ail necessary occasions, the term being abbreviated
from the whipper-in of a hunt. The name is also given to the
summons urging members of the party to attend. Political party
whips are always members of parliament, and for the party in
power (i.e., the government) their services are essential, seeing
that the fate of an important measure, or even the existence of
the government itself, may depend upon the result of a division
in the House. The urgency or importance of the notice sent by
the whips to their following is indicated by the number of lines
underscoring the notice, a four-line whip usually signifying the
extremest urgency. The chief government whip also holds the
office of patronage secretary to the treasury, so called because
when offices were freely distributed to secure the support of
members, it was his chief duty to dispose of the patronage to
the best advantage of his party. He is still the channel through
which such patronage as is left to the prime minister is dispensed.
He is assisted by three junior whips, who are officially appointed
as junior lords of the treasury; their salaries are £1,000 a year
each, while the patronage secretary has a salary of £2,000. The
parties not in office have whips who are unpaid. The whips also
arrange for the "pairing" of such of the members of their party
as desire to be absent with those members of the opposition
party who also desire to be absent. The chief whips of either party
further arrange in consultation with each other the leading
speakers in an important debate, and also its length, and give the
list of speakers to the speaker or chairman, who usually falls in
with the arrangement. They take no part in debate themselves,
but are constantly present in the House during its sittings, keep-
ing a finger, as it were, upon the pulse of the House, and con-
stantly informing their leader of the state of the House. When
any division is regarded as a strictly party one, the whips act
as tellers in the division.
An interesting account of the office of whip is Riven in A. L.
Lowell's Government of England (1908), vol. i. c., xxv.
WHIPPING: see FLOGGING.
WHIP-POOR-WILL (Antrostomus vocifcrus), so called
from its cry, is an American bird about a foot long, allied to the
nightjars (q.v.), which it resembles in habits. It is common in the
eastern United States.
WHISKY or WHISKEY, a potable alcoholic liquor dis-
tilled from cereal grains. The term is derived from the Celtic
uisque-beatha afterwards contracted to usquebaugh meaning water
of life. The distillation of alcoholic beverages from fermented
liquors became general throughout the whole of Europe during
the i6th and i7th centuries, but, whilst in the southern grape
producing countries wine is the liquor which is subjected to dis-
tillation, various types of grain are used in the north. It is of
interest that in all cases, doubtless owing to their stimulating
properties, the same significance attaches to the terms generally
applied to strong alcoholic liquors, e.g., eau de vie and aqua vitae,
and Robert Burns uses these terms synonymously. At first usque-
baugh referred not only to the plain spirit derived from grain
but also to compounded beverages prepared by the addition
to the spirit of sugar and flavourings such as saffron and nutmeg.
Whiskies are sometimes classified according to their geo-
graphical origin: — Scotch, Irish and American, but the chief
differences are due to the secondary products — higher alcohols,
esters, aldehydes, etc.
Manufacture. — The process of manufacture may be divided
into three stages ;
(1) Mashing or the preparation of the liquor known as wort.
(2) The fermentation of the wort to produce the wash.
(3) Separation of the spirit from the wash by distillation.
The wort is prepared by mixing various grains with malt, the
nature and proportion being subject to considerable variation.
In Irish pot-still distilleries malted and unmalted barley, oats,
wheat and rye are generally used, whilst for Scotch pot stills
malted barley is practically the only material. In the patent still
distilleries in both countries, the wort usually consists of maize,
barley, rye (malted and unmalted) and oats, the first, which is
seldom used in the pot still whiskies, being the principal in-
gredient.
The malt or mixture of malt and grain is crushed and raised
to a suitable temperature with hot water, the diastase of the
malt thus converting the starch into sugar. During this process
other substances, the exact nature of which is not thoroughly
understood, are obtained in solution. From these are derived
the secondary constituents already referred to which impart to
the various brands their distinctive flavour. The Scotch pot
still or malt whiskies fall into four main types, (i) The High-
land malts produced chiefly in the Speyside or Glenlivet district
constitute one of the most popular. They possess a full ethereal
flavour which affords evidence of the fact that the malt has been
cured over peat fires. (2) The Lowland malts of the south, al-
though possessed ,of an excellent full flavour, are not so distinc-
tive as those produced in the north and approximate more closely
in taste and smell to the patent still spirit. (3) Those produced
in Islay have a particularly strong flavour, due in part to the
"peated" malt, and are used to a considerable extent for blend-
ing purposes. (4) Those produced in Campbeltown are similar
to the Islays but their flavour is more pronounced.
The patent still spirits do not display the great range and va-
riety of flavour and bouquet observed in spirits of pot still origin.
This is due in part to the fact that the patent stills render pos-
sible a much higher degree of rectification and also to the employ-
ment of malt which has not been cured over peat fires.
Pot Stills. — The pot stills used arc not of standard design. In
their most simple form they consist of a vessel in which the wash
is boiled and to which is attached a pipe or "still head" to carry
the vaporized ingredients of the wash to a condenser whence
the distilled liquor falls into a receiver. The heat is supplied di-
rectly from a fire, or, in the more elaborate types, by means of
steam coils or jackets. The neck was originally made long to
prevent the boiling wash being mechanically carried over into
the receiver by frothing or spraying. In effect it has a certain
rectifying action condensing and returning to the retort the
ingredients boiling at a higher temperature. This rectification is
in many instances increased by the addition of baffle plates in
the tube or small condensers so arranged that liquid condensed
therein shall be returned to the retort and not passed into the
receiver. This is often effected by an additional pipe or "lyne
arm" connecting the rectifier with the retort. In Ireland the
stills are usually larger than in Scotland, having a capacity up to
20,000 gallons. The method usually adopted, while varying in
detail, is more complicated than that followed in Scotland. Three
distillations take place. Strong low wines, weak low wines, strong
feints and weak feints (see SPIRITS) are collected and the re-
570
WHISKY
sultant whisky fraction has a higher strength, viz., 24 to 30
overproof.
The still usually known as the "patent still" was in its origina
form devised by Aeneas Coffey in 1831. (See SPIRITS.) It con
sists essentially of two columns, the "rectifier" and the "an
alyser." Each column is subdivided horizontally into a series ol
chambers by means of perforated copper plates. The columns
are filled with steam passed in at the bottom of the analyser
The wash is pumped from the "still charger" through a pipe
which passes from the top of the rectifier to the bottom and then
to the analyser, where it is discharged on to the first plate. In
its course through the rectifier the pipe traverses each chamber
twice by means of a double bend. In this way the wash is heated
almost to boiling point before it is discharged, the ascending
steam and vapours in the rectifier being cooled at the same time
by the descending wash. The wash cannot pass through the per-
forations of the plates in the analyser owing to the pressure of
the steam and, by an ingenious device of a safety valve and a
drop pipe fitted to each plate, an inch of wash accumulates on
the plates before any can be discharged to the chamber below*
By the continuous upward discharge of steam through the wash
the latter is gradually deprived of its alcohol and other volatile
constituents which are carried with the steam back to the rectifier
where they are condensed. The temperatures of the chambers
of the rectifier are successively cooler from bottom to top re-
sulting in a separation of the condensed liquor into various frac-
tions. At one point the temperature is approximately that at
which strong ethyl alcohol condenses and the chamber at this
point is fitted with a special arrangement for carrying off the
liquor condensed therein. In the first and last stages of the dis-
tillation the spirit collected is not of sufficient strength and is
returned to the still, whilst a further device facilitates the collec-
tion of the fusel oil, which is of use in commerce. Its value
has been enhanced in recent years by the demand for solvents
used in cellulose lacquers. Its composition varies considerably.
One examined by Dr. Bell for the royal commission on whisky
contained
Amyl Alcohol 43-2%
Butyl Alcohol 33-4%
Propyl Alcohol 17-0%
Ethyl Alcohol 5.5%
Composition. — As already indicated the proportion of second-
ary constituents is higher in the pot still than in the patent still
spirits. This is particularly the case with the "higher alcohols"
and "furfural." The latter is almost invariably absent from the
patent still product immediately after distillation, although a trace
may be found after long storage. The proportion of these two
ingredients may therefore be accepted as a basis for differentia-
tion between the two types of spirit. The age of the spirit is
an important factor.
The following values expressed in grammes per 100 litres of
absolute alcohol are a summary of an extensive examination by
Schidrowitz and Kaye of various types of whisky.
1
Total acid '
t/3
<U
t*
W
*-•§
o> o
.Ha
K73
|
Aldehvdes i
!
1
Furfural i
t
3
£
Scotch pot still, average
of 100 samples .
Irish pot still, average
J0'9
60-6
*43
18-0
3-2
256-3
of 6 samples
Scotch patent still, av-
3«
49
200
26
4-2
317-2
erage of 4 samples .
Irish patent still, av-
25
29
60
4'5
0-05
"8-55
erage of 6 samples
10
28
47
2-6
trace
87-6
Irish pot still, new
6
28
233
8
4-1
279-1
The same type 13 years
in plain wood cask .
Scotch patent still, new
32
4
47
25
264
65
21
2
4'4
368-4
96
The same type 2 years
in plain wood .
14
25
100
5
trace
144
The same type 2 years
in sherry wood .
53
40
44
7
0-15
149-iS
American rye whisky is prepared in Canada from rye and
malt only. The following is a summary of results of analyses
made by Wiley of the United States Department of Agriculture.
•a
'S
£
I
n-3
1!
«73
i
1
Furfural
I
H
New, average of 19
samples
Old, average of 76
samples
ii«4
147-6
50-6
137
266*4
35*
17-8
27-6
2-4
4-6
348-6
668-8
Maturation. — The alterations which take place in the character
of a spirit during storage may be attributed to (a) the type of
cask and method of storage, and (6) the interaction of various
ingredients.
(a) The secondary constituents most affected by ageing— par-
ticularly in the pot still whiskies — are the volatile acids and the
aldehydes. Pot still whisky is usually stored in sherry casks or in
well seasoned casks which have formerly contained spirit. The
wine or spirit in the cask slowly diffuses into the wood, the ethyl
alcohol passing through and evaporating, whilst such ingredients as
higher alcohols and esters are held. When the cask is emptied the
alcohol remaining absorbed is transformed by oxidation into acids,
aldehydes and esters. On the cask being refilled with the new
spirit the constituents thus formed are partially extracted, particu-
larly during the earlier period of storage. Whisky stored m bottle
and commercial spirit of high strength storea in metal containers
are not subject to the same alterations.
(b) The reactions which take place within the spirit are much
more complex and difficult of explanation. They may in part be
attributed to the unintentional presence of small quantities of
impurities derived from external sources during the process of
manufacture and dependent upon the varying conditions. Thus
Thorpe found pyridine bases, allyl alcohol and allyl aldehyde
probably derived from the peat, and acrolein due either to the oil
extracted from the grain or to the soap which is occasionally
added to the contents of the still to prevent frothing. In new pot
still spirit Schidrowitz found evidence of the presence of pyrrole
and phenolic and sulphurous bodies all of which would interact
with the natural ingredients of the spirit to produce substances
which would not otherwise be present.
Artificial maturing of spirit is sometimes attempted and various
methods have been adopted, the object being to reduce the pro-
portion of secondary ingredients, particularly aldehydes, and thus
to eliminate the harshness of new spirit.
Blending. — During the past fifty years the practice of blend-
ing has gradually extended, particularly in Scotland and now very
little "self-whisky" or unblended whisky is sold. It serves two
purposes, (i) To produce a brand of standard flavour. This is
particularly the case in the products of the pot still, the flavour of
which owing to the differences in the grains of successive seasons
s liable to considerable variation. (2) To meet the popular de-
mand for a cheap mild flavoured spirit.
The best brands usually consist of approximately half High-
land and Lowland malts, a small quantity of Islay and the re-
mainder patent still spirit.
Consumption. — In common with other alcoholic beverages the
consumption of whisky in Great Britain has shown a marked
decline in the last few years, due partly to the increased duty on
spirits and doubtless also to the change in the popular taste and
habits. The following table shows the quantity in proof gallons
of home made spirits retained for consumption in each part of the
Jnited Kingdom, excluding spirits delivered for methylation and
other commercial uses.
1913-14
1910-20
1923-24
1926-27
England
17390,59*
12,548,385
0,941,833
8>397>59*
Scotland
6,173453
3,546,247
2,641,323
2,099,235
Ireland
2,730,694
1,731,239
Total
26,794,739
17,825,871
12,896,895
10,712,002
"Northern Ireland only.
WHISKY INSURRECTION— WHIST
57*
During the same period the quantity per head of population
fell from 0-58 to 0.24 proof gallons. The number of distilleries in
Great Britain and Northern Ireland has also shown a tendency to
decline, falling from 140 in 1923 to 121 in 1926. In Canada, rye
whisky forms the greater proportion of the potable spirits, of
which 3,924,100 proof gallons were produced in 1925 and 4,179,442
proof gallons in 1926. (F. G. H. T.)
WHISKY INSURRECTION, THE, an uprising in
western Pennsylvania in 1794 against the Federal Government,
occasioned by the attempted enforcement of the excise law (en-
acted by Congress, March 1791) on domestic spirits. The com-
mon prejudice in America against excise in any form was felt
with especial strength in western Pennsylvania, Virginia and
North Carolina where many small whisky stills existed. Albert
Gallatin (q.v.) took a leading part in expressing resentment in a
constitutional manner, but under the cigitator David Bradford
the movement soon developed into excesses.
The Federal revenue officers in, some cases were tarred
and feathered; but in Sept. 1794, President Washington, using
the new powers bestowed by Congress in May 1792, despatched
a considerable force of militia against the rebellious Pennsyl-
vanians, who thereupon submitted without bloodshed, the in-
fluence of Gallatin being used to that end. Bradford fled to New
Orleans; some of his more prominent supporters were tried for
treason and convicted, but promptly pardoned.
In American history this so-called "rebellion" is important
chiefly on account of the emphasis it gave to the employment by
the Federal Executive of the new powers bestowed by Congress
for interfering to enforce Federal laws within the States. It is
indeed inferred from one of Hamilton's own letters that his object
in proposing this excise law was less to obtain revenue than to
provoke just such a local resistance as would enable the central
government to demonstrate its strength.
WHISPERING BELLS (Emmenanthe penduliflora), a
North American herb of the water-leaf family (Hydrophyllaceae),
known also as California yellow bells, native to mountain slopes
from central California to Utah and southward to Mexico. It is a
low, much-branched, sticky-hairy annual, 10 in. to 20 in. high, with
deeply-cut leaves and bell-shaped, cream-coloured or yellow
flowers, -i in. long, borne on slender, pendulous stalks in loose
clusters. This characteristic plant of the chaparral (q.v.) is grown
in gardens for its showy, persistent flowers. When dry after
fruiting these give forth a slight rustling sound.
WHIST, a game of cards of English origin gradually evolved
from several older games which succeeded each other under the
name of triumph, trump, ruff and honours, whist and swabbers,
and finally whist. Whist was so called because of its requiring
silence and close attention. It is believed that the earliest men*
tion of whist is by Taylor, in 1621. In the middle of the
1 8th century Edmund Hoyle and others published rules
and maxims for playing. However, it remained for Dr. Henry
Jones, of London, whose pen name was Cavendish, to work out a
complete system for scientific play. His first code was published
under the title of Whist Development in 1863. He further im-
proved the game and published several editions of his Laws and
Principles of Whist and finally several editions of Cavendish on
Whist, the 22nd being published shortly before he died.
Forming the Game.— Whist is played by four persons, two
sides of two partners each, with a full pack of 52 cards, equally
distributed. The partners are determined by cutting; the highest
two play against the lowest two, and the lowest has the choice of
cards and seats. In cutting, ace is the lowest card. There should
be two packs of cards of different coloured backs, one pack being
shuffled while the other is being dealt. All must cut from the
same pack. Before every deal the cards must be shuffled. The
dealer must present the pack to his right hand adversary to be
cut; the adversary must take a portion from the top of the pack
and place it toward the dealer. At least four cards must be left
in each portion; the dealer must unite the two by placing the
one not removed in cutting upon the other.
When the pack has been properly cut and reunited, the dealer
must distribute the cards one at a time to each player in regular
rotation, beginning at his left. The last card, which is the trump,
must be turned face up before the dealer, where it must remain
until it is his turn to play to the first trick. This card is known as
the trump card and the suit to which it belongs is the trump suit;
the other three suits are known as the plain suits.
The eldest hand or player on the left of the dealer opens the
game by placing one of his cards face upward upon the table. The
three other players each play a card to it in
rotation, commencing with the second
hand, or player to the left of the leader,
the dealer being the last to play. Each
player must follow suit, that is, play the
suit that was led, if he can. If he is void
of that suit he may discard or trump. The
four cards thus played constitute a trick.
The highest card of the suit led, or the
trump takes the trick. The trick
POSITIONS OF PLAYERS
AT A WHIST TABLE, A *s taken in by the partner of the winner
& B BEING PARTNERS and placed face downward at his left hand
AGAINST Y AND z, z On the table. The winner of the first trick
BEING THE DEALER becomes the leader to the next, and
this routine is continued until all the cards are played, there
being 13 tricks in all. The deal then passes to the next player
on the left, and so on to each player in turn.
A game consists of seven points, each trick above six counting
one upon the score. The cards in each suit are divided into two
classes: "high" cards and "small" cards. The five high cards are
ace, king, queen, jack and ten; the eight small cards are the nine
to deuce inclusive.
The English Leads.— Under the English system the high
cards were led without regard to the number of cards in the suit.
The king was led when accompanied by the ace or queen, or both.
The queen was led from the top of sequence of queen, jack and
ten, and the ten was led from the combination of king, jack, ten
and small cards. Having no combination in hand from which
a high card could be led, the hand was opened with a small card,
the smallest from a suit of four, the penultimate from a suit of
five, and the antepenultimate from a suit of six or more.
The American Leads. — One of the foremost authors and
players of America was Nicholas B. Trist of New Orleans. He
corresponded with Cavendish (Dr. Jones) a great deal about the
game, and in the course of the correspondence suggested to Jones
that instead of the penultimate and antepenultimate, when open-
ing the game with a low card, the fourth best, counting from the
top, be led, and then when the card or cards smaller than the
fourth best were played the number of cards originally held in
that suit could be counted. Trist further suggested that they
revise the high card leads to show the number in suit by the
original leads as follows: from ace, king and others lead the king
to show four, but lead the ace to show five or more; from king,
queen and others still lead the king to show four; but lead the
queen to show five or more. Cavendish approved these changes
and named this new system the "American leads'* in honour of
the American author who suggested them. The American leads
thus formulated and accepted on both sides of the Atlantic be-
came the standard of play for all whist clubs.
Following the rules for the leads, in opening the game came the
rules for the "conventional plays."
Second Hand Play.— The old English idea that second hand
has nothing to do but to "play low" is not a rule of modern whist.
The proper play may be a high card or a low card, depending
entirely on the card led, the inferred combination from which led,
the cards of that suit held, the strength or weakness of trumps.
There are three things for second hand to do of importance in
the order named: (a) Win the trick as cheaply as possible; (6)
prevent third hand from winning too cheaply; (c) retain com-
mand of opponent's suit as long as advisable.
(i) On a high card led, play the lower one of any two higher
cards in sequence, or ace alone on an honour led (a) On a low
card led, play a high card if holding any combination of that
suit from which you would lead a high card, otherwise play low.
Third Hand Play.— In the play of third hand the main point
572
WHIST
to have in mind is that the suit led is your partner's and you arc
to assist in establishing it as follows: (i) Win the trick if neces-
sary and as cheaply as possible; (2) prevent fourth hand from
winning too cheaply, thus forcing out the adverse high cards;
(3) get rid of the high cards of that suit as soon as possible to
prevent blocking your partner's long suit; (4) with four exactly
of your partner's suit retain the lowest one to return to him when
his suit is established, which will enable him to re-enter and bring
in his long suit.
Fourth Hand Play. — It is the duty of fourth hand, with few
exceptions, to win the trick as cheaply as possible, unless already
won by your partner. Exceptions occur during the progress of
the hand, when it becomes desirable to win or not to win, accord-
ing to the position of the cards, either to get the lead, or to throw
it for advantage.
The Trump Suit. — The trump suit has been very aptly termed
the artillery of the hand, and the proper manoeuvring with this
ordnance requires the greatest courage and generalship on the
part of the players. However, the student will gain a sufficient
knowledge of the elementary tactics required from a careful study
of the following rules: —
(1) Lead trumps from six or more without regard to value.
(2) Lead trumps from five if they include two honours, or
if you hold one good plain suit.
(3) Lead trumps from four if you have two strong suits, or
if your own or partner's long suit is established,
(4) Lead trumps from three or less to stop an actual or im-
pending cross-ruff (meaning that each partner is ruffing or trump-
ing the other's suits, Jed alternately for that purpose) or when you
can draw two of your opponent's trumps for one of yours, your
partner having none.
(5) When strong in trumps give the trump signal, which is
made by the high-low play, at first opportunity.
(6) With four or more trumps echo your partner's call or lead.
(7) Always return your partner's trump lead, or lead to his
trump call at first opportunity.
(8) With four or more do not trump a doubtful trick. Your
passing and discard will give your partner valuable information.
(9) With three trumps or less trump freely, using your short
trumps to make all the tricks possible.
(10) Do not force your partner if weak in trumps yourself,
but always force the adverse strong hand.
(11) Being the commanding suit there is no necessity for
anxiety in "making" the high cards, as in plain suits, and you play
a more backward game, generally leading fourth-best.
(12) The rule for leading is this: If the trump suit contains
at least three honours or the ten with two face cards, or any
seven cards, lead as in plain suits; otherwise lead fourth-best.
General Rules. — (i) Open the game by leading trumps if
strong enough. If not strong enough in trumps, lead from your
best long suit. If your only long suit was opened by right oppo-
nent, lead from your best short suit.
(2) Never lead a singleton as an original lead. It is more im-
portant to give correct information to your partner than to try
to deceive opponents. A singleton may be led later if weak
in trumps.
(3) Always lead from the top of a sequence.
(4) It is advisable to lead through the strong hand and up to
the weak hand.
The Discard.— (i) The first discard should be from your
weakest suit unless trumps are led or declared against you, in
which case the first discard should be from your best protected
suit.
(2) The discard after the first should be made to protect and
strengthen the hand as much as possible.
(3) The discard of the best card of a suit signals that you hold
entire command of that suit.
(4) The discard of the second best signals that you have no
more of that suit.
The Finesse. — (a) The finesse belongs to the higher order of
play and consists in the attempt to take a trick with a card lower
than your highest card and not in sequence with it, trusting that
no intermediate card may lie on your left.
(6) It is not proper to finesse in your partner's long suit, with
one exception. Holding the ace and queen of his suit, play the
queen on a low card led, and if it wins the trick, the ace may be
returned later.
(c) The expediency of finessing or not can only be determined
by practised players from careful observation of the cards.
The Eleven Rule. — Acting on the theory of the fourth-best
led, when leading a small card, R. F. Foster, of New York, worked
out and published a useful convention known as his "eleven
rule/' which has become the most popular addition to the rules
of the game. This rule enables all players to know at once how
many cards are held by the other three players that are superior
to the. fourth best card led, and is thus explained: By numbering
all the cards of a suit from deuce to ace, the 13 would number
a total of 14 (2 to 14 inclusive). When any player leads his
fourth best, he has remaining m his suit just three cards higher
than the one led; deduct thase three from 14, the remainder is 11,
being the whole number in suit, exclusive of the three known to
be in the leader's hand. Therefore, to ascertain the number of
cards superior to the fourth best led that are out against the
leader, we have only to deduct the face value of the card led from
ii, and the remainder will be the number of higher cards held by
the other hands. Then the dealer's partner from his hand can
tell how many cards are held by the two opponents that are
superior to the card led, and by noting them as they fall, can
tell when the suit is established. This valuable rule is^used by
all good players of both whist and auction bridge.
The Laws of Whist. — The laws are made for the comfort and
convenience of all persons who want to play a good game and in
the best form. The strict observance of the laws will prevent dis-
putes and add much interest to the play. The player who is not
acquainted with the laws and rules is often at a serious dis-
advantage and liable to commit petty errors for which the penal-
tics are severe. The penalties are taken from the code of the laws.
The Penalties. — If dealer reshuffles the pack after it has been
properly cut, he loses his deal.
There must be a new deal by the same dealer — (i) If any card
except the last is placed face up in the pack; (2) if during the
deal or during the play of the hand the pack is proved incorrect
or imperfect. It is a misdeal: —
(1) If the dealer omits to have the pack cut.
(2) If he deals a card incorrectly and fails to correct the
error before dealing another card.
(3) If he counts the cards on the (able or in the remainder of
the pack.
(4) If he does not deal to each player the proper number of
cards and the error is not ''discovered" before all have played the
first, trick.
(5) If he places the trump card face downward upon his own
or ;my other player's cards.
A misdeal loses the deal unless during the deal either of the
adversaries touch a card or in any other manner interrupt the
dealer.
The following cards are liable to be called by cither adversary.
(1) Every card faced upon the table otherwise than in the
regular course of play.
(2) Every card thrown with the one led or played to the cur-
rent trick.
(3) Every card so held by a player that his partner sees any
portion of its face.
(4) Every card named by a player holding it.
All cards liable to be called must be left face upward upon the
table. A player must lead or play them when they are called,
provided ho can do so without revoking.
Leading Out of Turn. — If any player leads out of turn, a suit
may be called from him or his partner the first time it is the turn
for either of them to lead.
Revoking. — To revoke is to renounce in error without being
corrected in time. A player revokes if when holding one or more
cards of the suit led, he plays a card of a different suit. The pen-
alty for revoking is the transfer of two tricks from the revoking
WHISTLER— WHITAKER
573
side to their adversaries.
Whist or Bridge. — The game of auction bridge has become
very popular all over the world in the last 25 years, and has far
surpassed the game of whist, especially with the young people and
in the domestic circles. Whist still holds its own, however, with
the older clubs and players. The American Whist League has
met in annual congress every year since its organization in 1891,
meeting alternately in cities east and west.
Solo or Solo Whist is a modification of whist, the chief
distinctive feature being that a single player generally has to
oppose the other three. The game in America adheres to the
English rules in the larger Eastern cities, but it is played very
little. In the west a variation, "Slough," has superseded "Solo."
The literature of the game is now limited to Cavendish on Whist, in
England and the Gist of Whist, by Charles E. Coffin, in America.
(C. E. Co.)
WHISTLER, JAMES ABBOTT McNEILL (1834-
1903), painter, was born at Lowell,, Mass., U.S.A., in 1834, of
Irish-American parents. His grandfather emigrated to America.
He belonged to a family of soldiers. At the age of 17, after
spending some time in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), where his father
was acting as an engineer, the painter was entered at West
Point Military academy, but left because his studies proved quite
unsatisfactory. After trying to enter the Navy he became a
draughtsman in the Coast Survey Department at Washirtfeton. The
precision of the work was, however, more than he could bear, so in
1854 he sailed to England and thence to France, in 1855,
where he studied for two years in the Paris atelier of the then
prominent painter, Charles Gabriel Gleyrc. He then came to the
conclusion that nothing further could be learned in such academic
surroundings. Gleyre, who maintained the Ingres traditions, was
accounted by Whistler a ''bourgeois Greek" and when, later, the
pupil offered a picture for the judgment of the official Salon,
it was promptly refused. Nothing daunted in his independent
spirit, he sent it to the Salon des Refuses, where it scored an
unqualified success. Recognition of his genius came very tardily,
England especially being extremely unsympathetic, an attitude
provoked by the American's delight in mystifying the English
painters, critics and public and in returning their ridicule. His
contempt for the prevailing fashion was reflected in his dress,
which was immaculate almost to dandyism, whilst his unpunctu-
ality was a source of exasperation.
In painting, Whistler was closely affiliated to the French
Impressionist movement. Sentiment and anecdote are nearly al-
ways ab.sent from his work, which relies for its effect upon the
sacrifice of minute detail and brilliant colouring to the exquisite
arrangement of tones and upon the emphasis on the musical
quality of colour. A study of his pictures will reveal the fact
that, far from justifying Millais' description as "a man who had
never learned the grammar of his art," he had invented a gram-
mar more simple yet more capable of expression than anything
known in the Western hemisphere, a contrast to the more favoured
prc-Raphacliles.
The art of Whistler was subjected to various influences, among
theni those of Courbet, Velasquez, Puvis de Chavannes, Hogarth
and Tintoretto, but his own personality is always uppermost. The
shops of Amsterdam provided the blue and white porcelain which
before the days of eager collectors adorned his paintings. He
was an admirer of Japanese colour-prints which, used as packing
for other articles around the year 1860, were soon imported for
their own decorative virtues. Whistler used them in such pic-
tures as 'The Balcony," "La Princesse du Pays de la Porcclaine"
and "The Golden Screen." The result is the perfect modification
of Eastern influences by European traditions and ideals. Here was
a step towards a more abstract conception of art.
Lithography, the discovery of Senefelder, was perfected by
Whistler, whilst his etchings are marvels of delicacy and bear
out his own contention that the area covered should be in ratio
to the strength of the means employed. His condemnation of the
large plate as an abomination may be regarded as an admission
of his own limitations. During the greater part of his life, he
produced an average of 12 etchings. or lithographs each year; yet
he found time to write charming prose, reflecting the meticulous
care which he bestowed upon his person and surroundings.
Whistler's uTen o'clock" lecture was a statement of his convic-
tions concerning art, and, like his "Gentle Art of Making Ene-
mies," acted by its very brilliance as a goad to his adversaries.
In 1883 Whistler exhibited 51 etchings and drypoints at the Fine
Art Society, London, and in 1896, 70 lithographs were shown.
During his lifetime he produced nearly 400 etchings and dry-
points and probably 150 lithographs. At the Grosvenor gallery,
newly opened in 1877 by Sir Coutts Lindsay, his paintings in-
cluded some "nocturnes," and of the International Society he was
the first president.
Whistler took the utmost care in the tones used on the floor
and walls of his studios, in the dresses worn by his sitters, and
even went, so far as to redecorate a room in the house, at Knights-
bridge, of F. R. Leyland. This room has been transferred to the
Freer Museum, Washington. In 1886, Whistler was elected Presi-
dent of the Royal Society of British Artists. His failure to be re-
elected caused no surprise. He remarked that "the artists had
come out and the British had remained."
But the British Museum bought his etchings and he was the re-
cipient of honours from nearly every foreign Government. A deep
religious sympathy is evident in his paintings of "Miss Alexander"
and "Carlyle." He died in London on July 17, 1903, at the age of
69 years.
To Whistler must be credited the full realization of the anal-
ogy between music and colour in their powers of expression.
He described his pictures as symphonies, harmonies, nocturnes
and so forth, instead of adopting the story-telling titles or dog-
gerel verse then usually employed. This new nomenclature caused
at first much resentment and derision, but is to-day accepted as
perfectly natural and appropriate. The values, or degrees of
tone were, to this sensitive painter, almost the beginning and
end of art. He was painfully aware of his weakness as a draughts-
man, which deprived his drawing of that surencss which pro-
claims a master of line. Whistler held that a good arrangement
of simple masses provides the most important features of a pic-
ture, and that attention to tone values ensures serenity, which a
study of Velasquez, who always used a severely restricted palette,
will reveal. He may also have been attracted to Vermeer of
Delft, whose work possesses the same quality of quiet dignity.
He considered, too, that to avoid completely any feeling of
interruption, pre-Raphaelite detail must be shunned; and that,
even in tone arrangements, extremes were not advisable for fear
of over-accentuation. Thus many of his first paintings are exe-
cuted in a middle key. Towns, where the atmosphere is often
slightly thick and quiet greys prevail, have been the source of
inspiration for many a "tone-painter" since Whistler produced
his delightful Thames pictures.
Bini inGRAPHY. — Whistler's The Gentle Art of Making Enemies
was published by the Ballantync Press in 1890. The following cata-
logues of his paintings, etc., imv be consulted: Catalogue of Whistler
Memorial Exhibition (1905) ; H. Mansfield, Descriptive Catalogue of
Etchings and Drypoints of J. A. M. Whistler (Chicago, Caxton Club,
1900) ; F. N. Levy, Catalogue of Paintings in Oil and Pastel by
J. A. M. Whistler (Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y., 1910);
Catalogue of Works by J. A. M. Whistler, with a bibliography
(Victoria and Albert Museum) ; Whistleriana (Freer Gallery of Art,
Washington, 1928). For biography and criticism see: H. Beraldi, Les
Graveiirs du XIX > Siecle, vol. xii. (1892) ; Sir Frederick Wedmore,
Whistler's Etchings (1899); &• Way and G. R. Dennis, The Art
of James McNeill Whistler, 2 vols. (1903), and Memories of James
McNeill Whistler, the Artist (1912); Menpcs, Whistler as I Knew
Him (1904) ; A. Jerome Eddy, Recollections and Impressions of
James A. McNeill Whistler (1903) J T. Duret, Histoire de J. A. M.
Whistler et de son oenvre (1904) ; J. and E. R. Pennell, The Life of
James McNeill Whistler (1908); E. G. Kennedy, The Etched Work
of Whistler (Grolier Club, New York, 1910) ; Don C. Seitz, Writings
bv and about Whistler: a Bibliography (Edinburgh, 1910) ; A. Alex-
andre, "J. McNcill Whistler,'1 Les Art's (Sept. 1903) ; A. E. Gallatin,
Whistler's Pastelsf and other Modern Profiles (1913), and Portraits
of Whistler: a Critical Study and Iconography (1918).
WHITAKER, JOSEPH (1820-1895), English publisher,
was born in London on May 4. 1820. In January 1858 he started
the Bookseller, and in 1869 published the first issue of Whitaker's
Almanack, the annual work of reference, which also met with
574
WHITBREAD—WHITE
immediate success. In 1874 he published the first edition of the
Reference Catalogue of Current Literature. Whitaker died at En*
field on May 15, 1895.
WHITBREAD, SAMUEL (1830-1915), English politician,
born at Cardington, Beds., on May 5, 1830, the grandson of
Samuel Whitbrcad, M.P. for Bedfordshire, was head of the
brewery founded by his great-grandfather from 1867 to 1889,
and then became chairman of the company to which it was trans-
ferred. Like his father and grandfather, he became Liberal M.P.
for Bedford (1852-95). He died at Bigglcswade on Dec. 25, 1915.
WHITBY, a market-town in Yorkshire, England. Pop.
(1921), 12,510. The town is situated on the cliff-bound north-east
coast, at the mouth of the river Esk, which follows a wooded
course almost due east through the open, high-lying moors. The
old town of narrow streets and picturesque houses stands on the
steep slopes above the river, while the modern residential quarter
is mainly on the summit of the west cliff. On the east cliff, which
dominates the harbour, called of old Streoneshalh, the ruins of the
famous abbey hold a commanding position. The existing ruins
comprise parts of the Early English choir, the north transepts of
slightly later date, and a richly Decorated nave. The west side of
the nave fell in 1763 and the tower in 1830. On the south side are
the foundations of cloisters and domestic buildings. Extensive
excavations are being carried out in the castle ruins.
Whit by is first mentioned by Bede, who states that a religious
house was founded here in about 657. It included establishments
for monks and, until the Conquest, for nuns of the Benedictine
order, and under Abbess Hilda it acquired considerable celebrity.
In the 9th century the town was destroyed by the Danes, but
was later refounded and became the centre of a Danish colony;
it was the most prosperous town in the district until laid waste
by the Conqueror. Henry I. made a grant of a burgage to the
abbot and convent of Whitby and, towards the end of the I2th
century, the abbot granted the town a free burgage to the
burgesses. In 1200, King John, bribed by the burgesses, con-
firmed this charter, but the following year, on being bribed by
the abbot, he quashed it as injurious to the dignity of the church
of Whitby. The struggle continued until the i4th century, when
a trial resulted in judgment against the burgesses. In 1629,
Whitby petitioned for incorporation on the ground that the town
was in decay through lack of good government, and received let-
ters patent giving it self-government. But in 1674-75 the Crown
restored to the lords of the manor all liberties ever enjoyed by
the abbots of Whitby in Whitby and Whitby Strand, probably
in gratitude for the part they played in the Civil War.
Whitby has been a port at least since the i2th century, ranking
seventh in England in 1828. Here were constructed the ships for
Captain Cook's voyages. The yard was used for building ferro-
concrete boats during the World War. Wooden ships are still
built, and rope and sail making are carried on. In mediaeval
times herrings and cod from the North sea formed the only indus-
tries. Whale fishing began in 1753.
The manufacture of alum from rocks near Whitby was an
important industry from the beginning of the lyth century to
well into the i9th century. The Yorkshire Lias was the sole
source in England. With the development of Cleveland iron, the
trade declined, but alum is manufactured for medicines, tanning
and dyeing. Jet was also mined.
Adjoining the abbey is Whitby Hall, built about 1580 from the
materials of the monastic buildings, and enlarged and fortified
about 1635. A little below the abbey is the parish church of St.
Mary, originally Norman, but much altered. The geological and
antiquarian museums at Whitby are famous.
WHITCHURCH, urban district, north Shropshire, England.
Pop. (1921) 5>653- Whitchurch is mentioned as a borough in the
1 4th century. The parish extends into Cheshire. Whitchurch was
famous for its turret clocks, many of those in the churches of
N. Shropshire having been made there.
WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832-1918), American
educationalist and diplomat, was born in Homer (N.Y.) on Nov.
7, 1832. He graduated at Yale (A.B.) in 1853, studied at the Sor-
bonne in 1854, and at the University of Berlin in 1855-56, mean-
while serving as attach6 at the U.S. Legation at St. Petersburg in
1854-55. He was professor of history and English literature in
1857-63, and lecturer on history in 1863-67 at th? University of
Michigan. He dreamed of a great university with professors
in every field, rich libraries and museums and stately build-
ings, the whole free from denominational control, open to men
and women alike. After approaching various men of wealth, his
alliance during his State senatorship (1864-67) with Ezra Cornell,
who promised to give such an institution a site and $500,000 en-
dowment, enabled him with the addition of the New York land-
grant, to establish at Ithaca (N.Y.) the present Cornell university,
to which as first president and after 1885 as a member of the board
of trustees and executive committee he devoted his best energies
and much of his wealth. He combined in an unusual degree the
qualities of scholar and man of affairs. He served on the com-
mission to Santo Domingo, and on the commission on the Vene-
zuela boundary, as United States minister to Germany in 1879-81
and to Russia in 1892-94,. and as ambassador to Germany in
1897-1903. In 1899 he was president of the American delegation
at The Hague Peace Conference. Although Dr. White listed nu-
merous unfinished projects in his Autobiography (1905), his vari-
ous activities did not prevent him from completing several works.
The most outstanding are A History of the Warfare of Science
with Theology in Christendom (1896), and Seven Great States-
men in the Warfare of Humanity with Unreason (1910). He
died at Ithaca (N.Y.) on Nov. 4, 1918. The Cornell school of
history and political science appropriately bears his nameMand the
rich collection of books which he gave the university is housed in
a special room in the main library.
WHITE, EDWARD DpUGLASS (1845-1921), American
jurist, was born on a plantation in the parish of Lafourche, La.,
Nov. 3, 1845, his father being 7th governor of Louisiana. He was
educated at Mount St. Mary's, Md., Georgetown, D.C., college,
and, after the outbreak of the Civil War, at the Jesuit college
in New Orleans. During the latter part of the war he served as a
private in the Confederate army. He studied law in the office of
Edward Bermudez, later chief justice of Louisiana, was admitted
to the bar in 1868, and practised law in New Orleans. In 1874
he was elected to the State senate, and four years later was ap-
pointed associate justice of the Louisiana supreme court. In
1891 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, and before completing
his term was appointed, in 1894, associate justice of the U.S.
Supreme Court by President Cleveland. In 1910 he was appointed
chief justice by President Taft.
Many of his notable opinions were delivered in connection with
the Sherman anti-trust law. Of special importance were his
opinions requiring the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company
and the American Tobacco Company in 1911. As chief justice
he administered the oath of office to President Wilson in 1913 and
1917, and to President Harding in 1921. He died at Washington,
D.C., May 19, 1921.
WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835-1912), British
field marshal, was bom in County Antrim on July 6, 1835. He
was educated at Sandhurst, and in 1853 joined the InniskillingS,
with which regiment he served in India during the Mutiny in
1857. In the second Afghan War (1878-80) he was second in
command of the Gordon Highlanders, whom he led in their charge
at the battle of Charasiah, receiving the Victoria Cross. In 1881
in command of the Gordon Highlanders, he took part in the Nile
Expedition of 1884-85. As brigadier in the Burmese War (1885-
87) he rendered distinguished service, and was promoted major-
general; when Sir Frederick (afterwards Lord) Roberts left
Burma in 1887, White was left in command of the force charged
with the duty of suppressing the dacoits and pacifying the coun-
try. This he accomplished with a thoroughness which earned the
thanks of the government of India. He was in command of the
Zhob expedition in 1890, and in 1893 he succeeded Lord Roberts
as commander-in-chief in India; and during his tenure of this
office directed the conduct of the Chitral expedition in 1895 and
the Tirah campaign in 1897. Returning to England in 1898 he
became quartermaster-general of the forces; and on the outbreak
of the Boer War in 1899 he was given command of the forces in
WHITE
575
Natal. He defeated the Boers at Elandslaagte on Oct. 21, 1899,
and at Reitfontein on the 24th; but the superior numbers of the
Boers enabled them to invest Ladysmith, which Sir George White
defended in a siege lasting 119 days, from Nov. 2, 1899 to March
i, 1900, in the course of which he refused to entertain Sir Red-
vers Buller's suggestion that he should arrange terms of capitula-
tion with the enemy. (See LADYSMITH, SIEGE AND RELIEF or.)
After the relief of Ladysmith, White, whose health had been im-
paired by the siege, returned to England, and was appointed gov-
ernor of Gibraltar (1900-1904). King Edward VII., who visited
the fortress in 1903, personally gave him the baton of a field
marshal. In 1905 Sir George White was appointed governor of
Chelsea Hospital, and decorated with the Order of Merit. He died
in London on June 24, 1912.
See T. F. G. Coates, Sir George White (1900).
WHITE, GILBERT (1720-1793), English writer on natural
history, was born on July 18, 1720, at Selborne, Hants. He was
educated at Basingstoke under Thomas Warton, father of the poet,
and at Oriel College, Oxford, where in 1744 he was elected to a
fellowship. Ordained in 1747, he became curate at Swarraton the
same year and at Selborne in 1751. In 1752 he was nominated
junior proctor at Oxford and became dean of his college. In 1753
he accepted the curacy of Durley, and afterwards received the
college living of Moreton Pinkney, though he did not reside there.
In 1761 he became curate at Faringdon, near Selborne, and in
1784 he again became curate in his native parish. He died in his
home, The Wakes, Selborne, on June 26, 1793.
Gilbert White's daily life was practically unbroken by any
great changes or incidents; for nearly half a century his pastoral
duties, his watchful country walks, the assiduous care of his
garden, and the scrupulous posting of his calendar of observations
made up the essentials of a full and delightful life. His four
brothers were all interested in science, and White corresponded
with the chief botanists and antiquarians of his time. In 1771 he
sketched out to Thomas Pennant the project of "a natural history
of my native parish, an annus historico-naturalis, comprising a
journal for a whole year, and illustrated with large notes and ob-
servations. Such a beginning might induce more able naturalists
to write the history of various districts and might in time occa-
sion the production of a work so much to be wished for — a full
and complete natural history of these kingdoms.'' Yet the famous
Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne did not appear until
1789. It was well received and is constantly reprinted.
White's is the first book which raised natural history into the
region of literature, much as the Compleat Angler did for angling.
Its charm lies in the sweet and kindly personality of the author,
who on his rambles gathers no spoil, but watches the birds and
field-mice without disturbing them from their nests, and quietly
plants an acorn where he thinks an oak is wanted, or sows beech-
nuts in what is now a stately row. The encyclopaedic interest in
nature, although in White's day culminating in the monumental
synthesis of Buffon, was also disappearing before the analytic
specialism inaugurated by Linnaeus; yet the catholic interests of
the simple naturalist of Selborne fully reappear a century later in
the greater naturalist of Down, Charles Darwin.
The Life and Letters of Gilbert White of Selborne, by his great grand-
nephew, Rashleigh Holt-White, appeared in 1901.
WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806), English poet, was
born at Nottingham, the son of a butcher, on March 21, 1785.
He was articled to a lawyer. Capel Lofft encouraged him to pub-
lish Clifton Grove, a Sketch in Verse, with other Poems, dedicated
to Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire. The book was violently at-
tacked in the Monthly Review (Feb. 1804), but White was in
some degree compensated by a kind letter from Robert Southey.
Through the efforts of his friends, he was entered as a sizar at St.
John's college1, Cambridge, spending a year beforehand with a
private tutor. Close application to study induced a serious illness,
and fears were entertained for his sanity, but he went into resi-
dence at Cambridge, with a view to taking holy orders, in the
autumn of 1805. The strain of continuous study proved fatal, and
he died on Oct. 19, 1806. He was buried in the church of All
Saints, Cambridge. Much of his fame was due to sympathy in-
spired by his early death, but Byron agreed with Southey in
forming a high estimate of the young man's promise.
His Remains, with his letters and an account of his life, were edited
(3 vols., 1807-32) by Robert Southey. See prefatory notices by Sir
Harris Nicolas to his Poetical Works (new ed., 1866) in the "Aldinc
Edition" of the British poets; by H. K. Swann in the volume of
selections (1897) in the Canterbury Poets; and by John Drinkwater
to the edition in the "Muses' Library." See also J. T. Godfrey and
J. Ward, The Homes and Haunts of Henry Kirke White (1908).
WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840), American states-
man, was born in Iredell county (N.C.), Oct. 30, 1773. In 1787
he crossed the mountains into East Tennessee (then a part of
North Carolina) with his father, James White (1737-1815).
Hugh became in 1 790 secretary to Governor William Blount, and
in 1792-93 served under John Sevier against the Creek and Chero-
kee Indians, and according to the accepted tradition, killed with
his own hand the Cherokee chief, Kingfisher. He studied in Phila-
delphia, and in 1796 he was admitted to the bar at Knoxville.
He was a judge of the superior court of Tennessee (1801-07), a
State senator (1807-09), and (1809-15) was judge of the newly
organized supreme court of errors and appeals of the State. From
1812 to 1827 he was president of the State Bank of Tennessee,
the only western bank that in the trying period during and after
the War of 1812 did not suspend specie payments. In 1821-24
he was a member of the Spanish Claims Commission and in 1825
succeeded Andrew Jackson in the U.S. Senate, serving until 1840
and being president pro tern, in 1832-34. In the Senate he sup-
ported in general the measures of President Jackson, though his
opposition to the latter's indiscriminate appointments caused a
coolness between himself and Jackson. In 1830, as chairman of
the committee on Indian affairs, he secured the passage of a bill
looking to the removal of the Indians to land west of the Missis-
sippi. He was opposed to Van Buren, Jackson's candidate for the
presidency in 1836, was himself nominated in several States as
an independent candidate, and received the 26 electoral votes of
Tennessee and Georgia. About 1838 he became a Whig in poli-
tics, and when the Democratic legislature of Tennessee instructed
him to vote for Van Buren's sub-treasury scheme he objected and
resigned (Jan. 1840). His strict principles and his conservatism
won for him the sobriquet of "The Cato of the United States
Senate." He died at Knoxville, April 10, 1840.
See Nancy N. Scott (ed.) A Memoir of Hugh Laivson White (Phila-
delphia, 1856).
WHITE, STANFORD (1853-1906), American architect,
was born in New York city on Nov. 9, 1853. He was the son of
Richard Grant White. He worked in Boston with Henry H.
Richardson, whom he helped in designing Trinity church, of
that city. In 1878 he went abroad for further study, particu-
larly of the Gothic tradition in which he found his keenest satis-
faction. In 1881 he became a member of the firm of McKim,
Mead and W'hite, New York city. He designed the Washington
arch in Washington Square, the Century and Metropolitan clubs,
the Tiffany ancl Gorham buildings. New York city, and the build-
ings of the New York university and the University of Virginia,
He designed the pedestals for several of the statues of Augustus
St. Gaudens, whose close friend he was, and a number of memo-
rial monuments and stained glass windows. He was murdered by
Harry Thaw in New York city, June 25, 1906. See American
Artists by Royal Cortissoz, p. 299; Sketches and Designs by
Stanford White: ed. Lawrence Grant White (1920), also Letters
of Stanford White, vol. 30, Architectural Record.
WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567), founder of St. John's
College, Oxford, was a son of William White, a clothier, and was
born at Reading. He became a merchant in London and a mem-
ber, and then master of the Merchant Taylors* Company; growing
wealthier he became an alderman and sheriff of the city of London.
One of the promoters of the Muscovy Company, he was knighted
in 1553, and chosen lord mayor. He defended the city against Sir
Thomas Wyat and his followers, and took part in the trial of the
rebels, as he had done in the case of Lady Jane Grey.' In 1555
White received a licence to found a college at Oxford, which,
dedicated to the Virgin Mary and St. John Baptist, was opened
in 1560. He died at Oxford on Feb. 12, 1567, and was buried
576
WHITE— WH1TEFIELD
in the chapel of St. John's College. White had some share in
founding the Merchant Taylors' School in London.
WHITE, WILLIAM ALLEN (1868- ), American
journalist, born at Emporia, Kansas, Feb. 10, 1868. He attended
the University of Kansas but left to edit the El Dorado Repub-
lican. In 1891 he went to Kansas City and became an editorial
writer on the Star and in 1895 purchased the Emporia Daily and
Weekly Gazette. An editorial written in 1896 entitled *' What's the
Matter with Kansas?", an impassioned plea against populism,
made him and his paper nationally known. He refused to run for
political office. Three books of short stories, The Real Issue
(1896), The Court of Boyville (1899), Strategems and Spoils
(1901), and a volume of sketches. In Our Town (1906), gave
him wide reputation as an interpreter of life in the country
towns of the Middle- West. In 1909 he published his first novel,
A Certain Rich Man, which passed through many editions. Then
followed The Old Order Changeth (1910), political essays; God's
Puppets (1916), short stories, and In the Heart of a Fool (1918),
another successful novel. Turning to interpretative biography,
he wrote a Life of Woodrow Wilson (1924), Calvin Coolidge, the
Man Who is President (1925), and Masks in a Pageant (1928).
Many of his best editorials are collected in The Editor and His
People (1924). He was sent to France by the American Red
Cross as an observer in 1917, was a delegate to the Russian Con-
ference at Prinkipo, 1919, and is a director of the Rockefeller
Foundation, Woodrow Wilson Foundation and Walter Mines Page
Foundation.
WHITE, WILLIAM HALE (1829-1913): sec RUTHER-
FORD, MARK.
WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY, K.CB , 1895 (1845-
1913), English naval architect, was born at Devonport on Feb. 2,
1845, and at 14 became an apprentice in the dockyard there.
After spending three years at the Roydl School, of Naval Archi-
tecture, South Kensington, he joined the constructive staff of the
Admiralty, and acted as confidential assistant to the chief con-
structor, Sir Edward Reed, until Reed's retirement. In 1872 White
was appointed secretary to the Council of Construction at the
Admiralty, in 1875 assistant constructor, aud in 1881 chief con-
structor. In April 1883 he left the service of the Admiralty, at
the invitation of Lord (then Sir W. G.) Armstrong, to organize a
department for the construction of warships of the largest size
at the Elswick works. In October 1885 he returned to the Ad-
miralty as director of naval construction, retaining that post until
the beginning of 1902. More than 200 vessels of various types
were added to the British navy, at a total cost of something
like 100 millions sterling, and for the design and construction of
these ships White was ultimately responsible. In addition to his
work at the Admiralty, he was professor of naval architecture at
the Royal School from 1870 to 1873, and when in the latter year
it was moved to Greenwich to be merged in the Royal Naval Col-
lege, he reorganized the course of instruction and acted as pro-
fessor for eight years more. His Manual of Naval Architecture is
a standard text -book. White, who was elected F.R.S. in 1888,
read many professional papers before various learned and engi-
neering societies. He died in London on Feb. 27, 1913.
WHITE ANT: see TERMITE; SOCIAL INSECTS.
WHITEBAIT (Fr. Blanchaitte) , the name given to the fry
of the herring and sprat, and formerly erroneously thought to be
a distinct species, Clupea alba. These young fish, which are much
esteemed for the table, are found in large numbers in estuaries
(Firth of Forth, Thames, etc.) and at certain times along the coast,
but it appears that the large concentrations which make the fishery
a commercial success occur only in estuaries.
In spite of the large numbers of whitebait caught, it is improb-
able that this has any noticeable effect on the subsequent herring
fisheries. In the year 1026, 3,i27cwt. of whitebait were landed in
ports of England and Wales, and sold for £3,916.
WHITEFIELD, GEORGE (1714-1770), English religious
leader, was born on Dec. 16, 1714, at the Bell Inn, Gloucester, of
which his father was landlord. At fifteen he was taken from
school to assist his mother in the public-house, and for a year
and a half was a common drawer. He then again returned to
school to prepare for the university, and in 1733 entered as a
servitor at Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating in 1736. There
he came' under the influence of the Methodists (see WESLEY).
In 1736 he was invited by Wesley to go out as missionary to
Georgia, and went to London to wait on the trustees. Before
setting sail he preached in some of the principal London churches,
and in order to hear him, crowds assembled at the church doors
long before daybreak. On Dec. 28, 1737, he embarked for Georgia,
which he reached on May 7, 1738. After three months' residence
there he returned to England to receive priest's orders, and to
raise contributions for the establishment of an orphanage. As the
clergy did not welcome him to their pulpits, he began to preach in
the open air. At Kingswood Hill, Bristol, his addresses to the
colliers soon attracted crowds, and his voice was so clear and
powerful that it could reach 20,000 folk. His fervour and dra-
matic action held tKem spell-bound, and his homely pathos soon
broke down all barriers of resistance. "The first discovery of
their being affected/' he says, "was by seeing the white gutters
made by their tears, which plentifully fell down their black
checks." He again embarked for America in August 1739, and
remained there two years, preaching in all the principal towns.
He left his incumbency of Savannah to a lay delegate, and was
suspended for ceremonial irregularities.
During his absence from England Whitefield found that a
divergence of doctrine from Calvinism had been introduced by
Wesley; and notwithstanding Wesley's exhortations to brotherly
kindness and forbearance he withdrew from the Wesleyan Con-
nexion. Thereupon his friends built for him near Wesley's church
a wooden structure, which was named the Moortields Tabernacle.
A reconciliation between the two great evangelists was soon
effected, but each thenceforth went his own way. In 1741, on the
invitation of Ralph and Ebenezer Erskine, he paid a visit to
Scotland, commencing his labours in the Secession meeting-house,
Dunfermline. But, as he refused to limit his ministrations to one
sect, the Seceders and he parted company, and without their
countenance he made a tour through the principal towns of Scot-
land, and was everywhere received with enthusiasm. From Scot-
land he went to Wales, where on Nov. 14, he married a widow
named James. The marriage was not a happy one. On his return
to London in 1742 he preached to the crowds in Moorfields during-
the Whitsun holidays. After a second visit to Scotland, June-
October 1742, and a tour through England and Wales, 1742-
1744, he embarked in August 1744 for America, where he re-
mained till June 1748. On returning to London he found his
congregation at the Tabernacle dispersed; and his circumstances
were so depressed that he was obliged to sell his household furni-
ture to pay his orphan-house debts. Relief soon came through
his acquaintance with Selina, countess of Huntingdon (q.v.), who
appointed him one of her chaplains.
The remainder of WhitefielcTs life was spent chiefly in evangel-
izing tours in Great Britain, Ireland and America. It has been
stated that "in the compass of a single week, and that for years,
he spoke in general forty hours, and in very many sixty, and that
to thousands." In 1748 the synods of Glasgow, Perth and Lothian
passed vain resolutions intended to exclude him from churches;
in 1753 he compiled his hymn-book, and in 1756 opened the
chapel which bears his name in Tottenham Court Road, London.
On his return from America to England for the last time the
change in his appearance forcibly impressed Wesley, who wrote in
his Journal: "He seemed to be an old man, being fairly worn out
in his Master's service, though he had hardly seen fifty years."
When health was failing him he placed himself on what he called
"short allowance," preaching only once every week-day and
thrice on Sunday. In 1 769 he returned to America for the seventh
and last time, and arranged for the conversion of his orphanage
into Bethesda College, which was burned down in 1773. He died
on Sept. 30, 1770, at Newburyport, Mass. He was buried before
the pulpit in the Presbyterian church of the town where he died.
Whitefield's printed works convey a totally inadequate idea of his
oratorical powers, and are all in fact below mediocrity. They appeared
in a collected form in 1771-72 in seven volumes, the last containing
Memoirs of his Life, by Dr. John Gillies. His Letters (1734-70)
WHITEFISH— -WHITELOCKE
577
were comprised in vols. i., ii. and iii. of his Works and were also
published separately. His Select Works, with a memoir by J. Smith,
appeared in 1850. See Lives by Robert Philip (1837), L. Tyerman
(2 vols., 1876-77), J. P. Gledstonc (1871, new cd. 1900), and W. H.
Lecky's History of England, vol. ii. (1878-90).
WHITEFISH, the name of fishes of the genus Core^onus
of the salmon family. These are silvery fishes with rather large
scales, and with a small toothless or feebly toothed mouth; they
feed on minute crustaceans. Marine species, entering rivers to
breed, are chiefly arctic, but a number of fresh-water species
inhabit Europe and North America, especially in lakes. Few
species of Coregonus reach a length of more than 18 inches.
For the British species see GWYNIAD, POLLAN and YEN DACE;
see also SALMON AND SALMON IDAE.
WHITEHALL, a village of Washington county, New
York, U.S.A., at the head (south end) of Lake Champlain, 65 m.
N. by E. of Albany, It is on Federal highway 4, is served by the
Delaware and Hudson railway and is the northern terminus of
the State Barge Canal system. Pop' (1920) 5,258 (88% native
white). In 1786 the village was named Whitehall and in 1806
it was incorporated. During the War of 1812 it was fortified
and was a base of supplies for operations against Canada.
WHITEHAVEN, seaport, market town, municipal borough,
Whitehaven parliamentary division, Cumberland, England, 41 m.
S.W. of Carlisle on the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1921) 19,535. At
the mouth of a river, the harbour is protected by two piers. It
has a large dock and a tidal harbour and extensive quayage. Regu-
lar summer communications are maintained with the Isle of
Man. The exports are principally coal, pig iron and ore, steel and
stone. There are collieries near the town, the workings extending
beneath the sea; there are also iron-mines and works, engineering
works, and shipbuilding yards. From 1832 until 1918 it was a
parliamentary borough returning one member.
Whitehaven (Wito ft haven) was a possession of the priory of
St. Bee which became crown property at the dissolution of the
religious houses. It was acquired before 1644 by relatives of the
earl of Lonsdale, who secured the prosperity of the town by work-
ing the coal-mines. From 1708 the harbour was governed by 21
trustees, whose power was extended by frequent legislation, until,
in 1885, they were incorporated. In 1894 a municipal corporation
was created by charter in that year. The harbour was entrusted
to 15 commissioners.
WHITEHEAD, ROBERT (1823-1905), English inventor,
was born at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, on Jan. 3, 1823, the son
of James Whitehead, owner of a cotton-bleaching business. In
1837 he was apprenticed to a firm of engineers in Manchester,
and in 1844 joined his uncle at the works of Philip Taylor and
Sons, Marseilles. In 1847 he set up a business of his own in
Milan, later joining the staff of the Austrian Lloyd Company at
Trieste, where he was manager from 1850 to 1856. In 1856 he
began to work for the Stabilimento Tecnico Fiumano, building
several Austrian warships, and carrying out preliminary experi-
ments for the Whitehead torpedo, completed in 1866. In 1872
Whitehead bought the Stabilimento Tecnico Fiumano, converting
the works entirely to the production of torpedoes and their acces-
sories. (See TORPEDO.) In 1876 he improved his torpedoes with
the "servo-motor/* and gradually increased their speed. His work
was perfected in 1896 by Obry's invention, subsequently acquired
and improved by Whitehead, of the gyroscope, which guaranteed
precision of aim.
See G. E. Armstrong, Torpedoes and Torpedo Vessels (1901).
WHITEHEAD, WILLIAM (1715-1785), English poet-
laureate, son of a baker, was born at Cambridge, and baptized on
Feb. 12, 1715. His father had extravagant tastes, and spent large
sums in ornamenting a piece of land near Grantchester, after-
wards known as "Whitehead's Folly." William was educated at
Winchester college and Clare Hall, Cambridge. He became a fel-
low of Clare in 1742. At Cambridge Whitehead published an epistle
"On the Danger of writing Verse" and other poems. In 1757 he
was appointed poet-laureate in succession to Cibbcr. Whitehead's
most successful play was the School for Lovers (Drury Lane,
Feb. 10, 1762). David Garrick then made him his reader of
plays. Whitehead died on April 14, 1785. He collected his Plays
and Poems in 1774.
See memoirs by his friend William Mason, prefixed to a complete
edition of his poems (York, 1788). His plays are printed in Bell's
British Theatre (vols. 3, 7, 20) and other collections, and his poems
appear in Chalmers's Works of the English Poets (vol. 17) and similar
compilations.
WHITE HORSE, VALE OF, the name of the valley of
the Ock, which joins the Thames from the west at Abingdon,
Berkshire, England. The vale is flat and well wooded, its green
meadows and foliage contrasting with the bald summits of the
White Horse hills on the south. On the north a lower ridge
separates it from the upper Thames valley; but local usage some-
times extends the vale to cover all the ground between the Cots-
wolds (on the north) and the White Horse hills. Wantage is the
only town in the heart of the vale, but upon the hills villages are
numerous. Towards the west, above Uffington, the hills reach
a culminating point of 856 ft. in White Horse hill. In its north-
ern flank, a gigantic figure of a horse is cut, the turf being re-
moved to show the white chalky sub-soil beneath. This figure
gives name to the hill, the range and the vale. It is 374 ft.
long and of the rudest outline, the neck, body and tail varying
little in width. Its origin is unknown. The figure, with others
of a similar character elsewhere in England, is considered to be
of high antiquity, dating from before the Roman occupation.
Many ancient remains occur in the vicinity of the Horse. On
the summit of the hill there is an extensive and well-preserved
circular earthwork known as Uflington castle. Within a short
distance are Hardwell castle, a square work, and, near Ashdown
park, a small camp traditionally called Alfred's. A smooth,
steep gully on the north Hank of White Horse hill is called the
Manger, and to the west of it rises a bald mound named Dragon's
hill. The name, properly Pendragon, is a Celtic form signify-
ing "chief of kings," and may point to an early place of burial.
To the west of White Horse hill lies a dolmen called Wayland
Smith's cave. The White Horse itself has been carefully cleared
of vegetation from time to time, and the process, known as the
"Scouring of the White IJorse," was formerly made the occa-
sion of a festival. A grassy track represents the ancient road or
Ridge Way along the crest of the hills and other earthworks in
addition to those near the White ^rsc overlook the vale, such
as Let combe castle above Wantage. Among interesting village
churches in the vale is the fine Early English one at Uffington.
The length of the vale is traversed by the main line of the
G.W. railway, between Didcot and Swindon.
WHITE LEAD: see LEAD.
WHITELEY, WILLIAM (1831-1907), English "Universal
Provider," was born at Agbrigg, near Wakcficld, Yorkshire, on
Sept. 29, 1831, the son of a corn-factor. In 1851 he made his first
visit to London to see the Great Exhibition, and in 1852 he ob-
tained a situation in a draper's establishment in the city. In 1863
he himself opened a small shop for the sale of fancy drapery in
Westbourne Grove, Bayswater, London. He made a consistent
practice of marking all goods in plain figures and of "dressing"
his shop-window attractively, both unusual features in the retail
trading of the time, and to this, coupled with the fact that he
was satisfied with small profits, he largely attributed a success
in which his own genius for organization and energy played a con-
spicuous part. In 1866 Whiteley added general drapery to his
other business, opening by degrees shop after shop and depart-
ment after department, till he was finally enabled to call himself
the "Universal Provider," and boast that there was nothing which
his stores could not supply. "Whiteley's" was, in fact, the first
great instance of a large general goods store in London, held
under one man's control. In 1899 the business, of which the
profits then averaged over £100,000 per annum, was turned into
a limited liability company, Whiteley retaining the bulk of the
shares. On Jan. 23, 1907, he was shot dead, after an interview in
his private office, by Horace George Rayner, who claimed (but,
as was proved, wrongly) to be his illegitimate son and who had
been refused pecuniary assistance. Rayner was convicted of mur-
der, but the death-sentence was commuted to penal servitude.
WHITELOCKE, BULSTRODE (1605-1675), English
lawyer and parliamentarian, eldest son of Sir James Whitelocke
578
WHITE MOUNTAINS— WHITE RUSSIA
(q.v.), was baptized on Aug. 19, 1605, and educated at Merchant
Taylors' school and at St. John's college, Oxford, where he matric-
ulated on Dec. 8, 1620. He was called to the bar in 1626 and
chosen treasurer in 1628. He was M.P. for Stafford in the parlia-
ment of 1626 and had been appointed recorder of Abingdon and
Henley. In 1640 he was chosen member for Great Marlow in the
Long Parliament. He took a prominent part in the proceedings
against Strafford. He drew up the bill for making parliaments
indissoluble except by their own consent, and supported the Grand
Remonstrance and the action taken in the Commons against the
illegal canons; on the militia question, however, he advocated a
joint control by king and parliament. On the outbreak of the
Great Rebellion he took the side of the parliament. He was
sent to the king at Oxford in 1643 and 1644 to negotiate terms,
and the secret communications with Charles on the latter occa-
sion were the foundation of a charge of treason brought against
Whitelocke and Denzil Holies (q.v.) later. He was again one of
the commissioners at Uxbridge in 1645. Nevertheless, he opposed
the policy of Holies and the peace party and the proposed dis-
banding of the army in 1647, repudiated the claims of divine
authority put forward by the Presbyterians for their Church, and
approved of religious tolerance. He thus gravitated towards
Cromwell and the army party. Under the Commonwealth he was
nominated councillor of State and became a commissioner of the
New Great Seal. In 1653 he wont on a mission to Christina, queen
of Sweden, to conclude a treaty of alliance and to secure the
freedom of the Sound. On his return he again became a commis-
sioner of the Great Seal, and also a commissioner of the Treas-
ury. In 1654 and 1656 he sat as M.P. for Buckinghamshire.
As a lawyer, Whitelocke supported a bill introducing the use
of English into legal proceedings, drafted a new treason law, and
introduced modifications into chancery procedure. His resistance
to the ill-considered changes in the court of chancery proposed
by Cromwell and the council, however, led to his dismissal from
the commissionership of the Great Seal. He still advised Crom-
well on foreign affairs, and was chairman of the committee to urge
Cromwell to accept the crown. In Dec. 1657 he became a mem-
ber of the new House of Lords. He was again a commissioner
of the Great Seal under Richard Cromwell, and was a member
(May 14, 1659) and president (Aug. 1659) °f the council of
State. On the expulsion of the Long Parliament, in which he had
a seat, he was included in the committee of safety which super-
seded the council. He again received the Great Seal on Nov. i.
On the failure of his plan to persuade Fleetwood to forestall
Monk by making terms with Charles, he retired to the country.
He lived at Chilton, in Wiltshire, dying on July 28, 1675.
He was the author of Memorials of the English Affairs from the
beginning of the reign of Charles /. . . . published 1682 and reprinted,
largely a compilation from various sources, composed after the events
and abounding in errors. His work of greatest value, his Annals,
still remains in ms. in Lord Bute's and Lord de la Warr's collections
(Hist. Brit. Comm. 111. Rep., pp. 202, 217; also Egerton mss. Brit.
Mus. 997, add. mss. 4,902, 4,994) ; his Journal of the Swedish Embassy
. . . was published 1772 and re-edited by Henry Reeve in 1885
(add. mss. 4,902, 4,991 and 4,995 and Hist. MSS. Comm. 111. Rep.,
IQO, 217) ; Notes on the King's Writ for Choosing Members of Parlia-
ment . . . were published 1766 (see also add. mss. 4,993) ; Memorials
of English Affairs from the supposed expedition of Bruce to this
Island to the. end of the Reign of James /., were published 1709;
Essays Ecclesiastical and Civil (1706); Quench not the Spirit . . .
(1711); some theological treatises remain in ms., and several others
are attributed to him.
See the article by C. II. Firth in the Diet. Nat. Biog., with author-
ities there emoted; R. H. Whitelocke, Memoirs of B. Whitelocke
(1860); H. Reeve's edition of the Swedish Embassy; Foss's Judges
of England; Eng. Hist. Rev., xvi. 737; Wood's Ath. Oxon., iii. 1,042.
WHITE MOUNTAINS, the portion of the Appalachian
mountain system which traverses New Hampshire (U.S.A.), be-
tween the Androscoggin and Upper Ammonoosuc rivers on the
north and the lake country on the south. They cover an area of
about i,3oom., are composed of somewhat homogeneous granite
rocks, and represent the remnants after long-continued erosion
of a region formerly greatly elevated. The geological formation
is an igneous ejection of granite, burst through horizontal strata.
The foundation seems to have lifted from the depths and bears
upon its shoulders a huge covering of mica slate that often extends
a quarter of a mile below the summit. The group is divided into
two main portions by Crawford Notch, the valley of the Saco
river. To the west of the notch are the Franconia mountains
where Mt. Lafayette, the highest peak, stands 5,269 ft. above sea-
level. To the east lies the Presidential range, so called because
the chief summits are named after the U.S. Presidents. Of this
group Mt. Washington is the highest peak, rising 6,293 ft. above
the sea. Thirteen other summits have an elevation exceeding 5,000
feet. Some of the best known are Mt. Adams, 5,805 ft.; Mt. Jef-
ferson, 5,725 ft.; Mt. Clay, 5,554 ft.; Mt. Monroe, 5,390 ft.; and
Mt. Madison, 5,380 feet.
See the article NEW HAMPSHIRE; the Guidebook, part i. (Boston,
1907), published by the Appalachian Mountain Club; and Appalachia,
(1876 seq.)y a periodical published by the same club.
WHITE PLAINS, a city of New York, U.S.A., the county
seat of Westchester county; 24 m. N.N.E, of the Grand Central
station in New York city, on the Bronx river, midway between
the Hudson and Long Island'sound. It is served by the New York
Central and electric railways and motor-bus lines. Pop. (1920)
21,031 (20% foreign-born white and 5% negroes) ; 1928 local esti-
mate over 29,000. White Plains is a beautiful residential suburb,
spreading over 10 sq.m. of rolling tree-clad hills and meadowlands,
with the Bronx River parkway running through it and three lakes
(Silver, Kensico and Rye) in the vicinity. The city's assessed
valuation for 1929 was $138,634,673.
The early traders called this region "the white plains" from the
groves of white balsam which covered it. In Nov. 1683, a1 party
of Connecticut Puritans came from Rye (in the territory then in
dispute between New York and Connecticut), bought land from
the Indians and established a settlement. Their title was con-
tested by the heirs of John Richbell, and the controversy was not
settled until 1722. In 1759 White Plains succeeded Westchester
as the county seat. In the early summer of 1776 the Third Pro-
vincial Congress of New York met here, in the old court house on
South Broadway (where an armory now stands). From the steps
of this building the Declaration of Independence was officially read
for the first time in New York on July 11, 1776, and here New
York was first declared a State and the work of drafting its first
Constitution was begun. In Oct. 1776, Washington withdrew his
forces from the north end of Manhattan and concentrated them
near White Plains. On Oct. 28 the Americans (about 1,600) de-
fending rude earthworks on Chatterton's hill (on the west bank of
the Bronx river) were attacked by 4,000 British and Hessians, and
after making a stubborn resistance retreated in good order across
the river. The American loss was about 125; the British, 250. The
old Miller house, in North White Plains, was occupied at intervals
by Washington as his headquarters before the battle and again in
the summer of 1778. In 1779 a Continental force under Aaron
Burr was stationed here for some months, and in July 1781, the
Heights of Greenburgh, west and south-west of the city, were
occupied by parts of Lauzun's and Rochambeau's French army.
White Plains was incorporated as a village in 1866 and as a city in
1916.
WHITE RUSSIA, a republic of the Russian U.S.S.R. Area
^25,703 sq.km. Pop. (1926) 4,979,712. Poland lies to the west,
the Ukrainian S.S.R. to the south, the provinces of Bryansk and
Smolensk to the east and the Pskov district of the Leningrad
Area to the north. In the north and west there are hills, the
Lysaya Hills north of Minsk being the highest (over 1,000 ft.),
but the south-east is a low and marshy plain sloping to the Pripet
river, and the swamps and marshes lying south of it, and forming
part of a great lacustrine depression. The Western Dvina flows
through a morainic region and its bed is interrupted by waterfalls
due to boulders and outcrops of harder rocks, as is that of the
Dnieper. The Berezina canal links these two rivers and thus
avoids some of these difficulties. Among the numerous streams
of the Republic are the Drut, Berezina, Pripet and Sozh, tribu-
taries of the Dnieper, and various streams flowing into the Niemen
and the Western Dvina. Fishing in these streams and the numer-
ous lakes is productive, and about 200 artificial breeding ponds
exist. The chief kinds of fish are pike, bream, sandre, perch, dace,
tench, crucian-carp, silurus and ling. Fishing for export ceased
WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC
579
during the recent wars and did not begin again until 1923. In
1924-5 the catch was about 800 tons as against a normal yield
of 9,500 tons. Steam navigation was also greatly lessened by the
destruction of the war years and is still far below pre-war level;
the severance of the former opening to the Baltic via the Western
Dvina is another factor in the diminished freightage.
The forest wealth of the region has been markedly diminished
by destructive exploitation before the World War and by the
ruthless cutting of forest during 1914-21 for the conflicting
armies. At present about 25% of the region is under forest, oak
in the south and pine and fir in the north. Much timber is
exported through Latvia for foreign markets, the rest going to
the Ukraine, the Crimea and the Moscow region. In dependence
on the forest there are saw-milling, wood-working, match and
paper factories, but many were razed to the ground during the
war period and production is much diminished. A tenth of the
surface is covered with bog, and peat working is increasing. This
peat and the numerous waterfalls are .potential sources of electrical
energy, little developed as yet in the republic; a station at Osino-
vich is under construction (1928). The soils in the republic are
not very favourable to agriculture, being mainly of the ash-
coloured forest type, with some clays and sands. The climate is
less continental than that of the rest of Russia and is under the
influence of the Baltic and Atlantic; the rainfall averages about
30 inches per annum. Frost lasts for 130 to 140 days, while the
summer temperature averages 18-5° C.
Agriculture. — These climatic and soil conditions are favour-
able to stock-raising, which is carried on successfully, pig-breeding
having developed lately. There is not much dairying except near
the towns for local supply. Cattle diminished markedly in the
war years, and their progress towards more normal numbers was
sharply set back by the slaughter of 1926-7 consequent on the
bad harvest. In 1924-5 manuring for meadows was introduced in
some places, with great benefit to the hay crop. Agriculture is
still pre-eminently of a grain character, though potato and flax
cultivation began to increase in 1924. The chief crops are rye and
flats. The region is, however, comparatively densely peopled and
the local grain supply is altogether insufficient, 267,000 tons of
imported grain being used in 1926-7. The strip system prevails,
though in some places individual farms have replaced it. In
spite of the devastation of the area, restoration of sowing has
been more rapid here than elsewhere in Russia.
The cutting off of the western regions from Russia has altered
the balance and direction of trade. In accordance with the long
and tragic history of this region of struggle with difficult natural
conditions and with perpetual invasions the standard of life is
low and illiteracy is comfnon. Here, as in most other places in
Russia, there is insufficient accommodation in school for children
and at least 40% of the present generation are receiving no edu-
cation. Since 1921 a Communist University and an Institute of
White Russian Culture, with a Polish and a Jewish section have
been established in Minsk. The population consists of White
Russians 80%, Jews 8%, Great Russians 7%, Poles 2% with some
Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Letts, etc, The administrative centre is
Minsk (q.v.). Other towns (q.v.) are Vitebsk, Gomel, Mogilev,
Bobruisk, Borisov, Orsha and Polotsk.
The White Russians are by Leroy Beaulieu considered to be the
purest of the three great Slav divisions, Great Russians, Little
Russians (Ukrainians) and White Russians. They took refuge
from Tatar raids in the swamps and marshes. Their dialect is akin
to Great Russian, but political causes separated the two races, and
the White Russians, like the Ukrainians, were for some time under
non-Russian rule. In physical type they are brachycephalic, aver-
age cephalic index 85, greater than that of the Great Russians,
possibly because of intermixture with the Poles. Their hair is
light brown or brown, with a decided reddish tinge and their eyes
light brown. Apparently they received the name " White'* Rus-
sians because of their costume, white smock, bast shoes with
white leggings, and a white homespun coat,
History.— -After the rise of Lithuania, the region became sub-
ject to the princes of that country and when the Litva prince
became king of Poland, the White Russian territory fell under
Polish rule. The official documents of the Litva dukes, however,
continued to be written in White Russian for some time after this.
Under Ivan the Great (1462-1505), part of the White Russian
territory was wrested from Poland. Under Basil III. (1505-
J533)» the power of Moscow extended to the Dnieper river, but
during the "Time of Troubles" the territory was regained by
Poland, and by the truce of Deulino, Poland retained Smolensk
and all the territory west of it. The struggle between Russia and
Poland continued at intervals, but Wrhite Russia remained in
Polish hands until the Treaty of Vilna 1656, when Poland ceded
WThite Russia and the Ukraine to Russia. But war broke out
again between the two countries and ended disastrously for
Russia, though she retained the district of Smolensk, and the
Ukraine east of the Dnieper. The deep division between the Poles
and the Russians on the question of religion ultimately led to
further troubles, and when in 1766 the Polish diet refused to
grant equal rights and full liberty of conscience to non-Roman
Catholic subjects, the flame of rebellion broke out at Slutsk in
White Russia.
In 1772 the first partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia
and Austria made the Western Dvina and the Drut the Russian
frontier, so that a portion of White Russia with 1,600,000 in-
habitants came under Russian rule. By the second partition of
Poland in 1793, Russia acquired all the rest of White Russia, a
large part of Black Russia (the territory between the Pripet and
the Niemcn, west of the Berezina), and the Ukraine west of the
Dnieper, and in 1795, by the third partition extended her terri-
tories to include Courland and all the rest of Lithuania and Black
Russia. During this long struggle between Poland and Russia,
the territory of the White Russians was repeatedly fought over
and devastated, and a general low level of cultural and economic
conditions in the region ensued and is still evident to-day. In 1812
the unfortunate country was crossed by Napoleon's army on its
march to and from Moscow via Smolensk, and suffered further
devastation, from which it had not recovered when war broke
out in 1914. It then lay close to the war zone and shared in the
disorder and disasters of the Russian retreat in 1916.
After the 1917 revolution a Committee of Workers, Soldiers
and Peasants of the Western Front was formed and an attempt
to establish a soviet system was thus made. But in February,
1918 Minsk and the whole region as far as the Dnieper was
occupied by German troops, withdrawn in November 1918, after
the revolution in Germany. The Soviet of Workers and Peasants
then declared an independent White Russian Republic and efforts
were made to form a joint Lithuanian and White Russian Re-
public. But early in 1919 war again broke out with Poland and
Polish troops occupied the district. Finally, by the treaty of Riga,
1921, peace was declared between Poland, Russia and the Ukraine,
the western part of White Russia passing under Polish rule. For
exact details of the new boundary, see British and Foreign State
Papers, iQ2j, vol. cxiv., published in 1924. The Soviet govern-
ment in 1924 and 1926 extended the boundary of White Russia
eastwards, and the towns of Vitebsk and Gomel, with a strip of
territory on the east bank of the Sozh, are now included in it.
WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC. The movement for the sup-
pression of the international traffic in women and children for im-
moral purposes may be said to some extent to date from the at-
tempt, in the middle of the i9th century, to introduce what may
be described as a system of State regulation of vice into England.
This system owed its introduction to the remarkably high inci-
dence of venereal disease at that period among soldiers and sailors,
and as a result, in 1864, the first of the Contagious Diseases Acts
was passed. There were then, and still are, two bodies of opinion;
in some cases the State recognized prostitution as a necessity
which could not be overlooked, but which called for control by
registration and sanitary supervision; in other countries a strong
body of opinion favoured no such recognition. In 1875 a meeting
was called by Josephine Butler in, Geneva to consider white slave
traffic from its international aspect and in its relation to state
regulation, and as a result the International Federation for the
Abolition of State Regulation of Vice was formed. In 1898 and
1899 William Alexander Coote, the secretary of the National Vig-
58°
WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC
ilance Association of Great Britain, visited Germany, Holland,
Belgium, France, Russia, Switzerland, Spain, Austria and the
Scandinavian countries, and in the capital of each organized a
national committee for the suppression of white slave traffic. An
international congress was therefore held in London in June 1913,
and at that congress the International Bureau for the Suppression
of White Slave Traffic was constituted to co-ordinate the work of
the national committees. The French Government had called an
official conference in Paris in 1904, and an international agree-
ment was drafted, under which the signatory powers undertook to
appoint a central authority in each country charged with the co-
ordination of all information relative to the traffic. The signa-
tories undertook to ensure vigilance at ports and railway stations,
to notify the arrival in each country of suspected persons, to take
declarations from alien prostitutes, to protect and maintain the
victims of the traffic pending repatriation (for which they also
took the responsibility) and to supervise registry offices or agen-
cies engaged in finding employment for women and girls abroad.
In 1910 a second governmental conference was called in Paris.
A convention drawn up after this conference provided for the
punishment of procurers for immoral purposes of girls and women,
either minors or of full age, in whatever country the various acts
constituting the offence might be committed. It provided also
for the enactment, in those countries where needed, of the neces-
sary legislation. In addition to the official conferences mentioned,
the International Bureau was instrumental in calling together con-
ferences and congresses in various parts of Europe.
The names of four persons will always be remembered for their
active association with the early movement for abolition of the
traffic in women and children: Josephine Butler and W. A. Coote
(England), Senateur Beranger (France), and Alfred dc Meuron
(Switzerland).
Work of the League of Nations. — Such was the preliminary
work done before the League of Nations came into existence
on Jan. 10, 1920. Article 23 (c) of the Covenant states that
members "will entrust the League with the general supervi-
sion over the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic
in women and children." On the decision of the first assem-
bly of the League, a questionnaire was sent to all Govern-
ments to ascertain the measures taken or proposed in the various
countries to put an end to the traffic. The Council of the League
was also invited to convene an international conference. Thirty-
four States were represented at this conference, which was held in
Geneva from June 30 to July 5, 1921. To it were invited, not only
States parties to the previous international engagements, but all
States willing to take part, and the meetings were open to the pub-
lic. The conference examined the replies to the questionnaire, and
a Final Act was adopted containing a number of recommendations
requiring action by Governments. This Final Act was approved
by the Council and, in Sept. 1921, the Assembly invited all Govern-
ments to authorize their delegates to sign forthwith a convention
submitted by the British Government in which many provisions
of the Final Act were given conventional form. This convention
was open for signature on Sept. 30, 1921; it has been signed by
34 States, 28 of which (including the British Empire, the Domin-
ions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa and
India) have ratified the convention. Twenty-seven British colo-
nies and dependencies and the territory of 'Iraq (British man-
dated territory) have adhered.
The new convention was not intended to replace the earlier
instruments, but to supplement them, and it is for that reason
that the first article prescribes that the high contracting parties, if
not already parties to the agreement of 1904 and the convention
of 1910, shall ratify or adhere to them without delay. Other new
provisions in the convention are that the punishments prescribed
under the convention of 1910 for those who traffic in women and
girls are made applicable to those who engage in the traffic of
children of either sex. The punishment is required not only of
those guilty of offences committed, but of attempts to commit the
offence and, within legal limits, of acts preparatory to the com-
mitting of such offence. The minimum age under \yhich it is an
offence to procure a woman for immoral purposes, even with her
consent, previously fixed at 20, is raised to 21. In addition, the
provisions of the convention of 1921 relating to extradition go
further than those of the convention of 1910, the parties agreeing
that in cases where no extradition convention exists between two
countries, they will take all measures in their power to extradite
or provide for the extradition of persons accused or convicted of
certain offences specified under the convention of 1910. They
also undertake to prescribe such regulations as are required for
the protection of women and children seeking employment in an-
other country, if they have not already done so.
The Advisory Committee. — Another outcome of the confer-
ence of 1921 was the setting up of an advisory committee to the
Council on all matters relating to the traffic in women and chil-
dren. This committee sat for the first time in June 1922. It was
composed of delegates of Governments, and of assessors appointed
by international voluntary organizations. During its six meetings
it had under special consideration the questions of employment of
women abroad by theatrical/ variety, concert and cinema agents,
the moral welfare of women and children on emigrant ships; the
consideration of the system of licensed houses; the employment
of women police, and the consideration of the laws and regula-
tions in force in various countries for suppressing the traffic.
Of these questions, one which has been given much importance
is that of the system of the licensed house. Though it may be
maintained that the regulation of vice in any country is purely an
internal and national question, it was the opinion of a large num-
ber of members on the advisory committee that the licensecHhouse
stimulates immorality and encourages an international trade to
supply a certain market. The committee gave special attention to
the subject, and as a result of its investigations, the Council
"recognizing the connection which may exist between a system of
licensed houses and the traffic in women and children," invited
States which had abandoned the system to explain the motives of
their decision in abandoning it, in so far as they concern the traf-
fic; and States which still maintain the system to indicate whether
their experience leads them to believe that the system encourages
the international traffic or otherwise.
The majority of answers received appear to indicate a Strong
movement for the abolition of the licensed house system, which
some of the new States created by the Treaty of Versailles
adopted and subsequently abandoned. The reasons given by these
States and others for this abolition are various. It is said, for ex-
ample, by some that the system has not justified expectation, and
has tended to disseminate rather than dimmish venereal disease.
It is the opinion given by more than one State that the licensed
brothel has proved itself to be a permanent factor in the traffic in
women and children, in fact that the traffic owes its very life to
the existence of the licensed brothel. The Dutch Government, in
giving the reasons for the abolition of the system of regulation in
that, country, state that experience has shown that the traffic de-
pends on the existence of the licensed brothel and that its abolition
has almost killed the traffic. On the other hand certain countries,
in replying, say that they maintain the system in the interests of
public health. This is sometimes qualified by the statement that
there is an obvious contradiction existing between the system of
tolerance and the higher end of the State, or that the State has de-
cided to give the matter serious attention in view of the growing
public opinion in favour of abolition, and in other reports it is
said that although the system is maintained, a scheme is in course
of preparation for its suppression.
The Expert Investigation, 1924-1926. — To ascertain the
extent of the world's traffic, the routes which it follows and the
individuals or organizations connected with it, a small body of
experts was nominated to make a world invest Ration on the spot
with the consent of and in conjunction with the Governments
concerned. This investigation was financed by the American
Bureau of Social Hygiene.
The experts were chosen on the ground of special knowledge and
qualifications, irrespective of nationality, the Social Section of the
League of Nations supplying the secretarial assistance.
The principles laid down in conducting the enquiry were as
follows :
WHITE STAR LINE— WHITGIFT
581
(a) The enquiries must be carried on only by trained and experi-
enced persons;
(b) Each enquiry should relate to a limited area;
(c) Each enquiry should be detailed and thorough;
(d) The enquiries should be begun, as far as possible, in cities and
countries to which women are alleged to have been sent tor
purposes of prostitution.
The investigators visited some of the chief cities in 28 countries,
including countries in Europe, countries in northern Africa border-
ing on the Mediterranean, countries in North America, Central
America and countries on the Atlantic coast of South America.
In March 1927, the committee of experts presented the report
of their investigations into the extent of the traffic in women and
children to the Council. This report shows that a traffic in
women and children exists beyond a doubt. They name those
countries which appear to them to be the chief countries of
demand or supply. The report lays special stress on the necessity
for closer international co-operation and a more widespread knowl-
edge of the position with the idea of .creating a sound and vigilant
public opinion. It recommends that increased penalties should be
enforced for U>e person making a profit out of the moral degrada-
tion of another and it closes with a statement to the elfcct that "the
difficulty* of eliminating the third party element becomes greater
in countries where the keeping of brothels is legal, where licensed
houses exist and where the system of registering prostitutes is
maintained." "The existence of licensed houses," say the experts,
uis undoubtedly an incentive to traffic, both national and inter-
national." "It behooves all governments," the report goes on to
say, "which place reliance on the older system of preventing the
spread of venereal diseases to examine the question thoroughly
in the light of the latest medical knowledge and practice and to
consider the possibility of abandoning a system which is fraught
with such dangers from the point of view of international traffic."
(See also PROSTITUTION.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Reports of the International Conference on Traffic
in Women and Children (Geneva 1921) ; the Reports of the League of
Nations Advisory Committee on Traffic in Women and Children (6
sessions, 1922, 192.}, 1924, 1925, 1926, 1927) ; J. Butler, Personal
Reminiscences of a Great Crusade; Reports of the International Bureau
lor the Suppression of Traffic in Women ; Report, of Experts on Traffic
in Women and Children (Geneva 1927). (R. E. C.)
WHITE STAR LINE, the name by which the world 'knows
the ships of the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company (the shares
of which are owned by the White Star Line, Limited), founded
by T. H. Ismay in 1869. Ismay's first steamer, the "Oceanic,"
sailed from the Mersey for New York in March, 1871. In 1874-75
the "Britannic" and "Germanic," each of 5,000 gross tons, were
built.
In 1874 the company had extended its operations, by agreement
with the Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company of San
Francisco. Ten years later the joint service of the White Star Line
and Shaw Savill and Albion Company to New Zealand was begun.
The last of the company's single-screw steamers were built in
1888 for the live-stock trade. These were followed by the twin-
screw passenger liners ''Teutonic" and "Majestic." In 1899 the
"Medic" inaugurated a service of twin-screw passenger and cargo
steamers between Liverpool, South Africa and Australia, in which
she was associated with the "Afric," "Persic," "Runic," and
"Suevic," all of about 12,000 tons, and accommodating one class
only of passengers.
A new "Oceanic" of 17,274 tons was placed in the New York
service in 1899. She was lost in Government service during the
World War. The "Celtic" and "Cedric," each over 21,000 tons,
were produced, soon after the "Oceanic," and in turn were
followed by the "Baltic," of 24,000 tons, and the "Adriatic,"
of 25,000 tons.
The company became a part of the International Mercantile
Marine Company in 1902, but this in no way affected its policy.
In 1907 the White Star Line transferred its New York mail
service, previously operated from Liverpool, to Southampton.
In 1911 the "Olympic," a triple-screw steamer of over 46,000
tons, entered the service. The "Britannic," a ship of nearly
50,000 tons built for this service, was sunk in the World War.
In 1909 the White Star Line combined with the Dominion Line
in forming a joint service from Liverpool to Canada, the first
steamers of this White Star Dominion Line being the "Lauren-
tic" (triple-screw), 14,892 tons, and "Megantic" (twin-screw),
14,878 tons. During 1926 the name of the service was changed to
the White Star Line Canadian Services, and in the spring of
1928 it added the "Albertic," 19,000 tons, and "Calgaric," 16,000
tons. The new "Laurentic," 18,700 tons, entered the trade early
in 1928.
In 1921 the White Star Line acquired the "Majestic," 56,551
tons, and "Homeric," 34,356 tons, the former being one of the
two largest vessels in the world, for its mail and passenger
service from Southampton and Cherbourg to New York. The
"Adriatic," "Baltic," "Cedric" and "Celtic" — the big four —
operate in the Liverpool-Queenstown-New York trade.
In 1926 the shares of the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company,
Limited, were purchased from the International Mercantile Marine
Company, by the Wrhite Star Line, Limited, formed for the pur-
pose, the line thus becoming once more a British concern.
The aggregate tonnage owned by the company ( 1928) is 546,000
and 69,000 tons are under construction, including the new "Britan-
| nic," a motor vessel for the Liverpool-New York service, 27,000
j tons. The capital of the White Star Line, Limited, stood in 1928
at ^9,000,000. (L. C. M.)
WHITETHROAT, a name given to two little birds belong-
ing to the Sylviidac or warblers (q.v.). The common whitethroat
or ncttlecrecper, Sylvia cimrea, is widely spread over Great Brit-
ain, in some places common. It is a restless bird, and in spring
the male often gives his song on the wing. The lesser whitethroat,
Sylvia curruca, is less often seen. The plumage is smoky-grey
above and white below. Its song is unusual, consisting of a series
of repeated notes, the usual "warble" being reduced to a short
preface inaudible at a little distance. The nests of each of these
species are built of bents or other plant-stalks, and usually lined
with horsehair; the eggs are spotted with olive-brown.
WHITGIFT, JOHN (1530?-! 604), English archbishop, was
the eldest son of Henry Whitgift, merchant of Great Grimsby,
Lincolnshire, where he was born. He was educated by his uncle,
Robert Whitgift, abbot of the neighbouring monastery of Wellow,
then at St. Anthony's school, London, and finally at Cambridge,
where he became a fellow of Petcrhouse in 1555. Having taken
orders in 1560, he became chaplain to the bishop of Ely, who
collated him to the rectory of Teversham, Cambridgeshire. In
1563 he was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at
Cambridge, and in 1564 regius professor of divinity. He became
master first of Pembroke Hall and then of Trinity. He had a
principal share in compiling the statutes (1570) of the university,
and in November of the same year was chosen vice-chancellor.
Macaulay's description of Whitgift as "a narrow, mean, tyrannical
priest, who gained power by servility and adulation," is unjust,
but he was intolerant and arbitrary. Whitgift, with other heads
of the university, deprived Thomas Cartwright in 1570 of his prp-
fessorship, and in Sept. 1571, as master of Trinity, deprived him
of his fellowship. In June of the same year Whitgift was nomi-
nated dean of Lincoln. In the following year he published An
Answer e to a Certain Libel intituled an Admonition to the Parlia-
ment, which led to further controversy with Cartwright. On
March 24, 1577, Whitgift was appointed bishop of Worcester, and
during the absence of Sir Henry Sidney in Ireland (1577) he acted
as vice-president of Wales. In August 1583 he was appointed
archbishop of Canterbury. Although he wrote a letter to Queen
Elizabeth remonstrating against the alienation of church prop-
erty, Whitgift always retained her special confidence. In his
policy against the Puritans, and in his vigorous enforcement Of the
subscription test, he thoroughly carried out the queen's policy of
religious uniformity. He drew up articles aimed at nonconforming
ministers, and obtained increased powers for the Court of High
Commission. In 1586 he became a privy councillor. His action gave
rise to the Marprelate tracts, in which the bishops and clergy were
bitterly attacked. Through Whitgift 's vigilance the printers of the
tracts were discovered and punished; and in order more effectually
to check the publication of such opinions he got a law passed in
1593 making Puritanism an offence against the statute law. In the
582
WHITHORN-—WHITMAN
controversy between Walter Travers and Richard Hooker he inter-
posed by prohibiting the preaching of the former and he more-
over presented Hooker with the rectory of Boscombe, Wilts., in
order to afford him more leisure to complete his Ecclesiastical
Polity, a work which, however, cannot be said to represent either
Whitgift's theological or his ecclesiastical standpoint. In 1595 he,
in conjunction with the bishop of London and other prelates,
drew up the Calvinistic instrument known as the Lambeth Arti-
cles, which were not accepted by the church. Whitgift attended
Elizabeth on her deathbed, and crowned James I. He was present
at the Hampton Court Conference in Jan. 1604, and died at Lam-
beth on Feb. 29 of that year. He was buried in the church of
Croydon. Whitgift was noted for his hospitality, and was osten-
tatious in his habits, sometimes visiting Canterbury and other
towns attended by a retinue of 800 horsemen. His name is com-
memorated in the hospital for poor persons and the schools
founded by him at Croydon in 1595.
Whitgift left several unpublished works; which are included among
the mss, Angliae. Many of his letters, articles, injunctions, etc., are cal-
endared in the published volumes of the "State Paper" series of the
reign of Elizabeth. His Collected Works, ed. for the Parker Society
by John Ay re (3 vols., Cambridge, 1851-53), include, besides the con-
troversial tracts already alluded to, two sermons published during his
lifetime, a selection from his letters to Cecil and others, and some por-
tions of his unpublished mss.
A Life of Whitgift by Sir G. Paule (1612, 2nd ed. 1649) was embod-
ied by John Strype in his Life and Acts of Whttgift (1718). There is
also a life in C." Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography (1810), W. F.
Hook's Archbishops of Canterbury (1875), and vol. I. of WhitRift's
Collected Works. Sec also H. J. Clayton, Wkitgift and his Times
WHITHORN, royal burgh and parish of Wigtownshire, Scot-
land, I2-J m. S. of Wigtown by rail. Pop. (1921) 1,033. St.
Ninian or Ringan, the first Christian missionary to Scotland,
landed at the Isle of Whithorn, where he built (397) a stone
church, which, out of contrast with the dark mud and wattle huts
of the natives, was called Candida Casa, the White House. Ninian
was buried in the church. A hundred years later the Magnum
Monasterium, or monastery of Rosnat, was founded and in the
8th century became the seat of the bishopric of Galloway. It was
succeeded in the i2th century by St. Ninian's Priory, built for
Premonstratensian monks by Fergus "King" of Galloway, of
which only the chancel (used as the parish church till 1822) and
other fragments remain. In Roman times Whithorn belonged to
the Novantae, and William Camden, the antiquary, identified it
with the Leukopibia of Ptolemy.
WHITING, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., on Lake
Michigan and the Illinois State line, 17 m. S.E. of the Chicago
"Loop." It is on Federal highways 20 and 41, and is served
chiefly by the Baltimore and Ohio, the New York Central, the
Pennsylvania and the Pere Marquette railways, and lake steam-
ers. Pop. 10,145 in 1920; estimated locally at 12,500 in 1928.
Whiting is the centre of the industrial region known as the
Calumet District, and its boundaries touch those of Hammond
and East Chicago. Its principal industry is the refinery of the
Standard Oil Company of Indiana. The city's assessed valuation
for 1927 was $27,013,080. Whiting was founded in 1881, in-
corporated as a town in 1895, and chartered as a city in 1903.
WHITING (Gadus merlangus), a silvery fish that ranges from
Norway to the Mediterranean, and differs from the cod in having
no barbel. It is valued as a food fish, and reaches a weight of
about three pounds.
WHITLEY, JOHN HENRY (1866- ), Speaker of
the British House of Commons, was born at Halifax on Feb. 8,
1866, and educated at Clifton college and London university. He
was elected Liberal M.P. for Halifax in 1900, and represented his
native city for 28 years. From 1907 to 1910 he was junior lord
of the treasury, and in 1910 became deputy chairman of ways
and means. From 1911 to 1921 he was chairman of ways and
means and deputy speaker. In 1916 he acted as chairman of the
Reconstruction Committee on Relations between Employers and
Employed, and his name has become associated with the joint
industrial councils established for many industries as a result of
the reports of that committee. Whitley was appointed Speaker
in 1921, retiring in 1928 and declining the usual peerage. He was
awarded the Order of Merit. He had an urbane manner in deal-
ing with delinquents which was notably effective.
WHITLEY COUNCIL: see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.
WHITLOCK, BRAND (1860- ), American diplomat
and writer, was born at Urbana (0.), March 4, 1869. As a political
reporter on the Chicago Herald and as assistant in the office of
the Illinois secretary of state, Mr. Whitlock came in contact with
John P. Altgeld, governor of Illinois who, like "Golden-Rule"
Jones, mayor of Toledo, did much to develop his political ideal-
ism. He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1894, and to the bar
of Ohio in 1897. From that year until 1905 he practised law in
Toledo and then as an Independent became mayor for four terms,
in 1911 refusing nomination a fifth time. The record of his
labours for the "Free City" of which he dreamed is told in his
autobiography Forty Years of It (i9*4> new edition 1925).
In 1913 he was appointed U.S. minister (later ambassador) to
Belgium. Before he had been in Belgium a year the World War
broke out and the German invasion took place. Although the
other diplomatic bodies followed the Belgian Court to Havre,
Whitlock insisted on remaining in Brussels. It was largely due to
his urgent advice that Brussels did not resist, and thus escaped
devastation. In the early days of the war he gave protection to
many German residents who had been unable to leave the country.
By his firm attitude toward the German military officials he saved
many innocent Belgians from death; but his activities on behalf
of Edith Cavell were unavailing as he was misled at the last mo-
ment through false promises by the Germans. After the forma-
tion of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, its operations were
placed wholly under his direction. His ceaseless work on their be-
half won the gratitude of all Belgians and was rewarded by many
honours. Mr. Whitlock resigned Feb. i, 1022. An account of his
experiences is given in Belgium, a Personal Narrative (1919).
Whitlock himself spoke of vacillating "between an interest in
letters and an interest in politics," and there is no doubt that his
early literary work, at least, reflected this duality of tastes. The
i $th District (1902) revealed the insidiously corrupting influence
of certain phases of politics; and The Turn of the Balance (1907),
a poignant exposure of social injustices, was written "out of the
contemplation of the misery, the pathos, the hopelessness of the
condition" of the victims during his police court experiences. A
fruit of his administrative work is the little monograph On the
Enforcement of Law in Cities (1913). His later novels, such as
/. Hardin and Son (1923) and Uprooted (1926), are less con-
cerned with ethical problems. His technique at all times, however,
has revealed his admiration for the ideals and methods of that
gentle advocate of Tolstoism and realism, William Dean Howells.
WHITMAN, WALT (1819-1892), American poet, was born
near Huntington, Long Island, on May 31, 1819. His father, of
1 7th century English freeholding stock long settled in Huntington
township, was a farmer and later a house-builder, democratic in
politics and inclined toward Quaker liberalism in religion. Of
robust Dutch and Welsh farming and seafaring descent was his
"perfect mother," who, though possessing as little education as
her husband, deeply impressed her son through her sanity, prac-
ticality, encompassing affection and intuitive spiritual nature. The
family moved to the village of Brooklyn about 1824, where Walt
attended the public schools until he was twelve. His real educa-
tion, however, was acquired through wide and thoughtful reading
of a great mass of current, romantic, classical and oriental litera-
ture; through intimate contacts with nature and the metropolis
across the East river, where he had opportunities for constant at-
tendance at lectures, exhibitions, theatres, concerts, operas and
political gatherings and for associating with "powerful uneducated
persons" like boatmen and omnibus drivers, as well as politicians,
literary and artistic Bohemians, and more prominent persons;
through several years of country school teaching on Long Island,
"boarding round" among the honest, independent bourgeoisie;
through travel, especially in the West and the South, which devel*
oped in him an enduring sympathy for all sections; and finally
through long association with magazines and newspapers, as jour-
neyman compositor, contributor of conventional prose and verse
WHITMAN
583
or editor, an association which awakened in him literary ambitions
and encouraged a national point of view.
An earnest of his future authorship was given as early as
1846-48, when, editing the democratic Brooklyn Daily Eagle,
Whitman expressed the religio-patriotic enthusiasm he had in-
herited from revolutionary ancestors. He championed the senti-
mental and idealistic reforms popular in the "transcendental"
period of American thought and voiced the adolescent spirit of
nationalism in his demand for native manners, drama, opera and
literature. In politics, temperament and philosophy always a
staunch individualist, he opposed the extension of slavery into
the new States of the Union so uncompromisingly as to lose his
editorial position on the conservative Eagle, though for that same
opposition he was shortly afterward put in charge of the Brooklyn
Daily Freeman.
In 1855 Whitman published Leaves of Grass. This was a
large, thin volume as odd in format and style as it was original
in mood and thought, yet in it Emerson, himself a strong in-
fluence in its creation, perceived great promise as being "the most
extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom America has yet con-
tributed." Having absorbed his country until he thought himself
fundamentally typical of it, Whitman here began a lifelong at-
tempt not only to record himself, body and soul, in poetic auto-
biography, but also to create a character-epic of America. "Most
of the great poets are impersonal," he said, "I am personal. . . .
In my poems, all revolves round, concentrates in, radiates from
myself. I have but one central figure, the general human per-
sonality typified in myself. But my book compels, absolutely
necessitates, every reader to transpose himself or herself into
the central position, and become the living fountain, actor, experi-
encer himself or herself, of every page, every aspiration, every
line." Such a purpose naturally led him to discard conventional
poetic methods, of form, atmosphere and allusion, and to rely
upon the direct address of rhythmical declamation.
The book met a varied reception. At first there were few to
rate it except according to the current standards from which
Whitman appealed, though Thoreau, who visited him in Brooklyn,
considered him "probably the greatest democrat that ever lived."
Despite general neglect and frequent abuse, Whitman continued
through life to complete the record of his inner growth and
changes, often publishing poems or groups of poems separately,
but finally incorporating them all in the parent volume, Leaves
of Grass. Following the insistent, arrogant, if frequently sublime,
egotism of the editions of 1855, 1856 and 1860 came a treat-
ment of democracy en masse, a socializing result due to Whit-
man's personal contact with the armies in the national capital.
For ten years, 1863-73, Whitman lived in Washington acting as
war correspondent and government clerk, but spending much of
his time, means and strength during war years in daily ministra-
tions to the wounded Northern and Southern soldiers in the
hospitals. His reactions to, and interpretations of, the great
struggle which was testing democracy, always to him more a re-
ligion than a political creed, are to be found in The Wound-
Dressed, a volume of war-time letters to his mother, in Drum-
Taps, a little volume of virile yet compassionate war poems, in-
cluding the universally admired When Lilacs Last in the Door-
yard Bloom* d on the death of Lincoln, and in parts of Specimen
Days, picturesque descriptions of his activities and observations.
Not only did the Civil War discipline his poetic art, making it
objective as well as subjective, teaching him to sing of the
nation as a nation, in terms of mature idealism, no longer as a
mere land of opportunity affording "open roads" to individual
self-realization; but it also laid the foundation for his influence
as an international force by making him the prophet of a world
at last united in peace. Whitman's most important essay, Demo-
cratic Vistas, if one except the famous preface of 1855 and A
Backward Glance O'er Traveled Roads, was likewise a result of
the war.
Stricken with paralysis in 1873, partly as a result of hospital
labours and exposure, Whitman went to spend his last 19 years
of invalldism in Camden, NJ. His creative work was thus
ended before his plan was complete, the sweet reasonableness of
his maturity being less fully represented than the hopeful self-
reliance, the exuberant spirit of his youth; nearly all the poems
after 1873 betray a flagging imagination and a lowered vitality,
though losing none of his cheerfulness or faith.
Gradually, at home and abroad, defenders of the poet took up
his cause as something more than a literary fad : John Burroughs,
his first biographer; William Douglas O'Connor, whose Good
Gray Poet, castigating Secretary Harlan for dismissing Whitman
from a Department of the Interior clerkship because of his
authorship of Leaves of Grass, gave the gray-haired, gray-garbed
poet his popular sobriquet; Dr. Richard Maurice Bucke, who
cared for him as a patient, wrote the first considerable biography
to present Whitman as a mystical superman, and edited several
volumes of Whitman letters and notes; Horace Traubcl, who in
the poet's last years and later played the devoted but by no means
sycophantic Boswell to him; William Michael Rossetti, whose
volume of selections from Whitman's poems early (1867) and
tactfully introduced him to the general English public; John
Addington Symonds, who, like Stevenson, was stimulated and
refreshed by the healthy spirit and universal sympathies of Whit-
man, declaring that the American bard had influenced his life
more than any book save the Bible, and shortly after Whitman's
death wrote an acute and sympathetic study of his work; and
others in Germany, Denmark and France who translated Whit-
man and interpreted him to the Old World.
He had been long in overcoming the prejudice aroused by his
conception of art, his "heroic nudity" in the treatment of nature
in the human body, and what was taken to be his "egotism";
but when he died in his humble home in Mickle street, now a
museum, it had already become a shrine where actors, artists
and lovers of free letters were frequent pilgrims, and he, the
cheerfulest poet of immortality, passed away content to believe
that his vision of a larger life for man had been caught by others.
The Man. — Whitman and his works were as paradoxical as the
age and land they sought to express. A large, healthy, hirsute
body fond of nature and of sense enjoyments was no more char-
acteristic of him than his womanly sensitiveness and quiet
sympathy; his courageous imagination which might either express
itself in terms of adolescent egotism or in haunting songs of those
"eidolons" which ever lure on the race of hardy spiritual pioneers
was no more fundamental than his engaging mystical naivete
which so strongly affected those who came into personal rela-
tions with him and made him the "caresscr of life wherever
flowing"; and his quest of ideal beauty always followed, even
while decrying art for art's sake, was not pursued by turning his
back on the realities of commonplace life or even the turbulence
of modern industrialism. Having a highly developed artistic
instinct, which was at times unmatched by any commensurate
talent, and was still more often (especially in the early editions)
thwarted by his impulse toward propaganda, he was, as he said,
"both in and out of the game" — he could criticize as well as
create. The hiatuses in the record and the mystical indefiniteness
of his expression render a precise statement of his Hegelian
philosophy difficult; it is more profitable, however, as he rightly
divined, to treat his purpose as fundamentally religious, however
suggestive its philosophical and aesthetic implications. "No
one will get at my verses who insists upon viewing them as aiming
mainly towards art or aestheticism," he insisted; and if there
be less truth in the statement to-day than when it was made, it
is largely due to his own influence in widening our conception
of the function of literature and art.
If Whitman be to-day the most vital literary force America can
show, it is because he began by sitting at the feet of the world's
greatest masters of song, imbibing something from every philoso-
phy, every religion. His art, his thought, his form is modern be-
cause it is fundamentally eclectic. Doubtless Homer, Sophocles,
Euripides, Epictetus, Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Goethe,
Rousseau, Carlyle, Shelley, "Ossian," Scott, Bryant, the Hindu
scriptures, Emerson and many others, each long and intimately
studied, often in the midst of wild nature, and checked against a
wide experience with modern American life, gave him that trans-
cendental self-respect which had courage to respond when the
5 84
WHITMAN— WHITNEY
mystical call came to him. And yet such large perception as his,
freed him at once from mere imitation and the dread of in-
consistency. There is room for Nature here, as well as God.
Underlying his poems is what he called an "implicit belief in the
wisdom, health, mystery, beauty of every process, every concrete
object, every human or other existence, not only considered from
the point of view of all, but of each."
Religion. — Viewing the future of America, Whitman came to
believe that the safety of his country lay in a renaissance of the
religious spirit. This was to be brought about, not through in-
stitutionalism but by the dissemination of good will and friendship
and the creation of realistic and imaginative poetry which would
reduce the school, church and State to mere instruments of na-
tional self-expression. That the modern world demanded a new
image of manly virtue he was persuaded through his welcome
acceptance of two ideas already fermenting jgth century thought;
one was the shifting of authority in politics, taste and economics,
from the favoured few to the many, from the traditions of the
past to the claims of the future; the other idea was the new con-
ception of history as an evolutionary growth according to natural
law, which, while giving prominence to the natural sciences that
sought to explain the concrete and the real tried also to relate
life at any given moment to an infinite scheme of progress.
In America Whitman saw a symbol of that spiritual pioneering
which, seeking perpetually a passage to India, links each age to j
a larger one. His "Prayer of Columbus" is a fitting tribute to the |
discoverer of America from its self-appointed poet. Yet with his !
idealism he blended a certain pagan epicureanism; while recog-
nizing personal and social imperfections, he saw in them the very
necessity out of which aspiration grows. In his attempt through
Leaves of Grass to show forth the spirit of his country made
flesh, Whitman did not need to claim the ascetic perfection which
was the boast of early Puritans and prophets. The modern man
he conceived to be fit to dwell in a world evolving through
democracy, was proud, arrogant, just, tolerant, friendly, willing
to treat woman as his equal, glorifying progress yet scorning
material achievement as an end, suspicious of extremists yet
indulging an intemperate relish for life and an unbounded faith
in the future.
His poetry is to-day read in 25 different translations and claims
more space in each new anthology and study of American litera-
ture. Its indirect effect already appears in a younger generation
of writers of verse, fiction And biography, who find the Whitman
of Victorian days strangely contemporary with an age of psycho-
analysis, realistic fiction, frank treatment of sex, enfranchised
womanhood, proudly self-conscious labour, and a growing spirit
of international good-will.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Full bibliographies may be found in O. L. Triggs,
Selections from Walt Whitman (igo6) ; Cambridge History of Ameri-
can Literature (1918); Carolyn Wells and Alfred F. Goldsmith, A
Concise Bibliography of Walt Whitman (1922) ; W. S. Kennedy, The
Fight of a Book for the World (1926). The Complete Writings of
Walt Whitman (1902), has been supplemented by Emory Hollo way,
The Vncollected Poetry and Pros? of Walt Whitman (1921); Cleve-
land Rodgers and John Black, The Gathering of the Forces (1921).
Biographical and critical studies by those who knew Whitman per-
sonally include Richard Maurice Bucke, Walt Whitman (1883) 7
Thomas Donaldson, Walt Whitman: the Man (1896) ; John Burroughs,
Whitman: A Study (1896) ; Edward Carpenter, Days with Walt Whit-
man (1906) ; Horace Traubel, With Walt Whitman in Camden (1906,
1908, 1914) ; J. Johnston and J. W. Wallace, Visits to Walt Whitman
in 1890-1891 (1918); Elizabeth Leavitt Keller, Walt Whitman in
Mickle Street (1921). The Letters of Anne Gilchrist and Walt Whit-
man was edited by Thomas B. Harned (1918). Other important studies
are John Addinpton Symonds, Walt Whitman: A Sttidv (1X93) ; Henry
Brvan Binns, A Life of Walt Whitman (1905); Bliss Perry, Walt
Whitman: His Life and Work (1908) ; L£on Bazalgctte, Walt Whitman
L'Homme ft son Oeuvre (1908) ; Basil de Selincourt, Walt Whitman:
A Critical Study (1914) ; John Bailey, Walt Whitman (1926) ; Emory
Holloway, Whitman: An Interpretation in Narrative (1926).
(E. HOL.)
WHITMAN, a town of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., 20 m. S. by E. of Boston, adjoining Brockton; served by
the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. Pop. (1920)
7,147 (85% native white). The town of South Abington was
formed in 1875 from parts of Abington and East Bridgewater and
in 1886 it changed its name to Whitman.
WHITNEY, ELI (1765-1825), American inventor, was born
on a farm in Westboro (Mass.), on Dec. 8, 1765. He exhibited
unusual mechanical ability at an early age and earned a consider-
able part of his expenses at Yale college, where he graduated in
1792. He soon went 'to Savannah (Ga.), and accepted the invita-
tion of Mrs. Nathanael Greene, the widow of the revolutionary
general, to spend some time on her plantation on the Savannah
river, while deciding upon his future course. The construction by
Whitney of several ingenious household contrivances led Mrs.
Greene to introduce him to some gentlemen who were discussing
the desirability of a machine to separate the short staple up-
land cotton from its seeds. In a few weeks Whitney pro-
duced a model, consisting of a wooden cylinder encircled by
rows of slender spikes set half an inch apart, which extended
between the bars of a grid set so closely together that the seeds
could not pass, but the lint* was pulled through by the revolving
spikes; a revolving brush cleaned the spikes, and the seed fell into
another compartment. The machine was worked by hand and
could clean 50 Ib. of lint a day. A patent was granted on
March 14, 1794. Meanwhile Whitney had formed a partnership
with Phineas Miller, and they built at New Haven (Conn.) a
factory for the manufacture of the gins. They were unable
to supply the demand for gins, and country blacksmiths con-
structed many machines. A patent, later annulled, was granted
(May 12, 1796) to Hogden Holmes for a gin which substituted
circular saws for the spikes. Whitney spent much time and money
prosecuting infringements of his patent, and in 1807 its validity
was settled. The South Carolina legislature voted $50,000 for
the rights for that state, while North Carolina levied a licence tax
for five years, from which about $30,000 was realized. Tennessee
paid, perhaps, $10,000. Meanwhile WThitney, disgusted with the
struggle, began the manufacture of fire-arms near New IJaven
(1798) and secured profitable government contracts; he intro-
duced in this factory division of labour and standardized parts.
See Dcnison Olmsted, Memoir (1846) ; D. A. Tompkins, Cotton and
Cotton Oil (Charlotte, N. C., 1901) ; and W. P. Blake, "Sketch of Eli
Whitney," in New Haven Colony Historical Society Papers^ vol. v.
(1894).
WHITNEY, WILLIAM COLLINS (1841-1904), Ameri-
can political leader and financier, born at Conway, Mass., July 5,
1841. He graduated at Yale in 1863, studied law at Harvard, and
began to practise in New York city. He actively allied himself
with the anti-Tammany organization which successfully opposed
the <(Twccd Ring," and aided in the election of Samuel J. Tilden
as governor in 1874. As corporation counsel of New York city
(1872-82) he contested some 3,800 suits against the city, inher-
ited from the Tweed regime, and he saved the municipality about
$12,000,000. He did much in the way of organization to secure
the election of Cleveland in 1884, and under him became Secre-
tary of the Navy (1885-89). He played an important role in cre-
ating a more modern navy, especially in the building of armour-
plated ships. After his term of office he reorganized the Manhattan
street railways and established the Metropolitan Street Railway
company. His work in 1892 overcame the efforts of T. C. Platt
and Tammany Hall, through a "snap convention" to prevent the
nomination of Cleveland for a second time. In 1896, disapproving
of the "free-silver" agitation, he refused to support his party's
candidate, William J. Bryan (q.v.). One of his last pieces of work
was the organization of the New York Electric Light, Heat and
Power company with a capital of $50,000,000. He died in New
York city Feb. 2, 1904.
WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT (1827-1894), Ameri-
can philologist of New England stock, was born at Northamp-
ton, Mass., on Feb. 9, 1827. He graduated at Williams college
with highest honours in 1845. Although he was at first interested
in natural science, after 1848 he devoted himself with enthusiasm
to Sanskrit, at that time a little-explored field of philological
labour. After a brief course at Yale with Prof. Edward Elbridge
Salisbury, then the only trained Orientalist in the United States,
Whitney went to Germany (1850) and studied for three years
WHITNEY— WHITTIER
585
at Berlin and at Tubingen. In 1854 he was appointed professor
of Sanskrit at Yale, and in 1869 professor of comparative philol-
ogy also. In 1870 he received from the Berlin Academy !
of Sciences the first Bopp prize for the most important contribu- ,
tion to Sanskrit philology during the preceding three years — his
edition of the Taittiriya-Prdti$akhya (Journal of the American
Oriental Society, vol. ix.). He died at New Haven, Conn., on
June 7, 1894.
Whitney edited, with Professor Roth, the Atharva-V eda-San-
hitd (1855-56); published, with a translation and notes, the
Atharva-Veda-Prdticdkhya (1862); made important contribu-
tions to the great Petersburg lexicon; issued an index verborum
to the published text of the At harm-Veda (Journal of the Ameri-
can Oriental Society, T88i); made a translation of the Atharva-
Veda, books i.-xix., with a critical commentary, which he did not
live to publish (edit, by Lanman, 1905); and published a large
number of special articles upon various points of Sanskrit phi-
lology. His most notable achievement in this field, however, is
his Sanskrit Grammar (1879). Whitney was editor-in-chief of
The Century Dictionary (1889-91).
For a bibliography of Whitney's writings and for tributes to him
see The Whitney Memorial Meeting edit, by C. R. Lanman (1897)
and the Journal of the American Oriental Society (vol. xix. May 1897).
See also the Atlantic Monthly (March 1895) for an article by C. R.
Lanman.
WHITNEY, MOUNT, a peak near the southern extremity
of the high Sierra Nevada in Inyo and Tulare counties, Cali-
fornia. It is the highest (14,501 ft. above sea-level) summit of
the United States, excluding Alaska. From its granite crest can
be seen innumerable spires but. little lower than its own, segre-
gated by canyons of tremendous depth. Much of the ruggedness
and beauty of the regions is due to the erosive action of many
alpine glaciers that once existed on the higher summits. Only
small patches of ice and snow now exist on its north side. Mt.
Whitney was sighted in July 1864 by members of the California
State Geological Survey, and was named in honour of their chief,
Professor Josiah Dwight Whitney. The first ascent was made on
Aug. 1 8, 1873 by John Lucas, Charles D. Begolc and A. II. John-
son, all of Inyo county, Calif. In the same year, Sept. 19, it was
climbed by Clarence King, who had failed by only a few hundred
feet in 1864, while a member of the State Geological Survey.
See C. King, Mountaineering, in the Sierra Nevada (1907) ; and John
Muir, The Mountains of California (Qth cd, 1911).
WHITSTABLE, a watering-place in the Canterbury parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, on the north coast at the
east end of the Swale, 6 m. N.N.W. of Canterbury, on the S.
railway. Pop. of urban district (1921) 9,842. The branch railway
connecting Whitstablc with Canterbury was one of the earliest
in England, opened in 1830. Whitstablc has been famous for
its oyster beds from time immemorial.
WHITSUNDAY or PENTECOST, one of the principal feasts
of the Christian Church, celebrated on the fiftieth (irtvTTjKoaT^
day after Easter to commemorate the descent of the Holy Spirit
on the disciples. The day became one of the three baptismal
seasons, and the name Whitsunday is now generally attributed to
the white garments formerly worn by the candidates for baptism
on the vigil, as in the case of the Dominica in albis. The festival
is the third in importance of the great feasts of the Church and
the last of the annual cycle commemorating the Lord. It is con-
nected with the Jewish Pentecost (q.v.), not only in the historical
date of its origin (see Acts ii.), but in idea; the Jewish festival
is one of thanks for the first-fruits of the earth, the Christian
for the first-fruits of the Spirit. In the early Church the name
of Pentecost was given to the whole fifty days between Easter
and Whitsunday, which were celebrated as a period of rejoicing
(Tcrtullian, De idolatr. c. 12, DC bapt. 19, DC cor. milit. 3, Apost.
Canons, c, 37, Council of Antioch, A.D. 341, can. 20). As
the designation of the fiftieth day of this period, the word Pente-
cost occurs for (he first time in a canon of the council of Elvira
(c. 305), which denounces as an heretical abuse the tendency to
celebrate the 4oth day (Ascension) instead of the 50th. There is
plentiful evidence that the festival was regarded very early as
one of the great feasts; Gregory Nazianzen (Oral. xliv. De
Pentec.) calls it the "day of the Spirit" (finepa- roD
and in 385 the Peregrinatio Silviae (see Duchesne, Origines, App.)
describes its elaborate celebration at Jerusalem.
In the middle ages the Whitsun services were marked by many
curious customs. Among those described by Durandus (Rationale
div. off. vi. 107) are the letting down of a dove from the roof
into the church, the dropping of balls of fire, rose-leaves and the
like. Whitsun is one of the Scottish quarter-days, and though
the Church festival is movable, the legal date was fixed for the
15th of May by an act of 1693. Whit-Monday, which, with the
Sunday itself, was the occasion for the greatest of all the me-
diaeval church ales, was made an English Bank Holiday by an
act passed on the 2 5th of May 1871.
See Duchcsne, Origines du culte Chretien (1889) ; W. Smith and
Chectham, Die. of Christian Antiquities (1874-1880) ; Herzog-Hauck,
Rcalencyklopdd'tp (1904), xv. 254, s.v. "Pfingsten." For the many
superstitions and observances of the day see P. H. Ditchfield, Old Eng-
lish Customs (1897); Brand, Antiquities of Great Britain (Hazlitt's
edit., 1905) ; B. Picart, Ceremonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les
peuples (1723).
WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF (1807-1892), Amer-
ica's "Quaker poet,'" was born in a Merrimack valley farmhouse,
Haverhill (Mass.), Dec. 17, 1807. The dwelling was built in the
T7th century by his ancestor, the sturdy immigrant, Thomas
Whittier, notable through his efforts to secure toleration for the
disciples of George Fox in New England. The poet was born in
the Quaker faith, and adhered to its liberalized tenets, its garb and
speech, throughout his lifetime. His father, John, was a farmer
of. limited means but independent spirit. His mother, Abigail
Hussey, whom the poet strongly resembled, was of good colonial
stock. In addition to this nonconformist ancestry there was Hu-
guenot blood on both sides of the family; the poet thus fairly in-
herited his conscience, religious exaltation, and spirit of protest.
Whittier's early education was restricted to what he could gain
from the primitive district school of the neighbourhood. His call
as a poet came when a teacher lent him the poems of Burns. He
was then about 14, and his taste for writing, bred thus far upon
the quaint journals of Friends, the Bible, and The Pilgrim's Prog-
ress, was at once stimulated. There was little art or inspiration in
his boyish verse, but in his iQth year an older sister thought one
poem good enough for submission to the Free Press, a weekly
paper which William Lloyd Garrison, the future emancipationist,
had started in the town of Newburyport. This initiated Whittier's
literary career. The poem was printed with a eulogy and the
editor sought out his young contributor; their alliance began and
continued until the triumph of the anti-slavery cause 37 years
later. Garrison and A. W. Thayer of the Haverhill Gazette urged
further schooling for the gifted lad, the latter friend offering the
hospitality of his own home. To meet expenses at the Haverhill
academy Whittier worked variously. Meanwhile he had writ-
ten creditable student verse and contributed to newspapers,
thus gaining friends and obtaining a decided if provincial reputa-
tion. He soon essayed journalism, editing in Boston the American
Manufacturer, an organ of the Clay protectionists, and contrib-
uting to the Philanthropist, devoted to humane reform. After a
year and a half his father's last illness recalled him to the home-
stead, where both farm and family became his charge. For six
months in 1830 he edited the Haverhill Gazette, contributing also
to the New England Review in Hartford (Conn.), the editorship
of which George D. Prentice transferred to him. Called home to
aid in the settlement of his father's estate, he fell ill, conducted his
periodical from home, and then returned for a brief time to Hart-
ford. After his resignation at the end of 1831, he worked on the
farm with his brother, doing his writing at night. Poverty, bodily
exhaustion, disappointed love, and ambition caused this to be one
of the most unhappy periods of his life. The sale of the farm in
1836 and removal to the pleasant cottage at Amesbury lightened
his physical burdens, however, and the crusade against slavery
provided him with an ennobling object for his passionate and
selfless devotion. He was a delegate to the Philadelphia conven-
tion ill 1833 that formed the Anti-Slavery Society, and was ap-
pointed one of the committee that drafted the famous Declaration
of Sentiments. Although a Quaker, he had a polemical spirit; men
586
WHITTIER— WHITTINGTON
seeing Whittier only in his saintly age knew little of the fire where-
with, setting aside ambition and even love, he maintained his war-
fare against the "national crime," employing action, argument,
and lyric scorn. In 1833 he issued at his own cost a pamphlet,
Justice and Expediency; or, Slavery Considered with a View to its
Rightful and Effectual Remedy, Abolition, that provoked vehe-
ment discussion north and south.
In spite of the fact that illness prevented his serving his second
term in the State legislature, of which he had heen a member in
1835, his record throughout the 1830'$ is one of constant labour
for the cause of abolition — at home, in Harrisburg (Pa.), in
Boston, in New York, and in Philadelphia. After 1840 serious
heart trouble necessitated, his retiring to Amesbury, but the estab-
lishment in Washington of the National Era under Dr. Gamaliel
Bailey gave him a new outlet for his labours. To this famous
abolition paper, of which he was corresponding editor, he contrib-
uted for more than a decade the reviews, editorials, and the
stirring verse which made him the poet-seer of the emancipation
struggle. His sister Elizabeth, who became his life companion, and
whose verse is preserved with his own, was president of the
Woman's Anti-Slavery Society in Amesbury. The first collection
of Whittier's lyrics was the Poems written during the Progress of
the Abolition Question in the United States, issued in 1837,
though the first authorized edition was the Poems of 1838.
As early as 1828 Mr. Thayer had attempted to get the Poems
of Adrian published by subscription, and while in Hartford Whit-
tier had issued his first book, Legends of New England (1831), in
prose and verse, and edited the Literary Remains (1832) of the
poet John G. C. Brainard. For all his early verse, including MogR
Me^one ^(1836), a crude attempt to apply Scott's romantic method
to a native theme, he apologized in later life and suppressed the
pieces entirely or banished them to the oblivion of an appendix.
Pre-war volumes which reveal the development of his power are
Lays of my Home (1843), Voices of Freedom (1846), Songs of
Labor (1850), The Chapel of the Hermits (1853), The Pano-
rama (1856), Home Ballads (1860). The titles of In War Time
(1863) and National Lyrics (1865) designate the patriotic rather
than Tyrtaean contents of these books. The poet was closely
affiliated with the Atlantic Monthly from the foundation of that
magazine in 1857. The consequent growth of his reputation and
the welcome awarded to Snow-Bound in 1866 brought a corre-
sponding material reward. Of his later books of verse may be
mentioned The Tent on the Beach (1867), The Pennsylvania
Pilgrim (1872), The Vision of Echard (1878), The King's Missive
(1881), At Sundown, his last poems (1890). As early as 1840 an
illustrated collection of his poems appeared, and his Poetical
Works were issued in London in 1850. During the ensuing 40
years no fewer than ten collections of his poems appeared. Mean-
while, he did much editing and compiling, and produced, among
other works in prose, The Stranger in Lowell (1845) ; The Super-
naturalism of New England (1847); Leaves from Margaret
Smith's Journal (1849), a charming narrative of colonial days;
and Old Portraits and Modern Sketches (1850). When he died
on Sept. 7, 1892, in Hampton Falls, New Hampshire he had been
an active writer for over 60 years, leaving more than that number
of publications which bore his name as author or editor. His body
was brought to Amesbury for interment. The Amesbury house
has been acquired by the "Whittier Home Association."
It would be unjust to consider Whittier's genius from an ac-
ademic point of view. As a poet he was essentially a balladist,
with the faults of his qualities; and his ballads, in their freedom,
naiVete*, even in their undue length, are among the few modern
examples of unsophisticated verse. Such pieces as "Barclay of
Dry" or "Skipper Ireson's Ride" are perhaps the best American
examples of this form. Whittier became very sensible of his
shortcomings; and when at leisure to devote himself to his art
he greatly bettered it. It is necessary always to take into consider-
ation his own explanation that many of his poems "were written
with no expectation that they would survive the occasions which
called them forth; they were protests, alarm signals, trumpet-calls
to action, words wrung from the writer's heart, forged at white
heat, and of course lacking the finish which reflection and patient
brooding over them might have given." The inward voice was his
inspiration, and of all American poets he was the one whose song
was most like a prayer. A knightly celibate, his stainless life, his
ardour, caused him to be termed a Yankee Galahad; a pure and
simple heart was laid bare to those who loved him in "My Psalm/1
"My Triumph," and "An Autograph." The spiritual habit abated
no whit of his inborn sagacity, and it is said that in his later years
political leaders found no shrewder sage with whom to take coun-
sel. In spite of his technical defects the fact remains that no other
poet has sounded more native notes or covered so much of the
American legendary, and that Whittier's name among the patri-
otic, clean and true, was one with which to conjure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Before his death Whittier revised his works, classi-
fying them for a definitive edition in seven volumes (1888-89), which
has been used as a basis for all subsequent editions. H. E. Scudder ed-
ited the one-volume Cambridge edition of Whittier's verse (1894). The
poet's Life and Letters, prepared by his kinsman and literary executor,
Samuel T. Pickard, appeared in 1894. Whittier's Unknown Romance;
Letters to Elizabeth Lloyd jvas published with an introduction by
Marie V. Denervaud in 1922; John Albree edited Whittier Corn*
spondence from the Oak Knoll Collections (ion) ; S. T. Pickard is-
sued Whittier as a Politician; illustrated by his Letters to Professor
Etiznr Wright, Jr. (1900). Biographies of Whittier are: Richard
Burton (1901), G. R. Carpenter (1903), T. W. Higginson (1902),
W. S. Kennedy (enlarged ed., 1892), W. J. Linton (1893), Bliss Perry
(iqo7), and F. H. Underwood (1884). Personal reminiscences were
given by Mrs. Mary B. Claflin (1893), Mrs. James T. Fields (1893),
Frances C. Sparhawk (1925)1 and Edmund Gosse In Portraits and
Sketches (1912). S. T. Packard's Whittier-Land (1904) presented
hitherto unpublished material. See also essays in A. H.^Strong's
American Poets and Their Theology (1916) and Barrett Wendell's
Stdligm (1893) and the bibliography in the Cambridge History of
American Literature (vol. ii. pp. 436-451).
WHITTIER, a city of Los Angeles county, California, U.S.A.,
13 m. S.E of the business centre of Los Angeles, on the slopes of
the Pucnte hills, at the entrance to Turnbull Canyon. Pop. (1920)
7.997 (92% native white); (1928 local estimate) 16,500. Whittier
is primarily a residential city and a shipping point for oranges,
lemons, walnuts, avocados and oil. It is the seat of the State
school for boys, and of Whittier college (non-sectarian; estab-
lished by the Society of Friends in 1901). The city was founded
by Quakers, in 1887, and was named after John Greenleaf Whit-
tier. It was incorporated as a city in 1898.
WHITTINGHAM, CHARLES (1767-1840), English
printer, was born on June 16, 1767, at Caludon, Warwickshire, and
was apprenticed to a Coventry printer. In 1789 he set up a printing
press in London, started a paper-pulp factory in Chiswick in 1809,
and in 1811 founded the Chiswick press. He was a pioneer of
cheap reprints of the classics, was the first to use proper overlays
in printing woodcuts, and was also the first to print a fine or
"Indian paper" edition. He died at Chiswick on Jan. 15, 1840.
His nephew and partner, Charles Whittingham (1795-1876), re-
moved the whol6 business to London in 1852. Under him the
Chiswick press increased its reputation.
WHITTINGTON, RICHARD (d. 1423), mayor of Lon-
don, described himself as son of William and Joan (Dugdale,
Monasticon Anglicanum,vi. 740). This enables him to be identi-
fied as the third son of Sir William Whittington of Pauntley in
Gloucestershire, who married after 1355 Joan, daughter of William
Mansel, and widow of Thomas Berkeley of Cubberley. Richard
was a mercer by trade, and entered on his commercial career
under favourable circumstances. He married Alice, daughter of
Sir Ivo Fitzwaryn, a Dorset knight of considerable property; his
wife predeceased him. Whittington sat in the common council
as a representative of Coleman Street Ward, was elected alderman
of Broad Street in March 1393, and served as sheriff in 1393-
1394. When Adam Bamme, the mayor, died in June 1397, Whit-
tington was appointed by the king to succeed him, and in October
was elected mayor for 1398. He had acquired great wealth and
much commercial importance, and was mayor of the staple at
London and Calais. He made frequent large loans both to Henry
IV. and Henry V., and according to the legend, when he gave a
banquet to the latter king and his queen in 1421, completed the
entertainment by burning bonds for £60,000, which he had taken
up and discharged. Henry V. employed him to superintend the
expenses for completing Westminster Abbey. But Whittington
WHITTINGTON— WHOOPING-COUGH
587
took no great part in public affairs. He was mayor again in 1406-
1407, and in 1419-1420. He died in March 1423 bequeathing his
vast fortune to charitable and public purposes. He joined in
procuring Leadenhall for the city, and bore nearly all the cost
of building the Greyfriars Library. In his last year as mayor
he had been shocked by the foul state of Newgate prison, and
one of the first works undertaken by his executors was its re-
building. His executors, chief of whom was John Carpenter, the
famous town clerk, also contributed to the cost of glazing and
paving the new Guildhall, and paid half the expense of building
the library there; they repaired St. Bartholomew's hospital, and
provided bosses for water at Billingsgate and Cripplegate. But
the chief of Whittington's foundations was his college at St.
Michael, Paternoster church, and the adjoining hospital. The
college was dissolved at the Reformation, but the hospital or
almshouses arc still maintained by the Mercers' Company at
Highgate. Stow relates that his tomb in St. Michael's church
was spoiled during the reign of Edwai'd VI., but that under Mary
the parishioners were compelled to restore it (Survey, i. 243).
There is no proof that he was ever knighted. A writer of the
next generation bears witness to his commercial success in A Libell
of English Policy by styling him "the sunne of marchaundy, that
lodestarre and chief -chosen flower."
Pen and paper may not me suffice
Him to describe, so high he was of price.
Popular legend makes Dick Whittington a poor orphan
employed as a scullion by the rich merchant, Sir Hugh Fitzwarren,
who ventures the cat, his only possession, on one of his master's
ships. Distressed by ill-treatment he runs away, but turns back
when he hears from Holloway the prophetic peal of Bow bells.
He returns to find that his venture has brought him a fortune,
marries his master's daughter, and succeeds to his business. The
legend is not referred to by Stow, who would assuredly have
noticed it if it had been well established when he wrote. The
first reference to the story comes with the licensing in 1605 of a
play, now lost, The History of Richard Whittington, of his lowe
byrth, his great fortune. "The legend of Whittington," probably
meaning the play of 1605, is mentioned by Beaumont and Fletcher
in 1611 in The Knight of the Burning Pestle. When a little later
Robert Elstracke, the engraver, published a supposed portrait of
Whittington with his hand resting on a skull, he had in deference
to the public fancy to substitute a cat; copies in the first state
are very rare. Thomas Keightley traced the cat story in Persian,
Danish and Italian folk-lore as far back as the i3th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The most important early references to WhittinR-
ton are contained in Dr. R. R. Sharpe's Calendar of Letter-boot!, //.
(1907); H. T. Riley's Memorials of London (1868); and Political
Songs, ii. 178 (Rolls series). FW his charities see Stow's Survey of
London (ed. C. L. Kingsford, 1908). For documents relating to
Whittington College see Dugdalc, Monasticon Anglicanum (1693;
1846), vi. 740, and the Calendar of Patent Rolls, Henry VI. (1900) ;
ii. 214-217. Samuel Lysons collected the facts, but accepted the legend
in The Model Merchant of the Middle Ages (1860). The Life (new
ed. 1894) by W. Besant and J. Rice docs not improve on Lysons.
Some useful references will be found in J. H. Wy lie's History of
England under Henry IV. (4 vols. 1884-98) . For an examination of the
legend see T. Keightley's Tales and Popular Fictions, pp. 241-286
(1834), and H. B. Wheatley's preface to his edition of The History
of Sir Richard Whittington (first published in 1656). (C. L. K.)
WHITTINGTON. urban district, Derbyshire, England, 10
m. S. of Sheffield and 2 m. N. of Chesterfield, on the L.M.S.
railway. Pop. (1921) 7,617. The parish church of St. Bartholo-
mew was restored after its destruction by fire, in 1895. Stone
bottles and coarse earthenware are manufactured in the town,
where there are also large ironworks, collieries and brickworks.
WHITTLESEY, a town in Cambridgeshire, England, si m.
E. of Peterborough, between that city and March, on the L.N.E.R.
Pop. (1921) 4,207. To the north is the artificial cut carrying the
waters of the river Nene; the neighbourhood is intersected with
many other navigable "drains." To the south-west is Whittlesey
Mere, 6 m. distant from the town, in Huntingdonshire. It was a
lake until modern times, when it was included in a scheme of
drainage, The town manufactures bricks and tiles, and has a con-
siderable agricultural trade.
WHITWORTH, SIR JOSEPH, BART. (1803-1887), Eng-
lish engineer, was born at Stockport, near Manchester, on Dec.
21, 1803. On leaving school at fourteen, he was placed with an
uncle who was a cotton-spinner, with a view to becoming a part-
ner; but this occupation did not suit his mechanical tastes, and
after about four years he gave it up. He then spent some time
with various machine manufacturers in the neighbourhood of
Manchester, and in 1825 moved to London.
In 1833 he returned to Manchester and started business as a
tool-maker. In 1840 at the meeting of the British Association at
Glasgow, he read a paper on the preparation and value of true
planes which indicated an accuracy of workmanship far ahead of
what was considered possible in mechanical engineering at that
time. In 1841, in a paper read before the Institute of Civil En-
gineers, he urged the necessity for the adoption of a uniform sys-
tem of screw threads in place of the various heterogeneous pitches
then employed. His system of standard gauges was also widely
adopted, and his principles of exact measurement and workman-
ship were strictly observed in his own factory, with the result that
in the Exhibition of 1851 he had a show of machine tools far
ahead of that of any competitor.
It was doubtless this superiority in machine construction that
caused the government three years later to request him to design,
and estimate the cost of making the machinery for producing
rifled muskets at the new factory at Enfield. He did not agree to
the proposal in this form, but it was ultimately settled that he
should construct the machinery for the barrels only. Finding that
there was no established practice to guide him, he began a series
of experiments to determine the best principles for the manu-
facture of rifle barrels and projectiles. He ultimately arrived at a
weapon in which the necessary rotation of the projectile was
obtained, not by means of grooving, but by making the barrel
polygonal in form, with gently rounded angles, the bullets also
being polygonal and thus travelling on broad bearing-surfaces
along the rotating polygon. It is reported that at the trial in 1857
weapons made according to these principles excelled the Enfield
weapons in accuracy of fire, penetration and range to a degree
"which hardly leaves room for comparison." He also constructed
heavy guns on the same lines; these were tried in competition
with Armstrong's ordnance in 1864 and 1865, and in their in-
ventor's opinion gave the better results, but they were not
adopted by the government. In constructing them Whitworth
found difficulty in getting large steel castings of suitable soundness
and ductility, and thus in 1870 was led to devise his compressed
steel process, in which the metal was subjected to high pressure
while still in the fluid state, and afterwards forged in hydraulic
presses, instead of by hammers.
In 1868 he founded the Whitworth scholarships, setting aside
an annual sum of £3,000 to be given for "intelligence and pro-
ficiency in the theory and practice of mechanics and its cognate
sciences," and in the following year he was created a baronet. He
died at Monte Carlo on Jan. 22, 1887. In addition to giving
£100,000 for the permanent endowment of 30 Whitworth scholar-
ships, his residuary legatees, in pursuance of what they knew to
be his intentions, expended over half a million on charitable and
educational objects, mainly in Manchester and the neighbourhood.
WHOOPING-COUGH or HOOPING-COUGH (syn. Pertussis,
Chin-cough), a specific infective disease starting in the respiratory
mucous membrane, depending on a cocco-bacillus described by
Bordet and Gengon in 1906 (see PARASITIC DISEASES), and mani-
festing itself by frequently recurring paroxysms of convulsive
coughing accompanied with peculiar sonorous inspirations (or
whoops). Although specially a disease of childhood, whooping-
cough may occur at any time of life. There is a distinct period of
incubation variously estimated at from two to ten days.
The first stage is characterized by the ordinary phenomena of
a catarrh, but the presence of an ulcer on the fraenum linguae is
said to be diagnostic. The catarrhal stage usually lasts from ten to
fourteen days. The second stage is marked by abatement of the
catarrhal symptoms, but increase in the cough, which now occurs
in irregular paroxysms both by day and by night. This stage of
the disease usually continues for from one to two months. Pos-
588
WHYMPER- -WICHITA FALLS
sible complications are bronchopneumonia (see $RONCHITIS), and
convulsions. When, however, the disease progresses favourably,
the cough becomes Jess frequent and generally loses in great
measure its "whooping" character.
There is no specific treatment fur whooping-cough; sunlight or,
in its absence, ultra-violet light, with plenty of open air, is
beneficial.
WHYMPER, EDWARD (1840-1911), British artist, ex-
plorer and mountaineer, was born in London on April 27, 1840.
The son of an artist, he was at an early age trained to the pro-
fession of a wood-engraver. In 1860 he was commissioned to
make a series of sketches of Alpine scenery, and undertook an
extensive journey in the Central and Western Alps. Among the
objects of this tour was the illustration of an attempt, which
proved unsuccessful, made by Professor Bonney's party, to ascend
Mont Pelvoux, at that time believed to be the highest peak of the
Dauphine Alps. He successfully accomplished the ascent in 1861
— the first of a series of expeditions that threw much light on
the topography of a district at that time very imperfectly mapped.
From the summit of Mont Pelvoux he discovered that it was
overtopped by a neighbouring peak, subsequently named the
Pointe ties Ecrins, which, before the annexation of Savoy added
Mont Blanc to the possessions of France, was the highest point
in the French Alps. Its ascent by Whympers party in 1864 was
perhaps the most remarkable feat of mountaineering up to that
date. The years 1861 to 1865 are filled with a number of new ex-
peditions in the Mont Blanc group and the Pennine Alps, among
them being the ascent of the Aiguille Verte and the crossing of
the Morning Pass. Professor Tyndall and Mr. Whymper emulated
each other in fruitless attempts to reach the summit of the Mat-
terhorn by the south-western or Italian ridge. Mr, Whymper, six
times repulsed, determined to attempt the eastern face, convinced
that its precipitous appearance when viewed from Zermatt was
an optical illusion, and that the dip of the strata, which on the
Italian side formed a continuous series of overhangs, should make
the opposite side a natural staircase. His attempt (the seventh)
by what is now the usual route was crowned with success (July
14, 1865); but on the descent four of the party slipped and were
killed, and only the breaking of the rope saved Whymper and
the two remaining guides from the same fate.
The account of his attempts on the Matterhorn occupies the
greater part of his Scrambles among the Alps (1871), in which
the illustrations are engraved by the author himself. He visited
Greenland in 1867, with a view to crossing the interior. Another
expedition in 1872 convinced him that the enterprise was too
great for a private expedition. But his visits resulted in valuable
collections of fossils, trees and shrubs.
He next organized an expedition to Ecuador, designed primarily
to collect data for the study of mountain-sickness and of the
effect of diminished pressure on the human frame. He took as
his chief guide Jean-Antoinc Carrel, whose subsequent death from
exhaustion on the Matterhorn after bringing his employers into
safety through a snowstorm forms one of the noblest pages in
the history of mountaineering. During 1880 Whymper on two
occasions ascended Chimborazo, whose summit, 20,500 ft. above
sea-level, had never before been reached; spent a night on the
summit of Cotopaxi, and made first ascents of half-a-dozen other
great peaks. In 1892 he published the results of his journey in
a volume entitled Travels amongst the Great Andes of the
Equator, in which he made useful observations, among other
things, on mountain sickness. The collections of rock specimens
and volcanic dust brought back from this journey were described
by Dr. Bonney in the Proc. Roy. Soc. (Nos. 229-234). In 1901-
1905 he undertook an expedition in the region of the Great
Divide of the Canadian Rockies. Whymper died at Chamoriix on
Sept. 16, 1911.
See articles by T. G. Bonney in Alpine Journal (Feb. 1912), and by
D. W. Frcshfield in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (Second Supplement),
WHYTE, ALEXANDER (1837-1921), Scottish divine, was
born at Kirriemuir in Forfarshire on Jan. 13, 1837, and was edu-
cated at the University of Aberdeen and at King's college, Edin-
burgh. He entered the ministry of the Free Church of Scotland
and after serving as colleague in Free St. John's, Glasgow (1866-
70), removed to Edinburgh as colleague (1870-73) and successor
(1873-1916) to Dr. K. S. Candlish at Free St. George's. In 1898
he was elected moderator of the General Assembly. In 1909 he
succeeded Dr. Marcus Dods as principal, and professor of New
Testament literature, at New College, Edinburgh. He held this
post until igi8. He died in London on Jan. 6, 1921.
Among his publications are Characters and Characteristics of
William Law (1893) ; Bunyan Characters (3 vols., 1894) ; Samuel
Rutherford (1894); An Appreciation of Jacob Behmen (1895);
Lancelot Andrewes and his Private Devotions (1895) ; Bible Characters
(7 vols., 1897); Santa Teresa (1897); Father John of Cronstadt
(1898) ; An Appreciation of Browne's Religio Medici (1898) ; Cardinal
Newman, An Appreciation (1901). See G. F. Barbour, Life of
Alexander Whyte (1923).
WHYTE-MELVILLE, GEORGE JOHN (1821-1878),
English novelist, son of John Whyte-Melville of Strathkinness,
Fifeshire, and grandson on his mother's side of the 5th duke of
Leeds, was born on June 1*9, 1821. Whyte-Melville received his
education at Eton, entered the army in 1839, became captain in
the Coldstream Guards in 1846 and retired in 1849. After trans-
lating Horace (1850) in fluent and graceful verse, he published his
first novel, Digby Grand, in 1853. The unflagging verve and inti-
mate technical knowledge with which he described sporting scenes
and sporting characters at once drew attention to him as a novelist
with a new vein. He was the laureate of fox-hunting; all his most
popular and distinctive heroes and heroines, Digby Grand, Tilbury
Nogo, the Honourable Crasher, Mr. Sawyer, Kate Coventry, Mrs.
Lascelles, arc or would be mighty hunters. Tilbury Nogo was
contributed to the Sporting Magazine in 1853 and published sepa-
rately in 1854. He showed in the adventures of Mr. Nogo — and it
became more apparent in his later works — that he had a surer
hand in humorous narrative than in pathetic, description. He lost
his life in the hunting-field on Dec. 5, 1878.
The Gladiators was perhaps the most famous of his numerous
historical novels. He also wrote Songs and Verses (1869) and a metrical
Legend of the True Cross (1873).
WICHITA, a city of Kansas, U.S.A., on the Arkansas river
at the mouth of the Little Arkansas, 200 m. S.W. of Kansas City
and 1,300 ft. above sea-level; the county seat of Sedgwick county
and the second city of the State in size, it is on Federal high-
ways 54 and 81 and the airway from Chicago to Mexico and the
Gulf; has a municipal airport a mile square; and is served by
the Frisco, the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient, the Midland
Valley, the Missouri Pacific, the Rock Island, the Santa Fe, and
electric railways. Pop. (1925) 88,367 (91% native white); esti-
mated locally at 105,000 in 1928. It is the commercial, financial,
and industrial metropolis of southern Kansas and northern Okla-
homa. Its banking transactions, whether on the basis of clear-
ings ($425,000,000 in 1927) or of debits to individual accounts
($628,605,000) are greater by far than those of any other city in
the State. Its stock yards handle 25,000 carloads and 75,000
truckloads of live stock in a year; its packing plants send out 150,-
000,000 Ib. of meat products; and its flour-mills have a daily
capacity of 11,000 barrels. Wichita is a leading centre for the
manufacture of aeroplanes, aeroplane motors, parts and equip-
ment. An aeroplane factory was established in 1919, and in 1928
about 1,000 persons were employed in the industry. Since 1909
the city has operated under a commission-manager form of gov-
ernment. A municipal university was established in 1926, to
which were transferred the properties of Fairmount college.
Friends university, in the western part of the city, was founded
and is supported by the Kansas Yearly Meeting of Friends. The
city's assessed valuation of property for 1928 was $135,169,071.
Wichita was the name of a tribe of Indians. The city was
founded in 1870 and chartered in 1871. In 1880 it had a popu-
lation of only 4,911.
WICHITA FALLS, a city of northern Texa^ U.S.A., 100 m.
N.W. of Fort Worth, on the Wichita river near the Red river, at
an altitude of 946 ft.; the county seat of Wichita county and one
of the principal trading centres of the South-west. It is on Fed-
eral highways 70 and 370, and is served by the Fort Worth and
Denver City, the Missouri-Kansas-Texas, the Wichita Falls and
WICK— WIDMANN
589
Southern, and the Wichita Valley railways. The population was
40,079 in 1920 (90% native white) and was estimated locally at
60,000 in 1928. Wichita Falls is surrounded by extensive gas and
oil fields and an agricultural region devoted to stock-raising,
dairying and the cultivation of cotton, wheat, corn and fruit. Its
manufactures (including 14 oil refineries) are numerous and
varied, with an output in 1925 valued at $26,583,573. There are
many oilfield supply houses and large wholesale and jobbing firms.
The city's assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $45,100,060.
The city was founded in 1874 and incorporated in 1876.
WICK, royal, municipal and police burgh, parish, seaport and
county town of Caithness, Scotland. Pop. (1921) 8,115. It is
situated at the head of Wick bay, on the North sea, 327 m. N.
of Edinburgh, by the L.N.E. and L.M.S. railways. It consists of
the old burgh and Louisburgh, its continuation, on the north
bank of the river Wick, and of Pulteneytown, the commercial
quarter, on the south side. Wick is the chief Scottish centre of the
herring fisheries. Wick (Vik or "bay't) is mentioned as early as
1140. It was constituted a royal burgh by James VI. in 1589.
WICKHAM, SIR HENRY (1846-1928), English pioneer
and explorer, was born on May 29, 1846, and later went to
Brazil as a planter. He was led to experiment with rubber trees,
but found great difficulty in obtaining financial support for his
schemes. In 1872 he published his book A Journey through the
Wilderness, and as a result the India office employed him to
collect seeds of the Hevea braziliensis. He evaded the vigilance
of the Brazilian Government, and brought back a large number
of seeds which were planted in the glass-houses of Kew Gardens,
and eventually formed the basis of the whole plantation rubber
industry of the East. Wickham held posts as inspector of forests
and commissioner of Crown Lands in India, police inspector and
magistrate in British Honduras, and for 50 years explored Cen-
tral America, Australia, New Guinea, and the Pacific islands, es-
tablishing many pioneer rubber plantations. In 1911 he received
1,000 guineas and an annuity from the rubber growers and plan-
ters associations of London, Ceylon and Malaya, and in 1920 was
knighted. He died on Sept. 27, 1928.
WICKLOW, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded east by St. George's Channel, north by the county of
Dublin, south by Wexford and west by Carlow and Kildare. The
area is 500,216 ac. or about 782 sq. miles. Pop. (1926) 57,583.
The coast is very dangerous of approach owing to sandbanks.
The harbour at Wicklow has a considerable trade; but that of
Arklow is suitable only for small vessels. The central portion of
the county is occupied by a granitic mountain range, running from
north-east to south-west, the highest summits being Kippure
(2,473 ^.), Duff Hill (2,364), Table Mountain (2,416) and Lug-
naquilla (3,039). The range rises from the north by a succession
of ridges intersected by deep glens, and subsides towards the
borders of Wexford and Carlow. To the north its foothills enter
co. Dublin, and add attraction to the southern residential outskirts
of the capital. The water-supply of Dublin is obtained from an
artificial lake on the first plateau of the foothills at Roundwood.
In the valleys there are many instances of old river terraces,
especially at the lower end of Glenmalure and the lower end of
Glendalough. Among the more famous of the glens are Glen-
dalough, Dargle, Glencree, Glen of the Downs, Devil's Glen, Glen-
malure and the beautiful vale of Avoca or Ovoca. The principal
rivers are the Liffey, on the north-western border; the Vartry,
which passes through Devil's Glen to the sea north of Wicklow
Head; the Avonmore and the Avonbeg, which unite at the "meet-
ing of the waters" to form the Avoca, which is afterwards joined
by the Aughrim and falls into the sea at Arklow; and the Slaney,
in the west of the county, passing southwards into Carlow. The
principal lakes are Loughs Dan, Bray and Tay or Luggelaw, and
the loughs of Glendalough. The trout-fishing is generally fair.
Wicklow was not made a county until 1606. It was the last
Irish ground shired, for in this mountainous district the Irish were
long able to preserve independence. Wicklow sided with the royal
cause during the Cromwellian wars, but on Cromwell's advance
submitted to him without striking a blow. During the rebellion of
1798 there were skirmishes at Aughrim and at Arklow.
Of the ancient cromlechs there are three of some interest, one
near Enniskerry, another on the summit of Lugnaquilla and a third
at Donaghmore. The ruins in the vale of Glendalough, known as
the "seven churches," including a round tower, owe their origin
to St. Kevin, who lived in the vale as a hermit, and is reputed to
have died in 618. Of the old fortalices or strongholds those of
special interest are Black Castle, near Wicklow, originally founded
by the Norman invaders, but taken by the Irish in 1301, and
afterwards rebuilt by William Fitzwilliam; the scattered remains
of Castle Kevin, the stronghold of the OTooles, by whom it was
probably originally built in the i2th century; and the ruins of the
castle of the Ormondes at Arklow, founded by Theobald Fitz-
Walter (d. 1285), and demolished by Cromwell in 1649, and now
containing within the interior of its ruined walls a constabulary
barrack. The mansion of Powers-court occupies the site of an
old fortalice founded by De la Poer, one of the knights "who
landed with Strongbow; in the reign of Henry VIII. it was taken
by the OTooles and O'Brynes.
The lower land is fertile ; and the higher districts, covered with
heath and turf, afford good pasturage for sheep. There is a con-
siderable extent of natural timber as well as artificial plantations.
The principal crops of oats and potatoes decrease considerably,
but the numbers of sheep, cattle, pigs and poultry are well main-
tained.
A considerable amount of gold has been extracted from the
valley-gravels north of Croghan Kinshela on the Wexford border.
Tinstone has also been found in small quantities. Lead-ore is
raised west of Laragh, and the mines in the Avoca valley have
been worked for copper, lead and sulphur, the last-named being
obtained from pyrite. Paving-setts are made from the diorite
at Arklow, and granite is extensively quarried at Ballyknockan
on the west side of the mountain-chain.
Owing to its proximity to Dublin and its accessibility from
England, the portions of the county possessing scenic interest have '
been opened up to great advantage. Bray in the north is a seaside
resort. Inland tourist centres are Enniskerry, west of Bray, and
near the pass of the Scalp; Laragh, near Glendalough, from which
a military road runs south-west across the hills below Lugnaquilla;
and, on the railway south of Wicklow, Rathdrum, Woodenbridge
in the Vale of Avoca and Aughrim.
The Great Southern railway skirts the coast by way of Bray
and the town of Wicklow, touching it again at Arklow, with a
branch line from Woodenbridge junction to Shillelagh. Another
branch from Sallins (Co. Kildare) skirts the west of the county by
Baltinglass.
The administrative county of Wicklow returns three members
to Dail Eireann.
WICKLOW, a seaport, and county town of co. Wicklow, Ire-
land, at the mouth of a lagoon which receives the River Vartry
and other streams, 28^ m. S. of Dublin by the Great Southern
railway. Pop. (1926), 3,027. The harbour can accommodate
vessels of 1,500 tons and has two piers, with quayage. The name
shows the town to have been a settlement of the Norsemen.
WIDGEON, an abundant species of duck, Anas penelope,
breeding in Europe and northern Asia and reaching northern
Africa and India in winter. Intermediate in size between the
teal and the mallard, the widgeon drake is a handsome bird with
cream forehead, chestnut head and neck, pencilled grey flanks
and green and black speculum (wing-bar). Its whistling cry has
given it the local name of "whew-duck." The widgeon collects in
huge flocks on tidal waters in winter and is shot for market in
large numbers. When on land it often eats grass. Two allied spe-
cies occur in America, of which A. americana, the baldpate, in-
habits northern America, reaching Central America and Trinidad
in winter; it differs in that the head is black, speckled with buff.
The other species, A. sibilatrix, is South American.
WIDMANN, JOSEPH VICTOR (1842-1911), poet,
dramatist, novelist and literary critic, was born at Nennowitz
(Moravia) on Feb. 20, 1842, and died at Bern on Nov. 6, 1911.
In 1880 he became f entile ton editor of the Berner Bund, and in
this capacity he exercised for 30 years an authoritative sway
as critic of German and German-Swiss literature. Among the
590
WIDNES— WIELAND
most important of bis own works are Arnold von Brescia (1867),
a tragedy; Buddha (1869), a philosophic epic, which might be
described as a forerunner of Nietzsche's Also Sprach Zarathustra
and Spitteler's Prometheus und Epimetheus; Mose und Zipora
(1874), an idyll; Oenone (1880), a drama; Die Patriezerin (1888),
a novel of life in Bern; Die Maikajerkomodie, "Cockchafer
Comedy" (1897), a charming allegorical play, which may pos-
sibly have furnished Rostand with the idea of Chantecler; and
Der Heilige und die Ticre (1905), another dramatic poem in
which his interest in the animal world and its right to poetic
existence are demonstrated. The last is his profoundest poetical
utterance. Widmann was one of the first to champion the genius
of Carl Spitteler (q.v.), with whom his friendship dated from
childhood days at Licstal.
See the Life by E. and M. Widmann (2 vols. ; 1922-24) ; the studies
by Maria Waser (1927), Prof. Jonas Frankel (1918), W. Scheitler
(1925); and the Briefwechsel Keller-Widmann (1922).
WIDNES, municipal borough, Widnes parliamentary division
of Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 12 m. S.E. from Liverpool
on the L.M.S. and Cheshire lines. Pop. (1921) 38,860. It is
wholly of modern growth, for in 1851 the population was under
2,000. There are capacious docks on the river, which is crossed,
and the town connected with Runcorn, by a railway bridge and a
transporter bridge. Widnes is one of the principal seats of the
alkali and soap manufacture, and has also grease-works for loco-
motives and waggons, copper works, iron-foundries, oil and paint
works and sail-cloth manufactories. The barony of Widnes in
1 554~55 was declared to be part of the duchy of Lancaster. The
town was incorporated in 1892.
WIDOWS' PENSIONS: sec NATIONAL INSURANCE, WID-
OWS' AND ORPHANS' PENSIONS.
WIDUKIND or WITTEKIND (d. c. 807), leader of the
Saxons, belonged to a noble Westphalian family. lie probably
fought the Franks before and during 776. In 778 he returned
from exile in Denmark to lead a fresh rising, and in 782 the
Saxons at his instigation drove out the Frankish priests, and
plundered the border territories. His movements in 783-84 are
uncertain; but in 785 he was reconciled to Charlemagne at Attigny
and baptized, the king acting as his sponsor and loading him
with gifts. The details of his later life are unknown. He prob-
ably returned to Saxony. Many legends have gathered around his
memory. He is reported to have been duke of Engria, to have been
a devoted -Christian, and to have fallen in battle in 807. Royal
houses have sought to establish descent from him, but except
in the case of Matilda, wife of the German king, Henry I. the
Fowler, without success.
See W. Diekamp, Widukind der Sachsenfiihrer nach Gcschichte und
Sage (Minister, 1877) ; J. Dettmer, Der Sachsenfiihrer Widukind
nach Geschichte und Sage (Wurzburg, 1879).
WIDUKIND, Saxon historian, was the author of Res gestae
Saxonicae. He was a monk at the Benedictine abbey of Corvey,
and he died about 1004. His Res gestae Saxonicae, dedicated to
Matilda, abbess of Quedlinburg, who was a daughter of Otto the
Great, is divided into three books, and the greater part of it was
undoubtedly written during the lifetime of the emperor, probably
about 968. Starting with the origin of the Saxons, the history
comes down to the death of Otto in 997. Many quotations from
the Vulgate are found in his writings, and there are traces of a
knowledge of Virgil, Ovid and other Roman poets. The earlier
part of his work is taken from tradition, but he wrote on contem-
porary events as one familiar with court life and the events of
the day.
The best edition of the Res gestae is that edited by G. Waitz in the
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band iii. (Hanover and
Berlin, 1826). A good edition published at Hanover and Leipzig in
1904 contains an introduction by K. A. Kehr.
See R. KSpke, Widukind von Corvey (Berlin, 1867) ; J. Raase,
Widukind von Korvei (Rostock, 1880) ; and B. Simson, "Zur Kritik
des Widukind'* in the Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur a'Uere deutsche
Geschichte, Band xii. (Hanover, 1876).
WIELAND, CHRISTOPH MARTIN (1733-1813), Ger-
man poet and man of letters, was born at Oberholzheim, a village
near Biberach in Wurttemberg, on Sept. 5, 1733. His father, who
was pastor in Oberholzheim, and subsequently in Biberach, took
great pains with the child's education, and sent him to the gym-
nasium at Klosterberge, near Magdeburg. Under the influence of
a first love-affair, with Sophie Gutermann, he planned his first
ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge (1752), a didactic poem in
six books. In 1750 he went to Tubingen to study law, but his
time was mainly taken up with literary studies. The poems he
wrote at the university — Hermann, an epic (published by F.
Muncker, 1886), Zwolf moralische Brief e in Versen (1752),
Anti-Ovid (1752) — are pietistic in tone and dominated by the
influence of Klopstock. They attracted the attention of J. J.
Bodmer, who invited Wieland to visit him in Zurich in the sum-
mer of 1752. After a few months, however, Bodmer felt himself
as little in sympathy with Wieland as, two years earlier, he had
felt himself with Klopstock, and the friends parted; but Wieland
remained in Switzerland until 1760, residing, in the last year, at
Berne where he obtained a position as private tutor. Here he stood
in intimate relations with, Rousseau's friend Julie de Bondeli.
i Meanwhile a change had come over Wieland's tastes; the writings
! of his early Swiss years — Der gcprufte Abraham (1753), Sym-
j pathien (1756), Empfindungen ernes Christen (1757) — were still
' in the manner of his earlier writings, but with the tragedies, Lady
Johanna Gray (1758), and Clementina von Porretta (1760) — the
latter based on Richardson's Sir Charles Grandison — the epic
fragment Cyrus (1759), and the "moral story in dialogues,"
Araspes und Panthea (1760), Wieland, as Lessing said, "forsook
the ethereal spheres to wander again among the sons of men."
Wieland's conversion was completed at Biberach, whither he
had returned in 1760, as director of the chancery. He had access
to the library at Warthauscn of Count Stadion. Here he met
once more Sophie Gutermann, who had meanwhile become the
wife of Hofrat Laroche, then manager of Count Stadion's es-
tates. The former poet of an austere pietism now became the
advocate of a light-hearted philosophy, from which frivolity and
sensuality were not excluded. In Don Sylvia von Rosalva (1764),
a romance in imitation of Dan Quixote, he held up to ridicule his
earlier faith and in the Komische Erzahlungen (1765) he gave
his extravagant imagination only too free a rein. More important
is the novel Geschichte des Agathon (1766-1767), in which, under
the guise of a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual
and intellectual growth. This work, which Lessing recommended
as "a novel of classic taste," is a landmark in the development of
the modern psychological novel. Of equal importance was Wie-
land's translation of twenty-two of Shakespeare's plays into prose
(8 vols., 1762-1766); it was the first attempt to present the
English poet to the German people in something approaching
entirety. With the poems Musarion odcr die PhUosophie der
Grazien (1768), Idris (1768), Combabus (1770), Der neue Ama-
dis (1771), Wieland opened the series of light and graceful
romances in verse which acted as an antidote to the sentimental
excesses of the subsequent Sturm und Drang movement.
Wieland married in 1765, and between 1769 and 1772 was
professor of philosophy at Erfurt. In the last -mentioned year
he published Der goldene Spiegel oder die Konige von Scheschian,
a pedagogic work in the form of oriental stories; this attracted
the attention of duchess Anna Amalie of Saxe-Weimar, who
appointed him tutor to her two sons, Karl August and Konstantin,
at Weimar. With the exception of some years spent at Ossmann-
stcdt, where in later life he bought an estate, Weimar remained
Wieland's home until his death on Jan. 20, 1813. Here, in 1773,
he founded Der Deutsche Merkur, which under his editorship
(i773~I789) became the most influential literary review in Ger-
many. Of the writings of his later years the most important are
the admirable satire on German provinciality — the most attrac-
tive of all his prose writings— Die Abderiten, eine sehr wahr-
scheinliche Geschichte (1774), ancl the charming poetic romances,
Das Wintermdrchen (1776), Das Sommermarchen (1777), Geron
der Adelige (1777), Die Wunsche oder Pervonte (1778), a series
culminating with Wieland's poetic masterpiece, the romantic epic
of Oberon (1780). His later work included novels, translations
of Horace, Lucian and Cicero, and the editing of the Attisches
Museum (1796-1803).
WIELICZKA— WIG
591
Without creating a school in the strict sense of the term, Wie-
land influenced very considerably the German literature of his
time. Modern editions of Wieland's Samtliche Werke are those
of H. Duntzer (4 vols., 1879-82), and the critical edition issued
by the Prussian Academy (1909, etc.).
There are numerous editions of selected works, notably W. Bolsche
(4 vols., 1902). Collections of Wieland's letters were edited by his
son Ludwig (1815) and by H. Gessner (1815-16) ; his letters to Sophie
La Roche by F. Horn (1820). See J. G. Gruber, C. M. Wielands Lebcn
(4 vols., 1827-28) ; H. Boring, C. M. Wieland (1853) ; J. W. Loebcll,
C. M. Wieland (1858) ; H. Prohle, Lessin%, Wieland, Heinse (1876) ;
L. F. Ofterdinger, Wielands Lebcn und Wirken in Schwaben und in
der Sehweto (1877) J R- Kiel, Wieland und Reinhold (1885) ; F. Thal-
meyr, Vber Wielands Klassizitat, Sprache und Stil (1894) ; M. Doll,
Wieland und die Antike (1896) ; C. A. Behmer, Sterne und Wieland
(1899) ; W. Lenz, Wielands Verhaltnis zu Spenser, Pope und Swifl
(1903) ; L. Hirzel, Wielands Bcziehungcn zu, den deutschen Roman-
tikern (1904). See also M. Koch's article in the AUgemeine deutsche
Biographic (1897). (J. G. R.)
WIELICZKA, a mining town in'PoIand, 220 m. by rail W.
of Lemberg and 9 m. S.E. of Cracow. It is built on the slopes of
a hill which half encircles the place, and over the celebrated salt-
mines of the same name. These mines are the richest in Poland,
and among the most remarkable in the world. They consist of
seven different levels, one above the other, and have eleven shafts,
two of which are in the town. The levels are connected by flights
of steps, and arc composed of a labyrinth of chambers and pas-
sages, whose length aggregates over 65 m. The length of the
mines from E. to W. is 2$ m., the breadth from N. to S. is 1,050
yd. and the depth reaches 980 ft. Many of the old chambers,
some of which are of enormous size, are embellished with portals,
candelabra, statues, etc., all hewn in rock-salt. There are also
two large chapels, containing altars, ornaments, etc., in rock-salt,
a room called the dancing saloon, where the objects of interest
found in the mines are kept. In the interior of the mines are six-
teen ponds, of which Przykos is 195 ft. long, no ft. broad,
and 10-26 ft. deep. The mines employ over 1,000 workers, and
yield about 60,000 tons annually. The salt of Wieliczka is well
known for its purity and solidity, but has generally a grey or
blackish colour. The date of the discovery of the mines is un-
known, but they were already worked in the nth century. The
mines suffered greatly from inundations in 1868 and 1879, and the
soil on which the town is built shows signs of subsidence.
WIEN, WILHELM (1864-1928), German physicist, was
born on Jan. 13, 1864, at Gaffken (East Prussia). lie studied at
the universities of Gb'ttingen, Heidelberg and Berlin, and in 1890
entered the Physi co-Technical Institute as assistant to Helmholtz
In 1896 he was appointed professor at the technical high school,
Aix-la-Chapelle; in 1899 he went to Giessen, in 1900 to Wu'rz-
burg, and in 1920 to Munich. Wien's researches covered almost
the whole sphere of physics. He wrote on optical problems; on
radiation, especially black-body radiation, for which in 1911 he
was awarded the Nobel prize; on water and air currents, on dis-
charge through rarefied gases, cathode rays, X-rays and positive
rays. Wien's most important contributions to black-body radia-
tion are contained in the two laws named after him. He developed
a formula for the energy density associated with a definite wave
length at a certain temperature, and from this obtained what is
known as Wien's displacement law, which states that the product
of the wave length at which tlrc energy density is a maximum
and the absolute temperature is a constant. Wien also developed
a formula for the energy distribution of black-body radiation;
this was found to hold for short wave lengths only but is im-
portant as a link in the chain which led to Planck's formula. His
work on positive rays is of great importance; he showed that these
rays underwent electrostatic and magnetic deflection as early as
1898 and continued his researches on this subject. In 1913 he
lectured at Columbia University in New York on problems of
modern theoretical physics. He died on Aug. 30, 1928.
Wien was the editor of the Annalen der Physik from vol. 21
(1906). His chief works are: Lehrbuch der Hydrodynamik
(1900); Neuere Probleme der theoretischen Physik (1913); Die
Relativitats-theorie votn Standpunkte der Physik und Erkenntnis-
lehre (1921).
WIENER-NEUSTADT, a town in Lower Austria, in a
moderately fertile basin at the point of divergence of routes from
Vienna to the Semmering pass and to Hungary via the Sopron
gate. The town was founded in 1192 and its critical situation is
reflected in the various struggles for its control between Austria
and Hungary (1246 and 1486), and Austria and Turkey (1529
and 1683). It is essentially modern in appearance, owing to
rebuilding in 1834, following almost complete destruction by "fire.
But there remains a i2th century castle built by Duke Leopold
V., converted by Maria Theresa in 1752 into a military academy
and, since 1919, a school for boys; the i3th century Romanesque
Liebfrauen church, with Gothic choir and transepts added in the
1 5th century; and the i5th century Cistercian abbey with its rich
library and museum. Helped by its situation Wiener-Neustadt
has become an industrial town with special interests in locomo-
tives and railway stock, machinery, textiles and leather goods, to
which may be added sugar-refining, paper-making and the manu-
facture of pottery. A flourishing trade is facilitated by a canal
to the capital, chiefly used for the transport of coal and timber.
Pop. (1923), 36,956.
WIESBADEN, a town and watering-place in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau. Pop. (1925) 102,476. Wiesbaden is
one of the oldest watering-places in Germany. The springs men-
tioned by Pliny as Fontes Matthiaci were known to the Romans,
who fortified the place c. n B.C. The wall known as the Heiden*
mauer, was probably part of the fortifications built under Diocle-
tian. The name Wisibada ("meadow bath") appears in 830.
Under the Carolingian monarchs it was the site of a palace, and
Otto I. gave it civic rights. In the nth century the town and
district passed to the counts of Nassau, and in 1355 Wiesbaden
became with Idstein capital of the county Nassau-Idstcin. It
suffered from the ravages of the Thirty Years' War and was de-
stroyed in 1644. In 1744 it became the seat of government of the
principality Nassau-Usingen, and was from 1815 to 1866 the
capital of the duchy of Nassau, when it passed with that duchy
to Prussia. It is situated under the south-western spurs of the
Taunus range, 5 m. N. of Mainz, 3 m. from the Rhine (at Bie-
brich), and 25 m. W. of Frankfurt-on-Main by rail. Its prosperity
is mainly due to its hot alkaline springs and mild climate, which
have rendered it a winter as well as summer resort. There is a
large trade in wine and small manufactures of surgical instru-
ments, artificial manures, furniture, cement and chocolate,
WIESER, FRIEDRICH VON (1851-1926), German
political economist, professor of political economy at the Vienna
University, was the author of Das Hanptgesetz des Wirtschaft-
lichen Staates (1884), Die Theorie der gesellschaftlichen Wirt-
schaft (1914), and Das Gesctz der Mac/it, published posthum-
ously. He died at St. Gilgen in the Salzkammergut, on July 24,
1926.
WIG, short form for "periwig." An artificial head of hair,
worn as a personal adornment, disguise or symbol of office. The
wearing of wigs is of great antiquity, and Egyptian mummies have
been found so adorned. In Greece wigs were used by men and
women. A reference in Xenophon to the false hair worn by Cyrus's
grandfather "as is customary among the Medcs," and also a story
in Aristotle, would suggest that wigs were introduced from Persia,
and were in use in Asia Minor. The elaborately frizzled hair worn
by some of the figures in the frescoes found at Knossos makes it
probable that the wearing of artificial hair was known to the
Cretans. Lucian, in the 2nd century, mentions wigs of both men
and women as a matter of course. The theatrical wig was also in
use in Greece, the various comic and tragic masks having hair
suited to the character represented. A. E. Haigh (Attic Theatre,
pp. 221, 239) refers to the black hair and beard of the tyrant, the
fair curls of the youthful hero, and the red hair characteristic of
the dishonest slave of comedy. These conventions appear to have
been handed on to the Roman theatre.
At Rome wigs came into use certainly in the early days of the
empire. They were also known to the Carthaginians; Polybius
says that Hannibal used wigs as a means of disguise. The fash-
ionable ladies of Rome were much addicted to false hair, and we
learn from Ovid and Martial that the golden hair imported from
592
WIGAN— WIGHT
Germany was most favoured. Juvenal shows us Messalina assum-
ing a yellow wig for her visits to places of ill-fame. The chief
names for wigs were galerus, galericulum, corymbium, capillamcn-
turn, caliendntm, etc. Galents meant in the first place a skull-cap,
or coif, fastening under the chin, and made of hide or fur, worn
by peasants, athletes and famines. The first men's wigs then would
have been tight fur caps simulating hair, which would naturally
suggest wigs of false hair. Women continued to have wigs of dif-
ferent colours as part of their ordinary wardrobe, and Faustina,
wife of Marcus Aurclius, is said to have had several hundred. An
amusing development of this is occasionally found in portrait
busts, e.g. that of Plautilla in the Louvre, Paris, in which the hair
is made removable, so that by changing the wig of the statue from
time to time it should never be out of fashion.
The periwig of the i6th century merely simulated real hair,
either as an adornment or to supply the defects of nature. It was
not till the lyth century that the peruke was worn as a distinctive
feature of costume. The fashion started in France. In 1620 the
abbe La Riviere appeared at the court of Louis XIII. in a periwig
made to simulate long fair hair, and four years later the king him-
self, prematurely bald, also adopted one and thus set the fashion.
Louis XIV., who was proud of his abundant hair, did not wear
a wig till after 1670. From Versailles the fashion spread through
Europe. In England, under Charles II., the wearing of the peruke
became general. Pepys records that he parted with his own hair
and "paid £3 for a periwigg," and on going to church in one he
says "it did not prove so strange as I was afraid it would.'* It
was under Queen Anne, however, that the wig attained its maxi-
mum development, covering the back and shoulders and floating
down over the chest.
This differentiation of wigs according to class and profession
explains why, when early in the reign of George III. the general
fashion of wearing wigs began to wane and die out, the practice
held its own among professional men. It was by slow degrees
that doctors, soldiers and clergymen gave up the custom. In
the Church it survived longest among the bishops. At the corona-
tion of Queen Victoria the archbishop of Canterbury, alone of the
prelates, still wore a wig. Wigs are now worn as part of official
costume only in Great Britain, their use being confined, except
in the case of the speaker of the house of commons and the clerks
of parliament, to the lord chancellor, the judges and barristers.
See F. W. Fairholt, Costume in England, 2 vols., ed. Dillon (1885) ;
C. F. Nicolai, Ubcr den Gebrauch der falschen Haare und Perrucken
(1801); the articles "Coma" and "Galerus" in Daremberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire drs antiqnitcs. See also Diderot's Encyclopedic
(1765), vol. xii., .v.i'. "Tcrruquc," and James Stewart, Plocacosntos, or
the Whole Art of Hairdrcssing (1782).
WIGAN, market town; municipal, county and parliamentary
borough of Lancashire, England, 194 m. N.W. by N. from London
by the L.M.S. railway. It is also served by the L.N.E. railway.
Pop. (1921) 89.421. It is probable that the town covers the site
of a Roman post or fort, Cocdum. Wigan, otherwise Wygan and
Wigham, is not mentioned in Domesday Book, but three town-
ships, Upholland, Dalton and Orrel are named. After the Con-
quest Wigan was part of the barony of Newton, and the church
was endowed with a carucate of land, the origin of the manor.
Before Henry III.'s reign the baron of Newton granted to the
rector of Wigan the manorial privileges. In 1246 Henry III.
granted a charter to John Mansel, parson of the church, by which
Wigan was constituted a free borough and the burgesses per-
mitted to have a gild merchant. In 1680 Ogilby observes that, the
town was "noted for its iron works." Pottery, pewter and bell-
founding were important trades. Manufacture of woollens, espe-
cially of blankets, was carried on in the i8th century. The cotton
trade developed rapidly after the introduction of the cylindrical
carding machine. During the Civil War the town, from its vicinity
to Lathom House and the influence of Lord Derby, adhered
staunchly to the king. On April i, 1643 the Parliamentarians cap-
tured Wigan (see Lancashire). The following month Lord Derby
regained it for the Royalists, but Colonel Ashton soon retook it.
In 1651 Lord Derby landed from the Isle of Man and marched
through Preston to Wigan and at Wigan Lane, on Aug. 25, the
Royalist forces were defeated and Lord Derby wounded. During
the rebellion of 1745 Prince Charles Edward spent one night (Dec.
10) here. In 1295 Wigan returned two members to parliament and
again in 1307; the right then remained in abeyance till 1547, but
from that time till 1885, except during the Commonwealth, the
borough returned two members, and since 1885 one member. The
list of rectors is complete from 1199; the list of mayors goes back
to 1370, town clerks to 1350, and recorders to 1600.
Wigan lies on the small river Douglas, which flows into the
estuary of the Ribblc. There is connection by canal with Liver-
pool, Manchester, etc. The town has coal mines which are
famous for cannel coal, and which employ a large proportion of
the inhabitants and supply the factory furnaces. The chief manu-
factures are cotton fabrics and linen fabrics; the town also pos-
sesses iron forges, iron and brass foundries, oil, grease and chem-
ical works, railway waggon factories, and bolt, screw and nail
works. The borough includes the important district of Pemberton.
WIGGIN, KATE DOUGLAS (1856-1923), American
novelist, daughter of Robert N. Smith, a lawyer, was born in
Philadelphia (Pa.), Sept. 28, 1856, whence her family removed
to Hollis (Maine). She was educated at home and at various
seminaries including Abbot academy, Andover (Mass.), and when
17 years of age joined her family in California. Having been a
member of Miss MarwedeFs pioneer training class, she was called
from her teaching in Santa Barbara to establish in San Francisco
the first free kindergarten on the western coast (1878), and or-
ganized her own California kindergarten training school in 1880.
She married, in 1881, Samuel B. Wiggin, who died irf 1889. In
1895 she married George C. Riggs, but continued to write under
the name of Wiggin. She died in England, Aug 24, 1923. Her
interest in children's education was shown in numerous books,
but her literary reputation rests rather on her prose fiction: The
Birds' Christmas Card (1888), the Penelope series (5 vols.);
Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1903) ; New Chronicles of Rebecca
(1907); and The Story of Wait still Baxter (1913). Several of
these were dramatized with the assistance of collaborators. An
autobiographical volume is My Garden of Memory (1923).
A uniform "Quillcotc" edition of her books appeared in ten vols.
Several of them have been translated into many languages. See also
Nora Archibald Smith, Kate Douglas Wiggin as Her Sister Knew
Her (1925).
WIGGLESWORTH, MICHAEL (1631-1705), American
clergyman, physician and poet, was born in England (probably
in Yorkshire) Oct. 18, 1631. His father, persecuted for his Puri-
tan faith, emigrated with his family to New England in 1638 and
settled in New Haven. In 1651 Michael graduated at Harvard,
where he was a tutor (and a Fellow) in 1652-54 and again in
1697-1705. Having fitted himself for the ministry, he preached
at Charlestown in 1653-54, and in spite of ill health, was pastor
at Maiden from 1656 until his death, June 10, 1705. Wiggles-
worth is best known as the author of The Day of Doom; or a
Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judgment (1662), a
lurid exposition of Calvinistic theology, which children were made
to learn like the catechism.
WIGHT, ISLE OF, off the south coast of England, part of
Hampshire, separated from the mainland of Hampshire by the
Solent and Spithead. It is i2\ m. from east to west and 13^ m.
from north to south. The area is 147 sq.m. The south coast is
chiefly cliff-bound and there is beautiful scenery both inland and
along the northern shores. The climate is mild and healthy. As a
result there are numerous watering places. Chalk downs range
from east to west, terminating in the Culver cliffs and the Needles.
These downs are from 400 to 700 ft. high. North of this ridge the
chalk dips beneath Tertiary rocks with heavy soils, which support
extensive areas of trees.
Three rivers, the eastern Yar, Medina and western Yar, drain
the island. The Medina bisects the island. The structure of the
island is that of a simple monocline, the central chalk ridge form-
ing an almost vertical limb. To the south of this,, the dip of the
beds is southward at a very low angle and there is a second range
of downs, in the extreme south, between St. Catherine's Point and
Dunnose, which exceed 800 ft. in St. Catherine's Hill. Below
these heights on the seaward side occurs the remarkable tract
known as the Undercliff, a terrace formed by the sliding of the
WIGTOWNSHIRE
593
Chalk and Upper Greensand upon the unctuous surface of the
Gault clay. The upper cliffs shelter this terrace and the climate is
remarkably mild. This part of the island affords a winter resort.
Along the south coast the action of small streams on the soft rocks
has hollowed out steep gullies. Many of these are of great beauty;
the most famous are Shanklin and Blackgang chines. The western
peninsula shows the finest development of sea-cliffs. Off the
westernmost promontory rise three detached masses of chalk
about 100 ft. high known as the Needles, exposed to the full
strength of the south-westerly gales. During a storm in 1764 a
fourth spire was undermined and fell.
Newport at the head of the Medina estuary is the chief
town; Cowes at the mouth, the chief port. The principal resorts
are Cowes (headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron) Ryde,
Sandown, Shanklin, Ventnor, Freshwater Gate and Yarmouth.
Others are Totland Bay, Gurnard (Cowes), Seaview and Bern-
bridge (Ryde). The principal communications with the main-
land are between Cowes and Southampton, Ryde and Portsmouth,
and Yarmouth and Lymington. The island is well supplied with
railways and roads. The island shares in the defences of the
Solent, and the entry to Portsmouth; there are batteries at. Puck-
pool, on the eastern foreland, and the west coast. Osborne House,
near Cowes, a residence and scene of the death of Queen Victoria,
was presented to the nation by King Edward VII. in 1902.
The island is divided into two liberties, East and West Medina,
excluding the boroughs of Newport and Ryde; and contains the
urban districts of Cowes, East Cowes, St. Helens, Sandown, Shank-
lin and Ventnor. The island has for many centuries belonged to
the see of Winchester.
History. — Relics of the Roman occupation following the con-
quest by Vespasian in A.D. 43, are the villas at Brading and Caris-
brook, the cemetery at Newport, and remains of foundations at
Combly Farm, Gurnet, and between Brixton and Calbourne. The
Jutes probably settled here and in 66 1 it was annexed by Wulfhere
to Wessex and subsequently bestowed on the king of Sussex. In
998 it was the headquarters of the Danes.
From the i.|th to the i6th century the island was under fear of
invasion by the French, who in 1377 burnt Yarmouth and Franche-
villc (the latter being subsequently rebuilt and known £s New-
town), and so devastated Newport that it lay uninhabited for two
years. In 1419, a French force landed and demanded tribute in
the name of King Richard and Queen Isabella, which was re-
fused, and the French returned home. Another raid was attempted
in 1545 when a French fleet of 225 ships drew up off Brading Har-
bour and wrought much destruction. As a result an organised
system of defence was planned. Forts were constructed at Cowes,
Sandown, Freshwater and Yarmouth. Charles 1. was imprisoned in
Carisbrook Castle in 1647-48 and, in 1650, his two children, the
princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Gloucester, the former dying
there.
The lordship of the island was granted by William the Con-
queror to William Fitz-Osbern, but escheated to the crown. It
was bestowed by Henry I. on Baldwin dc Redvers, whose descen-
dant Isabella de Fortibus sold it to Edward I. in 1293.
In the Domesday Survey 29 mills are mentioned, and salt-
works at Boarhunt, Bowcombe, Watchingwell and Whitfield. The
island quarries have been worked from remote times, that of
Quart supplying material for Winchester cathedral. Alum and
sand for glass-making were formerly obtained at Alum Bay.
One member is returned to parliament for the whole island.
Antiquities include British pit villages (Rowborough), prehistoric
tumuli on several of the chalk downs, the so-called Long Stone at
Mottiston, a lofty sandstone monolith, well-preserved examples
of tesseluted Roman pavements near Brading, Carisbrooke Cas-
tle, a beautiful ruin built upon the site of an ancient British strong-
hold, and remains of Quair Abbey near Ryde. The most note-
worthy ancient churches are those of Bonchurch (Norman), Brad-
ing (transitional Norman and Early English), Shalfleet (Nor-
man and Decorated), and Carisbrooke, of various styles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. C. Hargrove, England9 $ Garden Island (1925) ;
H. J. Osborne White, The Geology of the Isle of Wight (Survey
Memoir, 1921).
WIGTOWNSHIRE (sometimes called WEST GALLOWAY),
south-western county, Scotland, bounded north by Ayrshire, east
by Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtown bay, south by the Irish sea
and west and north by the North channel. Including the island
of St. Helena, at the head of Luce bay, it covers 311,984 acres
(excluding water). On the eastern boundary the estuary of the
Cree expands into Wigtown bay, between which and Luce bay
extends the promontory of the Machers, terminating in Burrow
head. By the indentation of Luce bay on the south and Loch Ryan
on the north the hammerheaded peninsula of the Rinns is formed,
of which the Mull of Galloway, the most southerly point of Scot-
land, is the southern, and Milleur point the northern extremity.
The coast has many inlets, but most are exposed and beset with
rocks. Loch Ryan is a natural harbour of which Stranracr is the
port.
A line north-east from the coast abdlit 3 m. south of Port-
patrick divides the county so that practically all the rocks on the
northern side are of Ordovician age, while those on the south are
Silurian. This line coincides with the general direction of the
strike of the beds throughout the county. Glacial moraines and
drumlins are widespread and are well seen between Glenlucc and
Newton Stewart and south of Wigtown. On the coasts of Luce
bay and Loch Ryan raised beaches are found at levels of 25 ft.
and 50 ft. above the sea. Towards the Ayrshire border, hills reach
1,000 ft. in height. The chief rivers are the Cree, forming the
boundary with Kirkcudbrightshire, and the Bladenoch, issuing
from Loch Maberry and falling into Wigtown Bay at Wigtown
after a course of 22 m. Most of the numerous lochs are small.
History and Antiquities. — The history of Wigtownshire is
hardly distinguishable from that of Galloway (q.v.). Evidences of
the Pictish occupation are prevalent in the form of hill forts,
cairns, standing stones, hut circles and crannogs or lake dwellings.
There are so few Roman remains that it has been concluded they
effected no permanent settlement in West Galloway. Ninian, the
first Christian missionary to Scotland, landed at Isle of Whithorn
in 396 to convert the natives. His efforts were temporarily suc-
cessful. A monastery was built at Whithorn, and, though the
bishopric founded in the 8th century was shortly afterwards
removed, it was established again in the i:th, when the priory
erected by Fergus, "king" of Galloway, became the cathedral
church of the see of Galloway.
Malcolm MacHeth, who had married a sister of Somerled,
lord of the Isles, headed about 1150 a Celtic revolt, against the
intrusion of Anglo-Norman lords, but was routed at Causewayend
near the estuary of the Cree. In the disorder of the realm dur-
ing David II. ?s reign east Galloway had been surrendered to
Edward III. (1333), but Wigtownshire, which had been consti-
tuted a shire in the previous century and afterwards called the
Shire to distinguish it from the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, re-
mained Scottish territory. In 1372 the then earl of Wigtown
sold his title and estates to the 3rd earl of Douglas, and under
that family in 1426, the region came under the general law.
Soon after the fall of the Douglases (1455) the Kennedy family,
long established in the Ayrshire district of Carrick, obtained a
preponderating influence in Wigtownshire, and in 1509 David
Kennedy was created earl of Cassillis. Gilbert, the 4th earl held
the shire for Mary, queen of Scots, when she broke with the
Lords of the Congregation, but could do little for her cause.
He profited by the Reformation himself, however, to acquire by
fraud and murder the estate of Glenluce abbey (about 1570).
Among ancient castles are the cliff towers, possibly of Norse
origin, of Carghidown and Castle Feather near Burrow Head;
the ruins of Baldoon, south of Wigtown, associated with events
which suggested to Sir Walter Scott the romance of The Bride of
Lammermoor; Corsewall near the northern extremity of the
Rinns; the Norse stronghold of Cruggleton, south of Garlies-
town; Dunskey, south of Portpatrick, built in the i6th century,
occupying the site of an older fortress; the fragments of Long
castle at Dowalton loch, the ancient seat of the MacDonells;
Myrton, the seat of the MacCullochs, in Mochrum parish; and
the ruined tower of Sorbie, the ancient keep of the Hannays.
Agriculture and Industries.— Much of the shire consists of
594
WIGWAM— WILBERFORCE
stony moors, tendering the work of reclamation difficult. The
gravelly soil along, the coast requires heavy manuring, and in the
higher arable quarters a rocky soil prevails, better adapted for
grass and green crops than for grain. Much of the surface is
black top reclaimed from the moors, and in some districts loam
and clay are found. Half of the shire is, however, under cultiva-
tion, and the standard of farming is as high as that of any county
in Scotland. Ayrshire cattle are the favourite breed for dairy-
ing, with black polled Galloways in the eastern districts. The
sheep are principally black-faced on the hill farms, and in other
parts Leicester and other long-woolled breeds, wool being an
important product. Great numbers of pigs are kept. The shire
has acquired some reputation for its horses, chiefly Clydesdale.
There is regular communication by mail steamer between Stranraer
and Larne in Co. Antrim, Ireland.
Population and Administration. — In 1921 the population
was 30,783; 103 persons spoke Gaelic and English. The principal
towns are Stranraer (pop. 6,138) ; Newton Stewart (1,831), which,
however, extends into Kirkcudbrightshire; Wigtown (1,299); and
Whithorn (1,033). The county returns one member to parlia-
ment. Wigtown, the county town, Stranraer and Whithorn are
royal burghs. The shire forms a sheriffdom with Dumfries, and a
sheriff-substitute sits at Wigtown and Stranraer. •
WIGWAM, a term loosely adopted as a general name for the
houses of North American Indians. It is, however, strictly applied
to a particular dome-shaped or conical hut made of poles lashed
together at the tops and covered with bark. The skin tents of
many of the Plains Indians are called tepees. The word "wigwam"
represents the Europeanized or Anglicized form of the Algonkian
wekou-om-ut, i.e., uin his (their) house."
WIHTRED, king of Kent (d. 725), son of Ecgberht, nephew
of Hlothhere and brother of Eadric, came to the Kentish throne
in 690 after the period of anarchy which followed the death of
the latter king. Bede states that Wihtred and Swefheard were
both kings in Kent in 692, and this statement would appear to
imply a period of East Saxon influence (see KENT), while there
is also evidence of an attack by Wessex. Wihtred, however,
seems to have become sole king in 694. At his death in 725, he
left the kingdom to his sons Aethelberht, Eadberht and Alric.
There is still extant a code of laws issued by him in a council
held at a place called Berghamstyde (Barham?) during the fifth
year of his reign (probably 695).
See Bede, Hist. Red. ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896) ; Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, cd. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899).
WILAMOWITZ-MOLLENDORFF, ULRICH VON
(1848- ), German scholar, was born on Dec. 22, 1848 at
Markowitz in Posen. He studied at Bonn and Berlin, and after-
wards travelled in Italy and Greece (1872-74). In the latter
year he took a post as lecturer in Berlin, and afterwards be-
came a professor in Greifswald and Gottingen. In 1897 he was
appointed professor of ancient philology in the University of
Berlin. Wilamowitz proved himself not only an excellent editor
and witty commentator on the Greek tragedies of Aeschylus,
Euripides and Aristotle, but also a brilliant translator of Greek
verse. Sharply attacked by Fricdrich Nietzsche in his youth,
Wilamowitz became one of the first authorities of modern times
in the field of Greek philology.
Among his numerous works are: Aeschyli Tragoediae (Greek and
German 1914) ; Euripides' Herakles, with an introduction to the Greek
tragedy and German annotations (1889) ; Die Textgeschichte der
grieehischen Lyriker (IQOO) ; Bitcolid Graeci (Oxford, 1005) ; Die Ilias
und Homer (1916); Platon, (1919); ffellenistische DichtunR (1924);
Griechische Verskunst (1921); Pindar on (1922); Die Heimkehr des
Odysseus (1927).
WILBERFORCE, SAMUEL (1805-1873), English bishop,
third son of William Wilberforce, was born at Clapham Common,
London, on Sept. 7, 1805. He graduated from Oriel College, Ox-
ford, in 1826, taking a first class in mathematics and a second in
classics. He was ordained in 1828, and in 1830 became rector of
Brightstone, Isle of Wight. Although a High Churchman Wilber-
force held aloof from the Oxford movement, and in 1838 his di-
vergence from the "Tract" writers became so marked that J. H.
Newman declined further contributions from him to the British
Critic, not deeming it advisable that they should longer "co-
operate very closely." In 1838 Wilberforce published, with his
elder brother Robert, the Life of his father, and two years later
his father's Correspondence. In 1839 he also, published Euchar-
istica (from the old English divines), to which he wrote an intro-
duction, Agathos and other Sunday Stories, and a volume of
University Sermons, and in the following year Rocky Island and
other Parables. In March 1844 he was made dean of Westminster,
and in October bishop of Oxford.
The bishop in 1847 became involved in the Hampden contro-
versy, and signed the remonstrance of the thirteen bishops to Lord
John Russell against R. D. Hampden's appointment to the bishop-
ric of Hereford. He also endeavoured to obtain satisfactory assur-
ances from Hampden; but, though unsuccessful in this, he
withdrew from the suit against him. The publication of a papal
bull in 1850 establishing a Roman hierarchy in England brought
the High Church party, of whom Wilberforce was the most promi-
nent member, into temporary disrepute. His diary reveals a
devout private life which has been overlooked by those who
have only considered the versatile facility and persuasive expedi-
ency that marked the successful public career of the bishop, and
earned him the sobriquet of "Soapy Sam."
His attitude towards Essays and Reviews, 1861, against which he
wrote an article in the Quarterly, won him the special gratitude of
the Low Church party, and latterly he enjoyed the full confidence
and esteem of all except the extreme men of either side and party.
On the publication of J. W. Colenso's Commentary on {he Romans
in 1861, Wilberforce sought a private conference with the author;
but after the publication of the first two parts of the Pentateuch
Critically Examined he drew up the address of the bishops which
called on Colenso to resign his bishopric. Though opposed to
the disestablishment of the Irish Church, yet, when the constitu-
encies decided for it, he advised that no opposition should be made
to it by the House of Lords. After twenty-four years' labour in
the diocese of Oxford, he was translated by Gladstone to the
bishopric of Winchester. He was killed on July 19, 1873, by the
shock of a fall from his horse near Dorking, Surrey.
See Life of Samuel Wilberforce, with Selections from his Diary and
Correspondence (1879-82), vol. i., ed. by Canon A. R. Ashwell, and
vols. ii. and iii., ed. by his son R. G. Wilberforce, who also wrote a
one-volume Life (1905). One of the volumes of the "English Leaders
of Religion" is devoted to him, and he is included in Dean Burgon's
Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888).
WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM (1759-1833), English phi-
lanthropist whose name is chiefly associated with the abolition of
the slave trade, was descended from a Yorkshire family which
possessed the manor of Wilberfoss in the East Riding from the
time of Henry II. till the middle of the i8th century. He was
the only son of Robert Wilberforce, member of a commercial
house at Hull, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Bird of
Barton, Oxon, and was born at Hull on Aug. 24, 1759. At the
age of 9 he lost his father and was transferred to the care of a
paternal uncle at Wimbledon; but in his i2th year he returned
to Hull, and was placed under the care of the master of the en-
dowed school of Pocklington. Here he neglected his studies, but
he entered St. John's college, Cambridge, in Oct. 1766. Left by
the death of his grandfather and uncle the possessor of an inde-
pendent fortune under his mother's sole guardiansntj>, he was
somewhat idle at the university, though he acquitted himself in
the examinations with credit; but in his serious years he "could
not look back without unfeigned remorse" on the opportunities
he had then neglected. In 1780 he was elected M.P. for Hull.
He soon found his way into the fast political society of London,
and at the club at Goosetrees renewed an acquaintance begun
at Cambridge with Pitt, which ripened into a close friendship.
In the autumn of 1783 he set out with Pitt on a tour in France;
and after his return his eloquence proved of great assistance to
Pitt in his struggle against the majority of the House of Com-
mons. In 1784 Wilberforce was elected for both Hull and York-
shire, and took his seat for the latter constituency.
A journey to Nice in the autumn of the same year with Dr.
Isaac Milner (1750-1820), who had been one of his masters at
Hull grammar school, and afterwards became president of
WILBUR— WILD CARROT
595
Queens' college, Cambridge, and dean of Carlisle, led to his con-
version to Evangelical Christianity. The change had a marked ef-
fect on his public conduct. In the beginning of 1787 he busied
himself with the establishment of a society for the reformation of
manners. About the same time he met Thomas Clarkson, and
began the agitation against the slave trade. Pitt recommended Wil-
berforce to undertake the guidance of the project as a subject
suited to his character and talents. While Clarkson conducted the
agitation throughout the country, Wilbcrforce took every oppor-
tunity in the House of Commons of exposing the evils and horrors
of the trade. For the history of the various motions introduced by
Wilberforce see the article SLAVERY. It was not till 1807, the year
following Pitt's death, that the first great step towards the aboli-
tion of slavery was accomplished. When the anti-slavery society
was formed in 1823, Wilberforce and Clarkson became vice-presi-
dents; but before their aim was accomplished Wilberforce had
retired from public life, and the Emancipation Bill, which was the
culmination of his life-work, was not passed till Aug. 1833, a
month after his death.
In May 1797 he married Barbara Ann Spooner and took a
house at Clapham, where he became one of the leaders of the
"Clapham Sect'' of Evangelicals, including Henry Thornton,
Charles Grant, E. J. Eliot, Zachary Macaulay and James Stephen.
In connection with this group he planned a religious periodical
which should admit "a moderate degree of political and common
intelligence," the result being the appearance in January 1801 of
the Christian Observer. He also interested himself in a variety
of schemes for the social and religious welfare of the community.
In parliament he was a supporter of parliamentary reform and of
Roman Catholic emancipation. In 1812, on account of failing
health, he exchanged the representation of Yorkshire for that of
Bramber, Sussex. In 1825 he retired from the House of Com-
mons, and the following year settled at Highwood Hill, near Mill
Hill. He died at London on July 29, 1833, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey.
In 1797 Wilberforce published A Practical View of the Prevailing
Religious System of Professed Christians m the Higher and Middle
Classes of this Country Contrasted with Real Christianity ', which
within half a year went through five editions and was translated into
French, Italian, Dutch and German.
The chief authorities of the career of William Wilberforce are his
Life (5 vols., 1838) by his sons, Robert, Isaac and Samuel, and his
Correspondence (1840) also published by his sons. A smaller edition
of the Life was published by Samuel Wilberforce in 1868. See also
The private papers of William Wilberforce, edited by A. M. Wilber-
force (1897) ; Sir James Stephen, Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography
(1849) J J- C. Colquhoun, Wilberforce, His Friends and Times (1866) ;
John Stoughton, William Wilberforce (1880) ; J. J. Gurney, Familiar
Sketch of Wilberforce (1838); J. S. Hartford, Recollections of W.
Wilberforce (1864) and R. Coupland, Wilberforce (Oxford, 1923).
WILBUR, RAY LYMAN (1875- ), American educa-
tionist, was born at Boonesboro, la., on April 13, 1875. He
graduated at Stanford university in 1896, proceeding thence to
Cooper Medical college, San Francisco, and later continued his
studies at London, Frankfurt and Munich. He began his teach-
ing at Stanford in 1900, becoming professor of medicine in 1909
and dean of the medical school in 1911. In 1915 he was appointed
president. He was chief of the division of conservation of the
U.S. Food Commission, and a member of the California State
Council of Defence 1917. On March 4, 1929, he became secretary
of the interior in the cabinet of President Hoover.
WILBYE, JOHN (1574-1638), English madrigal composer,
was born at Diss, Norfolk, in 1574, the date of his baptism being
March 9. Until recently nothing was known of his life but many
facts have now come to light. His father was a well-to-do land-
owner, Matthew Wilbye. Through his early acquaintance with
the Cornwallis family at Brome Hall John became resident musi-
cian at Hengrave Hall, the seat of Sir Thomas Kytson, whose wife
was Elizabeth Cornwallis. The inventories of Hengrave give the
items of furniture in Wilbye's rooms and the Hengrave Letter
Book II. contains a letter from Wilbye to a friend, which has
been reproduced in volume VI. of The English Madrigal School.
In 1628 Lady Kytson died, and Wilbye retired to Colchester,
where he lived in the house of Lady Rivers, a daughter of the
Kytsons. This house was still standing in 1927. Wilbye died there
in Sept. 1638, in his sixty-fifth year.
Wilbye's madrigals are the most famous of the English school.
He had in a supreme degree the quality of style and he obtained
wonderful effects of contrast by his skill in grouping the voices.
His First Set of English Madrigals to j, 4, 5, and 6 voices was
published in 1598, bearing the date April 12, and was dedicated
to Sir Charles Cavendish, son-in-law of Sir Thomas Kytson. It
contains 30 numbers, including the famous "Flora gave me fairest
flowers." The madrigals of the Second Set, dedicated to Lady
Arabella Stuart, which appeared in 1609, are even more finished in
style. Among them are "Draw on, Sweet Night"; "Stay, Cory-
don"; and "Sweet honey-sucking bees."
Both sets have been reprinted by the Musical Antiquarian Society,
and for the English Madrigal School (vol. vi., with biographical
details) and vii. Two Latin motets are in Arkwright's Old English
Edition (1889-1902; 1922, etc.); Leighton's Teares or Lamentacions
(1614) contains 2 numbers by Wilbye, "I am quite tired" (a 4) and
"O God the Rock" (as). A six-part madrigal, "The Lady Oriana,"
is in the "Triumph of Oriana" (1601). Most of the English collections
include one or more of Wilbye's madrigals. See also Rev. E. H.
Fellowcs, English Madrigal Composers (1921), and the article by him
in Grove's Dictionary, 3rd ed.
WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725), English criminal,
was born about 1682 at Wolverhampton, where his father was a
wig-maker. After a term of imprisonment he set up as a receiver
of stolen goods. Wild built up an immense business, posing as a
recoverer of stolen goods, the thieves receiving a commission on
the price paid for recovery. A special act of parliament was
passed by which receivers of stolen property were made acces-
sories to the theft, but Wild's professed "lost property office"
had little difficulty in evading the new law, and became so pros-
perous that two branch offices were opened. Wild went on to
arrange robberies himself, and he devised and controlled a huge
organization, which plundered London and its approaches whole-
sale. Such thieves as refused to work with him received short
shrift. The notorious Jack Sheppard, wearied of Wild's exactions,
at last refused to deal with him, whereupon \Vild secured his
arrest, and himself arrested Sheppard's confederate, "Blueskin."
In return for Wild's services in tracking down such thieves as
he did not himself control, the authorities for some time toler-
ated the offences of his numerous agents. If an arrest were
made, Wild had a plentiful supply of false evidence at hand to
establish his agents' alibi, and he obtained the conviction, by
similar means, of such thieves as refused to recognize his author-
ity. Such stolen property as could not be returned to the owners
with profit was taken abroad in a sloop purchased for this work.
At last he was arrested, tried at the Old Bailey, and after being
acquitted on a charge of stealing lace, found guilty of taking a
reward for restoring it to the owner without informing the police.
He was hanged at Tyburn on
May 24, 1725.
WILDBAD, a watering-
place of Germany, in the repub-
lic of Wiirttemberg, situated
1,475 ft. above the sea, in the
gorge of the Enz in the Black
forest, 28 m. W. of Stuttgart
and 14 E. of Baden-Baden by
rail. Pop. (1925) 5,307. Its
thermal alkaline springs have a,
temperature of 90°-! 00° Fahr.
., c.«.™ „ TM8 IW* 0iouo0,cAL WDLD CARROT (Daucus
Juiiw1111"1 Qr ™R IWWA "OUQCICAL Carota), a biennial herb of the
WILD CARROT (DAUCUS CAROTA), parsley family (Umbelliferae,
A COMMON WEED BEARING DENSE q.v.), native to Europe, northern
CLUSTERS OF WHITE FLOWERS Afrfca md Asia and extensively
naturalized in North America as a weed, often exceedingly perni-
cious in pastures, meadows and fields. It is the parent species of
the common root vegetable from which it differs chiefly in the size
and quality of the root. The wild carrot springs from a deep,
fleshy, conical root, with an erect stem, i to 3 ft. high, bearing
much dissected leaves and an immense number of small white
flowers crowded in a large globose or flat-topped cluster (com-
pound umbel), often 3 to 5 in. across, the central flower of each
WILDE— WILDERNESS
umbel often purple. The ripening seed-vessels, which are small
and bristly hairy, often form a hollow, somewhat spherical mass,
open at the top, somewhat suggestive of a bird's nest. Because of
this the plant is popularly called crow's-nest or bird's-nest. It is
also known as Queen Anne's lace, because of the appearance of the
flower clusters.
WILDE, OSCAR FINGALL O'FLAHERTIE WILLS
(1856-1900), English author, son of Sir William Wilde, a famous
Irish surgeon, was born in Dublin on Oct. 15, 1856; his mother,
Jane Francisca Elgee, was well known in Dublin as a graceful
writer of verse and prose, under the pen-name of "Speranza."
Having distinguished himself in classics at Trinity college, Dub-
lin, Oscar Wilde went to Magdalen college, Oxford, in 1874, and
won the Newdigate prize in 1878 with his poem "Ravenna," be-
sides taking a first-class in classical Moderations and in Literae
Humaniores. At Oxford he adopted what to undergraduates ap-
peared the effeminate pose of casting scorn on manly sports,
wearing his hair long, decorating his rooms with peacock's feathers,
lilies, sunflowers, blue china and other objcts d'art, which he de-
clared it his desire to "live up to," affecting a lackadaisical man-
ner, and professing intense emotions on the subject of "art for
art's sake" — then a new-fangled doctrine which J. M. WThistler
was bringing into prominence. Wilde made himself the apostle
of this new cult. At Oxford his behaviour procured him a duck-
ing in the Cherwell, and a wrecking of his rooms, but the cult
spread. Its affectations were burlesqued in Gilbert and Sullivan's
travesty Patience (1881). As the leading "aesthete," Oscar
Wilde became one of the most prominent personalities of the day ;
his affected paradoxes and his witty sayings were quoted on all
sides, and in 1882 he went on a lecturing tour in the United
States, where he wrote a drama, Vera, which was produced in
New York. In 1884 he married Constance Lloyd. He had already
published in 1881 a selection of his poems, which, however, only
attracted admiration in a limited circle. In 1888 appeared The
Happy Prince and Other Tales, illustrated by Walter Crane and
Jacomb Hood. This charming volume of fairy tales was followed
up by Lord Arthur Savile's Crime, and Other Stories (1891), and
later by a second collection of fairy stories The House of Pome-
granates (1892), acknowledged by the author to be "intended
neither for the British child nor the British public." The Picture
of Dorian Gray (1891) was the mirror of the new aesthete. In
1891 his tragedy in blank verse, The Duchess of Padua, was pro-
duced in New York. But Wilde's first real success with the larger
public as a dramatist was with Lady Windermere's Fan (St.
James's Theatre, 1892), followed by A Woman of No Importance
(1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being
Earnest (1895). The wit and brilliance of these pieces helped
them to keep the stage, and they are still occasionally revived.
In 1893 the licenser of plays refused a licence to Wilde's Salome,
but it was printed in French in 1893, and produced in 'Paris by
Sarah Bernhardt in 1894, and was translated into English in the
same year by Lord Alfred Douglas.
His success as a dramatist had by this time gone some way to
disabuse hostile critics of the suspicions as regards his personal
character which had been excited by the apparent looseness of
morals which since his Oxford days it had always pleased him
to affect; but to the consternation of his friends, who had ceased
to credit the existence of any real moral obliquity, in 1895 came
fatal revelations as the result, of his bringing a libel action against
the marquis of Queensberry ; and at the Old Bailey, in May, Wilde
was sentenced to two years' imprisonment with hard labour for
offences under the Criminal Law Amendment Act. He went
bankrupt soon after. It was a melancholy end to a singularly
brilliant career. After leaving prison in 1897 he lived mainly on
the Continent, at Berneval and later in Paris under the name of
"Sebastian Melmoth." He died in Paris on Nov. 30, 1900. In
1898 he published his powerful Ballad of Reading Gaol. His
Collected Poems, containing some beautiful verse, had been issued
in 1892. While in prison he wrote an apology for his life which
was placed in the hands of his executor and published in 1905.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Oscar Wilde's works were edited in 13 vols. (1908)
by Robert Ross, and two small collections of letters to Ross, After
Reading (1921) and After Berneval (1922), were published. See also
A. Gide, Oscar Wilde (1905); A. Ransome, Oscar Wilde (1912);
B. Fehr, Studien zu Oscar Wildes Gcdichten (1918) ; F. Harris, Oscar
Wilde, his life and confessions (2 vols., N.Y. 1918) ; E. Bendz. Oscar
Wilde: a retrospect (Vienna, 1921).
WILDERNESS, a large forest in Spottsylvania county, Vir-
ginia, U.S.A., on the south bank of the Rapidan, extending from
Mine Run on the east to Chancellorsville on the west. It is
famous in military history for the battles of Chancellorsville
(1863) and Wilderness (1864) during the American Civil War.
Chancellorsville. — In May 1863 a three days' battle was
fought at Chancellorsville between the Army of the Potomac,
under Gen. Hooker, and Gen. Lee's army of Northern Virginia^
which had stemmed the previous tide of invasion in the east by
holding successfully a position on the heights along the right or
south bank of the Rappahannock. Gen. Burnside had suffered a
severe repulse in front of the Confederate position at Fredericks-
burg in Dec. 1862, and his successor resolved to adopt the alter-
native plan of turning Lee's flank and so gaining the road to
Richmond. Lee was at the time weakened through having, by
direction of the War Department, detached Longstreet's two divi-
sions and three cavalry brigades to collect provisions from the
neighbourhood of Suffolk, i2om. distant. Hooker had now at his
disposal 12,000 cavalry, 400 guns, and 120,000 infantry and
artillery, organized in seven corps (I. Reynolds, II. Couch, III.
Sickles, V. Meade, VI. Sedgwick, XI. Howard, XII. Slocum). Lee
counted only 55,000 men of all arms effective. Hooker detached
TO,OOO cavalry, under Stoneman, to sweep round Lee's l&ft, destroy
the railways in Lee's rear and cut his line of retreat, and the I.
and VI. corps under Sedgwick (40,000) to cross below Fredericks-
burg and pin Lee in his entrenched position, while with the
remainder he himself turned Lee's left by a wide manoeuvre.
Hooker moved up the Rappahannock, crossed that river and after-
wards the Rapidan, and on April 30 fixed his headquarters at
Chancellorsville, a farmhouse in the Wilderness. Lee's cavalry
under Stuart had duly reported the Federal movements and Lee,
judging that Sedgwick's advance was only a feint, called up
"Stonewall" Jackson's four divisions from below the Massaponax
as soon as Sedgwick's corps crossed the river at Fredericksburg.
At Chancellorsville, Anderson's division was in position, and
Me Laws was sent to support him, while Jackson took three divi-
sions to the same point, leaving Early9 s division (10,000) to
observe Sedgwick. At n A.M. on May i, Hooker began his
advance towards Fredericksburg, an advance which was intended
to be a hammer crushing Lee against Sedgwick's anvil. But when
he encountered the columns of the Confederates, also advancing,
in the forest, tracts of the Wilderness, the absence of all but a
fraction of his cavalry meant an absence of information. Believing
that the whole of Lee's army was upon him, he fell back to Chan-
cellorsville, where he had cleared and entrenched a position in the
forest. This was almost impregnable to attack from the east, or
south — and Hooker decided to invite such an attack. Lee, how-
ever, discovered a route by which the Federals might be attacked
from the north and west, and arranged with Jackson to execute
the turning movement and fall upon them. At 4 A.M. on May 2
Jackson marched westward with his corps of 26,000 men and by
a detour of 15111. passed round the Federal right flank, then
moved to take the Federals in reverse, while Anderson and Me-
Laws with 17,000 men demonstrated in front of Hooker's army
and so kept 70,000 men idle behind their earthworks. One of
Stuart's cavalry brigades neutralized Stoneman's 10,000 horse-
men. Sedgwick was being contained by Early. Jackson's attack
at 6 P.M. surprised the Federals, who fled in panic at nightfall,
but Jackson was mortally wounded, and with his fall the attack
lost impetus and the chance of an annihilating victory. Next day
the attack was resumed under the immediate direction of Stuart,
who was reinforced by Anderson, while McLaws now threatened
the left flank of the Federals and Fitz Lee's cavalry brigade oper-
ated against their line of retreat. Hooker finally gained the shelter
of an inner line of works covering the ford by which he must
retreat. Meanwhile Early had checked Sedgwick, who had already
abandoned his attack when Lee, on receiving word that Early was
WILDERNESS
597
hard pressed, ceased to press Hooker's retreat and moved to
Early's aid. Thus on May 4 Sedgwick was assailed by Early, j
McLaws and Anderson, and driven over the Rappahannock to :
join the remainder of Hooker's beaten army, which had recrossed j
the Rapidan on the night of May 5 and marched back to Fal-
mouth. That day Lee had once more countermarched to concen-
trate afresh against Hooker, but his attack, delayed by rain,
found that his quarry had slipped away. Phisterer's Record puts
the Federal loss at 16,000 and the Confederates at 12,000 men,
See A. C. Hamlin, The Battle of Chancdlorsville (1896) ; G. F. R. |
Henderson, Stoneivall Jackson (1002) ; W. B. Wood and J. E.
Edmonds, The Civil War in the United States (1905); Battles and
Leaders of the Civil War and Official Records of the War of Secession.
Grant's Campaign of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor. —
On the evening of May 3, 1864, after dark, the Army of the
Potomac, commanded by Mcade and consisting of the 11., V. and
VI., and Cavalry Corps, left its winter quarters about Culpeper to
manoeuvre across the Rapidan with a .view to fighting a battle at j
or near New Hope church and Craig's church. The army and the
IX. Corps (Burnsidc), which was an independent command, were
directed by Lieut. -Gen. Grant, the newly appointed commander of j
the armies of the United States, who accompanied Meade's head- j
quarters. The opposing Army of Northern Virginia under Lee lay
in quarters around Orange Court house (A. P. Hill's Corps), Ver-
diersvillc (Ewell's Corps) and Gordonsvillc (Longstreet's Corps).
The respective numbers were: Army of the Potomac, 98,000; IX.
Corps, 22,000; Army of Northern Virginia, rather less than 70,000.
The crossing of the Rapidan was made at Germanna and Ely's
fords, out. of reach of Lee's interference, and in a few hours the
two leading corps had reached their halting-places — V. (Warren),
Wilderness tavern; and II. (Hancock), Chancellorsville. The VI.
(Sedgwick) followed the V. and halted south of Germanna ford.
Two of the three divisions of cavalry preceded the march and
scouted to the front and flanks. Controversy has arisen as to
whether the early halt of the Union army in the midst of the
Wilderness was not a serious error of judgment. The reason
assigned was the necessity of protecting an enormous wagon train,
carrying 15 days' supplies for the whole army, that was crossing
after II. Corps at Ely's ford. Burnside's corps was far to the
rear when the advance began, but by making forced marches it
was able to reach Germanna ford during May 5. On that day the
manoeuvre towards Craig's church was resumed at 5 A.M., cov-
ered by Wilson's cavalry division, while Gregg's unit moved to-
wards Fredricksburg.
Grant's intention of avoiding a battle until he was clear of the
Wilderness was not achieved, for Confederate infantry appeared
on the Orange turnpike east of Mine Run, where on his own initia-
tive Warren had posted a division of the V. Corps overnight as
flank-guard, and some cavalry, judiciously left behind by Wilson
at Parker's store, became engaged a little later with hostile forces
on the Orange Plank road. This led to the suspension of the whole
manoeuvre — wherein Grant's object was to place himself between
Lee and Richmond. The first idea of the Union headquarters was
that Lee was falling back to the North Anna, covered by a bold
rear guard, which Grant and Meade arranged to cut off and de-
stroy by a convergent attack of Warren and Sedgwick. But the
appearance of infantry on the Ptynk road as well as the Pike had
shown that Lee intended to fight in the Wilderness, and Hancock
(II. Corps) was called in from Todd's tavern, while one division
(Getty's) of the VI. was hurried to the intersection of the Brock
and Plank roads to hold that point until Hancock's arrival. Getty
arrived just in time, for Confederate skirmishers were found dead
and wounded only 3cyd. from the cross roads. The division then
formed up to await Hancock's arrival up the Brock road, practi-
cally unmolested, for Lee had only two of his corps on the ground
(Hill on the Plank road, Ewell on the Pike), and did not desire to
force a decision until Longstreet's distant corps should arrive.
Meanwhile Warren had been slowly forming up his attacking
line with great difficulty in the woods. Grant appears to have
used bitter words to Meade on the subject of Warren's delays, and
Meade passed these on to Warren, who in turn forced his sub-
ordinates into premature action. The result of the attack by the
V. and later the VI. Corps, delivered piecemeal owing to the diffi-
culties of direction and touch in the woods, on Ewell was com-
pletely unsatisfactory, and for the rest of the battle these corps
were used principally as reservoirs to find supports for the offen-
sive wing under Hancock, who arrived on the Plank road 2 P.M.
Hancock's divisions, as they came up, entrenched themselves
along the Brock road. In the afternoon he was ordered to attack
whatever force of the enemy was on the Plank road in front of
him, but was unwilling to do so until he had his forces well in
hand. Finally Getty was ordered to attack "whether Hancock was
ready or not." This may have been an attempt to force Hancock's
hand by an appeal to his soldierly honour, and as a fact he did
not leave Getty unsupported. But the disjointed attacks of the 11.
Corps on Hill's entrenchments, while forcing the Confederates to
the verge of ruin, were not so successful as the preponderance of
force on the Union side ought to have ensured. For four hours the
two lines of battle were fighting soyd. apart, until at nightfall the
contest was given up through mutual exhaustion.
The battle of the 6th was timed to begin at 5 A.M., and Grant's
attack was wholly directed on Parker's store, with the object of
crushing Hill before Longs tree t could assist him. If Longs tree t,
instead of helping Hill, were to attack the extreme Union ieft,
so much the better; but the far more probable course for him to
take was to support Hill on or north of the Plank road, and Grant
not only ordered Hancock with six of the eleven divisions of
Meade's army to attack towards Parker's store, but sent his own
"mass of manoeuvre" (the IX. Corps) thither in such a way as to
strike Hill's left. The cavalry was drawn back for the protection
of the trains, for "every musket" was required in the ranks of the
infantry. Wilson's division, in its movement on Shady Grove
church on the 5th, had been cut off by the enemy's advance on
the Plank road and attacked. by some Confederate cavalry. But
it extricated itself and joined Gregg, who had been sent to assist
him, at Todd's tavern. Warren and Sedgwick were to hold Ewell
occupied on the Pike by vigorous attacks. At 5 o'clock Hancock
advanced, drove back and broke up Hill's divisions, and on his
right Wadsworth attacked their left rear. But after an hour's
wood fighting the Union attack came to a standstill, and at this
moment, the critical moment for the action of the IX. Corps,
Burnside was still more than a mile away, having scarcely passed
through Warren's lines into the woods. Then Longstreet's Corps,
pushing its way in two columns of fours through 11 ill's retreating
groups, attacked Hancock with the greatest fury and forced him
back some hundreds of yards. But the woods broke the force of
this attack too, and by 7.30 the battle had become a stationary
fire-fight. After an interval in which both sides rallied their con-
fused masses, Longs treet attacked again and gained more ground.
Persistent rumours came into the Union headquarters of a Con-
federate advance against the Union left rear, and when Grant
realized the situation he broke off one of Burnside's divisions
from the IX. Corps column and sent it to the cross-roads as
direct reserve to Hancock. At this moment the battle took a very
unfavourable turn on the Plank road. Longs treet had sent four
brigades of infantry by a detour through the woods south of the
Plank road to attack Hancock's left. This was very effective, and
the Union troops were hustled back to the cross-roads. But Long-
street, like Jackson a year before in these woods, was wounded by
his own men, and the battle again came to a standstill (2.30 P.M.).
Burnside's Corps, arriving shortly before 10 A.M. near Chewn-
ing's house, the position whence it was to have attacked Hill's left
in the early morning, was about to attack, in ignorance of Han-
cock's repulse, when fortunately an order reached it to suspend
the advance and to make its way through the woods towards
Hancock's right. This dangerous flank march, screened by the
woods, was completed by 2 P.M., and Burnside began an attack
upon the left of Longstreet's command (R. H. Anderson's fresh
division of Hill's Corps). But Hancock being in no condition to
support the IX. Corps, the whole attack was, at 3 P.M., postponed
by Grant's order until 6 P.M. Thus there was a long respite for
both sides, varied only by a little skirmishing. But Lee was de-
termined, as always, to have the last word, and about 4.15-4.30 a
fierce assault was delivered amidst the burning woods upon Han-
WILDERNESS
cock's entrenchments along the Brock road. For a moment, aided
by the dense smoke, the Confederates seized and held the first line
of works, biit a counter-stroke dislodged them. Burnside, though
not expecting to have to attack before 6, put into the fight such
of his troops as were ready, and at 5.30 or thereabouts the assault-
ing line receded into the woods. Grant cancelled his order to
attack at 6, and at the decisive point the battle was at an end. But
on the extreme right of the Union army a sudden attack was de-
livered at sunset upon the hitherto unmolested VI. Corps, by
Gordon, one of Ewell's brigadiers. This carried off two generals
and several hundred prisoners, and caused a panic to ensue
which affected all the Union forces on the Pike and lasted until
after nightfall.
Lee, therefore, had the last word on both flanks, but in spite
of this and of the very heavy losses1, Grant had already resolved
to go on, instead of going back like his various predecessors. To
him, indeed, the battle of the Wilderness was a victory, an inde-
cisive victory indeed, but one that had given him a moral supe-
riority which he did not intend to forfeit. His scheme, drafted
early on the morning of the yth, was for the army to march to
Spottsylvania on the night of the yth-Sth, to assemble there on the
8th, and thence to undertake a fresh manoeuvre against Lee's
right rear on the gth. This movement required the trains with the
fighting line to be cleared away at once from the roads needed for
the troops and Lee promptly discovered that a movement was in
progress. He mistook its object, however, and assuming that
Grant was falling back on Frederkksburg, he prepared to shift his
own forces to the south of that place so as to bar the Richmond
road. This led to a race for Spottsylvania, which was decided more
by accidents to either side than by the measures of the two com-
manding generals. On the Union side Warren was to move to the
line Spottsylvania Court house-Todd's tavern, followed by Han-
cock; Sedgwick was to take a roundabout route and to come in
between the V. and II. Corps; Burnside to follow Sedgwick. The
cavalry was ordered to watch the approaches towards the right of
the army. The movement began promptly after nightfall on the
7th. But ere long the head of Warren's column, passing in rear of
Hancock's line of battle, was blocked by the headquarters escort
of Grant and Meade. Next, the head of the V. Corps was again
checked at Todd's tavern by two cavalry divisions which had
been sent by Sheridan to regain the ground at Todd's tavern2, given
up on the 6th, and after fighting the action of Todd's tavern had
received no further orders from him. Meade, greatly irritated,
ordered Gregg's division out towards Corbin's bridge and Merritt's
to Spottsylvania. On the latter road the Union cavalry found
themselves opposed by Fitz Lee's cavalry, and after some hours
of disheartening work in the woods, Merritt asked Warren to send
forward infantry to drive the enemy. This Wrarren did, although
he was just preparing to rest and to feed his men after their ex-
hausting night -march. Robinson's division at the head of the corps
deployed and swiftly drove in Fitz Lee. A little beyond Alsop's,
however, Robinson found his path barred by entrenched infantry.
This was part of Anderson's (formerly Longstreet's) corps. That
officer had been ordered to draw out of his (Wilderness) works,
and to bivouac, preparatory to marching at 3 A.M. to the Court
house, but, finding no good resting-place, he had moved on at once
by way of the Catharpin road and Corbin's bridge. At or near
Block House bridge the corps halted to rest, but Stuart (who was
with Fitz Lee) called upon Anderson for assistance and the march
was resumed at full speed. Sheridan's new orders to Gregg and
Merritt did not arrive until Meade had given these officers other
instructions, but Wilson's cavalry division, which was out of the
line of march of the infantry, acted in accordance with Sheridan's
plan of occupying the bridges in front of the position that the
army intended to occupy at Spottsylvania Court house, and
seized that place, inflicting a smart blow upon a brigade of
Stuart's force.
The situation about 9 A.M. on the 8th was therefore curious.
xThe Union losses in the battle were 18,000, the Confederates at
least 11,500.
2In consequence of a mistaken order that the trains which he was
protecting were to move forward to Piney Branch church.
Warren, facing east, and opposed by part of Anderson's corps,
was seeking to fight his way to Spottsylvania Court house by the
Brock road. Wilson facing south, was holding the Court house and
driving Fitz Lee's cavalry partly westward on to the backs of the
infantry opposing Warren, partly towards Block House bridge,
whence the rest of Anderson's infantry was approaching. All the
troops were weary and hungry, and Sheridan ordered Wilson to
evacuate the Court house and to fall back over the Ny. Warren
fruitlessly attacked the Confederate infantry at Spindler's, Robin-
son being severely wounded and his division disorganized. The
other divisions came up by degrees, and another attack was made
about ii. It was pressed close up to, and in some places over, the
Confederate log-works, but it- ended in failure like the first. A
third attempt in the evening dwindled down to a reconnaissance in
force. Anderson was no longer isolated. Early' s division observed
Hancock's corps at Todd's tavern, but the rest of Ewell's and all
Hill's corps went to Spottsylvania and prolonged Anderson's line
northward towards the Ny. Thus the re-grouping of the Union
army for manoeuvre, and even the running fight or strategic pur-
suit imagined by Grant when he found Anderson at Spottsylvania,
were given up, and on the gth both armies rested. On this day
Sedgwick was killed by a long-range shot from a Confederate rifle.
His place was taken by H. G. Wright. On this day also a violent
quarrel between Meade and Sheridan led to the departure of the
cavalry corps on an independent mission. This was the so-called
Richmond raid, in which Sheridan defeated Stuart at Yellow tav-
ern (where Stuart was killed) and captured the outworks of Rich-
mond, but, having started with empty forage wagons3, had then to
make his way down the Chickahominy to the nearest supply depots
of the Army of the James, leaving the Confederate cavalry free
to rally and rejoin Lee.
Finding the enemy thus gathered in his front, Grant decided to
fight again on the loth. While Hancock opposed Early, and War-
ren and Wright faced Hill and Anderson, Burnside was ordered by
Grant to work his way to the Fredericksburg-Spottsylvania road,
thence to attack the enemy's right rear. The first stage of this
movement of the IX. Corps was to be made on the Qth, but not the
attack itself, and Burnside was consequently ordered not to go
beyond a placed called "Gate" on the maps used by the Union
staff. This, it turned out, was not the farm of a person called
Gate, as headquarters supposed, but a mere gate into a field. Con-
sequently it was missed, and the IX. Corps went on to Gale's or
Gayle's house, where the enemy's skirmishers were driven in4.
3Owing to the circumstances of his departure, the angry army
staff told him to move out at once with the forage that he had, and
Sheridan, though the army reserve supplies were at hand, made no
attempt to fill up from them.
4 A further source of confusion, for the historian at least, is that
on the survey maps made in 1867 this "Gayle" is called "Beverly."
WILDERNESS
599
The news of an enemy opposing Burnside at "Gate," which Grant
still supposed to be the position of the IX. Corps, at once radically
altered the plan of battle. Lee was presumed to be moving north
towards Fredericksburg, and Grant saw an opportunity of a great
and decisive success. The IX. Corps was ordered to hold its posi-
tion at all costs, and the others were to follow up the enemy as he
concentrated upon Burnside. Hancock was called in from Todd's
tavern, sent down to force the fords on the Po at and below Tin-
der's mill, and directed upon Block House bridge by an officer of
Grant's own staff, while Warren and Wright were held ready. But
once more a handful of cavalry in the woods delayed the effective
deployment of the moving wing, and by the time that the II. Corps
was collected opposite Block House bridge it was already night.
Still there was, apparently, no diminution of force opposite Burn-
side, and Hancock was ordered to resume his advance at early
dawn on the loth.
Meade, however, had little or no cognizance of Grant's orders
to the independent IX. Corps, and his orders, conflicting with
those emanating from the Lieutenant-General's staff, puzzled Han-
cock and crippled his advance. At 10 the whole scheme was given
up, and the now widely deployed Union army closed on its centre
as best it could for a direct attack on the Spottsylvania position.
At 4, before the new concentration was complete, and while Han-
cock was still engaged in the difficult operation of drawing back
over the Po in the face of the enemy, Warren attacked unsup-
ported and was repulsed. In the woods on the left Wright was
more successful, and at 6 P.M. a rush of 12 selected regiments
under Col. Emory Upton carried the right of Lee's log-works.
But for want of support this attack too was fruitless, though Up-
ton held the captured works for an hour and brought off 1,000
prisoners. Burnside, receiving Grant's new orders to attack from
Gayle's towards Spottsylvania, sent for further orders as to the
method of attack, and his advance was thus made too late in the
day to be of use. Lee had again averted disaster, this time by his
magnificent handling of his only reserve, Hill's (now Early's)
corps, which he used first against Hancock and then against Burn-
side with the greatest effect.
This was the fourth battle since the evening of May 4. On the
morning of the nth Grant sent his famous message to Washing-
ton, "I purpose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer."
The 1 2th was to be the fifth and, Grant hoped, the decisive battle.
A maze of useful and useless entrenchments had been constructed
on both sides, especially on the Union side, from mere force of
habit. Grant, seeing from the experience of the loth that his
corps commanders were manning these entrenchments so strongly
that they had only feeble forces disposable for the attack, ordered
all superfluous defences to be given up. Three corps were formed
in a connected line (from right to left, V., VI., IX.) during the
nth, and that night Hancock's corps moved silently to a position
between Wright and Burnside and formed up in the open field at
Brown's in an attacking mass of Napoleonic density — three lines
of divisions, in line and in battalion and brigade columns. Burn-
side was to attack from Gayle's (Beverly's on the map) towards
McCool's. Warren and Wright were to have at least one division
each clear of their entrenchments and ready to move.
Up to the nth Lee's line had extended from the woods in front
of Block House bridge, through Perry's and Spindler's fields to
McCool's house, and its right was diffused and formed a loop
round McCool's. All these works faced north-west. In addition,
Burnside's advance had caused Early's corps to entrench Spottsyl-
vania and the church to the south of it, facing east. Between these
two sections were woods. The connection made between them gave
the loop round McCool's the appearance from which it derives its
historic name of The Salient. Upon the northern face of this
salient Hancock's attack was delivered.
On the nth the abandonment of Burnside's threatening advance
on his rear and other indications had disquieted Lee as to his left
or Block House flank, and he had drawn off practically all Ewell's
artillery from the McCool works to aid in that quarter. The in-
fantry that manned the Salient was what remained of Stonewall
Jackson's "foot cavalry," veterans of Antietam, Fredericksburg
and Chanceliorsville. But at 4-35, in the mist, Hancock's mass
swept over their works at the first rush and swarmed in the in-
terior of the Salient, gathering thousands of prisoners and seizing
the field batteries that Lee had sent back just too late.
The thronging and excited Federals were completely disordered
by success, and the counter-attack of one or two Confederate
brigades in good order drove them back to the line of the cap-
tured works. Then, about 6, there began one of the most remark-
able struggles in history. While Early, swiftly drawing back from
Block house, checked Burnside's attack from the east, and Ander-
son, attacked again and again by parts of the V. Corps, was fully
occupied in preserving his own front, Lee, with Ewell's corps and
the few thousand men whom the other generals could spare,
delivered all day a series of fierce counter-strokes against Hancock.
Nearly all Wright's corps and even part of Warren's (in the end
45,000 men) were drawn into the fight at the Salient, for Grant
and Meade well knew that Lee was struggling to gain time for the
construction of a retrenchment across the base of it. If the
counter-attacks failed to gain this respite, the Confederates would
have to retreat as best they could, pressed in front and flank. But
the initial superiority of the Federals was neutralized by their
disorder, and keeping the fight alive by successive brigade attacks,
while the troops not actually employed were held out of danger
till their time came, Lee succeeded so well that after twenty
hours' bitter fighting the new line was ready and the Confederates
gave up the barren prize to Hancock. Lee had lost 4,000 prisoners
as well as 4,500 killed and wounded, as against 7,000 in the Army
of the Potomac and the IX. Corps.
There were other battles in front of Spottsylvania, but that of
the 1 2th was the climax. From the i3th to the 2oth the Federals
gradually worked round from west to east, delivering a few partial
attacks in the vain hope of discovering a weak point. Lee's posi-
tion, now semicircular, enabled him to concentrate on interior lines
on each occasion. In the end the Federals were entrenched facing
east, between Beverly's house (Burnside's old "Gayle") and
Quisenberry's, Lee facing west from the new works south of Har-
rison's through the Court house to Snell's bridge on the Po. In
the fork of the Po and the Ny, with woods and marshes to obstruct
every movement, Grant knew that nothing could be done, and he
prepared to execute a new manoeuvre. But here as in the Wilder-
ness, Lee managed to have the last word. While the Union army
was resting in camp for the first time since leaving Culpeper,
Ewell's corps suddenly attacked its baggage-train near Harris's
house. The Confederates were driven off, but Grant had to defer
his intended manoeuvre for two days. When the armies left Spott-
sylvania, little more than a fortnight after breaking up from winter
quarters, the casualties had reached the totals of 35,000 out of an
original total of 120,000 for the Union army, 26,000 out of 70,000
for the Confederates.
The next manoeuvre attempted by Grant to bring Lee's army to
action "outside works" was of an unusual character, though it had
been foreshadowed in the improvised plan of crushing Lee against
Burnside's corps on the 9th. Hancock was now (2oth) ordered to
move off under cover of night to Milford; thence he was to
march south-west as far as possible along the Richmond and
Fredericksburg railroad and to attack whatever force of the en-
emy he met. It was hoped that this bold stroke by an isolated
corps would draw Lee's army upon it, and the rest of the Army of
the Potomac would, if this hope were realized, drive down upon
Lee's rear while Hancock held him up in front. Supposing, how-
ever, that Lee did not take the bait, the manoeuvre would resolve
itself into a turning movement with the object of compelling Lee
to come out of his Spottsylvania lines on pain of being surrounded.
Hancock's corps started on the night of the 2oth-2ist. The
alarm was soon given. At Milford, where he forced the passage
of the Mattapony, Hancock found himself in the presence of hos-
tile infantry from Richmond and heard that more had arrived at
Hanover junction. He therefore suspended his advance and en-
trenched. The main army began to move off, after giving Lee
time to turn against Hancock, at 10 A.M. on the 2ist, and marched
to Catlett's, a place a few miles south-west of Guinea's bridge,
Warren leading, Burnside and Wright following. But no news
came in from Hancock until late in the evening, and the develop-
6oo
WILDGANS
ment of the manoeuvre was consequently delayed, so that on the
night of the 2ist-22nd Lee's army slipped across Warren's front
en route for Hanover junction. The other Confederate forces
that had opposed Hancock likewise fell back. Grant's manoeuvre
had failed. Its principal aim was to induce Lee to attack the II.
Corps at Milford, its secondary and alternative purpose was, by
dislodging Lee from Spottsylvania, to force on an encounter bat-
tle in open ground. But he was only offered the bait — not com-
pelled to take it, as he would have been if Hancock with two corps
had been placed directly athwart the road between Spottsylvania
and Hanover junction — and, having unimpaired freedom of action,
he chose to retreat to the junction. The four Union corps, there-
fore, could only pursue him to the North Anna, at which river
they arrived on the morning of the 23rd, Warren on the right,
Hancock on the left, Wright and Burnside being well to the rear
in second line. The same afternoon Warren seized Jericho ford,
brought over the V. Corps to the south side, and repulsed a very
sharp counter-stroke made by one of Lee's corps. Hancock at the
same time stormed a Confederate redoubt which covered the
Telegraph Road bridge over the river. Wright and Burnside
closed up. It seemed as if a battle was at hand, but in the night
reports came in that Lee had fallen back to the South Anna; and
as these were more or less confirmed by the fact that Warren met
with no further opposition and by the enemy's retirement from
the river bank on Hancock's front, the Union generals gave
orders, about midday on the 24th, for what was practically a
general pursuit. This led incidentally to an attempt to drive
Lee's rearguard away from the point of passage, between War-
ren's and Hancock's, required for Burnside, and in the course of
this it became apparent that Lee's army had not fallen back but
was posted in a semicircle to which the North Anna formed a
tangent. On the morning of the 25th this position was recon-
noitred and found to be more formidable than that of Spottsyl-
vania. Moreover, it divided the two halves of the Union army
that had crossed above and below.
Grant gave up the game as drawn and planned a new move.
This had as its objects, first, the seizure of a point of passage
on the Pamunkey; secondly, the deployment of the Army of the
Potomac and of a contingent expected from the Army of the
James, and thirdly, the prevention of Lee's further retirement,
which was not desired by the Union commanders, owing to the
proximity of the Richmond defences and the consequent want of
room to manoeuvre. On the 27th Sheridan's cavalry and a light
division of infantry passed the Pamunkey at Hanover town, and
the two divided wings of the Army of the Potomac were with-
drawn over the North Anna without mishap — thanks to exactitude
in arrangement and punctuality in execution. On the 28th the
Army of the Potomac had arrived near Hanover town, while at
Hawes's shop, on the road to Richmond, Sheridan had a severe
engagement with the enemy's cavalry. Lee was now approaching
from Hanover junction via Ashland, and the Army of the Poto-
mac swung round somewhat to the right so as to face in the pre-
sumed direction of the impending attack. The Confederate
general, however, instead of attacking, swerved south, and planted
himself behind the Totopotomoy. Here he was discovered, en-
trenched as always, on the 29th, and skirmishing all along the
line, varied at times by more severe fighting, occupied that day
and the 3oth. On the morning of the 3ist the Union army was
arranged from right to left in the order VI., II., IX. and V. Corps,
Sheridan having drawn off to the left rear of the infantry.
Now, for the last time in the campaign, the idea of a hammer
and anvil battle was again taken up, the "anvil" being Smith's
XVIII. Corps, which had come up from the James river to White
house on the 3oth; but once more the lure failed because it was
not made sufficiently tempting.
The last episode of the campaign centred in Cold Harbor, a
village close to the Chickahominy, which Sheridan's cavalry
seized on the 3ist. Here, contrary to the expectation of the Union
staff, a considerable force of Confederate infantry — new arrivals
from the James — was met; and in the hope of bringing on a battle
before either side had time to entrench, Grant and Meade ordered
Sheridan to hold the village at all costs and directed Wright's
(VI.) Corps, from the extreme right wing, and Smith's (XVIII.),
from Old Church, to march thither with all possible speed, Wright
in the night of May 31 and Smith on the morning of June i.
Lee had actually ordered his corps commanders to attack, but
was too ill to enforce his wishes, and in the evening Wright and
Smith themselves assaulted the Confederate front opposite Cold
Harbor. The assault, though delivered by tired men, was success-
ful. The enemy's first or skirmish line was everywhere stormed,
and parts of the VI. Corps even penetrated the main line. Grant
at once prepared to renew the attack, as at Spottsylvania, with
larger forces, bringing Hancock over from the right of the line
on the night of the ist and ordering Hancock, Wright and Smith
to assault on the next morning. But Lee had by now moved more
forces down, and his line extended from the Totopotomoy to the
Chickahominy. Hancock's corps, very greatly fatigued by its
night march, did not form up untjl after midday, and meanwhile
Smith, whose corps, originally but 10,000 strong, had been severely
tried by its hard marching and fighting on the ist, refused to
consider the idea of renewing the attack. The passive resistance
thus encountered dominated Grant's fighting instinct for a
moment. But after reconsidering the problem he again ordered
the attack to be made by Wright, Smith and Hancock at 5 P.M.
A last modification was made when, during the afternoon, Lee's
far distant left wing attacked Burnside and Warren. This, show-
ing that Lee had still a considerable force to the northward, and
being, not very inaccurately, read to mean that the 6m. of
Confederate entrenchments were equally — i.e., equally thinly —
guarded at all points, led to the order being given to all five
Union corps to attack at 4:30 A.M. on June 3.
The resolution to make this plain, unvarnished frontal assault
on entrenchments has been as severely criticized as any action of
any commander in the Civil War, and Grant himself subsequently
expressed his regret at having formed it. But such criticisms
derive all their force from the event, not from the conditions in
which, beforehand, the resolution was made. The risks of failure
were deliberately accepted, and the battle — if it can be called a
battle — was fought as ordered. The assault was made at the time
arranged and was repulsed at all points with a loss to the assail-
ants of about 8,000 men. Thereafter the two armies lay for ten
days less than looyd. apart. There was more or less severe fight-
ing at times, and an almost ceaseless bickering of skirmishers.
Owing to Grant's refusal to sue for permission to remove his
dead and wounded in the terms demanded, Lee turned back the
Federal ambulance parties, and many wounded were left to die
between the lines. It was only on the 7th that Grant pocketed his
feelings and the dead were buried.
This is one of the many incidents of Cold Harbor that must
always rouse painful memories — though to blame Lee or Grant
supposes that these great generals were infinitely more inhuman
here than at any other occasion in their lives and takes no account
of the consequences of admitting a defeat at this critical moment,
when the causes for which the Union army and people contended
were about to be put to the hazard of a presidential election.
The Federal army lost, in this month of almost incessant cam-
paigning, about 50,000 men, the Confederates about 32,000.
Though the aggregate of the Union losses awed both contempo-
raries and historians of a later generation, proportionately the
losses of the South were heavier (46% of the original strength as
compared with 41% on the Union side) ; and whereas within a few
weeks Grant was able to replace nearly every man he had lost by
a new recruit, the Confederate Government was near the end of its
resources.
See A. A. Humphreys, The Campaign of Virginia, 1864-65 (New
York, 1882) ; Military History Society of Massachusetts, The Wilder-
ness Campaign; Official Records of the Rebellion, serial numbers
67, 68 and 69 ; and C. F. Atkinson, The Wilderness and Cold Harbor
(London, 1908). (C. F. A.; X.)
WILDGANS, ANTON (1881- ), Austrian poet and
dramatist, was born in Vienna on April 17, 1881, began and com-
pleted a course of legal studies in Vienna university and was
artistic manager of the celebrated Burgtheater there 1921-24.
In 1909 he attracted notice by a book of verses Herbstfruhling,
and in a series of lyrical volumes he gave expression to erotic
WILD GINGER— W1LHELMSHAVEN
60 1
passion, to deep sympathy with nature and with human suffering.
Wildgans appears to be connected with the Hofmannsthalists, al-
though maintaining his independence. His plays, Armut (1914),
Liebe (1916) and Dies Irae (1918) begin in an atmosphere of real-
ism, culminating in that of symbolism or mysticism. As a counter-
part to this burgerliche trilogy another of mythological or religious
character is planned, the first part of which, Kain, was acted in
1921. An epic poem, written in hexameters, Kirbisch (1927),
depicts Austrian mentality as influenced by the World War.
WILD GINGER (Asarum camidcnse) , called also Canada
snake-root and colic-root, a small North American herb of the
birthwort family (Aristolochiaceae), native to rich woods from
New Brunswick to Manitoba and southward to North Carolina
and Kansas. It is a stemless perennial with a creeping aromatic
root-stock having the flavour of ginger. From this usually rise
two large kidney-shaped or heart-shaped leaves, 4 in. to 7 in.
broad, on nearly erect leaf-stalks 6 in. to 1 2 in. long. On a short
stalk between the bases of the two leaf-stalks is borne a single
somewhat bell-shaped, brownish-purple flower, about an inch
broad, with three small more or less pointed lobes on the rim.
About 9 other species of wild ginger are found in the United
States, and 3 species are native to the Pacific coast. Among these
are the halberd-leaved wild ginger (A. arifolia), found from Vir-
ginia and Tennessee southward, and the western wild ginger (A.
caudatitm), native to the coast redwood belt of California and
northward to British Columbia. The European species is asara-
bacca (q.v.).
WILEY, HARVEY WASHINGTON (1844- ), Amer-
ican chemist, was born in Kent, Indiana, Oct. 18, 1844. He was
educated at Hanover (Ind.) college, Indiana Medical college and
Harvard. He served as State chemist of Indiana and professor
of chemistry at Purdue university (1874-83), and in 1883 became
chief of the Bureau of Chemistry in the U.S. Department of
Agriculture. This position he held with signal success until his
resignation in 1912. He was the chief force behind the passage of
the Pure Food and Drugs Act in 1906, and devoted his energies
to its enforcement. Pressure was exercised in 1911 to obtain his
dismissal on the technical charge that an expert in his department
had received recompense exceeding the legal rate. President Taft
wholly exonerated him. Dr. Wiley resigned in 1912, thereafter
devoting himself largely to the cause of pure food by lecturing and
writing. From 1899 on he was professor of agricultural chemistry
at George Washington university.
Beside some 60 government pamphlets and several hundred scientific !
papers he wrote: The Sugar Industry of the United States (1885) ; I
Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis (3 vol. 1894-97; rev-
ed., 1906-14) ; Foods and Their Adulterations (1907, 3rd cd., 1917) ;
The Lure of the Land (1915) ; Not by Bread Alone; The Principles of
Human Nutrition (191.0 ; 1001 Tests of Foods, Beverages and Toilet
Accessories (1916) ; and Beverages and Their Adulteration (1919). He
also edited a series of Health Readers for Schools in 1919.
WILEY, LOUIS (1869- ), newspaper manager, born at
Hornell, N.Y., May 31, 1869. He received a private school educa-
tion at Mt. Sterling, Ky. In 1887 he joined the staff of the
Rochester (N.Y.) Post-Express as a reporter and in 1893 was
appointed business manager. He was also editor and publisher of
The Tidings at Rochester, 1887-95. In 1896 he became associated
with The New York Times and has been business manager of that
newspaper since 1906. He is a member of the executive committee
of the League of Nations Non-Partisan Association, president of
the Steuben County Society, vice-president of the 42nd Street
Property Owners' and Merchants' Association, the Broadway Asso-
ciation and the Lafayette Memorial; director of the Federated
General Relief Committee, Society of the Genesec, Municipal Art
Society, Authors' League Fund, and Kentucky Society.
WILFRID (c. 634-709), English archbishop, born in North-
umbria. He attracted the notice of the queen, Eanfled, who placed
him in care of an old noble, Cudda, then a monk at Lindisfarne.
Later on Eanfled enabled him to visit Rome in the company of
Benedict Biscop. On leaving Rome he spent three years with
Annemund, archbishop of Lyons. After the murder of his patron
he returned to England, where he received a monastery at Ripon,
and then took priest's orders.
He was probably already regarded as the leading exponent of
the Roman discipline in England when his speech at the council
of Whitby determined the overthrow of the Celtic party (664).
About a year later he was consecrated to the see of York, not,
however, in England, where perhaps he could not find the fitting
number of orthodox prelates, but at Compiegne. On his return
journey he narrowly escaped the pagan wreckers of Sussex, and
reached England to find. Ceadda (St. Chad) installed in his see.
The rest of his life is largely a record of wandering and mis-
fortune. For three years (665-668) he ruled his monastery at
Ripon in peace, though acting as bishop in Mercia and Kent
during vacancies in sees there. On Archbishop Theodore's arrival
(668) he was restored to his see, and spent in it nine years of
ceaseless activity, esfX'daHy in building churches, only to be
driven out through the anger of King Ecgfrith's queen (677).
After Ecgfrith's death (May 20, 685) Wilfrid was restored
to York (much circumscribed), and Ripon (686-687). He was
once more driven out in 691-692, and spent seven years in Mercia.
A great council of the English Church held in Northumbria
excommunicated him in 702. He again appealed to Rome in
person, and obtained another decision in his favour (703-704).
He died at Oundle in Northamptonshire as he was going on a
visit to Ceolred, king of Mercia (709). He was buried at Ripon.
Wilfrid's is a memorable name in English history, not only
because of the large part he played in supplanting the Celtic
discipline and in establishing a precedent of appeal to papal
authority, but also by reason of his services to architecture and
learning. At York he renewed Paulinus's old church, roofing it
with lead and furnishing it with glass windows; at Ripon he built
an entirely new basilica with columns and porches; at Hexham
in honour of St. Andrew he reared a still nobler church, over
which Eddius grows eloquent. In the early days of his bishopric
he used to travel about his diocese attended by a little troop of
skilled masons. He seems to have also reformed the method of
conducting the divine services by the aid of his skilled chanters,
Acdde and Aeona, and to have established or renewed the rule
of St. Benedict in the monasteries. On each visit to Rome it
was his delight to collect relics for his native land; and to his
favourite basilica at Ripon he gave a bookcase wrought in gold
and precious stones, besides a splendid copy of the Gospels.
Wilfrid's life was written .shortly after his death by Eddius at the
request of Acca, his successor at Hexham, and Tatbert, abbot of
Ripon— both intimate friends of the great bishop. Other lives were
written by Frithegode in the loth, by Folcard in the nth, and by
Eaclmer early in the i2th century. See also Bede's Hist. Eccl. v. 19,
iii. 25, iv. 13, etc. All the lives are printed in J. Raine's Historians of
the Church of York, vol. i. "Rolls" series.
of
WILHELMINA [WILHELMINA HELENA PAULINE MARIA OF
ORANGE-NASSAU] (1880- ), queen of the Netherlands, was
born at The Hague on Aug. 31, 1880. Her father, William III.
(Willem Paul Alexander Frederik Lodewijk), had by his first wife,
Sophia Frederika Mathilde of Wurttemberg, three sons, all of
whom predeceased him. Having been left a widower on June 3,
1877, he married on Jan. 7, 1879, Adelheid Emma Wilhelmina
Theresia, second daughter of Prince George Victor of Waldeck-
Pyrmont, born on Aug. 2, 1858, and Wilhelmina was the only
issue of that union. She succeeded to the throne on her father's
death, which took place on Nov. 23, 1890, but until her eighteenth
year, when she was "inaugurated" at Amsterdam on Sept. 6, 1898,
the business of the state was carried on under the regency of the
queen-mother, in accordance with a law made on Aug. 2, 1884.
On Feb. 7, 1901 Queen Wilhelmina married Henry Wladimir
Albert Ernst, duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (born on April 19,
1876). To the great joy of the Dutch people, Queen Wilhelmina,
on April 30, 1909, gave birth to an heir to the throne, the Princess
Juliana (Juliana Louise Emma Maria Wilhelmina). See HOL-
LAND: History.
WILHELMSHAVEN, a town in the Prussian province of
Hanover and the chief German naval station on the North sea;
as such it played an important part in the World War.
It is situated on the north-west shore of the Jade Busen. Pop.
(1925) 25,484. The ground on which it stands (4 sq.m.) was
purchased by Prussia from the grand-duke of Oldenburg in 1853,
6oa
WILKES
when the Prussian navy was being formed. The construction of
the harbour and town began in 1855, and the former was opened
in 1869. Though reckoned a part of the Prussian province of
Hanover it is completely surrounded on the landward side by
Oldenburg territory. The harbour consists of three large basins
and seven smaller ones as well as a basin for shipbuilding. There
are six dry-docks. The harbour has three entries and locks are
260 metres long and 40 metres wide, with a depth of from 6£ to
TO metres at the quays. The establishment is defended by strong
fortifications. The commercial harbour lies at the east end of the
Ems-Jade canal. Wilhelmshaven exports agricultural produce
and imports coal and timber.
WILKES, CHARLES (1798-1877), American naval officer
and explorer, born in New York city April 3, 1798. He entered the
U.S. Navy as a midshipman in 1818 and became a lieutenant in
1826. In 1830 he was placed in charge of the division of in-
struments and charts, and in 1838 was appointed to command an
exploring and surveying expedition to the South Seas, authorized
as the first of its kind by Congress in 1836. The expedition, in-
cluding naturalists, botanists, mineralogists, taxidermists, a philolo-
gist, etc., left Hampton Roads Aug. 1838, stopped at various
ports in South America and visited the Paumotu group of the
Low Archipelago, the Samoan islands, and New South Wales.
From Sydney, Wilkes sailed into the Antarctic ocean and along the
Antarctic barrier from 150° to Q/° E., reporting land at a number
of points in the region which has subsequently been known as
Wilkes Land. He visited the Fiji group and the Hawaiian islands
in 1840, and in 1841 explored the west coast of the United States.
The findings were timely in view of the dispute with Great
Britain over the Oregon territory. He visited San Francisco bay,
and the Sacramento river, and crossing the Pacific he called at
the Philippine islands, Sulu archipelago, Borneo, Singapore, Poly-
nesia and the Cape of Good Hope, reaching New York in June
1842, having sailed around the world. He served on the Coast
Survey 1842-43 and in the latter year was advanced to the rank
of commander. In 1844-61 he was chiefly engaged in preparing
the report of the expedition. Twenty-eight volumes were planned
but only 19 were published. Of these Wilkes wrote the Narrative
(6 vols., 1844) ; and the volumes Hydrography (1851) and Mete-
orology (1851). At the outbreak of the Civil War Wilkes was
assigned to the command of the "San Jacinto" to search for the
Confederate commerce destroyer "Sumter." On Nov. 8, 1861, he
stopped the British mail packet ''Trent," and took off the Con-
federate commissioners to Europe, James M. Mason and John
Slidell. Though he was officially thanked by Congress, his action
was later disavowed by President Lincoln. Wilkes was commis-
sioned commodore in 1862, and placed in command of a squadron
sent to the West Indies to protect the U.S. commerce in that
region. On July 25, 1866, he was promoted to the rank of rear-
admiral on the retired list. He died at Washington Feb. 8, 1877.
In addition to many shorter articles, reports, etc., he published West-
ern America, including California and Oregon (1849) ; Voyage Around
the World (1849) ; and Theory of the Winds (1856). "The Diary of
Wilkes in the Northwest" (E. S. Meany, ed.) appeared in the Wash-
ington Historical Quarterly, vol. 16-17 (1925-26).
WILKES, JOHN (1727-1797), English agitator and re-
former, was born in St. John's Square, Clerkenwell. His father,
Israel Wilkes, a successful malt distiller, came from a yeoman
family of Leighton Buzzard. John was the second son; his elder
brother, Israel, emigrated to America and became the father of
(Admiral) Charles Wilkes (q.v.).
John Wilkes was schooled at Hertford and afterwards privately
by the Rev. F. Leeson, a dissenting minister of Aylesbury, under
whose charge he went to Leyden university in 1744. Here he
learnt little — "Jack has great variety of talk, Jack is a scholar,
Jack has the manners of a gentleman," said Dr. Johnson, He be-
came close friends with Andrew Baxter and D'Holbach (qq.v.).
On his return to England, he married Miss Mary Mead, an
Aylesbury heiress. "In my nonage," he says, "to please an in-
dulgent father, I married a woman half as old again as myself ; of
a large fortune — my own being that of a gentleman. It was a
sacrifice to Plutus, not to Venus. I stumbled at the threshold of.
the temple of Hymen :
"The god of love was not a bidden guest,
Nor present at his own mysterious feast."
Their marriage, uneventful for a time, and even successful
while they lived at Aylesbury (they had one child, Mary), was
broken up soon after Wilkes entered into politics, and they
separated by mutual consent. Mrs. Wilkes had hardly any
affection for either her husband or daughter, and she was scandal-
ized by Wilkes' loose life and companions. He had been introduced
by Thomas Potter, a finished profligate, to the society of Sir
Francis Dashwood, chief of the "Medmenham Monks," of whom
he became a member. This was a secret fraternity, which met
occasionally in the summer in the ruins of St. Mary's abbey at
Medmenham, for obscene orgies, in which it parodied Roman
Catholic ritual. Dashwood, Lord Sandwich, Paul Whitehead,
Potter, Wilkes and perhaps Charles Churchill the poet were
among the ringleaders; the "order/' whose reputation for in-
decency probably exceeded even the reality, was broken up by a
practical joke of Wilkes', who unexpectedly released from a box
a baboon disguised as a devil during a prayer addressed to Satan
by Lord Orford, who nearly went out of his mind in the belief
that his supplication was answered.
Partly under the encouragement of these friends, Wilkes had
entered politics as a follower of Richard, Lord Temple (q.v.).
He unsuccessfully fought Berwick in 1754, having bribed a captain
to land a shipload of opposition voters from London in Norway
instead of Berwick, but in 1757 by a complicated arrangement
with Potter and Pitt, which was made to cost him the absurd
sum of £7,000, he was elected M.P. for Aylesbury. In 1762, with
the aid of Churchill and the countenance of Temple, he began to
publish the North Briton. The wit and virulence of its attacks
on Lord Bute, the Tory favourite of the King, silenced the
Auditor and Briton, the ministerial papers, and were chiefly
responsible for the wave of indignation which carried Bute from
office on Mar. 8, 1763. Wilkes then held his hand, but. when Pitt
and Temple read an advance copy of the King's speech sent to
them by George Grenvillc, the new Premier, they decided that
Grenville's ministry was no more than a camouflage of the same
autocratic power, and encouraged Wilkes to publish (April 23)
the famous "No. 45'' of the North Briton, which was a devastat-
ing attack on the statements in the King's speech, which he de-
scribed as false. Though he had carefully prefaced his attack
by the remark "the King's speech has always been considered
by the legislature and by the public at large as the speech of the
Minister," George III. chose to consider Wilkes' article as a
personal insult, and instigated immediate proceedings. A "general
warrant'' (one that did not name the persons to be arrested) was
issued over the signatures of Lords Halifax and Egremont, secre-
taries of State, and 48 persons were seized by the authorities
before Wilkes was arrested (April 30). He was thrown into the
Tower and for a short while kept in the closest confinement. To
the public delight, however, Lord Chief Justice Pratt on May 6
released Wilkes on the ground that his arrest, was a breach of
privilege. Actions against Under-Secretary Woods (who was
fined £1,000), against. Halifax (who by repeated evasions ad-
journed the case till 1769 when he was fined £4,000), and against
minor agents, established the illegality of general warrants.
A second attack was now more carefully prepared by Wilkes'
one-time friend Sandwich, now a member of the Government.
By bribery and theft P. Carteret Webb, an undcr-secretary,
secured from Wilkes' private press the proofsheets of an obscene
parody written by himself and Potter years before on Pope's
Essay on Man, called the Essay on Woman. Wilkes had com-
menced, but never completed printing twelve copies of this,
probably for the Medmenham monks. This disgusting work,
together with notes purporting to be by the Bishop of Gloucester,
was read aloud with relish on Nov. 15 by Sandwich to the Lords,
who voted it a libel and a breach of privilege. The Commons at
the same time declared "No. 45" a seditious libel. To face the
forthcoming trial before Lord Mansfield after these pronounce-
ments would have been extremely hazardous. Wilkes, who had
been gravely wounded in a duel with Samuel Martin, M.P., one
of the vehicles of government bribery, withdrew to Paris, and
sent to the Speaker (Jan. n, 1764), when a motion for his expul-
sion was brought forward, a certificate of his ill-health. The
Speaker declared that this certificate was not sufficiently authen-
ticated, and though triple authentication was forthwith provided,
Wilkes was expelled (Jan. 19). In these circumstances, Wilkes,
who believed that life sentence would be pronounced against him,
decided not to stand his trial and was consequently outlawed
(Nov. i). He spent the next four years on the Continent, chiefly
in "amorous delights." The fall of Grenville in 1765 and the
accession of the Whigs to power under Rockingham and then
Grafton led him to believe that a pardon would be granted to
him and his services rewarded by some honourable place. He only
slowly realized that none of the Whigs were prepared to risk the
King's displeasure for his sake and that the various offers privately
made to him were only intended to keep him amused. When he
discovered the truth he was extremely bitter against Chatham
and Grafton, those chiefly responsible, and pilloried them in a
Letter to the Duke of Grajton, one o/ his ablest performances.
In 1768 he decided to risk all by a bold stroke, crossed to
London, and announced his candidature, first for London (where
he was not elected) and then for Middlesex, where he was chosen
M.P. by a heavy majority (Mar. 28). He then surrendered to
his outlawry and was sentenced to the comparatively light penalty
of £500 fine and a year's imprisonment, each, for the Essay on
Woman and "No. 45." His popularity was immense, and crowds
regularly assembled outside the prison gates (St. George's Fields).
On May 10 a riotous crowd was dispersed with bloodshed and
loss of life by Scottish soldiery, who were congratulated by the
Government. Wilkes published the government instructions
which had led to this, with some bitter comments, in the St.
James' Chronicle; he also presented to the Commons a petition
raising the whole question of the illegality of the proceedings
against him. (Subsequent investigations show that in the case
of the Essay these included actual forgery.) He had ignored
private promises that he would be left undisturbed if he remained
quiet; he reaped the reward of his temerity (Feb. 4, 1769) by
being expelled again from the House of Commons, this time with
hardly a shred of excuse. He now, by his resentment of a patron-
izing defence by George Grenville, lost his last wealthy patron
(Temple) and was nearly £20,000 in debt. But the arbitrary
proceedings of the ministry (instigated by the King) brought him
power and, through the subscriptions of wealthy admirers to a
"Society of the Supporters of the Bill of Rights," even solvency.
He was immediately (Feb. 16) re-elected by the Middlesex elec-
tors and once more expelled. Again he was elected (Mar. 16) and
again expelled. The Court then secured a bravo named Colonel
H. L. Lutfrell to stand against Wilkes at the next election (April
13); the figures were \Vilkcs 1,143, Luttrell 296; but the enraged
Commons declared that Luttrell ought to have been elected and
actually seated him for Middlesex.
These audacious proceedings had stirred up tremendous excite-
ment in which for the first time for years the artisans and lower
middle class felt acutely their enfranchisement. "One of your
supporters has turned his coat," Wilkes was told. "Impossible,
not one has a coat to turn," he answered. They avenged them-
selves by rioting and strikes, by scrawling "45" on every door
and forcing the court followers to cheer for "Wilkes and Liberty."
More effectively, Serjeant Glynn, his colleague for Middlesex,
and after his release Wilkes himself, organized, by the medium
of public meetings, support from the electors as far distant as
Truro, for a "Wilkite" programme which till about 1780 was the
standard of a political party. Its chief points were the radical
reform of Parliament (to include enfranchisement of the "lower
orders" and the suppression of rotten boroughs) and the protec-
tion of individual liberty against Ministerial or Parliamentary
attack. Wilkes also entered into relations, not fully explored
yet, with the American malcontents and seems to have acted as
an inspirer of their subsequent action and as English represent-
ative of the Boston "Sons of Liberty." His greatest successes,
however, were won in the City of London where he triumphantly
fought his way through to the Lord Mayoralty in 1774. As Sheriff
and Alderman he had welded the powerful City interests with a
003
single block of opposition to the Court and Ministry, achieving
his most remarkable victory in the Wheble case, when the City's
judicial powers were successfully used to prevent the arrest of
printers who reported the House of Commons debates. After the
election of 1 774, when the Court no longer found it wise to prevent
him taking his seat in Parliament, he had a "tail" of about a
dozen M.P.'s. He presented (1776) a bill for the radical reform
of Parliament. During the American Revolution Wilkes cham-
pioned the colonial cause. He delivered, in the House of Com-
mons, ten set speeches in which he advocated the immediate
cessation of hostilities with America. Lord Shelburne, in concert
with John Home (see TOOKE, JOHN HORNE) was able to shake his
influence for a short while in the City, but Wilkes more than re-
covered his position, and in 1779 he was elected Chamberlain of
the City, a lucrative office which he filled with absolute scrupulous-
ness till his death. But the violence of his popularity was necessar-
ily waning when in 1780 the Gordon riots broke out (see GORDON,
LORD GEORGE). Wilkes, despite his turbulence, had never encour-
aged mob violence, and religious persecution he had always fought.
Though all the "lower orders" and even such old allies as Alder-
man Frederick Bull were deeply implicated in the burning and
looting, Wilkes hesitated only a day or two before he practically
took matters out of the hands of the complaisant city authorities,
secured a draft of troops, and took a prominent part in crushing
the disturbance. His own supporters he had to jail — in one case
committing his printer Moore for an attack on the house of the
judge, Mansfield, who had condemned him.
From this moment, honourable though his motives were, his
political career was made impossible. He could no longer drive
the rich London merchants and the lower orders in harness to-
gether. He had broken violently with the latter and with his own
principles (for six years before he had replied to Home, not
necessarily insincerely, that he really believed the voice of the
people, when he could ascertain it, to be "the voice of God")
and the former had therefore less need for his services. Moreover,
they and all well-to-do reformers were attracted by the more
respectable reform movement started in the previous year by
the Yorkshire M.P.'s. This, based on Rockingham's "Oeconomical
reform," substituted triennial for annual Parliaments and the
addition of 100 M.P.'s to London and the counties for universal
suffrage and redistribution of seats; it was rapidly adopted by a
dozen or more counties at general meetings of electors.
Wilkes1 energies declined as did his popularity. After he had
secured (May 3, 1782) the expunging from the Commons of all
record of his expulsions he took little part in politics. In 1790 he
did not seek re-election, but retired into private life, dying in
1797. Characteristically enough, he was found to be insolvent,
but quite unaware of the fact. An obelisk in Ludgate Circus
commemorates him.
Wilkes was above the middle height, exceedingly ugly, with a
startling squint that is given all its value in Hogarth's celebrated
cartoon, but with a charm of manner and wit which few could
resist. Some of his jests have passed into history — as for example
his rejoinder to an elector who answered his canvass by saying
he would sooner vote for the Devil than Wilkes: "And if your
friend is not standing?" To an offer of snuff he answered, "No
thank you, I have no small vices.'* To Sandwich, who told him
he would either die on the gallows or of venereal disease, "That
depends, my lord, on whether I embrace your principles or your
mistress." His character, largely through his own fault, has been
subject to exaggerated attacks which may be generally traced to
Lord Brougham (sec BROUGHAM AND VAUX, LORD) or to Horace
Walpole, whom he was unwise enough to offend. His conversation
was indecent, he was entirely incapable of continence in regard
to women, though temperate in other ways, and like almost every
other public man of his century, he was extravagant. His cynical
tongue ruined his reputation with the Victorians: he never did
a good thing without giving a bad reason. But dishonesty, cruelty,
cowardice or hypocrisy were unknown to him; public money
passed untouched through his hands when he was "in want of a
guinea"; his political principles were honestly and to all appear-
ances firmly held up till the deadlock of the Gordon riots, de-
604
WILKES-BARRE— WILKINSON
scribed above. He secured the great reforms of the abolition of
general warrants, the freeing of the press and freedom of choice
for the electors; his non-success in securing Parliamentary reform
or justice for America can hardly be counted against him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Horace Blcackley, John Wilkes (1917, bibl.) ;
Wilkcs' papers: Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 30,865-96 and Guildhall MSS.
212-4; the Correspondence oj J. Wilkes was edited by Almon (1805)
and by Rough (1804). (R.W.P.)
WILKES-BARRE (pronounced \\'ilkes-Barre), a mining city
of north-eastern Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Federal highway
ii and the cast bank of the. Susquehanna river, 100 m. N.N.W.
of Philadelphia and 15 m. S.W. of Scranton. It is served by the
Central of New Jersey, the Delaware and Hudson, the Lehigh
Valley, the Pennsylvania and two electric railways, and by several
motor-bus and truck lines. Pop. (1920) 73,833 (20% foreign-born
white); 1928 local estimate 91,900. Within reach of the city by
one car fare is a population of i 75,000. The city lies in the Wyom-
ing valley and is in the heart of the anthracite region. It is a
manufacturing and commercial centre of importance. The as-
sessed valuation for 1927 was $112,926,819. Wilkes-Barre is
a compact, substantially built city, with 500 ac. in public
parks, large business blocks, wide shaded residential streets,
modern school buildings and a large athletic field. The output
of Luzerne county in 1926 was 29,872,800 long tons (35% of all
the anthracite mined) and its value was more than three times as
great as the value of all the gold mined in the country that year.
The city has a large trade in coal-mine and railroad supplies. Its
manufactures (which include iron and steel, silk goods and other
textiles, copper wire, locomotives, electrical goods and many kinds
of machinery) were valued in 1925 at $31,172,758. Bank debits in
1927 aggregated $586,586,000.
Wilkcs-Barre was settled in 1769 by colonists from New Eng-
land under the leadership of Maj. John Durkec, on a grant from
the Susquehanna Land Company of Connecticut. Maj, Durkee
gave the town its name, in honour of John Wilkes and Col.
Isaac Barre, stout defenders of the American Colonies in parlia-
ment. Ft. Wilkes-Barre was built in 1776 as a defence against
Indian invasion. On July 4, 1778, the day after the Battle of
Wyoming, Wilkcs-Barre was burned by the Indians and British
Rangers; and again in July 1784, during the "Second Pennamite-
Yankee War," 23 of its 26 buildings were burned. The conflict-
ing claims of Pennsylvania and Connecticut were finally adjusted
(sec WYOMING VALLKY) and the titles of the settlers were con-
firmed by Pennsylvania in a series of statutes passed in 1799,
1802 and 1807. Wilkes-Barre was incorporated as a borough in
1818 and was chartered as a city in 1871.
WILKIE, SIR DAVID (1785-1841) knighted 1836, Scot-
tish painter, was born on Nov. 18, 1785, the son of the parish
minister of Cults, Fifeshire. In 1799 he began to study painting at
the Trustees' Academy, Edinburgh. He was much influenced at
that time by the work of Carse and David Allan, who painted
scenes from humble life, and he haunted fairs and markets with
his sketch-book to collect material for similar subjects. In 1805
he went to London, where he entered the Royal Academy schools.
His "Village Politicians" and "Blind Fiddler" (commissioned by
Sir George Beaumont), were exhibited at the Royal Academy in
1806 and 1807. In 1809 Wilkie was elected A.R.A. and two years
later R.A.
In 1830 he succeeded Lawrence as painter in ordinary to the
king and from this time onward received many commissions to
paint the portraits of royal and other distinguished personages.
These were not flattering to their subjects, however, and the fe-
male portraits in particular rarely gave satisfaction. His great
popularity was due to his genre painting the technique of which
he had acquired by a careful study of Teniers, Ostade, and the
Dutch masters. Most of his pictures in this category belong to
his earlier period, and are distinguished by detailed handling, pre-
cision of touch and somewhat subdued colouring, while the pathos
of their homely subjects makes a purely sentimental appeal. He
died and was buried at sea, off Gibraltar, on June I, 1841.
His genre pictures include: "Card-Players," "Rent Dav" (1807),
"The Penny Wedding," the "Village Festival" and "Blind Man's Buff"
(National Gallery), "Distraining for Rent," the "Chelsea Pensioners,"
the "Highland Whisky Still," the "Rabbit on the Wall" and "Reading
a Will" (New Pinakothek, Munich). His best portraits are those of
"Sir Walter Scott and his family" and "Sir Robert Liston" (cabinet
size) and the gallery portrait of Lord Kellie (town hall, Cupar) .
A Life of Sir David Wilkie, by Allan Cunningham, containing the
painter's journals and his "Critical Remarks on Works of Art," was
published in 1843.
WILKINS, SIR GEORGE HUBERT (1888- ), British
explorer, was born at Mt. Bryan East, South Australia, on Oct.
31, 1888. He studied engineering at the Adelaide School of
Mines, learned tlying in 1910 and became an aeronautical photog-
rapher. As photographer he joined the Arctic expedition, 1913-18,
of Vilhjalmar Stcfansson (q.v.), and though he lost his equip-
ment with the sinking of the "Karluk," he stayed on until 1917
and became second in command. In 1917 he enlisted in the Aus-
tralian Flying Corps, was promoted to captain and decorated for
bravery. Later he commanded the photographic section of the
Australian forces in France. He was second in command of the
British Imperial Antarctic , Expedition, 1920-21, and naturalist
on the last Antarctic expedition, 1921-22, of Sir Ernest Shackleton
(q.v.). He led a scientific expedition of the British Museum in
tropical Australia, 1923-25, which he records in Undiscovered Aus-
tralia (1928). In 1926 he made his first trip to Point Barrow,
Alaska, intending to fly across the Arctic regions, but he could not
lift his heavy three-motored plane off the ground. In 1927 he
was again at Point Barrow and made a flight 520 m. northwest
across a portion of the Arctic ocean previously unexplored, land-
ing and taking off from the ocean ice twice, and making sound-
ings which proved the ocean in this region to be about 3 m. deep.
In 1928 Wilkins was back at Point Barrow for a third time and
on April 21, with Lieutenant Carl Ben Eilson as pilot, he tlew 2.100
m. to Spitsbergen in 2oV hours, covering a route just north of
the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Greenland. With good visi-
bility the flight greatly reduced the unexplored area, but no land
was found. The experience is told in Flying the Arctic (1928).
| For this feat, an example of remarkable navigation because of
difficult magnetic variations and the constantly changing angles
at which longitudinal lines were crossed, Wilkins was created a
baronet by King George. In the autumn Wilkins left for the
Antarctic and with Eilson on Dec. 19 took off from their base on
j Deception island and flew 600 m. south across Graham Land.
! On this flight he discovered several new islands and also dis-
covered that Graham Land itself consisted of two large islands,
the southernmost separated from the Antarctic continent by an
ice-filled strait 40 to 50 m. wide.
WILKINS, MARY ELEANOR: see FREEMAN, MARY
ELEANOR WILKINS.
WILKINSBURG, a borough of Allegheny county, Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A., on the Pennsylvania railroad, adjoining Pitts-
burgh on the east. Pop. (1920) 24,403 (89% native white); 1928
local estimate 33.000. It is a residential suburb, with little manu-
facturing. Wilkinsburg was settled in 1798; was first called Mc-
Nairvillc and later Rippeyvillc; and about 1840 was renamed in
honour of William Wilkins, then a representative in Congress. It
was incorporated as a borough in 1887.
WILKINSON, JAMES (1757-1825), American soldier and
adventurer, was born in Calvert county (Md.), in 1757. At the
outbreak of the War of Independence he entered the American
Army. He served with General Benedict Arnold in the Quebec
campaign and was later under General Horatio Gates from May
1777 to March 1778 as adjutant general.
In 1784 Wilkinson settled near the Falls of the Ohio, Louis-
ville, where he became a merchant, farmer and man of influence.
He took an active part in the movement for separate statehood
for Kentucky, and in 1787 took an oath of allegiance to Spain
and began to intrigue with his fellow Kentuckians to detach the
western settlements from the Union and bring them under the
influence of the Louisiana authorities. His commercial connec-
tions at New Orleans enabled him to hold out the lure of a ready
market there for Kentucky products. He neutralized the in-
trigues of British agents then working in Kentucky. For these
various services he received until 1800 a substantial pension from
the Spanish authorities, being officially known as "Number Thir-
WILKINSON— WILL
605
teen." At the same time he worked actively against the Spanish
authorities, especially through Philip Nolan. Wilkinson's ven-
tures were not so lucrative as lie hoped for, and in Oct. 1791 he
was given a lieut. colonel's commission in the regular army,
possibly to keep him out of mischief. In 1803 Wilkinson was
one of the commissioners to receive Louisiana from France, and
in 1805 became governor of that portion of the Purchase above
the 33rd parallel, with headquarters at St. Louis. In his double
capacity as governor of the territory and commanding officer of
the army, reasonably certain of his hold on Jefferson, and fa-
vourably situated upon the frontier remote from the centre of
government, he attempted to realize his ambition to conquer the
Mexican provinces of Spain. For this purpose in 1805 he entered
into an agreement with Aaron Burr, and in 1806 sent Z. M. Pike
to explore the most favourable route for the conquest of the
south-west. Before his agent returned, however, he had betrayed
his colleague's plans to Jefferson, formed the Neutral Ground
Agreement with the Spanish commander of the Texas frontier,
placed New Orleans under martial law, and apprehended Burr
and some of his alleged accomplices. In the ensuing trial at Rich-
mond, the prisoners were released for lack of sufficient evidence,
and Wilkinson himself emerged with a much damaged reputa-
tion. He was then subjected to a series of courts-martial and
congressional investigations, but succeeded so well in hiding traces
of his duplicity that in 1812 he resumed his military command at
New Orleans, and in 1813 was promoted to the rank of major
general and took possession of Mobile. Later in this year, by mak-
ing a miserable fiasco of the campaign against. Montreal, he finally
brought his military career to a dishonourable end. He died at
Mexico City on Dec. 28, 1825.
See Wilkinson's Memoirs of My Own Time (1816), untrustworthy
and to be used with caution; W. R, Shepherd, "Wilkinson and the
Beginning of the Spanish Conspiracy" in American Historical Review,
vol. ix. (1904) ; Bemis, Pinckney's Treaty (1926). (I. J. C.)
WILKINSON, JOHN 0728-1808), "the great Staffordshire
iron-master," was born at Clifton, Cumberland, where his father
was overlooker in an iron furnace. A box-iron, patented by his
father, but said to have been invented by the son, which helped
laundresses to gratify the frilled taste of the dandies of the day,
was the beginning of their fortunes. This they made at Black-
barrow, near Furness. When he was about twenty, John moved
to Staffordshire, and built, at Bilston, the first furnace there,
and, after many experiments, succeeded in utilizing coal instead
of wood-charcoal in the puddling and smelting of iron. The
father, who now had works at Ikrsham, near Chester, was again
joined by his son, who constructed a new boring machine, of an
accuracy heretofore unequalled. James Watt found that the work
of this machine exactly tilled his requirements for his ''fire-engine1'
for cylinders bored with greater precision. Wilkinson, who by
this time owned the Bersham works, now started the manufacture
of wrought iron on a large scale at Broseley, and used I he first
steam-engine made by Boulton and Watt to blow the bellows
there. His neighbours in the business, who were contemplating
installing Ncwcomen engines, waited to see how the Wilkinson
steam-engine would work. Great care was taken in its manu-
facture, and Watt himself set it up early in 1776. Its success
made the reputation of Boulton and Watt in the Midland coun-
ties. Wilkinson now found he had the power alike for the nicest
and for the most stupendous operations. The steam cylinder sug-
gested to him the plan of producing blast now in use. He was
near coal; he surrounded himself with capable men, whom he
fully trusted; he made a good article, and soon obtained large
orders. In 1786 he was making 32-pounders, howitzers, swivels,
mortars and shells for the government. The difficulty of getting
barges to carry his war material down the Severn led him, in
1787, to construct the first iron barge — creating a wonderful sensa-
tion among owners and builders. Wilkinson taught the French
the art of boring cannon from the solid, and cast all the tubes,
cylinders and iron work required for the Paris water-works, the
most formidable undertaking of the day. He also erected, in
connection with these works, the first steam-engine in France.
Wilkinson also designed and cast the first iron bridge, which
connected Broseley and Madeley, across the Severn. He died on
July 14, 1808.
WILKINSON (WYLKYNSON), ROBERT, English
composer of church music of the isth and early i6th centuries.
Great interest attaches to the four works by him found in
an early i6th century ms. in Eton College library. These are:
two Salve Reginas for 9 and 5 voices respectively; an imperfect
O Virgo prudentissima, and a marvellous i3-part canon, which
is a setting of the Apostle's Creed preceded by the words Jesu
nut em transients , which serve as a title. Each of the 13 parts is
assigned to an apostJe (by name) and the key to the canon is
supplied by a Latin note. This impersonation of individual parts
would seem to have been a favourite device with him, for in the
g-part Salve the voices represent the various angelic hierarchies.
See Grove, Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. iii.
WILL, in psychology, is sometimes used as synonymous with
conation (q.v.), but more usually in the restricted sense of delib-
erate decision, as contrasted with mere impulse (q>v.) or desire.
In an act of will there is a deliberate choice of one of several
alternatives, and frequently a conscious reference to the interests
of the subject's self as a whole. People sometimes speak as
though the will were a kind of independent entity or faculty
which makes the decisions, etc. But that is only a loose way of
talking. As Spinoza and Locke pointed out long ago, there is no
will apart from particular acts or processes of willing; and it is
not the will that wills but. the whole self that does it. Similarly
with the related hypostasis of "will-power" or "strength of will."
There is no strong "will," but there are strong-willed characters,
that is, people who can pursue distant ends (good or bad) with
great, perseverance; weak-willed people, on the other hand, are
easily influenced and carried away by every instinct or impulse or
desire that prompts them from time to time, and cannot subordi-
nate them to the pursuit of remote ends. For the problem of the
freedom of the will see FREE-WILL. Sec also PSYCHOLOGY, and the
bibliography given there.
WILL or TESTAMENT, the legal documentary instrument
by which a person regulates the rights of others over his property
or family after his death. In strictness "will" is a general term
whilst "testament" applies only to dispositions of personalty; but
this distinction is seldom observed. The legal power of disposi-
tion of one's property by will is more nearly absolute in England
than in any other country. In all systems of law derived from
Roman law the power is limited so as to preserve the rights of
wives and children to fair shares of a deceased father's estate,
and it is not even now quite absolute even in England. This is
due partly to custom by which in England property among the
wealthier classes is usually settled on the marriage of its owner
and all that is reserved to him or her is a power of appointing
by will the shares in which the issue of the marriage shall take.
! Hut even unsettled property was never absolutely subject to the
I owner's will. Till the Administration of Estates Act 1925 an
j owner of an estate in fee-tail had no testamentary power over it.
Another full power of testamentary disposition v/ill probably be
limited very shortly. At this moment (1929) a bill is before
parliament proposing to give the courts power to modify a will
which deals unfairly with the testator's family. Legislation to
that effect has been passed in most of the British colonies.
The custom which ultimately developed into the will is recog-
nized in many primitive systems. It is closely connected with
ancestor worship and the continuance, for that purpose, of the
family. When a citizen was without descendants ancient law
allowed him to continue his family by adopting another person's
child as his own. Later, as ancestor worship became more or less
obsolete, the practice grew up of allowing an owner of property to
nominate an heir if he had no descendants. There most legal sys-
tems stopped. The Roman lawyers developed the idea until it be-
came the modern power of testament, which has become in Eng-
land as regards the owner's own property, the power of free dis-
position by will without regard to the claims of the disposer's
wife and children when he has any.
The oldest form of will in Roman law Was the patrician will.
It simply amounted to the nomination by a sonless patrician of a
6o6
WILL
hacres whose duty it would be on the death of his nominator to
carry on the family rites. The ceremony was performed before
the comitia calata or assembly of the agnati (male relatives) of
the nominator, who would be entitled to succeed to his property
if he died without an heir and whose consent to the nomination
was in consequence at first necessary. This form of will was
possible only where the nominator as a member of a gens was
also a member of the comitia calata. Plebeians had no gens; and
when they wished to share the patrician privilege of nominating
the successor to their family and property they had to do so by
a sale of the family to the nominees. At -first this sale seems
to have been an out and out conveyance inter vivos of the testa-
tor's property, but gradually it became really the appointment of
a trustee to carry out the testamentary dispositions of the nomi-
nator. It is from this, the plebeian or mancipatory will, as modi-
fied by the praetors and the emperors, that the modem will is
descended.
In English Law. — Whether among the customs of the Teu-
tonic tribes or the Anglo-Saxons, there was anything akin to
our law of testamentary disposition of property is very doubtful.
Tacitus says definitely that there was not. Maitland says that
there was, and that it took the form of disposing of the use of
property. There appears undoubtedly to have been a proceeding
much on the same lines as the patrician will by which a man
without lineal descendants might nominate a male child to con-
tinue his family; but this is- rather adoption than testation, and
adoption was a very wide-spread custom in ancient times.
There are reasons to suppose that that proceeding was the
only process approaching an act of testation which the Anglo-
Saxons brought to England. But we must remember that Eng-
land had been a Roman province subject to Roman law for
centuries before the Anglo-Saxons arrived. It is, therefore, quite
possible that after their arrival the Roman law of wills continued
to be observed as a special custom in many highly Romanized dis-
tricts. That, however, there was any general law of wills in a
country which was still in the main a congeries of semi-barbarous
tribes each with its own primitive customs is frankly incredible.
The Norman Conquest altered all that and rapidly turned the
Anglo-Saxon tribes into the English nation. The general law of
wills dates from the Plantagenets.
After the Norman Conquest there were two great forces which
shaped English law. The first was the barons; the second the
priests. The first stood for barbaric custom; the second for
Roman law. The first fiercely insisted that barbaric custom should
control the ownership of land, which belonged chiefly* to them.
The second contrived to get Roman law applied to goods and
chattels which belonged chiefly to their friends, the farmers and
townsmen. Hence arose the artificial distinction between real and
personal property. The history of later English law is simply a
narrative of the struggles between the law of realty and the law
of personalty which seems now to have ended in the definite
victory of the law of personalty. Since 1925 the whole feudal
conception of land owning may be said to have disappeared, as
many of its incidents had done generations ago.
So far as wills are concerned the difference between the law
of realty and the law of personalty was this: realty could not be
disposed of (technically devised) by the will of its owner, while
the owner of personalty could dispose of (technically bequeath)
it subject to limitations somewhat similar to the limitations on
the Roman power of testation. Thus, if he left behind him a
widow and children the testator could dispose freely only of a
third part of it. The common law estates in land which were
not devisable were fees simple, fees conditional (after the Statute
de Donis Conditionalibus, 1225, turned into fees tail) and life
estates. Later, other interests in land were recognized by the law
such as leases for years; but these were not treated as parts of the
common law ownership of land but merely hirings of it and as
such personalty and bequeathable by will.
The chancellor who was a priest could not make these common
law estates devisable but he invented a system under which the
beneficial interests in them could be freely disposed of by the
owner's will. All the owner had to do was to convey by livery of
seisin (or in the case of fees tail by fine or recovery) the com-
mon law estate to a friend to hold in trust for (or as the original
phrase was to the use* of) the owner's will. When this was done
then on the death of the owner the trustee (or feofee to uses as
he was called) was compelled by the chancellor to allow the
persons for whom the deceased owner directed the use or benefits
of the land to go to receive the rents and profits.
This state of the law continued till Henry VIII. in 1538 forced
through parliament the Statute of Uses, so called because it
abolished uses. At that time England was as Shakespeare de-
scribed it, a "many slotted land." In other words, it was the
age of small landowners, which intervened between the fall of
the ancient landowning aristocracy through the Wars of the Roses
and the rise of the modern landowning aristocracy through the
confiscation of the lands of the priests and the commons of the
people. These small landowners resented furiously the deprivation
of their right to provide for their younger children out of the
only property they possessed and accordingly Henry found it
advisable to have another act passed restoring this privilege. The
Statute of Wills 1540 allowed owners in fee-simple holding under
tenure of common socage to devise ail, and those holding under
military tenure to devise two-thirds, of their land. By the Mili-
tary Tenures Act 1662, military tenures were abolished and so
fees simple became fully devisable.
But neither act enabled a tenant in fee-tail and a tenant pur
aiitre vie — i.e., for the life of another person than the tenant
himself — to devise his estate. The Statute of Frauds made estates
pur autre vie devisable. Fees tail did not become devisable till
the year 1926 (Law of Property Act 1925).
The restrictions on the right to bequeath personalty gradually
had become obsolete except in some places where they survived
as local customs. The Wills- Act 1837 abolished all such customs.
Form of Wills. — From very early times a will of personalty
was valid if it was declared by word of mouth of the testator
before witnesses (this was called a nuncupative will) or, though
unwitnessed, if it was all written by the testator in his own hand
(this was called a holograph will). Uses of land could be devised
in the same way. So far as land was concerned, when the Statute
of Wills made the legal fee-simple devisable it enacted that the
will devising it must be signed by the testator in the presence of
three credible witnesses and the courts held that a witness was
not credible if he or his wife took any benefit under the will.
Later it was enacted that such a witness was credible but the gift
was bad. The Statute of Frauds also introduced certain conditions
as to the forms of wills of beneficial interests in land and nun-
cupatory wills of personalty. Finally the Wills Act 1837 decreed
that every will of property, whether such property was realty or
personalty and whether it was legal or equitable, must be made
in the same way, i.e., it must be in writing signed by the testator
in the presence of two witnesses, both being present at the same
time, who in the presence of the testator are to sign the will as
witnesses. Usually the witnesses also sign in the presence of each
other but this is not strictly necessary and is only done for
greater safety. (See further PROBATE.)
The acts of 1925 and 1926 have affected the law of wills to a
very small extent. The most important alteration made by them
has been the turning of executors into universal successors. For
centuries executors as such had nothing to do with their testator's
fees simple. When these were expressly left to them for the pay-
ment of the deceased's debts they took not as executors but as
devisees; and when fees simple were made liable for the deceased's
debts even when not so devised, on the death of the testator, they
devolved on the devisee, and to make them liable for debts an
action for administration was necessary. That was altered by the
Land Transfer Act 1897 which vested in his executors the de-
ceased's legal and equitable estates in freehold, and his equitable
fees simple in copyholds. That act, however, did not affect the
devolution of fees tail and legal fees simple in copyhold. Now
by the Administration of Estates Act 1925 all a testator's estate,
whether realty or personalty and whether disposed of by his will
or not, including property over which he has by Ms will exercised
a general power of appointment and fees tail which he has dis-
WILLARD
607
posed of by his will, vests in his executors for the purposes of
administration, Accordingly executors may now be taken to oc-
cupy the position held by the haeres in later Roman law. The
whole property, realty and personalty, forms a common fund for
the payment of the testator's debts. If the estate is inadequate to
pay the deceased's debts in full, then the creditors are to be paid
according to the rules prevailing in bankruptcy, whether the
estate is administered by the court or by the executors. This pro-
vision is accompanied by another which seems inconsistent, namely
that the executors have still the right to retain their own debts
and prefer the debts of other creditors over debts of equal stand-
ing. When the estate is solvent but insufficient to pay all debts
and legacies in full, the following is the order in which the assets
are liable to be appointed for the payment of debts: (i) Property
undisposed of by the will, (2) property left by a residuary gift,
(3) property left expressly for the payment of debts, (4) prop-
erty charged with the payment of debts, (5) property liable to
pay pecuniary legacies, (6) property specifically devised or be-
queathed, and (7) property appointed under a general power of ap-
pointment or estates in fee tail disposed of by the will.
It may just be noted that neither the Land Transfer Act of
1897 nor the Administration of Estates Act of 1925 applies to
Ireland. (J. A. ST.)
Scotland. — Up to 1868 wills of immovables were not allowed
in Scotland. The usual means of obtaining disposition of heritage
after death was a trust disposition and settlement by deed de
praesenti, under which the truster disponed the property to trus-
tees according to the trusts of the settlement, reserving a life
interest. Thus something very similar to a testamentary disposi-
tion was secured by means resembling those employed in England
before the Wills Act of Henry VIII. The main disadvantage of the
trust disposition was that it was liable to be overthrown by the
heir, who could reduce ex capite lecti all voluntary deeds made to
his prejudice within 60 days of the death of his ancestor. In
1868 the Titles to Land Consolidation Act made it competent to
any owner of lands to settle the succession to the same in the
event of death by testamentary or mortis causa deeds or writings.
In 1871 reduction ex capite lecti was abolished. A will of im-
movables must be executed with the formalities of a deed and
registered to give title. The disability of a woman as a witness
was removed by the Titles to Land Consolidation Act. As to
wills of movables, there are several important points in which they
differ from corresponding wills in England, the influence of Roman
law being more marked. Males may make a will at 14, females at
12. A nuncupative legacy is good to the amount of £100 Scots
(£8 6s. 8d.), and a holograph testament is good without wit-
nesses, but it must be signed by the testator, differing in this
from the old English holograph. By the Conveyancing Act 1874
such a will is presumed to have been executed on the date which
it bears. Not all movables can be left, as in England. The movable
property of the deceased is subject to jus relictae and legitim.
See McLaren, Wills and Succession, for the law, and Judicial
Styles for styles.
France. — The law is mainly contained in ss. 967-1074 of the
Code. Civil. Wills in France may be of three kinds: (i) holo-
graph, which must be wholly written, dated and signed by the
testator; (2) made as a public instrument, i.e., received by two
notaries before two witnesses or by one notary before four wit-
nesses; this form of will must be dictated by the testator and
written by the notary, must be read over to the testator in the
presence of the witnesses and must be signed by testator and
witnesses; (3) mystic, which are signed by the testator, then
closed and sealed and delivered by him to a notary before six
witnesses; the notary then draws up an account of the proceed-
ings on the instrument which is signed by the testator, notary and
witnesses. Legatees and their blood relations to the fourth de-
gree may not be witnesses. Nuncupative wills are not recognized.
Soldiers* and sailors' wills are subject to special rules as in most
other countries. Full liberty of disposition only exists where the
testator has no ascendants or descendants, in other cases his
quantiti disponible is subject to reserve; if thfe testator has one
child he may only dispose of half his estate, if two only one-
third, if three or more only one-fourth; if he has no descendants
but ascendants in both lines he may dispose of half, if ascendants
in one line only he may dispose of three-fourths. The full age
of testamentary capacity is 21 years, but minors over the age of
1 6 may dispose by will of half of the estate of which they could
dispose had they been of fgll age. There is no restriction against
married women maldng wills. A contract to dispose of the suc-
cession is invalid, s. 791.
The codes of the Latin races in Europe are in general accord-
ance with the French law. (J. WIL,)
United States. — The American colonists brought with them
the English common law of wills as modified by the Statute of
Wills. Inasmuch as the feudal system was never a part of Amer-
ican institutions many of the feudalistic limitations upon the
devolution of real property by will never became part of Amer-
ican law. Statutes have quite generally modified the older law
of wills and deal systematically with the whole subject of testa-
tion. In Louisiana the right of testation is governed by principles
of the French law which have been adopted by the Louisiana
code. In other Southern and Western States where the original
settlers were of French or Spanish origin, marked traces of the
civil law are to be found in their law of wills. By far the greater
part of American law, however, is of English origin.
The American statutes governing the making of wills were
modelled closely either upon the English Statute of Frauds of
1677 or the English Wills Act of 1837. As the legislation of any
particular State falls within the compass of one or the other of
these statutes, the formal requisites governing the making of the
will vary. The provisions of the Statute of Frauds, validating
nuncupative wills of soldiers or sailors or those made in the last
illness of the testator, are quite generally in force. In those States
where the civil law once obtained, the holographic will or will
without witnesses but written in the handwriting of the testator,
is recognized. Its validity has also been recognized by statute in
about one third of the American States. Besides the foregoing the
State of Louisiana recognizes still another form of will, which
has been designated as the mystic will. This is a documentary
will which, when signed by the testator, is enclosed in a sealed
envelope and presented to and subscribed by a notary together
with seven witnesses.
Full liberty of disposition is generally accorded a testator. In
some States limitations are placed by statute upon the testator's
right to dispose of all his property away from his wife and chil-
dren. Limitations also exist as to the character of the property
which may be disposed of by will Dower rights, homestead
property, the wife's distributive share of the personalty, the wife's
interest in the community property where the State has created
such an institution, are generally excluded. The rule of the
Statute of Wills limiting devises of realty to real estate owned at
the time of the making of the will and excluding after-acquired
realty, has been abrogated. Testamentary capacity has been
broadened in accordance with modern conceptions, the incapacity
of the married woman being removed. The inability of certain
classes of persons to take by will, notably aliens and corporations,
has also been generally removed. (See EXECUTORS AND ADMIN-
ISTRATORS; LEGACY.)
See Page, Wills (scl. ed. 1926) ; Schoulcr, Wills (6th ed. 1023) ; Rood,
Wills (2d ed. 1926). (J. M. LA.)
WILLARD, EMMA (1787-1876), American educator, born
at Berlin, Conn., Feb. 23, 1787. She began teaching at 16 years
of age. In 1807 she became principal of a girls' academy at Mid-
dlebury, Vt., and in 1814 she opened a boarding school of her
own. Her Plan for Improving Female Education (1819), first
addressed to the New York State Legislature, found favour with
Governor Clinton who invited her to move her school to Water-
ford, N.Y. Two yeHrs later (1821) it was moved to Troy as the
Troy Female Seminary. In 1830 she travelled abroad for her
health and aided in founding a girls' school in Athens, Greece. The
proceeds from her Journal and Letters from France and Great
Britain (1833) were given to this school. After 1838 she spent
most of her time lecturing and revising her text-books. In 1845-
47 she travelled 8,000 miles throughout the south and west urg-
6o8
WILLARD— WILLIAM
ing and counseling in educational matters. In 1854, with Henry
Barnard, she represented the United States at the World's Educa-
tional Convention in London. Her Ancient Geography (2nd. cd.,
1827); History of the United States (1828); Astronomy (1853);
and Morals for the Young (1857) passed through many editions
and were widely used as text-books up to the time of her death.
She published also a volume of poems, of which the best known
is "Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep." Her death occurred at
Troy, N.Y., on April 15, 1876. See A. Lutz, Emma Willard (1929).
WILLARD, FRANCES ELIZABETH (1839-1898),
American reformer, was born at Churchville, Monroe county
(N.Y.), on Sept. 28, 1839. In 1859 sne graduated at the North-
western Female college at Evanston (111.). She then became a
teacher, and in 1871-74 she was president and professor of aesthet-
ics of the Woman's college at Evanston, which became part of
the Northwestern university in 1873. In 1874 she became corre-
sponding secretary and from 1879 until her death was president of
the National Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and from
1883 until her death was president of the World's Woman's
Christian Temperance Union. In 1890 she was elected president
of the Woman's National Council, which represented nearly all
of the women's societies in America. She was one of the founders
of Our Union, a New York publication in the interests of the Na-
tional Woman's Christian Temperance Union. She died in New
York city on Feb. 18, 1898.
With Mary A. Livermore she edited A Woman of the Century
(Buffalo IN.Y.], 1893), which includes a sketch of her life; and she
pub. Nineteen Beautiful Years (1864), a life of her sister; How to
Win: A Book for Girls (1886) ; Glimpses of Fifty Years (1889) ; and,
in collah. with II. M. Winslow, Mrs. S. J. White and others, Occupa*
tions for Women (1897). See A. A. Gordon, The, Beautiful Life of
Frances E. Wiltard (Chicago, 1898), with an intro. by Lady Henry
Somerset, and W. M. Thayer, Women Who Win (1896).
WILLCOCKS, SIR WILLIAM (1852- ), British engi-
neer, was born in India and educated at Roorkee college, India.
From 1872 to 1897 he was engaged successively in the Indian
and Egyptian public works departments. He designed and carried
through the Aswan dam in 1898. His most important undertak-
ing, however, was the irrigation of 3,500,000 ac. in Mesopotamia,
begun in 1911 at an estimated cost of £26,195,000.
His works include: Egyptian Irrigation (1889) ; The Irrigation of
Mesopotamia (1905) ; From the Garden of Eden to the Crossing of
Jordan (1918).
WILLEMITE, a mineral consisting of zinc orthosilicate,
ZnaSi04, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral class of
the rhombohedral system. Crystals have the form of hexagonal
prisms terminated by rhombohedral planes: there are distinct
cleavages parallel to the prism-faces and to the base. Granular
and cleavage masses are of more common occurrence. It varies
considerably in colour, being colourless, white, greenish-yellow,
apple-green, flesh-red, etc. The hardness is si, and the specific
gravity 3-9-4.2. A variety containing much manganese replacing
zinc is called "troostite." Willemite occurs at Sterling Hill, Sussex
county, and Franklin Furnace in New Jersey, where it is associated
with other zinc ores (franklinite and zincite) in crystalline lime-
stone. It has been found at only a few other localities, one of
which is near Liege, and for this reason the mineral was named
after William I. of the Netherlands. Under the influence of radium
radiations, willemite fluoresces with a brilliant green colour.
WILLEMS, FLORENT JOSEPH MARIE (1823-1905),
Belgian painter, was born at Liege on the 8th of January 1823. He
made his debut at the Brussels Salon in 1842 with a "Music
Party." Among his most famous works are 'The Wedding Dress,"
"La Fete des grands-parents," "Le Baise-main" (Mmc. Garden's
collection, Brussels), "Farewell," "The Arches of the Peace"
and "The Widow." He died at Neuilly-sur-Seine on the 23rd of
October 1905.
WILLESDEN, an urban district of Middlesex, England, and
suburb of London, lying immediately outside the boundary of the
county of London (boroughs of Hammersmith and Kensington).
Pop. (1921) 165,674. At Domesday the manor of Willesden and
Harlesden was neld by the canons of St. Paul's. In the 1 2th cen-
tury it was formed into eight manors. A shrine or image of St.
Mary (Our Lady of Willesden) was in the isth century an object
of pilgrimage, but by the middle of the following century the
ceremonies had fallen into abuse, and the shrine was suppressed.
Remains of Norman building have been discovered in the church
of St. Mary. There are considerable railway works attached to
Willesden Junction (L.M.S. railway).
WILLET, a conspicuous North American wading bird (Ca-
toptrophorus senupalmatus) , about 15 in. long, and to be recog-
nized by its black primaries with a broad white band and white
upper tail coverts. The willet breeds as far north as New Jersey
and Manitoba, wintering from southern United States south. The
western willet (C. s. inornatus) is paler and slightly larger.
WILLETT, WILLIAM (1856-1915), British builder, was
born at Farnham, Surrey, in Sept. 1856. He made a name for
himself in London as a designer of beautiful houses; but his chief
claim to fame was his conception and promotion of the system
of "daylight saving." Though scoffed at in his lifetime, his idea
was taken up and put into practice in 1916. He died at Chisle-
hurst, Kent, on March 4, 1915. (See DAYLIGHT SAVING.)
WILLETTE, LEON ADOLPHE (1857- ), French
painter, illustrator, caricaturist, and lithographer, was born in
Chalons-sur-Marne. He studied for four years at the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts under Cabanel — a training which gave him a unique
position among the graphic humorists of France. Whether comedy
or tragedy, dainty triviality or political satire, his work is instinct
with the profound sincerity of the artist. He set Pierrot upon a
lofty pedestal among the imaginary heroes of France, jand estab-
lished Mimi Pinson, frail, lovable, and essentially good-hearted,
in the affections of the nation. Willette is at once the modern
Wattcau of the pencil, and the exponent of sentiments that move
the emotional section of the public. There is charm even in his
thrilling apotheosis of the gjuillotine, and in the introduction into
his caricatures of the figure of Death.
The artist was a prolific contributor to the French illustrated press
under the pseudonyms "Cemoi," "Pierrot," "Louison," "Bebe," and
"Nox," but more often under his own name. He illustrated Melandri's
Les Pierrots and Les Giboulles d'avril, and has published his own
Pauvre Pierrot and other works, in which he tells his stories in scenes
in the manner of Busch.
WILLIAM (c. U3O-C. 1190), archbishop of Tyre and chron-
icler, belonged to a noble French family and was probably born
in Palestine about 1130. This, however, is only an inference;
unfortunately the chapter (xix. 12) which relates to his early
life has been excised or omitted from every extant manuscript of
his Historia. William was still pursuing his studies in Europe
when Amalric I. became king of Jerusalem in 1162, but he re-
turned to Palestine towards the close of 1166, or early in 1167,
and was appointed archdeacon of Tyre at the request of Amalric
in August 1167. In 1168 he was sent on an embassy, the fore-
runner of several others, to the emperor Manuel I. at Constanti-
nople, and in 1169, at the time of the disastrous campaign against
Damietta, he was obliged to take refuge in Rome from the "un-
merited anger" of his archbishop. But he was soon in Palestine
again, and about 1170 he was appointed tutor to Amalric's son,
Baldwin, afterwards King Baldwin IV. Towards the end of 1174,
soon after Baldwin's accession to the throne, he was made chan-
cellor of the kingdom of Jerusalem, an office which he held until
1183, and less than a year later (May 1175) he was consecrated
archbishop of Tyre. He was one of those who went to negotiate
with Philip I., count of Flanders, in 1177, and in 1179 he was one
of the bishops who represented the Latin Church of the East at
the Lateran council in Rome. On his return to Palestine he stayed
seven months at Constantinople with Manuel. This is William's
last appearance in history, but he was writing his history in
1181, and this breaks off abruptly at the end of 1183 or early
in 1184. He died probably between 1187 and 1190.
William of Tyre is among the greatest of mediaeval historians.
His Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum, or Historia
Hierosolymitana or Belli sacri historia covers the period between
1095 and 1184, and is the main authority for the history of the
Latin kingdom of Jerusalem between 1127, where Fulcher of
Chartres leaves off, and 1183 or 1184, where Ernoul takes up the
narrative. It was translated into French in the i3th century, or
WILLIAM I.
possibly before the end of the I2th, and this translation, known as
the Chronique d'outremcr, or Livre d'Eracles or Lime du conquest,
is quoted by Jean de Joinville, and increased by various continu-
al ions, in the standard account of the exploits of the French
warriors in the East. William's work consists of twenty-two books
and a fragment of another book; it extends from the preaching of
the first crusade by Peter the Hermit and Pope Urban II. to
the end of 1183 or the beginning of 1184.
A& Belli sacri hhtoria the Ilhtoria rerun was first published in i-^n
at Basel. More recent editions are in J. P. Migne's Patrolotfa Lat'ma,
tome cci., and in the "Rccueil des historiens dcs croisades," Hist
occid, i (Pans, 1844). Manuscripts are in the British Museum, London'
and in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. It has been translated into
German by E. and R. Kauslcr (Stuttgart, 1848); into French in
uuizols Collection des memoires, tomes xvi., xviii. (Paris, 1824)-
into Italian and into Spanish. An English translation has been made
c°r lhue ^arly .En?.lish Tcxt Society by M. N. Colvin (London, i8<n).
See the Histotre Inttraire de la France, tome xiv. (1869) ; B. Kinder,
Mudten zur Geschtchte des zweiten Kreuzzuges (Stuttgart, 1866) ;
H. Prutz, Studten iibcr Wilhelm von Tyrus (Hanover, 1883) ; and
H. von bybel, Geschichte des erstcn Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881)
609
WILLIAM I. (1027 or 1028-1087), king of England, sur-
named the Conqueror, was born in 1027 or 1028. He was the
bastard son of Robert the Devil, duke of Normandy, by Arietta,
the daughter of a tanner at Falaise. In 1034 Robert resolved
on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Having no legitimate son be induced
the Norman barons to acknowledge William as his successor.
They kept their engagement when Robert died on his journey
0035), though the young duke-elect was a mere boy. But the
next twelve years was a period of the wildest anarchy. Three
of William's guardians were murdered; and for some time
he was kept in strict concealment by his relatives, who feared
that he might experience the same fate. Trained in a hard
school, he showed a precocious aptitude for war and government.
He was but twenty years old when he stamped out, with the help
of his overlord, Henry I. of France, a serious rising in the districts
of the Bessin and Cotentin, the object of which was to put in his
place his kinsman, Guy of Brionne. Accompanied by King Henry,
he met. and overthrew the" rebels at Val-dcs-Duncs near Caen
(1047). It was by no means his last encounter with Norman
traitors, but for the moment the victory gave him an assured
position. Next year he joined Henry in attacking their common
enemy, Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou. Geoffrey occupied the
border fortress of Alcncon with the good will of the inhabitants.
But the duke recovered the place after a severe siege, and inflicted
a^terrible vengeance on the defenders, who had taunted him with
his base birth ; he also captured the castle of Domf ront from the
Angevins (1049).
In 1051 the duke visited England, and probably received from
his kinsman, Edward the Confessor, a promise of (he English
succession. Two years later he strengthened the claims which he
had thus established by marrying Matilda, a daughter of Baldwin
V. of Flanders, who traced her descent in the female line from
Alfred the Great. This union took place in defiance of a prohibi-
tion which had been promulgated, in 1049, by the papal council
of Reims. Pope Nicholas II. at length granted the needful dispen-
sation (1059). By way of penance William and his wife founded
the abbeys of St. Stephen and the Holy Trinity at Caen. The
political difficulties caused by the marriage were more serious.
Alarmed at the close connection of Normandy with Flanders,
Henry I. joined forces with Geoffrey Martel in order to crush
the duke, and Normandy was twice invaded by the allies. In
each case William decided the campaign by a signal victory
The invasion of 1054 was checked by the battle of Mortemcr;
in 1058 the French rearguard was cut to pieces at Varaville
on the Dive, in the act of crossing the stream. Between these
two wars William aggrandized his power at the expense of Anjou
by annexing Mayenne. Soon after the campaign of Varaville
both Henry I. and Geoffrey Martel died. He at once recovered
Maine from the Angevins, nominally in the interest of Count
Herbert II., on whose death (1062) Maine was formally annexed
to Normandy.
Conquest of England.— About 1064 the accidental visit of
Harold (q.v.) to the Norman court added another link to
William's connection. It seems clear that the earl made a promise
to support the claims of William upon the English succession.
This promise he was invited to fulfil in 1066, after the Con-
fessor's death and his own coronation. William had some difficulty
in securing the help of his barons for his proposed invasion of
England; it was necessary to convince them individually by
threats and persuasions. Otherwise conditions were favourable.
William secured the benevolent neutrality of the emperor Henry
IV.; and the expedition had the solemn approval of Pope Alex-
ander II. With Tostig, the banished brother of Plarold, William
formed a useful alliance; the duke and his Normans were enabled,
by Tostig's invasion of northern England, to land unmolested at
Pcvenscy on Sept. 28, 1066. On the i4th of October a crushing
defeat was indicted on Harold at the battle of Senlac or Hastings;
and on Christmas Day William was crowned at Westminster.
Five years more were to elapse before he became master of
the west and north. Early in 1067 he made a progress through
parts of the south, receiving submissions, disposing of the lands
j of those who had fought against him, and ordering castles to
be built; he then crossed the Channel to celebrate his triumph
m JSorrnandy. Disturbances at once occurred in Northumbria,
on the Welsh marches and in Kent ; and he was compelled to
i return in December. The year 1068 was spent in military ex-
I pcdihons against Exeter and York, in both of which the adher-
| cnts of Harold had found a welcome. In 1069 Robert of Comines,
i a Norman to whom William had given the earldom of North-
umberland, was murdered by the English at Durham; the north
declared for Edgar Atheling, the last male representative of the
West-Saxon dynasty; and Swcyn Estrithson of Denmark sent
a fleet to aid the rebels. Joining forces, the Danes and English
captured York, although it was defended by two Norman castles.
I Marching rapidly on York William drove the Danes to their
ships; and the city was then reduced by a blockade The king
ravaged the country as far north as Durham with such com-
pleteness that traces of devastation were still to be seen sixty
years later. But the English leaders were treated with politic
clemency, and the Danish leader, Jarl Osbiorn, was bribed to
withdraw his fleet. Early in 1070 the reduction of the north
was completed by a march over the moors to Chester which
was now placed under an earl of William's choice. From this
point we hear no more of general rebellions against the foreign
Administration.-0f the measures which William took to
consolidate his authority we have many details; but the chrono-
logical order of his proceedings is obscure. The redistribution
of land appears to have proceeded pari passu with the reduction
of the country; and at every stage of the conquest each important
follower received a new reward. Thus were formed the vast but
straggling fiefs which are recorded in Domesday. The great
earldoms of the West-Saxon period were allowed to lapse* the
new earls for the most part closely connected with William by
the ties of blood or friendship, were lords of single shires- and
only on the marches of the kingdom was the whole of the royal
jurisdiction delegated to such feudatories. William's writs show
that he kept intact the old system of governing through the
sheriffs and the courts of shire and hundred. Those whom he
cnfcoffed with land held it according to the law of Norman
feudalism, and were thus brought into close personal relations
with the king. But he forced the most powerful of them to
acknowledge the jurisdiction of the ancient local courts; and the
old fyrd-system was maintained in order that the crown might
not be wholly dependent on feudal levies. Though his forest-
laws and his heavy taxation caused bitter complaints, William
won the respect of his English subjects. They appear to have
accepted him as the lawful heir of the Confessor; and they
regarded him as their natural protector against feudal oppression
This is o be explained by his regard for legal forms, by his
confirmation of the "laws of Edward" and by the support which
he received from the church. Domesday Book shows that in his
confiscations he can have paid little attention to abstract justice
Almost every English landholder of importance was dispossessed,
though only those who had actually borne arms against William
6io
WILLIAM II.
should have been so treated. As far as possible Englishmen were
excluded from all responsible positions both in church and state.
After 1071 our accounts of William's doings become jejune and
disconnected. Much of his attention must have been engrossed
by the work of administration, carried on without the help of
those elaborate institutions, judicial and financial, which were
perfected by Henry I. and Henry II. William had few ministers
of note. William Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, who had been
his right-hand man in Normandy, fell in the civil wars of Flan-
ders (1071). Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William's half-brother, lost
favour and was finally thrown into prison on a charge of dis-
loyalty (1082). Another half-brother, Robert of Mortain, earl
of Cornwall, showed little capacity. Of the king's sons Robert,
though titular count of Maine, was kept in leading strings; and
even William Rufus, who was in constant attendance on his
father, never held a public office. The Conqueror reposed much
confidence in two prelates, Lanfranc of Canterbury and Geoffrey
of Coutances. They took an active part in the civil no less than
the ecclesiastical government. But the king himself worked
hard in hearing lawsuits, in holding councils and ceremonious
courts, and finally in conducting military operations.
In 1072 he undertook a campaign against Malcolm, king of
Scots, who had married Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling,
and was inclined to promote English rebellions. When William
reached the Forth his adversary submitted, did homage as a
vassal, and consented to expel Edgar Atheling, who was subse-
quently endowed with an English estate and admitted to William's
favour. From Scotland the king turned to Maine, which had
profited by the troubles of 1069 to expel the Norman garrisons.
William had no difficulty in reducing the country, even though
Le Mans was assisted by Fulk of Anjou (1073). A conspiracy
of the earls of Hereford and Norfolk, in which the Englishman
Waltheof, carl of Northampton, was to some extent implicated,
was defeated by Lanfranc in the king's absence; but William
returned to settle the difficult question of their punishment, and
to stamp out the last sparks of disaffection. The execution of
Waltheof, though strictly in accordance with the English law of
treason, he only sanctioned after long hesitation, and this severity
to a man who was generally thought innocent, is one of the dark
stains on his career. In 1076 he invaded Brittany to get possession
of the fugitive earl of Norfolk ; but Philip of France came to the
aid of the Bretons, and William gave way before his suzerain.
The next few years were troubled by a quarrel between the king
and his eldest son, Robert (q.v.). In the years 1083-1085 there
was a second rising in Maine. In 1085 news arrived that Cnut
the Saint, king of Denmark, was preparing to assert the claims
of his house in England. The project fell through, but gave
occasion for the famous moot at Salisbury in which William took
an oath of direct allegiance from "all the land-sitting men that
were in England" (1086).
While the danger was still impending he took in hand (1085)
the compilation of Domesday Book (q.v.). In 1087 he invaded
the French Vexin to retaliate on the garrison of Mantes for
raids committed on his territory. He sacked and burned the
town. But as he rode out to view the ruins his horse plunged
on the burning cinders and inflicted on him an internal injury.
He was carried in great suffering to Rouen and there died on
Sept. 9, 1087. He was buried in St. Stephen's at Caen. A plain
sjab still marks the place of his tomb, before the high altar;
but his bones were scattered by the Huguenots in 1562.
Character. — In a profligate age William was distinguished by
the purity of his married life, by temperate habits and by a
sincere piety. His most severe measures were taken in cold blood,
as part of his general policy; but his natural disposition was
averse to unnecessary bloodshed or cruelty. His one act of wanton
devastation, the clearing of the New Forest, has been grossly
exaggerated. He was avaricious, but his church policy (see article
ENGLISH HISTORY) shows a disinterestedness as rare as it was
honourable. In personal appearance he was tall and corpulent,
of a dignified presence and extremely powerful physique, with a
bald forehead, close-cropped hair and short moustaches.
By Matilda (d. 1083), William had four sons, Robert, duke of
Normandy, Richard (killed whilst hunting), and the future kings,
William II. and Henry I., and five or six daughters, including
Adela, who married Stephen, count of Blois.
Of the original authorities the most important are the Gesta
Willelmi, by William of Poitiers (ed. A. Duchesne in Historiae
Normannorum scriptores, Paris, 1619) ; the Winchester, Worcester and
Peterborough texts of the Anglo-Sawn Chronicle (ed. B. Thorpe,
"Rolls" scries, 2 vols., 1861, and also C. Plummer, 2 vols., Oxford,
1892-99) ; William of Malmesbury's De gestis re gum (ed. W. Stubbs,
"Rolls" series, 2 vols., 1887-89) ; William of Jumieges' Historia
Normannorum (ed. A. Duchesne, op. tit.) ; Ordericus Walls' Historia
ecclesiastica (ed. A. le Prevost, Soc. de I'histoire de France, $ vols.,
Paris, 1838-55). Of modern works the most elaborate is E. A.
Freeman's History of the Norman Conquest, vols. iii.-v. (Oxford,
1870-76). Domesday Book was edited in 1783-1816 by H. Farley
and Sir H. Ellis in four volumes. Of commentaries the following are
important: Domesday Studies (ed. P. E. Dove, 2 vols., 1888-91) ;
J. H. Round, Feudal England (1895) ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday
Book and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897) ; P. Vinogracloff, English Society
in the Eleventh Century (Oxford, 1908). See also F. M. Stenton,
William the Conqueror (1908) ; R. Francis, William the Conqueror
(1915) ; M. de Ranchi, Apologie pour Guillaume le Conquerant (1919) ;
S. H. Benton, From Coronet to Crown (1926). (H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM II. (c. 1056-1100), king of England, surnamed
Rufus, was the third son of William I. by his queen Matilda of
Flanders. He seems to have been his father's favourite son, and
constantly appears in the Conqueror's company, although like his
brothers he was carefully excluded from any share in the govern-
ment. A squabble with Rufus was the immediate cause of Robert's
first rupture with the Conqueror; in the ensuing civil war we
find Rufus bearing arms on the royal side (1077-80)^. On his
death-bed the Conqueror was inclined to disinherit his eldest son
in favour of Rufus, who by the early death of Prince Richard,
was now left second in the order of succession. But Normandy
was bequeathed to Robert, while Rufus was designated as king of
England. Rufus was crowned at Westmiaster on Sept. 26, 1087,
fifteen days after the death of his father.
Domestic Administration. — In his domestic administration
we can trace a certain continuity of purpose, and in his dealings
with the Welsh and Scots he proceeded, though intermittently,
along the broad lines of policy which his father had marked out.
Beyond the Channel he busied himself with schemes, first for the
reunion of England and Normandy, then for the aggrandisement
of Normandy at the expense of France. But the violence, the
irregularity, the shamelessness of his private life are faithfully
reflected in his public career. Even in cases where his general
purpose could be justified, his methods of execution were crudely
conceived, brutal and short-sighted. Rufus was not without
valour or glimmerings of chivalry, but perfidious to his equals,
oppressive to his subjects, contemptuous of religion; with no
sense of his responsibilities, and determined to exact the last
farthing of his rights. The baronage took up arms for Robert in
the name of the hereditary principle, but with the secret design
of substituting a weak and indolent for a ruthless and energetic
sovereign. Local risings in Norfolk, Somerset and the Welsh
marches were easily repressed. The castles of Kent and Sussex
offered a more formidable resistance, since their lords were in
direct communication with Robert of Normandy, and were led by
the able Odo of Bayeux (q.v.), the king's uncle, who had been
released from prison at the opening of the reign. Rufus secured
the help of the native English, by promises (never fulfilled), of
good laws, the abolition of unjust taxes and redress for those who
had suffered by the afforestments of the late king. Aided by large
contingents of the national militia he subdued the rebels. Odo of
Bayeux left England under a safe-conduct to sow fresh seeds of
discord in Normandy. But Rufus resolved to take vengeance on
his brother, and in 1089 he invaded eastern Normandy. In 1091
a treaty was hastily patched up. Rufus retained the eastern
marches of the duchy, and also received certain seaports. In
return he undertook to aid Robert in reducing the rebellious county
of Maine, and in recovering the Cotentin from their younger
brother, Henry Beauclerk, to whom it had been pledged by the
impecunious duke. The last part of the agreement was duly
executed. Rufus then recrossed the Channel to chastise the Scots,
who in his absence had raided the north country. Malcolm III.
WILLIAM III.
6n
of Scotland prudently purchased his withdrawal, by doing homage
(Aug. 1091) on the same terms which William I. had imposed
in 1072. Next year Rufus broke the treaty by seizing the strong-
hold of Carlisle and the other lands held or claimed by Malcolm
in Cumberland and Westmorland. Malcolm in vain demanded
satisfaction; while attempting reprisals on Northumberland he was
slain in an obscure skirmish (1093). Rufus immediately put for-
ward a candidate for the vacant throne; and this policy, though
at first unsuccessful, finally resulted in the accession of Edgar
(1097), a son of Malcolm, who had acknowledged the English
overlordship. Carlisle remained an English possession; in the
next reign Cumberland and Westmorland appear as shires in
the accounts of the Exchequer.
Norman Policy. — Rufus resumed his designs on Normandy at
the first opportunity. Robert reproached his brother with non-
fulfilment of the terms arranged in 1091; and Rufus seized the
excuse for a second invasion of the duchy (1094). But Robert
resolved to go upon a crusade and, to* obtain the necessary funds,
gave Normandy in pledge to his brother (1096). The interests
of Normandy at once became the first consideration of Rufus's
policy. In 1098—99 he recovered Maine, and commenced opera-
tions for the recovery of the Vexin. Early in noo he accepted a
proposal, made by William IX. of Aquitaine, that he should take
over that duchy on terms similar to those arranged in the case of
Normandy. Contemporaries were startled at the rapid progress of
the king's ambitions, and saw the direct interposition of heaven
in the fate which- cut them short. On Aug. 2, noo, Rufus fell, in
the New Forest, the victim of an arrow from an unknown hand.
'The common story names Walter Tirel, who was certainly close
at hand and fled the country without venturing to abide the issue
of a trial. But a certain Ralph of Aix was also accused; and Tirel,
from a safe distance, solemnly protested his innocence.
It remains to notice the main features of the domestic ad-
ministration which made the names of William and his minister,
Ralph Flambard, infamous. We are told that the "moots" all
over England were "driven" in the interests of the king; which
perhaps means that aids were extorted from the shire-courts.
We also learn that the forest-laws were rigorously administered;
that the king revived, for certain offences, the death-penalty
which his father had abolished ; that all men were vexed by unjust
gelds and the feudal classes by unscrupulous misinterpretations
of the customs relating to the incidents of wardship, marriage and
relief. On one occasion the militia were summoned in considerable
numbers for a Norman expedition, which was no part of their
duty; but when they arrived at the sea-coast they were bidden
to hand over their journey money and go home. The incident is
not uninstructive as a side-light on the king's finance. As to the
oppression of the church we are more fully informed; after
allowing for exaggeration there still remains evidence enough to
prove that the ecclesiastical policy of Rufus was unscrupulously
venal.
In appearance William II. was unattractive; bull-necked, with
sloping shoulders, extremely corpulent and awkward in his gait.
His long locks and clean-shaven face marked his predilection for
the new-fangled fashions which contemporary ecclesiastics were
never weary of denouncing. His features were strongly marked
and coarse, his eyes grey and deeply set; he owed his nickname
to the fiery hue of his complexion. He stuttered violently and in
moments of passion was almost inarticulate. His familiar con-
versation was witty and blasphemous. He was surrounded by a
circle of vicious parasites, and no semblance of decorum was
maintained in his household. His character was assailed by the
darkest rumours which he never attempted to confute. He died
unmarried and without issue.
The main authorities for the reign are the Peterborough Chronicle
(ed. C. Plummer, 2 vols., Oxford, 1892-99) ; Eadmer's Vita Anselnti
and Historia Novorum (ed. M. Rule, "Rolls" series, 1884) ; William
of Malmesbury's De gestis return (ed. W. Stubbs, "Rolls" series, 2 vols.,
1887-89) ; Orderic Vital is* Historia ecclesiastica, (ed. A. le Prtvost,
5 vols., Paris, 1838-55). Of modern works the most exhaustive is
E. A Freeman's ReiRn of William Rufus (2 vols., Oxford, 1882). See
also J. H. Round's Feudal England (1895).
WILLIAM III. (1650-1702), king of England and prince of
Orange, was the only son of William II., prince of Orange, stadt-
holder of the Dutch republic, and Mary, daughter of Charles I.
of England, and was born at The Hague on Nov. 4, 1650, eight
days after his father's death. His father had attempted a coup
d'ttat, which had failed, with the result that on his death the office
of stadtholder was abolished. Power passed into the hands of John
de Witt, who represented the oligarchic element and the special
interests of one province, Holland, and was taken from the Orange
party which represented the more democratic element and the
more general interests of the Seven Provinces. William grew up
among enemies, and learned to conceal his feeling behind the
mask of an immobile, almost repulsive, coldness. Like Charles
XII. of Sweden and the younger Pitt, he was a wonderful example
of premature mental development.
Stadtholdersbip. — In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly invaded
Dutch territory. The Dutch people turned for help to the prince
of Orange. On July 8, 1672 the states general revived the stadt-
holderate, and declared William stadtholder, captain-general and
.admiral for life. This revolution was followed by a riot, in which
John de Witt and his brother Cornelius were murdered by the
mob at The Hague. Evidence may be sought in vain to connect
William with the outrage, but he lavishly rewarded its leaders and
promoters. The cold cynicism with which he acted towards de
Witt is only matched by the heroic obstinacy with which he con-
fronted Louis. He rejected all thought of surrender and appealed
to the last resource of Dutch patriotism by opening the sluices
and laying vast tracts under water. The French army could not
advance, while the French and English fleets were defeated by
the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter. William summoned Branden-
burg to his aid (1672) and made treaties with Austria and Spain
(1673). In August 1674 he fought his first great battle at Seneffe,
where the honours lay with Conde. The French evacuated Dutch
territory early in 1674, but continued to hold places on the Rhine
and in Flanders. In April 1677 William was badly beaten at St.
Omer, but he secured a diplomatic victory by his marriage, in
November 1677, with Mary, eldest daughter of James, duke of
York, afterwards King James II. He undertook negotiations with
England in the following year which forced Louis to make terms
and sign the treaty of Nijmwegen in August 1678, which gave
Franche Comte and other places in Spanish Flanders to France.
William started a new coalition against Louis in October 1681
by making a treaty with Sweden, and subsequently with the em-
pire, Spain and several German princes. After absorbing Stras-
bourg (1681), Louis invaded Spanish Flanders and took Luxem-
bourg (1684). Even then the new league would not fight and
allowed Louis to retain his conquests by the truce of Regensburg
(1685), but none the less these humiliations gave rise to a more
closely-knit and aggressive coalition, which was organized in 1686
and known as the League of Augsburg.
The English Crown. — From 1677 onwards William had care-
fully watched the politics of England. On the accession of James
II. in 1685 he forced the duke of Monmouth to leave Holland, and
sought to dissuade him from his ill-starred expedition to England.
He apparently tried to conciliate his father-in-law in the hope of
bringing him into the League of Augsburg. By November 1687 he
saw that James would not join the league against Louis, and he
turned for support to the English opposition. He caused his chief
minister Fagel to write a letter expressing his disapprobation of
the religious policy of James, which was published in November
1687. But he made it clear that he would not interfere unless he
received a definite invitation. On June 30, 1688 Admiral Herbert,
disguised as a blue-jacket, set out from England with a letter from
seven influential Englishmen, asking William to "bring over an
army and secure the infringed liberties" of England.
William landed at Torbay (Nov. 5, 1688). After a few days
of hesitation, many influential noblemen declared for him in differ-
ent parts of the country. James, who had at first joined his army
at Salisbury, fell back to London and tried to negotiate. (For his
flight connived at by William, see JAMES II.) William, on the ad-
vice of an assembly of notables, summoned a convention parlia-
ment on Jan. 22, 1689. He was proclaimed joint-sovereign of Eng-
land in conjunction with his wife. Mary (Feb. 13, 1689).
612
WILLIAM IV.
Internal Administration. — A constitutional settlement was
effected by the end of 1689, almost all the disputed points between
king and parliament being settled in favour of the latter. Though
William by no means appreciated this confinement of his preroga-
tive, he was too wise to oppose it. His own initiative is more
clearly traceable in the Toleration Act, extending liberty of private
worship to Dissenters. He also secured an Act of Grace and In-
demnity in 1690, by which he calmed the violence of party passion.
But in general his domestic policy was not very fortunate, and he
can hardly claim any personal credit for the reassessment of the
land-tax (1692), the creation of the national debt or the recoin-
age act (1693-1695). Further, he threatened the existence of the
Bank of England, by lending his support to a counter-institution,
the Land Bank, which ignominiously collapsed. Though he was
not blind to the commercial interests of England, he was neglectful
of the administration and affairs of her oversea colonies. But
though he was unable to extract the best results from parliament
he was always able to avert its worst excesses. In spite of strong
personal opinions to the contrary, he accepted the Triennial Act
(1694), the vote reducing the army to 10,000 men (1697), the
vote disbanding his favourite Dutch Guards (1699) and even
(November 1699) a bill rescinding the grants of forfeited Irish
estates, which he had made to his favourites. The main cause of
the humiliations William suffered from parliament lay in his
incapacity to understand the party or cabinet system. In his view
the best way to govern was to have both parties represented in the
ministry, so that, as Whig and Tory fell out, the king came by his
own. This method was unsuccessful, and affairs went most
smoothly when the parliamentary majority held the same views
as the ministry. William possessed an experience of the workings
of representative government in Holland, and his mistakes arc
by no means so pardonable as were, for example, those of the
Georges, who had been absolute monarchs in their own country.
William's unpopularity with his new people was, on the whole, un-
justified, but his memory is rightly darkened by the stain of the
"Massacre of Glencoe." In 1692 he signed an order for the "ex-
tirpation" of the Macdonalds, a small clan in the vale of Glencoe.
It is improbable that he meant his order to be literally executed,
it is not certain that he knew they had taken the oath of allegiance
to him. None the less, when the massacre was carried out with cir-
cumstances of revolting barbarity, William behaved as he had done
after the murder of De Witt. Popular pressure forced him to
bring the murderers to justice, to punish and dismiss them from
his service. But shortly afterwards they were all received into
favour; "one became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer."
These and other actions indicate that William could show on
occasion a cold and cynical ruthlessness. The master aim of his
life was the restoration of the "Balance of Power," by the over-
throw of the predominance of France. This was the real aim of
William in going to England in 1688. He had set off to secure an
ally against Louis, and he came back from his expedition with a
crown on his head and a new nation at his back, united in its
detestation of popery and of France.
Foreign Policy.— As king of England he concluded treaties of
alliance with the members of the League of Augsburg and sent a
large army to oppose the French in Flandgrs. (For the course of
the war on sea and on land, both in Ireland and in Flanders see
GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF.) William had assumed the duties of
commander-in-chief too young to learn the full duties of a profes-
sional soldier himself, and his imperious will did not suffer others to
direct him. Hence though often fertile in resource and ingenious
in plan, he was always a brilliant amateur.
In diplomacy William was as uniformly successful as in war he
was the reverse. His unity of aim and constancy of purpose make
him one of the greatest of modern diplomatists. He held together
his ill-assorted coalition, and finally concluded peace at Ryswick
in September 1697. Louis restored all his acquisitions since 1678,
except Strasbourg, and recognized William as king of England.
During the subsequent years William tried to arrange a partition
treaty with France, by which the domains of the childless Charles
II. of Spain were to be divided at his death. But on the death of
Charles in 1700 the whole heritage was left to France. William
endeavoured to oppose this, and used Louis's recognition of James
Edward the "Old Pretender" as king of England (Sept. 1701) to
set the English people in a flame. War was already declared in
1702, but William, who had long been ailing, died from the com-
bined effects of a fall from his horse and a chill on March 8, 1702.
In viewing William's character as a whole one is struck by its
entire absence of ostentation, a circumstance which reveals his
mind and policy more clearly than would otherwise be the case.
He had many faults, both in his public and private life, and both
in England and in Holland his domestic administration was criti-
cised. His essential greatness lay in his European policy. The best
proof of his real powers of statesmanship is that the peace of
Utrecht was subsequently made on the broad lines which he had
laid down as the only security for European peace nearly a dozen
years before its conclusion. While he lacked in diplomacy the arts
of a Louis XIV. or the graces of a Marlborough, he grasped the
central problems of his time with more clearness, or advanced
solutions with more ultimate success, than any other statesman
of his age. Often baffled, but never despairing, William fought on
to the end, and the ideas and the spirit of his policy continued
to triumph long after the death of their author.
ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. — G. Burnct, Hist, of my Own Time, ed. 0.
Airy (1897) ; W. Carstares, Papers, ed. J. McCormick (1774) ; Queen
Mary, Letters, cd. R. Dochner (Lcipsic, 1886) ; Lettres ct memoires,
ed. Countess Bentinck (1880) ; Duke of Portland, Hist. MSS. Comm.
Rep. xv. App. pt. iv. (1897) ; Shrewsbury Correspondence, cd. W.
Cosce (1821) ; Shrewsbury MSS. — Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep. xv. vol. ii.
pts. i. and ii. (1903) ; Letters, ed. P. Grimblot (2 vols.r 1848) ; Carre-
spondentie (with Wra. Bentinck), ed. N. Japikse ('S-Gravenhage,
1927).
MODERN WORKS.— H. D. Traill, Wm. III. (1888) ; P. Haake, Bran-
denburgische Politik in 1688-9 (Kasscl, 1896) ; H. C. Foxcroft, Mar-
quis of Halifax, Life (2 vols., 1898) ; Macaulay, Hist. (5 vols., 1848-
61) ; G. Koch, Die Friedensbestrebungen Wms. HI. von England,
1694-7 (Lcipsic, 1903) ; G. F. Preuss, Wm. III. von England u. das
Hans Wittelsbach (Brcslau, 1904) ; Baroness Nycvelt, Court Life in
the Dutch Republic (1906) ; J. Appleyard, Wm. of Orange and the
English Revolution (1908) ; E. Eclmundsnn, Administrations of J. de
Witt and Wm. of Orange, Camb. Mod. Hist., vol. v. (1908) ; F. A. J.
Ma/ure, Hist, de la revolution de 1686 (3 vols., 1848) ; A. N. J. Fabius,
Leven van Wm. III. (Alkmaar, 1912) ; G. H. Guttridgc, Colonial
Policy of Wm. III. (1922) ; M. E. Grew, Wm.' Bentinck and Wm. III.
(1924) ; M. Bowen, Wm., Prince of Orange (1928).
WILLIAM IV. (1/65-1837), king of England, third son of
George III., was born at Buckingham Palace on Aug. 21, 1765.
In 1779 he was sent to sea and became a midshipman under
Admiral Digby. Next year he sailed under Rodney and took part
in the action off Cape St. Vincent (Jan. i$, 1780). During the
rest of the war the young prince saw plenty of service, for which
he had a strong liking, and so laid the foundation of his popularity.
On the conclusion of the war he travelled in Germany, visiting
Hanover and Berlin, where he was entertained by Frederick the
Great. In 1785 he passed for lieutenant ; next year he was made
captain and stationed in the West Indies.
In 1789 he was made duke of Clarence. When war was de-
clared against the French republic in 1793, he could obtain no
command. He amused or revenged himself by joining the prince
! of Wales and the duke of York in their opposition to the king.
He took his seat in the House of Lords, where he defended the '
extravagances of the prince of Wales, spoke on the Divorce Bill,
and vehemently opposed the emancipation of slaves. Meanwhile
he formed a connection with Mrs. Jordan, the actress, with whom
he lived on terms of mutual affection and fidelity for nearly twenty
years. The death of Princess Charlotte in 1817 compelled him
to break with Mrs. Jordan, and to marry (1818) Adelaide of
Saxe-Meiningen, who obtained great influence over her husband.
On the death of the duke of York in 1827 the duke of Clarence
became heir to the throne, and in the same year he was appointed
lord high admiral. He endeavoured to assume independent control
of naval affairs, although his patent precluded him from acting
without the advice of two members of his council. This involved
him in a quarrel with Sir George Cockburn, in which he had to
give way. As he still continued to act in defiance of rules, the
king was at length obliged to call upon him to resign.
On June 28, 1830 the death of George IV. placed him on the
WILLIAM I.
613
throne. During the first two years of his reign England under-
went an agitation more violent than any from which it had
suffered since 1688. William IV. was well-meaning and con-
scientious; but his timidity and irresolution drove ministers to
despair, while his anxiety to avoid extremes and his want of
insight into affairs prolonged a dangerous crisis and brought the
country to the verge of revolution. The July revolution in France
gave a great impulse to the reform movement in England. Within
a fortnight of the opening of parliament the Tory ministry were
beaten on a motion for the reform of the civil list, and resigned.
Lord Grey undertook to form a ministry, with the avowed inten-
tion of bringing in a large measure of reform. This was not in
itself displeasing to the king, who had liberal tendencies, and a
few years before had supported Catholic emancipation. But when
the government were beaten in committee, and offered to resign,
the king declined to accept their resignation, but at the same time
was unwilling to dissolve. He was only forced to it (April 1831)
by the action of the opposition, ^fter a protracted political
crisis (sec GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2nd earl) the king was com-
pelled to consent to create a sufficient number of new peers to
carry the Second Reform bill, and the threat was successful in
bringing about the passing of the act in 1832.
During the rest of his reign William IV. had not much oppor-
tunity of active political interference, but on one other occasion
he made an unjustifiable use of his prerogative. This was in Nov.
1834 when he suddenly dismissed the Melbourne ministry on a
mere pretext, but in reality because he disapproved of their Irish
Church policy, and summoned Sir Robert Peel. The formation
of the Peel ministry was immediately followed by a dissolution,
and, beaten on Lord John Russell's motion respecting the Irish
Church (3rd of April, 1835), Peel resigned and Melbourne
again came into power. Under him the Whigs retained the lead
during the remainder of the reign. This coup d'etat of Nov. 1834
was the last occasion on which an English sovereign attempted
to impose an unpopular ministry on the majority in parliament.
In May 1837 the king began to show signs of debility, and died
from an affection of the heart on June 20, leaving behind him
the memory of a genial, frank, warm-hearted man, but a blunder-
ing, though well-intentioned prince. He was succeeded by his
niece Queen Victoria.
AUTHORITIES. — Correspondence of Earl Grey with William IV. and
Sir Herbert Taylor (London, 1867) ; Fit/Gerald's Life and 7*imes of
William IV. (1884); Grevillc's Memoirs (6 vols., 1888); Memoirs of
Sir Robert Peel (1856-57) ; the Creevey Papers (3rd ed., 1905) ; Civil
Correspondence of the Duke of Wellington; Walpole's History of
England (6 vols., 1890) ; Martinr-au's History of the Thirty Years'
Peace, 1816-46 (4 vols., 1877-78).
WILLIAM I. (1797-1^88), king of Prussia and German em-
peror, second son of Frederick William III. of Prussia and Louise,
a princess of Mec.klenburg-Strelitz, was born at Berlin on March
22, 1797, and received the names of Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig.
After the battle of Jena he spent three years at Konigsberg and
Memel. On Jan. i, 1807 he received an officer's patent, and on Oct.
30, 1813 was appointed a captain. William accompanied his father
in the campaign of 1814, and early in 1815, received the iron cross
for personal bravery shown at Bar-sur-Aube. He took part in the
entry into Paris on March 31, 1814, and afterwards visited Lon-
don. He joined the Prussian army in the final campaign of the
Napoleonic wars, and again entered Paris. He was made a colonel
and member of the permanent military commission at 20, a
major-general at 21, and commander of a division in 1820. During
the following nine years he mastered the Prussian military system
and studied closely those of the other European States. In 1825
he was promoted lieutenant-general, and commander of the corps
of guards. On June n, 1829 he married Augusta (d. Jan. i, 1890),
daughter of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe-Wcimar, a
lady of liberal tendencies and Catholic sympathies, whose con-
siderable influence at court was generally exerted against that of
Bismarck. By this lady William had two children: the crown
prince Frederick William (b. 1831) who succeeded him as
Frederick III. (q.v.) and the Princess Louise (b. 1838) who in
1850 married the grand duke of Baden.
On the death of his father in 1840 — the new king, Frederick
William IV., being childless — Prince William, as heir presumptive
to the throne, received the title of prince of Prussia. He was also
made lieutenant-governor of Pomerania and appointed a general
of infantry. In politics he was decidedly conservative. On the
outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he saw that some concessions
were necessary, but urged that order should first be restored.
Generally held responsible for the bloodshed in Berlin on March
1 8 (and hence nicknamed the "Cartridge Prince," although
actually no longer in command of the guards), William was so
hated for his supposed reactionary views that the king entreated
him to leave the country for some time. He went to London,
where he formed intimate personal relations with the leading
English statesmen. Returning to Berlin, on June 8 he took his seat
in the Prussian national assembly, and spoke expressing belief in
constitutional principles. In 1849 he conducted the army which
crushed the revolutionary movement in Baden. At the beginning
of the campaign an unsuccessful attempt was made on his life.
In Oct. 1849 he was appointed military governor of the Rhine-
land and Westphalia. In 1854 he was promoted field-marshal and
made governor of the fortress of Mainz. On Oct. 7, 1858 he
became regent for his brother, succeeding him on Jan. 2, 1861.
The political events of William's regency and reign are told
elsewhere. (See GERMANY: History.) William was not a ruler
of the intellectual type of Frederick the Great; but he believed
intensely in the "God of battles" and in his own divine right as the
viccregent of God so conceived. He believed also in the ultimate
union of Germany and in the destiny of Prussia as its instrument;
and held that whoever aspired to rule Germany must seize it
for himself. But an attitude so alien to the Liberal temper of
contemporary Germany was tempered by shrewd common sense,
and wisdom in his choice of advisers. Thus as regent he called
the Liberals into office on Bismarck's advice, though later he did
not hesitate to override the Constitution when parliament refused
supplies for the new armaments. From Sept. 1862, when Bismarck
took office as minister president, William's personality tends to
be obscured by that of his masterful servant. Yet he was no
cipher. His prejudices, indeed, were apt to run athwart the
minister's plans; as in the Schleswig-Holstein question, when the
king's conscience regarding the claims of the Augustenburg prince
threatened to wreck Bismarck's combinations. But, as Bismarck
put it, the annexation of the duchies gave him "a taste for con-
quest," and in the campaign of 1866 the difficulty was to restrain
the king, who wished to enter Vienna in triumph.
In 1870-71 again it was Bismarck and not the king that gave the
determining impulse. King William's attitude was strictly correct;
and the excitement which it aroused in France was due to Bis-
marck's editing of the Ems telegram. On the French declaration
of war all Germany rallied round the king of Prussia, and when, on
July 31, he quitted Berlin to join his army, he knew that he had
the support of a united nation. It was during the siege of Paris,
at his headquarters in Versailles, that he was proclaimed German
emperor (Jan. 18, 1871). On March 21, he opened the first
imperial parliament of Germany; on June 16, he entered Berlin
at the head of his troops.
After that period the emperor left the destinies of Germany
almost entirely in the hands of Bismarck. In his personal history
the most notable events were two attempts upon his life in 1878,
on the second of which he was seriously wounded. Until within
a few days of his death the emperor's health was remarkably
robust; he died at Berlin, March 9, 1888.
William I.'s military writings were published in 2 vols. at Berlin
in 1897. Of his letters and speeches several collections have appeared:
Politische Korrespondenz Kaiser Wilhelms I. (i8qo) ; Kaiser Wilhelms
des Grossen Brrefe, Rcden und Schriften (2 vols., 1905), and his
correspondence with Bismarck (ed. Penzler, Leipzig, 1900). A large
number of biographies have appeared in German, of which may be
mentioned L. Schneider's Aus dent Leben Kaiser Wilhelms (3 vols.,
1888; Fr. trans., 1888) ; Oncken, Das Zeitalter Kaiser Wilhelms (2 vols.,
1890-92) ; K. Delbrikk, Die Jngend des KimiRs Fritdrich Wilhelm IV.
von Preussen und des Kaisers u. Ko'nigs Wilhelm /., Tagebuchblatter
(1907) ; 1C. Marcks, Kaiser Wilhelm 1. (Leipzig, 1897; 5th ed. 1905).
In English have appeared William of Germany, by Archibald Forbes
(1888), a translation of Edouard Simon's The Emperor William and
his Reign (2 vols., 1886). See also GERMANY.
614
WILLIAM II.
WILLIAM II. (1859- ), German emperor, was born on
Jan. 27, 1859, eldest son of Prince Frederick William of Prussia
and Princess Victoria of England. Even as a young prince he had
to feel the conflict of opinions then swaying Germany. His mother
always remained at heart a foreigner there; deeply convinced of
the excellence of English institutions, she regarded her new home
as a backward country; in particular, she always looked on her
father-in-law's minister, Bismarck, as a personal antagonist — a
view which he returned with interest. Clever, but imperious and
essentially cold, Princess Victoria was never able to win the heart
of her son. The Crown Prince Frederick William had grown up
in an age when the ideas of liberalism had become general among
the educated classes of Germany, and was himself deeply influ-
enced by them. He was often accused of lacking initiative, and
despite occasional revolts, of being too much influenced by his
wife's stronger will. As a soldier he did his duty in the great wars
of 1866 and 1870, and, with the assistance of expert advisers, won
great successes on the battle-field; but he was never primarily a
soldier. His diaries show a wide range of interests, but little
serious occupation with any one definite subject. His whole
nature and views seemed un-Prussian to the old Emperor William
I. and his circle. He was kept wholly outside official business, and
thus up to the 6oth year of his life he was obliged to stand beside
the throne in the part of a critic without influence.
Education and Character.— His eldest son grew up in a dif-
ferent spiritual atmosphere. The great victories over Austria and
France, the foundation of a new German empire and the winning
of the German Crown by the Hohenzollerns were the dominating
impressions of his boyhood years. He shared the enthusiasm felt
by his generation for Bismarck and for the glorious German army.
Thus from an early age he was really at variance with the spirit
reigning in his parents' house. His father and mother wished to
train him in other ways by giving him a middle-class education,
quite contrary to the traditions of the Hohenzollern dynasty.
They sent him to the gymnasium in Kassel. But although nomin-
ally a student like all the rest, yet for teachers and comrades
alike he still remained always the prince and future emperor.
None the less, these school years had an important effect on his
intellectual development ; all the solid knowledge he ever had was
acquired in this period. He always retained a great devotion and
respect for Professor Hinzpeter, the head of the Kassel gym-
nasium. In Jan. 1877 the young prince passed his final examina-
tion in Kassel. He was then sent for six months to serve in the
first regiment of Guards, and afterwards to the University of Bonn,
where he studied constitutional law and political economy. He
passed two years at Bonn, but here again failed to come into
really close contact either with his teachers or with the students.
After the autumn of 1879 military training definitely took the
first place; the prince spent the next years chiefly in Potsdam,
and although he was introduced by the chief president of the
Province of Brandenburg into the secrets of civil administration,
this was only a secondary occupation. His years with the corps in
Potsdam again brought him into touch almost exclusively with the
views predominant among Prussian nobles and corps of officers.
The veneratior paid him here suited his wilful and imperious
nature better than the spirit of the middle class school or of his
parents' house. Sustained work was never demanded of him, and
consequently he never learnt to perform it. In Feb. 1881 he mar-
ried Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig Holstein-Augusten-
burg, daughter of the Prince Frederick who in 1864 had crossed
Bismarck's plans by aspiring to the throne of Schleswig-Holstein.
The prince had been for long a personal friend of the Crowti
Prince Frederick WTilliam. The old emperor and Bismarck ap-
proved of this marriage, as tending to bring about a reconciliation
with those elements in Schleswig-Holstein which still maintained
the rights of the Augustenburgs. The young princess had been
brought up very simply and piously; she had no great intellectual
powers. Six sons and a daughter were born of the marriage. Prince
William had come little before the eyes of the public, when his
father's sudden death on June 15, 1888, brought him to the throne.
The new emperor was certainly a man of intellectual gifts above
the average. He had a quick apprehension which enabled him to
form in a short time a general view of matters which interested
him, but which also seduced him into satisfying himself with these
quick, superficial impressions and thinking it unnecessary to pene-
trate more deeply into the heart of a problem. He also possessed
an extraordinarily happy turn of speech, equally effective in
intimate conversation and in dealing with large audiences. His
oratorical gifts, often, indeed, led him, particularly when he was
speaking in public, into saying more than he really meant. He
often found himself carried away, by his own inner excitement
and by the admiring astonishment of his listeners, into ill-con-
sidered remarks afterwards turned against him on the battle-
ground of politics. He was most profoundly persuaded of the
importance of his imperial office, and of his duty to maintain his
authority as monarch. Never doubting that the monarchy was a
divine institution, he believed firmly that God, who had set him in
this place, would also show him the right way in the exercise of
his sovereign duties.
In a letter to Bismarck .written two years before his death,
William's father had complained of his eldest son's immaturity
and inexperience, which was coupled with an inclination to over-
estimate his own powers. This was, indeed, a just criticism of
very important traits in William's character. He was unready and
unripe in mind when he ascended the throne at the age of
twenty-nine. He never attained that spiritual maturity which
comes only through heartfelt co-operation in great tasks and
earnest consideration of the problems of the world and of life. His
personality lacked the solid background of a definite philosophy
of life ; thus he always remained dependent on the impressions of
his immediate surroundings and on the influences of those persons
who knew how to win his ear and flatter his vanity. Nor had he
any definite religious convictions which might have given him
this inner firmness ; for although he believed in the basic dogmas
of Christianity, yet he was as strongly affected by the confusing
influence of the modern technical and intellectual culture and
really never knew at heart how far he could give way to it without
violating the traditional religious beliefs so essential for his
monarchic sentiments.
He has often been compared with Frederick William IV., and
there were certainly many points of resemblance between him and
his great-uncle; but the deep difference between them lay in the
fact that Frederick William's whole nature was rooted in a definite
philosophy of the world which always turned the scale at the
critical moments of his life, despite all wavering in points of detail,
while this firm basis was lacking in William II. Consequently he
was never free from a feeling of inner uncertainty, which he tried
to hide from the outward world under a pompous manner and by
big words. As soon as he showed himself in public he put on the
mask of the emperor. When he laid it aside there remained a man
of fine talents, but of moderate education and weak character,
vain and wilful through excess of self-consciousness, who felt
himself most at home in amusements of a very common sort, and
liked to surround himself with subservient people who suffered
his not always tactful jokes with becoming respect. A great and
increasing part of his time was taken up with journeys, with
official appearances, with parades and shows, while real work
receded more and more into the background.
When he became emperor he knew very little of the details of
foreign policy. He had only a few definite principles, to which he
always remained true. First among these came the maintenance
of his own monarchic status at home and of Germany's interna-
tional position. This in his opinion required not only a strong
army, which Germany already possessed, but also a strong fleet,
which he set about forming. The big increase of military forces
was intended not only to enable Germany to defend herself against
possible attack, but also to increase her prestige and to ensure
her her share in the partition of the world's territories which was
proceeding rapidly. He believed that the likelihood of ever having
to make serious use of these armaments would decrease in inverse
proportion to the strength of them. He never had any warlike
intentions or ambitions; he certainly always felt at heart that he
was lacking in the military gifts requisite for command in a
great modern war. On the other hand, he felt that his duty
WILLIAM II.
615
to himself as monarch forbade him to leave the control to others.
William's Relations with his Mini8tcrs-—When the new
emperor mounted the throne, Bismarck was still in charge. While
still a prince, William had often assured him of his admira-
tion, although there had, indeed, already been several small dis-
agreements, the story of which Bismarck has told in the third
volume of his Gedanken und Erinnerungen. But it was in any
case hardly likely that a young man of so lively a temperament
and so keen an ambition to bring affairs under his personal con-
trol could agree for long with a minister who had conducted the
Government according to his own principles for a generation, and
who was not inclined to subordinate himself to the wishes of a
young and inexperienced monarch. Bismarck felt from the first
that in the personality of the emperor were inherent grave dangers
for Germany's peaceful development and for the settlement of her
international relations, and thought himself bound to confine the
emperor's influence on policy within the narrowest limits possible.
In these circumstances a collision was inevitable, and the occasion
which finally led to the split was of comparatively minor im-
portance. The repeated great strikes in the Rhenish Westphalian
coal fields had inclined the emperor to listen to the counsels of
his former teacher, Hinzpcter, who urged that his duty was to
meet the wishes of the workmen half way and to remove their
discontent by a wide measure of social reform. He demanded
suddenly an announcement of such measures on the occasion of
his coming birthday.
The friction began when Bismarck, in view of the great impor-
tance of such a proclamation, demanded close scrutiny and prep-
aration in detail. It was increased by differences of opinion with
regard to the prolongation of the state of emergency against the
Social Democrats, and led to personal conflicts of increasing
violence. Bismarck had undoubtedly determined to remain in
office even against the emperor's will, and attempted to persuade
the other ministers to declare themselves one with him. At last,
on the strength of a cabinet order of 1850, he forbade the indi-
vidual ministers to report to the emperor except in his presence;
the emperor saw in this an attempt to eliminate his influence and
demanded that this cabinet order be revoked. Bismarck refused to
give the order, and the emperor then sent word that he expected
the chancellor to tender his resignation. This Bismarck did on
March 18, 1890, and it was immediately accepted by the emperor.
After Bismarck's dismissal the emperor announced that the
course of the ship of State was to remain the same, even though
the steersman had been changed. He proposed to take over com-
mand of the ship himself, and called to the leading posts men
wholly unacquainted with the duties which they were to assume,
in order to secure himself from supervision by experts. General
von Caprivi became imperial chancellor and Freiherr von Mar-
schall, a former lawyer, secretary of State for foreign affairs. Such
men were meant only to be channels for executing William's will.
Indeed, the emperor believed up to the end of his reign that he
himself was the real guiding force of all German policy. If, how-
ever, we consider more closely the system of government which
developed after Bismarck's dismissal, we find that the emperor's
influence was not nearly so great as most of his contemporaries
assumed. The right which he enjoyed of nominating at his per-
sonal discretion the imperial chancellor, the secretaries of State
and the Prussian ministers naturally gave him great influence.
Yet the emperor could not lay down a consistent line of policy,
if only for the reason that he himself possessed no solid views,
based on definite convictions, in the main questions, and that he
had neither the will nor the perseverance to help with hard, sus-
tained work on the big issues. This was apparent even in foreign
affairs, which attracted his chief interest. The emperor read a
great part of the despatches from the ministers abroad and added
notes to them, mostly expressing his views at the moment, but
seldom containing real political directions. Reports were rendered
to him verbally or in writing on important questions and his deci-
sions were put away in the files. He also often had political con-
versations with the representatives of foreign powers and made
a rule of reporting all these in detail to the Foreign Office. When
he was travelling, which was often the case, he was accompanied
by a member of the diplomatic service who saw to communications
between him and the Foreign Office.
Very often, and particularly in important questions, he let him-
self be persuaded by his ministers into decisions altogether con-
trary to his own views. For example, immediately after Bismarck's
dismissal he allowed Caprivi and Holstein to dissuade him from
renewing the re-insurance treaty with Russia, although he person-
ally wished, and had, indeed, already consented to renew it. Later
he always disapproved at heart of Holstein's and Billow's policy in
Morocco, but allowed himself time and again to be persuaded into
approving of the measures proposed by his advisers. On the whote,
William II. did not so much exercise a real, lasting control, as
produce confusion by sudden and impulsive interference.
In foreign policy, after Bismarck's dismissal, as the new chan-
cellor and the new secretary of State had absolutely no experience
in this field, the actual control fell into the hands of Baron von
Holstein, chief of the political department in the Foreign Office,
a mistrustful and misanthropic eccentric who shrank from any
sort of public appearance, never reported to the emperor or ap-
peared in parliament, but provided the ministers with his informa-
tion from the seclusion of his office. He always regarded the
emperor's personality and inclination to personal interference with
the greatest mistrust. When the chancellor and secretary of State,
out of loyalty to their sovereign — a feeling very little developed
in Holstein — put up too weak an opposition to the emperor,
he tried by every kind of intrigue to egg them on or else to
turn them out, and had them attacked in the press with which
he was connected. Consequently during the decade after Bis-
marck's dismissal there was a continual feeling of crisis which
might at any moment have led to grave conflicts.
The events of William II. 's reign will be found elsewhere.
(See GERMANY.) Here we can only attempt to indicate the em-
peror's personal share in the most important decisions of this
time, beginning with foreign policy.
Foreign Policy. — Although the non-renewal of the re-insur-
ance treaty was contrary to the emperor's wish, the rapprochement
with England which began with the conclusion of the Heligoland
treaty, undoubtedly accorded at the time with his personal wishes.
He was anxious to create a counterpoise to the pressure of the
incipient Franco-Russian rapprochement by strengthening rela-
tions between the Triple Alliance and England. But he very soon
experienced bitter disappointments; the interests of Germany and
England clashed violently in Africa, and England, after the out-
break of the Chinese- Japanese War (1894) followed the opposite
policy to Germany in the Far East. Germany's intervention in
this struggle against Japan and on the side of France and Russia*
was essentially the work of Baron von Holstein. The emperor
had at first shown great personal sympathies for the military
efficiency of Japan, but skilful working on his Christian sentiments
and his fear of the "yellow peril/' persuaded him to fall in with
Holstein's advice; especially as this coincided with his personal
ambition to seize the occasion to secure for Germany a naval base
in the Far East. He then promised the tsar of Russia support
if the latter 's Far Eastern policy led him into difficulties, the
tsar, in return, consenting on Russia's behalf to Germany's
occupying a Chinese port.
After these events had brought about a coldness between Ger-
many and England, the emperor devoted his chief attention to
strengthening the German war, fleet, in which he had always felt a
strong personal interest. He used every opportunity, public and
private, to advocate this move, because he was convinced that
Germany would only be able to follow a policy independent from
England if she was covered against attack from the sea by a strong
navy of her own. Throughout his entire reign, the expansion of
German sea power remained one of the unaltered principles of his
policy; from 1897 on he found in Admiral von Tirpitz, the secre-
tary of State for naval affairs, an enthusiastic assistant in these
plans, who was capable of giving them practical form and of de-
fending them against statesmen and parliament.
If the emperor's naval policy already showed a deep mistrust
of England, this was intensified by British policy towards the
Boers. When Jameson made his raid into the Transvaal in 1896,
6i6
WILLIAM II.
the emperor seriously thought of breaking off diplomatic relations
with the British Government if it countenanced Jameson's con-
duct. He even planned a military intervention in favour of the
Boers; his advisers only restrained him from doing so, with diffi-
culty, by proposing instead the despatch of the notorious tele-
gram to President Kruger. The growing tension of relations with
England made the emperor increasingly ready to adopt the idea,
originally put forward by Holstein and afterwards also repeatedly
advocated by BiiJow, of seeking rapprochement with France via
St. Petersburg (Leningrad) in order to create a counterpoise to
the threatening increase of British power through an alliance of
all the great European continental States, the so-called Continental
Alliance. It may, however, be doubted whether all these efforts
were not only meant to serve to bring England to change her
policy and enter into closer relations with Germany. For the em-
peror always retained a lively sympathy for England, which was
expressed in particularly vivid fashion in the reports which he sent
to the German Foreign Office on his frequent visits to that coun-
try. On the other hand, he also felt himself attracted to Russia
by old family traditions and by the consciousness of common
monarchic interests, and probably never really made up his own
mind which of these two countries would prove the more valu-
able ally for Germany. Holstein and Bulow, who thought Ger-
many would do best to bind herself to neither of these two
Powers, but to sell her support to the one or the other, as the case
arose, for concrete concessions, took advantage of the emperor's
uncertainty to restrain him from entering into any binding engage-
ments on one side or the other. Billow flattered his vanity by
representing to him that he would then become the arbiter of the
world. Nevertheless, when England began in the spring of 1898,
at Chamberlain's instigation, to sound Germany regarding a
German-English alliance, William II. showed a real inclination to
accept this offer, and all his advisers' cunning and precautions were
needed to keep him in the path which they considered desirable.
After the failure of these negotiations, when England first drew
closer to France and Russia and the path was cleared for the
Entente, Berlin began to grow apprehensive. Holstein and Bulow
thought it their duty to show the world, in the Morocco question,
that France and England were not to be allowed to dictate the par-
tition of the world's remaining colonial territories without refer-
ence to Germany, especially as Russia was at the time completely
immobilized by her severe struggle with Japan. The emperor,
whose personal view it was that German interests in Morocco were
not large enough to justify such an attitude, and who only a short
while previously had told the king of Spain that Germany de-
manded nothing for herself in Morocco, was utterly opposed to
such interference. Bulow needed all his art of persuasion to per-
suade him to land in Tangier on his Mediterranean voyage in
March 1905. Up to the last moment he hesitated whether to do
this. Here he certainly showed more political wisdom than his
advisers, but once again he was too weak to carry his point against
them. The result of Germany's action here was not only to make
her relations with France more strained, but also to confirm the
Franco-British entente. It is well-known that the agreements be-
tween these two Powers for military and naval co-operation in
case of war were a result of the Morocco crisis.
Another reason why the emperor viewed the increasing tension
of Franco-German relations with alarm was because, after the
failure of the negotiations for an alliance with England, he had
resumed with new zest the idea of a Continental Alliance. Billow
prevented him from intervening during the delicate negotiations
with Paris on the preparations for the Algeciras conference, but
only by concealing from him altogether the offer made by Rouvier,
the French minister-president, for a general understanding with
Germany. He consented, however, that the emperor should take
advantage of his meeting with the tsar in Finland to conclude
with him a treaty, to which France should afterwards be asked to
adhere. The emperor in fact succeeded at the meeting in Bjorko
(July 23, 1905) in persuading the tsar Nicholas to sign an offensive
and defensive alliance. He believed that he had won a great suc-
cess, and wrote to Billow that the meeting had been a turning point
in the history of the world. This, however, soon proved to be a
complete error; when the tsar returned to St. Petersburg his
ministers persuaded him to demand a revision of the treaty, as in
its existing form it was irreconcilable with the provisions of the
Franco-Russian treaty. As the alterations proposed by Russia
would have deprived the treaty of its whole value for Germany, it
was thought best to drop the whole affair and the Bjorko treaty
was buried for good and all.
Germany's situation now grew increasingly dangerous; Russia's
adhesion to the Franco-British entente (1907) was followed by
growing tension between Germany and England, due principally
to the fears aroused in England by the German naval programme.
Various early attempts by England to reach an understanding with
Germany on the naval armaments of the two Powers broke down
because the emperor, in agreement with Admiral von Tirpitz,
maintained that any engagement of this sort was dishonourable
to Germany. On this point Bulow disagreed with the emperor. He
would willingly have negotiated with England on a limitation of
armaments ; but when King .Edward visited Friedrichshof in Aug.
1908, the emperor told the British official, Hardinge, most
abruptly, that he would not agree to any negotiations of the sort,
and Billow thought it better not to press his own view any further
at present, hoping to be able to convert the emperor gradually. In
the autumn of 1907 the emperor visited England, and made re-
marks which, in his opinion, were calculated to remove the appre-
hension aroused in England by the German naval programme,
I Soon after, these remarks were published as an interview with the
Daily Telegraph, but produced exactly the opposite effect to that
which had been intended. They were looked on in England as an
attempt by a foreign monarch to interfere in England's private
affairs. In Germany also the publication evoked lively disapproval
aqd led to a question in the Reichstag and to an excited debate on
the emperor's personal conduct of affairs. The emperor was
obliged to make a declaration (Oct. 31, 1908), that he would in
the future undertake no political step of importance without the
chancellor's advice.
The first conflict between the Triple Alliance and the Entente
arose over Austria's annexation of Bosnia in the autumn of 1908,
in consequence of the Young Turk revolution. Serbia protested
against the annexation, and as Russia supported her, a severe
crisis broke out. Here again the emperor and Btilow differed. The
emperor was shocked by Austria's action, which she had taker
without previously informing Germany. He accused Vienna of
duplicity and said that he personally felt himself most deeply
wounded in his sentiments as an ally. Billow, however, fearing
that Germany would lose her last reliable ally, thought it right to
support Austria at all costs.
Soon afterwards, Bulow, having been defeated in the Reich-
stag on the question of financial reform, again offered his resigna-
tion, which was this time immediately accepted by the emperor.
The chancellor had long enjoyed his particular favour; but their re-
lations had become increasingly unhappy for some time past. This
was due partly to differences qn points of policy, but even more to
the emperor's feeling that Billow had deceived him and left Htm
in the lurch over the Daily Telegraph affair. Bethmann-Hollweg
was now appointed imperial chancellor; but the emperor never
really trusted him. Bethmann-Hollweg's earlier career had been
passed in the internal administrative service and he himself
realized his own lack of experience in foreign affairs ; he therefore
insisted on the appointment of Kiderlcn-Wachter, formerly min-
ister in Bucharest, as secretary of State. Kiderlen-Wachter enjoyed
a reputation for unusual skill and energy, but more than ten
years previously he had incurred the emperor's personal dislike
in a private matter. He was primarily responsible for the new
collision with France which arose in 1911 when the French began
to bring Morocco under their rule altogether. Here again the
emperor was against letting a fresh quarrel between Germany
and France arise over Morocco. At his instigation, a treaty with
France had been concluded in Feb. 1909, while Bulow was still
in office, allowing France an exceptional position in Morocco. Kid-
erlen, however, believed that France would be prepared to cede
the French Congo wholly or in part to Germany in return for a
free hand in Morocco ; he succeeded in making the emperor be-
WILLIAM II.
617
lieve that this could be reached at the cost of a little pressure.
Here again William yielded against his own better judgment to
pressure from his advisers and agreed to the despatch of the
"Panther," a small ship of war, to the Moroccan coast. Kiderlcn
did, indeed, obtain some of his demands, but the resentment in
France now grew increasingly serious, and Germany's relations
with England, who felt herself particularly pledged to support
France over Morocco, deteriorated correspondingly.
Nevertheless one more opportunity for a German-English rap-
prochement seemed to offer itself, when the peace of Europe was
dangerously threatened by the outbreak of the Balkan Wars.
Relations seemed to have become really happy when Lord Hal-
dane, the British War Minister, visited Berlin in Feb. 1912
on <an official mission, and held personal conversations with the
emperor, Tirpitz and Bethmann-Hollweg. The emperor in his
sanguine fashion believed that his interview with Haldane had
resulted in a complete understanding, but failed to see that the
limitation of Germany's naval armament was still 'the British
sine qua non\ whereas he himself and Tirpitz were just engaged
in drafting a new bill for increasing the rate of naval construction.
This attempted rapprochement thus led to renewed coolness.
When the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne precipitated
a crisis which led to the World War, the emperor was determined
from the start to help Austria to get satisfaction from Serbia.
Real difficulties could only arise if Russia took Serbia's part. The
emperor, however, reckoned firmly on the community of mon-
archical interests, which he believed would prevent the tsar
from coming forward as protector to the murderers of a prince.
He failed to see that, the final decision in Russia did not really lie
with the weak tsar at all. The emperor himself did not at first
imagine that any danger of war could arise. He started off on his
Baltic cruise, without making any preparations; the alleged
"Crown council" in Potsdam never took place. He did not return
till after the Austrian Note to Belgrade had already been deliv-
ered; and he personally thought the Serbian answer quite fitting to
form a basis for future negotiations. lie discipproved when, despite
this answer, Austria mobilized and declared war on Serbia, and he
undoubtedly approved of Bethmann-Hollweg's eleventh-hour at-
tempt to persuade the Austrians to hold their hand and to nego-
tiate directly with Russia. He also sent a number of personal
telegrams to the tsar Nicholas to try to restrain him from the
mobilization which finally led to the outbreak of the war, and to
offer him his mediation. All these endeavours to maintain peace
proved, however, unsuccessful. The idea that the emperor wished
for a war in order to found a German world empire, or to make
any conquests at all, though widely current during the war, is,
in the opinion of the writer, incorrect.
Interference in Internal Policy. — The emperor's interven-
tions in German internal policy were also irregular. The first
occasion was when he called on Bismarck to proclaim a far-
reaching social and political reform. Only a small fraction of
this was carried out during the first years of his reign. As these
measures had not the desired effect of winning the mass of the
w.orkers from Social Democracy, a feeling of disappointment
overcame the emperor. He always looked upon Social Democracy,
which was republican on principle, as the irreconcilable enemy of
the whole existing order, and particularly of the monarchy, and
held it to be his duty to fight against it with all the means in his
power. The murder of the French president, Carnot, seemed to
him to be a sign of the increasing effect of international social
propaganda, and after the autumn of 1894 he pleaded repeatedly
in his speeches that the revolutionary movement must be fought,
and called on his ministers to bring in fresh emergency legislation
penalizing all attempts to overthrow the social order and any agita-
tion in favour of class hatred with penal servitude. It was the
differences which this bill evoked among the emperor's advisers
that led to the dismissal of Caprivi in Oct. 1894 and the appoint-
ment of Prince Hohenlohe as imperial chancellor. Hohenlohc
brought in a bill, which was rejected by the Reichstag in May
1895. The emperor, however, returned again and again to the
idea but was never able to carry it through.
Another matter which caused him anxiety was the increasing
influence of the Centre Party in the Reichstag and in the Prussian
diet. Himself a Protestant, he resented the growing power of the
Catholic elements. He intervened personally when the Centre
allied itself with the Conservatives and attempted to pass a
primary education act for Prussia, which would have increased
the influence of the Church in the schools to an extraordinary
degree. Being hostile both to Social Democracy and to the Centre
party, the emperor naturally looked with, sympathy on the idea
of forming a working majority in parliament by a coalition be-
tween the Conservative and Liberal parties. Prince Bulow, who
had become Imperial Chancellor in 1899, attempted to put this
idea into practice, his own feelings agreeing here with the em-
peror's. The elections of Jan. 1907, which brought the so-called
"Bloc Parties" a considerable majority, seemed to the emperor
to be a personal victory for himself. Bulow's inability to form a
permanent coalition between the Bloc Parties, and to carry
through the urgent financial reform by their help, seemed to the
emperor a proof that the chancellor was incapable of carrying
through his principles in domestic policy and strengthened him in
his decision to accept his resignation.
The emperor did not openly rebel against the constitutional
form of government which he found on his accession, since he
saw the impossibility of altering it, but at heart he always dis-
liked it, and his dislike increased in proportion to the numerical
growth of Social Democracy and of the Centre in the parliaments.
He looked on parliament as a necessary evil, and always con-
sidered the monarch to be the true vessel of sovereign power,
appointed thereto by God. The opposition raised by the Reich-
stag to the emergency legislation which he desired, and the diffi-
! culties which had to be overcome over every increase of the army
or the fleet led him on many occasions into bitter remarks about
I the people's representative. The emperor never had any new
| and constructive ideas on matters of domestic policy.
The World War.— On the outbreak of the World War, the
emperor himself felt his own inability to take over the supreme
command of the military operations. During the first years of
I the war an appearance was kept up of referring the last decisions
to the imperial headquarters; but William was increasingly re-
I duced to the position of a mere onlooker. The choice of leaders
! lay, indeed, in his hand, and here he did not always show the best
judgment. He only agreed with reluctance, and under the pressure
i of emergency, to make Hindenburg commander-in-chief and to
! leave the real decisions to him and Ludendorff. The inaction of
the German fleet during the first years of the war is also to be
1 attributed to the emperor's personal wish, and involved him in a
1 sharp difference with Admiral von Tirpitz.
! After Aug. 1918 it became ever clearer that the existing
situation was growing untenable; and now the emperor proved
j himself once again incapable of a firm decision. He was driven
| forward step by step by events and by individual advisers who
managed to win hrs car. A Crown Council under his presidency
resolved to initiate peace negotiations; yet he allowed so much
time to be wasted before this decision was executed, that in the
! meantime the military situation took a turn fatal for Germany.
I At the same time the signs of discontent in the population and in
I parliament increased, and he let himself be persuaded to appoint
Prince Max of Baden imperial chancellor in Oct. 1918, although
1 the prince was looked on as an advocate of the parliamentary
I methods which the emperor hated in his heart. After this, when
President. Wilson in his proclamations showed clearly that he con-
sidered the person of the emperor to be a real obstacle to the
conclusion of peace, Prince Max, in agreement with the majority
of the Reichstag, called upon the emperor to abdicate, a step
which was not at first thought to involve the removal of the
Hohenzollern dynasty. The outbreak of the revolution at the
beginning of Nov. 1918 and its rapid growth made an immediate
decision urgently necessary. As the emperor hesitated, Prince Max
acted on his own authority, and on Nov. 9, proclaimed that the
emperor would renounce the throne and the crown prince the
succession, and that a regency was to be formed. The victorious
Socialist party, however, was no longer satisfied with these con-
cessions but proclaimed a republic.
6i8
WILLIAM I.— WILLIAM II.
The emperor, who was at that time on the western front, was
now confronted with a very difficult decision. He might have ven-
tured an attempt to overthrow the revolution by force by de-
taching a portion of the army on the western front, whose loyalty
to the sovereign was not yet shaken. It was, however, doubtful
whether the remainder of this army would be able, meanwhile, to
defend Germany's western frontiers against the increasingly violent
attacks of the enemy. Or again, he might have placed himself
at the head of his army and sought death on the field of battle.
Both these were courses which only a strong and confident per-
sonality could have taken. William II. preferred to abandon the
army, steal quietly away from the territory of his former empire,
and escape to Holland on Nov. 10. His action dealt a fatal blow
to the monarchist cause in Germany. The minor princes now saw
no issue but to capitulate and to abdicate before the revolution.
On arrival in neutral Holland, William was interned. The castle
of Doom was given him as a residence and he lived henceforth
in complete retirement from the world. During the peace negotia-
tions the idea arose from time to time among Germany's enemies
of demanding his extradition and punishing him for initiating the
war, of which he was unjustly accused. Finally, however, this idea
was abandoned. The most important change in William's circum-
stances during these last years was his second marriage, after the
death of the Empress Augusta Victoria, with the widowed Princess
Hermine of Schonaich-Carolath. He used occasionally to receive
German visitors in Doom, but avoided any public appearance.
(E. BRA.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. William II. has himself written, Ereignisse und
Gestalten (1922), Eng. trans. My Memoirs (1922) ; My Early Life
(1926) ; Aus meinem Leben (1927).
See Kaiserreden; Re den und Erlasse, Briejc und Telegramme Kaiser
Wilhelms 77. (ed. A. O. Klaussmann, 1902): Eng. trans., selection, The
German Emperor's Speeches (cd. L. Elkind, 1904) ; firiefe Wilhelm If.
an den Zaren 1894-1914 (ed. W. Goetz, 1920; Eng. trans. I. D. Levine,
1921); F. Rachfahl, Kaiser und Reich, iSSS-ign (1913); W. von
Massow, Die dentsche inner e Politik unter Kaher Wilhelm 77, (1913) ;
J. L. de Lanessan, L'empire %ermanique sons la direction de Bismarck
ft de Gnillaume 77. (1015) ; H. Onckcn, Der Friedenspolitik Kaiser
Wilhelms 77. dgiS); W. Rathenau, Der Kaiser (1919); Die Grosse
Politik der Europdischcn Kabinette, 1871-1914 (German Foreign Of-
fice, 1922, etc.); E. Ludwig, Wilhelm 77. (1926; Eng. trans. 1926);
Letters of the Empress Frederick (ed. F. Ponsonby, 1928).
WILLIAM I. (1772-1844), king of the Netherlands, born at
The Hague on Aug. 24, 1772, was the son of William V., prince of
Orange and hereditary stadtholdcr of the United Netherlands
by Sophia Wilhclmina, princess of Prussia. In 1791 he married
Frederica Wilhelmina, daughter of Frederick William II., king
of Prussia, thus cementing very closely the relations between the
houses of Orange-Nassau and Hohenzollern. After the outbreak
of war with the French republic in 1793, he distinguished himself
in the struggle against the revolutionary army under Dumouriez
by the capture of Landrecies and the relief of Charleroi. By the
victories of Pichegru the stadtholder and all his family were,
however, compelled to leave Holland and seek refuge in England,
where the palace of Hampton Court was set apart for their use.
He afterwards made Berlin his residence, and took an active part
in the unfortunate campaign under the duke of York for the
reconquest of the Netherlands. After the peace of Amiens he
had an interview with Napoleon at Paris, and received some ter-
ritory adjoining the hereditary domains of the house of Nassau in
Westphalia as a compensation for the abandonment of the stadt-
holderate and the domains of his house. William refused, how-
ever, in 1806, in which year by the death of his father he became
prince of Orange, to separate his interests from those of his
Prussian relatives, and fought bravely at Jena. He was therefore
despoiled by Napoleon of all his possessions. In 1809 he accepted
a command in the Austrian army under the archduke Charles
and was wounded at the battle of Wagram. When Holland rose
in revolt against French domination in 1813, after eighteen years
of exile he landed at Scheveningen (on Nov. 19) and was on Dec.
3, proclaimed prince sovereign of the Netherlands. His assump-
tion in 1814 of the title of king of the Netherlands was recognised
by the Powers, and by the Treaty of Paris his sovereignty was
extended over the southern as well as the northern Netherlands,
Belgium being added to Holland "as an increase of territory."
After the battle of Waterloo, in which Dutch and Belgian troops
fought side by side under his command, the congress of Vienna
further aggrandized him by making him sovereign of the territory
of Luxembourg with the title of grand duke.
William failed to realise that religious, racial and other dif-
ferences made the union of the Netherlands and Belgium difficult.
He drew up a constitution, which was accepted unanimously by
the Dutch, but was rejected by the Belgians, because it contained
provisions for liberty of worship. The king, however, by a subter-
fuge declared that the fundamental law had been approved. The
new constitution, therefore, started badly, and it was soon evi-
dent that William intended to make his will prevail, and to carry
out his projects for what he conceived the social, industrial and
educational welfare of the kingdom regardless of the opposition
of Belgian public opinion. For the discontent which culminated
in the revolt of 1830 see BELGIUM: History. The Dutch were
almost without striking a blow expelled from the country, the
strongly fortified seaport of Antwerp alonfr remaining in their
hands. Had the king consented at once to the administrative
autonomy of Belgium, and appointed the prince of Orange gov-
ernor of the southern Netherlands, the revolt might perhaps have
been appeased. William, however, was too proud and too obsti-
nate to lend himself to such a course. He appealed to the Powers,
who had, in 1815, created and guaranteed the independence of
the kingdom of the Netherlands. By the treaty of the eighteen
articles, however, concluded at London on June 29, 1831, the
kingdom of Belgium was recognized, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg
was elected king. William refused his assent, and in August
suddenly invaded Belgium. The Belgian forces were dispersed,
and the Dutch would have entered Brussels in triumph but for
the intervention of the French. Still, however, William declined
to recognize the new throne, and he had behind him the unani-
mous support of Dutch public opinion. For nine years he main-
tained this attitude, and resolutely refused to append his signature
to the treaty of 1831. His subjects at length grew weary of the
heavy expense of maintaining a large military force on the Belgian
frontier and in 1839 the king gave way. He did so, however,
on favourable terms and was able to insist on the Belgians yielding
up their possession of portions of Limburg and Luxembourg
which they had occupied since 1830.
A cry now arose in Holland for a revision of the fundamental
law and for more liberal institutions; ministerial responsibility
was introduced, and the royal control over finance diminished.
William, however, disliked these changes, and finding further
that his proposed marriage with the countess d'Oultremont, a
Belgian and a Roman Catholic, was very unpopular, he suddenly
abdicated on Oct. 7, 1840. After his abdication he married the
countess and spent the rest of his life in quiet retirement upon
his private estate in Silesia. He died in 1844.
See L. Jottsand, Guillaume d' Orange avant son avenement au
trdne des Pays-Bas; E. C. de Gerlache, Histoire du royaume des Pays-
Bas de.puis 1814 jusqiten 1830 (3 vols., Brussels, 1842) ; W. H. de
Beaufort, De eerste rcgeeringsjaren van Koning Willem 7. (Amsterdam,
1886) ; H. C. Colenbrander, De Belgische Omwenteling (The Hague,
I9°5) > T. Juste, Le Soulevement de la Hollande en 1813 et la fondation
du royaume des Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1870) ; P. Blok, Geschiedenis dtr
Nederlandsche Volk, vols. vii. and viii. (Leiden, 1907-08) ; H. T. Colen-
brander, Gedenksbukken d. algetn. gesch. v. Nethtrlandt d8-io,
Regeering v. William I. (1915-20).
WILLIAM II. (1792-1849), king of the Netherlands, son of
William L, was born at The Hague on Dec. 6, 1792. When he was
three years old his family was driven out of Holland by the
French republican armies, and lived in exile until 1813. He was
educated at the military school at Berlin and afterwards at the
University of Oxford. He entered the English army, and in 1811,
as aide-de-camp to the duke of Wellington, took part in several
campaigns of the Peninsular War. In 1815 he commanded the
Dutch and Belgian contingents, and won high commendations
for his courage and conduct at the battles of Quatre Bras and
Waterloo, at the latter of which he was wounded. The prince of
Orange married in 1816 the -grand duchess Anna Pavlovna,
sister of the tsar Alexander I. In 1830, on the outbreak of the
Belgian revolution, he went to Brussels, and tried to bring about
a peaceable settlement on the basis of the administrative auton-
WILLIAM III.— WILLIAM 1.
619
omy of the southern provinces under the house of Orange. His
father had given him powers to treat, but afterwards threw him
over and rejected the terms of accommodation that he had pro-
posed. He withdrew on this to England and resided there for
several months. In April 1831 William took the command of
a Dutch army for the invasion of Belgium, and in a ten-days'
campaign defeated and dispersed the Belgian forces under Leo-
pold I. after a sharp fight near Louvain. His victorious advance
was stayed by the intervention of the French. In 1840, on the
abdication of his father, he ascended the throne as William II.
The peace of 1839 had settled all differences between Holland and
Belgium, and the new king found himself confronted with the
task of the reorganization of the finances, and the necessity of
meeting the popular demand for a revision of the fundamental
law, and the establishment of the electoral franchise on a wider
basis. He acted with good sense and moderation, and, although
by no means a believer in democratic ideas, he saw the necessity
of satisfying public opinion and frankly gave his support to larger
measures of reform. The fundamental law was altered in 1848
and the Dutch monarchy, from being autocratic, became hence-
forth constitutional. The king's attitude secured for him the good
will and affection of a people, loyal by tradition to the house of
Orange, and the revolutionary disturbances of 1848 found no
echo in Holland. William died suddenly on March 17, 1849.
See J. J. Abbink, Leven van Koning Willent II. (Amsterdam, 1849) ;
T. Bosscha, Het Leven van Willem den Tiveede, Koning der Neder-
landen, 1793—184$ (Amsterdam, 1852) ; P. Blok, Geschiedenis der
Nederlandsche Volk (Leydcn, 1908).
WILLIAM HI. (1817-1890), king of the Netherlands, son
of William II., was born at Brussels on Feb. 19, 1817. He married
in 1839 Sophia, daughter of William I., king of Wurttemberg.
The marriage was an unhappy one, and ended in complete
estrangement. William had no sympathy with political liberal-
ism, but throughout his long reign of forty-two years, with a con-
stant interchange of ministries and many ministerial crises, he
never had a serious conflict with the states-general. He was eco-
nomical, and gave up a third of his civil list in order to help for-
ward the task of establishing an equilibrium in the annual budget,
and he used his large private fortune to forward schemes of social
and industrial progress.
William's two sons by his marriage with Sophia of W'urttem-
berg, William (1841-1879) and Alexander (1843-1884), died un-
married. By his second marriage in 1879, with the princess Emma
of Waldeck-Pyrmont, he had a daughter, Wilhelmina (g.i>.), who
succeeded him. William died at the Loo, on Nov. 23, 1890.
See J. A. Bruijnc, Geschiedenis van Nederland in onzen tijd. (5 vols.,
Schiedam, 1889-1906) ; P. Blok, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Volk
(Leiden, 1908), vol. viii.; and G. L. Keppers, De regcering van
Koning Willem III. (Groningen, 1887).
WILLIAM (1227-1256), king of the Romans and count of
Holland, was the son of Count Floris IV. and his wife Matilda,
daughter of Henry, duke of Brabant. He was about six years of
age at his father's death, but his long minority, under the guardian-
ship of his two paternal uncles, was peaceful. In 1247 William
allowed Pope Innocent IV. to proclaim him king of the Romans in
opposition to the excommunicated Frederick II., and having taken
Aix-la-Chapelle, was crowned there on All Saints' Day, 1248. He
thus became the recognized head of the Guelph party, but even
after Frederick's death he had gained few adherents, when he was
killed on Jan. 28, 1256. He was more successful in asserting the
rights of John of Avennes, who had married his sister Aleidis, to
the county of Hainaut against John's mother, Margaret, whom
he defeated decisively at West Kappel in 1253.
See A. Ulrich, Geschichte des romischen Konigs, Wilhelm von
Holland (Hanover, 1882).
WILLIAM (1143-1214), king of Scotland, surnamed "the
Lion," was the second son of Henry, earl of Huntingdon (d. 1152),
a son of King David I., and became king of Scotland on the death
of his brother, Malcolm IV., in Dec. 1165, being crowned at
Scone during the same month. After his accession to the throne
William spent some time at the court of the English king,
Henry II.; then, quarrelling with Henry, he arranged in 1168
the first definite treaty of alliance between France and Scotland,
and with Louis VII. of France assisted Henry's sons in their
revolt against their father in 1173. 1° return for this aid the
younger Henry granted to William the earldom of Northumber-
land, a possession which the latter had vainly sought from the
English king, and which was possibly the cause of their first
estrangement. However, when ravaging the country near Alnwick,
William was taken prisoner in July 1174, and after a short cap-
tivity at Richmond was carried to Normandy, where he purchased
his release by assenting in Dec. 1174 to the Treaty of Falaise.
By this arrangement the king and his nobles, clerical and lay,
undertook to do homage to Henry and his son; this and other
provisions placing both the church and state of Scotland thor-
oughly under the suzerainty of England. William's next quarrel
was with Pope Alexander HI., and arose out of a double choice
for the vacant bishopric of St. Andrews. But in 1188 William
secured a papal bull which declared that the Church of Scotland
was directly subject only to the see of Rome, thus rejecting the
claims to supremacy put forward by the English archbishop. This
step was followed by the temporal independence of Scotland,
which was one result of the continual poverty of Richard I. In
Dec. 1189, by the Treaty of Canterbury, Richard gave up all
claim to suzerainty over Scotland in return for 10,000 marks, the
Treaty of Falaise being thus definitely annulled.
In 1 1 86 at Woodstock William married Ermengarde de Beau-
mont, a cousin of Henry II., and peace with England being
assured three years later, he turned his arms with success
against the turbulent chiefs in the north and west. Soon after
John's accession in 1199 the Scottish king asked for the earldom
of Northumberland, which John, like his predecessors, refused;
but the threatened war did not take place, and in 1200 William
did homage to the English king at Lincoln with the ambiguous
phrase "saving his own rights." War again became imminent in
1209; but a peace was made at Norham, and about three years
later another amicable arrangement, was reached. William died at
Stirling on Dec. 4, 1214, and was buried at Arbroath. He left one
son, his successor Alexander II., and two daughters, Margaret and
Isabella, who were sent to England after the treaty of 1209, and
who both married English nobles, Margaret becoming the wife
of Hubert dc Burgh. He also left some illegitimate children.
See E. W. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (Edinburgh,
1862) ; Lord Hailes, Annals of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1819) ; A. Lang,
History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900) ; also SCOTLAND: History.
WILLIAM L (d. 1 1 66), king of Sicily, son of King Roger II.
by Elvira of Castile, succeeded in 1 1 54. His title "the Bad"
probably expresses the bias of the historian Falcandus and the
baronial class against the king and the official class by whom he
was guided. William was far inferior in character and energy
to his father, however, and the real power in the kingdom was at
first exercised by Maio of Bari, whose title ammiratus ammira-
torum was the highest in the realm. Maio continued Roger's
policy of excluding the nobles from the administration, and
sought also to curtail the liberties of the towns. The barons
were encouraged to revolt by Pope Adrian IV., whose recogni-
tion William had not yet sought, by the emperor Manuel and
the emperor Frederick II. At the end of 1155 Greek troops re-
covered Bari and began to besiege Brindisi.
William, however, destroyed the Greek fleet and army at Brin-
disi (May 28, 1156) and recovered Bari. Adrian came to terms
at Benevento (June 18, 1156), abandoned the rebels and con-
firmed William as king, and in 1158 peace was made with the
Greeks. These diplomatic successes were probably due to Maio;
on the other hand, the African dominions were lost to the
Almohads (1156-1160). The policy of the minister led to a
general conspiracy, and in November 1160 he was murdered in
Palermo by Matthew Bonello, leader of the Sicilian nobles. For
a while the king was in the hands of the conspirators, but the
people and the army rallied round him; he recovered power,
crushed the Sicilian rebels, and in a short campaign reduced the
rest of the Regno. Thus freed from feudal revolts, William con-
fided the government to men trained in Maio's school, such as the
grand notary, Matthew d'Agello. He was the champion of the
620
WILLIAM II.— WILLIAM
true pope against the emperor, and Alexander III. was installed
in the Lateran in November 1165 by a guard of Normans. Wil-
liam died on May 7, 1166.
WILLIAM II. (d. 1189), king of Sicily, was only thirteen
years old at the death of his father William I. when he was placed
under the regency of his mother, Marguerite of Navarre. Until
1171 the government was controlled first by the chancellor
Stephen of Pcrchc (1166-1168), and then by Walter Ophamil,
archbishop of Palermo, and Matthew d'Ajcllo, the vice-chancellor.
William's character is indistinct; yet his reign is marked by an
ambitious foreign policy and a vigorous diplomacy. Champion
of the papacy and in secret league with the Lombard cities he
defied the common enemy, Frederick II. In 1174 and 1175 he
made treaties with Genoa and Venice and in February 1177 he
married Joan, daughter of Henry II. of England. To secure peace
with the emperor he sanctioned the marriage of his aunt Con-
Stance, daughter of Roger II., with Frederick's son Henry, after-
wards the emperor Henry VI., causing a general oath to be taken
to her as his successor in case of his death without heirs. This
step, fatal to the Norman kingdom, was possibly taken that Wil-
liam might devote himself to foreign conquests. He now attacked
Egypt, but Saladin's arrival before Alexandria, forced the Sicilians
to re-embark in disorder. On the death of Manuel Comnenus
(1180), William took up the old design and feud against Con-
stantinople. Durazzo was captured (June n, 1185), Thessalonica
surrendered in August, and the troops then marched upon the
capital; but were overthrown on the banks of the Strymon (Sept.
7, 1185). Thessalonica was abandoned and in 1189 William
made peace with Isaac, abandoning all the conquests. He now
planned to induce the crusading armies of the West to pass
through his territories, and seemed about to play a leading part
in the third Crusade. His admiral Margarito kept the eastern
Mediterranean open for the Franks, and forced Saladin to retire
from before Tripoli in the spring of ri'88. In November 1189
William died, childless.
WILLIAM I. [FRIEDRICH KARL] (1781-1864), king of Wiirt-
temberg, son of Frederick, afterwards King Frederick I. of Wiirt-
temberg, was born at Liiben, Silesia, on Sept. 27, 1781. In early
years he took no part in public life owing to a quarrel with his
father whose deference to Napoleon displeased him; but in 1814-
15 commanded an army corps in the Wars of Liberation with dis-
tinction. On his accession in 1816 he realized the expectations
formed of him as a liberal-minded ruler by promulgating a con-
stitution (1819), under which serfdom and obsolete class privileges
were swept away, and by issuing ordinances which greatly assisted
the financial and industrial development and the educational prog-
ress of his country. In 1848 he issued further liberal decrees; but
his relations with the legislature having become hopelessly strained
over questions of Germanic policy, William repudiated the enact-
ments of 1848-49 and summoned a packed parliament (1851),
which re-enforced the code of 1819.
William encountered similar difficulties as a champion of Ger-
manic union and of the rights of the Middle Germanic States
against encroachments by Austria and Prussia. In 1820-23 he
protested against Metternich's treatment of the minor German
States and in 1848-49 opposed the proposals for a Germanic
union made by the Frankfort Diet, for fear of granting Prussia ex-
cessive preponderance. Thus he gradually became the ally of
Austria against Prussia. Nevertheless his devotion to the cause
of Germanic union is proved by the eagerness with which he
helped the formation of the Zollverein (1828-1830), and in spite
of his conflicts with his chambers he achieved unusual popularity
with his subjects. He died on June 25, 1864.
See Nick, Wilhclm /., Konig von Wurttembcrg, und seine Regierung
(Stuttgart, 1864).
WILLIAM (1882- ), late Crown Prince of Germany, eld-
est child of William II. of Germany, was born at the Marble
Palace, Potsdam, on May 6, 1882. He began his military career
by serving in the ist Foot Guards, and accompanied the Kaiser
to England (Jan. i9-Fcb. 5, 1901) on the occasion of the funeral
of Queen Victoria. On June 6, 1903 he married the Duchess Ce-
cilia, sister of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. There
were five children, four sons and one daughter, of the marriage.
His political and personal interventions in public affairs gave
some trouble in the years preceding the War.
On the outbreak of the World War the Crown Prince was
appointed to the command of the V. Army in the west. In Sept.
1915 he received the command of an army group, and he was
nominally in charge of the German operations against Verdun.
His flight to Holland speedily followed that of the Emperor in
Nov. 1918, and he went 'to Wieringen, an island in the Zuider
Zee. He formally renounced on Dec. i, 1918 his rights of succes-
sion to the crowns of Prussia and the German Empire. The ex-
Crown Princess and her children, however, continued to reside
at Potsdam. On Nov. 10, 1923 he suddenly returned to his
estate at Oels in Silesia. There was strong feeling in France
that the German Government should be compelled to surrender
him, but the matter was settled by a German note which stated the
act of renunciation of the ex-Crown Prince and declared that the
return of the Kaiser would not be permitted. The Allied Powers
declared that they would hold Germany responsible for any
consequences which might arise, but the ex-Crown Prince himself
declared that he would take no part in politics. His memoirs,
Ich sue he die Wahrheit were published in 1922 (English transla-
tion by R. Butler, / seek the truth, 1926).
WILLIAM (1533-1584), surnamed the Silent, count of
Nassau and prince of Orange, was born at the castle of Dillenburg
in Nassau on April 25, 1533, eldest of the five sons of William
count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg (see NASSAU^. The boy's
father had decided leanings towards Lutheranism, his mother was
a convinced adherent of the new faith. So it was not without hesi-
tation that the emperor sanctioned an arrangement by which the
great heritage of the Nassau family in his Netherlands dominions
and the princedom of Orange would fall to their son, and when
he did sanction it, it was on condition that the old count should
surrender all claims to the guardianship and that the boy should
be educated in the Netherlands, with a household of Netherland-
ers, and as a Catholic. To this arrangement the father consented.
William of Orange thus grew up, at Brussels and at Breda, a
great Netherlands nobleman, marked out for a career in the
service of the ruler. In 1551 he married Anna van Buren, an
heiress of the Egmont family, adding estates in Holland to his
already extensive possessions. Charles V. distinguished him with
his favour. Philip II., too, began by creating Orange a member of
the Brussels Council of State, and before he left the Netherlands
for Spain, 1559, he made him his governor (Stadtholder) in the
provinces of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht.
If William of Orange's career was soon so startlingly to deviate
from the lines of tradition laid down for him by his predecessors,
it was due in the first place to the different relationships in which,
in his time, the monarchy had come to stand with respect to the
Netherlands. The creation of a united Netherlands state had been
the historical task of the Burgundian dynasty. By successive
marriages of Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, with Maxi-
milian of Habsburg, and of their son, Philip the Fair, with Johanna
of Spain, that state had become connected with an empire with
which it had few interests in common. Under Charles V. already
this had created many difficulties, while his son Philip II. looked
upon the Netherlands merely as an outpost of the Spanish im-
perialist policy.
The high nobility of the Netherlands were quick to resent the
anti-national tendencies of Philip's government at Brussels. After
the king's departure it was carried on by his half-sister, Margaret
of Parma, as his regent, but the real force behind her was the
bishop of Arras, later archbishop of Mechlin and cardinal, the
Franc-Comtois Granvelle, who was made president of the Council
of State. Between that zealous and docile minister and the proud,
unruly nobles a bitter struggle was soon in progress, in which
Orange, with the counts of Egmont and Horn and others, played
a conspicuous part. When Orange and Egmont stayed away from
the Council of State as a protest against Granvelle's presence
there the public realized that grave issues had been raised. In
1564 Philip gave way and ordered Granvelle to depart, whereupon
the Regent tried to govern with the noblemen of the Council of
WILLIAM
621
State. It was a victory for the national cause, but at the same
time it was a victory for class interests.
One question, which aggravated the difficulties between the
ruler and the Netherlands people considerably, had suddenly be-
come of paramount importance when the dismissal of the cardinal
seemed to indicate a slackening of purpose on the part of the dis-
tant king. All through Charles V.'s reign Lutheranism had been
severely kept under. To the Lutheran heresy Calvinism, spreading
northward from France, was now added. Public opinion in the
Netherlands was generally averse from the savage methods of sup-
pression imposed on the government by Philip. William of
Orange never was a very devout Catholic. He had maintained
close relations with his Lutheran kinsmen in Germany. His
brother Louis, particularly, who spent much of his time at
Orange's court at Brussels or Breda, had great influence over him.
In 1561, Anna van Buren having died in 1558, the prince had con-
tracted a matrimonial alliance with German Protestantism in the
person of Anna of Saxony, daughter of the late Elector Maurice,
the betrayer and victor of Charles V. ]*n order to gain the present
elector's consent, as well as to quiet the objections and suspicions
of Philip II. 's Government, Orange had secretly given to both
sides flatly contradictory assurances. The episode shows his char-
acter on its least attractive side. But at any rate his position
helped him to realize how impossible it was, in the Netherlands,
surrounded by countries where Protestantism had in some form or
other achieved some sort of recognition, and always open to in-
fluences from outside, to enforce a rigid Catholic supremacy. He
said so boldly in the Council of State, but it was in vain that he
and his friends urged the king to concede some degree of tolera-
tion. When Philip, after long delay, by the famous letters from
Legovia, ordered more relentless persecution than ever, Orange,
realizing the impotence of the Council of State, countenanced the
action of his brother Louis, and Hendrik van Brederode, who or-
ganized the lower nobility to petition the governess for liberty of
conscience. The question was thus brought before the public and
excitement raised to fever pitch.
Most of the petitioners were undoubtedly good Catholics, but
suddenly there now occurred the outbreak by extreme Calvinists,
known as the Breaking of the Images, which brought about a
violent reaction. While the nobles lately in opposition ranged
themselves behind Margaret of Parma to restore order, Philip pre-
pared to send to the Netherlands an army under the duke of Alva
to chastise them and to introduce absolutism. In the interval be-
fore the arrival of the terrible duke there was much talk of organ-
izing resistance. The prince of Orange was in doubt as to the
regime to be expected, yet he shrank from co-operating with the
only party ready to throw themselves into the fight, the Calvin-
ists. As viscount of Antwerp he prevented the Antwerp Calvinists
from going to the assistance of a little army of their co-religionists
that was cut to pieces by Margaret of Parma's troops under the
walls of the town (March 1567).
The first period of Orange's career ended in failure. After the
encouragement he had given to the national opposition movement
his conduct at the moment of crisis is disconcerting. To under-
stand it one has to remember that the Calvinists still were a tiny
minority, suspected and hated as a menace to society no less than
to the Church. A movement in which they took the lead had, at
that moment, little chance of becoming truly national, and Wil-
liam of Orange, who was not yet personally in sympathy with
Calvinism, was then and always concerned before everything else
with preserving national unity.
From Germany, where he had retired, the prince kept in touch
with adherents in the Netherlands, and with money collected from
them and raised in his Nassau lands, he brought together an army
with which he attempted to deliver the Netherlands from Alva's
tyranny (1568). The attempt failed miserably. The Netherlands,
cowed, did not rise, and the army had, for lack of money, soon to
be disbanded. Help, as Orange realized, could only come from
outside, and nothing was to be expected from German Lutheran-
ism. He now entered into close relations with the French Hugue-
not leaders, for some years taking part in their campaigns against
the French Government. At La Rochelle Louis of Nassau organ-
ized the forces of the Sea Beggars, whose booty went to swell
the prince's war chest. New hope was born when after the peace
of St. Germain (Aug. 1570) they seemed to win influence at the
court of France. Louis of Nassau and Coligny inspired Charles
IX. with plans of war and conquest against Spain, and it was in
the expectation of French help that Orange in 1572 repeated the
attempt of 1568 and invaded the Netherlands with an army col-
lected in Germany. The St. Bartholomew's massacre, which
overthrew Huguenot influence at court dashed his hopes. Again
he had to disband his army and to leave Alva in possession.
But this time there had been a response to his invasion. Not
the central province of Brabant, kept quiet by the presence of
Alva's army, but a number of towns in the outlying northern prov-
inces had risen against the Spaniards. The surprise capture of the
Brill by a fleet of Sea Beggars had started the movement. Now
that his great pians in conjunction with France had come to
nothing, the prince decided to join the Holland and Zeeland rebels,
who had proclaimed him as their Stadtholder again. It seemed a
forlorn hope. Compared with Flanders and Brabant, Holland and
Zeeland at that time seemed poor and distant regions.
The decision was one of the great moments of his career. For
four heroic years he shared the anxieties and distress of the two
maritime provinces, stubbornly holding out against the Spanish
army sent to subdue them. The States assemblies of Holland and
Zeeland, which were almost entirely composed of burghers and of
Calvinists, placed complete confidence in the great nobleman who
had lost his fortune and his position for the national cause. In
1573 the prince himself joined the Reformed Church. Meanwhile
he led the desperate resistance against the Spaniards. The relief
of Leyden in 1574 was to a large extent due to his untiring efforts.
Yet in 1576, with the Spaniards at Haarlem and Amsterdam as
well as at Middelburg and Zieriksee, the two provinces were near
succumbing, when the situation underwent a dramatic change.
The Spanish governor, who had succeeded Alva in 1574,
Requesens, unexpectedly died. The Spanish soldiery, long unpaid,
mutinied. They evacuated their hard-won posts in Holland and
Zeeland and came south to live on the riches of Brabant. The
Spanish Government in the Netherlands practically broke down.
The States of Brabant summoned a meeting of the States-General
to Brussels, and negotiations between this nominally loyal body
and the two rebel provinces were started at Ghent for the purpose
of combining against the Spanish soldiers. The conclusion qf the
Pacification of Ghent (Nov. 8, 1576) seemed to restore the unity
of the Netherlands, threatened since the separate rebellion of
Holland and Zeeland.
But an ominous rift threatened that unity. The Pacification,
while suspending the edicts against heresy, had safeguarded the
supremacy of Catholicism in all the provinces save Holland and
Zeeland. Calvinist refugees were now flocking back to the towns
of Flanders and Brabant, and they were not content with tolera-
tion, they wanted the same position of supremacy which their co-
religionists in the two rebel provinces, in the stress of revolution
and under the immediate menace of foreign attack, had managed
to secure. This irritated the nobility, who in the south had greater
power and were everywhere slow to embrace Calvinism, while the
French-speaking provinces, like Hainaut, or Lille, Orchies and
Douai, were now almost solidly Catholic. Orange was fully alive
to the danger of these elements gravitating back to the king.
But in many respects his position was a thoroughly false one.
Circumstances had ever since 1567 conspired to drive him into
closer association with Calvinism. The Calvinists who had ob-
tained control in the provinces of Holland and Zeeland did not
dream of sacrificing any of their local supremacy to the national
compromises elaborated at Brussels. Yet those two provinces con-
tinued to afford to the prince his firmest point d'apptii in the
shifting conditions of Netherlands polities. Early in 1579, the
Walloon provinces, incensed at the aggressiveness of the Flemish
Calvinists, had deserted the national cause and at Arras had made
their peace with the king's new governor, the duke of Parma, who
could now from that foothold in the south set about re-conquering
the rest of the Netherlands. Did not the event, which was fol-
lowed by the loss of the north-eastern province of Groningen, go
62 a
WILLIAM II.— WILLIAM
to prove that the Calvinists were the only party who could be
counted on to hold out against all the blandishments of Parma?
When Orange tried once more to enlist the help of France, and
the Catholic duke of Anjou was clothed with the sovereignty of
the Netherlands from which in 1581 the States-General solemnly
deposed Philip II., the prince's particular connection with the
two maritime provinces was expressly safeguarded. And however
earnestly he deplored and tried to restrain the intolerant fanati-
cism of the Calvinists in Flanders and Brabant, all the time he saw
himself forced underhand to work with them, thereby adding to
the grievances of the Catholics, although at the same time Cal-
vinist ministers denounced him as a godless timeserver.
The last years of William the Silent 's life were a tragic struggle
against overpowering circumstances. The unity of the Nether-
lands was broken beyond repair, and the area supporting the na-
tional cause kept crumbling away. The States-General had to
leave Brussels in 1578, they stayed at Antwerp for a short while,
then moved behind the waters to Middelburg, and finally to Delft,
where William the Silent resided from 1583 onwards. His main
efforts throughout those years were directed towards preserving
the southern provinces, until then the principal provinces of the
Netherlands, and of which Brabant had such close associations
with him personally, and towards obtaining foreign help. The con-
clusion of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 met with his disapproval,
as it seemed to be, on the part of the more easily defensible regions
north of the rivers, an abandonment of the wider union of the
Pacification. He had soon, nevertheless, to fall back upon it, and
then did his best to make it comprehensive, nor were his efforts
without success, for in the course of that year and the next all
the towns of Flanders and several of those of Brabant entered it.
In 1581 Philip II. had promulgated a ban against William of
Orange, by which a high reward was promised to anyone who
would deliver the world of this traitor. A year later a serious
attempt was made on his life, but it was only in 1584 that the ban
achieved its purpose. On July 9, Balthazar Gerard, a Burgundian,
shot the prince at Delft. William was 51 years of age.
Some years after the prince's death, owing to the assistance
given by England and to Philip's injudicious interference in the
French civil war, the turn came in the tide of Netherlands affairs,
and although of the country south of the rivers little was recov-
ered, at least the country north of them was secured and blossomed
out into the republic of the Seven United Provinces. Of that state
William the Silent is truly called the father. Yet it should not be
forgotten that this was not the object which he had in view and
that the split of the Netherlands means that his life's work was
not accomplished. Apart from his success and failure in Nether-
lands politics, William the Silent will always be honoured as a
man who nobly struggled and suffered for the cause of liberty of
conscience. His personality, genial and humane, was fully worthy
of the great part he played. There is something exceptionally
attractive in his evolution from a frivolous courtier into the
frugal and hard-working leader of a seemingly hopeless revolt,
harassed but patient, courageous in the face of accumulating disas-
ter, while the steadfastness with which at a lime of furious re-
ligious fanaticism he preached moderation and forbearance has
a heroic quality that is not disposed of by observing that his out-
look was secular. His correspondence proves that in his later years
religion was a real thing to him, and his attachment to the
Reformed Church was sincere.
See Grocn van Prinstcrer, Archives ou corrcspondante inidite de la
Maison d* Orange- Nassau; Gachard, Correspondance de Guillaume le
Tadturne; Apvlogie du Prince d1 Orange; Motley, Rise oj the Dutch
Republic; Putnam, William the Silent; Fruin, Met Voorspel van den
tachtigjarigen oorlog, and other essays; Rachfahl, Wilhelm van Oran-
ien (3 vote, to 1572, no more appeared) ; P. J. Blok, Willem de Eerstt
(2 vols., Amsterdam, 1919-20). (P. GE.)
WILLIAM II. (1626-1650), prince of Orange, born at The
Hague on May 27, 1626, was the son of Frederick Henry, prince
of Orange, and his wife Amalia von Solms, and grandson of
William the Silent. By the act of survivance passed in 1631 the
offices and dignities held by Frederick Henry were made hereditary
in his family. On May 12, 1641 William married, in the royal
chapel at Whitehall, Mary, princess royal of England, eldest
daughter of King Charles I. At the time of the wedding the
bridegroom was not yet fifteen years old, the bride was five years
younger. William from his early youth accompanied his father
in his campaigns, and already in 1643 highly distinguished himself
in a brilliant cavalry fight at Burgerhout (Sept. 5). On the death
of Frederick Henry William succeeded him. At the moment of
his accession to power the negotiations for a separate treaty of
peace with Spain were almost concluded, and peace was actually
signed at Munster on Jan. 30, 1648. By this treaty Spain recog-
nized the independence of the United Netherlands and made large
concessions to the Dutch. William did his utmost to prevent the
ratification, but failed. He opened secret negotiations with France
in the hope of securing the armed assistance for a war of ag-
grandisement against the Spanish Netherlands and of a restoration
of his brother-in-law, Charles II., to the throne of England. The
states of Holland, on the other hand, were determined to thwart
any attempts for a renewal of war, and insisted, in defiance of the
authority of the captain-general supported by the states-general,
in virtue of their claim to be a sovereign province, in disbanding
a large part of the regiments in their pay.
A prolonged controversy arose, which ended in the states-general
in June 1650 commissioning the prince of Orange to visit the
towns of Holland and secure a recognition of their authority.
The mission was unsuccessful. Amsterdam refused any hearing
at all. William, resolved therefore to use force and crush re-
sistance. On July 30 six leading members of the states of Holland
were seized and imprisoned in the castle of Loevestein. On the
same day an attempt was made to occupy Amsterdam* with troops.
The citizens were, however, warned in time, and the gates closed.
William's triumph was nevertheless complete. The states of
Holland submitted. The prince entered into fresh negotiations
with the French government, and a draft treaty was drawn up.
But William died of small-pox on Nov. 6, 1650. A week after
his death his widow gave birth to a son, who was one day to
become William III., king of England.
WILLIAM IV., landgrave of Hesse (1532-1592), was the
son and successor of the landgrave Philip the Magnanimous. He
took a leading part in safeguarding the results of the Reformation,
endeavouring to unite all sections of Protestantism against the
Catholic reaction. As ruler he displayed common-sense and toler-
ance; patronized art and science; placed the finances of his country
on a sound basis and secured it against subdivision by a law of
primogeniture. He was chiefly famous, however, as a pioneer in
astronomical research.
See R. Wolf, "Astronomische Mittheilungen," No. 45 (Vierteljahrs-
schrift der naturjorschenden Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1878).
WILLIAM [Frederick Henry], Prince of Wied (1876- ),
born at Neuwied on March 26, 1876, was 3rd son of William
Prince of Wied and Mary Princess of Holland, grand-nephew of
the emperor William I. and nephew of Queen Elizabeth of Ru-
mania. An able soldier, he became a captain of the general staff in
191 1, and in 1913 commanded a squadron of the 3rd Uhlans of the
Guards. He married in 1906 Sophie, Princess of Schoenburg-
Wraldenburg, and had two children, Princess Marie Eleonor (1909)
and Prince Charles Victor (1913). In Feb. 1914, inspired by
idealism rather than ambition, he accepted the Albanian throne
against the Kaiser's advice, and landed on March 7. Italy, France,
Russia, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Turkey and Essad Pasha
intrigued against him. Essad possessed troops, and the Mbreti
(King), who had none, felt obliged to conciliate him with the
Ministries of War and Interior. While the Greeks ravaged
southern Albania an insurrection confined the Mbreti to Durazzo
Essad was exiled in May; but foreign agents, protected by the
Capitulations, paralysed the royalists. In Aug. 1914 Austria
abandoned him because he determined to preserve neutrality.
Besieged, and without resources, he reluctantly left Albania on
Sept. 3. He did not abdicate. Early in 1915 the insurgents, finding
they had been victims of intrigue, asked him to return, but this
Austria prevented. He was attached as an Albanian and foreigner
to a German divisional staff in Poland during the World War. On
the accession of Ahmed Zogu in 1928 Prince William declared that
he would not return unless unanimously invited. (J. Sw.)
WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY— WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM 623
WILLIAM OP MALMESBURY (c. 1080*. 1143), Eng-
lish historian of the i2th century, was born about the year 1080,
in the south country. He was a monk of Malmesbury, and assisted
Abbot Godfrey (1081-1105) in collecting a library for the use
of the community. The education which he received at Malmes-
bury included a smattering of logic and physics; but his principal
studies were on moral philosophy and history. He made a collec-
tion of the histories of foreign countries, and decided to write
a popular account of English history, modelled on the great work
of Bede. William produced about 1 1 20 the first edition of his
Gesta re gum, followed by the first edition of the Gesta pontificum
(1125). A second edition of the Gesta re gum (1127) was dedi-
cated to Earl Robert of Gloucester; another patron was Bishop
Roger of Salisbury. He was offered the abbacy of Malmesbury
in 1 140, but he preferred to remain a simple bibliothecarius. His
one public appearance was made at the council of Winchester
(1141), in which the clergy declared for the empress Matilda.
About this date he undertook to write the Historia novella, giving
an account of events since 1125. This 'work breaks off abruptly
at the end of 1142.
William is the best English historian of his time. His con-
tempt for the annalistic form makes him at times careless in
his chronology and arbitrary in his method of arranging his
material; but he is, however, an authority from 1066 onwards;
many telling anecdotes, many shrewd judgments on persons and
events, are found in his pages.
The standard edition of the Gesta regum and the Historia novella
is that of W, Stubbs in the ''Rolls" series (i vol., in 2, 1887-89);
the second part contains a valuable introduction on the sources and
value of the chronicler. The Gesta pontificum was edited for the
"Rolls" series by N. G. S. A. Hamilton (London, 1870) from a
manuscript which he was the first to identify as the archetype.
Another work, De aniiquitate Gltistoniensis ecclesiae (A.I>. 63-1126),
is printed in Gale's Script ores XV, (Oxford, i6gi). Wharton in the
second volume of his Anglia sacra (London, 1691) gives considerable
portions of a life of Wulfstan which is an amplified translation of an
Anglo-Saxon biography. Finally Stubbs in his Memorials of St.
Dunstan ("Rolls" series, London, 1874) prints a Vita S. Dunstani
which was written about 1126.
WILLIAM OF NEWBURGH (d. c. u98), or, as he is
sometimes styled, Guilielmus Parvus, English ecclesiastic and
chronicler, was a canon of the Augustinian priory of Newburgh in
the North Riding of Yorkshire. He was born about 1136, and
lived at Newburgh from his boyhood. Shortly before 1 1 96 he
began his Historia rerum Anglicarum. This work, divided into
five books, covers the period 1066-1198. A great part of it is
derived from known sources, especially from Henry of Hunting-
don, Jordan Fantosme, the Itimrarium re^is Ricardi, or its French
original, and a lost account, by Anselm the chaplain, of the cap-
tivity of Richard I. The value of Ne.wburgh's work lies in his
estimates of men and situations. His political insight and his
impartiality entitle him to a high place among the historians of
the i 2th century.
See the editions of the Historia by II. C. Hamilton (2 vols., 1856)
and by R. Hewlett in Chronicles' of the Reigns of Stephen, etc.
("Rolls" series, 1884-85), vols. i. and ii. Jn the latter edition a
continuation, the Annales Furnesienses (1190-1298), composed by a
monk of Furness Abbey, Lancashire, is also given. See also Sir T. D.
Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue ("Rolls" scries, 1865), ii. p. 512; and
H. E, Salter in the English Historical Review, vol. xxii. (1907),
(H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM OF POITIERS (c. 1020-*:. 1090), Norman
chronicler, was born at Preaux, near Pont Audemer, and became
chaplain to Duke William (William the Conqueror) and arch-
deacon of Lisieux. He wrote an eulogistic life of the duke, the
earlier and concluding parts of which are lost; and Ordericus
Vitalis, who gives a short biography of him in his Historia ecclesi-
astica, says that he also wrote verses. William's Gesta Guilelmi //.
ducts Normannorum, the extant part of which covers the period
between 1047 arjd 1068, is valuable for details of the Conqueror's
life, although untrustworthy with regard to affairs in England.
The Gesta was first published by A. Duchesne in the Historiae
Normannorum scriptores (1619); and it is also found in the Scrip-
tores rerum gcstarum WiUelmi Conquestoris of J. A. Giles (London,
1845). There is a French translation in tome xxix. of Guizot's Collec*
lion des mtmoires rclatifs d I'histoire de France (1826). See G.
Korting, Wilkelms von Poitiers Gesta Guilelmi dncis (Dresden, 1875) ;
and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (1903).
WILLIAM OF ST. CALAIS (CARILKF) (d. 1096), bishop
of Durham and chief counsellor of William Rufus, a Norman
monk and prior of St. Calais in Maine, received the see of Dur-
ham from the Conqueror (1081). He is remembered as the prel-
ate who designed the existing cathedral, and for his reform of
ecclesiastical discipline. His political career is less creditable. He
died in Jan. 1096.
SCR E. A. Freeman, William Rufus (1882), and Symcon of Durham,
vol. i., pp. 170-195 (Rolls ed.).
WILLIAM OF VALENCE (d. 1296), brother of Henry
III. of England, was a son of John's widow, Isabella of Angouleme,
by her second marriage. William came to England with his
brothers in 1247, and at once became a court favourite. He mar-
ried Joan de Munchensi, the heiress to the Pembroke estates,
whence he is sometimes styled earl of Pembroke. In 1258 he was
attacked by the baronial opposition and forced to leave England.
He returned in 1261, after Henry III. had repudiated the Pro-
visions of Oxford, and fought on the royal side at. Lewes (1264).
Escaping from the pursuit of (he victorious Montfortians, he
later appeared at the head of a small army in Pembrokeshire.
This gave the signal for the outbreak of a new civil war which
ended with the defeat of Montfort at Evcsham (1265). Valence
accompanied Prince Edward to the Holy Land and, in later years,
became a trusted agent of the crown, especially in the Welsh wars.
The position of his estates made him the natural leader of all ex-
peditions undertaken against Llewelyn from South Wales. He was
also employed in Aquitainc. He died at Bayonne in 1296.
See R. Pauli's GesMchte von England, vol. iii. (Hamburg, 1853) ;
W. H. filaauw, Barons' War (1871).
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM (1323?-! 404), English lord
chancellor and bishop of Winchester. William Wykeham was born
at Wickham, Hants, in 1323 or 1324, son of John, whose name
was probably Wykeham, but nicknamed Long. He was educated
at Winchester, probably at the grammar school there, and be-
came undernotary to the constable of Winchester castle, prob-
ably Robert of Popham, who was appointed in 1340. He was
transferred to the king's court in 1343. In 1350 he appears to
have been keeper of the manor of Rochford, Hants. His name
appears in various other transactions in the county during the
next, few years; in 1356 he is first recorded as being directly
employed by the king as clerk of the works to the manors of
Henley and Easthampstead. In October he was appointed to the
same office at Windsor, which he held until 1361.
Wykeham was already receiving wages as king's clerk in 1357,
and he was richly rewarded for his various services by a series of
benefices. He received the rectory of Pulham, Norfolk, in 1357,
a canonry and prebend at Lichfield in 1359, though he did not
obtain actual possession in cither case without a struggle. In 1359
also, after the French raid on Winchelsca, he was placed in charge
of the repair of the castles on the Kent coast and of many manors.
Meanwhile he had been appointed a clerk of the exchequer
(Oct. 1361) and keeper of the forests south of the Trent. In 1364
he became privy seal. On Oct. 13, 1366, Wykeham was named
bishop of Winchester. He was consecrated in Oct. 1367, and en-
throned in 1368. Meanwhile he had been made (Sept. 17, 1367),
chancellor of the kingdom. Parliament was inclined to lay the
blame of the disasters of the French war on the clerical advisers
of the Crown, and in 1372 Wykeham resigned the chancellorship.
Wykeham must have amassed a large fortune by his various
employments and benefices; his application of that fortune has
made him revered by successive generations of "Wykehamists."
He began buying lands for the endowment of his great founda-
tions of Winchester college, Winchester, and of New college,
Oxford, in 1367. In 1373 he entered into an agreement with
the master, Richard of Herton, "Grammaticus," for ten years
faithfully to teach and instruct the poor scholars whom the
bishop maintained at his own cost, in the art of grammar, and
to provide an usher to help him. He was diverted from his
foundations by public affairs, being named by the Commons one
of the eight peers to discuss with them the state of the realm.
624
WILLIAMS
Lord Latimer and Alice Ferrers, the king's mistress, were im-
peached (1376), and Wykeham took a leading part against Lati-
mer. At the dissolution of parliament a council of nine, of whom
Wykeham was one, was appointed to assist the king. But on June
8, the Black Prince died. Alice Ferrers returned. John of Gaunt
called a council (Oct. 16) to impeach Wykeham on articles which
alleged misapplication of the revenues, oppressive fines on the
leaders of the free companies, taking bribes for the release of the
royal French prisoners, especially of the duke of Bourbon, who
helped to make him bishop, failing to send relief to Ponthieu and
making illegal profits by buying up Crown debts cheap. He was
condemned on one only, that of halving a fine of £80 paid by
Sir John Grey of Rotherfield for licence to alienate lands, and
tampering with the rolls of chancery to conceal the transaction.
Wykeham's answer was that he had reduced the fine because it
was too large, and that he had received nothing for doing so.
Skipworth, a judge of the common pleas, cited a statute under
which for any erasure in the rolls to the deceit of the king 100
marks fine was imposed for every penny, and so Wykeham owed
960,000 marks. Wykeham was convicted, his revenues were
seized and bestowed (1377) on the young prince Richard.
On June 21, 1377, Edward III. died. Wykeham received full
pardon, and at once took an active part in the financial affairs of
the new king, giving security for his (debts and himself lending
500 marks, afterwards secured on the customs (Pat. 4 Rich. II.
pt. i. m. 4). He then set to work to buy endowments for Win-
chester and New colleges. On Nov. 26 he issued his charter of
foundation of "Seynt Marie College of Wynchestre in Oxenford"
for a warden and 70 scholars to study theology, canon and civil
law and arts, who were temporarily housed in various old halls.
On March 5, 1380, the first stone was laid of the present build-
ings, which were entered on by the college on April 14, 1386.
The foundation of Winchester was begun with a bull of Pope
Urban VI. on June i, 1378, enabling Wykeham to found "a cer-
tain college he proposed to establish for 70 poor scholars, clerks,
who should live college-wise and study in grammaticals near the
city of Winchester," and appropriate to it Downton rectory, one
of the richest livings belonging to his bishopric. The bull says
that the bishop "had, as he asserts, for several years administered
the necessaries of life to scholars studying grammar in the same
city." On Oct. 20, 1382, "Seinte Marie College of Wynchestre
by Wynchestre'' was founded for a warden and "70 pore and needy
scholars studying and becoming proficient in grammaticals or the
art and science of grammar." The first stone of the buildings was
laid on March 26, 1388, and they were entered by the scholars
on March 28, 1394, not, as supposed at the quincentenary cele-
bration in 1893, in 1393. While the new buildings were being
erected, the college remained in the parish of "St. John the Bap-
tist on the Hill" of St. Giles, supplying scholars to New college
then as since. The foundation was on the model of Merton and
Queen's colleges at Oxford, to which grammar schools were at-
tached by their founders, while fellows of Merton were the first
wardens of both of Wykeham's colleges. The severance of the
school which was to feed the college exclusively, placing it not
at Oxford, but at Winchester, and constituting it a separate col-
lege, was a new departure of great importance in the history of
English education. Ten fellows and 16 choristers were added in
J394 to the 70 scholars, the choristers attending the school like
the scholars, and being generally, during the first three centuries
of the foundation, promoted to be scholars. The original statutes
have not come down to us. Those which governed the colleges
until. 1857 were made in 1400. They state that the colleges were
provided to repair the ravages caused by the Black Death in the
ranks of the clergy, and for the benefit of those whose parents
could not without help maintain them at the universities.
The time which elapsed between the foundation and completion
of the colleges may be attributed to Wykeham's preoccupation
with politics in the disturbed state of affairs, due to the papal
schism begun in 1379, in which England adhered to Urban VI. and
France to Clement VII., to the rising of the Commons in 1381,
and the wars with France, Scotland and Spain during John of
Gaunt's ascendancy. Then followed the constitutional revolution
of the lords appellant in 1388. When Richard II. took power on
himself on May 3, 1389, he at once made Wykeham chancellor,
with Brantingham of Exeter again as treasurer.
On Sept. 27, 1391, Wykeham finally resigned the chancellor-
ship. For three years after there are no minutes of the council.
On Nov. 24, 1394, Wykeham lent the king the sum of £1,000
(equivalent to £30,000 now), which same sum or another £1,000
he promised on Feb. 21, 1395, to repay by midsummer, and did
so (Pat. 1 8, Rich. II. pt. ii. m. 23, 41). Wykeham was clearly
against the assumption by Richard of absolute power. He excused
himself from convocation in 1397, and from the subservient
parliament at Shrewsbury in 1398. Possibly he took part in the
revolution of Henry IV. He appeared in the privy council four
times at the beginning of Henry's reign (Proc. P.C. i. 100). There
are records of loans by him to Henry IV. in the first years of his
reign. Meanwhile, on Sept. 29, 1394, he had begun the recasting
of the nave of the cathedral with William Wynford, the architect
of the college, as chief mason, and Simon Membury, an old
Wykehamist, as clerk of the works. He died on Sept. 27, 1404,
aged 80.
His effigy in the cathedral chantry and a bust on the groining of
the muniment tower at. Winchester college are no doubt authentic
portraits. The pictures at Winchester and New college are late
16th-century productions. Three autograph letters of his, all in
French, and of the years 1364-66, are preserved, one at the
British Museum, one at the Record Office, a third at New col-
lege, Oxford.
See Thomas Martin, Wilhelmi Wicami (1597) ; R. Lowth, Life of
Wykeham (1736) ; Mackenzie E. C. Walcott, William of Wykeham and
his Colleges (1852) ; T. F. Kirby, Annals of Winchester College
(1892); G. H. Moberly, Life of Wykeham (1887); A. F. Learh,
History of Winchester College (1899) ; and the Calendars of Patent
and Close Rolls, Edward III. and Richard II.
WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650), English archbishop and
lord keeper, son of Edmund Williams of Conway, was born in
March 1582 and educated at St. John's College, Cambridge. He
received rapid promotion in the Church, and, on the fall of Bacon
(1621), was appointed lord keeper, and was at the same time
made bishop of Lincoln, retaining also the deanery of Westmin-
ster. Williams took the popular side in condemning arbitrary
imprisonment by the sovereign. A case was preferred against him
in the Star Chamber of revealing state secrets, to which was added
in 1635 a charge of subornation of perjury, of which he had un-
doubtedly been guilty and for which he was condemned in 1637
to pay a fine of £10,000, to be deprived of the temporalities of
all his benefices, and to be imprisoned during, the king's pleasure.
He was sent to the Tower. In 1639 he was again condemned by
the Star Chamber for libelling Laud, a further heavy fine being
imposed for this offence. In 1641 he recovered his liberty on the
demand of the House of Lords, who maintained that as a peer
he was entitled to be summoned to parliament. In December
1641 the king, anxious to conciliate public opinion, appointed
Williams archbishop of York. In the same month he was one of
the twelve bishops impeached by the Commons for high treason
and committed to the Tower. Released on an undertaking not to
go to Yorkshire, a promise which he did not observe, the arch-
bishop was enthroned in York Minster in June 1642. On the out-
break of the Civil War, after visiting Conway in the Royalist in-
terest, he joined the king at Oxford; he then returned to Wales,
and finding that Sir John Owen, acting on Charles's orders, had
seized certain property in Conway Castle that had been de-
posited with the archbishop for safe-keeping, he went over to
the Parliamentary side and assisted in the recapture of Conway
Castle in November 1646. Williams, who was a generous bene-
factor of St. John's College, Cambridge, died on March 25, 1650.
WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839), English Nonconformist
missionary, was born at Tottenham near London on June 29, 1796.
He was sent by the London Missionary Society in 1816 to Eimeo,
in the Society Islands, where he rapidly acquired a knowledge of
the native language. After staying there for a short time, he finally
settled at Raiatea, which became his permanent headquarters.
His success was remarkable. The people rapidly became Chris-
tianized and adopted many of the habits of civilization. Williams
WILLIAMS— WILLIAMSBURG
625
travelled unceasingly among the various island groups, planting
stations and settling native missionaries whom he himself had
trained. From the Society Islands he visited the Hervey group,
where he discovered, and stayed for a considerable time on, the
island of Rarotonga. Besides establishing Christianity and civili-
zation among the people, he also, at their own request, helped
them to draw up a code of laws for civil administration upon the
basis of the new religion. While at Rarotonga he, with the help
of the natives, built himself a 6o-ft. ship, ''The Messenger of
Peace," within about four months; with this he returned to
Raiatea, and made voyages among other island groups, including
Samoa and the neighbouring islands. Williams returned to Eng-
land in 1834 (having previously visited New South Wales in
1821); and during his four years' stay at home he had the New
Testament, which he had translated into Rarotongan, printed.
Returning in 1838 to the Pacific, he visited the stations already
established by him, as well as several fresh groups. He went as
far west as the New Hebrides, and, while visiting Eromanga, one
of the group, was murdered by cannibal natives Nov. 20, 1839.
His Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands
was published in 1837, and formed an important contribution to ouf
knowledge of the islands with which the author was acquainted.
See Memoir of John Williams, by Kbenezer Prout (London, 1843) ;
C. S. Home, The Story of the L.M.S. (1908), pp. 41-54.
WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604-1684), founder of the Col-
ony of Rhode Island in America and pioneer of religious liberty,
son of a merchant tailor, was born about 1604 in London. It
seems reasonably certain that he was educated, under the patron-
age of Sir Edward Coke, at the Charter House and at Pembroke
college, Cambridge, where he received his degree in 1627. He
devoted himself to theology, and in 1629 was chaplain to Sir
William Masham of Otes, High Laver, Essex, but from conscien-
tious scruples, in view of the condition of ecclesiastical affairs in
England at the time, refused preferment. He soon decided to
emigrate to New England, and, with his wife Mary, arrived at
Boston early in Feb. 1631. In April he became teacher of the
church at Salem, Mass.
Owing to the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities at
Boston, with whose views his own were not in accord, he removed
to Plymouth in the summer, and there remained for two years as
assistant pastor. In Aug. 1633, he again became teacher at Salem.
Here he incurred the hostility of the authorities of the Massachu-
setts Bay Colony by asserting, among other things, that the civil
power of a State could properly have no jurisdiction over the
consciences of men, that the King's patent conveyed no just title
to the land of the colonists, which should be bought from its right-
ful owners, the Indians, and that a magistrate should not tender
an oath to an unregenerate man, an oath being, in reality, a form
of worship. For the expression of these opinions he was formally
tried in July 1635 by the Massachusetts general court, and at the
next meeting of the general court in October, he not having taken
advantage of the opportunity given to him to recant, a sentence of
banishment was passed upon him, and he was ordered to leave the
jurisdiction of Massachusetts within six weeks. The time was
subsequently extended, conditionally, but in Jan. 1636, an attempt
was made to seize him and transport him to England. Fore-
warned, he escaped and proceeded alone to Manton's Neck.
At the instance of the authorities at Plymouth, within whose
jurisdiction Manton's Neck was included, Williams, with four
companions, who had joined him, founded in June 1636 the first
settlement in Rhode Island, to which, in remembrance of "God's
merciful providence to him in his distress," he gave the name
Providence. He immediately established friendly relations with
the Indians in the vicinity, whose language he had learned, and,
in accordance with his principles, bought the land upon which he
had settled from the sachems Canonicus (c. 1565-1647) and
Miantonomo. His influence with the Indians, and their implicit
confidence in him, enabled him in 1636, soon after arriving at
Providence, to induce the Narragansetts to ally themselves with
the Massachusetts colonists at the time of the Pequot War, and
thus to render a most effective service to those who had driven him
from their community. Williams and his companions founded
their new settlement upon the basis of complete religious tolera-
tion, with a view to its becoming "a shelter for persons distressed
for conscience." (See RHODE ISLAND.) Many settlers came from
Massachusetts and elsewhere, among others some Anabaptists, by
one of whom in 1639 Williams was baptized, he baptizing others in
turn and thus establishing what has been considered the first
Baptist Church in America. Williams, however, maintained his
connection with this church for only three or four months, and
then became what was known as a "Seeker," or Independent.
In 1643 he went to England, and there in 1644 obtained a
charter for Providence, Newport and Portsmouth, under the title
'The Providence Plantations in the Narragansett Bay." He re-
turned to Providence in the autumn of 1644 and in 1646 removed
from Providence to a place now known as Wickford, R.I. He was
president, or governor, in 1654-57, and an assistant in 1664, 1667
and 1670. In 1651, with John Clarke (1609-66), he went to Eng-
land to secure the issue of a new and more explicit charter. He
returned in the summer of 1654, having enjoyed the friendship of
Cromwell, Milton and other prominent Puritans. Williams died
at Providence in March 1684; the exact date is unknown.
Williams was a vigorous controversialist, and published, chiefly
during his two visits to England, A Key into the Langiiage of the
Indians of America, written at sea on his first voyage to England
(1643) ; reprinted in vol. i. of the Collections of the Rhode Island
Historical Society (1827), and in series i. vol. iii. of the Massachusetts
Historical Society Collections; Mr. Cotton's Letter Examined and
Answered (1644) » The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for the Cause of
Conscience (1644) ; Christenings make not Christians (1645) ; Queries
of Highest Consideration (1644) ; The. Bloudy Tenent yet more Bloudy
(1652) ; Experiments of Spiritual Life and Health ana Their Preserva-
tives (1652); The Hireling Ministry none of Christ's (1652); and
George Fox Digged out of his Burrowes (1676) ; Something in answer
to a Letter . . . of John Lever at Governor of Boston . . . (1678).
His writings were republished in the Publications of the Narra-
Kansctt Club (Providence 1866-74). Letters and Papers of Roger
Williams, 1620-82 (limited to 18 copies, photostatic reproductions,
Boston, 1924) contained manuscripts discovered since. The best
biographies arc those by Oscar Straus (1899) and E. J. Carpenter
(1910). Sec also J. D. Knowlcs, Memoir of Roger Williams (Boston
1834); Elton, Life of Roger Williams (London 1852; Providence
1853) ; A. B. Strickland, Roger Williams, Prophet and Pioneer of Soul
Liberty (1919) ; New England Hist, and Gen. Register, July and
Oct. 1889, and Jan. 1899; M. C. Tyler, History of American Liter-
ature, 1607-1765 (1878). "Letters, concerning Colonial History of
Rhode Island," written by Benedict Arnold, Roger Williams and
others, Newport Hist. Soc. Bull, (1926). For the best apology for
his expulsion from Massachusetts, see H. M. Dexter's, As to Roger
Williams and his "Banishment" from the Massachusetts Plantation
(Boston, 1876), an unsuccessful attempt to prevent Massachusetts
from revoking the order of banishment.
WILLIAMSBURG, a city of south-eastern Virginia, U.S.A.,
the county seat of James City county; on the peninsula between
the James and the York rivers, 45 m. S.E. of Richmond. It is on
Federal highway 60 and the Chesapeake and Ohio railway. Pop.
2,462 in 1920. It is the seat of the College of William and
Mary, founded in 1693 "to the end that the Church of Virginia
may be furnished with a seminary of ministers of the gospel"
and the Eastern State Hospital for the Insane (1773) and
the centre of many historic associations. Bruton parish church
(the second building of a parish organized in 1674), com-
pleted in 1717, enlarged in 1752 and restored 1905-07, is the
oldest church in America which has been continuously in use.
The powder magazine (built in 1714) from which Lord Dunmore
removed the powder on the day after the battle of Lexington,
has been preserved. The court-house dates from 1769. The
colonial residences include the Peyton Randolph house and the
George Wythe house, which was Washington's headquarters dur-
ing the siege of Yorktown. Williamsburg, originally called Middle
Plantation, from its position between the two rivers, was founded
in 1632. A wall was built around it, and for several years it
served as a refuge from Indian attacks. Here on Aug. 3, 1676,
Nathaniel Bacon held his "rebel" assembly and in Jan. 1677,
two of the "rebels" were hanged. In 1698 Middle Plantation was
made the capital of the province, in 1699 it was renamed in
honour of William III. and in 1722 it was chartered as a city.
The Virginia Gazette, the first newspaper published in the South,
was established here in 1736. In the capitol on May 30, 1765,
Patrick Henry presented his historic resolutions and made his
626
WILLIAMSON—WILLIBRORD
famous speech against the Stamp Act, and on May 15, 1776, the
Virginia Convention passed resolutions urging the Continental
Congress to declare for independence. In 1779 the seat of the
State government was moved to Richmond, and in 1832 fire
destroyed the old capitol.
The battle of Williamsburg in the Civil War was an attack
(May 5, 1862) by a Union division on a part of the Confederate
army in retreat from Yorktown toward Richmond, and resulted
in heavy losses on both sides. A project was under way in
1928 (on the initiative and under the direction of the Rev.
W. A. R. Goodwin, who restored Old Bruton church) for restor-
ing the entire colonial area of the city to its i8th century aspect.
The plans contemplate the preservation of 60 or 70 colonial
houses and perhaps 50 others not too discordant in character, and
the destruction of about 100 of more modern construction, in-
cluding a large new brick school and a church. By the beginning
of 1928 considerable funds had been raised by Dr. Goodwin's
committee; the necessary legislative authority had been secured
for including the public squares and streets in the scheme; and
about $2,000,000 had been spent in acquiring title to private prop-
erty. Since then a contribution of $5,000,000 towards the expense
has been made by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. When complete, the
restored area will constitute a colonial museum a mile square.
WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1824-
1904), English chemist, was born at Wandsworth, London, on
May i, 1824. He first studied medicine, but whilst at Heidelberg
he became interested in L. Gmelin's work, and decided to take up
chemistry; in 1844 he went to Giessen and worked under Liebig
and Bischoff. In 1849 he was appointed professor of practical
chemistry at University college, London, and from 1855, when
Graham resigned, until his retirement in 1887, he also occupied the
chair of chemistry. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1855 and awarded a Royal medal in 1862. He died on May 6,
1904, at Hindhead, Surrey.
Williamson's earliest work (1844) was on the decomposition of
oxides and salts by chlorine, and in this he threw considerable
light on the action of chlorine on bases; shortly afterwards he
published papers on ozone, and on the composition of Prussian
blue. His most famous work was, however, done during his first
few years at University college, and dealt with the problem of
etherification. In the course of this work he definitely settled the
vexed problem of the relationship of alcohol, ether and water.
He suggested that alcohols, ethers, acids and their derivatives
all belong to the "water type" of compound, and thus attempted
to introduce a unifying principle into this aspect of organic
chemistry. In the course of his work Williamson established the
molecular formulae of alcohol and ether, and in this way he helped
in the revival of Avogadro's hypothesis, which had lain dormant
since 1811, and confirmed the views of Laurent and Gerhardt on
atoms and molecules. Various aspects of Williamson's work on
etberification helped in the development of structural organic
chemistry, and although he made no direct contribution to the
modern side of the subject, yet his investigations helped very
materially to bring about a more definite conception of the
constitution of organic compounds. In the course of his researches
he prepared the first mixed ether (methyl ethyl ether) and, with
Kay, he synthesized ethylene glycol (1854). Williamson, in his
papers explains the action of sulphuric acid in the production of
ether from alcohol by saying that an intermediate compound of
the acid and alcohol — ethyl sulphuric acid — is first formed, and
this reacts with more alcohol to regenerate the acid and liberate
ether and water. This is the first recorded instance of the explana-
tion of catalysis by what has become known as the "intermediate
compound" theory.
His papers on Etherification and the Constitution of Salts were re-
printed by the Alembic Club (Edinburgh, 1902). See obituary notice,
Proc. Roy. Soc. (1907) ; and Sir W. Tilden, Famous Chemists (1921).
WILLIAMSON, a city of West Virginia, U.S.A., the county
seat of Mingo county; on the Big Sandy river (the south-western
boundary of the State) and the Norfolk and Western railway.
Pop. 6,819 in 1920 (17% negroes); estimated locally at 13,000
in 1928. It is a coal-mining centre and the trading and supply
point for other mining towns and camps. The county mined
6,458,898 tons of coal in 1926. This region is one of the "non-
union" areas of the bituminous coal-fields, where conflict between
the companies and union sympathizers and organizers resulted in
serious civic disturbances in 1920-21. The city was founded in
1895 and incorporated in 1896.
WILLIAMSPORT, a city of central Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
the county seat of Lycoming county; on the north bank of the
west branch of the Susquehanna river, 70 m. N. by W. of Harris-
burg. It is on Federal highways in and 220, and is served by the
New York Central, the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways,
and motor-bus lines. Pop. (1920) 36,198 (91% native white);
1928 local estimate (after annexations of territory, and including
part of the contiguous township of Loyalsock) 44,500. The city is
well placed on a high plain, nearly surrounded by hills, and there
is much beautiful scenery in the vicinity. It is the metropolis of a
large area, a centre for tourists, and a manufacturing city with
some 85 diversified industries, producing goods valued in 1925
at $50,584,482. Bank debits in 1927 aggregated $249,492,000.
Founded in 1795, the year in which Lycoming county was erected,
it became the county seat after a bitter contest with Jaysburg,
a village of half a dozen houses (subsequently abandoned). It was
incorporated as a borough in 1806 and as a city in 1866. Until
the surrounding timber was exhausted it was a one-industry town.
WILLIAMSTOWN, a town of Berkshire county, Massachu-
setts, U.S.A., on the Hoosic and the Green, rivers, in the north-
western corner of the State; served by the Boston *nd Maine
railroad. Pop. (1925) 4,006 (State census). Williamstown vil-
lage, on the Green river, surrounded by the Berkshire hills, its
streets shaded with fine old trees, is a charming residential centre,
without any factories. It is the seat of Williams college.
Ephraim Williams, who was killed in the battle of Lake George on
Sept. 8, 1755, left a small bequest for a free school, on condition
that the town when incorporated should be named Williamstown.
It was incorporated under that name in 1765. The Institute of
Politics, a conference for the study of international relationships,
has been held at the college each summer since 1921.
WILLIAMSTOWN (VICTORIA) : see under MELBOURNE.
WILLIBRORD (or WILBRORD), ST. (d. 738), English mis-
sionary, "the apostle of the Frisians," was born about 657. His
father, Wilgils, an Angle or, as Alcuin styles him, a Saxon, of
Northumbria, withdrew from the world and constructed for him-
self a little oratory dedicated to St. Andrew. The king and nobles
of the district endowed him with estates till he was at last able
to build a church, over which Alcuin afterwards ruled. Willi-
brord, almost as soon as he was weaned, was sent to be brought
up at Ripon, where he must doubtless have come under the
influence of Wilfrid. About the age of twenty the desire of in-
creasing his stock of knowledge (c. 679) drew him to Ireland,
which had so long been the headquarters of learning in western
Europe. Here he stayed for twelve years, enjoying the society of
Ecgberht and Wihtberht. Ecgberht commissioned him as a mis-
sionary to the North-German tribes. In his thirty-third year
(c. 690) he started with twelve companions for the mouth of the
Rhine. These districts were then occupied by the Frisians under
their king, Rathbod, who gave allegiance to Pippin of Herstal.
Pippin befriended Willibrord and sent him to Rome, where he
was consecrated archbishop (with the name Clemens) by Pope
Sergius on St. Cecilia's Day 696. Bede says that when he re-
turned to Frisia his see was fixed in Ultrajectum (Utrecht). He
spent several years in founding churches and evangelizing, till his
success tempted him to pass into other districts. From Denmark
he carried away thirty boys to be brought up among the Franks.
Wrhen Pippin died, Willibrord found a supporter in his son
Charles Martel. He was assisted for three years in. his mission-
ary work by St. Boniface (719-722).
He was still living when Bede wrote in 731. A passage in one
of Boniface's letters to Stephen III. speaks of his preaching to the
Frisians for fifty years, apparently reckoning from the time of
his consecration. This would fix the date of his death in 738;
and, as Alcuin tells us he was eighty-one years old when he died,
it may be inferred that he was born in 657 — a theory on which
WILLIMANTIC— WILLOW
627
all the dates given above are based, though it must be added
that they are substantially confirmed by the incidental notices
of Bede. The day of his death was Nov. 6, and his body was
buried in the monastery of Echternach, near Trier, which he had
himself founded. Even in Alcuin's time miracles were reported to
be still wrought at his tomb.
The chief authorities fpr Willibrord's life are Alcuin's Vita Willi-
brordi, both in prose and in verse, and Bede's Hist. Eccl. v. cc. Q--II.
See also Eddius's Vita Wilfridii (1879; text trans, and notes by Col-
grave, Cambridge, 1927) ; J. Mabillon, Annales ordinis sancti Retie-
dic.ti, lib. xviii.; and The Calendar of St. WUHbrord, edited by H. A.
Nelson (1918).
WILLIMANTIC, a city of Windham county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., 25 m. E.S.E. of Hartford, at the confluence of the Willi-
mantic and the Natchaug rivers to form the Shetucket. It is
served by the Central Vermont and the New York, New Haven
and Hartford railways. Pop. (1920) 12,330 (26% foreign-born
white); 1928 local estimate 13,500. There is abundant water-
power, and the city has extensive manufactures of spool-cotton,
silk twist, silk and cotton fabrics, velvet and other commodities,
with an output in 1925 valued at $10,230,574. The town of Wind-
ham, in which Willimantic is situated, was incorporated in 1692.
Wiliimantic was settled in 1822, incorporated as a borough in 1833
and chartered as a city in 1893. The name is of Indian derivation.
WILLIS, THOMAS (1621-1675), English anatomist and
physician, was born at Great Bedwin, Wiltshire, on Jan. 27, 1621.
In 1660 he became Sedleian professor of natural philosophy in
place of Dr. Joshua Cross, who was ejected at the Restoration.
He was one of the first members of the Royal Society, and was
elected an honorary fellow of the Royal College of Physicians
in 1664. He died in St. Martin's Lane, London, on Nov. n, 1675.
Willis was admired for his piety and charity, for his deep insight
into natural and experimental philosophy, anatomy and chemistry,
and for the elegance and purity of his Latin style. His most im-
portant work is Cerebri ana tome nervormnque descriptio et usus
(1664), in which he described what is still known, in the anatomy
of the brain, as the circle of Willis.
See Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, London (2nd
ed., vol. L, 1878).
WILLISTON, SAMUEL WENDELL (1852-1918),
American palaeontologist and entomologist, was born in Boston,
Mass., on July to, 1852. In 1857 his parents emigrated to Kansas,
settling in Manhattan. Following his graduation at Kansas Agri-
cultural college (B.S., 1872), he engaged in railway surveying,
studied medicine, and became an ardent collector of vertebrate
fossils in the chalk beds of western Kansas. In 1876 he was
called to New Haven, Conn., by Dr. O. C. Marsh, professor of
palaeontology at Yale university. Entering the department of
palaeontology, Williston collaborated in extensive researches with
Marsh until 1885, making also investigations in entomology and
continuing medical and other studies (M.D., 1880; Ph.D., 1885).
He was professor of anatomy at Yale, 1886-90; professor of geol-
ogy at the University of Kansas, 1890-1902, and professor of
vertebrate palaeontology at the University of Chicago from 1902
until his death at Chicago on Aug. 18, 1918.
While Williston's contributions to entomology were of a high
order, especially his authoritative work on the Diptera, his pre-
eminence in science rests upon his monumental researches in
vertebrate palaeontology, notably on Cretaceous and Permian
reptiles and amphibians, which take rank with those of Leidy,
Cope, Marsh and Osborn among the American palaeontologists
of his time. His published writings, comprising about 300 titles,
include Manual of North American Diptera (3rd ed., 1908);
American Permian Vertebrates (1911); Water Reptiles of the
Past and Present (1914); and The Osteology of Reptiles (ed. by
W. K. Gregory, 1925).
See the sketch by H. F. Osborn, Jour, of Geol., vol. xxvi., pp. 673-
689 (1918) and the memoir by R. S. Lull, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol.
xvii. (1924).
WILLISTON, a city of North Dakota, U.S.A., on the north
bank of the Missouri river and the main line of the Great North-
ern railway, 20 m. from the western boundary of the State; the
county seat of Williams county. Pop. (1925) 3,948.
WILLMAR, a city of Minnesota, U.S.A., roo m. W. of
Minneapolis, on Foot Lake ; the county seat of Kandiyohi county
and a gateway to the State's 10,000 lakes. It is on Federal high-
ways 12, 212 and 71, and is served by the Great Northern railway.
The population was 5,892 in 1920 (22% foreign-born white) and
was estimated locally at 7,000 in 1928. It is a division point on
the Great Northern, which has repair shops and foundries here;
and the seat of the State Hospital for Inebriates. The city was
founded in 1869 and incorporated in 1874.
WILLMORE, JAMES TIBBITTS (1800-1863), English
line engraver, was born at Bristnall's End, Handsworth, near
Birmingham, on Sept. 15, 1800. At the age of fourteen he was
apprenticed to William Radcliffe, a Birmingham engraver, and in
1823 he went to London and was employed for three years by
Charles Heath, He was afterwards engaged upon the plates of
Brockedon's Posses of the Alps and Turner's England and Wales.
He engraved after Chalon, Leitch, Stanfield, Landseer, Eastlake,
Creswkk and Ansdell, and especially after Turner, from whose
"Alriwick Castle by Moonlight/' "The Old Temeraire," "Mercury
and Argus," and "Ancient Rome" he executed many admirable
plates. He died on March 12, 1863.
WILLOBIE (or WILLOUGHBY), HENRY (i575?-i596?),
the supposed author of a poem called Willobie his Avisa, which
derives interest from its possible connection with Shakespeare's
personal history. Henry Willoughby was the second son of a
Wiltshire gentleman of the same name, and matriculated from St.
John's college, Oxford, in Dec. 1591, at the age of sixteen. He is
probably identical with the Henry Willoughby who graduated
B.A. from Exeter college early in 1595, and he died before June
30, 1596, when to a new edition of the poem Hadrian Dorrell
added an "Apologie" in defence of his friend the author "now of
late gone to God," and another poem in praise of chastity written
by Henry's brother, Thomas Willoughby. Willobie his Avisa was
licensed for the press on Sept. 3, 1594, four months after the entry
of Shakespeare's Rape of Lucrece, and printed by John Windet.
It is preceded by two commendatory poems, the second of which,
signed "Contraria Contrariis; Vigilantius; Dormkanus," contains
the earliest known printed allusion to Shakespeare by name: —
Yrt Tarquyne pluckt his Blistering grape,
And Shake-spcarc paints poore Lucrece rape.
Dorrell alleges that he found the ms. of Willobie his Avisa
among his friend's papers left in his charge when Willoughby
departed from Oxford on her majesty's service. There is no trace
of any Hadrian Dorrell, and the name is probably fictitious; there
is, indeed, good reason to think that the pseudonym, if such it is,
covers the personality of the real auihor of the work. Willobie
his Avisa proved extremely popular.
See Shakspere Allusion- Hooks, part i., ed. C. M. Ingleby (New
Shakspcre Society, 1874) ; A. B. Grosart's ''Introduction" to his re-
print of Willobie his Avisa (1880).
WILL-O'-THE-WISP: sec IGNIS FATUUS
WILLOW (Salix), a well-marked genus of plants constituting,
with the poplar (Populus)^ the family Salicaceae. W'illows are
trees or shrubs, varying in height from a few inches, like the small
British S. hcrbacea and Arctic species generally, to 120 ft., and
occurring most abundantly in cold or temperate climates in both
hemispheres, and generally in moist situations. Their leaves are
deciduous, alternate, simple, and generally much longer than
broad, whence the term willow-leaved has become proverbial. At
their base they are provided with stipules, which are also modified
to form the scales investing 'the winter buds. The flowers are
borne in catkins, which are on one tree male (staminate) only,
on another female (pistillate). Each male flower is borne in the
axil of a small scale or bract, and consists usually of two but
sometimes of more stamens. In addition there are one or two
small glandular organs, the nectaries. The female flower's are
equally simple and also arise in the axil of a bract; they show a
very short stalk, surmounted by two carpels adherent one to the
other for their whole length, except that the upper ends of the
styles are separated into two stigmas; nectaries are present in
these flowers also. When ripe the two carpels separate in the form
of two valves and liberate a large number of seeds, each provided
628
WILLOW-HERB— WILMERDING
at the base with a tuft of silky hairs. The flowers appear
generally before the "leaves and are thus rendered more con-
spicuous, while transport of pollen by the wind is facilitated.
Fertilization is effected by insects, especially by bees; but some
pollen must also be transported by the wind to the female
flowers, especially in Arctic species which, in spite of the poverty
of insect life, set abundant fruit. The tuft of hairs at the base
facilitates rapid dispersion of the seed.
Although the limitations of the genus are well marked, and its
recognition in consequence easy, it is otherwise with regard to
the species. The greatest difference of opinion exists among
botanists as -to their number and the bounds to be assigned to
each; and the extensive cross-fertilization that takes place between
the species, resulting in numerous hybrid forms, intensifies the
difficulty. Andersson, a Swede, who spent nearly 25 years in
their investigation, published a monograph on the genus. lie
admits about 100 species. C. S. Sargent (Silva of North America)
suggested 160 to 170 as the number of distinguishable species.
Some botanists have enumerated So species from Great Britain
alone, while others count only 12 or 15. Buchanan White, who
made a special study of the British willows, grouped them under
17 species with numerous varieties and hybrids. A new mono-
graph on the genus by S. J. Evander, of Sweden, is shortly to
appear.
As timber trees many of the species are valuable from their
rapidity of growth and for the production of light durable wood,
serviceable for many purposes. Among the best trees of this
kind are S. fra^ilis, the crack willow, and S. alba, the white or
Huntingdon willow. These trees are usually found growing by
river banks or in other moist situations, and arc generally pol-
larded for the purpose of securing a crop of straight poles. The
wood of 5. alba var. caerulca is used for cricket bats; there is a
great difference in the value for this purpose of timber from dif-
ferent soils; and wood of the female tree is said to be preferable
to that of the male. S. Caprea, a hedgerow tree, generally grows in
drier situations. It is a useful timber tree, and its wood, like that
of 5. alba, is prized in the manufacture of charcoal. Its catkins
are collected in England in celebration of Palm Sunday, the
bright-coloured flowers being available in early spring. Certain
sorts of willow are largely used for basket-making and wicker-
work. The species employed for this purpose are known under
the collective name of osiers. (See OSIER.) 5. acuminata and
other species do well by the seaside, and are serviceable as wind-
screens, nurse-trees and hedges. S. daphnoides, S. repens and
other dwarf kinds are useful for binding heathy or sandy soil.
In addition to their use for timber or basket-making, willows
contain a large quantity of tannin in their bark. A medicinal
glucoside named salicin (q.v.) is also extracted from the bark.
The wood, especially of S. alba, is used for paper pulp. As orna-
mental trees some willows also take a high rank. The white
willow is a great favourite, while the drooping habit of the weep-
ing willow renders it very attractive. Though named S. baby-
lonica, it is really a native of China, from which it has been widely
spread by man; the willow of the Euphrates (Ps. cxxxvii.) is in all
probability Populus euphratica. S. regalis has very white, silvery
leaves. S. rosmarinifolia is remarkable for its very narrow leaves
— purplish above, silvery beneath.
In North America upwards of 70 native species occur, to-
gether with numerous varieties and natural hybrid forms. Of these
about 25 species attain the stature of trees. The black willow
(S. ftigra), the largest and most conspicuous willow of eastern
North America, reaches a height of 120 ft., with a trunk 3 ft.
in diameter. Other well-known willow trees found east of the
Rocky Mountains arc the peach-leaved willow (S. amygdal aides),
sometimes 70 ft. high; the pussy willow (5. discolor), 10 ft. to
25 ft. high; the shining willow (S. lucida), occasionally 20 ft.
high; the beaked willow (S. Bebbii), rarely 25 ft. high; and the
sandbar willow (S. longifolia). Some of the foregoing range
northward and westward to British Columbia, Alaska and the
arctic circle. Interesting shrubby species found chiefly east of
the Rocky Mountains are the autumn willow (5. serissima), with
fruit maturing in the autumn; the broad-leaved willow (5. glau-
cophylla), found on sand dunes; the furry willow (S. syrticola),
of lake and river shores; the silky willow (5. sericea), with silky
leaves; the hoary willow (S. Candida), with sage-like foliage; and
the prairie willow (5. humilis) and the grey willow (S. tristis),
both low slender shrubs.
Among noteworthy willows found in the Pacific States and
northward are the western black willow (5. lasiandra), sometimes
45 ft. high; the red willow (5. laevigata), 20 ft. to 50 ft. high; the
California white willow or arroyo willow (S. lasiolepis), 8 ft. to
20 ft. high; and the Sitka or velvet willow (S. sitchensis), some-
times 30 ft. high, which grows from California to Alaska.
Several Old World willows, widely planted for ornament and
other purposes in eastern North America, have become exten-
sively naturalized, especially the white willow (S. alba), the
yellow willow (S. vitellina), the weeping willow (S. babylonica),
the brittle or crack willow (S. fragilis), and the purple willow (S.
purpurea). The basket willow (5. viminalis), the bay willow (S.
pentandra) and the goat .willow or sallow (S. Capraea) have
become sparingly naturalized.
WILLOW-HERB, in botany, the popular name, for the
species of Epilobinm, a genus (family Onagraceac) of often tall
herbaceous plants, embracing upwards of 160 species, nine of
which are natives of Great Britain. The slender stems bear
narrow leaves and pink or purple flowers, which in the rose-bay
(E. angusti folium), found by moist river-sides and in copses, are
I in. in diameter and form showy spikes. The great hairy willow-
herb, E. hirsutum, found by sides of ditches and rivers, a tall
plant with many large rose-purple flowers, is known popularly as
codlins-and-cream. In North America some 40 species of willow-
herb are found, including E. an gusli folium, which is native across
the continent and called usually great willow-herb or fire-weed,
and E. hirsutum, extensively naturalized in the eastern States
and Canada.
WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891), Irish dram-
atist, was born at Kilmurry, Ireland, on Jan. 28, 1828, the son of
James Wills (1790-1868), author of Lives of Illustrious and
Distinguished Irishmen (1839-47). The son was educated at
Waterford grammar school and Trinity college, Dublin. Wills was
a Dublin journalist, then a portrait-painter, and finally "dramatist
to the Lyceum." He had written several plays under this agree-
ment when he made a great success with Charles I. (1872) and
with Olivia (1873), an adaptation of the Vicar of Wake field.
Wills also wrote ballads, the best known of which is "I'll sing thee
songs of Araby." He died on Dec. 13, 1891.
See, F. Wills, William Gorman Wills (1898).
WILLUGHBY, FRANCIS (1635-1672), English ornithol-
ogist and ichthyologist, son of Sir Francis Willughby, born at
Middleton, Warwickshire, was the pupil, friend and patron as
well as the active and original co-worker of John Ray (q.v.)> and
hence to be reckoned as one of the most important precursors of
Linnaeus. His connection with Ray dated from his studies at
Trinity College, Cambridge (1653-1659); and he made an exten-
sive Continental tour in his company. The specimens, figures and
notes thus accumulated were in great part elaborated on his return
into his Ornithologia, posthumously published in 1676, and trans-
lated by Ray as the Ornithology of Fr. Willughby (London, 1678,
fol.) ; the same friend published his Historia Piscium (1686, fol.).
In Ray's preface to the former work he gives Willughby much of
the credit usually assigned to himself, both as critic and system-
atist. Willughby died at Middleton Hall on July 3, 1672.
WILLY, the pen-name adopted by the French novelist HENRI
GAUTHIER-VILLARS (1859- ), born at Villar^-sur-Orge, on
Aug. 10, 1859. He was educated at the Lycee Condorcet and the
College Stanislas. He is best known for his novels, many of which
were written in collaboration with the- actress and authoress Col-
ette. The most famous of these is Claudine a VEcole (1900), with
its sequels Claudine a Paris (1901, dramatized 1902), Claudine en
Manage (1902) and Claudine s'en va (1903). Included in this
series is La Maison de Claudine.
WILMERDING, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., 14 m. S.S.E. of Pittsburgh, on the Pennsylvania
railroad, between the boroughs of Turtle Creek and Pitcairn, in a
WILMETTE— WILNO
629
valley surrounded by three hills. Pop. (1920) 6,441 (28% foreign-
born white); 1928 local estimate 7,500. The borough was in-
corporated in 1890.
WILMETTE, a beautiful residential village of Cook county,
Illinois, U.S.A.-, on Lake Michigan, 14 m. N. of Chicago. It is
served by the Chicago and North Western and the Chicago, North
Shore and Milwaukee railways. Pop. 7,814 in 1920 (88% native
white); estimated locally at 16,000 in 1928. The village was
founded in 1869 and incorporated in 1872.
WILMINGTON, the chief city of Delaware, U.S.A., a port
of entry and the county seat of New Castle county; 26 m. S.W.
of Philadelphia, on the Delaware river, at the mouth of the Chris-
tiana, which is joined by the Brandywine within the city limits.
It is on Federal highways 13 and 40, and is served by the Balti-
more and Ohio, the Pennsylvania, and the Reading railways, inter-
urban trolley, motor-bus and truck lines and several steamship
companies. Pop. 110,168 in 1920 (16,279 foreign-born white and
10,746 negroes); estimated at 128,500,111 1928, with an additional
40,000 in the immediate suburbs.
Half the population of the State lives in Wilmingtou; its plants
make nearly 3 (by value) of the products manufactured in the
State; and its banks hold more than f of the deposits in the State's
banking institutions. The city occupies 11-26 sq.m. of gently
rolling land, the altitude ranging from tidewater to 260 feet. The
harbour includes 4 m. of the Christiana river (a tidal stream, 750
ft. wide at its mouth) and the navigable part, (about a mile) of
the Brandywine, and has a controlling depth in the lower stretches
of about 20 ft., which will be increased to 35 ft. by projects now
under way. There is a continuous line of piers and wharves along
both sides of the Christiana river for two miles. At its mouth is
a municipal marine terminal, with ample berthing accommoda-
tions and storage space and modern equipment for handling car-
goes (constructed by the city in 1920-23).
The public parks cover 703 acres. There are 20 supervised play-
grounds, 21 baseball fields and provision for various other sports,
28 public and 21 private and parochial schools, 3 daily news-
papers, 115 churches, 4 public hospitals (385 beds) and 10 hotels.
Wilmington is the headquarters of both a Roman Catholic and
a Protestant Episcopal bishop. The city operates under a mayor-
and-council form of government. A zoning ordinance was adopted
in 1924. Among the interesting old buildings are Holy Trinity
(Old Swedes) church (1698); the building occupied by the His-
torical Society of Delaware, which was the First Presbyterian
meeting house (1740); and the old city hall (1798), now a mu-
seum. The Wilmington Institute free library (1788) is housed in
a fine new building, completed in 1923. A joint city hall and
county building was completed in 1914; and a civic centre (Rod-
ney square) in 1915. The University of Delaware is at Newark,
12 m. south-west.
The traffic of the port amounted in 1925 to 1,020,739 tons
(valued at $428,133,674), of which '641,647 tons (valued at
$52,658,674) represented commercial shipments and receipts (en-
tirely domestic) and the resf vehicular ferry traffic. There are
over 250 diversified manufacturing plants within the city, with an
output in 1925 valued at $76,502,097, and products ranging alpha-
betically from acids to zaponite. Its assessed valuation for 1927
was $129,751,800.
The site of Wilmington was occupied in 1638 by Swedish and
Dutch colonists under the leadership of Peter Minuit, and the
settlement was called Christinaham in honour of the queen of
Sweden. In 1655 the fort (Christina) was captured without blood-
shed by Peter Stuyvcsant, but very few of the Swedes left the
colony. In 1731 a iarge part of the present territory of the city
was owned by Thomas Willing, and was called Willingtown. In
1739 a borough charter was granted by William Penn, and the
name with two slight changes was altered to honour the earl of
Wilmington. The Battle of Brandywine (Sept. n, 1777) was
fought 10 m. N.W. of Wilmington. In the first half of the i9th
century Wilmington was a centre of strong anti-slavery sentiment,
and it was a station on the "underground railroad." It was
chartered as a city in 1832. Ship-building was established as early
as 1739, and in 1836 the first iron steamship built in the United
States was constructed here. In 1802 the French refugee Eleu-
there Irenee du Pont de Nemours (1771-1834), who had learned
from Lavoisier the modern methods of powder-making, estab-
lished the company which still bears the family name and is carried
on by his descendants, and built on the Brandywine the first
powder-mill in America.
WILMINGTON, the chief seaport of North Carolina, U.S.A.,
a port of entry and the county seat of New Hanover county; in
the south-eastern part of the State, on the Cape Fear river, 30 m.
from the ocean bar at its mouth. It is on Federal highways 17 and
17-1 ; has a municipal airport; and is served by the Atlantic Coast
Line and the Seaboard Air Line railways and steamship lines. Pop.
33,372 in 1920 (40% negroes) ; estimated locally at over 41,000 in
1928. The city lies on an elevated sand ridge, extending along the
river for 2-5 miles. Causeway and trolley connect it with Wrights-
ville beach (8 m. E.), and 14 m. S. are three other resorts on the
mainland (Carolina, Wilmington and Fort Fisher beaches). The
ample fresh-water harbour accommodates vessels drawing 27-5 ft.,
and the channel down the river and over the bar has a depth of 26
ft. at mean low water. The commerce of the port in 1925
amounted to 1,027,653 tons, valued at $62,888,068, of which
$24,711,889 represented foreign trade (imports of molasses and
chemicals for fertilizer and exports of cotton). Wholesale and
jobbing business amounts to $80,000,000 annually. It is the
headquarters of the Atlantic Coast Line railroad, which employs
about 2,000 persons in its offices and shops here. Wilmington
operates under a commission form of government. Its assessed
valuation for 1927 was $45,736,070.
A settlement was established here in 1730. It was called New
Liverpool at first, New Town after 1732 and in 1739 was incor-
porated and renamed in honour of Spencer Compton, Earl of Wil-
mington (c. 1673-1743). In 1760 it was incorporated as a borough
and in 1866 as a city. It was the first place to make armed resis-
tance to the Stamp Act. Cornwallis made it his headquarters
through most of the year 1781. During the Civil War, although
blockaded by the Union fleet, it was the centre of a lively foreign
trade, and was the last port kept open by the Confederacy. It was
defended by Ft. Fisher, a heavy earthwork on the peninsula be-
tween the river and the ocean, which was finally taken, after
several terrific bombardments, by a combined naval and land
attack, on Jan. 15, 1865.
WILMOT, DAVID (1814-1868), American political leader,
born at Bethany, Penn., Jan. 20, 1814. He was admitted to the
bar in 1834 and practised law in Towanda. He entered politics
as a Democrat, served in the National House of Representatives
(1845-51), and, although he favoured the Walker Tariff, the
Mexican War, and other party measures, he. opposed the extension
of slavery. On Aug. 8, 1846, on behalf of advocates of the re-
striction of slavery he offered an amendment to a bill appropriat-
ing $2,000.000 to settle the U.S. boundary with Mexico by pur-
chase of land if necessary, to the effect that "neither slavery nor
involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of the said ter-
ritory" acquired from Mexico. The bill including the Wilmot
Proviso, as the amendment was called, passed the House, but was
defeated by the Senate's adjournment. In the next session a
similar bill was introduced in the House and again Wilmot moved
to attach his proviso. A second time it passed the House, but the
Senate refused to consider it and on the last clay of the session
secured the consent of the House to the unamended bill. Although
the Wilmot Proviso failed in 1847, it was revived in the House
again and again in the two years following; it was a formulation
of the essential issue of the Civil War; out of the efforts of the
Democrats and Whigs to subordinate this issue, grew the Republi-
can Party that definitely accepted the principle of the proviso.
Wilmot supported Van Buren in 1848 and entered the Republican
Party at the time of its formation. He was president judge of the
I3th judicial district of Pennsylvania in 1853-61, U.S. senator in
1861-63, and judge of the U.S. court of claims in 1863-68. He
died at Towanda, Penn., March 16, 1868.
See G. P. Garrison, Westward Extension (1906) ; Charles B. Going,
David Wilmot, Free-Soiler (1924).
WILNO: see VILNA.
630
WILSON
WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813), American orni-
thologist and poet, was born in Paisley, Scotland, July 6, 1766.
At 13 he was apprenticed to a weaver that he might follow his
father's trade, but after a few years rebelled and became a pedlar.
Tramping up and down Scotland, he composed numerous dialect
poems treating his lot or depicting with broad humour and the
pathos born of poverty the life of the folk. The most famous of
these productions, Watty and Me%, published as a penny chap-
book, is said to have sold to the number of 100,000 copies within
a few weeks and to have been praised by Burns. In the labour
troubles which arose at this time Wilson's sympathies were natur-
ally with the oppressed weavers. He published a number of lam-
poons in verse, for which he was convicted of libel and com-
pelled to burn his satires at the town cross, and later, for lack of
money for a fine, he was imprisoned. It is small wonder then that
with his nephew, William Duncan, he emigrated to America as a
deck passenger, landing with only a gun and the clothes on his
back, His years of poverty and hardship were not over, but a
turning point came when as a village schoolmaster in Philadel-
phia he met William Bartram, the naturalist, who encouraged him
in his drawing and collecting "of all the birds in this part of North
America." In 1806 he obtained the assistant-editorship of the
American edition of Ree's Encyclopaedia, and thus acquired
more means and leisure for his great work, American Ornithology,
the first volume of which appeared in the autumn of 1808, after
which he spent the winter in a journey "in search of birds and
subscribers." By the spring of 1813 seven volumes had appeared.
He succumbed to dysentery at Philadelphia Aug. 23, 1813.
Wilson's Poems and Literary Prose were edited with a memoir by
the Rev. A. B. Grosart in 1876, a statue being erected to Wilson in
Paisley the same year. The eighth and ninth volumes of the American
Ornithology were edited after his decease by his friend George Ord,
who published an early Sketch of the Life of Alexander Wilson, and
the work was continued by Lucien Bonaparte. The complete Orni-
thology has been several times rcpublished.
WILSON, SIR ARTHUR KNYVET, 3RD BARON (1842-
1921), English admiral, was born at Swaffham, Norfolk, on March
3, 1842. He entered the navy in 1855, and served in the Crimean
War and the Chinese campaign of 1857-58. In 1876 he was ap-
pointed to H.M.S. "Vernon," the torpedo school-ship at Ports-
mouth. With the rank of captain (1880), he took part in the oper-
ations against Alexandria, and in 1884 won the V.C. at El Teb for
great gallantry in single combat with the Arab enemy. He became
rear-admiral in 1895, third sea lord and controller of the navy in
1897, and vice-admiral in 1901, receiving the K.C.B. in 1902.
From 1901-03 he commanded the Channel squadron, and from
1903-07 was commander-in-chief of the Home and Channel
fleets. On leaving that command in 1907 he was specially pro-
moted to the rank of admiral of the fleet. In 1909 he succeeded
Lord Fisher as first sea lord. On retirement from that office he
received, in it) 12, the Order of Merit. During the World War
he acted in an advisory capacity to the Board of Admiralty and
on the sudden resignation of Lord Fisher in May 1915, he was
offered by Winston Churchill, and with much diffidence accepted,
the appointment of first sea lord for a second time. But Churchill
was himself superseded and the appointment never materialized.
He died at Swaffham on May 25, 1921.
See Admiral Sir Edward Bradford, Admiral of the Fleet Sir
A. K. Wilson (1923). (E. A.)
WILSON, SIR ERASMUS (1809-1884), British surgeon
and philanthropist, was born in London on Nov. 25, 1809, studied
at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London, and at Aberdeen, and
early in life became known as a skilful operator and dissector.
He took up skin diseases as a special study. In the opinion of
one of his biographers, we owe to Wilson in great measure the
habit of the daily bath, and he helped very much to bring the
Turkish bath into use. in Great Britain. His books, A Healthy
Skin and Student's Rook of Diseases of the Skin, have long re-
mained text-books of their subject. \Vilson founded in 1869
the chair and museum of dermatology in the Royal College of
Surgeons, of which he was chosen president in 1881. He also
founded a professorship of pathology at Aberdeen university.
After the death of his wife the bulk of his property, some £200,-
ooo, went to the Royal College of Surgeons. In 1878 he defrayed
the expense of bringing the Egyptian obelisk called Cleopatra's
Needle from Alexandria to London, where it was erected on the
Thames Embankment. He was knighted in 1881 and died at
Westgate-on-Sea on Aug. 7, 1884.
WILSON, HENRY (1812-1875), vice-president of the
United States from 1873 to 1875, was born at Farmington, N.H.,
on Feb. 16, 1812. At the age of 21, for some unstated reason,
he had his name changed by act of the legislature to Henry Wilson.
At Natick, Mass., whither he travelled on foot, he learned the
trade of shoemaker, and during his leisure hours studied much.
After successfully establishing himself as a shoe manufacturer,
he attracted attention as a public speaker in support of William
Henry Harrison during the campaign of 1840. In 1855 he was
elected to the United States Senate and remained there by
re-elections until 1873. His uncompromising opposition to the
institution of slavery furnished the keynote of his earlier sena-
torial career, and he soon tqok rank as one of the ablest and most
effective anti-slavery orators in the United States. Upon the out-
break of the Civil War he was made chairman of the military
committee of the Senate, and in this position performed most
laborious and important work for the four years of the war. The
Republicans nominated Wilson for the vice-presidency in 1872,
and he was elected. He died on Nov. 22, 1875.
He published, besides many orations, a History of the Anti-
Slavery Measures of the Thirty-Seventh and Thirty-Eighth
United States Congresses (1865); Military Measures of the
United States Congress (1868); History of the Reconstruction
Measures of the Thirty -Ninth and Fortieth Congresses (1868) and
History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America
(1872-75), his most important work.
The best biography is that by Elias Nason and Thomas Russell,
The Life and Public Services of Henry Wilson (Boston, 1876).
WILSON, SIR HENRY HUGHES (1864-1922), British
soldier, was born at Edgeworthstown, County Longford, Ireland,
on March 5, 1864, and educated at Marlborough and Sandhurst.
He joined the Rifle Brigade in 1884 and in 1894 he married a
daughter of G. C. Wray. From the outset he was a serious and an
ambitious soldier, and while his natural gaiety of disposition made
him a welcome companion everywhere, his industry soon attracted
the attention of his superiors. He was indeed, almost from the
first, one of those men who could not be overlooked. His earliest
experience of active service was in Burma betwen 1886 and 1888,
and when the Boer WTar broke out in 1899 he had passed through
the Staff College and become a brigade major at Aldershot.
Before that war ended Wilson was brought back to the war
office, where in the newly formed staff-duties directorate it was
his especial task to study and to apply the lessons which were
learned in South Africa — of which the chief perhaps was the
necessity of organising the British Army on something approach-
ing continental lines and establishing a general staff for the study
and application of the principles of war. In the work of reform
Henry Wilson played a great, if stifl subordinate, part and it was
no surprise when, in 1906, he was appointed to succeed Rawlin-
son as commandant of the Staff College at Camberley. Himself
an inspiring teacher with the Irishman's birthright of eloquence,
he gathered around him a group of young officers upon whom he
impressed his own views and his own system. More than all he
became himself impressed with an almost overpowering sense of
the imminence of war between France and Germany. The En-
tente was already in existence, and if it were to mean anything
at all, must carry with it grave military responsibilities. Wilson,
therefore, established close relations with the French Staff Col-
lege, and particularly a close personal friendship with its com-
mandant, Ferdinand Foch, whose great work Les Principes de
la Guerre (The Principles of War) became a text-book in Great
Britain. Under his influence Wilson became more and more
convinced of the danger which was threatening Europe and made
himself acquainted with the Franco-German frontier.
In 1910 he left the Staff College to succeed Sir W. Robertson
as director of military operations, while Robertson took Wil-
son's place at Camberley. In Whitehall, Wilson concentrated
WILSON
631
the labours of his directorate upon what he believed to be the
vital field of operations. Incidentally he was one of Lord Rob-
erts' most ardent supporters in his campaign for national train-
ing. Thus, while British statesmen were striving for peace, the
director of military operations, acting under the chief of the
Imperial General Staff, was step by step perfecting the nation's
preparations for war. At each step he had the cordial support of
the other directors, with the result that in August 1914 the British
war office was in a position to bring off the greatest strategical
surprise of the whole war. Mobilisation was rapid and the Expe-
ditionary Force was landed in France without the loss of a man or
a horse, complete in every detail.
In France Wilson was deputy chief of the general staff. Of all
those who crossed with the British Expeditionary Force he was
without doubt the best known in France, so much so that when the
number of British troops increased the British Army Corps came
to be referred to in French confidential documents as C. d'A.W. or
Corps d'Armde Wilson. It was therefore natural that he should
be appointed principal liaison officer with the French field head-
quarters, a post which he held until he took command of the IV.
Army Corps towards the end of 1915.
Although deeply interested in the life and welfare of the private
soldier, he never really made his mark as a commander. To some
extent, no doubt, this was due to lack of opportunity, but still
more to temperament and to mental development along other
lines. Thus it was that early in 1917 he left the field armies for
good and accompanied Lord Milner's mission to Russia. In Nov.
1917 he went to Versailles as British military representative on
the newly-established Supreme War Council. Three months later,
less than a month before the great German attack of March 1918,
he once more succeeded Robertson and this time as chief of the
Imperial General Staff in London. He was one of those who sup-
ported Lloyd George in his efforts to secure unity of command
on the Western front and strongly pressed the claims of his old
friend Foch to be appointed commander-in-chief of the Allied
forces in France and Flanders.
Wilson had always belonged to what became known as the
Eastern school of thought rather than to the Western, and when
the German advance had been checked he worked hard to re-
establish that Eastern front which had been shaken by the Rus-
sian revolution and shattered by "General Hofmann's jack-boot,"
at Brest Litovsk. When the Armistice was declared on Nov. 11,
1918, he had attained the rank of general, and in the final honours
for the War he was promoted field marshal, was given a baronetcy
and a grant of £10,000. As chief of the General Staff he was
military adviser of the government during the prolonged nego-
tiations at Versailles, and subsequently at numerous confer-
ences. His mastery of language and effective manner of ex-
pressing in non-technical terms his views on technical matters
no less than his charm of manner made him persona grata to
ministers of state, and his intimacy with all the French superior
commanders enabled him to make smooth on times of stress many
rough places.
Parliamentary Career.— Unfortunately, when the War was
over, the troubles in Ireland came to a head and Wilson was a
great Irishman. His position as chief of the Imperial General
Staff, under a government with whose policy in Ireland he could
not agree, became extremely difficult. Cordial relations became
strained and old friendships were broken. When, in Feb. 1922, his
tenure at the war office came to an end he entered parliament as
member for North Down and at the same time he placed his mili-
tary experience at the disposal of the Government of Northern
Ireland. Seldom has a new member gone to Westminster better
equipped. Debate, and especially criticism, came easily to him, for
he was a ready and effective speaker with sufficient restraint to
prevent him from discussing subjects of which he did not
possess special knowledge. His maiden speech was delivered on
March 15 on the Army estimates and was followed at fairly fre-
quent intervals by others on the Irish question. Here he quickly
established himself as the most outspoken critic of those colleagues
with whom in his military capacity he had worked so long, and in
so doing he drew upon himself the hatred of his fellow countrymen
in the 26 counties, On May 31, 1922, when the situation was
critical, he concluded a speech with the words:
I bonder when the moment will come when the Government will
have the honesty and truthfulness to say, "We have miscalculated
every single element in the Irish problem. We are exceedingly sorry
for all thQ terrible things that have happened owing to our actions.
We beg leave to return to private life and never to appear again."
He never spoke again in the House of Commons, for just three
weeks later he was shot on his own doorstep in Eaton Place, Lon-
don, as he returned from Liverpool Street Station after unveiling
a memorial to the men of the Great Eastern Railway who had
fallen in the War. He was buried with full military honours in
St. Paul's Cathedral.
Sir Henry Wilson's character is difficult to sum up. Essentially
a critic, he nevertheless did great constructive work for the British
Army and was, as much as any man in Great Britain, the builder,
though not the architect, of the Entente with France. Neverthe-
less he cannot be ranked with the greatest soldiers for he never
held high command; in parliament he achieved distinction, but
died before he could prove himself a statesman. (N. MA.)
His Life and LeUers were published by Major-General Sir C. E.
Callwcll, with a preface by Marshal Foch (2 vols., 1927).
WILSON, JAMES (1742-1798), American statesman and
jurist, born in or near St. Andrews, Scotland, September 14, 1742.
He matriculated at the University of St. Andrews in 1757 and
was subsequently a student at the universities of Glasgow and
Edinburgh. In 1765 he emigrated to America. Landing at New
York in June, he went to Philadelphia in the following year and
in 1766-1767 was instructor of Latin in the college of Philadel-
phia, later the University of Pennsylvania. Meanwhile he studied
law in the office of John Dickinson, was admitted to the bar in
1767, removed first to Reading and soon afterward to Carlisle,
and rapidly rose to prominence. In August 1774 he published
a pamphlet Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legis-
lative Authority of the British Parliament, in which he argued
that parliament had no constitutional power to legislate for the
colonies; this pamphlet strongly influenced members of the Con-
tinental Congress which met in September. Wilson was a dele-
gate to the Pennsylvania provincial convention in January 1775,
and he sustained there the right of Massachusetts to resist the
change in its charter, declaring that as the force which the British
Government was exercising to compel obedience was "force un-
warranted by any act of parliament, unsupported by any principle
of the common law, unauthorized by any commission from the
crown," resistance was justified by "both the letter and the spirit
of the British constitution"; he also, by his speech, led the colonies
in shifting the burden of responsibility from parliament or the
king's ministers to the king himself. In May 1775 Wilson became
a member of the Continental Congress. He was in favour of the
Declaration of Independence and a signer of that document. Re-
ceiving a commission as colonel in May 1775, Wilson raised a
battalion of troops in his county of Cumberland, and for a short
time in 1776 he took part in the New Jersey campaign, but his
principal labours in 1776 and 1777 were in Congress. In May 1777
he wrote the address To the InJtabitants of the United States,
urging their firm support of the cause of Independence; he drafted,
the plan of treaty with France together with instructions for
negotiating it; he was a member of the Board of War from its
establishment in June 1776 until his retirement from Congress in
September 1777; fr<>m January to September 1777 he was chair-
man of the Committee on Appeals to hear and determine appeals
from the courts of admiralty in the several states; and he was a
member of many other important committees. In September 1777
the political faction in his state which opposed Independence
came into power, and Wilson was kept out of Congress until the
close of the war; he was back again, however, in 1783, and 1785-
1786, and, advocating a sound currency, laboured in co-operation
with Robert Morris to direct the financial policy of the Confeder-
ation.
In 1779 he was commissioned advocate-general for France, and
in this capacity he represented Louis XVI. in all claims arising out
of the French alliance until the close of the war. In 1781-1782 he
632
WILSON
was the principal counsel for Pennsylvania in the dispute with Con-
necticut over possession of the Wyoming valley, which was de-
cided in favour of Pennsylvania in December 1782 by an arbi-
tration court appointed by Congress.
As a constructive statesman Wilson had no superior in the
Federal Convention of 1787. He favoured the independence of
the executive, legislative and judicial departments, the supremacy
of the Federal Government over the State Governments, and the
election of senators as well as representatives by the people, and
was opposed to the election of the President or the judges by Con-
gress. His political philosophy was based upon implicit confidence
in the people, and he strove for such provisions as he thought
would best guarantee a government by the people. Together with
Gouverneur Morris he wrote the final draft of the Constitution
and afterwards pronounced it "the best form of government which
has ever been offered to the world." In the Pennsylvania ratifica-
tion convention (November 21 to December 15, 1787) he was the
constitution's principal defender.
Wilson was a delegate to the Pennsylvania state constitutional
convention of 1789-1790, and a member of the committee which
drafted the new constitution. In 1789 Washington appointed him
an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, and in
1793 he wrote the important decision in the case of C his holm v.
Georgia, the purport of which was that the people of the United
States constituted a sovereign nation and that the United States
were not a mere confederacy of sovereign states. He continued to
serve as associate justice until his death, near Edenton, North
Carolina, on August 28, 1798.
Wilson's Works, consisting principally of his law lectures and
a few speeches, were published under the direction of his son,
Bird Wilson (3 vols., 1803-1804; rev. ed., with notes, 1896). See
also Documentary History of the Constitution otf the United
States of America, vols. i. and iii. (Washington, 1894); J. B.
McMaster and F. D. Stone, Pennsylvania and the Federal Con-
stitution, 1787-1788 (1888) ; L. H. Alexander (ed.), James Wilson
(1908); A. C. McLaughlin, "James Wilson and the Constitution/'
Political Science Quarterly, vol. 12 (1897); Justice J. M. Harlan,
"James Wilson and the Formation of the Constitution," in the
American Law Review, vol, 34; B. A. Konkle et a/., "The James
Wilson Memorial," in the American Law Register, vol. 55 (1907) ;
R. C. Adams, "The Legal Theories of James Wilson," Univ. of
Pa. Law Review, vol. 68 (1920).
WILSON, JOHN (1595-1674), English composer. He was
engaged to write the music for a "Maske of Flowers/' written for
the wedding of the earl of Somerset and the daughter of the earl
of Suffolk in 1614. Although the printed copy does not contain
Wilson's name, he afterwards printed the songs in an arrangement
for three voices in his "Cheerfull Ayres" (1660). Other songs
from plays, including some from Shakespeare were printed by
him in later collections, and there is reason to suppose that he
sang on the stage and is identical with a Jacke Wilson, men-
tioned in the stage direction of the first folio edition of Shake-
speare (1623). Wilson became one of the King's Musicians in
1635 and was evidently a remarkable lutenist, much appreciated
by Charles I. on that account and also for his singing. In the
•Civil War he went with the court to. Oxford, and in 1645 was
made Mus.D. of the university, as being "now the most noted
Musitian of England." After the surrender of Oxford he retired
into the country for some years, most of his compositions being
published during this period. In 1656 he was appointed profes-
sor of music at Oxford, with1 rooms in Balliol college. His pro-
fessorship came to an end in 1661. In 1657 he had published
what purported to be his last work, the "Psalterium Carolinum"
for three voices and organ or theorbo. The "Cheerfull Ayres"
which followed contained earlier songs revised. He went back
to his post as one of the King's Musicians at the Restoration and
in 1662 became a gentleman of the Chapel Royal in place of
Henry Lawes. He died at the Horseferry, Westminster, on Feb.
22, 1674, A portrait of him is in the Oxford Music School. His
early settings of Shakespeare's songs, including "Take, 0 take
those lips away/' and other of his songs show him to have been
a master of melody. His manuscript music is in the British
Museum, the Bodleian, and elsewhere; songs and catches occur
in Playford's "Select Musicall Ayres and Dialogues" (1652,
1653), in his "Catch that catch can" (1667) and other collections..
See the article by G. E. P. Arkwright in Grove's Dictionary.
WILSON, JOHN (1785-1854), Scottish writer, the CHRIS-
TOPHER NORTH of Blackwood's Magazine, was born at Paisley on
May 18, 1785, the son of a wealthy gauze manufacturer who died
when John was eleven years old. In 1803 Wilson was entered as
a gentleman commoner at Magdalen College, Oxford. He took
his degree in 1807, and found himself at twenty-two his own mas-
ter, with a good income, no father or guardian to control him,
and an estate on Windermere called Elleray, In 1812 he pub-
lished a considerable volume of poems the Isle of Palms. In 1815
he lost his fortune. He now read law and was called to the
Scottish bar. In 1817 Wilson began his connection with Black-
wood's Magazine. He became the principal writer for the review,
though he was never its nominal editor. In 1822 began the series
of Noctes Ambrosianae, after 1825 mostly Wilson's work.
Wilson now established himself (1819) in Ann Street, Edin-
burgh, with his wife and family of five children, and in 1820 he
was elected to the chair of moral philosophy in the university of
Edinburgh. His duties left him plenty of time for magazine work,
and for many years his contributions to Blackwood were extraor-
dinarily voluminous, in one year (1834) amounting to over fifty
separate articles. In 1851 he resigned his professorship, and a
Civil List pension of £300 a year was conferred on him. He died
at Edinburgh on April 3, 1854.
See Christopher North, by Mrs. Mary Gordon, his daughter (1862) ;
and Mrs. Oliphant, Annals of a Publishing House; William Black-
wood and his Sons (1897).
WILSON, RICHARD (1714-1782), English landscape
painter, was born at Pcnegoes, Montgomeryshire, where his father
was a clergyman, on Aug. T, 1714. In 1729 he was sent to London
to study under Thomas Wright, a little-known portrait painter
of the time. After six years he started on his own account, and
was soon in a good practice. In 1 749 Wilson visited Italy, where
he spent six years. "Niobe," one of his best works, was exhibited
at the Society of Artists in 1760. He was an original member of
the Royal Academy and was a regular contributor to its exhibi-
tions till 1780. During his lifetime his landscapes were never
widely popular; his temper was consequently embittered by
neglect, and he was so poor that he had to live in an obscure,
half-furnished room in Tottenham Court Road, London. In
1776, however, he obtained the post of librarian to the Academy;
and by the death of a brother he acquired a small property
near Llanferras, Denbighshire, to which he retired to spend
his last days, and where he died suddenly in May 1782. After his
death his fame increased, and in 1814 about seventy of his works
were exhibited in the British Institution. The National Gallery,
London, contains nine of his landscapes.
See Studies and Designs by Richard Wilson, done, at Rome in the
year 1752 (Oxford, 1811) ; T. Wright, Some Account of the Life of
Richard Wilson (1824) ; Thomas Hastings, Etchings from the Works
of Richard Wilson, with some Memoirs of his Life (London, 1825).
Many of Wilson's best works were reproduced by Woollctt and other
engravers of the time. His portraits will be found in Greenwich
hospital, the Garrick Club and private collections.
WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600), English actor and play-
wright, was a comedian in the earl of Leicester's company in 1572,
1574 and 1581; and from 1583 until about 1588 in the Queen's.
He then probably gave up acting for writing. He wrote several
morality plays. The Three Ladies of London (1584), Three Lords
of London (1590) and The Cobbler's Prophecy (1594) are gener-
ally ascribed to him. Three Ladies of London (1584) con-
tains the episode of the attempt of the Jew to recover his debt,
afterwards adapted by Shakespeare in The Merchant of Venice.
Robert Wilson (1579-1610), supposed to be his son, was one of
Henslowe's dramatic hack-writers.
WILSON, THOMAS WOODROW (1856-1924), 28th
President of the United States, was born in Staunton, Va., Dec.
28, 1856. The Scotch strain predominated in his ancestry, for his
paternal grandfather came from County Down, in Ulster, and his
maternal grandfather, Thomas Woodrow, a graduate of Glasgow,
WILSON
633
from Scotland. The stern Presbyterianism of his father, a min-
ister of small means but marked capacity as a theologian, early
influenced him and left an indelible mark upon his character.
His early years were spent in Georgia and South Carolina, where
he was deeply affected by the sufferings of the South during the
reconstruction period. In 1875 he entered Princeton, graduating
four years later. His record for scholarship in college was not
remarkable, but he was prominent in debating and literary circles,
and became student director of athletic sport. His most notable
achievement was an article written in his senior year, and pub-
lished in the International Review, which analysed unfavourably
the procedure of Congress and formed the basis of his more
mature political principles. After studying law in the university
of Virginia and following a brief attempt to practise in Atlanta,
he decided to pursue his studies in government and history at
Johns Hopkins University, where he received the degree of Ph.D.
in 1886.
Wilson's thesis, entitled Congressional Government (1885), was
a development of ithe attack upon Congressional methods, and
because of its clear and felicitous expression has been reprinted
many times. In that year1 he began his teaching career at Bryri
Mawr college, where he was associate professor of history and
political economy until 1888; after two years as professor of the
same at Wesleyan, he entered the Princeton faculty in 1890 as
professor of jurisprudence and political economy. With slight
changes in title he served in this capacity until 1902, when he
became president of Princeton. As professor he rapidly achieved
distinction. His lectures were remarkable for clarity of presen-
tation and brilliancy of phrasing, and the same qualities char-
acterised both his addresses and his published writings. His gift
was for generalisation rather than' plodding scholarship, and after
the publication of his thesis his happiest literary efforts were in
essay form. They display keen critical capacity, but are not
remarkable either for erudition or for striking creative power. As
president of Princeton, Wilson devoted himself to serious reforms
of the educational and social habits of the undergraduates. In
the hope of elevating the standards of scholarship and of in-
creasing the efficiency of instruction, he inaugurated in 1905 the
"preceptorial system," designed through small classes to bring
teachers and students into the most intimate relationship. In his
endeavours to democratise the social life of the university he met
determined opposition. Further difficulties developed from a
disagreement with the dean of the graduate college. Wilson's
policies aroused warm controversy among alumni, faculty and
undergraduates.
While at Princeton, both as professor and as president, Wilson
displayed great interest in political questions of the day, and
through his addresses and articles speedily won a national repu-
tation. In Sept. 1910 he was tendered the Democratic nomina-
tion for governor of New Jersey. The offer, coming at the mo-
ment when the prospects for success of his policy at Princeton
seemed most discouraging, secured his ready acceptance. Re-
signing his academic position he entered upon an active electoral
campaign which won him the support of progressive elements
throughout the state, despite the fact that his candidacy had
been inaugurated largely under the auspices of the conservative
Col. George Harvey (afterwards U.S. ambassador to Great
Britain) and the Democratic state boss, Senator James Smith.
In Nov. he was elected by a plurality of 49,000 votes. He at
once made it plain that he intended, regardless of the protests of
machine leaders, to fulfil his liberal pledges and would assume
the leadership of the party for this purpose. As governor he suc-
cessfully carried through a series of reform measures. Of these
the most significant were: a Direct Primaries Law, which, sup-
plemented by an effective Corrupt Practices Act, did much to
purify the political atmosphere of New Jersey; an Employers'
Liability Act; the creation of a Public Utilities Commission; re-
form in municipal administration, making possible the adoption
of the commission form of government. Elections to the state
!In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson, of Savannah, Ga., who died
in 1914, leaving three daughters. On Dec. 18, 1915, he married Edith
Boiling Gait, of Washington, D.C.
Senate and Assembly in 1911 gave the Republicans a majority
in both Houses and the legislative output was curtailed. Never-
theless his final activities as governor were characterised by the
impetus which he gave to the passage of a series of bills, known
as the Seven Sisters, directed to the protection of the public
from exploitation by trusts.
When in June 1912 the Democratic National Convention met
at Baltimore to choose a candidate for President, Wilson's repu-
tation as an effective reformer had brought his name prominently
before the delegates. The convention was apparently controlled
by conservative elements and there seemed little chance of the
nomination of an anti-machine progressive. But as the struggle
to secure the necessary two-thirds vote proceeded, with the
conservative forces divided between Champ Clark, Harmon and
Underwood, W. J. Bryan, leader of the progressive elements,
threw his dominating influence in favour of Wilson. It proved
decisive, and on the 46th1 ballot he was nominated, July 2, 1912.
In the campaign that followed he voiced popular discontent with
the conservatism of the Republican administration, which he be-
lieved to have been too closely allied with the interests of
"privileged big business." His campaign speeches, characterised
by a striking phraseology, won much applause, but were remark-
able for their high moral tone rather than for originality of
thought or policy. Like Roosevelt he demanded a national renais-
sance of ideals. In matters of immediate concern, such as the
tariff, trust regulation, currency, the interests of labour, he in-
sisted that the "rule of justice and right" must be set up. As
regarded the future, in matters of conservation and trade, he
asserted that great opportunities had been lost through* the
interlacing of privilege and private advantage with the framework
of existing laws: "we must effect a great readjustment and get
the forces of the whole people once more into play." His radical-
ism was of a mild sort, and he insisted that "we need no revolu-
tion, we need no excited change; we need only a new point of
view and a new method and spirit of counsel." The popular
temper was responsive to such a tone, but success in large meas-
ure could hardly have come to him except for the division of
Republican forces through the campaign of Theodore Roosevelt
as Progressive candidate. In the Nov. election Wilson received
435 electoral votes as against 88 for Roosevelt and 8 for Taft;
but his popular vote was 1,000,000 less than that of his two
chief opponents, and in only 14 states (all in the South) did
he receive a clear majority.
Despite the fact that he was the choice of a minority of the
whole people, Wilson's political position when he assumed office
on March 4, 1913 was one of remarkable strength. He was sup-
ported by a Democratic majority in both Houses of Congress,
the Republicans were at loggerheads and he might expect support
from the Progressives for much of his reforming legislative
programme. His cabinet was not distinguished, but it contained
certain elements of political and administrative strength, which
proved advantageous for the moment, although later it was to
become the mark for bitter criticism. The President soon made
it plain that he was determined, as in his governorship of New
Jersey, to exercise his personal influence and his position as head
of the party to initiate and carry through the legislation he had
advocated in his campaign. His ascendancy in Congress was soon
established. After convoking both Houses in special session on
April 7, 1913 he delivered his first message in person, reviving the
custom that had lapsed since the administration (1797) of the
elder Adams. He intervened constantly during this and later
sessions, to further the legislation in which he was especially
interested.
The first important piece of legislation that resulted from
the special session was the Underwood Tariff Act, which was
passed in Sept. and signed by the President Oct. 3, 1913. It pro-
vided for a notable downward revision, and naturally met strong
opposition from varied industrial interests. Such opposition was
overcome largely through the personal efforts of Wilson, who
appealed constantly to public sentiment, notably in an attack
upon the activities of hostile lobbyists. The Tariff Act, in addi-
tion to lower duties and important administrative changes, intro-
WILSON
duced an income tax — long advocated by Democrats — which was
destjncd in later developments to counterbalance the loss of
revenue resulting from the lowering of the tariff; it weighed
heavily upon the industrial interests of the North and increased
the growing unpopularity of the President in that region. The
Tariff Act was followed by a broad measure of currency reform,
the Federal Reserve Act, signed Dec. 23, 1913; it is generally
regarded as the administration's second great legislative triumph.
Wilson's purpose was to supplant the dictatorship of private
banking institutions by a reorganisation that should provide funds
available to meet extraordinary demands and a currency that
would expand and contract automatically. Early in 1914 the
President called upon Congress to continue its labours of reform
by the regulation of the trusts. After long debate and warm
opposition, his appeal was answered by the passing of the
Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Anti-trust Act.
The latter, besides perfecting anti-trust legislation in several
ways, met the demands of labour by declaring that labour was
not a commodity, by prohibiting injunctions in labour disputes
unless necessary to prevent irreparable injury, and by proclaim-
ing that strikes and boycotts were not violations of Federal law.
It further exempted labour associations from the anti-trust laws.
Wilson's policy of domestic social reform had thus been de-
veloped with surprising legislative success during the first year
of his administration. His foreign policy was not so clear-cut
and aroused little enthusiasm. It was characterised by an
evident desire to concede the rights of other nations to the limit
and to avoid any stressing of the power of the United States for
the material advantage of its citizens. Definite steps were taken
to prepare the Filipinos for self-government. Pressure was
brought to bear upon the California State Government to mitigate
the severity of its anti-Japanese legislation. The "dollar diplom-
acy" of the preceding administration was repudiated and Ameri-
can bankers effectively discouraged from participating in the
international Chinese loans. As a result of the President's per-
sonal demand, Congress repealed the law exempting American
coastwise shipping from Panama Canal tolls. Wilson, however,
failed -to secure the Senate's ratification of a treaty with Colom-
bia, which contained a virtual apology on the part of the United
States and an offer to pay $25,000,000 as reparation for the al-
leged grievances of Colombia in connection with the establish-
ment of Panama as an independent country. In the Caribbean,
Wilson's policy differed in principle rather than practice from
that of his predecessors; in Nicaragua and Haiti the customs were
taken over by U.S. officials. By a treaty signed Sept. 16, 1915,
a virtual protectorate of Haiti was assumed; in Santo Domingo
the precautionary visits of American cruisers were followed in
the summer of 1916 by the landing of marines, and in Nov. of
that year by the proclamation of a military government under
American auspices.
Wilson's Mexican policy aroused heated criticism. Following
the accession of Gen. Victoriano Huerta to power and the Presi-
dent's failure to arrange a settlement providing for his elimination
as dictator, Wilson resigned himself to what he called a policy of
"watchful waiting." Conditions in Mexico were anarchical, and
intervention was strongly urged by both American and European
commercial interests. To formal intervention the President was
definitely opposed, but in April 1914 he was compelled to
authorise the occupation of Vera Cruz in retaliation for affronts
to American bluejackets. The proffered mediation of Argentina,
Brazil and Chile he gladly accepted, but the resulting protocol of
Niagara Falls (June 24, 1914) did not provide a basis for peace.
Although Huerta fled from Mexico in July, the country continued
to be torn by rival factions. American troops were withdrawn
from Vera Cruz in Nov. 1914, but it was not until Oct. 1915 that
the Government of Carranza was recognised by Wilson, in com-
pany with eight South and Central American Governments. Fur-
ther complications ensued. The raid into American territory of
Gen. Villa, March 9, 1916, led Wilson to authorise a punitive
expedition, which soon aroused the protests of Carranza. In May
and June the President mobilised the National Guard and sent
a force of about 100,000 to patrol the Mexican border. The crisis
was tided over by a joint Mexican-American commission sitting
at New London, Conn., which brought no definite settlement, but
at least postponed hasty action on either side. In Jan. 1917 the
last American troops were withdrawn from Mexican soil. The
President's policy had not led to stable conditions in Mexico, and
the sole advantage secured seemed to be the emphasis laid by the
U.S. Government on the principle that it would not take advan-
tage of the misfortunes of a weak neighbour for its own selfish
profit.
Foreign affairs after July 1914 were naturally dominated by
the WTorld War. President Wilson insisted upon a policy of strict
neutrality. This he emphasised not merely by formal proclama-
tion on Aug. 4, but by an address 'to the American people on
Aug. 1 8, in which he adjured them, in view of the mixture of
nationalities in the United States, to be impartial in thought as
well as action. His offer of mediation, made on Aug. 5, remained
without response, and further attempts at mediation in early
autumn proved fruitless. Jlis determination to remain absolutely
aloof from European quarrels was underlined in several addresses,
in which he insisted that the United States was in no way con-
cerned, and was further emphasised by his opposition to any
change in its military policy. America's vital interest in the strug-
gle, however, soon became plain and resulted in diplomatic con-
troversies, with the belligerents. Great Britain's attempt to
control indirect importation of goods into Germany, by an en-
largement of contraband schedules and an extension of the
doctrine of ''continuous voyage" to conditional contraband, was
vigorously opposed by President Wilson, who authorised William
Jennings Bryan, his Secretary of State, to protest in strong terms.
A lengthy interchange of notes followed, which led to no settle-
ment.
The diplomatic controversy with Germany proved more serious.
The proclamation of a "war /.one" about the British Isles, in
which German submarines threatened to destroy enemy mer-
chant vessels with consequent danger to the lives and property
of neutrals, was met by a note of Feb. 10, 1915, which warned
Germany that she would be held to "strict accountability" for
the lawless acts of submarine commanders. Wilson further at-
tempted to find a compromise, based upon a relaxation of the
British food blockade and an abandonment of the German sub-
marine campaign. The effort failed and was followed by a series
of submarine attacks, which culminated in the sinking of the
"Lusitania," May 7, 1915, with the loss of over 100 American
lives. The President, while he disappointed opinion in the Eastern
States by a speech in which he reaffirmed his pacific determination,
stating that a man might be "too proud to fight," at once set out
to win from Germany a disavowal and a promise that merchant
ships should not be torpedoed without warning and the saving of
the lives of passengers. '
A lengthy exchange of notes ensued: the pacific Bryan, Secre-
tary of State, regarding the President's language as too strong,
resigned; on the other hand Wilson's patience with the evasions
of the German Government and the continued sinking by sub-
marines led to bitter attacks upon the President's policy of con-
ciliation, which was stigmatised as anaemic or even cowardly.
Wilson succeeded, however, in securing from Germany a promise
not to sink liners without warning (Sept. i, 1915), and continued
his efforts to induce Germany to abandon the submarine cam-
paign completely. He was hampered by an attempted revolt of
Congressional leaders, who blurred the issue with Germany by
introducing resolutions designed to prevent Americans from
travelling upon belligerent ships. The President, through his per-
sonal influence, secured the defeat of these resolutions in Feb.
1916, insisting that he would not consent "to any abridgment
of the rights of American citizens in any respect." Shortly after-
wards the issue with Germany was brought to a head by the
sinking of the "Sussex," March 24, 1916. Wilson waited three
weeks before sending a formal note of protest to Germany (April
19, 1916), but couched it in the form of an ultimatum, stating
that unless Germany should immediately declare and effect an
abandonment of its present methods of submarine warfare, the
United States would be compelled to sever diplomatic relations.
WILSON
635
The German answer, while attempting to make acceptance con-
ditional upon Great Britain's relaxation of the blockade, was in
effect a promise not to sink merchant ships without warning and
without saving human lives. The submarine issue now seemed
less critical.
The diplomatic victory thus apparently secured by Wilson was
utilised in his behalf during the electoral campaign of 1916, in
which he was inevitably the Democratic candidate. It enabled
his supporters to declare that he had vindicated the rights of the
United States successfully, and at the same time had "kept us out
of war." The slogan made a strong appeal, especially in the
districts of the Middle West. The Republicans, on the other
hand, who had nominated Charles E. Hughes, criticised the whole
foreign policy of the President. They insisted that he had failed
to take prompt action for the protection of American lives and
honour, alike in his dealings with Germany and in his handling
of the Mexican crisis. They characterised his domestic policy as
demagogic, instancing the Clayton Act and the Adamson Act;
the latter had been urged on Congress by Wilson to avert a rail-
road strike in Sept. 1916, and many citizens regarded it as an
untimely surrender to labour throats. They also criticised his
attitude on "preparedness," to which the President had been
opposed until the close of 1915, and ridiculed the cautious ex-
pansion of military forces provided for in the National Defence
Act of 1916. In the East and in most industrial centres of the
Middle West Wilson was unpopular, but the election showed his
strength in the farming districts west of the Mississippi and on
the Pacific coast; in spite of Roosevelt's return to the Republican
fold the President drew largely from the Progressives, and on
election day received a slight electoral majority over Hughes
(277 to 254) and a popular plurality of 9,129,606 to 8,538.221.
His re-election enabled Wilson to proceed with plans for peace
proposals to the European belligerents. These he had been pre-
paring since the early spring of 1916. He had authorized Col.
House to propose to the British that the President "on hearing
from France and Britain that the moment was opportune" should
propose a conference to end the war. "Should the Allies accept
this proposal and should Germany refuse it, the United States
would probably enter the war against Germany." The Allies made
no move to take advantage of American help in this plan to
enforce peace. Wilson decided to act independently and on Dec.
18 sent identical notes to the belligerents, asking 'them to state
the terms upon which they would consider peace. Informed of
the undercurrents of German military circles, he evidently feared
that if the war continued the United States would necessarily be-
come involved; he also hoped that a clear definition of war aims
would strengthen pacific elements in both belligerent camps. The
German reply was evasive; that of the Allies refused to consider
peace until Germany should offer "complete restitution, full
reparation and effectual guarantees." The replies gave the Presi-
dent opportunity to expound what he had come to believe was
the only sure basis of an enduring peace. This he did in a speech
of Jan. 22, 1917, in which he insisted that the peace must be
organised by the major force of mankind, thus emphasising the
need of a League of Nations; that no nation should extend its
policy over another nation; that no one Power should dominate
the land or the sea. There must be a limitation of armaments.
As a guarantee of future peace and justice, the ending of the
existing war must not be the violation of the rights of one side
or the other: it must be "a peace without victory."
Further efforts to secure a peaceful arrangement were frustrated
by the determination of the German militarist clique to renew
the submarine warfare, regardless of the effect on the United
States. On Jan. 31, the German ambassador, Von Bernstorff, who
strongly but vainly opposed the intensive submarine campaign,
delivered a note to this effect, and four days later the President
handed him his papers. He still, however, avoided formal war
with Germany, and on Feb. 26 asked for a resolution of armed
neutrality, which would permit the arming of American merchant
ships for entrance into the barred sea zone. The resolution was
blocked by a filibuster. Finally, in view of continued sinking of
American ships, the President came to Congress on April 2, 1917
and asked for a declaration that a state of warfare existed with
Germany. The resolution was passed by the Senate on Aprjl 4,
by the House on April 6.
President Wilson had always abhorred the exercise of force in
international relations, and the war which he at last regarded as
necessary was, in his mind, a war to ensure peace. Nevertheless
he was determined that it should be waged efficiently and that
the mistakes of previous wars should not be repeated. Those
mistakes, he believed, had resulted chiefly from the inter-mixture
of politics in military affairs, and from the decentralisation of
the American military machine. He opposed a coalition war
cabinet, as leading to divided responsibility. Military policy was
handed over to the military experts. He approved the immediate
development of the general staff as the centralising military organ,
and it was upon the recommendation of that body that he urged,
against the wish of Congressional leaders, the Selective Service
Art. On the advice of the general staff he appointed Gen. John J.
Pcrshing commander of the expeditionary force to France, and,
also following that advice, he refused to authorise a volunteer
force under Roosevelt. Similarly the plans for the development
of a large army in France were inaugurated and translated into
fact by the military experts.
As regards conduct of operations the President gave to Gen.
Pershing complete authority, and permitted no interference by
politicians. In the building of the new army the President took
no direct part, but he used his authority consistently to favour
centralisation under the general staff. He followed a similar
policy in the mobilisation of the industrial resources of the
nation. He encouraged the centralising efforts of the Council of
National Defence and its committees, and sought always to secure
for them executive rather than the merely advisory powers,
which they at first possessed. He urged the Lever Act, which in
Aug. 1917 created a Food and a Fuel Administration, and advo-
cated the taking over of the railroads by the Government in
December. His policy of economic centralisation was ultimately
assisted by the many protests against his war policies which were
made in the winter, and which centred round the demand for a
non-partisan war cabinet or ministry of munitions; for his sup-
porters were able to insist that the more effective handling of
war problems demanded not new machinery but greater efficiency
of the existing mechanism. The President asked for powers to
cut through red tape and rearrange bureaux without reference to
Congress. His demands were embodied in the Overman Act,
which was passed in May 1918, and which enabled him to grant
executive powers to the various boards that had been created.
The \Var Industries Board, released from its dependence upon the
Council of National Defence, at once became the centralising
organ of the economic activities of the country. In his war ap-
pointments Wilson disregarded party lines, a notable fact since
in political appointments he always showed himself strictly a
party man. Republicans, such as Hoover, Stettinius, Goethalg,
Schwab, Vanderlip, were chosen because of their administrative
qualities and regardless of political affiliations.
During the War President Wilson consistently developed his
ideals of a new international system which should perpetuate
peace and assure justice and security to every nation regardless
of its material strength. He hoped thus not merely to construct
a basis for just peace when the war should end, but to hasten
the end of the war by appealing to the peoples of the enemy
states against their Governments. The most notable of his
speeches was that of Jan. 8, 1918, in which he stated 14 points
necessary to a just and lasting peace. This, with his later ad-
dresses, was ultimately accepted as the basis of the final settle-
ment. Their effect in Germany and Austria-Hungary was not
apparent until the military defeat of those empires, but his words
acted continually as a corroding factor, weakening the enemy's
determination to fight. When in the autumn of 1918 they faced
military defeat, they turned to Wilson, offering to accept his
Fourteen Points as the basis of peace.
The President's insistence upon justice as essential to a settle-
ment brought him great prestige in Allied countries, but the
chiefs of the Allied Governments hesitated to accept the Fourteen
636
WILSON
Points in the fear that the advantages of the victory might be
thrqwn away. They yielded, however, to the persuasive diplo-
macy of Col. House, who represented the President on the Su-
preme War Council during the Armistice proceedings, and it was
on the understanding that the Fourteen Points (reservations
made of "Freedom of the Seas" and inclusion of Germany's
promise to make full reparation) should be the basis of the peace
that the Armistice was granted to Germany.1 The President
realised, however, that it would be difficult to translate his
principles into the actual treaty. Aside from the opposition he
might expect from selfish nationalistic interests among the Allies,
he lacked unified support at home, where his political opponents
called for a "strong peace'' that would annihilate Germany; there
was little enthusiasm for a League of Nations, which the Presi-
dent regarded as essential to a just and lasting settlement.
Furthermore he had weakened his political position at home by
a series of tactical mistakes. Of these, the most important was
an appeal issued immediately before the Congressional election
of Nov. igiH, in which Wilson asked the voters to cast their
ballots for Democratic candidates, on the ground that a Republi-
can Congress would divide the leadership at the moment of
international crisis. Such an appeal would have been compre-
hensible if it had been made by a prime mipister in a parlia-
mentary country, but Wilson had proclaimed himself the leader
of the nation and could not logically also play the role of party
leader. The Republicans seemed to have some ground for com-
plaining that although they had submerged partisan quarrels
during the war. President Wilson was now attempting to capitalise
the war and foreign affairs in order to win a partisan advantage.
Many voters were antagonised by the appeal, and the elections
went in favour of the Republicans. The President, in consequence
of the substantial reverses sustained in the November elections,
lost command of the Senate in the next Congress and its Foreign
Relations Committee was to be controlled by his political and
personal opponents.
Believing that his presence at the Peace Conference was neces-
sary, if it was not to be dominated by old-style diplomatic prac-
tices, Wilson decided himself to go to Paris, and on Dec. 4, 1918
sailed with the other members of the American Commission on
the "George Washington/' He arrived at Brest on Dec. 13, and
was received at Paris, in England and at Rome with tremendous
enthusiasm. For the moment he was the popular hero, both in
Allied and enemy countries. But his prestige rested on a pre-
carious footing, and must inevitably diminish when he came to
oppose the national aspirations of any people. Col. House urged
him to strike off a. quick general peace, leaving details for later
settlement; but this proved impossible, and formal conversations
at Paris began only in Jan. 1919. The President succeeded in
winning an early victory when he persuaded the conference to
accept the principle of the League of Nations as the basis of the
peace, and when the Commission on the League succeeded in
completing by Feb. 14 the preliminary draft of the covenant.
On returning to the United States, however, he found Republican
opposition to the league strongly manifested in the Senate, al-
though he had the support of Taft's influence in that party and
in the country. Public opinion seemed to be uninstructed and
apathetic as to the President's policies. Going back to Paris in
March, he was able to secure the insertion in the covenant of
certain amendments required by American sentiment. On Apr. 28
he won unanimous approval by the conference of the final draft
of the covenant.
But he was confronted by the demands of the French, Italians
and Japanese for territorial and economic concessions from the
enemy, which he regarded as excessive. Long discussions fol-
lowed, culminating in Wilson's acceptance of a portion of the
Allied demands, notably the granting of Shantung to the Japanese,
of much of the frontier line promised by the Treaty of London
to Italy, the separation of the Saar from Germany and the ex-
action from Germany of what amounted to a blank cheque in
the matter of reparations. Such concessions aroused the opposi-
tion of liberals in England and America, who insisted that the
'The Fourteen Points are set forth in full in an article on that subject.
President had surrendered his principles. Wilson, on the other
hand, acknowledging that certain aspects of the settlement were
not ideal, believed that he had won his main contention in secur-
ing the League of Nations, which provided the mechanism for
eradicating the vices contained in the treaties. In this belief he
was supported by another liberal protagonist, Gen. Smuts. On
June 29, 1919, the day following the signing of the Versailles
Treaty, the President sailed for America. His international
prestige had suffered from his opposition to national claims,
especially that of the Italians to Fiume and of the French to the
left bank of the Rhine. His prestige as a liberal leader had also
suffered from his failure to achieve the peace of conciliation
which he had promised. This failure was due to the lack of any
spirit of conciliation in Europe which might inspire a new sort
of peace settlement. As Col. House wrote in his diary, the day
after the signing of peace, "I should have preferred a different
peace, I doubt whether it could have been made, for the ingredi-
ents for such a peace as I^would have had were lacking at Paris."
The single great creative accomplishment of the Peace Confer-
ence, the League of Nations, resulted primarily from Wilson's
leadership.
The strain of the conference had told upon Wilson's physical
and nervous strength. He was thus not well equipped to wage the
struggle with his Republican opponents in the Senate which
developed upon his presentation of the treaty. Had the Presi-
dent been willing to compromise and accept reservations to the
covenant of the league, it is likely that the two-thirds necessary
to ratification would have been secured. This course he refused
to follow, and it soon 'became clear that the Foreign Relations
Committee would not recommend ratification without serious
reservations or amendments. In the hope of winning popular
support, the President, set forth upon a tour of the country, and
along the Pacific coast aroused enthusiasm in marked contrast to
the coldness of the East. The effort, however, overtaxed his
strength, and on Sept. 26 at Wichita, Kan., the President was
compelled to give over his tour and return to Washington, where
he suffered a complete nervous collapse. The exact nature of
his illness was not made public and few realised how serious it
would prove to be. Many, however, felt that in view of his
inevitable abstention from active work it would have been wiser
for him to retire at least temporarily. As it was, his system
had provided for no understudy and the administration was left
without a leader.
Entirely apart from the confusion thus caused in the conduct
of public business, Wilson's illness led directly to the defeat of
the treaty. There was no one else available either for leading the
fight for ratification without reservations, or with sufficient
authority to arrange a compromise. On Nov. 13 the Senate
adopted reservations which Wilson declared would "nullify''
(etc., etc.) the treaty; for this reason he urged the Democrats
to refuse to vote for the ratifying resolution, which was accord-
ingly defeated on Nov. 19, 1919. During the succeeding weeks
efforts were made to arrange a compromise. The Republican
leaders agreed to soften the language of certain reservations, and
the President intimated that he would accept a mild reservation
on Article X. of the covenant, which had aroused the chief oppo-
sition. Neither side would yield enough, and when on March 19,
1920, the final vote was taken on the ratifying resolution, which
contained a strong reservation on Article X., Wilson again urged
Democratic senators not to accept. The resolution thus failed of
the necessary two-thirds by a margin of six votes, 57-37. The
President appealed to the autumn presidential election in 1920
as the decisive plebiscite. Although he had lost his former control
of the party, and the Democratic presidential nominee at. San
Francisco was not his choice, the Wilsonian policies, including
approval of the League of Nations, were inevitably the issue of
the elections. In the electioneering campaign, however, the
President himself could take no active part, for his physical
collapse proved so serious as to confine him to the White House.
For the overwhelming victory won by the Republicans, see
UNITED STATES: History. After his defeat Wilson kept close
silence on public matters, and his annual message of Dec. 1920,
WILSON— WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER
637
while it sounded the note of national duty, made no reference to
that which lay nearest his heart — the League of Nations. This
silence, indeed, he preserved until the close of his administration,
March 4, 1921. In Dec, 1920 he had been awarded the Nobel
Peace prize.
After his retirement from office Wilson lived quietly in Wash-
ington, refraining from all political comment. He appeared to
greet his admirers on Armistice Day, 1923, with a short speech
from the porch of his house. For months he had been growing
weaker, and on Feb. 3, 1924, he died in his sleep.
The failure of President Wilson to win the approval of the
United States for his peace policies presents one of the most
interesting problems of American history. He had led the country
through the difficult period of a war unsurpassed in magnitude
and culminating in complete victory; in the face of serious ob-
stacles he had forced European statesmen to accept the major
item in his programme; he returned home only to be repudiated
by his own people. Personal and partisan factors unquestionably
contributed to his defeat. In private intercourse Wilson displayed
a personal magnetism, a breadth of culture and a genial cordiality
that, are amply attested by his intimates. But in public life he
proved unable to capitalise such advantages, possibly because of
natural shyness, possibly because physical delicacy restricted his
social activities. Roosevelt's capacity for "mixing" with all
political and human types he totally lacked. In the formation of
his policies he isolated himself and was unable to establish close
relations with Congressional leaders. This gave rise to 'the im-
pression that the President disliked advice, was an egocentric
autocrat and immediately dispensed with anyone who disagreed
with him. Such criticism, by no means a novelty in the case of
strong-willed presidents, was utilised by his political opponents
and intensified his unpopularity in the industrial centres, espe-
cially of the East, an unpopularity which, except for a brief period
during the opening months of the war, was an outstanding factor
in the political situation. Broadly speaking, the criticism does not
seem to be fully justified. In matters of what he regarded as
principle he was adamant, and he distrusted the judgment of
those whose basic point of view was different from his own; but
the evidence of those who worked with him, including that of
Republican advisers at Paris, is almost unanimously agreed
that he was anxious to secure advice, was tolerant of opinions,
and glad to delegate responsibility. The contrary belief was
doubtless fostered by Wilson's inability to build up an efficient
secretarial organisation, and his incapacity, rather than unwilling-
ness, to apportion effectively the details of administrative labour.
His handling of war problems shows clearly his desire to delegate
responsibility; once an appointment was made he refused to
interfere and consistently protected his appointee from the im-
portunities of politicians.
Political responsibility in general, he believed, should rest with
the President. From conviction, rather than from egotism, he
sought to emancipate the presidential office from the control of
Congressional committees, a control which he earnestly deplored
in his earliest writings. The President, he felt, should be the
real leader of the nation, and not a mere executive superintend-
ent. The cabinet he looked on as an executive and not as a
political council, and it was always strictly subordinated to his
policies. So long as the Democrats held the majority in (Congress
he was able to translate such ideas into fact, and effectively dis-
posed of all attempted Congressional revolts. This attitude
naturally did not allay the political resentments which were in-
evitably aroused and which were intensified by Wilson's tendency
to regard political opposition as tantamount to personal hostility;
when the Democratic majority disappeared he faced uncompro-
mising hostility. He was intensely impatient of partisan obstruc-
tion of his idealistic plans, and there is much of th^ Calvinist in
his refusal to temporise or deviate from the path which he be-
lieved himself appointed to tread. While in matters of detail
he showed at times some capacity for compromise, in matters
of principle he displayed the unswerving determination character-
istic of the prophet, a trait that is not always conducive to success
in the exigencies of modern party warfare. Indeed it is as a
prophet rather than as a statesman that Wilson should be re-
garded. No one has preached more impressively and effectively
the necessity of introducing a moral standard into international
politics.
The following are the most important writings of President Wilson:
Congressional Government, a Study in American Politics (1885) ; The
State — Elements of Historical and Practical Politics (1889) ; Division
and Reunion, 1829-89 (1893) I An Old Master and Other Political
Essays (1893) ; Mere Literature and Other Essays (1893) ; George
Washington (1897) ; A History of the American People (1902) ; Consti-
tutional Government in the United States (1908) ; The New Freedom
(1913); On Being Human (1916); International Ideals (IQIQ). The
authorized biography is by Ray S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson, Life and
Letters (1927- ). Biographies based upon personal contact with Mr.
Wilson have been written by W. E. Dodd, Woodrow Wilson and His
Work (1921) ; by his private secretary, Joseph P. Tumulty, Woodrow
Wilson as I Know Him (1922) ; by Josephus Daniels, Life of Woodrow
Wilson (1924) ; and by David F. Houston, Ei^ht Years with Wilson' &
Cabinet (2 vols., 1926). Critically appreciative biographies are: David
Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson (1924), and William
Allen White, Woodrow Wilson, the Alan, his Times, and his Task
(1924). A less friendly interpretation, valuable for Wilson's Princeton
career, is Robert E. Annin, Woodrow Wilson; a Character Study
(1924). Wilson's work at the Peace Conference is favorably presented
by Ray S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson and World Settlement (1923). A
documented exposition of Wilson's character and policies is found in
The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, arranged as a narrative by
Charles Seymour (4 vols., 1926-28). General surveys of Wilson's
foreign policy are to be found in E. E. Robinson and V. J. West's The
Foreign Policy of President Wilson, 10.13-17 (1918), and in Charles
Seymour's Woodrow Wilson and the World War (1920). In ftcacon
Lights of History (1924), P. W. Wilson gives a close analysis of Wil-
son's character and career. The authorized edition of President Wilson's
state papers and addresses is The Public Papers oj IVoodrow Wilson,
edited by Ray S. Baker and William E. Dodd (1925). (C. SKY.)
WILSON, a town of North Carolina, U.S.A., the county seat
of Wilson county; 42 m. E.S.E. of Raleigh, on Federal highways
17-1 and 217, and served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Nor-
folk Southern railways. Pop. 10,612 in 1920 (49% negroes); esti-
mated locally at over 15,000 in 1928. It is one of the largest to-
bacco markets in the world. Wilson was incorporated in 1849.
Its first sale of leaf tobacco took place in 1890.
WILSON AND CO., INC., incorporated under the laws of
the State of Delaware, is one of the so-called Big Four of the
American meat-packing concerns. Its history goes back to 1853
when its founders started a local abattoir in New York city,
gradually expanding its local activities until by the purchase of a
pknt in Kansas City, in 1891 it entered the field of interstate
and world-wide distribution of meats and meat products. In 10,02
the. building of a plant in Chicago, the centre of the live stock
industry of the United States, in 1913 the acquisition of a plant
in Argentine and finally the building of a plant in Sao Paulo,
Brazil in 1918 are the most noticeable milestones in the develop-
ment of this company.
In T9.\S its annual sales directly to retailers and wholesalers and
through branch houses or agencies in the United States, Europe,
Central and South America were approximately $300,000,000.
Its plants located at various strategic points in the live stock
centres in North and South America, prepare not only meats and
kindred food products for human consumption but also produce,
from intensive utilization of by-products, the raw materials for
many other industries. In addition to the minute inspection of all
meat products under the supervision of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, research laboratories are attached to each plant,
carrying on constant bacteriological tests of food products, devel-
oping new uses for by-products and enlarging the scope of the
company's world-wide activities. (T. E. Wi.)
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER, a method, due to C. T. R.
Wilson, for rendering visible the tracks of swift electrified par-
ticles, which has proved of the greatest importance for recent re-
searches in atomic physics. By a special device minute drops of
water are made to condense on the ions produced by a particle
in its rapid passage: the trail of droplets is dense enough to be
visible to the eye as a white line, and is usually recorded by
photography, for subsequent study. The particles whose be-
haviour is studied by the method are the a-particles (see RADIO-
ACTIVITY), and swift electrons, which may be either ^-particles
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER
(see RADIOACTIVITY) or electrons released by the photoelectric
action of X-rays. (See PHOTOELECTRICITY, X-RAYS.) Many prop-
erties of the X-rays themselves are revealed by the tracks oi
these secondary electrons.
The Condensation of Supersaturated Vapours— Air satu-
rated with moisture can be cooled until a very high degree of
supersaturation is reached — that is, until the amount of water
which it contains in the form of vapour is much greater than
suffices to saturate it, once condensation has been started — if there
are no particles in it to act as nuclei round which droplets can
form. (The term nucleus used with regard to condensation merely
means a centre or core round which vapour molecules collect to
form a liquid layer, and has nothing to do with the exceedingly
minute structure which is called the nucleus of the atom.) Aitken,
in his investigations from 1880 onwards, had showed that dust
particles could act as such nuclei, and had utilised this fact to
count dust particles. Early workers, such as Lenard and Wolff,
who found that ultra-violet light falling on a zinc plate could
produce condensation in a steam jet attributed the effect, actually
due to the electrons thus liberated, to dust. In 1890 R. von Helm-
holtz and F, Richarz attributed the condensation of a steam jet
by a point discharge to the formation of ions, and in 1896 Richarz
found that X-rays could produce condensation in the steam jet,
without, however, pursuing the subject. Serious study of the
condensation on ions was begun in 1896 by C. T. R. Wilson, when
he found that the ions formed in gases by X-rays could act as cen-
tres of condensation in moist air in a state of supersaturation.
A little later he showed that the rays from radioactive sub-
stances, ultra-violet light, and other agents which produce ions
lead to the same effect. That the condensation was actually due
to the ions, and not to some other action of the rays, was proved
by applying an electric field before the conditions necessary for
condensation were produced: this removed the ions, and at the
same time stopped the formation of a cloud of moisture.
Wilson produced his cooling of the air, kept saturated at the
initial temperature by the presence of liquid water, by a rapid,
approximately adiabatic, expansion: this was effected by the sud-
den withdrawal, through a controlled distance, of a glass plunger
fitting the closed tube in which the condensation was produced.
He found that, once dust particles had been removed by repeat-
edly expanding, and allowing the drops to settle, no condensation
could be prbduced unless the ratio of expansion Vz/Vi (where v*
is the final, v\ the initial volume) exceeded a certain threshold
value, namely 1-25. This corresponds to a supersaturation of
about 4-2, the supersaturation 5, defined as the ratio of the
amount of water vapour present to that required to produce satu-
ration at the prevailing temperature, being given by the formula
where T\ and T2 are the temperatures before and just after ex-
pansion, and TTJ and 7r2 are the vapour pressure of water at those
temperatures; by a familiar expression T\/Ti— (v2/Vi)y~l where
7 is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the
specific heat at constant volume, for air. With an expansion ratio
exceeding 1-25 a few drops are produced in dust-free air; with
an expansion ratio exceeding 1-38 a dense cloudy condensation is
produced, but in this case the supersaturation is about 8. The es-
sential observation made by Wilson was that when ions were
produced in the air by the action of X-rays or any other agent,
a fog was formed with an expansion ratio 1-25, in place of the
few drops, due to residual ions, formed when there was no radia-
tion. The density of the cloud depends upon the strength of the
radiation, but no cloud at all is formed unless the expansion equals
or exceeds 1-25. Wilson showed that positive and negative ions
are not equally effective as nuclei of condensation; whereas the
negative ions begin to act as nuclei at the ratio just specified,,
namely 1-25, positive ions do not become effective until the ex-"
pansion ratio is 1-31, which corresponds to 6-fold saturation.
The efficacy of charged ions as nuclei of condensation is bound
up with the question of the evaporation of drops of different
sizes in a saturated atmosphere, for a droplet can only form if
there is a tendency for liquid to deposit on it from the vapour
state rather than for its liquid to pass into vapour. It was shown
by Lord Kelvin that the vapour pressure p at a surface of radius
of curvature r differs from the vapour pressure P at a plane sur-
face in a way given by the equation
2a
r
where <r is the density of the liquid, R the gas constant for unit
mass of vapour, and a the surface tension. The vapour pressure
at the surface of a spherical drop being greater than that at a
plane surface the drop will tend to evaporate, in an atmosphere of
saturated vapour, which is in equilibrium with a plane surface, and
it will only be stable, or tend to grow, if there is a supersatura-
tion equal to or greater than p/P as given by the above formula,
showing a dependence on r. The effect of charging the droplet
electrically is to dimmish the tendency to evaporate, as can be
seen by considering that the electrical capacity of a sphere is
proportional to the radius, and hence the electrical energy, with
a given charge, inversely as the radius, so that, the diminution in
size of a charged drop requires, in respect of the electric forces,
a supply of energy, and will not take place under conditions in
which an uncharged drop of the same size may evaporate. J. J.
Thomson worked out the theory in detail, and showed, by ther-
modynamic reasoning, that the above formula becomes, for a
drop carrying a charge e,
While for uncharged drops the supersaturation required to pro-
duce condensation on a droplet increases steadily as r is dimin-
ished, for a charged drop, as shown by this formula, S = p/P has
a maximum at a radius approximately 6Xicr8 cm., and then de-
creases. A droplet of radius 4Xio8 cm. is in equilibrium with
saturated vapour above a plane surface, and so droplets of any
smaller size grow automatically to this size without supersatura-
tion. The maximum value of S, at r = 6Xicf8 cm., works out to
be about 4*2, so that for this supersaturation, or any greater value,
a droplet once begun will grow large. This agrees excellently with
the value found by C. T. R. Wilson for condensation on nega-
tive ions: the different value found for positive ions requires sub-
sidiary hypotheses, which are not altogether satisfactory, to ex-
plain it. The above numerical values are all for the case of water
vapour. Experiments have been carried out with other vapours,
and the values obtained for the limiting expansion agree well, on
the whole, with J. J. Thomson's theory. It may be noted, as indi-
cating the difficulties of a complete explanation, that the relative
efficiency of positive and negative ions is reversed, as compared
to water vapour, for the vapours of the organic liquids tested.
The Apparatus for Obtaining Cloud Tracks.— For the suc-
cessful application of the method it is necessary, firstly, to pro-
duce the expansion in such a way as not to stir up the gas, and
so distort the trails of water drops which record the paths of the
particles, and, secondly, to ensure that before the passage of the
particle in ions or other condensation nuclei are present. To en-
sure the fulfilment of the first condition the body of the ap-
paratus is made in the form of a circular cylinder, with the axis
vertical, and the expansion effected by the movement of a close-
fitting cylindrical piston. The upper part of the cylinder, which
constitutes the walls of the chamber itself, is of glass, and it is
closed at the top by a glass plate, so that observation can be made
vertically or horizontally. The movement of the piston, the ex-
cnt of which is controlled by contact with the floor of the cham*
>er, is produced by a sudden lowering of pressure of the air under
the piston, "rought about by connecting the space beneath the
cylinder with an evacuated vessel Plate I., fig. i, represents the
actual chamber used by C. T. R. Wilson from 1911 until the
present day (1929); the evacuated vessel is seen on the right,
communication being established by the opening of a valve, which
eaves a wide passage free. The diameter of this particular chara-
W11,SUJN
UHAM15HK
I'l.ATK
RENDERING VISIBLE THE PATHS OF SWIFT ELECTRIFIED PARTICLES BY MEANS OF CLOUD TRACKS
1. Tho apparatus of C. T. R. Wilson for obtaining cloud tracks. 2. Pair of
photographs of a-particle tracks in oxygen showing nuclear collision.
(Blackett). 3. Tracks of a-particles from thorium C-fC' showing two
distinct ranges, the shorter due to thorium C, the longer to thorium C'.
(Chadwick and Emeleus). 4 Track of a-particles, half of which have
passed through a film of paraffin wax, showing expulsion of proton (Meit-
ner). 5. Track of single a-particle (C. T. R. Wilson). 6. Pair of photo-
graphs of ct-ray tracks in nitrogen, showing expulsion of proton. The path
of the proton appears as a fine line at extreme left in left-hand picture and
next to extreme left in right-hand picture (Blackett). 7. Pair of photo-
graphs of a-ptrticle tracks in helium, showing nuclear collision (Bltckett)
PLATE II
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER
BY COURTESY OF C.T.ft. WILSON AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY
MAKING VISIBLE THE PATHS OF/3 PARTICLES, AND OF ELECTRONS RELEASED
BY THE ACTION OF X-RAYS
1. Passage of a beam of X-rays through a silver plate, showing absorption
of primary beam and characteristic radiation from plate
2. Track of a slower electron, magnified to show individual droplets
3. /3-ray track, starting on left, showing Initial straight portion, nuclear
deflection, branches and curvature in later portion of track
4. Weak X-ray radiation, falling on a copper plate showing one electron
ejected from the copper and one electron ejected from a gaseous atom
by the X-radiation from the copper
5. Passage of hard X-rays through air, showing different types of electron
tracks produced
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER
639
her is 16*5 cm. with the depth about 3 cm. In his earlier experi-
ments Wilson coated the inner surfaces of the roof and sides
with a thin layer of gelatine, to prevent the formation of droplets
on these surfaces, but he now prefers to keep the base of the
chamber slightly colder than the rest by sending a slow stream
of tap water through the shallow receptacle in which the expansion
cylinder rests; this is perfectly effective in keeping walls and
roof clear, even when no gelatine is used. The base of the cham-
ber, that is, the upper surface of the piston, is coated with a
layer of blackened gelatine, the gelatine keeping the air saturated
with water vapour, while the black shows up the cloud tracks.
The apparatus has been variously modified by other workers
since: for instance, Shimizu, who used a chamber only 6 cm. in
diameter, found that perfect tracks could be obtained when the
piston was given a reciprocating motion by a simple mechanical
device. The frequency of the motion may be as high as 3 oscilla-
tions a second, which permits a large number of photographs to be
rapidly taken. This form of apparatys was used by Biackett to
obtain the pictures to be mentioned later, specimens of which are
given in Plate I., figs. 2, 6, and 7.
Any dust particles which would act as condensation nuclei arc
removed by a run of preliminary expansions. To remove the stray
ions a vertical electrical field is maintained between a marginal
ring of tin-foil, cemented between roof or walls and the top of the
piston: this field is about 3 volts per cm., which, while it suffices
to remove ions, does not produce sufficient movement of the
heavy drops to disturb the tracks.
To obtain satisfactory pictures, it is necessary to control care-
fully the sequence of the three events: — admission of ionising
particles or radiation ; expansion ; and the flash of light by which
the photographs are taken. The rays should traverse the chamber
immediately after the sudden expansion of the gas, and the illu-
mination, from the side, should occur after a very short interval.
Wilson's method is to produce the illuminating flash by the dis-
charge of a Leyden jar through mercury vapour at atmospheric
pressure, the flash of X-rays by the discharge of a Leyden jar
through the X-ray tube, and to effect the timing by three pendu-
lums, of adjustable period, all released simultaneously. The first
produces the expansion by opening the passage between the space
beneath the piston and the evacuated vessel: the second dis-
charges the jar through the X-ray tube and the third the jar
through the mercury spark gap. When the tracks of a or #-par-
ticles arc to be recorded the particles are admitted into the
chamber at the right time by a little mechanical shutter, con-
trolled by the second pendulum.
When it is desired, for purposes of measurement, to know the
direction of the tracks in space, one photograph, which merely
gives the projection of the track on a single plane, is not sufficient.
Two photographs of the same tracks must be obtained, either
stereoscopically or from two directions at right angles : the latter
arrangement is easily obtained with a single camera lens and
plate by a suitable arrangement of mirrors. Examples of such
double photographs are given in Plate I., figs. 2, 6, and 7. From
these it is a matter of simple geometry to obtain the true angles
between the different branches in the case of a forked track, or
any other directional property of the track.
Applications of the Method. — In Wilson's first photographs,
published in 1912, certain of the a-ray tracks showed a sharp
change of direction towards the end of the path, an example being
given in Plate I., fig. 5. This change of direction was a brilliant
confirmation of Rutherford's theory of single scattering. (See
NUCLEUS.) At the point where the change of direction takes place,
the track shows a little spur, pointing away from the direction in
which the track is bent. This spur, which is barely visible in Plate
I., fig. 5, but much more distinct with tracks showing a bigger
deflection of the a-particle, is due to ionisation produced by the
nucleus which is struck by the a-particle. This method of record-
ing the single scattering of a-particles has been developed by
Biackett, who, in the course of a large number of photographs,
has obtained some striking examples of forked tracks, showing the
path of both a-particle and struck nucleus after collision. Double
photographs, from directions at right angles were taken, to enable
the angles to be calculated. Plate I., fig. 2, is a pair of photo-
graphs of a-particle tracks in oxygen, showing a fork due to
nuclear collision: the shorter branch of the fork is made by the
struck oxygen nucleus. Plate I., fig. 7, shows a magnificent exam-
ple of a forked track in helium, where the masses of striking and
struck particle are equal. For a discussion of these photographs
see NUCLEUS.
The method has been used to study many other phenomena
attending the passage of a-rays. Rutherford, by the method of
scintillations, found that swift a-particles can dislodge a proton
from certain types of nucleus, notably the nitrogen nucleus.
Plate I., fig. 6, shows a pair of photographs of a-ray tracks in
nitrogen, taken by Biackett, actually recording the expulsion of
the proton. The path of the expelled proton is shown by the very
fine track which appears as a continuation of the 7 -ray track which
is on the extreme left in the left-hand photograph, and on the
extreme left but one in the right-hand photograph. These experi-
ments are discussed in NUCLEUS. The ejection of a proton at
high speed from a film of paraffin wax is shown in Plate I., fig. 4,
due to Meitncr: this proton comes, of course, not from a complex
nucleus, but from a hydrogen atom of the wax. Half of the
bundle of a-particles passes through the film of wax, and conse-
quently appears with diminished range : the single long fine track
is due to the proton expelled.
The method can clearly be applied to the study of the ranges
of individual a-particles, and has been used for this purpose by
Mme. Curie and by Meitner. A pretty example of a general rec-
ord of ranges is offered by Plate I., fig. 3, due to Chadwick and
Emeleus: it is a photograph of the tracks of a-particles from
thorium C-f-C', and shows very clearly the two distinct ranges,
the shorter attributed to Thorium C itself, the longer to Thorium
C'. (Sec RADIOACTIVITY.) Many effects associated with the
a-particles, which were established by less direct evidence, can be
made evident by the use of the cloud chamber: for instance, the
recoil of the radioactive atom when it discharges an a-particle
is clearly shown in some of Wilson's pictures taken with a trace
of Thorium emanation in the chamber, for at the beginning of the
track of the a-particle is a short clearly defined spur, pointing in
the opposite direction, due to the ionisation produced by the atom
itself. The same photographs show further the short life of the
atom of Thorium A (half-value period -14 sec.), for the ray
tracks occur in pairs, one due to an atom of Thorium emanation
ejecting an a-particle and becoming an atom of Thorium A, and
the other due to the ejection, within a fraction of a second, of
an a-particle by the atom of Thorium A. The slow electrons
(sometimes called 5-particlcs) ejected by the a-particle from
atoms of the gas through which it passes (see RADIOACTIVITY) ap-
pear on enlarged photographs of tracks taken at reduced pressure
as short projections, like tiny hairs, on the early part of the
tracks.
The properties of the /3-rays have also been elucidated by the
cloud chamber. Plate II., fig. 2, is the track of a slower /3-par-
ticle, magnified to show the individual droplets. It will be seen
that these occur partly in pairs of single droplets, corresponding
to positive and negative ions produced, and partly in groups, the
groups being due to the ionisation produced by secondary elec-
trons, that is, by electrons released from atoms by the electrons
of the primary beams. The track of a swift /^-particle is quite
straight as long as it retains something like its initial velocity, but
becomes curved in random directions as the particle loses speed.
Plate II., fig. 3, shows a typical track: the initial portion is quite
straight, but suffers a sudden large change of direction, which is
due to close approach to a nucleus — Rutherford's "single scat-
tering." (See NUCLEUS.) The track continues straight for a short
distance after the deflection, but then takes on gradually increas-
ing curvatures, due to accumulated small deflections — "multiple
scattering." It also exhibits branches, due to the ionisation pro-
duced by comparatively swift secondary electrons. Photographs
have also been obtained showing forked /9-ray tracks, due to the
collision of the ^-particle with an atomic electron, both electrons
producing ionisation after the impact.
The photographs of the tracks produced by the electrons lib-
640
WILTON— WILTSHIRE
crated by X-rays have yielded very valuable results. A good gen-
eral idea of the appearance produced by a beam of X-rays is
afforded by Plate II., fig. i, which is a little less than natural
size. The X-rays come from the right, and traverse a plate of
silver in the middle of the ionisation chamber. Before passing
through the plate the tracks of the electron released form so
dense a mass that the individual tracks cannot be seen: passage
through the silver weakens the beam sufficiently for the separate
tracks to be distinguished. The intense patch of tracks round
the silver plate is due to radiations emitted by the copper under
the influence of the primary beam. The picture serves to empha-
size that the ionisation produced by X-rays is a secondary effect
due to the electrons which they eject from the atoms of the gases
in their path. Careful measurement of the tracks of electrons
ejected by the characteristic K radiations from selected metals
(see X-RAYS) have enabled close estimates to be made of the
range in air of electrons corresponding to a given voltage.
The quantum theory has been strikingly illustrated by cloud
tracks. Plate II., fig. 4, shows the result of a very weak X-radia-
tion falling on a copper plate. A single electron track will be seen
coming from the plate, and another single electron track starting
from a gaseous atom; such pairs have been frequently photo-
graphed. They are simply explained by attributing the first track
to <an electron ejected, by the action of the primary beam, from
the K level of a copper atom, which must then adjust its electron
levels with emission of a quantum of copper K-radiations. (See
X-RAYS; QUANTUM THEORY.) The other electron track must
be due to an electron ejected from an oxygen or nitrogen atom
by this quantum of radiation. The method has thus rendered visi-
ble the tracks of two electrons, associated respectively with the
emission and absorption of a single quantum of X-radiation.
The passage of hard X-rays through a gas produces different
types of electron tracks. Wilson distinguishes, besides the long
tracks due to secondary electrons which have practically the full
energy hv, and have already been discussed, "sphere," "comma,"
and "fish" tracks. Examples of all of these can be found in Plate
II., fig. 5: the sphere tracks are simply white dots, the term
comma is self-explanatory, and the fish tracks are the short curved
tracks with one end thicker than the other — fish swimming in the
direction in which the X-rays are travelling. These short tracks
are due to comparatively slow electrons, and the different forms
are easily explained if it is remembered that the intensity of ion-
isation increases as the speed of the electron diminishes. A very
slow electron will be deviated through very large angles in a very
short path, and will produce large ionisations, making a little
patch of droplets, or sphere track; a somewhat faster electron
will have a more clearly defined line as its initial portion, and will
forrrt a "comma"; while an electron with slightly greater speed
will present the form of an elongated comma, or "fish." These
short tracks appear in appreciable numbers only when the pri-
mary X-radiation is very hard, and all their peculiarities are
easily explained in terms of the Compton effect, of whose validity
they offer strong confirmation. In the Compton effect a quantum
of X-radiation interacts with an atom on which it falls in such
a way that a quantum of softer radiation is scattered, the balance
of energy appearing as kinetic energy of an electron. The energy
of this so-called recoil electron depends upon its direction, which
is bound up with the direction of scattering of the quantum of
radiation, and is greatest when the electron proceeds in the direc-
tion of the incident rays. This accounts at once for the fact that
the fish tracks all have their heads away from the source of radia-
tion, as if swimming with the stream. The sphere tracks are due
to recoil electrons of low initial velocities, thrown off at right
angles, say, and the commas constitute an intermediate class. POT
further details, see the article COMPTON EFFECT. Many measure-
ments on long and short tracks, by A. H. Compton and A. W.
Simon, J. M. Nuttall and Williams and others, have confirmed the
theory put forward by Compton.
Further references to the use of the Wilson Cloud Chamber
will be found in the articles COMPTON EFFECT, PHOTOELECTRICITY,
NUCLEUS, RADIOACTIVITY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the original experiments on condensation on
dust particles see J. Aitken, Collected Scientific Papers, (1923). For
the early experiments on the steam jet consult R. von Helmholtz and
F. Richarz, Vber die Einwirkung chemischer und eleketrischer Processe
auf den Dampfstrahl und iiber die Dissociation der Case, insbesondere
des Sauerstoffs, Annalen der Physik, 40, 161, 1890, and F. Richarz,
Uber Wirkung der Rontgenstrahlen auf den Dampfstrahl, Annalen der
Physik, 59, 592, 1896. A collected account, with full references, of the
early work on condensation on nuclei is given by K. Przjbram, Die
Vntersuchungen iiber die Kondensation von Ddmpfen an Kernen,
Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitat, 8, 285 (1911). For the theory of the
condensation on ions, and a general account of C. T. R. Wilson's work,
see J. J. Thomson and G. P. Thomson, Conduction of Electricity
through Gases, Vol. i. (1928). C. T. R. Wilson's chief papers are: On
Condensation of Water Vapour in the Presence of Dust-free Air,
Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society, 189, 265 (1897) ; On a
Method of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising Particles through a
Gas, Proceedings Royal Society A. 85, 285 (1911); On an Expansion
Method for making Visible the Tracks of Ionising Particles in Gases
and some Results obtained by its Use, Proceedings Royal Society, A. 87,
277 (1912) ; On Some a-Ray Tracks, Proceedings Cambridge Philoso-
phical Society, 21, 205 (1922) ; Investigations on X-Rays and 0-Rays
by the Cloud Method, Proceedings Royal Society, A. 104, i, 1923,
A. 104, 192 (1923). Beautiful examples of a-ray tracks taken by the
Wilson method are published by L. Meitner and K. Freitag, Vber die
ct-Strahlen des Th C -\- C' und ihr Verhalten beim Durchgang durch
verschiedene Case, Zeitschrift fiir Physik. 37, 481 (1926). A general
account of C. T. R. Wilson's work on the cloud chamber is given in
his discourse On the Cloud Method of Making Visible Ions and the
Tracks of Ionising Particles, delivered in 1927 on the occasion of his
receiving the Nobel Prize, and published in Les Prix Nobet (1927) .
(E. N. DA C. A.)
WILTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Salis-
bury parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by
S. of London, on the S. and G.W. railways. Pop. (1921) 2,021.
It lies among the pastures beside the rivers Nadder and Wylye.
The Wilton house, a little to the south, was founded by William
Herbert, first earl of Pembroke by the second creation, on the
estates of the dissolved convent which were granted him by Henry
VIII., and rebuilt later, part of it being designed by Inigo Jones.
Tradition has it that Shakespeare and his company played here
before James I. in 1603, and the house is rich in memories of Sir
Philip Sidney, Holbein and Vandyck, Jonson and Massinger.
Carpet-making forms the main industry of Wilton; the most
famous fabrics being those known as Wilton carpets; Brussels
carpets; Saxony carpets made of short-staple wool; and the rich
and durable Axminsters, long woven by hand at Axminster in
Devon. It is also an important centre for the sale of sheep.
A chantry was founded here about A.D. 800, afterwards changed
into a priory of Benedictine sisters. It was refounded by Alfred
and lasted until the dissolution of the monasteries. Antiquaries
have seen in Wilton the capital of a British kingdom. It was
certainly the chief town of the Wilsaetas, or men of Wilts, whom
Cynric the Saxon leader crushed in 556. It afterwards became a
residence of the Wessex kings; and here, in 871, Alfred was
severely defeated by the Danes. Wilton was burned in 1003 by
Sweyn, the Danish king. In 1141 Queen Matilda celebrated
Easter here with great pomp, and two years later Stephen, who
came to found a castle, was driven off by her adherents. The
prosperity of Wilton began to fail when Icknield Street, the great
highway of commerce, was diverted to pass through Salisbury in
1224; and its decline was hastened by the plague, by which a
third of the townsfolk were swept away in 1349.
Two members were returned to parliament from 1293 to 1832
and one from 1832 to 1885, at which date Wilton lost its separate
representation. The September sheep fair is one of the largest
in England.
WILTSHIRE, a county of England, bounded north-west and
north by Gloucestershire, north-east and east by Berkshire, south-
east by Hampshire, south-west and south by Dorsetshire, and west
by Somersetshire. Area 1,374-9 sq. miles. About two-thirds is
chalk upland, and the remainder is a series of clay plains and
scarps bordering it on the north-west. The uplands consist of
the broad western end of the Kennet syncline with drainage east-
ward of the Marlborough downs (400 ft.-9oo ft. Inkpen beacon,
on the borders of Berks, Wilts and Hants, 1,011 ft.); the narrow
anticlines of Ham and of the Vale of Pewscy (200 ft. -400 ft.)
WILTSHIRE
641
with drainage eastward to the head streams of the Salisbury Avon,
and westward to tributaries of the Bristol Avon; the wide-rolling
Salisbury plain (400 ft.-8oo ft.), dipping to the south-east, though
riling in Cranborne Chase on the south to 911 ft., and drained by
the Salisbury Avon (rising near Bishops Cannings), the Wylye,
the Nadder, the Ebble (draining the Vale of Chalk), and the
Bourne (rising near Ludgershall), all of which unite at or near
Salisbury.
The Tertiary rocks of the Hampshire basin rest upon the chalk
uplands in the extreme south-east corner of the county, Reading
beds and London clay east of Downton and on the Clarendon
Hills; these are covered by Bagshot sands at Alderbury, Grim-
stead and Hampworth common; Tertiaries of the London basin
appear as outliers south-east of Marlborough, Reading beds and
London clay occurring round Great Bcdwyn. The edge of the
chalk uplands forms a scarp to the north-west, from beneath which
outcrops a fringe of the Sclbornian — Upper Greensand and Gault
— the former is well exposed in the Valp of Pcwsey, west of De-
vizes and marginally in the Vale of Wardour; it forms an elevated
tract from Mere through Stourton to Warminster. Lower Green-
sand appears from beneath the Gault at Poulshot and follows the
same line of outcrop northward; a small outlier at Scend is worked
for iron. At Dinton in the Vale of Wardour the Wealden formation
appears. The rest of the north-west area is occupied by Jurassic
rocks, the following appearing in small outcrops: Purbeck lime-
stones and clays at Teffont Evias, and Portland stone at Tisbury,
south of Pott erne and south of Swindon. Beyond the Lower
Greensand lies a narrow belt of Kimmeridgc clay from Semley to
Mere (where it is faulted against the Cretaceous) ; Westbury to
Seend; Calne to Swindon (where it is used for bricks).
Beyond the plain, rises the irregular scarp of the Corallian
oolitic limestones and marks, and again beyond this, the Oxford
clay and Kellaways beds of the Middle Oolite, forming a broad,
low plain (known at its north-east end as the Vale of White Horse,
draining north-eastward to the Thames) on which stand Trow-
bridge, Melksham, Chippenham and Cricklade, and which is
drained by the Upper Bristol Avon flowing south-west. Bounding
the plain is the rubbly Cornbrash, which outcrops at Westwood,
Trowbridge and Malmesbury. This is succeeded further west by
the Great Oolite series which includes the building-stones of Bath,
quarried at Winsley down, near Bradford and at Box, Corsham
down and elsewhere. Above the freestones near Bradford comes
the Bradford clay (with fossil Apiocrinus) followed by the Forest
Marble limestones and clays. Still further west follows a rim
of Inferior Oolite and Fuller's earth giving place to upper lias in
the valley of a tributary of the Avon near Box. Here and there,
gravels and brick earths rest upon the older rocks.
Climate and Agriculture. — The downs of the uplands are
mostly covered with coarse grass; the valleys are fertile and
well-wooded. Three ancient forests remain: Savernake, south of
Marlborough; Cranborne Chase (partly in Dorset) and No Man's
Land and Hampworth common, which arc outlying parts of the
New Forest (Hants). There are also some fine parks. The low-
lands and clay plains are mostly under grass for dairying purposes.
Sheep are the basis of upland farming, but the milk demand of
London and the local co-operative dairies are gradually converting
more farms to dairying. Annual rainfall varies from 27 to 40 in.,
the temperature from 39° to 40° F in January and from 62° to
63° F in July. The winter climate is bleak.
History and Early Settlement.— Wiltshire was densely peo-
pled at a very early period; and it is rich in pre-historic remains.
Its most famous monument is Stonehenge (q.v.), 2 m. N.N.W. of
Salisbury (which had a supposed wooden prototype "Woodhenge"
about 2 m. to the north-east). At Avebury there are avenues of
monoliths leading to what was once a stone circle, surrounded by
an earthwork, and enclosing two lesser circles. A valley near
Avebury is filled with immense Sarsen blocks, perhaps of pre-
historic origin; there are also many menhirs and dolmens. Circles,
formed by a ditch within a bank, are common, as also grave
mounds or barrows. Plentiful traces of primitive agriculture are
found in rectangular-shaped fields and lynchets or cultivation ter-
races on the hill sides.
Of ancient strongholds there are Vespasian's Camp, near Ames-
bury; Silbury hill, the largest artificial mound in Europe, near
Avebury; the mounds of Marlborough and Old Sarum (an impor-
tant road centre in Roman times and a mediaeval town of impor-
tance) ; the camps of Battlesbury and Scratchbury, near Warmin-
ster; Yarnbury, to the north of Wylye, in perfect preservation;
Casterley, on a riclgeway about 7 m. E.S.E. of Devizes; White-
sheet and Winkclbury, overlooking the Vale of Chalk; Chisbury,
near Savernake; Sidbury, near Ludgershall; and Figbury Ring,
3 m. N.E. of Salisbury. Ogbury, 6 m. N. of Salisbury is a British
enclosure. Durrington walls, north of Amesbury, may be remains
of a British village, and there are similar ones on Salisbury plain
and Marlborough downs. Of Roman work, Wans dyke or Woden's
dyke, one of the largest extant entrenchments, runs west for about
60 m. from a point east of Savernake nearly to the Bristol chan-
nel. Its date has often been discussed and it has been described
as Romano-British and as post-Roman; it consists of a bank,
with a trench on the north side and was clearly for defence; forts
strengthened it at intervals. Bokerly dyke (part of the boundary
between Wilts and Dorset) is the largest among several similar
entrenchments, with a dilch north of the rampart.
Settlements on the Greensand consist of small scattered home-
steads; on the Chalk there arc compact villages along spring
lines, and parishes lie in long narrow strips across the scarp so as
to include hill pasture, and valley arable or meadow. Parishes
originally in forest clearings seem to be characterized by churches
placed centrally with roads radiating from them. The valleys also
suggest downward migration of settlement from Chalk ridgeway
to hillside road and, later, to lowland routes. Cynric's victory at
Old Sarurn (552) began the conquest of the present Wiltshire;
his victory at Barbury hill in 556, extended the West Saxon king-
dom to the Marlborough downs. At this period the district south
of the Avon and the Nadder was dense woodland, of which Cran-
borne Chase survives and at first West Saxon colonization was
chiefly confined to the valleys of the Avon and the Wylye. There
was a definite administrative and territorial organization in the
Qth century. Walstan, ealdorman of the Wilsaetan, being men-
tioned as repelling a Mercian invasion (Soo). "Wiltunscire" is
mentioned by Asser (878) and in this year the Danes established
their headquarters at Chippenham. In the time of Aethelstan
mints existed at Old Sarum, Malmesbury, Wilton, Cricklade and
Marlborough. Wilton and Salisbury were destroyed by the Dan-
ish invaders under Sweyn in 1003, and in 1015 the district was
harried by Canute. After the Conquest more than two-fifths of
the county fell to the church; one-fifth to the Crown.
In 1086, after the completion of Domesday, Salisbury was
the scene of a great council, in which all the landholders took oaths
of allegiance to the king, and a similar council assembled at Salis-
bury in 1116. At Clarendon in 1166 was drawn up the assize which
remodelled the provincial administration of justice. Parliaments
were held at Marlborough in 1267 and at Salisbury in 1328 and
1384. During the wars of Stephen, Salisbury, Devizes and Malmes-
bury were garrisoned by Roger, bishop of Salisbury, for the em-
press, but in 1138 Stephen seized the bishop and captured Devizes
castle. In 1216 Marlborough castle was surrendered to Louis by
Hugh de Neville. Hubert de Burgh escaped in 1233 from Devizes
castle. In the Civil War, Wiltshire supported the Parliamentary
cause, displaying a spirit of violent anti-Catholicism, and efforts
to raise a party for the king met with resistance from the inhabi-
tants. In the early stage of the struggle, Marlborough was cap-
tured for the king in 1642 while in 1643 the earl of Essex was
routed by Charles I. and Prince Rupert at Aldbourne, and in the
same year Waller, after failing to capture Devizes, was defeated
in a skirmish at Roundway down. In 1645 the "Clubmen" of
Dorset and Wiltshire were organized to punish any member of
either party discovered plundering. Devizes, the last stronghold
of the Royalists, was captured by Cromwell in 1645. In 1655 a ris-
ing organized on behalf of the king at Salisbury was dispersed.
At the time of Domesday Wiltshire was almost exclusively agri-
cultural; 390 mills are mentioned, and vineyards at Tollard and
Lacock. Under the Cistercians, sheep-farming developed, and in
the 1 3th and i4th centuries the monasteries of Kingswood and
642
WILUNA— WIMBORNE
Stanlegh exported wool to the Florentine and Flemish markets.
Wiltshire was among the chief of the clothing counties,
the principal centres being Bradford, Malmesbury, Trowbridge,
Devizes and Chippenham. In the i6th century Devizes was noted
for its blankets, Warminster had a famous corn-market, and cheese
was extensively made in north Wiltshire. Amesbury was famous
for its tobacco pipes in the i6th century. The clothing trade
went through a period of depression in the i;th century, partly
owing to the constant outbreaks of plague. Linen, cotton, gloves
and cutlery were also manufactured in the county, silk at Malmes-
bury, and carpets at Wilton.
Architecture. — Among the monastic buildings are the ruined
Abbeys of Malmesbury and of Lacock near Melksham. There are
traces of the hospital for leprous women (afterwards an Austin
priory) at Maiden Bradley. Monkton Farleigh had its Cluniac
priory, founded as a cell of Lewes in the i3th century. A college
for a dean and 12 prebendaries, afterwards a monastery of Bon-
homines, was founded in 1347 at Edington. The church, Dec-
orated and Perpendicular, resembles a cathedral in size and beauty.
The i4th century buildings of Bradenstoke priory or Cleck abbey,
founded near Chippenham for Austin canons, arc incorporated in
a farmhouse. The finest churches of Wiltshire, generally Perpen-
dicular, were built in districts of good stone, while the architecture
is more simple in the Chalk region, where flint was used. Small
wooden steeples and pyramidal bell-turrets are not uncommon;
and the churches of Purton, 3^ m. N.W. of Swindon, and Wan-
borough, 3 m. S.E., have each two steeples, one in the centre, one
at the west end. St. Lawrence's at Bradford-on-Avon is one of the
most perfect Saxon churches in England. Three arches in the
nave of Britford church, within a mile of Salisbury; the east
end of the chancel at Burcombe, near Wilton; and parts of the
churches at Bremhill, and at Manningford Bruce or Braose in the
Vale of Pewsey are all Saxon work. Norman work is found in
the churches of St. John and St. Mary, Devizes, the churches of
Preshute, near Marlborough, Ditteridge or Ditcheridge, near Box,
and Nether Avon, near Amesbury. Early English is illustrated
by Salisbury cathedral, its purest and most beautiful example;
and, on a smaller scale, at Amesbury, Bishops Cannings, Boyton
in the Vale of the Wylye, Collingbourne Kingston, east of Salis-
bury plain, Downton and Potterne, near Devizes. Bishopstone, in
the Vale of Chalk, has the finest Decorated church in the county.
Mere, has a Perpendicular church, with a mediaeval chantry, used
as a schoolhouse by Barnes, the Dorsetshire poet, as well as I4th
century dwelling-houses.
The castles of Wiltshire have almost disappeared. At Old
Sarum, Marlborough and Devizes only a few vestiges are left.
Castle Combe and Trowbridge castle have long been demolished,
and of Ludgershall castle only a small fragment survives. The
ruins of Wardour castle (i4th century) consist of a high hexagonal
outer wall, enclosing an open court. The i8th century castle, one
mile distant, is noteworthy for its collection of paintings, and,
for the "Glastonbury Cup'* said to be made of wood from the
celebrated thorn. Place House, in Tisbury, and Barton farm, at
Bradford, date from the i4th century. Fifteenth century work is
best exemplified in the manor-houses of Norrington (Vale of
Chalk); Teffont Evias (Vale of Nadder); Potterne; and Great
Chaldfield, near Monkton Farleigh.
Manufactures and Communications. — Many hands are em-
ployed in the G. W. Railway locomotive works at Swindon. There
are also large engineering works at Devizes. Cloth is still woven
at Trowbridge, Melksham, Chippenham and other places where
water-power is available. Carpets are woven at Wilton, haircloth
and coco-nut fibre at Melksham, silk at Malmesbury, Mere and
Warminster. Portland and Bath stone are quarried, while iron
ore near Westbury is smelted in that town.
Three great railways traverse Wiltshire from east to west. In
the north one main line of the G. W. Railway passes through
Swindon from London to Bath; a second runs from Hungerford
to Bath via Devizes. South of Salisbury plain the Southern main
line goes through Salisbury into Somerset. Important branch lines
of the G. W. Railway link up Salisbury and Westbury as also
Cricklade, Swindon and Marlborough with the Southern Railway,
Swindon, Salisbury and Westbury are the three centres of rail-
way traffic. The Avon is navigable as far as Salisbury, and goods
are carried on the Thames and Severn canal in the north-east and
on the Kennct and Avon canal across Salisbury plain.
The area of the ancient county is 879,943 ac., with a pop. (1921)
of 292,208. Area of the administrative county 864,101 acres. The
municipal boroughs are: Calne, Chippenham, Devizes, Malmes-
bury, Marlborough, Salisbury, a city and the county town, Swin-
don, Wilton. The county is in the western circuit, and assizes are
held at Salisbury and Devizes. It has one court of quarter ses-
sions, and is divided into 16 petty sessional divisions. The bor-
oughs of Devizes and Salisbury have separate courts of quarter
sessions and commissions of the peace, and the borough of Marl-
borough has a separate commission of the peace. There are 335
civil parishes. Wiltshire is mainly in the diocese of Salisbury, but
a considerable part is in that of Bristol, and small parts in those
of Gloucester, Oxford and Winchester. It contains 322 ecclesiasti-
cal parishes or districts, wholly or in part. The county is divided
into five parliamentary divisions. Chippenham, Devizes, Salisbury,
Swindon, Westbury, each returning one member.
See Victoria County History, Wiltshire; Sir R. C. Hoare, The An-
cient History of Wiltshire (2 vols., London, 1812-21), The History of
Modern Wiltshire (14 pts. London, 1822-44) ; Aubrey's Collections for
Wiltshire, edited by Sir T. Phillipps, pts. i, 2 (London, 1821) ; Leland's
Journey through Wiltshire, A.D. 1540-1542, with notes by J. E. Jackson
(Devizes, 1875) ; W. H. Jones, Domesday for Wiltshire (Bath, 1865) ;
John Britton, The Beauties of Wiltshire (3 vols., London, 1801-25) ;
J. E. Jackson, The Sheriff's Tourn, Co. Wilts. A.D. 1439 (Devizes,
1872) ; see also Proceedings of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural
History Society; Highways and Byways in Wilt shire, cd. Hutton
(1919).
WILUNA, a mining district and settlement in Western Aus-
tralia, situated in the Central Division about an equal distance
(c. 1 20 miles) east of Meekatharra and north by east of Sand-
stone, these mining settlements being at present the nearest rail-
heads. (Meekatharra-Perth: 600 miles; Sandstone-Perth 575;
Meekatharra-Oeraldton : 334; Sandstone-Geraldton 309 miles,
by rail.) Auriferous deposits of vast extent have been discovered
here and the area is at present in process of vigorous development.
The Wiluna Gold Corporation, which holds mining rights over
nearly i sq. mile, has (1928) proved i million tons of 4<D/— ore
within a relatively small portion of its area and it is reported
that the values appear to increase with depth.
WIMBLEDON, a residential suburb of London, in Surrey,
England, and adjoining the metropolitan borough of Wandsworth,
8 m. S.W. of Charing Cross. Pop. (1921) 61,418. Wimbledon
has noted sports grounds, especially for tennis and cricket.
Wimbledon (Wibbandune) is supposed to have been the scene
of a battle in 568 between Ccawlin, king of Wessex, and ^thel-
behrt, king of Kent, in which Aethelberht was defeated and an
earthwork which existed on the common may have marked the
site. At Coombe's hill and elsewhere British relics have been
found. Wimbledon was incorporated in 1905.
WIMBORNE ( WIMBORNE MINSTER), a market town, in
the eastern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, m^ m. S. W.
by W. from London; served by the Southern and the S. and
L.M.S. joint railways. Pop. of urban district (1921) 3,743. It
is situated on a gentle slope above the river Allen near its con-
fluence with the Stour. The town depends chiefly on agriculture;
but the manufacture of hose is carried on to a small extent, and
there are also coachbuilding works.
Although Wimborne (Wimbwn) has been identified with the
Vindogladia of the Antonine Itinerary, the first undoubted evi-
dence of settlement is the entry of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
under the date 718, that Cuthburh, sister of King Ine, founded
the abbey here; to this the old church of St. Cuthburga be-
longed. The importance of the foundation made it the burial-place
of King Aethelred in 871, and of King Sifferth in 962. Aethelwald
siezed and fortified Wimborne in his revolt in 901 against Edward
the Elder. The early abbey was probably destroyed by the Danes
in the reign of Aethelred the Unready (978-1015), for in 1043
Edward the Confessor founded here a college of secular canons.
The college remained unaltered until 1496, when Margaret,
countess of Richmond, obtained letters patent from her son,
WINBURG— WINCHESTER
643
Henry VII., to found a chantry, in connection with which she
established a school. The continuance of this was recommended
by the commissioners of 1547, and in 1562 Elizabeth vested a
great part of the property of the former college in a school cor-
poration of twelve governors, who had charge of the church.
See John Hutchins, The History and Antiquities of the County of
Dorset (3rd edition, Westminster, 1861) ; Anon., History of Wimbome
Minster (London, 1860) ; Victoria County History of Dorset.
WINBURG, a town in the Orange Free State, 90 m. N.E. by
rail of Bloemfontein. White population 1,250. It is built by the
banks of a tributary of the Vet affluent of the Vaal, and is a
trading centre for a large grain and pastoral district. It is joined
to the trunk railway from Port Elizabeth to the Transvaal by a
branch line from Smaldeel, 28 m. N.W. The town was founded in
1837 by Commandant H. Potgieter, one of the voortrekers, and
was named by him in commemoration of a victory gained over
the Matabele chief Mosilikatze. It became the capital of a
quasi-independent Boer state. In 1848 the town and district were
annexed to Great Britain and thereaftdr followed the fortune of
the Orange river sovereignty. (See ORANGE FREE STATE.)
WINCHCOMB, a town in Gloucestershire, England, 7 m.
N.E. of Cheltenham, among the Cotswold Hills, in the valley
of the Isbourne stream. Pop. (1921) 2,741.
Excavations indicate both British and Roman settlements at
Winchcomb. Here were founded religious houses by Offa and
Coenwulf of Mercia (8th century). It became a borough in
Saxon times, wus the chief town of a shire of Winchcomb and
the seat of government of the Mercian kings. Paper and silk fac-
tories were introduced about 1830.
The Perpendicular church of St. Peter, cruciform, with central
tower, is a good example. Sudeley Castle (i4th century) was
given by Edward VI. to Sir Thomas Seymour, fourth husband
of Catherine Parr; this queen died and was buried here.
WINCHELSEA, ANNE FINCH, COUNTESS OF (1661-
1720), English author, daughter of Sir William Kingsmill of Sid-
monton, near Southampton, was born in April 1661. In 1683,
Anne was one of the maids of honour of Mary of Modena, duchess
of York. She married in 1684 Col. Heneage Finch, who in 1712,
on the death of his nephew Charles, became the 5th earl of Win-
chelsea. The countess of Winchelsea died in London on Aug.
5, 1720. Anne Finch's poems contain many copies of verse ad-
dressed to her friends and contemporaries. She was to some ex-
tent a follower of the "matchless Orinda" in the fervour of her
friendships. During her lifetime she published her poem "The
Spleen" in Gildorfs Miscellany (1701) and a volume of Poems in
1713 which included a tragedy called Aristomcnes.
Edmund Gosse wrote a notice of her poems for T. H. Ward's
English Poets (vol. iii., 1880), and in 1884 came into possession of a
ms. volume of her poems. A complete edition of her verse, The
Poems of Anne, Countess of Winchelsea, was edited by Myra Reynolds
(Chicago, 1903) with an exhaustive essay, and a new edition by John
Middleton Murray (1928). See also E. Gosse, Gossip in a Library
(1891), and E. Dowden, Essays, Modern and Elizabethan, Words-
worth's anthology for Lady Mary Lowther was first printed in 1905
(Oxford). Some of her work remains in ms. in. the possession of Pro-
fessor Dowden.
WINCHELSEA, ROBERT (d. 1313), archbishop of Can-
terbury, was probably born at Old Winchelsea. He studied in
Paris, and was rector of the university at some period before
1267; he then taught at Oxford, where he became chancellor of the
university in 1288. He held prebendal stalls in the cathedrals of
Lincoln -and St. Paul's, and was made archdeacon of Essex about
1283. In 1293, he succeeded Peckham as archbishop of Canter-
bury. His consecration, which took place at Aquila in Sept. 1294,
was delayed owing to the vacancy in the papacy, but he found no
difficulty in obtaining the temporalities of the see from King Ed-
ward I. Winchelsea is chiefly renowned as a strenuous upholder of
the privileges of the clergy and the authority of the pope, and as a
fearless opponent of Edward I. He assisted the barons in their
struggle with Edward II. by a frequent use of spiritual weapons,
and took part in the proceedings against the Templars. He died at
Otford on May n, 1313. Miracles were said to have been worked
at his tomb in Canterbury cathedral but extensive efforts to pro-
cure his canonization all proved unavailing.
See Chronicles af the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward //., edited
with introduction by W. Stubbs (London, 1882-83) ; S. Birchington,
in the An^lia sacra, edited by H. Wharton (London, 1691) ; and
W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896).
WINCHELSEA, a village in the Rye parliamentary division
of Sussex, England, 9 m, N.E. by E. from Hastings by a sec-
tion of the S. railway. Pop. (1921) 152. It stands on an abrupt
hill-spur rising above flat lowlands which form a southward con-
tinuation of Romncy marsh. This was within historic times a
great inlet of the English Channel, and Winchelsea was a famous
seaport until the isth century. Two gates, the one of the time
of Edward I., the other erected early in the i$th century, overlook
the marshes; a third stands at a considerable distance west of
the town, its position pointing the contrast between the extent
of the ancient town and that of the shrunken village of to-day.
The town was laid out by Edward I. with regular streets inter-
secting at right angles; the form is preserved, and in a picturesque
open space in the centre stands the church of St. Thomas a
Becket. This comprises only the chancel and aisles of a building
which, if entire, would rank as one of the finest parish churches in
England. As it stands it. is of the highest interest, showing remark-
able Decorated work, with windows of beautiful and unusual
design, and a magnificent series of canopied tombs.
Winchelsea as a Cinque Port was summoned to parliament in
1264-1265 and returned two members from 1366 till 1832, when
it was disfranchised. Ship-building and fishing were carried on in
the i3th and i4th centuries. In later years Winchelsea became a
great resort for smugglers, and the vaults originally constructed
for the Gascon wine trade were used for storing contraband goods.
WINCHENDON, a town of Worcester county, Massachu-
setts, U.S.A., near the northern boundary of the State; served
by the Boston and Albany and the Boston and Maine railways.
Pop. (1925) 6,173 (State census). It has a variety of manufac-
turing industries, and is known as "Toy Town" from the principal
one. In 1764 the plantation called Ipswich-Canada was incorpo-
rated as the town of Winchendon.
WINCHESTER, a city and municipal and parliamentary
borough of Hampshire, England, 66i m. south-west by west from
London by the S. railway; served also by the Southampton branch
of the G.W. railway, with a separate station. Pop. (1921) 23,791.
It occupies a hilly and picturesque site in and above the valley
of the Itchen, lying principally on the left bank. The surrounding
hills are chalk down, but the valley is well wooded.
The Cathedral. — The erection of Winchester into an epis-
copal see may be placed early in the second half of the 7th cen-
tury, though it cannot be dated exactly. The West Saxon see
was removed hither from Dorchester on the Thame, and the first
bishop of Winchester was Hedda (d. 705). The modern diocese
including nearly the whole of Hampshire, part of Surrey and very
small portions of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire and Sussex, was found
to be too unwieldy and in 1927 was divided into the dioceses of
Winchester, Guildford and Portsmouth, the first including the
whole of Hampshire together with the Channel Isles. St. Swithin
(852-862), well known through the connection of his feast day
(i5th July) with the superstition that weather-conditions thereon
determine those of the next forty days, is considered to have
enlarged the cathedral, as are Aethelwold (963-984) and Alphege
(984-1005). The history of the Saxon building, however, is
very slight, and as usual, its place was taken by a Norman one,
erected by Bishop Walkelin (1070-1098). The cathedral church
of St. Swithin lies in the lower part of the city in a wide and
beautiful walled close. It is not very conspicuous from a distance,
a low central tower alone rising above the general level of the
roof. It consists of a nave, transepts, choir and retrochoir, all
with aisles, and a lady-chapel forms the eastward termination.
The work of the exterior, of whatever date, is severely plain.
The cathedral, however, is the longest in England, and indeed
exceeds any other church of its character in length, which is
close upon 556 ft. Within, the effect of this feature is very fine.
The magnificent Perpendicular nave is the work of Bishop Eding-
ton (1346-1366) and the famous William of Wykeham (1367-
644
WINCHESTER
1404), by whom only the skeleton of Walkelin's work was re-
tained. The massive Norman work of the original building, how-
ever, remains comparatively intact in both transepts. The central
tower is Norman, but later than Walkelin's structure. The
choir is largely Ellington's work, though the clerestory is later, and
the eastern part of the cathedral shows construction of several
dates. Here appears the fine Early English construction of Bishop
de Lucy (1189-1204), in the retrochoir and the lady-chapel,
though this was considerably altered later.
The square font of black marble is a fine example of Norman
art, its sides sculptured with scenes from the life of St. Nicholas
of Myra. The magnificent reredos behind the high altar must
have been erected late in the isth century. A second stone screen,
placed at the interval of one bay behind the great reredos, served
to enclose the small chapel in which stood the gold shrine, studded
with jewels, the gift, of King Edgar, which contained the body
of St. Swithin. Under many of the arches of the nave and choir
are a number of very elaborate chantry chapels, each containing
the tomb of its founder. The most notable are the monuments
of Bishops Edington, Wykeham, Waynflcte, Cardinal Beaufort,
Langton and Fox. The door of iron grilles, of beautiful design,
now in the north nave aisle, is considered to be the oldest work of
its character in England; its date is placed in the nth or i2th cen-
tury. The mortuary chests in the presbytery contain the bones of
Saxon kings who were buried here. The remains were collected
in this manner by Bishop Henry de Blois (1129-1171), and again
after they had been scattered by. the soldiers of Cromwell. The
choir stalls furnish a magnificent example of Decorated wood-
work, and much stained glass of the Decorated and Perpendicular
periods remains in fragmentary form. The library contains a
Vulgate of the i:th century, a finely ornamented ins. on vellum.
In 1905 serious signs of weakness were manifested in the fabric
of the cathedral, and it was found that a large part of the founda-
tion was insecure, being laid on piles, or tree-trunks set flat, in soft
and watery soil. Extensive works of restoration, including the
underpinning of the foundations with cement concrete (which ne-
cessitated the employment of divers), were carried out between
1906 and 1912.
The Minster and Hyde Abbey — King Alfred founded a
minster immediately north of the present site of the cathedral,
and here he and other Saxon kings were buried. The house, known
as Hyde Abbey, was removed (as was Alfred's body) to a point
outside the walls considerably north of the cathedral, during
the reign of Henry I. Here foundations may be traced, and a
gateway remains. To the east of the cathedral are ruins of
Wolvesey Castle, a foundation of Henry dc Blois, where the
bishops resided. On the southern outskirts of the city, in the
pleasant water-meadows by the Itchcn, is the Hospital of St.
Cross. This also was founded by Henry de Blois, in 1136,
whose wish was to provide board and lodging for 13 poor men
and a daily dinner for 100 others. It was reformed by William
of Wykeham, and enlarged and mostly rebuilt by Cardinal Beau-
fort (1405-1447). The buildings form three sides of a quad-
rangle, with a lawn and sun-dial in its midst; while the fourth
side is partly open, and partly formed by the magnificent cruci-
form church. The earliest parts of this building are late or
transitional Norman, but other parts are Early English or Dec-
orated. The work throughout is very rich and massive. St. Cross
is a unique example of a mediaeval almshouse, and its pictur-
esqueness is enhanced by the curious costume of its inmates. It
is still customary to provide a dole of bread and beer to all who
desire it. A site of TOO acres in the St. Cross district has recently
been developed as a garden city. King's Gate and West Gate alone
remain of the gates in the walls which formerly surrounded the
city. The West Gate is a fine structure of the T3th century. In
the High Street stands the graceful Perpendicular city cross. The
county hall embodies remains of the Norman castle, and in it is
preserved the so-called King Arthur's round table. This is sup*
I>osed to date actually from the time of King Stephen, but the
painted designs upon it are of the Tudor period. New county
council offices on Castle Hill were opened in 191 1, and a chamber
of commerce was founded in 1919.
Winchester is famous as an educational centre, and in addition
to Winchester College there are several modern preparatory
schools. The College of St. Mary, lying to the south of the
cathedral close, is one of the greatest of English public schools.
While a monastic school was in existence here from very early
times, the college was originated in 1387 by William of Wyke-
ham, whose famous scheme of education embraced this founda-
tion and that of New College, Oxford. The buildings were com-
pleted about 1395. The quadrangles, with the fine chapel, tower,
hall and cloister arc noteworthy.
HISTORY
The history of the earliest Winchester (Winton, Wynton) is
lost in legend; tradition ascribes its foundation to Ludor Rous
Hudibras and dates it ninety-nine years before the first building of
Rome; earthworks and relics show that the Itchen valley was
occupied by Celts, and it is certain from its position at the centre
of six Roman roads and £rom the Roman relics found there that
the Caer Gwcnt (White City) of the Celts was, under the name
of Vent a Relgarum, an important Romano-British country town.
Hardly any traces of this survive, but mosaic pavements, coins,
etc., have been discovered on the south side of High Street. The
name of Winchester is indissolubly linked with that of King
Arthur and his knights, but its historical greatness begins when
after the conquest of the present Hampshire by the Gewissas, it
became the capital of Wessex.
When the kings of Wessex became kings of all England, Win-
chester became, in a sense, the capital of England, though it
always had a formidable rival in London, which was more cen-
tral in position and possessed greater commercial advantages. The
parallel position of the two cities in Anglo-Saxon times is illus-
trated by the law of Edgar, ordaining that the standard of weights
and measures for the whole kingdom should be "such as is observed
at London and at Winchester." Under Alfred it became a centre
of learning and education, to which distinguished strangers, such
as St. Grimbald and Asser the Welshman, resorted. It was the
scat of Canute's government; many of the kings, including Ecg-
berht, Alfred, Edward the Elder and Canute, were buried there.
Winchester was very prosperous in the years succeeding the
Conquest, and its omission, together with London, from Domes-
day Book is probably an indication of its peculiar position and
importance; its proximity to the New Forest commended it to
the Norman kings, and Southampton, only 12 in. distant, was
one of the chief ports for the continent. The Conqueror wore
his crown in state at Winchester every Easter, as he wore it
at Westminster at Whitsuntide and at Gloucester at Christmas.
The royal treasure continued to be stored there as it had been
in Anglo-Saxon times, and was there seized by William Rufus,
who, after his father's death, "rode to Winchester and opened
the Treasure House." 'In the reign of Stephen and again in the
reign of Henry II. the Court of Exchequer was held at Win-
chester, and the charter of John promises that the exchequer and
the mint shall ever remain in the city.
Under the Norman kings Winchester was of great commercial
importance ; it was one of the earliest seats of the woollen trade,
which in its different branches was the chief industry of the town,
although the evidence furnished by the Liber Winton (temp.
Henry I. and Stephen) indicates also a varied industrial life.
The gild merchant of Winchester claims an Anglo-Saxon origin,
but the first authentic reference to it is in one of the charters
granted to the city by Henry II. The Liber Winton speUks of a
"cnihts' gild," which certainly existed in the time of the Con-
fessor. The prosperity of Winchester was increased by the St.
Giles's Fair, originally granted by Rufus to Bishop Walkclin. It
was held on St. Giles's Hill up to the igth century, and in the
middle ages was one of the chief commercial events of the year.
From the time of the Conqueror until their expulsion by
Edward I., Winchester was the home of a large colony of Jews,
whose quarter in the city is marked to the present day by
Jewry Street ; Winchester is called by Richard of Devizes "the
Jerusalem of England" on account of its kind treatment of its
Jews, and there alone no anti- Jewish riots broke out after the
WINCHESTER— WINCKELMANN
645
coronation of Richard I. The corporation of Winchester claims
to be onfc of the oldest in England, but the earliest existing charters
are two given by Henry II., one merely granting to "my citizens
of Winchester, who are of the gild .merchant with their goods,
freedom from toll, passage and custom," the other confirming
to them all liberties and customs which they enjoyed in the time
of Henry L; further charters, amplified and confirmed by suc-
ceeding sovereigns, were granted by Richard I. and John. The
governing charter till 1835 was that of 1587, incorporating the
city under the title of the "Mayor, Bailiffs and Commonalty of
the City of Winchester"; this is the first charter which mentions
a mayor.
Winchester seems to have reached its zenith of prosperity at
the beginning of the i2th century; the first check was given
during the civil wars of Stephen's reign, when the city was burned.
However, the last entry concerning it in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
says that Henry Plantagenet, after the treaty of Wallingford, was
received with "great worship" in Winchester and London, thus
recognizing the equality of the two cities'; but the latter was rising
at Winchester's expense, and at the second coronation of Richard
I. (1294) the citizens of Winchester had the significant mortifica-
tion of seeing in their own city the citizens of London take their
place as cupbearers to the king. The loss of Normandy further
favoured the rise of London by depriving Winchester of the
advantages it had enjoyed from its convenient position with regard
to the continent.
During the Civil War the city suffered much for its loyalty to
Charles I. and lost its ancient castle founded by William I. After
the Restoration a scheme was started to restore trade by making
the Itchen navigable to Southampton, but without success. Charles
II., intending to make Winchester again a royal residence, began
a palace there, which being unfinished at his death was used
eventually as barracks. It was burnt down in 1894 and rebuilt
in 1901. Northgate and Southgate were pulled down in 1781,
Eastgate ten years later. Westgate still stands at the top of
High Street. The guard room was formerly used as a debtors'
prison, now as a museum. The two weekly markets, still held in
the Corn Exchange of Wednesday and Saturday, were confirmed
by Elizabeth's charter; the latter dates from a grant of Henry
VI. abolishing the Sunday market, which had existed from early
times. The same grant established three fairs — one on October
13 (the day of the translation of St. Edward, king and confessor),
one on the Monday and Tuesday of the first week in Lent, and
another on St. Swithin's day; the former two are still held. Win-
chester sent two members to parliament from 1295 to 1885, when
the representation was reduced to one, and since 1918 it has been
included in the county division which bears its name.
WINCHESTER, a city of Kentucky, U.S.A., the county
seat of Clark county; 18 m. E. by S. of Lexington, on Federal
highways 60 and 227, and served by the Chesapeake and Ohio
and the Louisville and Nashville railways. Pop. 8,333 in 1920
(29% negroes); estimated locally at over 11,000 in 1928. Win-
chester is in the heart of the blue-grass region, where the breeding
of horses and cattle and the raising of tobacco are the leading
interests. The city was founded in 1792 and chartered in 1793.
WINCHESTER, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., 8 m. N.W. of Boston, at the head of Upper Mystic lake;
served by the Boston and Maine railroad. Pop. (1920) 10,485
(21% foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate 12,000. Within
the town limits are two beautiful ponds, hills rising 320 ft. above
sea-level, and parts of the Mystic Valley parkway and the Middle-
sex Fells Reservation. The streets are heavily shaded with fine old
trees. In 1850 the town of Winchester was formed and named
after Col. W. P. Winchester, of Watertown, who had left it a
legacy for municipal works.
WINCHESTER, a city of northern Virginia, U.S.A., 65 m.
N.W. of Washington ; the county seat of Frederick county, but
administratively independent. It is on Federal highways n and
50, and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Pennsylvania and
the Winchester and Western railways. Pop. 6,883 in 1920 (14%
negroes) ; estimated locally at 10,000 in 1928. Winchester is pleas-
antly situated at the northern end of the fertile Shenandoah valley,
725 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded by apple orchards. It
has cold-storage warehouses with a capacity of 500,000 bbl. of
apples, and large plants making cider, vinegar, apple sauce, apple
butter and by-products. There are many buildings of historic
interest in the city: Ft. Loudoun, built by George Washington in
1756; the houses used as headquarters by Stonewall Jackson and
Sheridan; the ruins of the old Lutheran church, commenced in
1765; the stone building erected by the First Presbyterian church
in 1790; and the county court house (1840), which was used both
as a hospital and as a prison during the Civil War. The tomb of
Lord Fairfax (d. 1781) is in the Christ Protestant Episcopal
church. "Carter Hall," 10 m. S.E., is a typical ante-bellum Virginia
home. Stonewall cemetery contains the graves of 3,000 Confed-
erate soldiers, and in the national cemetery adjoining it are buried
4,500 Union soldiers.
A settlement was made in this vicinity as early as 1732, and in
1752 the town was established under its present name. It was
incorporated in 1779, chartered as a city in 1852 and in 1916
adopted a council-manager form of government. In 1756, during
the Seven Years' War, Washington made it his headquarters.
During the Civil War it was the centre of important operations
(see SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS).
WINCHESTER FOOTBALL: see FOOTBALL, The Win-
Chester Game.
WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM (1717-1768),
German archaeologist, was born at Stcndal in Brandenburg on
Dec. 9, 1717, the son of a poor shoemaker. He attended a gym-
nasium at Berlin and the school at Salzwedel, and in 1738 was
induced to go as a student of theology to Halle. He then held
various teaching posts. Winckelmann's study of ancient literature
had inspired him with a desire to visit Rome. He became librar-
ian to Cardinal Passionei in 1754, and embraced Catholicism.
In 1755, before leaving for Rome, Winckelmann published his
Gedanken iiber die Nachahnung der griechischen Werke in
Malerei und Bildhauerkunst ("Thoughts on the Imitation of
Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"), followed by a pre-
tended attack on the work, and a defence of its principles, nom-
inally by an impartial critic. Augustus III., elector of Saxony
and king of Poland, granted him a pension of 200 thalers to con-
tinue his studies in Rome.
He gradually acquired an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art.
In 1760 appeared his Description des pierreS gravees du feu Baron
de Stosch; in 1762 his Anmcrkungen iiber die Bankunst der Alien
("Observations on the Architecture of the Ancients"), including
an account of the temples at Paestum. In 1758 and 1762 he
visited Naples, and from his Scndschreiben von den hercnlanischen
Entdeckungen (1762) and his Nachricht von den neuesten her-
culanischen Entdeckungen (1764) scholars obtained their first
real information about the treasures excavated at Pompeii and
Herculancum.
His masterpiece, the Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthnms
("History of Ancient Art"), issued in 1764, was soon recognized
as a permanent contribution to European literature. In this work
Winckelmann sets forth both the history of Greek art and the
principles on which it seemed to him to be based. Many of his
conclusions based on the inadequate evidence of Roman copies
have been modified or reversed by subsequent research, but the
fine enthusiasm of the work, its strong and yet graceful style, and
its descriptions of works of art give it enduring value. It was
read with intense interest by Lessing, who had found in Winckel-
mann's earliest works the starting-point for his Laocoon.
In 1768 Winckelmann went to Vienna, where he was received
with honour by Maria Theresa. At Trieste on his way back he
was murdered in an hotel by a man named Arcangeli to whom he
had shown some coins presented by Maria Theresa (June 8,
1768). He was buried in the churchyard of the cathedral of St.
Giusto at Trieste.
An edition of his works was begun by Fernow in 1808 and com-
pleted by Meyer and Schulze (1808-20). There are admirable studies
of his character and work in Goethe's Winckelmann und scin Jahr-
hundcrt (1805), to which contributions were made by Meyer and
Wolf, and in Walter Pater's Renaissance (1902). The best biography
of Winckelmann is by Justi, Winckelmann und sein Zeitgenossen
646
WIND— WINDLASS
(2nd cd., 3 vols., Leipzig, 1898). A collection of letters, Briefe an
seine Ziiricher Freunde, was published by Blumner (Freiburg, 1882).
WIND, a current of air coming from any particular direction
or with any degree of velocity. For the general account of winds,
(heir causes, etc., see METEOROLOGY. Winds may be classified ac-
cording to the velocity with which they blow, varying from a light
breeze (q.v.) to a gale, storm or hurricane (q.v.)', i.e., according
to their place on the BEAUFORT SCALE (q.v.) ; for the measurement
of their velocity see ANEMOMETER.
WINDAU,'now Vcntspils (q.v.).
WINDBER, a borough of Somerset county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., 10 m. S.E. of Johnstown; served by the Pennsylvania rail-
road. Pop. (1920) 9,462 (29% foreign-born white); 1928 local
estimate 12,000. It is the centre of a large coal-mining, farming
and lumbering region, and its manufactures include fire-brick and
various other commodities. It was incorporated in 1900.
WIND BRACES, in architecture, diagonal braces to tie the
rafters of a roof together and prevent "racking." In many
mediaeval roofs they are arched, and run from the principal raft-
ers to catch the purlins. In modern steel construction, wind
bracing is necessary in the wall and floor framing of high build-
ings to withstand the diagonal stresses set up by the wind pressure
on a side wall; the wind braces take the form either of diagonal
tension rods, of diagonal angle, channel or I-beam bracing at the
corners, or of enlarged web or gusset plates at the intersections
of framing members.
WINDERMERE, the largest lake in England, in the south-
eastern part of the Lake District (q.v.). In the county of West-
morland, the boundary with Lancashire runs along the western
shore, round the foot and northward along about one-third of the
eastern shore. It is 10^ m. long and never reaches i m. in width:
area 5-69 sq.m. The shores are generally steep, beautifully wooded
and fretted with numerous little sheltered bays. The hills im-
mediately surrounding the lake rarely reach 1,000 ft., but the dis-
tant views of the mountains to the north and west contrast finely
with the sylvan beauty of the lake itself. Immediately opposite
Bowness is a group of islands (Belle Isle, Thompson's Holme,
the Lilies and others) which divide the lake into two basins. The
greatest depth sounded in the northern basin is 219 ft., and in
the southern 134. The lake receives the Rothay and Brathay
streams at the head; Trout Beck also flows into the north basin,
and Cunsey Beck from Esthwaite into the south. The lake is
drained by the Leven. Steamers ply regularly on Windermerc,
the chief stations being Lakeside, on the L.M.S. railway (south)
Ferry (west), Bowness (east) and Waterhead, for Ambleside
(north). The lake contains perch, pike, trout and char; there
are several large hotels at Bowness and elsewhere on its shores.
The town of WINDERMERE, above the eastern shore adjacent
to Bowness (q.v.), is an urban district and the terminus of a
branch of the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1921) 6,495.
WINDHAM, WILLIAM (1750-1810), English politician,
son of Col. William Windham (1717-1761), was born in Golden
square, London, on May 3, 1750. His first political office was
as chief secretary for Ireland in the coalition ministry of Fox and
North, for a few short months in 1783. Though he was opposed
to parliamentary reform, to which most of the Whigs were com-
mitted, he remained in alliance with the party until the outbreak
of the French Revolution, when, with several of his friends, he
joined Pitt. In 1794 he became secretary at war, with a seat in
the cabinet, and he held office until 1801. He declined a place in
Pitt's new cabinet in 1804, but was again at the War Office in the
brief ministry (1806) of "All the Talents.'* He died on June 4,
1810. Windham was a dignified and commanding figure in parlia-
ment, and a keen advocate of army reform.
See his Speeches (3 vols., 1806), and his Diary (edit. Mrs. Henry
Baring, 1866).
WINDING ENGINE: see COAL AND COAL MINING.
m WIND INSTRUMENTS, a numerous and important sec-
tion of the orchestra, classified according to the acoustic proper-
ties of the instruments and to certain important structural
features. The first great natural subdivision is that of (A) mouth
blown, and (B) mechanically blown, instruments.
Section A.— This falls into the classes of (i) wood wind; (2)
brass wind, with their numerous subdivisions.
/. Wood Wind. — (a) Pipes without embouchure or mouth-
piece, such as the ancient Egyptian nay (q.v.), a long flute with
narrow bore held obliquely, and the syrinx or pan-pipes (q.v.),
both of which are blown by directing the breath not into the pipe
but across the open end. (b) Pipes with embouchure but no
mouthpiece, such as the transverse flute, piccolo and fife. (See
those instruments, and also MOUTHPIECE.) (c) Pipes with
whistle mouthpieces, an ancient contrivance, extensively used by
primitive races of all ages, which finds application at the present
day in the flageolet, the whistle and in organ pipes known as the
flue-work, earlier examples having been the recorders, beak or
fipple-flutes, flutes d bee, flutes donees, etc. (d) Reed instruments,
by which are to be understood, not reed pipes but instruments
with reed mouthpieces, which subdivide again into two families
owing to the very different acoustic conditions produced by the
combination of a reed mouthpiece with (i) a cylindrical pipe and
(2) a conical pipe. These combinations influence not only the
timbre, but principally the harmonics obtained by over-blowing,
and used to supplement the fundamental scale given out as the
lateral holes are uncovered one by one. (di) comprises pipes
with cylindrical bore with either single or double-reed mouthpiece,
such as the clarinet (q.v.), the obsolete batyphone (q.v.) and the
family of cromornes (q.v.). To these we may add the aulos (q.v.)
and tibia (q.v.) of ancient Greece and Rome, which at different
times had single and double-reed mouthpieces. (</2)tPipes with
conical bore and either single or double-reed mouthpiece. This
class comprises the important members of the oboe family (with
double reed) derived from the Schalmey and Pommer of the mid-
dle ages. (See OBOE and REED INSTRUMENTS.) The modern fam-
ily of saxophones (q.v.) with single-reed mouthpiece may be
classed with the wood wind, although actually made of brass for
durability. The same may be said of the sarrusophones (q.v.), a
family of brass oboes with double reed. To these we may add the
Cheng (q.v.) or Chinese organ, (e) Wooden tubes of conical bore
having lateral holes and sometimes from one to three keys played
by means of a cup or funnel mouthpiece, such as the obsolete
cornet (q.v.) or Zinke, which enjoyed such widespread popularity
during the i6th and iyth centuries, and their bass the serpent.
The bagpipe and its drones and chaunter are mostly indirectly
mouthblown.
2. The Brass Wind consists of the following classes: (a)
Tubes of fixed length, such as the natural trumpet and French
horn, all mediaeval horns and trumpets, including the busine, the
tuba, the oliphant, the hunting horn and the bugle, the classical
buccina, cornu, lituus and tuba (qq.v.). The compass of all
these was restricted to the few notes of the harmonic series ob-
tained by over-blowing, (b) Tubes of which the length is varied
by a slide, such as the sackbut family, the slide trombone and
slide trumpet (qq.v.) (c) Tubes of which the length is varied
by lateral holes and keys. To this class belong the keyed bugle
and its bass the ophicleide (qq.v.) The saxophones and sarru-
sophones might also be classed with these (see above, i, di).
(d) Tubes of which the length is varied by valves or pistons,
such as the tubas, cornets, valve trombone, valve trumpet, valve
horn and so on, all of which are dealt with under their own names.
Section B: Mechanically Blown Instruments. — This sec-
tion consists mainly of instruments having the air supply fed by
means of bellows; it comprises the two classes (i) with keyboard,
(2) without keyboard.
1. This includes all kinds of organs and to this class also be-
long the accordion and concertina and the numerous instruments
of the harmonium type which have free instead of beating reeds.
2. This includes the bagpipes known as musettes and the
Union or Irish and the Border bagpipes having a wind supply fed
by bellows instead of by the insufflation pipe proper to the
bagpipe.
WINDLASS, a large cylinder, conventionally termed the
wheel, turning a smaller cylinder or barrel termed the axle, the
difference in size giving a gain of power. A rope, partly coiled
around the "axle" is attached to the load. In some cases the
WINDMILLS AND WIND POWER
647
wheel is turned by means of a rope coiled around it, e.g., light
hand cranes, but in many hoists and cranes the function of the
wheel is taken by a winch handle, and in other cases by a toothed
wheel driven from a pinion, hand or motor driven. The Chinese
windlass gives a great gain of power by the use of axles of two
diameters. A ship windlass is a more complicated apparatus,
hand, steam or electrically driven, with chain wheels by means of
which the anchor chain is hoisted and let out. Powerful brakes,
and often coned warping drums for whipping purposes, are fitted.
WINDMILLS AND WIND POWER. A windmill is any
machine for directing the wind's energy to perform work. Spe-
cifically it is the familiar type persisting through centuries of
selection, in which the wind's action on the sails produces a
torque and from which, by gearing or otherwise, power is trans-
mitted to perform work.
History of Windmills. — Early windmill history is obscure,
and although records state that they existed prior to the i2th
century, authentic records indicate that they first became com-
mon in Germany, the Netherlands ancl surrounding countries.
Windmills have occupied a prominent part in the efforts of those
interested in the mechanical arts, and since the isth century
many ingenious designs were perfected. Detailed information is
available on the later mills in records of Smeaton's tests of
1755 and Coulomb's of 1821. During the first half of the igth
century the old types were still prominent, but because of their
high cost and uselessness during calm weather, they gave way
increasingly to the steam engine.
In the latter half of the iQth century conditions in rural
America were suitable for the use of windmills for the pumping
of water in moderate quantities and Daniel Halladay brought out
the first American type of windmill about 1854. Halladay's mill
had a sectional wheel with wood sails, and its lines followed some-
what the European mill (see below). Its success promoted rapid
windmill development., and solid wheel mills with wood sails soon
followed, being the forerunners of the present most common type
of steel sail windmill first brought out by Perry in 1883.
Windmills are generally placed in two classes: (i) horizontal,
having the axis of sail revolution perpendicular to the wind direc-
tion and (2) vertical, having the axis parallel with the wind
direction. Although many ingenious horizontal windmills have
been made, they are impracticable, as not more than a quarter of
sail surface is presented to the wind at any time. Efficient use
of sail surface is essential to economy in first cost and compels
the adoption of the vertical type, because the wind acts on all
of its sail surface continuously.
Early Windmill Construction was of the vertical type and
of two kinds; the German or post mill, in which the building on
which the windmill was erected revolved on a central post to shift
FIG. i
the mill according to the wind direction; and the Dutch mill, in
which the building remained stationary, while the entire top or
roof revolved and the mill-shaft with its bearings, being a part
of this structure, revolved with it. The design of the wind-wheel
and sails was similar in both mills. The axle was usually inclined
15° because the dip of the general wind direction was con-
sidered to be that amount, and was so placed that the sail-
ends came quite close to the ground in revolving.
The sails consisted of canvas stretched over cross slats on the
four, five or six radial arms. The sail (of a 60 ft. wheel), be-
ginning about 4i ft. from the axle and extending to the arm
extremity, might be 4i ft. wide throughout or wider at the outer
end. The sail was plane, concave or warped, the latter being the
most common and efficient. According to Smeaton the angle of
weather for plane sails varied from 12° to 18° and for warped
sails, from 18° at inner end to 7° at outer end. The power
was usually transmitted through a large toothed wheel on the
inclined axle meshing with a pinion on a vertical shaft extending
down in the mill building. The first mills were brought and kept
in the wind by hand; later a small wheel back of, and with its
plane perpendicular to the large wheel, kept it in the wind through
a rack and pinion operated when the wind direction changed
so that it could act on the small wheel's surface.
Regulation was accomplished by increasing or decreasing canvas
on the sails, necessitating the mill being stopped, usually by
applying a brake on the main gear. Later this was done auto-
matically, so that the mills governed as accurately as other
prime movers. American mills have tended toward small sizes,
with many narrow sails set radially quite close together. This
type has been very successful and where conditions are similar
to those in the United States, it has been made in many different
designs and marketed throughout the world.
Windmills as Prime Movers have been developed by Ameri-
can designers, but with the appearance of small gasolene en-
gines, power windmills have practically disappeared. Windmills
are used in the United States almost entirely for pumping water
for rural use. The mechanism for transmitting power to the
vertical shaft of the power mill, or to the pump-rod of the pump-
ing mill, embodies any common form of transmission device.
Construction of Pumping Windmill. — Aside from the
tower which supports it, the American pumping windmill usually
has seven units; windwhcel, including sails, girts, arms and
spider; pivot, including main-shaft, gears and reciprocating mech-
anism, now commonly made self -oiling; brake, including operat-
ing levers; rudder vane, including bar and hinge; governor spring
or weight and attachments; pull-out, including swivel, wire and
lever or reel; and pump-pole with its swivel.
The main types of modern windmills are the solid and sec-
tional, direct-stroke and back-geared, all made in wood or steel,
with the latter fast supplanting the former. Inherent construction
makes the wood sail mill direct-stroke, with either sectional or
solid wheel, and the steel sail mill back-geared, with. solid wheel
only. In the sectional wheel, each section is hinged on a chordal
axis so that, in governing, centrifugal force swings the section
toward a position parallel with the wheel axis. In the solid
wheel mill, governing is accomplished by providing a side vane
or setting the wheel off-centre with respect to the pivot or tower
centre, so that the wind pressure lends to turn the mill on its
vertical axis, thus reducing the effective area of the wheel and
therefore its speed as the wind increases. In both mills, the
governing force is opposed by a spring or weight and levers, the
entire device being simple and reliable, and the governing not
within close limits, as this is unnecessary.
Recent years have seen considerable progress in development
of windmills having aeroplane type sails, such mills of small size
also being used in aeroplanes to drive auxiliary apparatus. Prac-
tical electric generating units are manufactured on a limited scale,
the windwheel being similar to an aeroplane propeller and its
drive being through gearing or direct connected to the generator.
The low starting torque of the propeller presents a real dif-
ficulty in applying this idea economically to the pumping windmill.
Windmills of the aeroplane propeller type, in large size, are
used to some extent, but have not found a ready market, indi-
cating they are not economically practicable. Certain principles
applying to other prime movers are not applicable to windmills.
In a line of windmills, all lineal dimensions are in proportion to
the wheel diameter D. The area of the wheel and the power of
the mill increase as D2, but the material, weight and cost in-
crease as D3 increases. This has the abnormal effect of making
the cost of power produced by a large mill greater than for a
smaller mill; for example, 100 ic/ mills produce as much power
as one ioc/ mill, but would cost only one-tenth as much. This
648
WINDOW
explains why the common windmill in large sizes is not economi-
cally feasible. American windmills were originally made 25 ft.
and larger, but the common^steel windmill sizes range from 6 to
16 ft., with more of the 8 ft. size sold than all others combined.
(H. C Sc.)
GENERATION OP ELECTRICITY
In Great Britain — The development of the windmill for the
generation of electricity is mainly — so far as Great Britain
is concerned — a post-War movement. During the years 1924—25
the Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of Oxford,
carried out an investigation into the i>erformance of eight sets,
ranging in rated output from 0-300 kw. to 10-0 kw. The wind-
wheels were from 8 feet to 29-5 feet in diameter and the structures
varied in height from TO feet to 60 feet.
Wind Power. — In windmill work the "fuel" used is free and
unlimited and there arises the possibility of a large "inefficient"
wheel being preferable to a smaller "efficient" one, which is more
expensive to manufacture.
The cost of the energy obtained is mainly due to capital charges
and depreciation; maintenance and repair are relatively small
items. The plants tested by the Institute of Agricultural Engineer-
ing supplied energy at costs varying from 12-7 pence per kw.h. for
a set giving an annual output of 316 kw.h. to 4-1 pence per kw.h.
for a set giving an annual output of 7,640 kw.h.
It was established that continuity of supply is assured in average
cases by installing a storage battery capable of supplying the heav-
iest winter demand for three successive days. The battery fulfils
a further important function in acting as a "flywheel" between the
dynamo and the load. The wind fluctuates in strength from sec-
ond to second, with corresponding fluctuations in the power sup-
plied by the dynamo: the battery enables the demand to be sup-
plied steadily without momentary reference to the state of the
wind.
Design. — The development of windmill generating plants has
proceeded along two lines; (a) the adaptation of the slow-speed
windwheel — typified by the American multibladed wheel — to drive
a dynamo, (b) the design of a new high-speed type of wheel to
suit the particular requirements. The medium speed type —
exemplified by the familiar sweep-sail Dutch mill — has not been
applied to any extent to generating electricity.
By the term "speed" in connection with a wind-wheel is meant
the circumferential speed of the blade tips, and it is usual in wind-
wheel technique to compare this speed with the wind-speed at
which it is produced. If the wind-speed is denoted by V and the
circumferential speed of the blade tips at this wind-speed is de-
noted by U, the ratio ^ expresses the speed characteristic of the
wheel. Slow-speed wheels — multibladed with concave sheet-metal
blades — have a value for ~~ varying from i-o to 1-5. Medium-
speed wheels vary from 1-5 to 3-0: the sweep-sail mills are in this
class. High-speed wheels run at values for L varying from 3-0 to
6-0: this class contains wheels with the modern stream-lined
blades, varying from two to five in number and covered with
sheet metal or fabric.
Efficiency. — A useful formula for determining the power
exerted by the wind on a windwheel is
//. P. =0-00000 2 2 6/1 F3
where A is the whole area, in square feet, enclosed by the circum-
ference described by the windwheel and F is the wind-speed in
feet per serond.
The efficiency of a windwheel is the use which it makes of this
power, and the figure by which efficiency is expressed shows what
proportion of the energy of the wind acting on the windwheel is
transformed into mechanical energy available at the hub of the
wheel. It is not possible to use up all the energy in the wind, since
some must be left to carry on the flow of air: this consideration
results in the theoretical maximum possible efficiency being 0-59.
The practical efficiencies are much below this.
M. Sabinin finds the best efficiencies and the speed at which
they are obtained to be:
Best
Efficiency
at U/V
Slow-speed wheel
Medium-speed wheel
4-bladed high-speed wheel
2-bladed high-speed wheel
o-33
0-22
0-42
0-36
1-17
2-OO
3-10
4-30
T^r Pr»f-7 V»oc i rlncinrn fnr n Vufrh-criAnrl ii/Kool tr\ run wifVi rpacrm.
able efficiency at •- — 6.
The use of high-speed wheels for driving generators is increas-
ing in favour for four reasons: —
1. They are more efficient.
2. The higher speed of the wheel means that less gearing is
required to drive the dynamo at the proper speed.
3. The surface area o£ the blades is small, thus reducing the
risk of damage in gales.
4. They are more easily erected.
Observation of wind conditions over several years show that,
when fixing the site for a windmill plant the greatest care should
be taken to ensure freedom from interference from trees, etc., on
the sides from which the winds mainly come. The wheel should
be as high as possible, to obtain the utmost use of the winds. At
the coast and in exposed hilly districts there should be no hesita-
tion in adopting windpower to supply electricity. Even in ordinary
inland parts there are very few districts where a suitable site can-
not be found. Thus, for isolated districts wind power may be
adopted for generating purposes with every assurance of re-
liability and economy; for communal groupings and for medium
power work there are larger sets providing the same service.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — P. la Cour, reports, Forsogmollen, vol. i. (1900) vol.
2 (1903) translated into German by J. Kauffman ; Die Windkraft and
ihre Anwendung (Leipzig, 1905) ; O. Stertz, Afoderne Windturbinen
(Leipzig, 1912) ; L. Hammel, Die Ausnutzung der Windkrajte (1925) ;
Government Implement Tests: 36th Report (trans, title) Output Tests
with Windmills (Copenhagen, 1925) ; Albert Betz, Wind-Energie und
ihre Ausnutzttng durch Windmiihlcn (Gottingen, 1926) ; Institute of
Agricultural Engineering, University of Oxford: Bulletin No. i, A
Report on the Use of Windmills for the Generation of Electricity
(Oxford, 1920) ; S. J. Savonius, NaKra siudier i vindkanal (Helsingfors,
1926) ; G. Sabinin, "Problems of Utilizing the Energy of the Wind,"
Transactions of the Central Aero-II \drod\namical Institute (Moscow,
1926) ; K. Bilau, Die Windkraft in fheorie und Praxis (Berlin, 1927).
(C. A. C. B.)
WINDOW, an opening in the wall of a building, for the
admission of light and air. Windows are obviously a very ancient
invention, probably almost coincident with the development, of
fixed and enclosed houses, particularly in those parts of the world
in which courtyards were of little importance. Representations of
windows occur alike in early wall paintings in Egypt, reliefs from
Assyria, and terra-cotta plaques from Crete. The Egyptian ex-
amples show openings in house walls covered with mattings, like
the doors, as in the V. Dynasty tomb of Ti. Well known ex-
amples of Egyptian windows also exist in the hypostyle hall of
the great temple at Karnak, built by Seti I. and Rameses II., and
in the so-called pavilion at Medinet Abu, near by. In the hypo-
style hall the central aisles have much higher columns than those
at the sides, and the space between is filled by clerestorey win-
dows consisting of huge granite slabs pierced with two tiers of
narrow, vertical openings. In the pavilion at Medinet Abu there
arc several windows consisting of simple rectangular openings
with a small, decorative frame. These were probably originally
closed by hangings of matting or cloth. Assyrian windows are
almost always wider than they are high, and subdivided by little
colonnettes. Many such openings are shown in the palace reliefs
of the Qth and Sth centuries B.C. They are generally high in the
wall. The Cretan plaques show many house fronts; in these there
are indications of several tiers of windows, as though the houses
were two or three storeys high, and in the windows themselves
representations of frames, dividing the large opening into four
smaller ones by means of a central mullion and a horizontal
transom bar.
WINDOW
649
Greek and Roman. — The devotion of the Greeks to the house
built around a court led to an almost total disappearance of
windows, and such remains as those of Delos, although they are
principally of Alexandrian and Hellenistic date, show scanty signs
of windows, each room being lighted only by a door to the central,
colonnaded court. In temples, also, windows are usually lacking,
and the interior was lighted only by what light entered through
the door or percolated dimly through the marble tiles of the
roof. In exceptional cases, however, windows of very marked
architectural character occurred. In the Ereclitheum (q.v.)y for
instance, although the windows in the western wall date from a
Roman reconstruction, the great eastern door was, from the be-
ginning, flanked by window openings, with an architrave band
around and a cornice above, and the existence of such highly
developed window forms in the 5th century B.C. would seem to
indicate that similar forms had long been well known.
In Roman imperial times the glazed window first definitely ap-
pears, and fragments of glass in a bronze frame have been found
in Pompeii, as well as many other 'fragments of glass in the
remains of Roman villas in England. Moreover, it is obvious
that the great windows in the Roman bath halls must have been
enclosed in some way, in order to retain the heat. The general
hypothesis is that these great segmental-headed clerestorey open-
ings, whose shape is perfectly preserved to the present day in the
tepidarium of the baths of Diocletian at Rome, now the church
of S. Maria dcgli Angeli, were filled, originally, with frames of
bronze which subdivided the whole into small areas, each of
which held a pane of glass. There is much debate as to how
common glass was during the early empire, and whether the
speculares which Pliny refers to, in his letter (no. 217), describ-
ing his villa at Laurcntum, were glazed windows or not; they,
without doubt, refer to transparent or translucent, windows. In
addition to glass, the Romans arc known to have used thin sheets
of translucent marble, panes of mica, shells and horn.
Byzantine church windows were glazed from an early period.
Thus it is known that from the beginning, the windows of S.
Sophia at Constantinople (begun 532) were filled with pierced,
marble frames enclosing panes of glass, and it is possible that
some of the glass still existing may be the original glazing.
The Mohammedan builders copied this Byzantine technique of
inserted, small pieces of glass, in a masonry frame, and by sub-
stituting cement for marble, obtained great freedom and richness
in pattern design, so that with the use of different colours of
glass in the small openings, brilliant effects were produced.
Mediaeval. — It was probably also during the Byzantine period
that windows covered by a complete arch superseded the seg-
mental and square heads common in Roman work, and it is the
arched window that, became the governing form throughout
mediaeval Europe, at least for masonry buildings. The history of
the window in the domestic architecture of the early middle ages
is as difficult to trace as that of ecclesiastical architecture is easy.
From existing reliefs, representing early Romanesque houses, it
appears that semicircular, arched windows were the rule in
masonry town houses, and square-headed windows in timber-
built country work. From an early period, however, the tendency
appeared to use square-headed openings in masonry houses. Thus
in the H6tel de Ville at S. Antonin, France (i2th century), the
main hall is lit by 12 little square-headed openings in groups
of four, forming practically an open loggia. There are indi-
cations that these openings were closed by shutters. The rooms
above, however, have semicircular windows in pairs. With the
gradual introduction of the glazed sash in secular work, which
apparently began during the i2th century, the tendency toward
the use of rectangular openings was much increased, due to the
ease with which sash could be framed in them. During the late
1 2th century, transitional forms are found, especially in south
France, in which arch-headed openings are divided by a heavy
frame member at the spring, so that at least the lower part of
the window could have a rectangular sash, as in the i2th century
house at Monpazier, illustrated by Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire
rai$onn6, art. "Maison." The 1 2th century Jew's house in Lincoln,
England, preserves traces of original arch-headed windows, which
were later altered to square heads. From the middle of the i3th
century on, the square head becomes almost universal, even in
masonry buildings, although traces of the arch tradition remain
in the arch forms often carved upon the stone lintels.
The desire for light and air increased continuously with the
growing cheapness of glass, but the necessity for small sashes
remained; the inevitable result was the development of the
mullioned and transomed window, generally rectangular in shape,
in which the entire opening is subdivided into convenient sizes
by vertical bars known as mullions and horizontal bars known as
transom bars. The climax of the development appears in France
in such 1 5th century work as the Cluny museum at Paris, and
the house of Jacque Coeur at Bourges; in England, in countless
Tudor and Jacobean houses. In some of these, as in Sutton place,
Surrey (1525), the small, rectangular sections made by the
mullions and transoms are decorated with cusped arches. The
glazing of these mediaeval, secular windows was probably origin-
ally done by assembling many small pieces of glass in a wooden
framework or sash. There was a great use of roundels. Later,
leading was introduced, although the whole leaded sash was set
in a wooden frame. The leading was usually in panes, either
rectangular, with the long dimension vertical, or in diamonds.
Toward the end of the period, especially in England, metal sashes
began to be introduced.
The development of ecclesiastical windows was quite different,
for two reasons : first, the necessity for large size, which rendered
the arch head inevitable; and second, the development of stained
glass (q.v.). The combination of these two elements, together
with the general use of stone, vaulted forms, in church archi-
tecture, led to, first, the grouping of several small windows in one
composition, as in much early English Gothic work, and later,
during the early i3th century, the evolution of tracery (q.v.). The
leaded glass in these windows was inserted in a groove cut in the
inside edge of the jamb and held in place by iron bars or an iron
framework. A characteristic feature of almost all mediaeval win-
dows is the splaying of the jambs on the interior, so that the
opening on the inside face of the wall is much larger than that
on the outside. In this manner the illumination was increased
and the large openings inside offered great opportunities for
decorative richness.
Renaissance. — Early Renaissance palace windows in Italy
show many attempts at compromise between the arched and
mullioned windows of Gothic tradition and the classic feeling
that the rectangular opening was more dignified. Thus most of
the 1 5th century Florentine palaces had twin, arched windows
under a single enclosing arch ; in many cases the opening itself was
square-topped and the arches above mere panels. During the high
Renaissance period, the rectangular window was the most popular
form. It was frequently decorated with an architrave, and a
cornice and pediment. Pilasters and columns were often added
at the sides. During the Baroque period these decorative window
enclosures were often elaborately scrolled and ornamented with
fantastic cartouches, consoles, masks and human figures. Arched
windows appeared spasmodically throughout the Renaissance,
usually in churches or enclosed loggias. The general system of
glazing in Renaissance Italy was the use of wooden-hinged
frames, subdivided by small wooden bars known as mnntins ; the
tendency was continuous toward the use of larger and larger
panes of glass.
In the countries north of Italy, the persistence of mediaeval
window forms into the Renaissance was marked. In France, for
instance, debased Flamboyant tracery forms occur in churches
well into the reign of Henry II. (1547-59), as in the church of
Notre Dame at Grand Andely, and mullioned and transomed
windows were a distinctive feature of the chateaux of the time
of Francis I. Similarly in England, rectangular, mullioned win-
dows, with hinged sashes and leaded glass, and occasionally deco-
rated with cusped arches, are found, particularly in the collegiate
buildings at Oxford and Cambridge, well into the i;th century.
The later Renaissance in France produced and developed the
type of large casement Vindow that has remained the accepted
form on the continent of Europe ever since — popularly known as
650
WINDOW TAX— WINDSOR
the French window. In this type the opening is high and com-
paratively narrow, frequently extending down to the floor and is
glazed with two large, hinged, wooden sashes, arranged to swing
in, each subdivided into three or more lights of comparatively
large size. An iron railing or stone balustrade is built on the out-
side for safety. It is largely the use of such windows that has
given the stimulus to the extensive use of balconies in modern
continental apartment houses. In England the late Renaissance
development was determined by the common use of the type of
window known as "double hung," which during the late 17th and
1 8th centuries almost superseded the swinging casement. In this
the window is divided into two sashes, horizontally, the lower
one on a plane slightly inside the upper one. By lowering the
upper sash and raising the lower, any desired amount of venti-
lation up to half the area of the entire opening can be produced.
In the cruder kinds of double hung window, the sashes are sup-
ported in position by pegs or spring cams, or elbows. The more
developed type, now universal, has the sash hung on ropes or
chains, which pass over pulleys and are connected at the other
end to counter weights concealed in the window frame or box.
In England the custom was to use smaller size panes than on the
Continent, and this custom coloured all window design of England
and America for 150 years; recent times have seen a new popu-
larity of this use of small panes.
Modern. — Modern mechanical genius has developed many
ways of using metals in window design. Not only are metal
windows used largely in fire-proof buildings, but due to the
economies of large scale manufacture, are more and more coming
into use in smaller houses. The most common type of metal
window for residence buildings is the steel casement in which all
of the members arc of rolled steel sections put together in stock
units. Rolled steel is also used for certain types of double hung
windows, especially in commercial buildings, and somewhat
similar bronze frames and sashes are much used in monumental
windows, such as those in banks, public buildings, etc. All sorts of
operating devices have also been developed for controlling sashes
far from the floor. The steel sash and the operating device have
rendered possible the enormous increase in window area in
industrial buildings, so that the typical modern factory has not
only walls almost entirely of glass but frequently, as well, roofs
arranged with a saw-tooth profile that permits ranges of almost
vertical windows on the steeper slope.
Oriental. — A great difference in window design between the
Orient and the west is due to the almost total lack of window
glass in oriental countries. In addition to the mosque windows
which followed Byzantine prototypes, the Mohammedan builders
of Egypt and Syria developed an extremely rich type of domestic
window which was usually unglazed. This consisted of a pro-
jecting, bracketted, framework of wood with its sides entirely filled
by intricate grille-work formed of carved, turned, wooden spindles.
In China and Japan windows are usually covered with paper,
cloth or shell. All of these require a large amount of subdivision
of the window area; shell, because of the small size of the ele-
ments, the other materials because of their fragility.
Japanese windows are usually arranged to slide horizontally.
Ordinarily the whole opening is of great width in relation to its
height, and is subdivided into a number of small sashes, each
sliding in a ditferent plane, and all arranged so as to slide back
into a pocket or case, bracketted out from the outside face of
the wall. The patterns of Japanese window subdivisions are more
limited than those of China and are universally based on the
subtle relationships of rectangular shapes, these rectangles always
having their long dimensions horizontal. (See BYZANTINE AND
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE; GLASS; GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE;
TRACERY.) (T. F. H.)
WINDOW TAX, a tax first levied in England in the year
1697 for the purpose of defraying the expenses and making up
the deficiency arising from clipped and defaced coin in the re-
coinage of silver during the reign of William III. It was an as-
sessed tax on the rental value of the house, levied according to the
number of windows and openings on houses having more than six
windows and worth more than £5 per annum.
The revenue derived from the tax in the first year of its levy
amounted to £1,200,000. The tax was increased no fewer than six
times between 1747 and 1808, but was reduced in 1823. There was
a strong agitation in favour of the abolition of the tax during the
winter of 1850-51, and it was accordingly repealed on July 24,
1851, and a tax on inhabited houses substituted.
WINDPIPE, the trachea, the air tube which leads from the
larynx to the bronchi and lungs (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).
WINDSOR, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Ontario,
Canada, on the left bank of the Detroit river, opposite the city
of Detroit. Pop. (1921) 38,591. It is on the Canadian National,
Canadian Pacific, Pere Marquette and Michigan Central railways,
which connect at this point with the railways of the United States
by means of large and powerful car-ferries. It is the centre of an
important agricultural and fruit-growing district, in which tobacco
is also produced. Salt works, flour mills, canning factories, and
the manufacture of type-setting machines are the main industries.
WINDSOR (properly NEW WINDSOR), a municipal borough
of Berkshire, England, and a parliamentary borough extending
into Buckinghamshire. Pop. (1921) 13,537. The town, which
is famous for its royal castle, lies on the west (right) bank of the
Thames, 21 1 m. W. of London by the G.W. railway, which
serves it with a branch line from Slough. It is also the terminus
of a branch of the S. railway. Here the Thames makes a loop
which partially encircles the Eton playing fields.
Windsor Castle.— -The castle lies at the north-eastern edge
of the town, on a slight but commanding eminence made by the
projection of the underlying chalk through the clays and gravels
which cover the rest of the district, while the massive round
tower in the centre, on its artificial mound, is conspicuous from
far over the flat land to the east, north and west. The site of the
castle is an irregular parallelogram measuring about 630 yd. by
180, On the west the walls enclosing the "lower ward," with the
Clewer, Garter, Salisbury and Henry III. towers, overlook
Thames Street and High Street, from* which the "hundred steps"
give access to the ward on the north, and the Henry VIII. gate-
way, opening from Castle Hill, on the south. This ward contains
St. George's Chapel in the centre, with the Albert Memorial
Chapel on the east and the Horseshoe Cloisters on the west. To
the north are the deanery and the canon's residences and to the
south the guard-room and the houses of the military knights, or
pensioners. The round tower occupies the "middle ward"; on its
flag-turret the Union Jack or the Royal Standard is hoisted
according as the sovereign is absent or present. The buildings in
the "upper ward," east of this, form three sides of a square;
the state apartments on the north, the private apartments on the
east and the visitors' apartments on the south. Along the north
side of the castle extends the north terrace, commanding, from
its position above a steep slope, splendid views across the river
to Eton on the Buckinghamshire side, and far over the valley.
The east terrace, continuing the north, overlooks the gardens in
front of the private apartments, and the south terrace continues
farther, as far as the George IV. gateway. The Home Park lies
adjacent to the castle on the south, east and north. The Great
Park extends south of Windsor, where the land, rising gently, is
magnificently timbered with the remnant of the old royal forest.
As early as the time of the Heptarchy a stronghold of some
importance existed at Windsor, the great mound, which is moated,
circular and about 125 ft. in diameter, being a remnant of this
period. William the Conqueror was attracted by the forest as a
hunting preserve, and obtained the land by exchange from West-
minster Abbey, to which Edward the Confessor had given it.
Thereafter the castle became what it remains, the chief residence
of the English sovereigns. The Conqueror replaced the primitive
wooden enclosure by a stone circuit-wall, and the first complete
round tower was built by Henry III. about 1272, but Edward III.
wholly reconstructed it on a more massive scale, about 1344, to
form a meeting-place for his newly established order of Knights
of the Garter. He selected this spot because, according to a
legend quoted by the chronicler Froissart, it was on the summit
of the mound that King Arthur used to sit surrounded by his
Knights of the Round Table. The bulk of the existing round
WINDSOR
651
tower is of Edward's time, but its walls were heightened and the
tall flag-turret added in the reign of George IV. In addition to
the Round Tower, Henry III. had constructed long lines of
circuit-walls, crowned at intervals with smaller towers. He also
built a great hall (the present chapter library) and other apart-
ments, together with a chapel, which was afterwards pulled down
to make room for the chapel of St. George. The beautiful little
dean's cloister preserves a portion of Henry's work in the south
wall, a contemporary portrait of the king appearing in distemper
on one of the arches. Another chapel was built by him and dedi-
cated to his favourite saint, Edward the Confessor. This graceful
building, with an eastern apse, is now called the Albert Memorial
Chapel; some of Henry III.'s work still exists in the lower part of
its walls, but the upper part was rebuilt in 1501-1503 by Henry
VII. , who originally intended it as a burial place for himself
and his line. The unfinished chapel was presented to Cardinal
Wolsey by Henry VIII., was roofed in and became known as
Wolsey's tomb-house on account of the magnificent tomb he had
constructed in it by a Florentine sculptor. The chapel was com-
pleted and re-fitted during the last century as a memorial to
Albert, Prince Consort, whose cenotaph stands before the altar,
with the tombs of Prince Leopold, duke of Albany, and the duke
of Clarence; the last erected by King Edward VII., who was
himself buried here in May 1910. In a vault beneath the chapel
George III. and members of his family are buried.
St. George's Chapel.— The chapel of St. George is one of the
finest examples of Perpendicular architecture in England, com-
parable with two other royal chapels, that of King's College at
Cambridge and that of Henry VII. at Westminster, which are a
little later in date. The building was begun by Edward IV., who in
1473 pulled down almost the whole of the earlier chapel, which
had been completed and filled with stained glass by Edward III.
in 1363. The nave of St. George's was vaulted about the year
1490, but the choir groining was not finished till 1507; the hang-
ing pendants from the fan vaulting of the choir mark a later
development of style, which contrasts strongly with the simpler
lines of the earlier nave vault. In 1516 the lantern and the rood-
screen were completed, but the stalls and other fittings were not
finished till after 1519. The chapel ranks next to Westminster
Abbey as a royal mausoleum, though no king was buried there
before Edward IV., who left directions in his will that a splendid
tomb was to be erected with an effigy of himself in silver. Nothing
remains ,of this except part of the wrought iron grille which
surrounded the tomb, one of the most elaborate and skilfully
wrought pieces of iron-work in the world, said to be the work
of Quintin Mat.sys. The next sovereign buried here was Henry
VIII., who directed that his body should be laid beside that of
Jane Seymour, in a magnificent bronze and marble tomb which
was never completed. Charles I. was buried here without service
in 1649. Above the dark oak stalls hang the historic insignia of
the Knights of the Garter, their swords, helmets and banners.
The deanery, adjoining the dean's cloister, is dated 1500, but
the Winchester tower to the north-east of it is the work of the
famous prelate and architect William of Wykeham, who was
employed by Edward III. on the greater part of this extension
and alteration of Henry III.'s work. The Horseshoe cloisters
were restored in Tudor style by Sir Gilbert Scott.
The site of the upper ward was built upon by Henry II., and,
to a greater extent, by Edward III., but only in the foundations
and lowest storey are remains of so early a period to be found.
Charles II. completed the so-called Star Building, named from
the representation of the star of the Order of the Garter on the
north front. Here the state apartments are situated. They include
the throne room, St. George's Hall, where meetings of the Order
of the Garter are held, the audience and presence chambers, and
the grand reception room, adorned with Gobelins tapestries, and
the guard-room with armour. All these chambers contain also
splendid pictures and other objects of art; but more notable in
this connection are the picture gallery, the Rubens room or king's
drawing-room, and the magnificent Van Dyck room. The ceilings
of several of the chambers were decorated by Antonio Verrio,
under the direction of Charles II. In the royal library, which is
included among the private apartments, is a fine collection of
drawings by the old masters, including three volumes from the
hand of Leonardo da Vinci. Here is also a magnificent series of
eighty-seven portraits by Holbein, highly finished in sepia and
chalk, representing the chief personages of the court of Henry
VIII. There are, moreover, examples by Michelangelo and
Raphael, though the series attributed to these masters are not
accepted as genuine in their entirety.
The Parks.— South of the castle, beside the Home Park, is
the Royal Mews. Within the bounds of the park is Frogmore
(<7.t>.)> with the Royal Mausoleum and that of the duchess of
Kent, and the royal gardens. An oak.-tree marks the supposed
site of Herne's Oak, said to be haunted by the ghost of "Herne
the hunter," a forest-ranger who hanged himself here, having
fallen under the displeasure of Queen Elizabeth (Shakespeare,
Merry Wives of Windsor, Act. iv. sc. 4). A splendid avenue of
elms, the Long Walk, laid out in the time of Charles II. and
William III., leads from George IV. 's gate on the south side of
the castle straight into the heart of the Great Park, a distance
of 3 m. Another fine and still longer straight avenue is Queen
Anne's Ride, planted in 1707. Among various buildings within
the park is Cumberland Lodge, built by Charles II. and taking
name from the duke of Cumberland, who commanded the vic-
torious royal troops at the battle of Culloden in 1746, and resided
here as chief ranger. At the southern boundary of the park is a
beautiful artificial lake called Virginia Water.
Windsor Town. — A few old houses remain in the town of
Windsor, including houses which belonged to Jane Seymour and
Nell Gwynn respectively, but the greater part is modernized.
The church of St. John the Baptist was rebuilt in 1822, but con-
tains some fine examples of Grinling Gibbons's wood-carving. The
town hall was built in 1686 by Sir Christopher Wren, who repre-
sented the borough in parliament. The town was formerly cele-
brated for the number of its inns, of which there were seventy
in 1650. The most famous were the "Garter" and the "White
Hart," the first of which was the favourite of Shakespeare's Sir
John Falstaff, and is frequently mentioned in The Merry Wives of
Windsor.
History. — Windsor (Wyndeshour, Wyndsore, Windlesore) was
probably the site of a Roman settlement, two Roman tombs
having been discovered at Tyle-Place Farm in 1865, while a
Roman camp and various antiquities were unearthed at St.
Leonard's Hill in 1705. The early history of Windsor centres
round the now unimportant village of Old Windsor, which was a
royal residence under Edward the Confessor; and Robert of
Gloucester relates that it was at a fair feast which the king held
there in 1053 that Earl Godwin met with his tragic end. By the
Confessor it was granted to Westminster Abbey, but was recov-
ered in exchange for two other manors by William I., who erected
the castle about 2 m. north-west of the village and within the
manor of Clewer, round which the later important town of New
Windsor was to grow up. The earliest existing charter of New
Windsor is that from Edward I. in 1277, which was confirmed by
Edward II. in 1315-1316 and by Edward III. in 1328. This
constituted it a free borough and granted to it a gild merchant
and other privileges.
Another charter was granted by Edward IV. in 1467. Further
confirmations of existing privileges were granted by Edward IV.
in 1477, by Henry VII. in 1499, by Henry VIII. in 1515 and by
Edward VI. in 1549. A fresh charter was granted by James I.
in 1603, was renewed by Charles II., and remained the govern-
ing charter until 1835. New Windsor sent two members to
parliament from 1302 to 1335 and again from 1446 to 1865,
omitting the parliaments of 1654 and 1656; by the act of 1867
it lost one member.
The political history of Windsor centres round the castle, at
which the Norman kings held their courts and assembled their
wit an. Robert Mowbray was imprisoned in its dungeons in 1095,
and at the Christmas court celebrated at Windsor in 1127 David
of Scotland swore allegiance to the empress Maud. In 1175 it
was the scene of the ratification of the treaty of Windsor. The
castle was bestowed by Richard I. on Hugh, bishop of Durham,
652
WINDSOR— WINE
but in the next year was treacherously seized by Prince John and
only surrendered after a siege. In 1217 Ingelram de Achie with
a garrison of sixty men gallantly held the fortress against a
French force under the count de Nevers. It was a centre of
activity in the Barons' War, and the meeting-place of the parlia-
ment summoned by Henry in 1261 in rivalry to that of the barons
at St. Albans. During the Civil War of the i?th century the
castle was garrisoned for the parliament, and in 1648 became the
prison of Charles, who spent his last Christmas within its walls.
See J. E. TiRhe, Annah of Windsor (1858) ; Victoria County
Hhtorv: Berkshire; A. Goddard, Windsor (1911) ; W. H. St. J. Hope,
Windsor Castle (1913) ; A. V. Baillic, Windsor Castle and the Chapel
of St. George (1927).
WINDSOR, a town of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
on the W. bank of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the
Farmington, adjoining Hartford on the north. It is served by the
New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. Pop. (1920)
5,620; 1928 local estimate 8,000. Windsor keeps its original vil-
lage green, and a number of beautiful colonial houses, including
the Ellsworth homestead, now a historical museum. The building
of the Congregational Church (organized in England in 1630)
dates from 1 794. The first English settlement in Connecticut was
a trading post established here in 1633 by Capt. William Holmes
of the Plymouth Colony. In 1635 a more important, and perma-
nent, settlement was made by a company from Dorchester, led
by the Rev. John Wareham, Roger Ludlow and others. Ancestors
of Gen. Grant and Admiral Dewey were original landholders.
WINDWARD ISLANDS, a group and colony in the West
Indies, consisting of the British islands of St. Lucia, St. Vincent
and Grenada, with a chain of small islands, the Grenadines, be-
tween the two latter. They are constitutionally three separate
colonies with a common governor-in-chief, who resides at St.
George's, Grenada. Each island maintains its own institutions.
WINE. Wine is the living blood of the grape; it is liable to
sickness and doomed to death. Wine is the suitably fermented
juice of freshly gathered grapes. There is no such thing as unfer-
mented wine, but "wine" is sometimes used in connection with
other fruits of the earth, as in barley wine, apple wine, ginger
wine, to denote a beverage which has fermented, i.e., which is
living and vivifying.
Vinous fermentation is a natural phenomenon due to the cata-
lytic action of the zymase of living micro-organisms or ferments
known as Saccharomycetes, which are present upon the skins of
all ripe grapes. These microscopic fungi are slightly different ac-
cording to various species of grapes and also according to differ-
ences in the nature of the soil of the different vineyards.
There is, in' the juice of all grapes, a great deal of water —
80% of its total weight or more — and there is also a fairly large
proportion of grape sugar — 15% on an average — a proportion
which, however, varres according to the different species of grapes
and according to climatic conditions which vary according to the
geographical position of each vineyard and atmospheric variations
every year. There is also, when freshly gathered grapes are
pressed, a large number of Saccharomycetes which were originally
upon the outside of the grape-skins: they are the suitable yeast
provided by nature and they make it possible for the grape sugar
of the must to be split up into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide,
or in other words "to ferment," in a manner which, reduced to
its simplest expression, may be explained as follows:
The atomic weights of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen
(0) are respectively: C«i2; H=i; O=i6.
Grape Sugar consists of six atoms of Carbon, twelve of Hydro-
gen and six of Oxygen, i.e.: CeHuOs. The atomic weight of one
molecule of Grape Sugar is as follows :
C« =12x6 = 72
1112=1X12 ~ 12
Qs =*i6x6 « 96
Total 180
After fermentation, the same atomic weight will be found ar-
ranged differently, the molecule of Grape Sugar having completely
disappeared and, in its place, two molecules of Ethyl Alcohol and
two of Carbon Dioxide (carbonic acid gas) having appeared.
Ethyl Alcohol consists of two atoms of Carbon, six of Hydro-
gen and one of Oxygen, or CaH6O ; Carbon Dioxide consists of one
atom of Carbon and two of Oxygen, or CO2.
The atomic weight of two molecules of Ethyl Alcohol, and two
of Carbon Dioxide will therefore be as follows :
Ethyl alcohol .
Ca=i2X2 =» 24x2=48
Hfl= 1x6 = 6x2 = 12
O =16x0 = 16x2 = 32
Carbon dioxide
Total
C ~ I2XO = 12X2 = 24
0,2=16x2 « 32x2 = 64
92
88
Vinous fermentation is therefore a molecular re-adjustment
of the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms of grape sugar.
Grape juice is not merely a solution of grape sugar in water;
it contains a large variety of acids and different other substances,
either of vegetal or of mineral origin, which arc present in very
minute quantities only and yet play a very important part in the
type and quality of the wine which will eventually grow out of
grape juice. Some of these substances present in the wine were
present in the original grape juice; they are chiefly acids of a
mineral origin, which have passed from the soil of the vineyard
into the grapes and from the grapes into the wine, without bting
affected by the process of fermentation. Such also are some of
the vegetal matter, the cellulose of the grape skins, acids from
the stalks, oils from grape pips, for instance, as well as some of
the original grape sugar which for some reason or other has not
yet fermented. But, after fermentation, there are substances in
the wine of which no trace appeared in the grape juice : they are
by-products of fermentation and vary according to the chemical
composition of the must, or grape juice, and according to the rate
and to the manner of fermentation: such are the glycerine, the
alcohols other than ethyl alcohol, some acids, esters and alde-
hydes, which are present only in minute quantities in wine.
Many Varieties. — The different varieties of wine are very
numerous. There are wines of all shades of colour from the
palest greenish yellow to the darkest red; there are wines which
are a little dry or a little sweet and others which are excessively
dry or excessively sweet; there are wines which are still and others
which are sparkling; there are wines which are ready for consump-
tion when they are quite young and others which are at their best
when ten, fifteen, twenty or even fifty years old.
But no wines, whatever their age or colour, origin or price, can
be suitable or are ever acceptable unless they are sound. This is
the only rule which applies to all wines without exception.
In every part of the world where vines grow and wine is made,
there are sound wines made and others which are not sound or
become unsound after either a short or long time. A sound wine
is a normal wine, a well-balanced wine, an harmonious whole; it
is a wine made of the juice of freshly-gathered grapes, either com-
pletely or partially fermented and containing nothing but the nor-
mal natural by-products of normal vinous fermentation.
"Beverage" .Wines. — Natural wines are made from normal
grapes, grapes which are ripe but not sun-dried, which are pressed
and the juice of which is allowed to ferment naturally and nor-
mally with neither hindrance nor interference,, until practically
the whole of its grape-sugar has been transformed into alcohol,
which remains in the wine, and carbon dioxide, which escapes into
the air. Natural wines made of normal grapes normally fermented
belong to two classes according to the different kinds of grapes
which soil, climate and aspect have made it possible to grow.
They are either beverage wines — pour la soif — or fine wines.
By far the greatest quantity of wine made in the world, certainly
more than 95 per cent., consists of wine which is sound but not
fine, wholesome but not exciting, wine which is the most suitable,
and usually the cheapest, beverage obtainable in the district where
it is made. The bulk of beverage wines is consumed locally, or,
at any rate, within the borders of the countries where such wines
are chiefly produced, that is to say, in France, Italy, Spain, For-
WINE
653
tugal, Algeria, Greece, the Balkans, the Cape, Chile, the Argen-
tine and Australia.
Beverage wines are normal wines, some of which possess a fairly
high percentage of vinous alcohol, a good colour and plenty of
body, but very few are sufficiently well-balanced to improve with
age. They usually lack the right kind and proportion of free
acids; they lack breed and the esters which give to a wine its
individual bouquet. Beverage wines can be and are usually drunk
with water; in that form, they are wholesome and cooling.
"Fine" Wines. — Fine natural wines are wines which are per-
fectly balanced. They are made of the perfectly fermented juice
of perfect grapes, that is to say, grapes of the finest species,
possessing the right proportion of sugar and acidity, and possess-
ing above all that inestimable quality which for the want of a
better word is called "breed."
There is very little fine wine made, compared to the enormous
quantities of ordinary beverage wine, and there is no means of
buying really fine wine except at high prices. The Gironde and
the Cote d'Or are the only two districts in the whole world where
a fair quantity of red wine is made, which cannot be improved
by the art of the blender.
Fortified Wines. — A fortified wine is a wine to which a cer-
tain proportion of brandy or spirit distilled from wine has been
added so as to raise its alcoholic strength. This addition of spirit
takes place during and after fermentation. Of such a union it may
be said that although the contracting parties are distant cousins,
yet it is not natural.
This is one of the fundamental differences between beverage
and fortified wines; the first need not always be kept more than
a short time before it is fit to drink, but the second must always
be kept some time.
Fortified wines supply a real want, the want of a generous
liquor which will dispel spleen in northern latitudes, where the
damp atmosphere and dark grey skies are depressing, and where
the people's diet contains necessarily a much larger proportion of
fats, the digestion of which is so much more laborious than that
of the vegetable diet of the southern races. This is why the
peoples of sunny Spain and Portugal consume most of their own
beverage wines, whilst they export to the United Kingdom and
Scandinavia practically the whole of the fortified wines which
are made specially to suit northern climate and requirements.
The fortifying of wine is a perfectly legitimate practice, pro-
vided, however, that only sound wine be fortified, and that only
spirit distilled from wine be used for the purpose, and provided
also, that the wine so fortified be improved thereby.
Fortified wines are not usually made out of the finest types
of grapes, but out of the most suitable species grown on the most
suitable of sunny lands, which yield grape-juice so rich in
grape-sugar, that it is better able to hold its own against the
intruder, producing slowly and under difficulties, alcohol of its
own, which blends with the added alcohol.
Still and Sparkling Wines. — Carbon dioxide, or carbonic
acid gas, is a normal by-product of normal vinous fermentation,
and is lighter than wine. If it is given a chance to escape from
the wine, during the process of fermentation, carbon dioxide will
lose itself in the air, and the wine will be "still." If, on the other
hand, a wine is bottled up whilst it is still fermenting, the gas
generated will try to escape, but if the bottles are sufficiently
strong and the corks securely fastened, it will remain in solution
in the wine. When poured out into a glass, this wine will be
found to be sparkling, that is to say the carbonic acid gas will
leave the body of the wine, rise to the surface and enter the
air.
Still wines and sparkling wines may be made out of any and
every variety of grapes, but the chief question is one not of "possi-
bility" but of "suitability."
When is it suitable to have carbonic acid gas in a wine? Car-
bonic acid gas is harmful in large doses but harmless enough in
small quantities; it has neither colour, smell nor taste of its own
to make it desirable. Its usefulness in wine is due to the fact
that it has an intense dislike for it, and is ever trying to get
away. When bottled up, the carbonic acid gas inside the bottle,
by trying to get out, keeps out the air for a time, but, by de-
grees, it manages to escape. Carbonic acid gas in a bottle also
keeps the balance between the different elements of the wine and
acts, for a time at least, as a preservative, hence the better chance
which sparkling wines stand on long sea voyages.
But wine can be made to last and to journey overseas quite
safely without carbonic acid gas. The high price of sparkling
wines is the result of their popularity; the cause of their popu-
larity is their quick action, the rapidity of their stimulating effect.
Why Sparkling Wines Please. — When a sparkling wine is
poured out, the carbonic acid gas, which filled the air chamber
inside the bottle, is the first to go, and that which is in solution
in the wine .comes to the surface very quickly at first, and more
quietly later. As it leaves the wine, the carbonic acid gas
carries with it the more volatile parts, such as the esters, which
give to the wine its fragrance, and it helps thus to "show off"
the bouquet. When we drink sparkling wine, there are more
contact points, and the more numerous the contact points, the
quicker will the carbonic acid gas in solution in the wine rise
to leave it. In doing so the carbonic acid gas carries with it
some of the alcohol, the stimulating action of which is rendered
thereby more immediate. Hence, the invaluable properties of
sparkling wine in cases of exhaustion, and of self-consciousness,
of reticence, of dullness or sluggishness of either thought, diges-
tion or glandular secretions.
All wines might be made into sparkling wines, but only the
lighter types of wines are suitable for the purpose, wines with
greater "finesse" than strength, with greater "breed" than body,
with a bouquet, attractive but not aggressive. Carbonic acid gas
in a sparkling wine may be said to intensify the qualities, good
and bad, which the wine possesses.
But, if a wine be grown as wine is grown in the Champagne
district — the birthplace of sparkling wine — grown upon a soil so
poor, under climatic conditions and other conditions so difficult,
that large yields are out of the question, and grapes of the finest
breed can alone be reared and are grown for quality, not for
quantity, then alone can fine still wines be made, which will be
still finer as sparkling wines, as is the case with champagne,
the pattern of all sparkling wines.
THE VINEYARDS OF THE WORLD
Vines will grow and wine can be made in all but arctic and
tropical countries, but by far the greater quantity of wine pro-
duced in the world every year comes from that cradle of human
civilization which is known as the Mediterranean basin, three
fourths of the world wine production coming from the vineyards
of France (including Algeria, which is administratively although
not geographically part of France), Italy, Spain and Portugal.
France, — France, the largest wine producing country in the
world is divided into 89 d£partements, and in all of them with the
exception of a dozen, the furthest north and north-west, vines
are grown and wine is made. The average production of wine in
France is over a thousand million gallons every year. There are
in France a million and a half vineyard proprietors, of whom
about a third are small holders who only make a sufficient quan-
tity of wine for the daily requirements of their own household.
By far the largest wine-producing departements are those of the
South of France, chiefly the Htrautt, Card and Aude, formerly
known as the province of Languedoc, with the stupendous average
yearly yield of over 400,000,000 gallons of wine. Practically the
whole of this enormous yield is made up of common wines.
There are, however, a few wines of Languedoc which are of a
very different and far better type. These are dessert wines, mostly
made of Muscat grapes, some being fortified and others natural
wines. The best of these wines are those of Lunel and Frontignan.
South east of Languedoc, the departement of Basses Pyrtn&es,
part of the former province of Roussillon, has long been famous
for its rich dessert wines, both rep! and white. The red wines of
Banyiils, made from Grenache and Carignan grapes, and the white
wines of Rivesaltes, made from muscat and white malvoisie
grapes are the best.
Next only to the Htrault, as regards quantity, but second to
654
WINE
none as regards the excellence of its wines, comes the Gironde
departement. The Gironde is the name given to the river Garonne
from the Bee d'Ambes, below Bordeaux, where it receives the
waters of the Dordogne, and until it reaches the Bay of Biscay.
The Gironde is also as indicated, the name of a departement, the
chief city of which is Bordeaux. No other departement of France,
nor any other wine-growing district in the world, produces so large
a quantity of fine wines as the Gironde. There are, in the Gironde,
four distinct districts which yield the finest wines; they are the
Medoc and St. Emilion districts for red wines, the Sauternes
district for white wines and the Graves district for both red and
white wines. (See CLARET, GRAVES, SAUTERNES.)
Moreover, there are within the borders of the Gironde departe-
ment, extensive vineyards in the undulating country between the
rivers Garonne and Dordogne called <4Entre deux mers"; and
there are many also planted in rich alluvial soil either close to
the river banks or in the islands in the midst of the broad waters
of the Gironde river. A large quantity of wine is made from all
such vineyards, wines far from being so fine as the wines of the
world-famous Medoc, Graves or St. Emilion districts, but wines
which are entitled to the names of Claret and Bordeaux, whole-
some, useful and fair wines.
Further north and well away from both the Mediterranean sea
and Atlantic ocean, three departements which formed part of the
ancient Duchy of Burgundy, produce the red and white Burgundy
wines (see BURGUNDY). They are the Cote d'Or, the Sadne et
Loire and the Yonne departements. The C6te d'Or owes its name
to a series of hills some thirty-six miles in length, which have
proved an inexhaustible gold mine for centuries past, their vine-
yards producing some of the finest wine in the world.
Immediately below the Cote d'Or, much wine of very fair
quality although not of the same superlative excellence is made
in the valley of the Sa6ne, from the vineyards of the Cote
Chalonnaise and of the Cdte Mayonnaise, within the de"partement
of Sadne et Loire, as well as further south, in the valley of the
Rhone, from the vineyards of the departements of Rhone, Isere,
Drome and Ardeche. The finest wines of each of those departe-
ments are those of Cdte Rotie (Rhdne)\ Condrieu (Isere),
Hermitage (Drome) ; St. P6ray (Ardeche).
Further south, a large quantity of wine is made in Provence,
in the departements of the Bouchcs du Rhone, Vaucluse, Var and
Alpes Maritimes; most of it is but common red wine from
Aramon and Bouschet hybrids, species of prolific and common
vines. There are, however, some fair white wines made in
Provence, which is mostly used to make Vermouth. There is also
a very small quantity of sweet wines made of fresh sun-dried
muscat grapes as well as a very small quantity of red wine of
exceptional merit made in the Vaucluse departement and known as
Chdteauneuf du Pape.
Further north and east, in the departements of the Doubs,
Haute Sadne, Jura and Ain some very interesting wines are
made at Arbois, Chdteau-Chalon and elsewhere but only in com-
paratively very small quantities. Further east still, in Alsace,
between the main range of the Vosges mountains and the Rhine,
an average of four million gallons of white wines is produced every
year in the departements of the Bas Rhin and Haut Rhin, wines
which are very dry.
Further north and west, once the very heart of the ancient
province of Champagne, the departement of the Marne produces
that inimitable wine, Champagne, which is probably more widely
known all the world over than any other wine. (See CHAMPAGNE.)
Returning to the Atlantic seaboard by way of the Loire valley,
some very beautiful vineyards are to be seen upon both banks of
this river, almost continuously during its 620 m. course. The
most extensive and prolific vineyards of the Loire valley are
those of Loir et Cher, Indre et Loire, Maine et Loire and Loire
Inflrieure. The first three are responsible for the best wines,
both red and white, of the former Provinces of Tonraine and
Anjou. The red wines come mostly from vineyards south of the
Loire and the white chiefly from the silicious hills of the right
bank of the river.
South of the Loire, in the two de*partements of the Charente
and Charente Inflrieure and also in parts of the two neighbour-
ing departements of Deux Sevres and Dordogne, much white* wine
is made every year but most of it is distilled into brandy, the
only brandy entitled to the name of Cognac. Further south,
brandy is also made in the departement of Gers, the only brandy
entitled to the name of Armagnac.
Although France is the largest wine-producing country in the
world, she imports from one to two hundred million gallons of
wine every year more than she exports, the greater part of the
wine thus imported for home consumption coming from Algeria,
Italy^— Italy is the second largest wine-producing country in
the world but she is also the second largest wine-consuming
country in the world and her production not having increased at
the same rate as her population, the surplus of Italian wines avail-
able for export is comparatively small. The great majority of the
wines of Italy are beverage wines of no particular merit, which
are consumed when still quite young; they are made to meet
the demand for cheap, young beverage wines, a demand which is
very great. The best Italian beverage wines come from the north,
namely, CHianti and Barolo; the best dessert wines come from
the south and are shipped from Marsala.
Spain. — Spain is the third largest wine-producing country in
the world. There are few parts of Spain where good wine is not
made or could not be made. In order of importance, the chief
wine-producing provinces of Spain are the following : New Castile,
Catalonia, Levant e, Aragon, Old Castile, Leon, Eastern Andalticia,
Western Andalucia, Galicia, Extremadura, Vascongadas. The best
and the most universally renowned wine of Western Andalucia is
undoubtedly Sherry. (See SHERRY.)
Eastern Andalucia, in the south south-eastern corner of Spain,
is covered with vineyards and produces large quantities of table
grapes and raisins. There are also different sorts of wine made in
Eastern Andalucia, of which the best is that which is made from
Pedro Ximenez and shipped under the name of Malaga from the
port of that name. Malaga owes much of its excellence to the
art of the blender. It is made up of new wine, to which is added
either some vino tierno or some vino maestro, first of all, and
some vino de color, later on.
The province of Levante produces a very large quantity of
different wines, the two types which are the best and the best
known abroad being the wines of Valencia and Alicante.
The province of Catalonia is the second largest wine-produc-
ing province of Spain and its wines are chiefly known abroad
under the name of Tarragona, a fortified wine made in the same
way as Port but lacking the breed and bouquet of the latter;
needless to say it is also much cheaper.
Portugal. — There are large quantities and many varieties of
red and white still and sparkling wines made in Portugal, but the
wine which has earned for Portugal a world-wide reputation is
undoubtedly the best wine of the Douro Valley, fortified at the
time of the vintage and eventually shipped from Oporto under
the name of Port. (See PORT.)
Germany. — Climatic conditions as well as the nature of the
soil make it impossible to grow vines with any measure of
success in any of the northern, eastern and central parts of
Germany. It is only in the most southern and western lands and
even there only at the cost of incessant labour and intelligent
care, that it is possible to grow vines which will yield grapes suit-
able for wine-making purposes. The vineyards of Germany
covered, before 1914, a little less than 300,000 acres divided in
the following proportions:
Alsace-Lorraine 25-88%
Bavaria 18-69%
Prussia 15-36%
Baden 14-58%
WUrttemberg 13-12%
Hessen 11-59%
All others 0-78%
Since the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, Germany has
fewer vineyards than most Balkan States and her production of
wine which was already far below her own requirements before
the war, has become very much more inadequate since. Hence the
WINE
655
considerably increased cost of German wines since the war, an
increase which, however, has very little, if at all, checked their
sale, either at home or abroad. This is due to the fact that
Germany produces white wines of superlative excellence, wines
as distinctive as they are inimitable, the output of which is so
limited that the supply never outpaces the demand. Of the forty-
six million gallons of wine which, in a good year, are produced in
German vineyards, some 80% or 85% are white wines and the
rest are red. A large proportion of the total output consists
merely of beverage wines which are- consumed locally, but in
Rhenish Prussia, in Hessen and in the Bavarian Palatinate some
exceedingly fine wines are produced in years when climatic condi-
tions have been suitable.
The finest wines of Germany are white wines of which there
are two generally acknowledged types, i.e., Hocks and Moselles.
Hocks are wines from the Rhinegau, Rhinehesse and Bavaria,
wines widely different as regards breed, bouquet and general
excellence, but wines which are, or should be, in the majority
of cases, full-bodied, more "vinous" and of a deeper golden colour
than Moselle wines ; they age better also, acquiring in time more
bouquet and more colour as well as greater strength. Moselles,
on the contrary, are more delicate, lighter both as regards body
and colour, and reach perfection much sooner, being delightful
wines very often when quite young. (See HOCKS and MOSELLES.)
Other European Countries. — Extensive vineyards are culti-
vated and much wine is made in Greece, Czechoslovakia, Rumania,
Bulgaria, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland and the Crimea, but, with
the exception of the Hungarian Tokay, the wines of all these
countries are not of a sufficiently superlative quality to have
earned a world-wide reputation.
America. — In North America there is a comparatively small
quantity of wine made in Canada and there are very extensive
vineyards in California. In South America, the Argentine and
Chili are the two largest wine-producing countries but there is
wine made also, upon a much smaller scale, in Peru, Brazil and
Uruguay.
Africa.— In Northern Africa, the vineyards of Algeria, Tunisia
and Morocco produce some 250 million gallons of red and white
wines, mostly red, every year, whilst in South Africa, where vine-
yards have been cultivated at the Cape since the seventeenth cen-
tury, some eight million gallons of wine are made every year, a
quantity which could easily be increased considerably should there
be a greater demand both in South Africa and overseas.
Australia. — The vinous output of Australia has increased con-
siderably since the Great War, owing chiefly to the grant of
"Irrigation" lands to ex-service men, lands which produce very
abundant crops of the prolific Dorandillo grape, a common species
of grape from which a wine is made which is only fit for distilla-
tion. The plentiful supply of cheap grape brandy makes it possible
for Australia to send to England ever increasingly large quantities
of fortified wines, wines which being rich in natural grape sweet-
ness and of a high alcoholic strength are more and more in demand
among the working classes.
Island Vineyards. — Much wine and some very famous wine
has been made for many centuries past and is still made in some
of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea and of thp Atlantic
Ocean.
In the Mediterranean, the most ancient and renowned island
vineyards are those of Cyprus, which produced the Vinum Cre-
ticum, which was greatly in honour in imperial Rome, and the
Malmsey, which the Genoese first brought to England in the
Middle Ages. Cyprus still produces on an average three million
gallons of wine every year.
In all the islands of the Greek Archipelago vines grow luxuri-
antly and much wine is made; even in ^lalta, the average yearly
yield of wine is over 700,000 gallons.
In the Atlantic Ocean, three groups of islands have been famous
ever since the early part of the seventeenth century for their
wines, i.e.9 the Canary Islands, the Azores or Western Islands
and Madeira. From the Canaries, where the Spaniards introduced
viticulture at an early date, came a strong wine of the sherry type
which is often praised in Shakespeare's and Ben Jonson's plays
under the name of Canary Sack. The wine which is still shipped
from Tenerife is no longer praised by the poets.
Fayal, one of the Azores, produced a wine which was greatly
prized during the late seventeenth century and the first half of the
eighteenth century by the colonists of New England, Pennsylvania,
Virginia and in the West India Islands. The quantity of wine
made now in the Azores is very small.
Not so Madeira, where much wine, some very fine, is still being
made upon an important scale. (See MADEIRA.)
CONSUMPTION OP WINE IN ENGLAND
In Roman and Saxon Days. — The Romans, during their oc-
cupation of Britain were probably the first to import wine into
England from the Continent, but no documentary evidence of the
existence of the English wine trade has as yet come to light earlier
than the fifth century. Moreover, it was not before the ninth
century that we find regular shipments of wine from Rouen to
both England and Ireland, though, during the tenth century, this
branch of commerce had acquired sufficient importance to become
a source of revenue for the Royal Exchequer, six shillings per ship
of wine having to be paid at Billingsgate by merchants arriving
from Rouen.
Saxon records make manifest that before the Norman Conquest,
wines were already in general use, in Britain, for a variety of pur-
poses, wines which are described as being either "clear, strong,
austere, soft, sweet, etc." During the eleventh century, the
wholesale and retail branches of the wine trade were distinct and
both were flourishing.
The Rise of Claret,— By the marriage, in 1152, of Eleanor of
Aquitaine to Henri Plantagenet, Duke of Anjou and Normandy,
who became King Henry II. the following year, Bordeaux and
some of the fairest vineyards of France passed under the rule of
England and remained under it during three consecutive centuries.
The claret trade in England dates from that time.
The privileged position of ''Gascon" wines, as most wines
shipped from Bordeaux were usually called, is evidenced by the
royal cellars purchase accounts which have been preserved to this
day. When in 1212, King John paid £5O7.ns.od. for 358 casks of
wine, the proportion of Gascon wine was nearly 75% of the whole,
i.e.: Gascon wine, 267 casks; Orleans, 54; Anjou, 8; Auxerre, 26;
and German, 3.
In London, where the Gascon merchants were numerous,
wealthy and powerful, the citizens and aldermen challenged many
times their rights and privileges which were conflicting with the
terms of royal charters obtained at great expense by the Lon-
doners themselves. Eventually, the Gascon vintners had to make
up their mind either to give up their Gascon nationality and settle
in England permanently, or else to give up their former privileges
and go back to Bordeaux not later than forty days after landing
their wines in England and selling them to London vintners, who
were alone to deal with them, either wholesale or by retail.
Wine and British Shipping.— One of the results of the ob-
jection taken by the citizens of London to the ancient trading
liberties of Gascon vintners in the Metropolis was to divert a
fairly large share of the Bordeaux wines to other parts of the
Kingdom, chiefly Bristol, Hull, Southampton and Chester, but
also to Portsmouth, Exmouth, Sandwich, Winchelsea, Rye, Lynn,
Ipswich, etc.
In 1335, Edward III., having prohibited all export of coin,
Bordeaux merchants were made to purchase in exchange of their
wines goods which they did not want or did not understand
sufficiently to buy well; in consequence, they preferred to go
to Flemish, Dutch and Hanseatic ports and they ceased almost
entirely to come to Great Britain. Hence, the King, the more
wealthy lords, both spiritual and temporal, as well as English
vintners, were obliged to send to Bordeaux their men, their ships
and their money to buy the supplies of wine of which they stood
in need. This change was mainly responsible for the rapid in-
crease of the naval strength and maritime preponderance of
England. Until then, Gascons, Flemings, Genoese and Germans
shared among themselves practically the whole of the carrying
trade, and the necessity which forced English merchants to go
656
WINE
overseas and fetch wines which foreign traders refused to bring
over any longer was of the utmost benefit to the country. The
supremacy of the English mercantile marine dates from then.
It was also during the reign of Edward III. that the practice
originated of a number of ships sailing from some appointed
English port and on some officially appointed day and proceeding
to Bordeaux in fleet formation, in order to be better able to de-
fend themselves from attack. Such fleets sailed usually in the
late autumn and returned home before Christmas with the "new"
wines; they sailed again in the following spring, usually soon
after Easter, and returned with the "rack" wines.
Early Laws and Regulations.— When the wine-laden ships
reached an English port, the attorneys of the King's Butler or
"yeomen of the Butlery," had to be advised; their office consisted
in taking two casks of wine per ship, or their equivalent value
in money, for the King's right of "prise" or "prisage"; they also
purchased whatever quantity of wine they had been instructed to
secure for the royal cellars and army, as well as for the numerous
lay and ecclesiastical beneficiaries of the King's bounty.
Only then could the wine be landed and stored in vaults on or
near the quay-side. This landing could only be effected by officially
recognised "wine-drawers," skilled in this work, of which they
enjoyed the absolute monopoly.
Once landed, the wine had to be passed by the "Gauger," the
buyer and seller each paying this official one halfpenny per tun
of wine gauged, and it could then be sold, but, again, the services
of an official "broker" were required to make the sale binding.
This broker had to see that the price demanded by the seller was
not beyond the maximum price fixed by authority from time to
time for different sorts of wine; he also had to see that the
importer of wine sold his wine wholesale, and only to those who
were free to buy wholesale, viz., peers, vintners and taverners.
The retailer of wine had also many royal and municipal ordi-
nances to comply with. Not only were the maximum retail prices
fixed, but further, wines of different kinds were not allowed to be
kept in the same cellar; the consumer had the right to see his
wine drawn from the cask; the Vintners' Company in London and
Municipal authorities in the provinces, had the right to enter the
premises of any taverner, and demand to test the wines stored
therein and condemn them to be destroyed if they thought fit.
A Penny a Gallon. — Prices, however, remained sufficiently
low during five hundred years for wine to be within the reach of
a very large number of people throughout the land, the wine trade
of England being prosperous.
From 1 2th century records we learn that the average price of
wine in England was then a penny per gallon. The lowest rate at
which we find wine quoted is under one halfpenny per gallon, in
1159, in London, and the highest is twopence per gallon, in 1174,
for "French" and "Moselle" wines.
During the i3th century, "wine," "Gascon" wine and wines of
"Anjou," "Auxerre," "Oleron," "France," "La Reole," "Moselle,"
were sold in all parts of the country at prices varying from three
farthings up to threepence halfpenny per gallon, the average
price being about twopence per gallon.
During the i4th century, the average price of "Gascon" wine,
the wine which then formed probably ninety per cent of the
total wine imports, rose to about threepence halfpenny per
gallon. The lowest recorded was twopence-farthing in 1343, at
Berwick-on-Tweed, and the highest, fourpence-farthing, in London
1338. Poitou and Rochelle wines cost rather less than Gascon
and there was a rate of three halfpence a gallon charged in London
in 1303, for "old wine," which meant perhaps "too old," i.e.,
defective wine.
On the other hand, Vernage, a sweet wine from Italy, was sold
at 2s. per gallon, at Durham, in 1335, and Crete wine at 45. in
1360. Rhine wine was sold at is. 2d. per gallon, in 1340, at Dur-
ham, at sixpence halfpenny, in 1367, and elevenpence, in 1380,
at King's Lynn.
Changes in Taste and Fashion.— -The chief feature of this
century is the decline in the consumption of "Gascon" or beverage
wine, and the increased popularity of a large variety of sweet, or
at any rate sweeter wines from Spain, Portugal, Italy and the
islands of the Mediterranean, such as Bastard, Tyre, Romeney,
Malmsey, Osey, Vernage and Hippocras. Irrespective of the
"assize" or official maximum prices of all such wines, their cost
varied greatly according to their quality, style, scarcity and
popularity; thus whilst Malmsey cost but tenpence per gallon
at Norwich in 1424, Osey is. at Warwick in 1405, and at Cam-
bridge, in 1414, Vernage cost 2s. 8d. per gallon at Warwick in
1405, and Hippocras 35. 4d. at Cambridge in 1488.
During the i6th century, references to "Gascon" wine are much
less numerous. This wine was still imported on a large scale, but,
was more commonly known under the name of "claret," the price
of which rose steadily from eightpence per gallon in 1510, to as.
8d. in 1592, in spite of the fact that its "assize" price was still
eightpence per gallon in 1538 and 1539, is. in 1565, is. id. in
1571 and is. 4d. from 1578 to 1581.
The price of Rhenish wine also rose during the same period
from is. per gallon, in 1508, to 35. 4d. in 1594.
The sweet wines of all kinds, Malmseys, Muscaclells and Musca-
dine, Romeney, Fimoy, Hippocras, etc., continued to be largely
imported and were sold at prices varying from tenpence per
gallon to as much as 8s. (for Hippocras) in 1587.
During the i6th century a notable event was the introduction
and the immediate popularity of Sack, the price of which rose
from tenpence per gallon in 1533, to 45. 8d. in 1598, in spite of
the fact that its "assize" price was but is. id. per gallon as late
as 1571.
The cheapest wines of all during the i6th century were those
shipped to England from La Rochelle, mostly thin white wines
from Poitou and Angoumois, but their price rose very much during
the latter part of the century. Their "assize" price was only
fourpence per gallon as late as 1553, but it was fixed at is. zd.
from 1578 to 1781.
During the i7th century, French wines practically ceased to be
imported and the taste for beverage wines, for the pure and
natural juice of the grape, gradually died out throughout the
country. Sweet wines retained their popularity, strong wines
heralded strong waters, cordials made their appearance, and ardent
spirits began to be imported from abroad, distilled at home and
consumed in all parts of the land.
Popularizing Port. — When William of Orange ascended the
English Throne, his arch-enemy Louis XIV. was at the zenith of
his glory. Louis's power on the Continent, the hospitality he ac-
corded to the exiled Stuarts, his treatment of the Huguenots,
and Colbert's commercial policy, were all calculated to inspire
the king and the people of England with feelings of hatred against
France and everything that was French. When Queen Anne suc-
ceeded William III., her Government knew that any measure
likely to cause serious prejudice to the French was sure to be
immensely popular. They accordingly sought to ruin one of the
most important and prosperous branches of France's trade, the
trade in wines, by admitting the wines of Portugal in England
on payment of £7 per tun, whilst the wines of France were to
pay £55 per tun. This was the object of the famous Methuen
Treaty signed in 1703.
The consumption of Port wine in England did not increase
materially jf or many years after the Methuen Treaty, but the con-
sumption of French wines declined so rapidly, that the proportion
of Portuguese wines consumed in England increased from 40 per
cent, of the total, at the close of the seventeenth century, to 72
per cent, at the close of the eighteenth century.
An Epoch-making Change.— During the first half of the nine-
teenth century, the wine trade of England was in the hands of a
comparatively small number of private wine-merchants, who ob-
tained their supplies either direct from abroad or from a few large
wholesale houses in London. The two principal qualities good wine
was expected to possess 'were colour and sugar. Nobody, then,
would have dared deny that the first duty of a wine was to be red
and its second to be sweet. Stout dark vintage ports were the
rule; full, sweet sherries and brown Madeiras were their only
competitors in the public favour. Sweet Champagne was becom-
ing more popular amongst the wealthy classes, and there was a
small but regular demand for the finest hocks and clarets Ger*
WINE-TABLE— WINNETKA
657
many and France could produce.
This state of affairs came to an abrupt end in the sixties when
Gladstone revolutionized the wine trade of England. On February
29, 1860, the duty on every description of wine was lowered
to 35. per gallon. On January ist, 1861, this uniform rate was
superseded by the imposition of a scale of duties, based on al-
coholic strength, according to Sykes' hydrometer, ranging from
is. per gallon on wines containing less than 18 degrees of alcohol,
to 2s. i id. per gallon on wines containing 45 degrees of alcohol.
On April 3rd, 1862, this scale was further revised and lowered,
all wines containing less than 26 degrees of alcohol being admitted
at the rate of is. per gallon, whilst those containing more, up to 42
degrees, were to pay 25. 6d. per gallon.
The Wine Trade Revolutionized. — This amounted to a dras-
tic reduction in the duties on wine and was bound to have an im-
mediate and considerable influence upon the consumption of wine
in England but Gladstone went even further. When, in 1860, he
introduced his first measure for lowering the duties on wine, he
concurrently brought in a Bill to facilitate its consumption, by
granting free scope to keepers of refreshment houses of good char-
acter to sell wine on the premises, on payment of certain Excise
licences. This Bill was followed by the "Single Bottle Act" of
1861, which enabled all shopkeepers to retail wine to be drunk
off the premises. Furthermore, whilst a "dealer" in wine had to pay
ten guineas for a wine-merchant's licence, "any person (not being
a dealer) who kept a shop for the sale of any goods or com-
modities other than foreign wines, in England and Ireland," was
allowed to sell wine not to be consumed on the premises, by retail,
in reputed quart or pint bottles only, on payment of fifty shillings
for an "off licence."
That measure proved more far-reaching than the reduction
of duties. It opened new channels to the activities of grocers,
drapers, limited liability companies, brewers, co-operative societies
and others. It threw the wine trade open to all, since every shop-
keeper was free to sell wine on payment of fifty shillings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Andre L. Simon, History of the Champagne Trade
in England (1905), History of the Wine Trade in England (Vol. I.,
1906; Vol. II. 1907; Vol. III., 1909) ; In Vino Veritas (1913) ; Wine
and Spirits (1919); The Blood of the Grape (1920); Wine and the
Wine Trade (1921) ; The Supply, Care, and Sale of Wine (1923) ; Bot-
tlescrew Days (1926) ; E. R. Emerson, Beverages, Past and Present
(1908); G. Saintsbury, Notes on a Cellar Book (1920); "Wine &
Spirit Trade Record," Clarets and Sauternes (1920) ; W. J. Todd, A
Handbook on Wine (1922); Port (1926); Wm. Bird, French Wines
(1924); H. Warner Allen, The Wines of France (1924); W. M.
Crowdy, Burgundy and Morvan (1926) ; G. Tait, Practical Handbook
on Port Wine (1926) ; Lcn Chaloner, What the Vintners Sell (1926) ;
P. Morton Shand, A Book of Wine (1926); Frank Hedges Butler,
Wine and the Wine Lands of the World (1926). (A. L. S.)
WINE-TABLE, a late 18th-century device for facilitating
after-dinner drinking— the cabinetmakers called it a "Gentleman's
Social Table." It was always narrow and of semicircular or horse-
shoe, form, and the guests sat round the outer circumference. In
the earlier and simpler shapes metal wells for bottles and ice were
sunk in the surface of the table; they were fitted with brass lids.
In later and more elaborate examples the tables were fitted with
a revolving wine-carriage, bottle-holder or tray working upon a
balanced arm which enabled the bottles to be passed without
shaking. Wine-tables are now exceedingly scarce.
WINFIELD, a city of southern Kansas, U.S.A., on the Wal-
nut river, in the fertile Arkansas river valley, at an altitude of
1,124 ft.; the county seat of Cowley county. It is on Federal
highway 77, and is served by the Frisco, the Missouri Pacific, the
Santa Fe and electric railways. Pop. (1925), 11,483 (largely
native white). It is in a rich agricultural region, and there are
oil-fields in every direction. The city was founded in 1870 and in-
corporated in 1871. Since 1921 it has had a commission-manager
form of government.
WINOATE, SIR FRANCIS REGINALD (1861- ),
British general and administrator in the Sudan, was born at
Broadfield, Renfrewshire, on June 25, 1861, the seventh son of
Andrew Wingate of Glasgow and Elizabeth Turner. He was edu-
cated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and became a
lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in 1880. He served in India and
Aden from 1881 till 1883, when he joined the Egyptian army,
and in the Gordon relief expedition of 1884-85 was A.D.C. and
military secretary to Sir Evelyn Wood. He took part in the
operations on the Sudan frontier in 1889 anc* 1891. In 1894 he
was governor of Suakin. His principal work was in the Intelligence
of which he became director in 1892. He was a master of Arabic.
He published in 1891 Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan, an
account of the rise of the Mahdi and of subsequent events in the
Sudan. He helped P'ather Ohrwalder and two nuns to escape
from Omdurman in 1891. Wingate also arranged for the escape
of Slatin Pasha in 1895. He translated Father Ohrwaldcr's narra-
tive (Ten Years in the Mahdi' s Camp, 1892) and Slatin's book
(Fire and Sword in the Sudan, 1896).
As director of military intelligence he served in the campaigns
of 1896-98 which resulted in the reconquest of the Sudan. In
an interval (March-June 1897) he went to Abyssinia as second
in command of the Rennell Rodd mission. He now became
colonel, an extra A.D.C. to Queen Victoria, and was created
K.C.M.G. Wingate led an expeditionary force which in Nov.
1899 defeated the remnant of the Dervish host at Om Debreikat,
Kordofan, and was made K.C.B. In December, on Lord Kitchener
being summoned to South Africa, Wingate succeeded him as
governor-general of the Sudan and sirdar of the Egyptian army.
In 1903 he became major-general and in 1908 lieutenant-general.
In 1909 Wingate undertook a special mission to Somaliland to
report on the military situation. In Dec. 1916 he relinquished the
governorship of the Anglo-Egyptian-Sudan to be high-commis-
sioner for Egypt until his resignation in Oct. 1919. He had received
the G.B.E. in Jan. 1918, and was created a baronet in June 1920.
WINKELRIED, ARNOLD VON. The incident with
which this name is connected is, after the feat of William Tell,
the best known and most popular in the early history of the
Swiss Confederation. We are told how, at a critical moment in
the great battle of Sempach, when the Swiss had failed to break
the serried ranks of the Austrian knights, a man of Unterwalden,
Arnold von Winkelried by name, came to the rescue. Commend-
ing his wife and children to the care of his comrades, he rushed
towards the Austrians, gathered a number of their spears to-
gether against his breast, and fell pierced through and through,
having opened a way into the hostile ranks for his fellow-country-
men, though at the price of his own life.
Evidence of Chronicles. — The earliest known mention of the
incident is found in a Zurich chronicle (discovered in 1862 by
G. von Wyss), which is a copy, made in 1476, of a chronicle
written about 30 years earlier; it occurs also in De Helvetiac
origine, written in .1538 by Rudolph Gwalthcr (Zwingli's son-in-
law). In both the hero is nameless. Finally, we read the full
story in Giles Tschudi's chronicle (1564), where the hero becomes
"a man of Unterwalden, Arnold von Winckelried by name."
K. Biirkli (Der wahre Winkelried, — die Taktik der alt en Ur-
schweizer, Zurich, 1886) concluded that the phalanx formation of
the Austrians, as well as the name and act of Winkelried, have
been transferred to Sempach from the fight of Bicocca, near
Milan (April 27, 1522), where a real leader of the Swiss mer-
cenaries in the pay of France, Arnold Winkelried, really met his
death in much the same way.
AUTHORITIES/— See in particular Thcodor von Liebenau's Die
Schlacht bei Sempach — Gedenkbuch zur fiinften Sacularfeier (1886),
published at the expense of the government of Lucerne. See also the
summary in K. Dandliker's larger Geschichte der Schweiz, i. 550-559
(3rd ed., Zurich, 1893) » O. Klcissncr, Die Qucllcn zur Sempacher
Schlacht und die Winkelriedsage (Gottingen, 1873).
WINKLE: see PERIWINKLE.
WINNEBAGO. This Siouan tribe of the west side of Lake
Michigan at present divided between Wisconsin and Nebraska.
Their closest ethnic relatives are the Siouan Iowa, Oto and Mis-
souri to the south-west; culturally they affiliated rather with their
Algonkin neighbours, such as the Menominee, Sauk and Fox.
WINNETKA, a residential village of Cook county, Illinois,
U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, 17 m. N. of Chicago. It is served by
the Chicago and North-Western and the Chicago, North Shore
and Milwaukee railways. Pop. 6,694 in 1920; estimated locally
at 11,500 in 1928. The village was incorporated in 1869.
658
WINNIPEG— WINSLOW
WINNIPEG (Cree, Win, murky; «*», water), the capital
of Manitoba and chief city of western Canada. It is situated in
the south-eastern part of the province, at the juncture of the
Assiniboine and Red rivers, 60 m, N. of the United States
boundary and 45 m. S. of Lake Winnipeg, from which it takes its
name. The population of Greater Winnipeg was 290,000 in 1928
(est.).
The first white explorer in the west, La Verendrye, erected Fort
Rouge here in 1738, but the place was abandoned until the next
century, when the fur-trading companies — The Nor'-Westers of
Montreal and the Hudson's Bay company — were engaged in bitter
rivalry for the control of the west. In 1806 Fort Gibraltar was
built by the Nor'-Westers, and a few years later the Hudson's Bay
company erected Fort Douglas near-by. Lord Selkirk, then head
of the company, was the first to see possibilities of farming in
the fertile Red river valley. In the years 1811-15 he brought out
several hundred settlers from his native Scotland, and, in spite
of hardships and neglect, they gradually built up a little colony.
Meanwhile, the fur-traders* warfare culminated in bloodshed and
in the merging of the two companies in 1821, under the name of
the Hudson's Bay company. Fort Gibraltar, renamed Fort Garry,
became a chief trading post and settlers' depot. In 1835 a second
Fort Garry was built. As the settlers increased, in spite of the
antagonism of the fur company, a straggling little hamlet grew
up outside the walls of the fort, which was given the name of
Winnipeg. The transfer of the territory by the Hudson's Bay
company to the Canadian Government in 1870, and the establish-
ment of a governor at Fort Garry brought a new impetus to
settlement, and an increase of shipping by the Red river, from
St. Paul in Minnesota.
With the completion of the Canadian Pacific railway in 1885,
the western part of Canada gained direct communication with the
east, and Winnipeg became a great distributing centre. This posi-
tion it still holds. It is the western headquarters of the Canadian
Pacific and the Canadian National railways. It has direct com-
munication with the United States by the Soo Line, the Great
Northern and the Northern Pacific railways. Every year the
Immigration officials receive at Winnipeg thousands of settlers
and direct them to their destinations in the four western prov-
inces. The opening of mining territory in northern Manitoba by
the Hudson Bay railway, and the development of mining fields
near the eastern boundary of Manitoba, have added to Winnipeg's
importance as a distributor of machinery and goods. There are
numerous wholesale houses, and the mail order business from
Winnipeg is enormous. The aerial exploration of Northern Can-
ada, and the shipping of supplies and men to that section by aero-
plane, have been established by Winnipeg companies. The exports
of Western Canada, chiefly agricultural, must pass through Win-
nipeg, as through a funnel, before being shipped east. In 1937
Western Canada produced 414,900,0x50 bu. of wheat; of this
amount 406,186,650 bu. were inspected at Winnipeg, making it
the chief primary grain market in the world. Winnipeg holds
annual fur auctions, attended by buyers from all over the con-
tinent.
^ Cheap and abundant electric power, developed on the Winnipeg
river by the Winnipeg Electric Railway company, and by the
municipally-owned Hydro-Electric company, has brought rapid
industrial development. The most Important products are: flour,
grain products, implements, paper boxes, confectionery, meat and
meat products, whitefish from the lakes, bricks and gypsum. Al
Winnipeg the Canadian Pacific has two large railway yards with
no m. and 125 m. of track and extensive railway shops, and
the Ford Motor company has a large assembling plant.
Winnipeg has wide street*, many of them planted with trees;
two large parks, Kildonan and Assiniboine, and many small
parks; and municipal golf links, besides several golf clubs. The
water supply is derived from Shoal lake too m. away. There are
42 banks and branches, 122 churches and missions, several hos-
pitals and charitable institutions, the University of Manitoba with
affiliated colleges, including the Agricultural college with its beau*
tiful grounds, large military barracks and Tuxedo Military hos-
pital, where disabled veterans are cared for. The moat note-
worthy public buildings are the Law Courts, and the Parliament,
House approached by the beautiful Victory Mall.
St. Boniface on the other side of the Red river is a separate
municipality with a population largely French-Canadian. It is
the Roman Catholic headquarters of the west, and contains a
cathedral, a convent, a hospital, an archiepiscopal palace and St.
Boniface college, It has large stockyards and flour mills.
WINNIPEG, a lake and river of Canada. The lake is in
Manitoba, between 50° 30' and 53° 50' N. and 96° 20' and 99*
15' W., has an area of 8,555 *q>m>, is at an altitude of 710 ft,,
is 260 m. long, 25 to 60 m. wide, and has several large islands,
including Reindeer (70 sq.m.) and Big Island (60 sq.m,). It
is nowhere more than 70 ft. deep. Its shores on the south are ex-
tremely marshy. The principal affluent rivers are: Red river, from
the south; Winnipeg, Bloodvein, Berens and Poplar from the east;
and the Dauphin and Saskatchewan from the west, It receives the
surplus waters of lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis, and dis-
charges by the river Nelson into Hudson Bay. The river Winni-
peg rises near Savanne station in 48° 47' N. and 89° 57' W,, and
flows in a westerly direction under the names of Savanne, Seine
and Rainy rivers to the Lake of the Woods; issuing thence as the
Winnipeg, it flows north-west to the lake of the same name. The
river has power installations totalling 226,000 h.p. chiefly supply-
ing the city of Winnipeg.
WINNIPEGOSIS) a lake of Manitoba and Saskatchewan,
Canada, between 51° 34" and 53° 11' N. and 99° 37' and r*i°
06' W. Its greatest length is 122 m.; greatest width 17 m,; shore-
line 570 m, ; and area, exclusive of islands, 2,000 sq.m. Its greatest
ascertained depth is 38 ft., and mean altitude 828 ft. above the
sea. It drains by the Waterhen river through Waterhen lake into
Lake Manitoba, and thence by the Little Saskatchewan into Lake
Winnipeg. It was discovered by La Verendrye in 1739.
WINONA, a city of Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Mississippi
river, 103111, S.E. of Saint Paul; the county seat of Winona
county. It is on Federal highways 14 and 61, and is served by the
Burlington Route, the Chicago and North Western, the Chicago
Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, and
the Green Bay and Western railways, motor bus lines, and river
barges. Pop. (1920) was 19,143 (84% native white) and was
estimated locally at over 22,000 in 1928. Winona is picturesquely
located on a broad level terrace at the foot of steep bluffs rising
500 to 6ooft. above the river* It is the centre and headquarters
of the Mississippi Wild Life and Fish Refuge, established by Con-
gress in 1924. Winona is a manufacturing city, with many and
varied industries (notably flour, proprietary medicines, spices, farm
machinery, food products, shoes, fur clothing and automobile
accessories), with an output in 1925 valued at $20,095,139. The
site of Winona was long occupied by an Indian village, and it Was
frequently used as a landing place in the fur-trading days. White
settlement began in 1851. The city was laid out in 1853 and char-
tered in 1857. A large part of it was destroyed by fire in 1860.
WINOOSKI, a city of Chittenden county, Vermont, U.S.A.,
on the Winooski river and the Central Vermont railway, adjoin-
ing Burlington on the north-east. Pop. (1920) 4,932 (24%
foreign-born white); 1928 local estimate over 7,500. The city
has important manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, screen
doors and windows, and various other commodities. It is the
seat of St, Michael's college (1905), Winooski was founded in
x 772 by Ira Allen, and was known as Allen's Settlement.
WINSLOW, EDWARD (1595-1655), a founder of the
Plymouth colony, was born in Droitwich, England, on Oct. 18,
1595. In 1617 Winsiow removed to Leyden, united with
John Robinson's church, and in 1620 was one of the "May*
flower pilgrims." His wife, Elizabeth (Barker) Winsiow, having
died soon after their arrival, he married, in May, 1621, Mrs.
Susannah White, the mother of Peregrine White (1620-1704),
the first white child born in New England. This was the first
marriage in the New England colonies. Winsiow Was one of the
"assistants" from 1624 to 1647, except in 1633-34, 1636-37 and
1644-45, when be was governor of the colony. In 1643, he was
one of the commissioners of the United Colonies of New Eng-
land. On several occasions he was dent to England in the inter*
WINTER SPORTS
PLATE
«$>r<
10
ONG ROBERTS
WORLD-WIDE PARTICIPATION IN WINTER SPORTS
1. Gladys Lamb and Norval Baptie, fancy skaters. In characteristic pose
2.. Gladys Lamb and Norval Baptie in carnival costume performing a diffi-
cult spinning act on skates
3. Sonja Hcnio, 15 years old, a champion skater of Norway
4. Dave Cruickshank and W. C. Capes skate sailing on Lake Hopatcong,
N. J.
5. Ice boating on a Canadian river
6. International speed skating contest on tho rink at Davos, in the Orisons,
Switzerland
7. A ski jumper in Bernese Oberland, Switzerland
8. Jumping a creek on skis at Lake Placid, N. Y.
9. A skier takes a sharp turn on a hill near Lake Placid, N. Y.
10. Hiram Mason, Jr., in annual dog-sled derby at Lake Placid, N. Y.
11. The church leap at St. Moritz, Switzerland
12. Bob-sledding over a sharp turn at St. Moritz, Switzerland
WINSOR— WINTER SPORTS
659
eats of Plymouth and Massachusetts bay. He kit on his last
mission as the agent of Massachusetts bay, Oct. 1646, and spent
nine years in England, where he held minor offices under Crom-
well Winslow's portrait, the only authentic likeness of any of
the "Mayflower pilgrims," is in the gallery of the Pilgrim Society
at Plymouth, Massachusetts. His writings, though fragmentary,
are of great value to the historian of the Plymouth colony. Some
of them may be found reprinted in Alexander Young's Chronicles
of the Pilgrims (Boston, 1841).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— J. B. Moore's Memoirs of America* Governors
(1846); David P. and Francea K. Helton's Window Memorial
(1877), and J. G. Palfrey's History of New Enfant (Boston, 185$-
64). Also see a paper by W. C. Winslow, "Governor Edward Wins-
low, his Place and Part in Plymouth Colony," in the Annual Report
of the American Historical Association for 1895 (Washington, 1896),
and vol. xxxi. of the American Historical
His son, JOSIAH WINSLOW (1629^1680), was educated at
Harvard college, was elected a deputy to the General Court in
1653, was an "assistant" from 1657 to 1673, and governor from
June 1673 until his death.
WINSOR, JUSTIN (1831-1897), American historian, was
born in Boston (Mass.) on Jan. a, 1831. As a student at Har-
vard he showed his scholarly tastes by historical and literary ar-
ticles and for a number of years thereafter continued his news-
paper and periodical work. He found his true vocation, however,
when his success as temporary superintendent of the Boston Public
Library caused him to receive the permanent appointment and
when in 1877 President Eliot took him to Harvard as librarian.
He edited The Narrative aftd Critical History of America (8 vol.
1884-89), a mammoth co-operative work, for the rich biblio-
graphical and historical notes of which he was largely responsible ;
he also wrote histories: Christopher Colttfnbtfs (1891), Cartier
to Frontenac (1894), The Mississippi Basin (1895), and The
Westward Movement (1897). He died in Cambridge (Mass,)
on Oct. 22, 1897.
WINSTED, a city of Litchfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
25 m. N.W. of Hartford, on the Mad and the Still rivers. It is
served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad.
Pop. (1920) 8,248 (80% native white); 1928 local estimate
10,000. The city has an elevation ranging from 600 to 1,509 ft.
above sea-level, and it lies in the midst of the beautiful Litch-
field hills region. Winsted was settled in 1756, chartered as a
borough in 1858 and incorporated as a city in 1915.
WINSTON-SALEM, a city of North Carolina, U.S.A.,
formed in 1913 by the consolidation of the city of Winston and the
adjoining town of Salem ; a port of entry and the county seat of
Forsyth county. It is on Federal highways 131 and 311, and is
served by the Norfolk and Western, the Southern and the Winston-
Salem Southbound railways. Pop. 48,395 In 1920 (43% negroes);
estimated locally at 84,000 in 1928. It is on the Piedmont plateau,
at an altitude of 1,000 ft., 30 m. from the Blue Ridge. Salem, the
old part of the city, has many interesting old houses, and is
the seat of Salem college for women (established by the Moravians
as an academy in 1772). A state teachers' college for negroes is
located here. Winston-Salem manufactures more tobacco products
than any other city in the world, the ten factories employing
18,000 persons and paying revenue taxes to the amount of $190,-
000,000. The city's assessed valuation for 1928 was $141,210,043.
Salem was founded in 1766 by Friedrich Wilhelm von Marschall
(1721-1802) a friend of Zinzendorf, to be the centre of a
Moravian colony for which 100,000 ac. in North Carolina had been
purchased. It remained under exclusive Moravian control until
1849. In 1856 land was first sold to outsiders, and the town was
incorporated. Winston was founded in 1851 as the county seat,
and was named for Maj. Joseph Winston (1746-1815), a famous
Indian fighter and Revolutionary soldier.
WINTERBERRY, the name given to several North Ameri-
can shrubs of the holly genus (Ilex) with deciduous leaves and
persistent, showy fruit. The Virginia winterberry (/. verticiUata) ,
called also black alder, found from Connecticut to Wisconsin and
south to Florida and Missouri, grows from 6 ft. to 25 ft. high, with
slightly hairy leaves, about 3 in. long, and bright red fruit. The
similar smooth wteterberry (/. (Mvfeato), found from Maine to
Georgia, has smaller, very smooth leaves ajnd orange-fed fruit.
WINTER FAT (Ewvtia lawrta), a small North American
shrub of the goose-foot family (Chenopodiaceae), native to sub-
alkaline soila from Saskatchewan to Washington, and south to
Texas and California. It is a low white-woolly shrub, i ft. to
9 It. high, with many slender branches, narrow leaves, and small
flowers in- axillary clusters, the fruiting involucres bearing tufts
of silvery *white hairs. It is a valued winter forage for cattle.
WINTERGREEN, known botanically as Gaultkeria pro*
cwnbens, a member of the heath family (Ericaceae), a small
creeping, evergreen shrub with numerous short erect brandies
bearing in the upper part shortly-stalked oval, thick, smooth
shining leaves with a sharp-toothed edge. The flowers are borne
singly in the leaf axils and are pendulous, with a pale pink waxy-
looking urn^shaped corolla. The bright crimson-red sub-globular,
berry-like fruit consists of the much-enlarged fleshy calyx which
surrounds the small thin-walled many-seeded capsule. The plant
is a native of shady woods on sandy soil, especially in mountainous
districts, in southern Canada and tho northern United States; it
is quite hardy in England. The leaves are sharpry astringent and
have a peculiar aromatic smell and taste due to a volatile oil
known as oil of wintergrean, which is used in medicine in the
treatment of muscular rheumatism (for the therapeutic action
see SALICYLIC ACID). An infusion of the leaves is used, under the
name mountain or Salvador tea, in some parts of North America
as a substitute for tea and the fruits are eaten under the name
of partridge or deer berries. Other names for the plant are tea*
berry, checker-berry, box-berry, spice-berry and ground holly. Its
counterpart on the Pacific coast is the salal or shallon (C. Skal-
/OM), a slender shrub, i to 6 ft. high, with black berries; it is
found in the coastal redwood belt of California and northward
to British Columbia.
WINTERHALTER, FRANZ XAVIER (1806^1873),
German portrait painter, was born at Menaen-Schwand, Blaek For-
est, on April 20, 1806. In 1823 ho went to Munich to study under
Stieler and afterwards established himself in Karlsruhe, where he
became a prote"g£ of the Grand Duke Leopold. He excelled In
the representation of elegant, graceful ladies, exhibiting regu-
larly at the Salon from 183 5-68 and at the Royal Academy from
1852^7. In 1857 he was made officier of the Legion of Honour.
He died at Frankfurt on July 9, 1873.
His portraits include those of Louis Philippe (Calalp), the due
d'Aumale (Chantilly), the Prince Consort (National Portrait Gallery,
London), Queen Victoria, th§ duchcas of Kent, Napotoon III, and
Empress Eugenie, tho Empress of Russia^ and others
WINTER'S BARK, the bark of Drimys Winteri, an ever-
green tree belonging to the magnolia family (Magnoliaecae). It
was formerly officinal in Europe, and is still held in 0§teern in
Brazil and other parts of South America as a popular remedy for
scurvy and other diseases. The plant is a native of the mountains
and highlands from Mexico to the Strait of Magellan.
WINTER SPORTS. For a number of years previous to 1300
experiments had been made in using the Alps as a yintcr play-
ground, for climbing, skating and other recreations. In the first
quarter of the aoth century this form of amusement became rap-
idly more popular and since 1910 the development of winter
sports has been more marked than during any previous period.
Sports In Switzerland.-— In Switeerland the post-War Devel-
opment was due in a large measure to the electrification of the
Swiss railway system: in 1912 a committee of experts examined
the question of electrification as a means of coal economy, and In
1913 electrically propelled trains were introduced on the £nga<]ine
express route from Coire onwards. During the year? 1914-16 the
work was necessarily suspended, but in 1919 the engineers of the
Swiss Federal and Rhaetian railways resumed oper*tion$, and at
an approximate cost of i8,8oo,oooir. the whole system was elec-
trified. This opened up a good many imall resorts which had been
previously inaccessible. In 1910 there were approximately 45
resorts to which people went for organised winter sports, but in
1997 the number had been increased to 92, with an approximate
increase of 180 per cent in the number of passengers travelling
from Great Britain to Swiss resorts direct.
66o
WINTERTHUR— WINTHROP
Among the many famous resorts in the States bordering
Switzerland are Kitzbiihel, Tirol, a quaint old city, and the Ari-
berg district, the Continent's classical skiing territory. In the
higher altitudes skiing is kept up well into May and June. Austria
is one of the leading countries for winter sports in Europe. The
Semmering, winter sport centre and fashionable resort, has one
of the best and oldest ski jumps and bobsleigh runs on the Con-
tinent. Italy has excellent skiing territory in her newly acquired
provinces. Of international fame is Cortina d'Ampezzo.
The Olympic Games. — Ski running, skating, ice-hockey, ski
jumping and other winter sports are included in the programme of
the Olympic games — though of necessity held at a time and
place distinct from games not dependent on snow conditions.
The Alpine games at the eighth Olympiad were held at Chamonix
in Feb. 1924, and the winter sports of the ninth Olympiad at St.
Moritz in Feb. 1928. In 1924 Norway was the winning nation
with 134^ points, Finland finished second with 76^ points; Great
Britain third, 30 points; the United States of America fourth, 29
points; Sweden 26 points; Austria 25 points; Switzerland 24
points; Franco 19^ points; Canada n points; Czechoslovakia 8^
points; Belgium 6 points and Italy i point.
In 1928 Norway won with 9oi points; the United States sec-
ond with soi points; Sweden, third, 40 points; Finland, fourth,
39i points; Austria, fifth, 22 points; Canada, sixth, 13^ points;
Switzerland, seventh, 6 points; Argentine, eighth, 5 points.
Women are allowed to compete in certain events at the Olym-
pic games, and their participation in the figure skating contests
at the eighth Olympiad was of great assistance to the British team.
Bobsleighing has become very popular; at most Swiss resorts
there is a specially constructed run, the one at St. Moritz and the
Schatzalp run at Davos being among the better known. In bob-
sleighing, the vcntre & terre position is now almost universal. The
developments in ski running are largely due to the test system
instituted by the Ski Club of Great Britain, and the standard of
running has greatly improved in consequence.
The United States. — Snow and ice sports are popular in the
United States. The natural resources of the Adirondack moun-
tains, allied to the natural enterprise of the American sportsman,
have provided winter sports which challenge comparison with
those of Switzerland. At Lake Placid, one of the largest Amer-
ican resorts, the season opens early in Dec. and about 1,500 people
can be accommodated in the club house, its annex, and the cot-
tages which are a feature of this winter sport centre. The ski-
oering, often spelled skikjoring, races in the frozen waters of the
lakes attract large crowds of spectators. The Inter- Vale ski jump,
which is the principal sporting contest, takes place on the anni-
versary of Washington's birthday, Feb. 22. Skiing is the favourite
winter sport, although skating is popular, and skaters are very
well provided for. There are special rinks for curling, figure skat-
ing and ice-hockey. Bobsleighing, ski-oering and tobogganing
(q.v.) — on the flat American type of toboggan — are all sports
subsidiary to skiing at Lake Placid, which is becoming one of the
most popular resorts for families during the Christmas holidays.
In New England several resorts are available, such as Wood-
stock (Vt), Picketts (N.H.), and Toy Town, Winchendon
(Mass.). Within 3om. of New York city there are various smaller
places, such as Briarcliff Lodge, catering to week-end visitors; an
annual ski jumping contest takes place here on Washington's
birthday. Chicago has skating contests which attract a large
number of contestants and visitors, and there are several rinks
in New York city which attract thousands of people every eve-
ning during the winter.
Canada. — In Canada climatic conditions are more favourable
to snow and ice sports than those existing in the United States.
The season is longer, the temperature much lower and steadier,
and particularly in Ontario and the Maritime provinces, the snow-
fall is greater. Snow-shoeing, tobogganing and skating have been
popular winter sports for years, and in Manitoba and eastern
Canada can be enjoyed usually without a break from November
to March. Ice-hockey enjoys a great vogue with the younger ele-
ment, and contests between the leading clubs attract enormous
crpwds. The Canadian team won the ice-hockey contest at the
Olympic games of 1924, their brilliant play as a team enabling
them to beat the Americans, who played their way to the finals.
Ski running and jumping is of comparatively recent introduction,
but is becoming increasingly popular. Curling is extensively
played, interest in it being periodically stimulated by the visits of
representatives of prominent Scottish curling clubs. The centre
of winter sport is Montreal.
In Ottawa the Ski Club now numbers 2,000 members, and the
Cliff Ski Club has an equally large membership. The annual
curling Bonspiels, held at Montreal, Toronto, Winnipeg and other
centres, attract competing teams from all parts of Canada and
contiguous territory of the United States. (V. M. C.)
WINTERTHUR, a flourishing industrial town in the Toss
valley, canton of Zurich*, Switzerland, and by rail 17 m. N.E. of
Zurich. It is 1,450 ft. above sea-level, and has a rapidly increasing
population (in 1870, 9,317; in 1880, 13,502; in 1900, 22,335;
in 1920, 46,969; and in 1928, estimated at 53,150), all German-
speaking and nearly all Protestants.
The Roman settlement of Vitudurum (Celtic dur, water) was
a little north-east of the present town, at the place now known
as Ober Winterthur. It was refounded in the valley in 1180 by
the counts of Kyburg (their castle rises on a hill, 4 m. to the
south of the town), who granted it great liberties and privileges,
making it the seat of their district court for the Thurgau. In 1264
the town passed with the rest of the Kyburg inheritance to the
Habsburgs, who showed very great favour to it, and thus .secured
its unswerving loyalty. It was a Habsburg stronghold for two
centuries; but after the conquest of the Thurgau by the Swiss
Confederates (1460-1461) it was sold to the town of Zurich
(1467), its rights and liberties being reserved, and its history
since then has been that of the other lands ruled by Zurich.
Winterthur is the point of junction of seven lines of railway.
See J. C. Troll, Geschichte d. Stadt Winterthur (8 vols., 1840-50) ;
and Diet, geogr. de la Suisse, Vol. VI. (1910).
WINTHER, CHRISTIAN (1796-1876), Danish lyrical
poet, was bprn on July 29, 1796 at Fensmark, Praesto, where
his father was priest. He began to publish verses in 1819. In
1851 he received a pension from the state, and for the next
quarter of a century he resided mainly in Paris. Besides some
nine* or ten volumes of lyrical verse, Winthcr published The Slag's
Flight j an epical romance in verse (1855); In the Year of Grace,
a novel (1874); and other works in prose. He died in Paris on
Dec. 30, 1876, but the body was brought to Denmark, and was
buried in the heart of the woods.
WINTHROP, JOHN (1588-1649), Puritan leader and first
governor of Massachusetts, was bom in Edwardston, Suffolk,
England, Jan. 12 (old style), 1588. In 1602 he matriculated at
Trinity college, Cambridge, but he did not graduate. He next
practised law and achieved considerable success, being appointed,
about 1623, an attorney in the court of wards and liveries, and
also being engaged in the drafting of parliamentary bills. His in-
come rose to the sum of £700 a year, when, for reasons now un-
known, he suddenly in 1629 lost his appointment. A Puritan, he
had made wide acquaintance among the leaders of the Puritan
party. On Aug. 26, 1629, he joined in the "Cambridge Agree-
ment," by which he and his associates pledged themselves to re-
move to New England, provided the Government and patent of
the Massachusetts colony should be removed thither. On Oct.
20, 1630, he was chosen governor of the "Governor and Company
of the Massachusetts Bay in New England," and sailed in the
"Arbella" in March 1630, reaching Salem, Mass., June 12 (old
style), accompanied by a large party of Puritan immigrants.
After a brief sojourn in Charlestown, Winthrop and many of his
immediate associates settled in Boston in the autumn of 1630.
There he lived until his death on March 26 (old style), 1649.
Winthrop's history in New England was very largely that of the
Massachusetts colony, of which he was 1 2 times chosen governor
by annual election, serving in 1629-34, 1637-40, 1642-44, and
1646-49, and dying in office. He was usually deputy governor
and always assistant when not actually governor. He gave all his
strength, devotion and fortune to the colonies. He was con-
servative and somewhat aristocratic, but just and magnanimous in
WINTHROP— WINZET
66
his political guidance even under circumstances of great difficulty.
In 1634-35 he was a leader in putting the colony in a state of
defence against possible coercion by the English Government. He
opposed the majority of his fellow-townsmen in the so-called
"Antinomian Controversy" of 1636-37, taking a strongly con-
- servative attitude towards the questions in dispute. He was the
first president of the Commissioners of the United Colonies of
New England organized in 1643. He defended Massachusetts
against threatened parliamentary interference once more in 1645-
46. The colony's early success was due largely to his skill and
wisdom.
Winthrop's Journal, an invaluable record of early Massachusetts
history, was printed in part in Hartford in 1790; the whole in Boston,
edited with valuable notes by James Savage, as The History of New
England from 1630-1640, in 1825-26, and again in 1853; and in
New York, edited by James K. Hosmer, in 1908. Many letters to
him are found in the Winthrop Papers published by the Massachusetts
Historical Society (Collections, scries 4, vols. vi. and vii. ; series 5,
vol. i., 1863-71). His biography has been written by Robert C.
Winthrop, Life and Letters of John Winthrop (1864, new ed. 1869) ;
and by Joseph H. Twichell, John Winthrop (1892). See also Mrs.
Alice M. Earle, Margaret Winthrop (1895).
WINTHROP, JOHN (1606-1676), known as John Win-
throp the Younger, son of the preceding, born at Groton, formerly
a small rural village lying about midway between Wadleigh and
Sudbury in Suffolk, England, Feb. 12, 1606. He attended the
Bury St. Edmunds grammar school and Trinity college, Dublin,
studied law for a short time after 1624 at the Inner Temple,
London, accompanied the expedition of the duke of Buckingham
for the relief of the Protestants of La Rochelle. In 1631 he fol-
lowed his fat her. to Massachusetts and was an "assistant" in 1635,
1640, 1641 and from 1644 t° 1649. He was the chief founder of
Agawam (now Ipswich), Mass., in 1633; went to England in 1634
and returned the following year as governor (for one year) of
Connecticut, under the Saye and Selc patent, sending out the
party which built the fort at Saybrook. He was again in England
in 1641-43, and on his return to Massachusetts established iron-
works at Lynn and Braintree. He became magistrate of Connecti-
cut in 1651; in 1657-58 was governor of the colony; and in 1659
again became governor, and was annually re-elected until his
death in Boston on April 5, 1676. In 1662 he obtained in England
the charter uniting the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven.
In 1675 Winthrop was further honoured by being chosen a com-
missioner of the United Colonies of New England. In England he
received the additional distinction of election to membership in
the newly organized Royal Society.
His correspondence with the Royal Society was published in series
T vol. xvi. of the Massachusetts Historical Society's Proceedings, See
T. F. Waters' Sketch of the Life of John Winthrop the Younger
(Ipswich, Mass., 1899) ; John Winthrop by E. T. James (London,
1925) ; John Winthrop, Jr. by F. J. Kingsbury— Amer. Antiq. Soc.
(Worcester, 1898).
Winthrop's son, Fuz-JoHN WINTHROP (1638-1707), was edu-
cated at Harvard, though he did not take a degree; served in the
Parliamentary Army in Scotland under Monck, and returned to
Connecticut in 1663. As major-general he commanded the unsuc-
cessful expedition of the New York and Connecticut forces against
Canada in 1690; from 1693 to 1697 he was the agent of Connecti-
cut in London; and from 1698 to 1707 was governor of Connecti-
cut.
WINTHROP, ROBERT CHARLES (1809-1894), Ameri-
can orator and political leader, a descendant of Governor John
Winthrop (1588-1649), was born in Boston, Mass., on May 12,
1809. He graduated at Harvard in 1828, studied law with Daniel
Webster and in 1831 was admitted to the bar. He was a member
of the Massachusetts house of representatives in 1834—40 — for
the last three years as speaker. From 1840 to 1850, except for a
short intermission (April-Dec. 1842), he was a representative in
the lower house in Congress. He soon became prominent and was
speaker of the 30th Congress (1847-49), though his conservatism
on slavery and kindred questions displeased extremists, North and
South, who prevented his re-election as speaker of the 3ist Con-
gress. In July 1850 he was appointed to the seat in the U.S.
Senate left vacant by Daniel Webster's resignation, but was de-
feated in the regular election held in the following year by a coali-
tion of Democrats and Free Soilers. In the same year (1851) h
was defeated for governor of Massachusetts by the same coalitioi
Thereafter he was never a candidate for political office. With th
breaking up of the Whig Parly he became an independent, an
supported Millard Fillmore in 1856, John Bell in 1860 and Gei
G. B. McClellan in 1864. He was president of the Massachusetl
Historical Society from 1855 to 1885. He died in Boston, o
Nov. 16, 1894.
Among his publications were Addresses and Speeches (1852-86)
Life and Letters of John Winthrop (1864-67); and Washingto
Bowdoin and Franklin (1876). See R. C. Winthrop, Jr., Memoir <
R. C. Winthrop (1897) ; and C. F. Adams, Jr., Theodore Lyman an
Robert Charles Winthrop, Jr. (1906).
WINTHROP, a town of Suffolk county, Massachusett
U.S.A., occupying a peninsula jutting out into Massachusetts ba
5 m. N.E. of Boston, between Chelsea and Revere. It is serve
by the Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn railroad. Pop. (1925
16,158 (State census). It is a residential suburb and has larg
summer hotels, four yacht clubs and many private estates. Wii
throp was set off from North Chelsea and incorporated as a tow
in 1852, being named after Deane Winthrop (1623-1704), who;
home is still standing. In the early clays the peninsula was know
as Pullcn Poynt, because the currents around it made hard pullir
for the boatmen. From the middle of the iSth century man
prominent Boston families had seaside homes here, and it n
mained a secluded retreat until the railway was built in 1876.
WINTON, an anthracite-mining borough of Lackawann
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lackawanna river, 9 r
N.E. of Scranton; served by the Delaware and Hudson, tt
Lackawanna (for freight only) and the New York, Ontario an
Western railways. Pop. (1920) 7,581 (31% foreign-born white
t WINWOOD, SIR RALPH (c. 1563-1617), English pol
tician, was born at Aynhoe in Northamptonshire and educate
at St. John's College, Oxford. In 1599 he became secretary t
Sir Henry Neville (c. 1564-1615), the English ambassador i
France, and he succeeded Neville in this position two years late
retaining it until 1603. In this year Winwood was sent to Tt
Hague as agent to the States-General of the United Province
and according to custom he became a member of the Dutc
council of state. His hearty dislike of Spain coloured all h
actions in Holland; he was anxious to see a continuance of tt
war between Spain ;and the United Netherlands, and he cxpressc
both his own views and those of the English government at tl
time when he wrote, "how convenient this war would be for t\
good of His Majesty's realms, if it might be maintained withoi
his charge." In June 1608 Winwood signed the league betwec
England and the United Provinces, and he was in Holland whe
the trouble over the succession to the duchies of Julich and Clevi
threatened to cause a European war. In this matter he negotiate
with the Protestant princes of Germany on behalf of James
Having returned to England Sir Ralph became secretary <
state in March 1614 and a member of parliament. In the HOUJ
of Commons he defended the king's right to levy imposition
and other events of his secretaryship were the inquiry inl
the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury and the release of Raleig
in 1616. Raleigh was urged by Winwood to attack the Spanis
fleet and the Spanish settlements in South America, and tl
secretary's share in this undertaking was the subject of con
plaints on the part of the representatives of Spain. In the mid
of these complex activities he died in London on the 27th <
October 1617.
JWinwood's official correspondence and other papers passed to tl
duke of Montagu, and are now in the possession of the duke
Buccleuch. They are calendared in the Report of the Historic
Manuscripts Commission on the manuscripts of the duke of Bu
cleuch. See the Introduction to this Report (1899) ; and also S. 1
Gardiner, History of England, vols. ii. and iii. (1904-1907).
WINZET, NINIAN (1518-1592), Scottish polemical write
was born in Renfrew, and was probably educated at the universil
of Glasgow. He entered into conflict with Knox and other lea
ing reformers. He appears to have acted for a time as confessi
to Queen Mary. In July 1562, when engaged in the printing <
his Last Blast, he narrowly escaped the vengeance of his opp<
nents, who had by that time gained the upper hand in the capiti
662
WIRE
and he fled (Sept. 3) with the nuncio Gouda to Louvain, and then
to Paris. At Queen Mary's request he joined Bishop Leslie on
his embassy to Queen Elisabeth in 1571, and remained with the
bishop after his removal by Elizabeth's orders to ward at Fenny
Staunton, Huntingdonshire. When Leslie was committed to the
Tower, WinJet returned to Paris, There he continued his studies,
and in 1574 left for Douai, where in the following year he became
a licentiate. He was in residence at Rome from 1575 to 1577*
and was then appointed by Pope Gregory XIII. abbot of the
Benedictine monastery of St. James, Regensburg. There he died
on Sept. 21, 1591.
WinJet's works are almost entirely controversial. In his Buke
of Four Scoir Thre Questions (1563) he treats of church doc.trine,
sacraments, priesthood, obedience to rulers, free-will and other
matters.
Winzet's vernacular writings have been edited by J. Hewison for
the S.T.S* (2 vols., 1888, 1890). The Tractates were printed, with a
preface by David Laing, by the Maitland Club (1835). For Winzet's
Ctrw &t Zeigtlhauer, ttistorra ret IHtrariat O.S.B. Hi., Mackenzie,
Ltues, iii., and the Introduction to S.T.S., edit. u,s.
WIRE. The making of wire is one of the most ancient of
the metal-working crafts. When man discovered the need of a
piece of drawn-out bar or rod of any kind of metal for the pur-
pose of ornaments, tools, hooks, or fastenings, then the first piece
of wire was manufactured. It is more than likely that this was of
copper or gold, as both of these metals would be found in their
native state and would lend themselves to being beaten or drawn
out. Samples of brass wire more than 2,000 years old have been
discovered, and these, judging by the markings on their surface,
seem to have been made by passing metal through the tapered
hole of a drawplate.
The metal-working artists of Nuremberg in Bavaria, who
formed wire by the use of the hammer alone, were styled wire-
smiths, but later, when the drawplate was introduced, their desig-
nation was changed to wire-drawers or wire-millers, and as
this occurred as early as 1351 and 1360 in the history of Augsburg
and Nuremberg respectively, it is conceivable that the invention
of the method of modern wire-drawing should be assigned to the
1 4th century. The earliest wire made by the use of the drawplate
was manufactured by main force, the workmen pulling the wire di-
rectly through the tapered hole in the plate by attaching its end
to a belt around his waist and stepping backwards away from
the drawplate. The windlass type of pull was next adopted, and
after this water power was applied.
It is possible that iron wire was manufactured about the middle
of the 1 5th century in England,
as at that period the importation
into England was prohibited. In
1565 patents were granted to
certain Dutchmen or Germans
for the prosecution in England of
various manufactures, among
which was that of wire, and a
works was set up at Tintern in
Monmouthshire for the purpose
of introducing and practising the
art of wife-drawing. Previously
all English iron wire appears to
have been drawn by manual
strength in the Forest of Dean
and elsewhere. Copper and brass
wire was manufactured about the
year 1649 *t E&her, and the first
wfre*mi!l to Efigland was set uf> ?*** i.— «TKU WIRE.DRAWI*« WILL
at Sheen, near Richmond, by Dutchmen, in 1662.
When the rolling of bars came into use, wrought iron for wire-
drawing purposes was rolled, into rods of about } in. diameter, the
weight of the piece usually being about 28 lb.; but the introduc-
tion Of mild steel or ingot iron has changed the character of the
wire-drawing trade.
The raw product which comes into a wire works is the rolled
rod of $ in. or larger diameter from the steel mill, this having
been rolled down from billets about 2 in. square. One of the most
important processes in connection with the making of wire is the
proper cleaning of rods, so as to free them entirely from any
form of scale, this latter being extremely detrimental to good wire-
drawing. The general practice is to submerge the rods in cisterns
FIG. 2.— WIRE-DRAWING BLOCK. PLATE AND SOAP-BOX
of dilute hydrochloric acid until the whole of the scale has been
removed. The rods are then well washed and allowed to stand in
the air until they are "browned'* or coated with a film of ferric-
hydrate. This "coating" is exceedingly important, as the subse-
quent drawing of the wire to fine
gauges depends very largely upon
it. After coating, the rods are
dipped into a vat of hot lime-
water and then dried in ovens.
Methods of Wire-drawing.
— Two general processes of wire-
drawing are in vogue — one known
as the "dry" and the other as
the "wet" method. A wire mill
in which the dry method is used
is shown in fig. i. On the left the
line of swifts or reels which
carry the rods will be seen, whilst FIG. 3.— WIRE-DRAWING MILL; wrr
the blocks on to which the wire PROCts*
is wound after being pulled through the drawplate are shown
along the centre of the benches. A closer view of the soap-box,
drawplate, and block is shown in fig. 2. This illustrates how the
wire passes from the swift through the soap-box, the conical hole
of the die, and on to the wind-
ing block. It will be noticed
that the die contains a large
number of holes, this form of
die enabling the wire-drawer to
pass readily to a correct size of
hole when the one in use has
become worn, ttard dried olive
oil soap is used as a lubricant,
this being broken into small
pieces before being placed in the DUCED TO WIRE
SOap-boX> THROUGH PLAtfi
In wet drawing the wire or rod is first coated with a thin film
of copper, deposited by passing the rod or wire through a special
solution containing sulphate of copper. The wire then passed
through a soapy solution and on through the hole of the draw*
FIG. *— STEEL
ROD fiCING RE-
IN PASSING
WIRED WIRELESS— WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
663
FIG. 5.— PHOTOMICROGRAPH, MAG-
NIFICATION 100 DIAMETERS, SHOW.
ING CRYSTAL GRAINS BEING COM-
PRESSED
plate, This method of wire-drawing a hard metal within a
shell or skin of a softer metal was first used by Dr. Woolaston for
drawing fine wire in the beginning of the igth century, and in prac-
tice it gives very good results. A wire mill in which wire is
drawn by the wet process is shown in fig. 3.
A continuous process of wire-drawing is now in use for the
production of steel, copper, brass, and other kinds of wire. The
method consists in carrying the wire continuously from one block
to another through interposed drawplates and thus on to a final
winding block, The blocks may
be on separate spindles or super-
imposed on a vertical spindle, as
shown in fig. 3. The advantage
of this method is that it
saves the handling of the wire
between the various passes or
drafts.
The hot-rolled rods which are
used for the drawing of steel
wire are usually in pieces weigh-
ing about 1 60 lb., each piece when
of 5 gauge (-212) being about a
quarter of a mile in length. This
when drawn to 10 gauge (-128)
increases to about three times its
length; if drawn to 20 gauge
(.036) its lengths will be about nine miles; and if drawn further
to 30 gauge (-0124) it will have a length of about 70 miles. It
will thus be seen that a 5 gauge rod being drawn down to 30
gauge increases its length about 280 times.
As the wire passes through the clrawplate (fig, 4) it is subjected
to enormous pressure, which in some cases amounts to as much
as 150 tons per sq. inch. The "flow" of mild steel in passing
through the hole of the plate is illustrated by fig. 5, in which full
sized grains are shown on the left and the elongated or crushed
grains on the right. The speed at which wire passes through a
drawplate varies according to the
diameter and quality of the ma-
terial to be reduced. For soft
steel this speed may run up to
as much as 1,000 ft. per minute.
The reduction of area per draft
varies according to the quality of
steel being drawn and the kind
of wire required; it may be as
high as 40% or as low as 10%.
The physical properties of steel
are altered as it passes through
the wire-drawing process, the
chief alteration being a rapid in-
crease in its tensile strength and
a reduction in its elongation.
For instance, a 5 gauge rod hav-
ing a tensile strength of 32 tons
per sq. in, will, in drawing down
to 17 gauge, have its tensile
strength doubled.
The softer metals such as cop-
per, and alloys such as brass,
are drawn in a manner similar to
steel, the difference being in the
methods of cleaning and anneal- F>o, •. — IMPERIAL STANDARD wins
ing; also, with the softer metals GAUGE
a larger use is made of methods of continuous drawing in which
wires may be drawn down to very fine gauges by the simulta-
neous reduction of nine or more passes in one operation.
Wiredrawers' plates may be cast iron, plain carbon steel, or
alloy steel, and small hard dies are sometimes made of a compound
largely composed of carbide of tungsten, while for fine copper,
or other soft metal drawing diamond dies are used. (See GALVAN-
IZING,) (B. A. A.)
WIRED WIRELESS: see ELECTRICAL Powia TRANSMIS*
No. DIAMETER
INS. M/M
I 300 70
SIGN; ELECTRICITY SUPPLY: TECHNICAL ASPECTS.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. It was propounded by J.
Clerk Maxwell in his paper "On a Dynamical Theory of the Elec-
tromagnetic Field" (1865) and in his treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism (1873) that electric action is propagated through free
space in the form of a disturbance which travels with the velocity
of light. In 1888 Heinrich Hertz published an account of his ex-
periments on the electromagnetic effects of rapid electrical oscilla-
tions, and showed that the result of such oscillations was the
propagation of a periodic disturbance through space which had the
characteristics of wave-motion. In the following year Hertz sup-
plemented his experiments by a mathematical treatment of the
electric and magnetic forces which are to be expected in the space
surrounding electricity in vibration. Hertz's analysis, which was
based on Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory, supplies us with the
theoretical basis of the method of producing electric waves now
used in wireless communication. A wireless transmitter is a device
for producing rapid oscillatory motion of electricity which is the
origin of electric waves. Such electric waves are detected at a wire-
less receiving station by the effects of the rapidly varying electric
and magnetic forces which constitute the electric wave-motion.
In the experimental oscillator used by Hertz the electricity
may be considered as surging to
and fro, simulating the action of
an electric doublet the moment of
which is alternatively positive
and negative. Let us suppose that
such an electric doublet is situ-
ated at the centre 0 of a sphere
of radius r so that its axis coin-
cides with the axis OZ (see fig.
i). Further, let the electric mo-
ment of the doublet be a pre-
FIG. i
scribed function of the time F(t). The results of Hertz's analysis
show that the electromagnetic field, due to the doublet, at any
point r, 0 on the sphere, consists of an electric force with tangential
and radial components E6 and Er respectively, together with a
magnetic force H<j> at right angles to both these components, where
and
f i"
--
(2)
(3)
where /, f and f are written for F (t - -) » F' (t~ -) and
/ r\ c c
F" (t ) respectively, since the values of the electric and mag-
netic forces depend on the events taking place at the origin
-seconds previously, c being the velocity of the electromagnetic
c
disturbance in free space.
Since, in practical applications, we arc mainly concerned with
cases in which the electric moment varies periodically, and in
which the observational point is at right angles to the axis of
the doublet (e.g., N in fig. i) we may write jF(/) = A/osinw/ and
0 = o. Thus (i) and (3) become
E
A/o sin *
Mo 6)
and
U)
(5)
where ^-w (t — 1 > and the subscripts of E and ff are omitted.
The terms in the expression fbr E may, for convenience, be named
the electrostatic, induction and radiation terms respectively.
In the expression for the magnetic force there are only the in-
duction and radiation terms.
664
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
If we consider only points at such distances from the origin that
<"-'»
c
we see that the radiation terms are the outstanding ones in (4)
and (5). The numerical value of the electric and magnetic
intensities in such a case is therefore given by
(6)
P _- 3/oc*>2sino> -
Since is equal to — , where X is the wave-length of the electro-
U 2TT
magnetic disturbance, we see that when the distance r is large
compared with -- the electric wave consists of periodic electric
and magnetic forces at right angles and in phase. The intensities
of these forces vary inversely as the distance from the source.
For points sufficiently distant, the varying electric doublet may
be considered as being produced by a fixed electric charge e at
the origin, about which vibrates an equal and opposite charge
along the Z axis. In this case Mo is equal to ezo where ZQ is the
amplitude of the vibrating charge. Since, also, such a vibrating
charge may be considered as equivalent to an alternating current
element of current amplitude io and length ds, where
we have
ir
Mo
I \
(7)
so that, so far as maximum values of the periodic forces are con-
cerned, (6) may be written
E
\rc
(8)
In practice the element ds is represented by the vertical portion of
an exposed electrical conductor called the aerial through which an
alternating current of amplitude /0 and angular frequency X flows.
We see from (8) that the higher the aerial and the greater the
frequency the greater are the electric and magnetic forces pro-
duced at a distant point. In practical units (8) may be written as
(9)
_, 9 .
L — — volts per metre,
f A
where i, is the amplitude of the aerial current in amperes, h. is
the "effective height" of the aerial in metres and r and X are also
expressed in metres. This is the fundamental formula of wireless
transmission. For its practical application it is usual to recognize
the fact that the aerial is erected above the conducting ground so
that, as a result of the electrical image of the aerial in the ground,
the electric force is doubled at all points. This way (9) becomes
do)
.f u
— — volts per metre,
/"A
the practical transmission formula.
The aerial assembly approximating most closely to the case of a
vertical element through which
the current is uniform consists of
a vertical wire aerial with a long
flat top in which the capacity of
the system may be considered to
be concentrated. Such a system
is represented diagrammatically
in figure 2 where an induc-
tance L is included to make the
system oscillatory. The introduc- FIG.
tion of such an inductance was first proposed by O. Lodge in Pat-
ent specification No. 11575, 1897 as a method of reducing the
decrement of damped electrical vibrations in a system, and also as
a convenient method for adjusting the natural frequency of the
circuit. For transmission the circuit is energized by an oscillation
generator G which may be either a thermionic valve generator of
•EARTH
sustained oscillations or a spark generator of damped electrical
vibrations. To produce maximum current in the aerial system the
natural oscillation frequency of the circuit should be equal to that
of the oscillation generator. In practice the current throughout
the entire vertical portion AB of the aerial (known as the "lead-
in") is nearly constant, but, in the horizontal portion BC, the
strength of the current and the potential relative to that of the
earth vary from point. The inductance, capacity and resistance
of the horizontal portion are, in fact, distributed throughout its
length and the effective inductance, capacity and resistance of
the whole will depend on the frequency of the oscillations. This
case has been examined in some detail by J. M. Miller. Let Ri, Li
and Ci be the resistance, inductance and capacity per unit length
of the horizontal portion of the aerial. The most important prob-
lem is to determine the constants of a simple circuit, such as is
shown in fig. 3, which consists of the added or loading
inductance L with its resistance R together with lumped resistance
Re, inductance Le and capacity CP, and which is equivalent to the
aerial system. (Since the current through the lead-in is uniform,
its inductance and resistance may be considered included in L and
R.) The quantities L« and CP are defined as those which will
give the same resonant frequency
as the antenna system in fig. 2,
while further, the quantities Re,
Le and C« must be such that
the current in the two circuits,
aerial and its equivalent, should
have the same maximum value
for the same applied electromo-
Flc- 3 tive force whether the electromo-
tive force is damped or undamped. The expressions for Rc, L,, and
C,,, in terms of Ri, LI and Ci, are, in general, complicated, but for
frequencies which are low compared with the natural frequency
of the antenna without the added inductance, we have
3 3
3 ~ 3 '
where / is the length of the horizontal portion. The natural
frequency/ of the aerial, when loaded, is therefore given to a fair
degree of accuracy by
1 06"
and the wavelength X, in metres, by
where the inductances are expressed in microhenries and the
capacity in microfarads.
The wires of an antenna offer resistance to the current passing
through it which is greater for high frequency currents than it is
for steady currents because of the skin effect. In addition to this,
the radiation of energy in the form of waves may be regarded as
causing an increase in the apparent resistance. This increase in the
resistance is known as the radiation resistance, which may be de-
nned as that resistance which, if inserted in the vertical portion
of the antenna, would cause as great a dissipation of energy as the
energy radiated in waves. Its value may be shown to be
ohms
X2
(h. and X being in the same units) for such a flat-topped
aerial as we are considering and must be added to R. together with
the resistance of the coil L and the lead-in to give the total re-
sistance of the aerial circuit.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
665
Electric waves sent out from a transmitting system such as is
shown in figure 2 produce a vertical electromotive force in a
vertical wire at any point equal to Ehr volts where hr is the effec-
tive height of this vertical wire in metres and E is the electric
field produced by the sending system as given by the fundamental
transmission formula (10). The vertical wire may be made the
aerial of the receiving system and tuned by means of an inductance
to the frequency of the incoming waves. At resonance therefore,
since Ohm's law holds, the current it in the receiving aerial system
is given by
hrE
L1
EARTH
(a)
where Rr is the effective resistance of the receiving aerial. The
received signal current is not detected in practice as a current in
the receiving aerial, but as an
electromotive force of maximum
amplitude 2irfLlit between the
ends of the tuning inductance L1
in the receiving circuit. (See fig.
4a.) In modern practice the
points A and B are connected to
the input terminals of a therm-
ionic valve amplifier which is a
potential-operated device. After
amplification the oscillatory po-
tential is applied to some conduc-
tors (e.g., crystal or valve detec-
tor) for which the relation be-
tween current and potential is not
linear. The ultimate effect of the
received signal oscillation is,
therefore, a direct current
through a crystal or through the
anode circuit of a thermionic _ _ ___
valve to which a telephone or gal- FIG. 4. — <A> RECEIVING ANTENNA.
vanometer is arranged to respond. <B> RECEIVING COIL AERIAL
The receiving system need not be an open antenna; it may be
a closed coil as illustrated in fig. 4b. In such a case, due
to the slight difference in the phases of the electromotive forces
introduced in the two vertical limbs (AB and CD) of the coil by
the travelling waves a resultant electromotive force EP, given by
XV
is introduced into the system, which, at resonance, produces an
oscillatory current of value ir where '
. 23684 #/.Af , x
R being the total effective resistance of the oscillatory circuit
and N the number of turns of area A in the coil. When a closed
coil is so used the tuning is usually performed by means of a
condenser C and the signal detected as the oscillatory potential,
of maximum amplitude — ~ which is produced across its ter-
21TJ C
minals. Although the frame aerial is not as efficient a collector
of electric wave energy as an open antenna of comparable di-
mensions it possesses the valuable property of directivity in
reception, in that waves travelling in a direction at right angles
to the axis of the coil produce the maximum signal intensity
whereas waves travelling in the direction of its axis produce -no
signal at all.
For the conveyance of intelligence by means of electric waves
the amplitude of the transmitted wave is caused to vary. In the
sending of Morse signals the amplitude is zero during a pause be-
tween signals (spacing interval) and a certain definite value dur-
ing a signal dot or dash (marking interval), though, in certain
systems, two different wave-lengths are emitted during the
marking and spacing intervals while the receiver is tuned so as
to receive only the marking wave-length. For the transmission of
telephony the signal impulses from the microphone are ampli-
fied and caused to control the amplitude of the generator G in
fig. 2. The result of the periodic variation of the emitted ampli-
tude at a speech frequency is the simultaneous emission of two fre-
quencies other than the normal frequency of emission. For ex-
ample, if the angular frequency of the fundamental radio-fre-
quency iso>, and that of the speech or modulation frequency isp,
the signal amplitude may be represented by an expression such as
E(i — &sinp/)sino>/,
where E and b are constants and / is the time. This expression
is equal to £sinp/+£/>cos(o>+ />)/-£&cos(w -/>)/. The station
therefore emits the mean frequency — and the two "side-band"
27T
frequencies
and
The receiving assembly must there-
fore be sufficiently broadly tuned to permit of the reception of
these side-bands as well as the mean frequency.
THE PROPAGATION OF WAVES
In approaching the somewhat complicated facts of signal trans-
mission, it is of great assistance to bear in mind certain broadly-
defined distinctions. In the first place transmission over dis-
tances small enough for the earth to be considered plane should
be distinguished from transmission over longer distances where
the curvature of the earth has to be taken into account. Secondly
it should be recognized that the results obtained with short waves
(e.g., of wave-length less than 200 metres) are usually quite
different from the results obtained with longer waves; and, thirdly,
that the results for day and night conditions are often very
different, especially in the case of short waves.
SHORT-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION
'From measurements of the electric field strength due to a
wireless sender of known aerial current, effective height and wave-
length it has been possible to compare the observed values of field
strength with those to be expected from the fundamental trans-
mission formula (10). The first measurements of this type were
made by W. Duddell and J. E. Taylor, who, in 1905, examined
the relation between signal intensity and distance for overland
and oversea conditions, using a wave-length of about 200 metres.
Spark transmission was used and the current in the receiving
aerial was measured by a thcrmogal vanometer. For oversea trans-
mission the product of received signal current and distance was
found to be constant, indicating agreement with the simple trans-
mission formula, but for overland transmission the same product
was found to fall in value with increase of distance. Since the
observations were made at distances sufficiently small for the
departure of the earth's surface from a plane to be inappreciable
this discrepancy for overland transmission has been attributed to
the dissipative influence of the ground.
A thepretical discussion of the propagation of plane waves over
a plane surface of finite conductivity was published by J. Zen-
neck in 1907. The attenuation coefficient of the waves was shown
to be inversely proportional to the square of the wave-length, so
that the dissipative effect of the ground is most marked for short
waves. The resistivity of the ground was also shown to introduce
a forward tilting of the wave-front and a difference of phase in
the horizontal and vertical electric fields in the air or in the earth.
The complete problem of transmission over a plane surface of
finite conductivity from an emitting source situated on the surface
was examined by A. Sommerfeld in 1909, while a comparison of
experimental results with his theory was made by J. A. Rat-
cliffe and M. A. F. Barnett, who, in 1927, measured the variation
of signal strength with distance for the Daventry 1,600 metre
wave-length transmitter. Satisfactory agreement with Sommer-
feld's theory was obtained if the average conductivity of the
ground was taken to be about io8 e.s.u., a value of the same order
as that previously obtained by R. L. Smith-Rose and R. H. Bar-
field from measurements of the forward tilt of the electric force
of waves travelling along the ground. A complete survey of the
signal intensities received at different points round the London
666
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
IONIZKO REGION
(2LO) transmitter on a wave-length of 365 metres led R. H.
Barfield to attribute the variation of signal attenuation with
direction to the effect of trees, a marked attenuation being found
when the waves traversed well-wooded areas.
The above-mentioned observations were made during daylight
hours when steady and consistent signal intensities are recorded.
At night-time at the longer distances, and particularly with the
shorter wave-lengths the signals
vary in an erratic manner. Such
signal variation is known as fad-
ing. For wave-lengths within the
broadcasting band (200-500 me-
tres) these nocturnal variations
are detectable at distances as
short as 10 miles from the sender.
As the distance is increased the
signal variations become more . PIG- 5
marked, so that at a distance of 100 to 150 miles the intensity may
vary from zero to a value twice the day-time value. At still
greater distances where the day-time signal is very weak the chief
effect of the withdrawal of sunlight is a marked increase of signal
intensity which, though suffering considerable variation, does not
frequently fall to zero as is the case at slightly shorter distances.
Nocturnal signal variations have been shown to be due to
waves of variable intensity and phase which arrive at the receiving
station after being "reflected" by a layer of free electricity which
exists in the upper atmosphere. The existence of this layer, which
plays an all-important part in long-distance propagation, was
first postulated by O. Heaviside and A. E. Kennelly in 1902 to ac-
count for the propagation of waves round the protuberance of
the earth's surface. Its existence was proved by direct experiments
carried out by E. V. Appleton and M. A. F. Barnett in England, and
by G. Breit and M. Tuve in America in 1925. The principles of
both experiments may be illustrated by means of fig. 5 in which
a transmitter T is communicating to a receiving station at R by
sending out continuous waves. Two sets of waves reach the re-
ceiver R, one set by the direct path TR along the ground and the
other via the upper atmosphere by way of TAR. For simplicity
it is assumed that the atmospheric waves are truly reflected by the
Kennelly-Heaviside layer. Suppose the difference in path between
the paths of the ground and atmospheric waves is D. We then
have
D
V
(13)
where n is the number of wave-lengths the atmospheric ray, be-
cause of its longer path, arrives behind the ground ray at the
receiver R. In the experiments carried out by Appleton and Bar-
nett the wave-length of the transmitting station was slowly and
continuously varied through a small range 8\ and the resulting
signal maxima and minima due to the variation in n recorded.
From (13) we have numerically
(14)
so that if the number of signal maxima dn for a given wave-
length change 5\ is found D may be calculated. From D the
height of the layer AE may be deduced by simple triangulation.
This height, for a wave-length of 400 metres, is normally found
to be of the order of 100 km.
In the experiments of Breit and Tuve very short impulses of
radio frequency energy were sent out from T, and as each impulse
is received twice at R, first via the ground and secondly via the
atmosphere, it is possible, from an oscillographic registration of
the signals, to measure the difference in the times taken for the
waves to traverse these two paths. Knowing the velocity c of
electromagnetic radiation in free space it is therefore possible to
find the difference in length of the two paths and thus find the
height at which the atmospheric waves are deviated. Using 70
metre waves Breit and Tuve found heights varying from 90 km.
to 230 km.
Variations in the effective height of the layer between night
and day were found by Appleton and Barnett, confirming the view
that the ionization in the upper atmosphere is due to solar influ-
ence. During the day the lower boundary of the layer is low and
fairly-well defined. After sunset the withdrawal of the sun's rays
cause the under-boundary to rise, due to recombination of ions
in the lower regions. The slow rise continues until, about an hour
before sunrise, the layer falls rapidly and resumes its day-time
value.
To understand the difference in intensity of the down-coming
rays between day and night it is necessary to examine the process
by which the atmospheric waves are deviated by the upper atmos-
phere. For very long waves it is most likely that the gradient of
ionization at the lower boundary of the layer is sufficiently large
to cause a marked change of conductivity or dielectric constant
within a wave-length, so that for such wave-length true reflection
takes place. For the shorter wave-lengths it is usually accepted
that the process of deviation is brought about by a gradual bending
of the waves due to a gradual reduction of refractive index with
height. The theory of this process has been examined by W, H.
Eccles and J. Larmor. According to Larmor, electrons, with long
mean free paths, are the effective agencies in the reduction of the
refractive index. For N electrons per cc, of mass m and charge
e, the refractive index is given by
irmc
d5)
We may thus picture the atmospheric ray trajectory as in figure
6 where the ray impinges on the layer at B at an angle of
incidence 00. The reduction in the refractive index causes the
ray to bend away from the normal so that it follows the track
BAG. Such considerations raise the question as to what is ac-
tually measured in the direct methods of measuring the
"height" of the layer as developed by Appleton and Bar-
nett and by Breit and Tuve. A detailed consideration of the
problem shows that in both cases the height FE in fig. 6 is meas-
ured. Thus the height is the same as would be deduced from
measurement of the angle of incidence of down-coming waves
received at the ground such as have been made by Appleton and
Barnett and by R. L. Smith-Rose and R, H. Barfield. In all cases
the height measured is greater than the actual maximum height
AE of the atmospheric ray path.
The bending of the atmospheric waves is accompanied by ab-
sorption since the electrons in the layer, vibrating under the in-
fluence of the electric forces in the waves, are subjected to
collisions by the gas molecules to which they communicate energy.
The attenuation coefficient is greater the greater the pressure of
the air at the point in question, and, other things being equal, is
proportional to the square of the
wave-length. Thus theoretical
considerations suggest that a high
layer and use of short waves
provide the conditions most suit-
able for communicating over
long distances.
The different types of fading
experienced at different distances
may now be explained. During
the day-time, for wave-lengths
of 400 metres, such as are used in
broadcasting, the down-coming
FIG. e
waves are weak at all distances, but are much increased in strength
at night. At short distances (e.g., 50 miles) a strong ground signal
is received which is the same by day and by night. At greater
distances (e.g., 100 to 150 miles), although a steady ground signal
is received during the day the signal at night is composed of
ground waves and atmospheric waves of about equal intensity. As
the down-coming waves vary both in intensity and phase, varia-
tions of the resultant signal from zero to twice the day-time value
take place, corresponding to out-phase and in-phase conditions of
the two sets of waves. At still greater distances the day-time signal
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
667
due to -the ground waves is very weak so that at night the signal
is almost wholly due to the down-coming waves. At this distance,
therefore, although the signals vary a good deal, it is not often
that they disappear entirely.
The critical region at which ground and atmospheric waves are
approximately equal in intensity varies with the wave-length used.
For longer waves of 1,600 metres, for which the ground waves are
much less attenuated, this region is about 300 to 400 miles from
the transmitter at night, while for shorter waves of 100 metres
it may be only 10 miles distant.
Directional Reception.— As mentioned above, the use of a
single coil or frame aerial as the receiving aerial permits of direc-
tional reception. The same device may therefore be used to And
the direction in which waves are arriving at a receiving station, as
was first pointed out by R. A. Fessenden in 1899. It is found
in practice that the most convenient way of finding the direction
in which waves are arriving is to rotate the loop until signals of
minimum intensity are received. The axis of the loop then coin-
cides with the direction of arrival of the waves. Other systems
of direction finding such as the Bcllini-Tosi system and the Robin-
son system operate on essentially the same principles for, in each
case, the observation of apparent direction is carried out by setting
some part of the rotating system, which revolves about a vertical
axis, in a position in which the signal electromotive force is zero
or, at the least, a minimum.
Although such systems, for medium and long wave-lengths,
are found to give correct bearings during the day-time, the read-
ings during the night are often liable to errors of as much as 90°.
The signal minima are found to be blurred, displaced and variable
while at the same time fading often occurs. Such nocturnal
errors begin to make their appearance at distances of 30 miles
from the transmitter for overland transmission and at 100 miles
for oversea transmission. With increasing distance the magnitude
of these effects at first increases but finally decreases, so that at
long distances direction-finders give correct bearings.
An explanation of these vagaries was put forward by T. L.
Eckersley in 1921 who suggested that the effects were due to the
arrival at the receiver of down-coming waves from the ionized
layer which were polarized so as to possess a component of elec-
tric force at right angles to the plane of propagation (i.e., to the
vertical plane containing the transmitting and receiving stations).
As the effects are usually ob-
served at distances at which the
ground waves from the sending
station are of appreciable in-
tensity the problem is complicat-
ed by the fact that an interfer-
ence system is produced between
ground and atmospheric waves.
The relevant details are illustrat-
ed in fig. 7, which is drawn in the
plane of propagation. _____
Let O be the site of the receiv- FIG. 7. — <THE x AXIS is AT RIGHT
ing station at which a ground ANGLES TO THE PAPER)
wave (electric and magnetic vectors Eo and H0 respectively) and
a down-coming wave, incident at angle 0i, are received. The down-
coming wave may be resolved into two components, one (Et,Hi)
with electric vector in the plane of propagation, and the other
(Ei',Hi') with electric vector perpendicular to this plane. Follow-
ing Eckersley these may be termed the normally and abnormally
polarised components respectively. Assuming, as a simplification,
that the ground approximates to a perfect conductor (which is
sufficiently accurate for wave-lengths greater than about 300
metres) the electric and magnetic forces at O may be written
(16)
where <•> is the angular frequency of the waves and 0 and 0'
the phase differences between the ground wave and the normal and
abnormal components of the down-coming wave respectively.
The electromotive force induced in the coil when in the maximum
position is proportional to H*, and when in the minimum posi-
tion to Hy. If the down-coming waves were normally polarized
Hy would be zero and there would be no error.
The order of magnitude of the maximum error which might be
experienced in any case may be found by taking the case in which
Eo and EI' are in phase, and Eo and EI are out of phase. The
angular error <}> in this case is given by
,
/JQ — 2/1 1
As it is probable that HI and H/ are of the same order of magni-
tude we see that, when the error is small, its magnitude depends
on the ratio of the atmospheric and ground ray intensities and
on the angle of incidence of the down-coming waves. When a
strong ground wave is received the error will be small, so that
the difference between the attenuation of ground waves overland
and oversea is reflected in the different ranges at which errors
become appreciable. Also the error is small at large distances when
0i approaches 90°.
It is possible to account for this abnormality in polarization in
terms of the magneto-ionic theory proposed by E. V. Appleton
in 1924, and independently by H. W. Nichols and J. Schclleng in
1925, in which the effect of the earth's magnetic field on wire-
less propagation is taken into account. According to this theory,
if the electrical carriers in the upper atmosphere are of electronic
mass, the formula (15) for the refractive index of the ionized
layer is only valid for very short waves. A detailed examination
of the problem shows that under the action of the earth's mag-
netic field, the upper atmosphere acts as a doubly refracting
medium in that a linearly polarised wave entering it is split up,
in general, into two elliptically polarized components of different
absorption and refrangibility. Due principally to the difference
in the absorption experienced by the two components in the lower
region of the ionized layer the wave which ultimately emerges
from the layer is chiefly composed of one of the components, and
is thus, in general, elliptically polarized.
LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION
i. Long Waves. — In December 1901 G. Marconi established
communication over a distance greater than 2,000 miles between
Poldhu (England) and St. John (Newfoundland), while the first
quantitative relations between signal intensity, distance of trans-
mission and wave-length were given by L. W. Austin, whose ex-
periments, begun in 1910, have been continued since. As a result
of transmissions carried out between Brant-Rock and Arlington
on the east coast of America and various American cruisers,
Austin was led to the empirical formula
(18)
r\
for the electric force at a distance r from the transmitter. It
will be seen that this formula, known as the Austin transmission
formula, is similar to (10) but that an exponential term, known
as the "absorption term," has been included. Austin's formula
was based on day-time measurements at distances up to 2,000
kilometres. Its applicability up to distances of 4,000 km. was
later verified by J. L. Hogan. In the "absorption term" both
and X are measured in kilometres.
L. F. Fuller, as the result of a series of measurements made
between Honolulu and San Francisco, a distance of 3,880 km.
with wave-lengths ranging from 3,000 to 11,800 metres, proposed
for day-time transmission the formula
£=•*--
r\
__„. c-((N»4Sr/Xl'«).
sin0
(19)
In this formula the absorption term is seen to be different from
that proposed by Austin, while there is also introduced a term
I/-— » where 0 is the geo-centric angle between sending and
f s
sinfl
receiving stations. This latter term is introduced to allow for
the fact that the earth's surface is spherical and therefore the
668
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
energy flux at a distance r measured along the surface of the
0
and not to -r. Its inclusion
r2
earth is proportional to
amounts to a correction of i% at a distance of 2,000 km. to a
correction of 25% at 10,000 km.
Numerous field-strength measurements carried out in 1922 by
engineers of the American Telegraph and Telephone Company
and the Western Electric Company, in connection with tests
preparatory to the inauguration of the trans-Atlantic wireless
telephone service, suggested for day-time conditions an absorp-
tion term <j-(0'006r/xl'*fc) in the transmission formula instead of those
proposed by Austin and Fuller. At night signal intensities, though
erratic, were often high, sometimes reaching the value given by
(10) (i.e., [18] or [19] without the absorption term).
The theoretical problem corresponding to the case of propaga-
tion over such large distances as we are considering is that of
the diffraction of waves round a conducting sphere. The ideal
case of a perfectly conducting sphere surrounded by an infinite
non-conducting dielectric was examined by H. M. Macdonald,
Lord Rayleigh, H. Poincare, J. W. Nicholson, H. March, W. V.
Rybeynski and G. N. Watson. The general result of these investi-
gations is that the signal intensities observed in practice are too
large to be explained by diffractive bending alone, and it was this
discrepancy which led, in the first place, to the postulation of a
reflecting layer. The case in which a reflecting layer influences
transmission has been examined quantitatively by G. N. Watson,
whose formula, together with that obtained by the same writer
for simple diffraction, are given below.
Diffraction Formula
£=»
Reflection Formula
\l(sinfl)»
X(/esin0)»
where R is the radius of the earth, and
(20)
(21)
where Pi = resistivity of reflecting layer,
Pj= resistivity of the earth,
H » height of the layer above the earth, and A is a constant.
A very complete discussion of the comparison of signal strength
measurements with both of these formulae has been given by H.
J. Round, T. L. Eckersley, K. Tremellen and F. C. Lunnon using
measurements made by Marconi Company Engineers during 1922
and 1923 on an expedition sent to Australia. At smaller distances
using (20) the agreement is fair, but at distances greater than
2,000 km. diffraction alone is wholly inadequate to explain the
results. The same authors consider that for long waves (e.g.,
16,000 metres) the effects of reflection begin to be important at
distances of about 700 km. and at distances greater than 2,000 km.
the second formula of Watson (21) becomes applicable. They
therefore put this in a practical form as
377 t.
(22)
which is easily seen to resemble the empirical formula of Austin
very closely. In (22) do is a constant having the dimensions of
a length and which theoretically is equal to -J H.
The results of the Australian expedition show that during the
day-time the absorption factor a is independent of the wave-
length, but that it appears to vary with the direction of transmis-
sion. For example in trans-Atlantic measurements the attenuation
in a West to East direction is lower than that in the opposite
direction. Examples of the simultaneous reception of signals both
ways round the earth were noted. The reception of abnormally
large signal intensities at the Antipodes, found by Lieut. Guierre
on the S.S. Aldebaran in 1920, was also confirmed.
Some mean values of the attenuation coefficient for various
types of transmission are given below
European Stations received in the Atlantic a«o-ooi8
American Stations received in the Atlantic a = 0-0014 2
European Stations received in the Pacific a = 0-00095
(2) Medium Waves. — Measurements across the Atlantic Ocean
were made in 1923 by H. D. Arnold and L. Espenschied on a wave-
length of 300 metres. Agreement with Austin's empirical formula
was obtained during the day, but during the night, values agree-
ing with the simple formula (10) obtained by neglecting the
absorption term in Austin's formula were obtained,
(3) Short Waves.— The wave-length used by H. Hertz in his
original experiments was about 3 metres. The engineers who
developed Hertz's discovery, foremost among whom was G. Mar-
coni, found that longer wave-lengths gave greater ranges, and
from 1895 onwards it was considered that the long waves were
more suitable for long distance communication than short waves.
Both during and after the World War of 1914-1918, however,
more attention was paid to the short wave-lengths. The evolu-
tion of the thermionic valve had provided the radio-engineer with
new tools for both transmission and reception. With it the gen-
eration of continuous waves down to wave-lengths of a few
metres was a simple matter while, at the same time, its inclusion
in wireless receiving sets as amplifier and detector had increased
the sensitivity of such receivers many thousandfold. About the
same time wireless amateurs both in England and America and
also the engineers of the Marconi Company began to explore
the use of short waves for long distance communication. Three
main conclusions were drawn from the amateur and professional
experiments. The first was that short waves travelled exceedingly
long distances with very small attenuation, so that comparatively
low-power stations were required to produce readable signals at
the Antipodes. This characteristic of short wavc.> could not have
been predicted from the Austin formula and from our previous
knowledge of the behaviour of long waves. Secondly it was found
that, although the signal strength first fell off rapidly as the dis-
tance from a short-wave station was increased, the signals sud-
denly appeared in greater strength when a certain critical distance
was reached, and only died out gradually as the distance was in-
creased further. The critical distance at which the strong signal
suddenly appeared, the so-called "skipped distance" was found to
vary with wave-length, being greater the shorter the wave-length.
For example for a wave-length of 30 metres the skipped distance
was found to be about 600 km. but for 20 metre waves it was
about 1,400 km. The third characteristic of short-wave trans-
mission was that there often appeared to be two optimum wave-
lengths, one most suitable for day transmission and the other
for transmission by night, so that, by the use of both, communi-
cation over the whole of the day could be maintained.
An explanation of the "skipped distance" observed in short
wave was first given by A. H. Taylor and E. O. Hulbert, who, in
1926, pointed out that according to (15) and for a constant
value of the electron concentration in the upper atmosphere the
reduction in the refractive index and thus the maximum angle
through which waves may be deviated becomes smaller the
smaller the wave-length. It was therefore suggested that the ray
received at the edge of the skipped distance was critical in that
it had been deviated at the level in the upper atmosphere where
the electron concentration was greatest, and that waves meeting
the layer with smaller angles of incidence than this critical ray
actually penetrated the layer and escaped. This is tantamount to
saying that there are no atmospheric waves of normal type re-
ceived within the skipped distance because there is insufficient
electricity in the layer to bend them back. It has, however, been
found that it is possible to receive a very weak signal within
the skipped distance which, since its intensity is found to vary
considerably, must be attributed to down-coming waves. Such
signals appear to come from all directions in that they show no
directional effects and this has led T. L. Eckersley to suggest
that the radiation responsible for these signals is scattered from
the waves which are passing overhead and which are bent back
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
669
to the ground at greater distances.
The use of methods of concentrating radiation into a beam
has been developed by the Marconi Company Engineers, and
particularly by C. S. Franklin who has, after experimenting with
parabolic reflectors after the manner of H. Hertz, designed an
aerial consisting of a number of parallel vertical wires equally
spaced behind which is a "reflecting screen" formed similarly of
vertical wires. Such aerials are used in the series of wireless
links between Great Britain and the Dominions which have been
erected by the Marconi Company for the British Post Office. The
use of similar aerial systems with reflectors for the receiving
stations has two advantages. In the first place the use of many
aerials brings about the collection of electric wave energy from
over a fairly wide area thus increasing the received signal. Sec-
ondly the reflector acts as a kind of shield and protects the aerial
from undesired signals and atmospherics coming in the opposite
direction.
Since the attenuation of short wave signals is so low there is
not a very great difference in the intensity of signals received
both ways round the earth. In the case of 1 6-metre signals sent
from America to Germany, E. Quack has recorded oscillographic-
ally double signals with a spacing of 0-096 seconds. The first
signal received was that travelling by the shorter journey across
the Atlantic Ocean, while the second was that taking the long
path via the Pacific Ocean. The same author has recorded in-
stances of the fourfold reception of the same short wave signal,
the first signal arriving via the direct path and being followed by
signals that have travelled once, twice and thrice round the globe.
WIRELESS WAVE PROPAGATION AND SOLAR ACTIVITY
It has been shown by L. VV. Austin that there exists a direct
correlation between solar activity and the strength of long-wave
wireless signals when averaged over long periods. On the other
hand, G. W. Pickard, making signal strength observations on
shorter wave-lengths, has found an inverse relationship between
signal strength and sun-spot numbers. Moreover it is found that
isolated magnetic storms yield evidence of a similar character for,
on such occasions, although there have been exceptional cases,
the general rule is that short-wave signals are weaker and long
wave signals stronger in times of enhanced magnetic activity.
As shown above, the general evidence suggests that long waves
are reflected by the lowest, of the ionized regions in the upper
atmosphere, while short waves, which require a greater electronic
density to bend them back, travel through these lower regions
before being appreciably deviated. If, therefore, the effect of en-
hanced solar activity were to increase the ionization in the lower
layers of the atmosphere there would result an increase in the
intensity of the waves reflected from its surface and an increase
in the absorption of waves passing through it. The variation in
signal intensity found by Austin during the u-year sun-spot
cycle can be explained by assuming that the specific conductivity
of the layer reflecting the long waves used is 1-5 times as great
at sun-spot maximum as at sun-spot minimum. This figure is in
agreement with the evidence of terrestrial magnetism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. H. Bellinger, "Principles of Radio Transmission
with Antenna and Coil Aerials," Scientific Papers of the Bureau of
Standards, No. 354 (1919); J. M. Miller, "Electrical Oscillations in
Antennas and Inductance Coils," Scientific Papers of the Bureau of
Standards, No. 326 (1918) ; W. Dudcjell and J. E. Taylor, "Wireless
Telegraphy Measurements," Journ. Inst. Elect* Eng., vol. 35, p. 321
(1905) ; J. Zenneck, "Uber Die Fortpflanzung ebener elekromap;net-
ischer Wellen usw," Ann. der Physik, vol. 23, p. 846 (1907) ; A.
Sommerfeld, "Uber die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der drahtlosen
Telegraphic," Ann. der Physik, vol. 28, p. 665 (1909) ; J. A. Ratcliffe
and M. A. F. Barnett, "On the Attenuation of Wireless Signals in
Short Distance Overland Transmission" Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol.
23, part 3 (1926); R. L. Smith-Rose and R. H. Barfield, "On the
Determination of the Direction of the Forces in Wireless Waves at
the Earth's Surface," Proc. Roy, Soc. A. 107,587 (1925); E. V.
Appleton and M. A. F. Barnett, "On some Direct Evidence for
Downward Atmospheric Reflection of Electric Rays," Proc. Roy. Soc.
A. 109, p. 621 (1925) ; G. Breit and M. A. Tuve, "A Test of the
Existence of the Conducting Layer," -Physical Review, vol. 28, No. 3,
p. SS4 (1926) : W. H. Eccles, "On the Diurnal Variations of the Electric
Waves occurring in Nature, and on the Propagation of Electric Waves
Round the Bend of the Earth," Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 87, p. 79 (1912) ;
J. Larmor, "Why Wireless Electric Rays can Bend Round the Earth,"
Phil. Mag. 48, p. 1,025 (1924) ; "An Investigation of Wireless Waves
arriving from the Upper Atmosphere," Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 110, p. 580
(1926) ; T. L. Eckersley, "The Effect of the Heaviside Layer on the
Apparent Direction of Electromagnetic Waves," Radio Review, 2,
p. 234 (1921) ; E. V. Appleton, "Geophysical Influences on the Trans-
mission of Wireless Waves," Proc. Phys. Soc., Lond.t vol. 37, part 2,
(Feb. 15, 1925) ; H. W. Nichols and J. Schellcng, "The Propagation of
Electric Waves over the Earth," Bell System Telephone Journal, 4,
p. 215 (1925) ; L. W. Austin, "Quantitative Experiments in Radiotele-
graphic Transmission," Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards,
No. 226 (1914) ; L. F. Fuller, "Continuous Waves in Long Distance
Radio Telegraphy," Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng., 34, pp. 567 and 809
(1915) ; H. D. Arnold and L. Espenschied, "Transatlantic Radio Tele-
phony," Bell System Tech. Journ. (1923) ; G. N. Watson, "Diffraction
of Electric Waves by the Earth," Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 895, p. 83 (1918)
and p. 546 (1919); H. J. Round, T. L. Eckersley, K. Tremellen and
F. C. Lunnon, "Signal Strength Measurements: A Report on some
Experiments made over Great Distances during 1922 and 1923 by an
Expedition sent to Australia," Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 63, p. 933
(1925) ; A. H. Taylor and E. O. Hulbcrt, "The Propagation of Radio
Waves over the Earth," Physical Review, 27, p. 189, (1926) ; "Neues
tibcr die Ausbreitung von kurzen Wellen," Jahrb. Dra-htl. Tel., 28,177
(1926) ; L. W. Austin, "Long-Wave Radio Measurements at the
Bureau of Standards in 1926, with some comparisons of Solar Activity
and Radio Phenomena," Proc. Inst. Radio. Eng. 15, p. 825 (1927);
G. W. Pickard, "The correlation of Radio Reception with Solar Activ-
ity and Terrestrial Magnetism," Proc. Inst. Radio Eng.t 15, p. 83 and
p. 749 (1927).
See also H. Hertz, Electric Waves (trans, by D. E. Jones, London,
1900) ; H. M. Macdonald, Electric Waves (Cambridge, 1902) ; J. A.
Fleming, The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony
(London, 1916) ; L. Bouthillon, La Theorie et la Pratique des Radio
communications, (i) Introduction a V etude des Radio communications
(Paris, 1919), (2) La Propagation des Ondes Electromagne'tiques
(Paris, 1921), (3) Oscillations et Haute frequence (Paris, 1925) ; G. W.
Pierce, Electric Oscillations and Electric Waves (New York, 1920) ;
W. H. Eccles, Continuous Wave Telegraphy (London, 1921); J. H.
Morecroft, Principles of Radio Communication (New York, 1927) ;
L. S. Palmer, Wireless Principles and Practice (London, 1928) ; G. G.
Blake, History of Radio Telegraphy and Telephony (London, 1928).
(E. V. A.)
COMMUNICATION
General Considerations. — Communication by Hertzian waves
is the only practical method of transmitting messages beyond
the horizon to recipients whose position is not known or whose
position is continually changing. Hence wireless telegraphy and
telephony have no rivals for the purpose of communicating with
distant ships, aeroplanes, surveyors and explorers. Again, it
is characteristic of wireless or radio communication that its
waves tend to spread equally in all directions, and thus the mes-
sages can be made available to all who possess the necessary re-
ceiving apparatus. Examples of this quality are seen in the
modern art of radio broadcasting and in (he wireless call for help
of a ship in distress. Here again, wireless has no competitor.
On the other hand wireless can give many of the services that
have hitherto been rendered by land lines and submarine cables.
Thus, in transatlantic telegraphy, wireless has been competing
with the ocean cables for about twenty years with gradually in-
creasing success. In some cases, especially in respect of long
distances such as England to Australia, New York and Berlin
to South America, the competition of radio with the cable has
become very acute during the past three years because the erec-
tion of the necessary wireless stations requires only an insignifi-
cant capital outlay compared with that necessary for, say, ten
thousand miles of submarine cable. These same considerations
of cost often decide whether wireless or cable communication is
to be chosen for linking a small island community with the rest
of the world.
Wireless communications can be said to comprise every variety
of traffic that can be handled by aid of wires. For instance, besides
the transmission of Morse signals and of music or speech, wireless
stations have been utilized for the transmission of pictures, of
signatures, of facsimiles of printed pages and for television. In
many cases, the rapidity of wireless transmission to any distance
is as rapid as that possible over a few hundred miles of land line,
and much faster than that possible through a hundred miles of
submarine cable. Hence for work such as telephony, facsimile
transmission and television, a wireless circuit accomplishes things
670
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
that are at present impossible on the transoceanic cables.
Wireless communication has, however, some of the defects of
its qualities. Inasmuch as the emissions from a wireless station
can be picked up by anyone who provides himself with suitable
apparatus, there is little of that secrecy which belongs to com-
munications which are compelled to pass along a copper wire of
which the ends are in private hands. Consequently there is always
a quantity of 'telegraphic and other traffic which preferably goes
by wire. For instance, the London correspondents of foreign
newspapers often refuse to transmit their news messages abroad
by wireless because, if they do, the news may be printed in rival
newspapers at the same moment as in their own. This defect
may be overcome to some extent by coding, by very rapid trans-
mission, or, better, by "scrambling" the messages, i.e., making
them unintelligible by aid of automatic mechanical devices at the
transmitter, devices which can be used in the reverse sense at the
authorized receiving station.
This comparison between wireless and wire will be incomplete
unless the troubles that afflict both are mentioned. In the case
of cables the chief source of interruption of a service is the
breaking or leaking of the cable. Such an injury may take two
or more weeks to repair; the only mitigation is to provide a
duplicate cable or route. On all the great traffic paths of the
globe such duplicates exist, and therefore it is found that the
delays affect only relatively small communities. Another trouble
afflicting the cable is that arising from magnetic storms; usually
this averages only a few hours per annum. The principal troubles
that afflict wireless communications are the breakdown of aerials
in storms, the failure of machinery or power supply, "atmos-
pherics" and "fading." The failures of a mechanical nature are
often prepared against by duplicating, at least in part, the ma-
chinery. But for "atmospherics" and "fading" no real remedy has
appeared as yet. Fortunately, atmospherics are much less trou-
blesome with short waves than with long, and fading, on the
other hand, is much less frequent with long waves than with
short; and, therefore, in the case of an important wireless link
a combination of long and short wave stations, operated from
the same telegraph offices, could provide an almost continuous
service. Such a combination, designed for distances of, say,
four thousand miles, would probably not give quite as continu-
ous a telegraphic service as a submarine cable and might not be
any better financially.
International Regulations.— Since the emission of waves
from a wireless station affects receiving apparatus over a wide
area if the apparatus is attuned to the waves, it follows that every
wireless station on the globe monopolizes a certain wave-length
or frequency inside a certain area. Indeed, as it is impossible
to tune transmitting or receiving apparatus with absolute accu-
racy, each station may be said to monopolize a band of fre-
quencies. Therefore, to make telegraphic services useful, an
allocation of a particular wave-length or frequency must be made
to each station, due regard being taken of the area served by
such station and of the proximity and needs of neighbouring sta-
tions. From this arose the necessity for international agreement
and legislation, and a conference was called at Berlin in 1903,
which prepared schemes for discussion at a second international
conference meeting at Berlin in 1906. This conference discussed
many details that had become of importance to the usefulness of
wireless, including rules for handling and charging for telegrams,
especially by ship's operators, and regulations for the prevention
of interference and for the enforcement of penalties. At the suc-
ceeding conference in London in 1912 a radiotelcgraphic con-
vention was drawn up and was signed by nearly all the principal
countries. This provided for the establishment of a central office
for collecting and distributing information about the wireless serv-
ices of the world, and arranged for it to take its place as a
branch of the Bureau of the International Telegraph Union at
Berne. This radiotelegraph office had about one thousand wireless
stations on its list in 10,12 and nearly twenty thousand in 1926.
The growth in number is due chiefly to the increased use of
wireless at sea, which was greatly stimulated by the signing in
1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Service
Frequency
kilocycles
Approximate
wave-length
metres
Point-to-point
Mobile and point-to-point
Below 100
1OO-IIO
Above 3,000
2,725-3,000
Mobile, including naval vessels
110-125
2,400-2,725
Mobile, merchant vessels.
125 150
2,000-2,400
Mobile, calling wave.
143
2,100
Mobile • .
150 160
1,875-2,000
Broadcasting or mobile and point-to-
point (as determined by regional agree-
ment)
i6o-rQ4
1,550 1,875
Broadcasting, mobile and point-to-point
services for aircraft (subject to certain
limitations)
104 285
1,050-1,550
Radio beacons
•2«5~3i5
950-1,050
Aviation
315-350
850 950
Mobile and radio compass
350-550
545-J850
Broadcasting
550 1,500
200-545
Small vessels
1,3^5
220
Sea. This convention, which was arranged in London in 1913,
specifies the minimum of equipment and staff to be carried by
ships of the various grades and for the hours of service.
The most recent international radio conference took place at
Washington in the autumn of 1927. The revised arrangements
have not yet been ratified by all the Powers concerned, but the
allocations of wave-length to different services provisionally
adopted will probably be universally accepted. They are as
follows: —
Long Waves
It is proposed to allow mobile stations and point-to-point sta-
tions to share short wave bands as shown in the following table.
Certain parts of the bands shown here as "point-to-point" arc
available for amateur stations or for short-wave broadcasting
stations or are shared with mobile services. Certain parts of the
bands shown here as "mobile" are similarly shared with point-to-
point services.
Short Waves
Mobile service
Point-to-point service (including
amateurs and short-wave
broadcasting)
Frequency
kilocycles
Approximate
wave-length
metres
Frequency
kilocycles
Approximate
wave-length
metres
1,500-2,750
2,850-5,700
6,150-6,675
8,200-8,900
11,000^ 1 1,400
12,300-13,350
16,400-17,750
21,550-23,000
109-200
5^-7-105
45-48-8
33-7-36-6
26-3-27-3
22-4-24-4
16-9-18-3
13.1-13-9
1,715-2,250
2>750-5>5oo
5,700-6,150
6,675-8,200
8,550-11,000
11,400-12,300
12,825-16,400
17,100-21,550
22,300-23,000
133-175
54-too
48-8-52-7
36-6-45
27-3-35'*
24-4-26-3
18-3-23-4
13-9-T7-5
13-1-13-45
Variations from this table will probably be allowed to existing
important stations; all waves below 13-1 metres (above 23,000
kilocycles) remain free for allocation nationally.
The conference, among other recommendations, laid stress upon
one which forbids the installation of spark sets above 300 watts
input power on new ships after 1929, and the abolition of all such
sets now existing on old ships on December 31, 1939. Spark sta-
tions on land will if possible be abolished by 1930, or, at latest,
1935. Moreover, all except small ships are recommended to be
fitted as early as possible to receive continuous waves from 500
to 3,000 metres.
In accord with the International Convention, every important
country has enacted domestic legislation to enable the interna-
tional provisions to be enforced. In Great Britain and Northern
Ireland the control of wireless communications is in the hands
of the Postmaster General, in virtue of the Wireless Telegraphy
Act of 1904, which is renewed annually. The Act provides that
no one shall install or work a wireless equipment, either for send-
ing or receiving messages, without a licence; and that when an
applicant for a licence proves that his object is for experimental
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
671
purposes solely, a licence shall be granted without rent or royalty.
The application of the Act to shipping is regulated under the
Merchant Shipping (Wireless Telegraphy) Act, 1919, and the
Rules made by the Board of Trade under this Act. (W. E.)
In the United States of America commercial wireless communi-
cation services are operated by private enterprise. Under the Act
of 1947 the Federal Government has certain regulating powers to
grant licences for radio stations, to license operators, to apportion
wave-length assignments and other similar powers necessary to
preserve the "public interest, convenience and necessity." This
law is administered by an appointive group of five men known as
the Federal Radio Commission. The United States was signatory
to and has ratified the International Radio Convention of 1927.
(X.)
Marine Communication. — The 1914 convention bound all
the contracting nations to pass legislation to compel all ships that
sail from one country to another to be fitted with a radiotele-
graphic installation if they have on board 50 or more persons in
all, subject to a few exemptions. Moreover such ships carrying
more than 25 passengers must maintain a continuous watch.
Every ship so fitted must carry, besides its main installation, an
emergency installation of approved design. Further, the master
of any ship fitted with wireless who receives a call for assistance
is bound to proceed to help those in distress if requested to do
so. Since 1920, the ships of the British mercantile marine have
been required to engage three operators for voyages other than
coastwise taking more than 48 hours from port to port when
carrying 200 or more passengers. Two operators must be carried
by such vessels taking between 8 and 48 hours from port to port,
and regulations have also been issued relative to "the carrying of
wireless watchers on board in place of one or more of the
certified operators.
Until about the year 1922 nearly all ship and shore com-
munication had been conducted by spark stations transmit-
ting on 450 and 600 metres wave-length. These signals inter-
fered greatly with the development of the new art of broad-
casting especially near great ports, and consequently much
consideration was given to the introduction of more modern
apparatus on ships. The larger passenger ships and shore stations
gradually adopted continuous wave methods, employing either
the arc or the valve, with a wave-length of about 2,000 metres.
This step not only avoided interference with broadcasting but
also enabled communication to be established across great dis-
tances and made multiple telegraphy possible when desired. Now-
adays one and the same shore station can utilise its antenna for
transmitting signals on several wave-lengths simultaneously — say
i, 800, 1,900, 2,000 and 2,200 metres — thus enabling that station
to work with four ships at a time without interfering appreciably
with any other service, such as popular broadcasting. The
tendency of development in this direction is in favour of the
installation of valve transmitters rather than arcs, and with such
transmitters it is possible to operate very near to broadcasting
wave-lengths without causing interference. These marine valve
transmitters are now being manufactured by the principal firms
in many countries, usually being equipped to transmit on about
600 metres and about 2,000 metres. Inasmuch as there are still
many vessels sailing with apparatus incapable of receiving con-
tinuous wave signals, the transmitters just mentioned are pro-
vided with a simple form of rapidly vibrating interrupter which
chops up the continuous waves so as to yield a musical note in
the receiving apparatus of the older or smaller ships.
One result of the increasing use of continuous wave transmitters
at sea is that telephony is now being tried as an accessory to
telegraphy. In order to transmit speech from a continuous wave
plant it is necessary to modulate the waves by aid of a microphone.
This modification is described in that section of BROADCASTING
dealing with transmitters. The range obtained by telephony is only
about a quarter of that obtained when the same plant is used for
heterodyne telegraphy. In 1929, however, experiments were sue-
cessfully conducted in the field of ocean telephony which enabled
Atlantic liners to maintain touch with both sides of the ocean
throughout almost the entire passage. It ought to be noticed that
the apparatus required and installed on ships for the purpose of
receiving signals— either spark signals, telephony or interrupted
continuous waves, or continuous wave telegraphic signals — is al-
most identical with that employed by the public in receiving
broadcast matter. It may consist, for example, of a three valve
amplifier having one high frequency amplifying valve, one detec-
tor valve and one low frequency amplifying valve, with suitable
switches for cutting out one of these stages when signals are
strong enough. Such receiving apparatus is described under
BROADCASTING. The only difference between the receivers there
described and those required at sea is introduced for the pur-
pose of receiving continuous wave signals by the heterodyne
method. For this purpose two main alternatives exist. In the
one, variously called the self-heterodyne, autodyne or endodyne
apparatus, a coil in the anode circuit of the high frequency triode
valve is made to act inductively upon a coil in the grid circuit
of the same valve in such a way as to generate electrical oscilla-
tions within those circuits.
The frequency of these oscillations is determined by a closed
tunable circuit in either the anode or the grid circuit of the
valve, and is adjusted to be slightly different from the frequency
of the incoming signal waves. In consequence the incoming waves
"beat" with the locally generated oscillations. The frequency of
the beat can be adjusted by altering the frequency of the locally
generated oscillations, and can in fact be varied so as to consti-
tute, after rectification by the detector valve, an alternating
electrical current in the final circuit of the apparatus, usually
the head telephones of the listening operator. The other alter-
native method of heterodyne reception is named separate hetero-
dyne for the sake of distinction. In this method an entirely
separate piece of apparatus consisting of a triode valve with a
tunable circuit and with the anode circuit back-coupled to the
grid circuit for ensuring the generation of electrical oscillations,
is adjusted to generate oscillations of frequency slightly different
from that of the incoming waves. This piece of apparatus,
named the auxiliary oscillator, is brought near enough to the
receiving apparatus to induce therein oscillations of its own fre-
quency, which interfere with the incoming waves and finally
produce in the telephones of the operator an audible note of
desired frequency. The loudness of this heterodyne note can be
adjusted up to a certain limit by moving the auxiliary oscil-
lator nearer to or farther from the receiving apparatus. In both
these alternative methods of heterodyne reception great mag-
nification is obtained by the introduction of the locally generated
energy.
Direction Finding. — Wireless apparatus has been developed
in recent years for determining the bearing of a distant transmit-
ting station with an accuracy of two degrees of arc at distances
up to 100 miles, and with nearly equal accuracy at much greater
distances, provided that the electrical conditions of the atmos-
phere are fairly stable. By means of the information thus ob-
tained a mariner or aviator can navigate his vessel during foggy
weather, since fog has no bad effect on wireless signals. This
branch of our subject has therefore become of very great im-
portance. Several methods are available and in active use.
In one method the direction finder is situated at a land station,
the bearing of the ship or aircraft from that station is measured
on receipt of a wireless message from the vessel, and is trans-
mitted to it. In another method the direction finder is on the
ship and the ship's operator measures the bearing of any charted
wireless shore station that happens to be transmitting or which
can be requested to transmit for the purpose of the measurement.
This method has also been used in aeroplanes but is being dis-
carded. Still another method is seen in the so-called rotating
"beacon," which is really a wireless transmitting station fixed on
land and provided with a directional antenna that can be rotated
in azimuth so as to sweep its signals round the compass as it
rotates. The beacon automatically emits a characteristic Morse
signal continuously and also a special signal when its directional
antenna is in a standard position. An observer at a distance,
equipped with ordinary receiving apparatus, hears the signal
wax and wane as the directional antenna rotates. Usually the
672
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
beacon rotates through six degrees per second, and emits the
special signal when an observer on the north-south line would
receive minimum signals; therefore an observer off that line
need only count the number of seconds that elapse between the
special signal and the time when he himself perceives that the
continuous signals are least audible, in order to determine his
angle from the north-south line by simply multiplying by six.
The easier way of performing this operation is to use a stop
watch with a seconds hand which makes, like the beacon, a com-
plete revolution in one minute. The observer starts the watch on
hearing the special signal and stops it at the instant of minimum
signal; the angle turned through by the seconds hand is his
bearing from the beacon.
Two types of apparatus have been much used in practice in
carrying out the above-described methods of finding the bearing
of a ship or an aeroplane. In one form the antenna is a flat coil
of several turns of wire, fixed on a vertical axis so that the plane
of the coil can be pointed in any desired azimuth. Such a coil
emits radiation most strongly in its own plane when used as a
transmitter, i.e., when strong high frequency currents are passed
through it; it absorbs radiation most strongly in its own plane
when used as a receiver. On the other hand substantially nothing
is radiated or absorbed in the horizontal direction perpendicular
to its plane. Such a coil, used as the antenna of a receiving station,
can locate the direction of any distant transmitting station either
by turning it until signals are strongest, when its plane must point
to the station, or until signals are weakest, when it must be broad-
side-on to the station. The minimum is sharper than the maximum
and is therefore usually used in practice in order to gain accuracy.
But measuring on the minimum implies that the message cannot
be read; so if reading is desired the maximum setting must be
sought, or, preferably, the method designed by J. Robinson may
be employed. This consists in fixing to a vertical axle two flat
coils with their planes vertical and perpendicular to each other.
One coil is always connected to the receiving apparatus and is
pointed to absorb the maximum signal from the distant station
under observation. The other coil is therefore roughly broadside
to that station — roughly, because the setting of the main coil
to the maximum is intrinsically an inaccurate process. To im-
prove this setting, the auxiliary coil is switched into series with
the main coil, first with its ends connected one way and then
the opposite way. If the setting is perfect, the auxiliary coil
neither augments nor diminishes the signal strength; but if it is
imperfect one position of the switch augments, the other di-
minishes the signal, and the setting is altered by trial to abolish
this difference.
In the type of apparatus just described the antennae are coils
of wire which are small enough to be easily manipulated. In the
other type, which was invented by Bellini and Tosi in 1907 and
developed by H. J. Round of recent years, the antennae are also
coils but they are not movable and may therefore be large struc-
tures. Two coils are necessary and they are fixed in perpendicu-
lar vertical planes; as a rule each coil has only one turn and is
supported on a mast or masts. Each coil is connected to one of
a pair of small fixed coils inside the station building, these coils
also being in perpendicular vertical planes. Within these fixed coils
a smaller coil can rotate upon a central vertical axis, and this coil
is connected to the detecting apparatus. The principle under-
lying the invention is that waves coming from any definite azimuth
excite an antenna in proportion to the cosine of the angle their
path makes with the plane of that antenna; the oscillatory cur-
rent thus produced in an antenna passes through the correspond-
ing small connected coil; the oscillatory field within the crossed
coils has its resultant parallel to the direction of the waves; and
the rotatable search coil is swung about to determine the direc-
tion of this resultant field. The combination of the two crossed
coils and the search coil within them is known as a goniometer.
It has been described in the preceding lines as applied to the
reception of waves; but if powerful oscillatory currents be sent
from any source into the search coil these induce currents in the
crossed coils and the connected antennae which produce external
radiation whose resultant direction is parallel to that of the
search coil. Thus a radio goniometer may be used for directional
transmitting as well as for directional receiving; in fact the
Bellini-Tosi invention has effectively the same properties as the
single moving coil antenna already described, both for receiving
and transmitting, the principal difference in receiving being that
more amplification is required with the moving coil antenna be-
cause it must be small enough to be rotated quickly by hand.
In the directional apparatus so far described the radiation or
absorption is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the apparatus.
This fact gives rise to an ambiguity of 180° in azimuth; for in-
stance, after finding the direction of a station the operator may
still be unable to say whether it is in front or behind him unless
assisted by geographical or other considerations. This ambiguity
may, however, be removed electrically by adding an ordinary
straight antenna and the necessary tuning equipment to the exist-
ing direction finding apparatus. It can be shown that, by adjust-
ing the phase and magnitude of the oscillatory current produced
in this single wire, the radiation or absorption, as the case may
be, in one direction can be annulled and in the other increased.
In other words the direction finder is made uni-directional.
Long Distance Communication.-— Wireless communication
across great distances has progressed greatly during the past few
years. An important step was taken in 1918 by the United States
army in erecting the Lafayette station at Crois d'Hins near
Bordeaux for transatlantic communication. This station was more
than double the strength of any predecessor and achieved,, world
ranges with a wave-length greater than 20,000 metres; the original
plant comprised two Federal-Poulsen arcs rated at 1,000 kilo-
watts and supplied with current at 900 volts. Somewhat smaller
equipments were installed at Nauen near Berlin, at St. Assise
near Paris, at Rocky Point near New York, and also in many
other countries, during the succeeding four years, nearly all of
them using high frequency alternators of German, French or
American design. In 1922 to 1923 the British Government com-
pleted arrangements for the establishment of an Empire wire-
less service under which the Post Office would erect at Rugby
a station capable of direct communication with all parts of the
Empire, and the Dominions would erect corresponding stations.
Under these arrangements the Marconi Company in 1923 planned
to handle extra-Empire communications from a group of even
larger stations in Wiltshire. A little later the Government plans
were modified to permit of Rugby conducting this work.
Meanwhile a few American amateurs, using waves shorter than
300 metres, succeeded in communicating across the Atlantic with
the expenditure of very small power in December 1921; and by
December 1922, American, British and French amateurs suc-
ceeded by hundreds in similar transmissions. In the early months
of 1923 amateurs telephoned from New York to California by
aid of small stations using IOQ metre waves, and it was becoming
clear that waves less than 100 metres in length were likely to be
useful in practice. This was unexpected because the very thorough
pioneer work of C. S. Franklin in 1920 and 1921, published in
1922, seemed to show that waves of 15 metres length, and even
of 100 metres, were only suitable for distances less than 200
miles. But the surprising results obtained by the amateurs com-
pelled professional attention, and early in 1923 the Radio Cor-
poration of America erected a short-wave equipment in Maine,
and the Marconi Company independently installed a similar plant
at Poldhu, for experimental work. The first commercial long
distance message by short wave was on September n, 1923, when
a ringside account of a prize fight was sent from Maine to Buenos
Aires. By the end of the year experimenters were at work all
over the world to such good effect that in the spring of 1924 the
Radio Corporation erected five more short-wave commercial trans-
mitters. In July 1924 the British Government ordered from the
Marconi Company a number of short-wave stations for the pur-
pose of completing the Empire scheme of communications. These
stations were to be provided with reflectors of the type developed
by C. S. Franklin in order to direct the radiation mainly towards
corresponding stations to be erected in Canada, Australia, South
Africa and India. All these Government stations were in opera-
tion by 1928 and are considered to be the most efficient short-
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
673
wave stations extant.
The use of reflectors at both the transmitting and receiving
stations ensures that the signals, under favourable conditions, are
10 to 15 times as strong as they otherwise would be. In all
cases, with or without reflectors, it is necessary to provide that
each station shall be capable of operation on one of two or
three wave-lengths, for across long distances waves shorter than,
say, 30 metres are required for daylight transmission, and longer
than 30 metres for night transmission. Four years' experience
with short-wave transoceanic telegraphy and telephony has shown
that it may suffer erratic and lengthy periods of fading which
cause loss of signals or distortion of speech and, therefore, for
such work as transatlantic telephony the long-wave plant is gen-
erally more trustworthy. Best of all is the collaboration of long-
wave and short-wave telephony now being practised between
America and Britain (and through Rugby with large areas of
Europe). On the other hand short-waves have two great advan-
tages over long waves — they are capable of much greater tele-
graphic speeds and the plant they require costs less to erect and
operate. The relation between short- and long-wave systems is
analogous to that between motor car and railway transport; the
car is for many purposes better than the railway, but it is more
subject to interruption and accident; for a long time to come
progressive communities will require both forms of service.
The best way of giving an idea of the present state of large
scale wireless engineering is to describe some typical modern sta-
tions. The Rugby station is designed for simultaneous trans-
mission to all parts of the Empire and to ships on any sea, and
for telephony to America. Its antenna is 820 feet high and
carries a current of 700 amperes at a frequency of 16-7 kilocycles
(18,000 metres). It occupies a site about lA miles long by i mile
wide 4 miles south-east of Rugby. The antenna is supported on
12 insulated stayed steel masts 820 feet high, a quarter of a
mile apart, and has a capacity of 0-045 microfarad, but can be
divided so that when the portion on 8 masts is used the capacity
is 0-033 microfarad. The primary source of oscillations is a
small tuning fork maintained in vibration by a triode valve by
the method of Eccles and Jordan; the nine-fold harmonic of the
fork current is selected, filtered and amplified by three stages of
low voltage triode valves, until about 100 watts of high fre-
quency current is obtained. This current is amplified by a bank
of high voltage valves of 2 kilowatts output, then by a bank of
30 kilowatts output, and finally by a bank of 540 kilowatts out-
put, whence the current passes to a closed circuit which is coupled
to the antenna. All stages are separated by metal screens to
prevent retroaction that might lead to the generation of unwanted
oscillations. The last three stages are fed with a direct current
high-voltage dynamo set capable of delivering up to 1,500 kilo-
watts at 18,000 volts. About 50 kilowatts of direct current power
is consumed in heating the filaments.
All the power for the station is taken from a public electricity
supply at 12,000 volts 50 cycles. The intermediate circuit be-
tween the final bank of valves and the antenna consists of two
condensers in series, values 1-05 and 0-25 microfarad, and an
inductance coil variable from 400 to 600 microhenries, the last
being coupled to an aerial coil of 40 microhenries which has a
series tuning-coil variable from 900 to 4,000 microhenries. The
antenna is a continuous conductor strung across the tops of the
masts, passing from each mast to the next in a flat festoon; this
conductor is a cylindrical cage of eight 7/14 S.W.G. silicon bronze
wires stiffened by spiders 12 feet in diameter every 140 feet.
The tension is such that the pull at the top of any mast never
exceeds 10 tons; if this is exceeded the steel rope holding the
insulators and the antenna is paid out automatically by a slipping
brake until the tension is 10 tons. The insulators will withstand
a pull of 20 tons and a high frequency voltage of about a quarter
million volts. The earth system is a broad band of buried copper
wires running round the site under the masts and the aerial. The
transmitting key is operated at the Central Telegraph Office in
London. For details a paper by E. H. Shaughnessy should be
consulted.
A a an avatwtnlA fjf a et%s\*4>_w«n«»A KAA*M r.t-n4.!~.-* «.A *n1»A *1%A T^a*
Office station at Bodmin. This has one reflecting antenna directed
to Canada, the other to South Africa. A similar station at Grirnsby
transmits to India and Australia. The receiving station corre-
sponding to Bodmin is at Bridgewater, that corresponding to
Grimsby is at Skegness. The transmission to Canada is on 16-57
metres by day and 32-4 metres by night; to South Africa on
16-15 and 34-01 metres respectively. The primary source of
oscillations is a back coupled master oscillator of the Arco and
Meissner (Telefunken) type carefully screened by heavy metal
casing. The high frequency current from this (about 80 watts)
is amplified by a triode valve taking 2,000 volts, and this in turn
by two more valves taking 6,000 volts, and finally by two ten
kilowatt water-cooled valves operated at half their rated voltage
of 15,000. The high frequency current is then taken along tubular
feeders to the antenna to be supplied.
Two complete outfits like the above are needed for Canada and
two for South Africa in order to supply the four wave-lengths.
The Canada antenna is supported on five masts, the wires in two
bays being suitable for the day wave-length and those in the other
two bays for the night wave-length. The masts are steel struc-
tures 287 feet high with cross arms 90 feet long. The antenna
and reflector wires hang vertically from steel rope triatics joining
the cross arms. In the Canada aerial there are 24 antenna wires
19 feet apart and 48 reflector wires, the distance between the
antenna plane and the reflector plane being 40 feet for the shorter
wave and 24 feet for the longer. The reflector wires are divided
in 8 insulated portions and the antenna wires are loaded with two
spaced inductances. Power for the whole station is derived from
three 92 kilowatt dynamos, which supply direct current for driv-
ing motor-alternators and auxiliary machinery. The direct current
for the anodes is obtained by rectifying the transformed current
from the alternators. The receiving station at Bridgewater has an
antenna system very like that at Bodmin, namely a line of
masts broadside to Canada, a line broadside to South Africa,
each line comprising two bays for the 16 metre wave and two
bays for the 32 metre wave. Actually the wave-lengths received
are, from Canada 16-50 and 32-13 metres, from South Africa
16-08 and 33-71 metres. It will be seen that the most original
feature of the station is the unidirectional antenna due to C. S.
Franklin who overcame many difficulties in carrying a great enter-
prise to a successful issue.
The Radio Corporation of America has installed numerous
short-wave transmitters for supplementing the transoceanic work
of their long-wave high power stations. Most of those in com-
mercial use are operating without reflectors and can therefore
communicate in any direction. The first two stations were erected
in 1923, and five others, with wave-lengths ranging from 95 to 43
metres, in the spring of 1924. Several others, using various wave-
lengths down to 14 metres followed in 1925. The Californian
station may be taken as typical of modern practice. At this
station the primary source of oscillations is a quartz crystal main-
tained in vibration by a triode valve by the same principle as is
the fork at Rugby, but the frequency of mechanical vibration of
the crystal is nearly 800,000 per second while that of the fork
is less than 2,000. From the current in the crystal circuit is
selected the triple harmonic, and this is amplified to 300 watts.
The current is now passed in turn through two amplifiers and
selectors of increasing size, the triple frequency being selected at
each step. The total multiplication of frequency is 27 and the
final frequency therefore 21 millions per second (14 metres wave-
length). Finally this current is amplified again by water cooled
triode valves for delivery to the antenna. The antenna is a
vertical or sloping wire about 20 feet long excited through a few
turns at its middle which are placed in inductive relation with
the tuned circuit of the last amplifier. Even so small an an-
tenna can radiate 10 kilowatts at this frequency.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Ranger, Proc. Inst. Radio Eng.t 14, 161 (1926) ;
Smith-Rose and Barfield, Report (1923), and R. L. Smith-Rose, Report
(1927); F. Braun, Jahrbuck d. drahtlose Tel. 8, 132 (1914); J.
Robinson, Radio Review, i, 271 (1920); H. J. Round, Jour. Inst.
El. Eng.t 58, 224 (1920) ; Gill & Hecht, p. 241, and Smith-Rose &
Chapman, p. 256, Jour. Inst. El. Eng. 66 (1928) ; C. S. Franklin,
Wireless World, p. 219 (1922), and G. Marconi, Jour. Am. lust. El.
674
WIRE MANUFACTURES
Kiebitz, Zeitsckr. f. IL F. Tec., p. 141 (1924) ; Wireless Age, p. 55
(1923) ; White Paper 143 (loth July, 1924) ; Pession & Pizzuti, L'Ettro-
ttcnica, 12, 171 (1925); Heising, Schelleng & Southworth, Proc, Inst.
Radio Eng.t 14, 613 (1926) ; B. van der Pol, De lngenieurt 46 (1927) ;
T. L. Eckcrsley, Jour. Inst. El. Eng., 65, 600 (1927) ; Oswald &
Dcloraine, Electrician, 96, 572 (1926) ; E. H. Shaughnessy, Jour. Inst.
Ei Eng.t 64, 683 (1926); The Engineer, 141, 78 (1928); Hallborg,
Briggs & Hansell, Proc. Inst. Radio Eng.t 15, 467 (1927). (W. E.)
Aviation and Wireless,— The possibilities of radio as an
aid to flight are being actively developed along the following
lines: (i) communication, (2) course navigation, (3) field local-
izing and (4) general. This last includes miscellaneous develop-
ments such as radio altimeter devices. See RADIO; AERONAUTICAL
ARTICLES. The radio directive beacon system is a special kind
of radio station usually situated just off the landing field. In
stead of having the single antenna, as in the ordinary station, it
has two loop antennae at an angle with each other. Each emits a
set of waves which is directive, i.e., stronger in one direction
than another. When an aeroplane flies along the line exactly equi-
distant from the two beams of radio waves it receives a signal of
equal intensity from the two. If the aeroplane gets off this line it
receives a stronger signal from one than the other. The indicator
on the instrument board shows when the signals from the two
beams are received with equal intensity by means of two small
vibrating reeds. The tips of the reeds are white in a dark back-
ground, so that when vibrating upon receiving signals they appear
in a vertical straight line. The reed on the pilot's right is turned
to a frequency of 65 cycles and the one on the left to 85 cycles.
This system is to be installed on all American air routes. (X.)
WIRE MANUFACTURES. In addition to steel ropes,
cables, barbed wire, nails and wire springs (see sections under
these headings), wire is woven or shaped into an almost infinite
variety of articles; the chief of these being wire-netting which is
manufactured in many designs and sizes. The commonest form
of wire-netting is that which is hexagonal in shape and which is
woven by the twisting together of wires, this operation being
carried out with a very ingenious kind of loom.
As will be seen in the illustration the hexagonal meshes are
respectively formed by the twisting together of two wires, this
being brought about by the passing through the loom of line wires
which are unwound from bobbins and wires which are pulled out
from the shuttles — these latter wires being in the form of a spiral.
The spirals or springs, as they are called, are very rapidly wound
on to mandrils, this being carried out by four spindles running
in parallel, the wire being guided on quite evenly and automatically
until the required thickness of spring has been made. The spin-
dles on to which the wire is wrapped are slightly tapered, conse-
quently, after the full quantity of wire required has been spun
on same they can be removed from the machine and the springs
easily detached or slipped off by slight end knocking.
The shuttle on the loom is in the form of a cylindrical pipe
with an opening on the side at the upper end, the ends of the
shuttles being fitted to what are known as split pinions. The
operator charges a shuttle with one of the springs, connecting
the free end of wire of the spring to the end of the wire on the
netting which has just been drawn from the shuttle. The opera-
tion of twisting is carried out by a shuttle spinning round its cor-
responding free wire, which is shown passing up from the bobbin.
Whilst the wire is being twisted the netting is at the same time
carried forward by the driven rollers on top.
In this way the two wires are twisted and so form one of the
sides of the hexagon mesh. After one set of twists is made the
shuttles are then moved to right or left by two reciprocating hori-
zontal beams which carry with them the half -split pinions at the
top and bottom of the shuttle to join up with the half-split pinions
of an adjoining shuttle. As soon as the split-pinions are fixed in
their new position a toothed horizontal rack moves forward or
backward as the case may be rotating the pinions and thus making
the following twist on the wire. From this motion it will at once j
be seen that the twists on netting arc alternately right-hand and j
left-hand.
The tension in the netting is produced by passing the netting
over a series of rollers, when finally it !$ wound on to a friction
driven spindle at the back of the loom, this being rotated at a
speed which enables the netting to go through the loom at a
constant velocity.
Hexagonal netting is made with all sizes of mesh from about
| inch up to 8 inches, the most commonly used forms being about
ii inches to 2 inches.
The operation of a loom which is manufacturing netting of fine
mesh comes next, and it will be understood how very fine the
springs have to be wound to fit into the small tubular shuttles
necessary for the fine mesh.
Fine wire is also woven into netting of various designs which
is used for the reinforcing of glass.
Whilst nearly all netting is manufactured from annealed black
wire some is occasionally fabricated from wire which has been
specially galvanized to form a coat which will not crack.
The galvanizing of black wire netting is a very important
operation as this process not only coats the wire with zinc to
protect it from corrosion, but also welds the wire of the respec-
tive twists tightly together. Before the netting can be galvanized
it has to be pickled or cleaned in hydrochloric acid for the re-
moval of scale, after which it is placed on a mandril at the back
of the galvanizing pot, and is carefully passed through the molten
zinc, being drawn out at the front of the galvanizing bath, and
rolled tightly on to a tapered mandril. When a complete 50 yards
roll has come through the bath it is then detached from the man-
dril. When it is to be used for export purposes it is usually^ re-
wound much tighter so as to form a smaller diameter roll which
takes up less space in shipping.
Wire Cloth, Reinforcing Fabric and Fencing. — Fine wire
in steel, copper and brass is also woven into cloth, the wires
usually being at right-angles to each other and thus forming
square mesh. In addition steel wire is very largely used for
forming fabric of square or rectangular mesh for reinforcing
purposes, cither for concrete in building or road mending.
Usually fabric of this description is welded together at the joints.
The welding of wire for this purpose is carried out by a specially
designed machine into which the line wires are mechanically fed
in parallel at the required distances apart. The cross wires
automatically move into the machine at the desired position
relative to the line wires, being instantly pressed on to the latter.
As soon as the wires are in contact an electric current passes
through fusing a little of the surface of the wires which being
under pressure immediately welds them together, at the same
time switching off the current As the cross wires are welded on
to the line wires there is an arrangement on the machine for
carrying the fabric forward and wrapping it up into rolls of
suitable diameter for transport.
Galvanized steel wire is very extensively used in the formation
of woven wire fences, many methods of jointing being adopted
to fasten the wires together where they cross. One of the simplest
forms of fencing material is that of the chain-link order in which
wires are spun together in the form of flat spirals. The manu-
facture of this is carried out by a very ingenious form of machine
which takes the galvanized wire right from the coil and not only
spins it into the form of a flat spiral, but at the same time
threads it into the spiral previously formed, and after being cut
off to the required length also twists the ends of the wire together.
This form of chain link fabric gives not only a strong close mesh
fence, but also one which is very flexible.
Wire Mattresses. — Galvanized and tinned wire is used very
extensively in the construction of mattresses. For the ordinary
woven mattress fine wire is run through a special forming
machine which throws the wire out either singly or doubly in the
shape of spirals, these being threaded together at the time of
formation.
Other mattresses are made up with stronger galvanized wire
in the form of links, these being put together and kept taut at
the mattress frame with the aid of strong springs.
Wire-working.— The making up of wire into articles such as
window guards, fire guards, cages, letter boxes, sieves or riddles,
and many other forms, is a very extensive business, whilst there
is no limit to the shapes wire is worked into with the many kinds
WIRE ROPE
675
of ingenious machines which are in vogue. A great number of
chains are formed from wire in which the links are automatically
made, at the same time being coupled up to a former link whilst
the ends of the wire are twisted up. Also, wire is used in the
formation of welded chain links, machines being so constructed
as to not only form the link but to bring the ends of same
together and electrically weld them.
Flat wire and also wire in the form of a half-round section is
used for the making of all forms of split-pinions, cotters, etc.
Wire is also used very extensively in the manufacture of not
only wood screws, but also screws and bolts of many other forms,
the operation and manufacture being carried out on special
automatic heading machines; indeed, a good deal of the work
which was formerly done in the way of hot heading is now done
in the cold state in consequence of the better quality of material
used and the much more highly developed machinery. Also, all
kinds of rivets are made out of wire, the heads being formed in
the cold state.
In addition, through the introduction' of what is known as free
cutting steel a great amount of turning and threading is done on
wire for all kinds of articles and objects by automatic machines.
It might be mentioned that free cutting steel is a steel which when
cut or threaded cuts very clearly without drag, also leaving a
smooth bright surface.
If the actual melting down of wire can be referred to as wire
working it may be said that there is a large quantity of wire
used in both oxy-acetylcne and electric arc welding. Its use for
these purposes covers not only the jointing up of steel plates,
angles, bars, etc., but also a vast number of repairs in connection
with same, and all forms of cast iron work.
Special kinds of high tensile wire are used in the formation
of protective torpedo nets and similar purposes; also it is used
as the stays on aeroplanes and airships, in shapes which are spe-
cially made to offer little resistance to the wind. It likewise forms
the spokes of wheels for bicycles, motor-cars, etc.
It is used in the shoe, printing and cardboard-box trade very
extensively for stitching purposes, and for binding it is commonly
used as hay bands and as indicator protective bindings for cases
containing apples and many other commodities.
In the electrical industry copper and aluminium wire is used
in large quantities for conductor and other purposes, and for
resisting corrosion at high temperatures special nickel-chromium
wires arc used as the elements in electric fires and other forms
of heating apparatus; and although the name belies the state-
ment great quantities of wire are used in connection with "wire-
less" apparatus, as aerials, connecting wires, coils, etc. (Sec also
the articles on COPPER.) (E. A. A.)
WIRE ROPE* Although the manufacture of ropes is of
ancient origin, the practice of making ropes from wire on a large
scale is of comparatively recent date. Since 1874, however, great
developments have taken place in the manufacture of ropes from
different kinds of wire, and the uses to which they can be put
have enormously increased, largely owing to the introduction of
flexible wire ropes. Prior to the above date, the uses to which
wire ropes were put were limited to winding ropes for collieries
and to certain types of hauling. The introduction of flexibility,
however, made possible the use of wire ropes for ships* hawsers
and rigging, for cranes, derricks, etc., where ropes were formerly
employed — indeed, wire rope has almost entirely superseded hemp
for most marine uses.
Aerial Ropeways. — The introduction of aerial ropeways as
a means of transportation, some 50 or 60 years ago, created a
demand for steel wire ropes previously non-existent. Such ropes
provide a ready means of transport over ground where it would
be difficult, and in many cases impossible, to arrange for any
other means. Aerial ropeways now provide a big outlet for steel
wire ropes of almost all constructions.
They are constructed on two principal systems: — (i). The
Monocable System, where one endless moving rope both supports
and traverses the load. (2). The Bicabk System, where two
parallel stretches of the same heavy rope are used as tracks along
which the loads are pulled by a secondary and lighter hauling rope.
Of these two main systems there are many varieties, such as "The
Jig-Back," "Single-side to-and-fro," etc. In the monocable sys-
tem, a rope of ordinary Langs Lay construction consisting of 6
strands each of 7 wires, around a hemp core, is used. In the bi-
cable system, a locked coil or half locked coil rope is usually
employed for the rail cable, whilst for the hauling rope, a 6/7
construction Langs Lay, or alternatively a flattened strand, is
most generally used. Aerial ropeways are now generally used in
all mining, colliery and similar industries, as well as for a variety
of other commercial purposes, thus forming a very important
adjunct to the steel wire rope industry. (See ROPEWAYS and
CABLES. )
Types of Ropes. — The flexibility of a wire rope depends upon
the number of wires of which it is formed; consequently, the
use to which a rope is to be put will determine, to some extent,
the number of wires used in its construction. In some cases, nearly
400 individual wires are employed in the making of one rope.
For the flattened strand type it is claimed that the construction
gives a very greatly increased wearing surface, that the rope is
more solid, and thus less likely to be crushed out of shape; it
also gives a greater breaking value for its size than the ordinary
round strand rope. The locked coil rope is used largely for hoist-
ing from great depths, as guide rope in colliery shafts, and as the
carrying rope in the bicable aerial ropeway; this type of rope
has a smooth exterior, which minimizes wear on rope, sheaves
and drum, and has the greatest breaking load possible for its size.
The following sections represent eleven different types of wire
rope, some cases showing constructions of rope in which variously
shaped wires are used.
A. Rope made of 6 strands of 7 wires each. This is the class of rope
most frequently used for hauling ropes where the size of the barrel
and sheave will permit ; it is also the make of rope in general use
for standing rigging, and is such as is required by Lloyds regula-
tions.
B. Rope made of 6 strands of 7 wires each, over a triangular shaped
core.
C. Hauling rope made of 6 strands, each consisting of 9 wires covering
7 smaller wires.
D. Rope made of 6 strands of 19 wires each. This type of rope is
largely used for shipping purposes, running gear, trawl warps, and
general engineering purposes where flexibility is desired.
E. Flexible steel wire rope made of 6 strands, each containing 12 wires
arranged around a hemp centre and the 6 strands encircling a hemp
heart. This is the usual make of flexible steel wire rope, 4^ in. in
circumference and smaller; used for hawsers and general shipping
purposes.
F. A flexible flattened strand construction used for hoisting and gen-
eral mining work.
G. Extra flexible steel wire rope made of 6 brands, each containing
24 wires.
H, Special extra flexible steel wire rope made of 6 strands, each con-
taining 37 wires.
J. Special extra flexible steel wire rope made of 6 strands, each con-
taining 61 wires. This is the type usually adopted for large ropes
(over i o in. in circumference) used for slipway and salvage pur-
poses.
K. A Lock Coil construction used largely for mine hoisting where a
rope with no spin is desired.
L. A Lock Coil construction used for shaft guides and aerial ropeway
carrying ropes where flexibility is not desired.
Breaking Loads. — The table on next page, compiled by the
British Ropeways Ltd., gives particulars about wire ropes used
for general purposes.
The diameter of drums and sheaves should be about thirty
times the circumference of the rope. For shaft winding at high
speed one-tenth of the breaking load of a rope is sometimes taken
as a fair working load. For inclines, the proportion of working
load to breaking load varies according to gradient conditions, and
friction should be allowed for.
Manufacturing. — The first requisite in the manufacture of
wire ropes is the selection and blending of the different iron ores.
The different processes through which the metal passes, and the
rolUng into rods, require great experience. The same remarks
apply to the annealing and hardening processes, in which the rods
are drawn through dies to the required gauge. The wire, when it
is required to be galvanized, is subjected to special processes in
order that it may be proof against atmospheric and other in-
676
WIRE SPRINGS
6X 19 Construction
Particulars
Best
patent
80/90 t.
sq.in.
Special
imp. pat.
90/100 t.
sq.in.
Best
plough
100/1 JOt.
sq.in.
Special
imp.
plough
110/120 t.
sq.in.
Circum-
ference
Appro*,
weight per
fathom
Actual
breaking
load
Actual
breaking
load
Actual
breaking
load
Actual
breaking
load
Inches
Lb.
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
1-08
2-8
3'0
3 '4
3'7
1-26
3'3
3'7
4*1
4-4
1-50
4'3
4'7
5'2
5-»
i -80
4-9
5'5
6-1
6-6
2-16
6-0
6-7
7'4
8-2
2-58
7-2
8-1
g-o
9-9
.voo
8-1
9-1
IO'I
n-o
2
3-96
u-i
12-4
13-7
15-0
2\
4.44
12-1
M -ft
15-0
16-5
2;
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fluences. Afterwards it is wound on to bobbins of suitable size,
and then a definite number of these bobbins arc mounted on the
forks or frames of the stranding machine. These forks are swung
or pi\roted between discs, which are keyed on a hollow main shaft,
through which the wires or other material intended for the core
pass. This core is of such a size that the aggregate number of
wires mounted in the machine exactly cover it in a spiral direc-
tion. All the wires, including the centre core, are passed through
their individual hollow spindles, then led to the nose or head
of the machine, and finally passed through a stationary compres-
sion block to draw-off wheels. The speed of these wheels is
regulated in proportion to the speed of the machine by means of
suitable gearing. During the revolutions of the machine, each
bobbin and fork is kept in a vertical position, and floats thus, by
means of an eccentric ring behind the back disc. This ring is
connected to the spindles of the bobbin fork by means of small
cranks, thus preventing any torsional movement that would other-
wise be imparted to the individual wires. Each bobbin is con-
trolled by a brake which acts as a tensioning device so that equal
stress can be applied to each, allowing the wires to unwind uni-
formly. The finished strands are wound in turn upon large bobbins,
which are mounted in the flyers or discs of the rope-closing
machine. These machines are similar in design to the stranding
machine, but are naturally much heavier in construction, and
therefore revolve at a proportionate speed. The speed of the
machine varies according to the weight of the material, the size
of the strands and the construction of the finished rope. The
modern machine, of the type most generally used, makes about
100 revolutions per minute, whilst three times this speed is often
obtained.
Cable. — The rapid strides in the use of electricity have led to
another large branch of what may be termed wire rope manu-
facture. The ropes used for electrical purposes are almost in-
variably termed cables, and there are many different kinds and
sizes. The wire must necessarily possess good conducting power,
and be comparatively cheap. Up to the present copper has
proved to be the chief material possessing these two important
properties in combination; hence it is the metal par excellence
for electrical conduction. Aluminium and alloys have been used
for the same purpose. The conductor itself consists of a strand
of soft copper wires, round which the dielectric or non-conducting
material is placed. The methods of forming the strands do not
differ essentially from those described above. The dielectric is
usually paper, spun jute fibre, vulcanised india-rubber or vulcan-
ised bitumen. If the first two dielectrics are used, a lead sheath
is necessary to enclose the insulated strand and so exclude
moisture; if the cable is likely to get damaged, it is further en-
closed by steel tapes or steel wires, and finally covered with
yarn or braid. Vulcanised bitumen is not only a dielectric, but
is also absolutely impervious to moisture. Hence, in many in-
stances where paper or fibre is employed as the principal dielectric,
a sheath of vulcanised bitumen is used instead of lead to exclude
moisture. Cables are also made with a single strand of copper
wires in addition to one or more concentric layers of copper wires,
the layers being separated by some dielectric material; or there
may be two or more strands, separately insulated, and more or
less elaborately clothed with the above-mentioned substances.
(T. W.)
WIRE SPRINGS. Spring making from wire is an important
industry, as springs of this character are used for many purposes
where resiliency is required. The functioning of safety-pins,
brooches, bracelets and many other similar articles is regulated
by the little spiral of wire which it contains; and the comfort of a
modern bed mattress is entirely due to the small army of vertical
wire springs which support the human body in any required posi-
tion. It is the wire springs in elaborately upholstered furniture
which give ease and comfort. Also, whilst the seating in motor-
cars is made restful with wire, the engine itself depends upon
springs to manipulate its valves, accelerator, brakes, etc. Indeed,
the very machine which spins out the wire springs so beautifully,
itself depends upon springs for the accurate movement of its parts.
Wire springs in the coiled form are sometimes cylindrical in
shape as used in the seats of motor-cars, sometimes conical as
used in spring mattresses, and sometimes in the. form of a double
cone as commonly used for general upholstering purposes.
The wire which is used for upholsterers' springs is drawn from
mild steel rods of such a quality as to give the resulting wire an
inherent stiffness without any form of heat treatment. But conical
springs for mattresses and similar purposes are usually spun out
of medium carbon steel wire which has been very carefully tem-
pered, which not only gives it the necessary physical properties
to produce resilience, but also leaves it sufficiently tough that the
cut ends of the wire will stand bending around a neighbouring
coil to form what, is known as the "knuckle."
The manufacture of springs in the cold state from wire is a
very simple operation. The wire is fed into a machine through a
pair of tight fitting friction rollers, these then push it against a
pair of free rollers fixed in an oblique position, which with the
assistance of a guide "throw out" the coils of the spring.
Where a spring is required to be of varying diameter, it is
arranged for the oblique pulleys to move in and out whilst the
spring is being formed, this movement causing a variation in
diameter of the coils. The same machine also carries with it a
cutting device which automatically operates when the spring has
been spun to its correct length.
The next operation after spinning is the setting of the spring
which is carried out by slipping it over a vertical bar, pressing it
flat down and allowing it to spring back. When the spring has
once been crushed down flat and allowed to come back to what
may be called its natural height, it usually retains that height
however many times it may subsequently be squeezed down.
It may be mentioned that in many cases the operation of
spring setting is performed by a machine which is specially
designed for the purpose.
Wire springs which are used in connection with furniture or
WIREWORM— WISCONSIN
677
bedding usually have the free ends bent or knuckled over the
adjoining coil, this operation being carried out with a somewhat
ingenious machine. The operator places the ends of the springs
on to the machine which automatically grips the end of the wire
and twists it tightly over the next coil. Springs which are required
to be made out of rod or bar for heavy service are coiled in the
red-hot condition; after which they are carefully tempered by
dipping in oil or other method of heat treatment. (E. A. A.)
WIREWORM, , a popular name for certain slender, hard-
skinned grubs or larvae of the click-beetles or Elateridae, a family
of the Coleoptera (q.v.). These larvae pass a long life (up to five
years) in the soil, feeding on the roots of plants, and they often
cause much damage to farm crops. A wireworm may be known by
its broad, quadrate head and cylindrical or somewhat flattened
body, with firm, chitinous cuticle. The subterranean habits of
wireworms make it hard to exterminate them when they have once
begun to attack a crop, and the most hopeful practice is, by rota-
tion and by proper treatment of the land, to clear it of the insects
before seed is sown. (See ENTOMOLOGY : Economic Entomology.)
WIRKS WORTH, market town, urban district, western
parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 14 m. N.W. of
Derby, on the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1921) 3,610. The cruci-
form Church of St. Mary has traces of Norman work, but is in
great part Early English, with Perpendicular additions. Lead-
mining (carried on here by the Romans), stone quarrying and
tape making are the chief industries.
WIRTH, KARL JOSEPH (1879- ), German states-
man, was born at Freiburg im Brcisgau on Sept. 6, 1879, the son
of a foreman mechanic. Educated at Freiburg university, he be-
came (1908) professor of natural science at the technical college
in Freiburg. In 1913 he obtained a seat in the Baden diet, and in
1914 became a member of the Reichstag. In 1919 he was minister
of finance for Baden and was elected to the Constituent Assembly
of the Reich. In March 1920 he succeeded Erzberger as Reichs-
minister of Finance, a post which he held until Feb. 1922. In May
1921 he became chancellor on the occasion of the Allied ultimatum
regarding reparations, with an avowed policy of the fulfilment of
treaty obligation (Erfullungspolitik). In August and September
of that year he came into conflict with Von Kahr, the Bavarian
premier, who refused to apply to Bavaria the state of national
emergency which Wirth had proclaimed consequent on the mur-
der of Erzberger. Wirth stood his ground, and Von Kahr was
compelled to resign, but two months later the decision of the
League of Nations on the partition of Upper Silesia between
Germany and Poland led to a widespread revolt against the policy
of fulfilment and to the secession of the German democrats, in-
cluding Rathcnau, from the cabinet. Wirth resigned, but resumed
office on Oct. 26. He then sought to establish a "Great Coalition"
which should include all but the Nationalists and the Communists,
but failed to secure the support of the Social Democrats, although
he had obtained a measure of agreement, for the People's Party
abandoned their opposition to the forced loan of a milliard gold
marks and the majority socialists postponed their demand for a
gold levy. But the appointment of Rathenau as foreign minister
alienated the People's Party, for Rathenau, though a great in-
dustrial magnate himself, was suspected by "heavy industry" of
socialist tendencies. He was unable to carry out the necessary
financial measures to stop the depreciation of the mark, and in
Nov. 1922, when the mark had fallen to 9,000 to the $, again
resigned, and Dr. Cuno (q.v.) formed a cabinet to cope with the
financial crisis (Kabinett der Arbeit). Wirth resigned from the
German Centre Party in Aug. 1925, but rejoined the party in
1926, after the reaffirmation of the party allegiance to the republic.
WISBECH, a municipal borough, market town, and port in
Cambridgeshire, England, on the L.N.E.R. It lies in the flat fen
country, on the east bank of the river Nene, 1 1 m. from its outlet
on the Wash. Pop. (1921) 11,321. The church of St. Peter and
St, Paul has a double nave, with aisles, the north arcade being
Norman; but the rest of the building is mainly Decorated and
Perpendicular. There are remains of a Norman west tower; the
Perpendicular tower stands on the north side. The shipping
trade is carried on both at the town itself and at Button bridge,
8 m. lower down the river. The chief imports are coal, timber and
iron, and the exports grain and other agricultural products and
salt. In the neighbourhood large quantities of fruit are grown,
including apples, pears, plums, gooseberries and strawberries.
By the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 a mayor, aldermen
and a council replaced the capital burgesses.
See W. Watson, History of Wisbech (Wisbech, 1827); N. Walker
and C. Thomas, History of Wisbech (Wisbech, 1849) ; History of
Wisbfch (Wisbech and London, 1833) ; C. Marlowe, The Fen Country
(1925).
WISCONSIN, popularly called the "Badger State," is one
of the North-central States of the United States. It is bounded
north by Lake Superior and the upper peninsula of Michigan,
east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois and west by Iowa and
Minnesota. The greater part of the western boundary is formed
by the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers flowing southward. From
south to north (42° 30' N., 47° 3' N.) the greatest length of the
State is about 300 m. and from east to west (86° 49' W., to 92°
54' W.) its extreme breadth is about 260 miles. The lake shore
boundaries on the north and east are over 500 m. in length.
In area the State totals 56.066 sq.m., of which 810 are water
surface.
Physical Features.— The surface of Wisconsin is. generally of
a rolling or undulating character, interrupted only by the sharper
ridges of changing geological strata, the bluff lands along the
Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers, and isolated hills and ridges of
older rocks which, especially in the north-central part of the
State, have thrust themselves up through the younger sedimentary
rocks. Rib Hill (1,940 ft.), the highest point in the State, near
the town of Wausau in north-central Wisconsin, is an elevation
of the latter character. So also are the Baraboo hills, a range in
the south-central part of the State. The lowest part of the State
is along the shore of Lake Michigan (480 ft. above sea-level).
The mean elevation is 1,050 feet. The divides which form the
water sheds between Lake Superior, Lake Michigan and the
MAP OF THE MAIN ROADS OF WISCONSIN
valley of the Mississippi river and its tributaries — the three main
drainage areas — are very slight. Of these areas that of Lake
Superior is much the smallest. Its short, rapid streams
seldom rise more than 30 m. S. of the lake shore. Of the streams
flowing into Lake Michigan the Fox river (260 m.) is the most
important. Rising in the south-central part of the State it flows
north and east by a circuitous route through Lake Winnebago,
and thence into Green bay. In its upper course it is" joined from
the north by Wolf river, an important tributary. The Menominee
and.Oconto are smaller rivers also flowing into Green bay, while
678
WISCONSIN
further south the Sheboygan and Milwaukee rivers empty directly
into the lake. The harbours along Lake Michigan are mainly
enlarged mouths of rivers.
The largest by far of the drainage areas is that whose waters
flow into the Mississippi river. The Wisconsin river, the principal
tributary, rises on the upper Michigan border and flows south
and west for 600 m. through the heart of the State to join the
Mississippi near Prairie du Chien. It is navigable for light craft
as far as Portage, 200 m. from its mouth. At this point the Fox
river, flowing into Lake Michigan, is but a mile to the east
across low, marshy ground. The proximity of the two rivers
made this a frequent route for early explorers and fur-traders
travelling by canoe from the lake to the Mississippi ; a canal now
connects them. North of the mouth of the Wisconsin the Missis-
sippi receives several rivers of considerable length, the most im-
portant of which are the Black, Chippewa and St. Croix, the
latter forming the Wisconsin-Minnesota boundary line for 135
miles. The southern part of the State is drained by a number of
streams which find their way to the Mississippi after passing into
Illinois. The largest of these are the Rock, Fox (of the Illinois)
md Des Plaines rivers.
Glacial ice sheets covered all but the south-western quarter of
Wisconsin and greatly influenced the topography and soils. They
levelled the hills, filled in the valleys and ground and mixed the
soils. In the terminal moraines invaluable sand and gravel de-
posits were left. The glacial ice was further responsible for the
thousands of lakes which not only add to the beauty of the State
and serve increasingly as summer resorts but also serve to control
the water flow of the rivers and prevent floods. The largest of
these is Lake Winnebago with an extreme length of 30 m. and
breadth of 10 m., on the banks of which arc several important
manufacturing cities. In the south and cast portions of the State
the lakes are beautiful, clear bodies of water with sandy or
gravelly shores, and, as a rule, high banks heavily wooded. Many
of them are famous as summer resorts, notably Lake Geneva,
Green lake, the lakes in Waukcsha county and the famous "four
lakes'' near Madison. A second group of many hundreds of lakes
is found in the highland district of northern Wisconsin, chiefly
in Vilas, Oncida and Iron counties. Most of these are small, but
there arc few portions of the world where so large a proportion
of the total area is occupied by lakes. A third group, also con-
sisting of hundreds of small lakes lying close together, is to be
found in north-western Wisconsin, especially in Washburn, Bur-
nett, Polk, Barron and Sawyer counties.
In all parts of the State, except the driftless area of the south-
west, numerous large and small marshes are also to be found,
many of them representing filled in or drained lake beds. The
driftless area is lakeless, and has in general a much rougher
topography. In its limits much of the most attractive scenery of
the State is to be found. Between the Wisconsin and Mississippi
valleys is the Western Upland, a plateau, ordinarily about 1,200
ft. in elevation, but dissected in every direction by tributaries
of the two rivers which bound it into a succession of ridges and
coulees, the former from 300 to 500 ft. above the valley bottoms.
The bluffs are wooded and often capped by picturesque limestone
cliffs. Originally the greater portion of Wisconsin was covered
with forests, although in the south and west there were large tracts
of open prairie land. In the south the predominating trees were
hickory, elm, oak and poplar. Along the shores of Lake Mich-
igan, and extending inland a quarter of the distance across the
State and northward through the Fox river valley, there was a
heavy belt of oak, maple, birch, ash, hickory, elm and some pine.
Climate. — The climate of the State is influenced by the storms
which move eastward along the Canadian border and by those
which move northward up the Mississippi valley; that of the east-
ern and northern sections is moderated by the Great Lakes. The
winters, especially in the central and north-western sections, are
long and severe, and the summers in the central and south-
western sections are very warm ; but cold and heat are less felt
than they are in more humid climates with less extreme tempera-
tures. The average length of time between the last killing frost
of spring to the first killing frost in the fall ranges from 170 days
INHABIT/)
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GRAPH OF GROWTH OF POPULATION
WITH % OF FOREIGN BORN
in the south-eastern corner of the State to 75 days near the
Michigan boundary. It is much longer near the lakes and along
the Mississippi river. The distribution of rainfall is remarkably
uniform, the mean precipitation being about 31 inches. About
half the rainfall comes in May, June, July and August, the
period of greatest crop growth. The average snowfall is 45 in.,
though along Lake Michigan and in the northern part of the State
it reaches an average of 53 inches.
Population. — Since 1840, when there were but 30,945 people
in the State, the population
growth of Wisconsin has been re-
markably uniform. The average
increase for each succeeding ten-
year period amounted in 1920 to
325,140 persons, and the actual
increase each decade was close to
this average. In 1900 the popu-
lation numbered 2,069,042; in
1910 it was 2,333,860; in 1920,
2,633,067. On July i, 1928, the
census bureau estimated the pop-
ulation to be 2,953,000. Compared with the other States Wisconsin
ranked i3th in population in 1920. The density had increased
from a 42-3 per square mile average in 1910 to 47-6 in 1920.
One-third of the way across the State west from Lake Michigan
the population density is above the 1920 average, while -in a
number of counties it rises above 90 per square mile. For the
greater part of the remaining portion of the State the density
averages between 18 and 45 per sq.m., and in a strip of northern
counties it falls below 18 per square mile. The decade 1910-20
witnessed a rapid increase in the population of the northern
counties, however, amounting in a number of them to between
25 and 50%. In the same period the south-western counties
registered a decrease. In rural population alone all the southern
counties showed a decrease. For the State in general the percent-
age of people living in cities of more than 2,500 inhabit ants in-
creased from 43 in IQIO to 47-3 in 1920.
A high proportion of the population of the State is of foreign
origin. Of the 2,632,067 inhabitants in 1920, 1,562,244 were
foreign-born or children of foreign-born or mixed parentage. The
actual number of foreign-born was 460,128, a decrease from 512,-
569 in 1910. Of the foreign-born in 1920 over 400,000 had arrived
before 1911. Many of these were original pioneer settlers and
the fact that the ranks of these are being fast depicted by death
accounts for the decrease between 1910 and 1920. The principal
mother tongues of the foreign-born in 1920 were: German, 188,-
083; Polish, 52,121; Norwegian, 45,443; English and Celtic, 37,-
476; Swedish, 23,758. Inhabitants born of native parentage in-
creased from 763,225 in 1910 to 1,054,694 in 1920. Negroes
increased in the same period from 2,900 to 5,201. There were
in addition, in 1920, 9,611 Indians, 251 Chinese and 60 Japanese.
The first wave of settlement (1824-40) in the lead regions of
south-western Wisconsin was made up principally of Southerners
who had ascended by the convenient Mississippi route. The next
wave (1835-50) consisted of those coming west from New York,
Pennsylvania, Michigan and other Eastern States who took up a
large proportion of the land in the south-eastern counties of
Wisconsin. After them (1840-60) came the great tide of German
and Norwegian immigration. The Germans settled mainly from
Milwaukee west and north to the Fox river and Lake Winnebago.
The Norwegians settled in Dane and other counties of south-
central Wisconsin. Swiss, Swedish, Danish, Irish, Dutch, Belgian,
Austrian and Polish colonies were also soon founded. The Germans
came In the greatest numbers and still total about half of the
foreign stock. Of the children of foreign or mixed parentage those
of German origin number 531,619 or 48-2%. Those of Norwegian
origin, next in importance, number 102,385.
The population of the principal cities in 1920 (with the esti-
mate of the Census Bureau for July i, 1927, in parenthesis) was
as follows: Milwaukee, 457,147 (536,400); Racine, 58,593
(71,300); Kenosha, 40,472 (54,600); Superior 39,671 (no esti-
mate since population decreased between 1910 and 1920); Madi-
WISCONSIN
679
son, 38>37* (48,^00); Oshkosh, 33,162 (33,200); Green Bay,
31,017 (35,5oo); Sheboygan, 30,955 (34,500); La Crosse, 30,421
(30,400). Cities with a population between 30,000 and 30,000
were: Appleton, Beloit, Eau Claire, Fond du Lac, Janesvilie,
Manitowoc and Wausau, The fastest growing centres seem to be
those situated upon Lake Michigan.
Government.— The original Constitution of the State, adopted
in 1848, is still in force, though a number of amendments have
been made. An amendment may be proposed by either house of
the legislature, and if passed by a majority of the members of
each house in two successive legislatures, it must be submitted for
ratification by a majority vote of the people. A constitutional
convention may be called if the proposal is adopted by a majority
of the senate and assembly and voted upon favourably by the
people at the following election. The legislature, composed of
the senate and assembly, meets biennially in January of odd-
numbered years. It may also be called into special session by the
governor, but only to transact the specific business named in the
governor's call. There were in 1927 100 assemblymen and 33
senators, the former chosen for two-year terms, the latter for
four years.
Executive power is vested in a governor and a lieutenant-
governor, elected for two years. The governor has a veto on
legislation which may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the
members present in each house. The lieutenant-governor is pres-
ident of the senate with a casting vote only. The administrative
officers, a secretary of State, treasurer and attorney-general, are
elected for two years and in ex-officio capacity act also as commis-
sioners of public lands. The secretary of State is also ex-officio
auditor. A State superintendent of public instruction is elected
for a four-year term. A number of very important governing
commissions have been established, the chief ones being the indus-
trial, tax and railroad commissions. The industrial commission
has control of all administration pertaining to the relations be-
tween management and labour. With the rise of Wisconsin as an
industrial State, the commission has become increasingly impor-
tant, and its advanced policies have challenged the attention of
the economic world. The railroad commission has jurisdiction
over the rates and service of railways and other public utilities.
Each of the three commissions consists of three members, ap-
pointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. Other
important commissions and departments are: the State highway,
conservation, civil service, prohibition, free library, department
of insurance, board of control, board of health, State banking
department and State department of agriculture. The State
geological and natural history survey and the State historical
society are well-known for work done in their respective fields.
The judicial power of the State is vested in a supreme court
of seven members, each elected for a term of ten years, which
has appellate jurisdiction throughout the State. Two terms a year
are held at Madison. There were in 1927 20 circuit courts, the
court in the second circuit (Milwaukee) having six branches.
Finance. — The estimated value of all tangible property in
Wisconsin according to the United States Census Bureau increased
from $4,328,000,000 in 1912 to $7,866,000,000 in 1922, an in-
crease from $1,828 to $2,899 P^ caput. The assessed valuation
of property in 1925 for tax purposes amounted to $5,449,000,000
of which $4,077,000,000 was real estate.
Exclusive of the licence fees imposed under the police power
of the State, the Wisconsin tax system consists of: (t) a general
property tax chiefly for municipal purposes; (2) corporation
taxes on State-wide public service companies, including street
railways yielding about 10% of the taxation revenue; (3) licence
taxes on the gross earnings of telephone and insurance companies;
(4) an income tax, including surtaxes; (5) an inheritance tax;
(6) occupation taxes on the operation of coal docks and ele-
vators. State revenues in 1925 amounted to $36,502,000 of which
$13,443,000 was derived from general and special property taxes.
State expenditures the same year amounted to $31,999,000, of
which $26,519,000 was for current expenditures and the remain-
ing $5,480,000 for permanent improvements. The State debt in
1925 was only $1,864,000, or but $0.67 per caput— the per caput
amount being lower than in any other State but Nebraska.
Banks in Wisconsin numbered 983 June 30, 1926, of which
158 were national banks. Their resources and liabilities totalled
$1,067,969,000; their capital, surplus and undivided profits were
$114,064,000; deposits amounted to $860,215,000 of which $489,-
951,000 were in the nature of time or savings accounts.
Education.— In the decade 1915-25, while the State popula-
tion increased by 13%, the school census of children from 4
to 20 years increased by 9-7% and the actual school enrolment
by 15-3%. In the same decade the number of high schools in-
creased by 23%, the high school enrolment by 95% and the num-
ber of high school graduates by 115-2%. The number of high
school teachers increased in the same years from 2,369 to 4,110,
and the cost of high school instruction from $1,866,769 to $6,-
659,600, a gain of 256-7%. There were in 1926, 83 union free
high schools, 7 consolidated high schools, and 399 district high
schools, with 99,581 high school students. There were in 1925-26:
386,792 pupils enrolled in grade schools, 25,472 in city kinder-
gartens and 1,421 in special city deaf and blind schools. Ex-
penditures for the public grade and high schools amounted for
the school year 1925-26 to $22,910,869. The income for the
same year was $29,574,950 of which $13,459,000 was derived
from district taxes. The elementary and secondary public school
system is under the supervision of the State department of edu-
cation, headed by the State superintendent elected for four years.
The State maintains nine normal schools which, listed in the
chronological order of their establishment, are situated at Platte-
ville, Whitewater, Oshkosh, River Falls, Milwaukee, Stevens
Point, Superior, La Crosse and Eau Claire. The attendance is
generally for two years, though three-year courses are given. A
strong movement to provide for four-year courses had not in
1927 attained success. The administration of the normal schools
is vested in a board of normal regents consisting of IT members.
By act of the 1911 legislature, Stout Institute, located at Me-
nominee, was taken over by the State and is now supported as
a training school for vocational teachers. It is administered by the
State board of vocational education. The University of Wis-
consin (q.v.) is the highest of the State educational institutions.
It is estimated that there are about 80,000 pupils of grade
and high school rank in the private and parochial schools and
academies. Of private institutions of collegiate rank the leading
are Beloit college at Beloit, Campion college at Prairie du Chien,
Carroll college at Waukesha, Lawrence college at Appleton, MiN
waukee-Downer (for women) at Milwaukee, Milton college at
Milton, Marquette university at Milwaukee, Northland college at
Ashland.
Charities and Corrections — The State board of control has
under its control the State charitable, curative, correctional and
penal institutions. It also directs the activities of other agencies
related to the work of these institutions, such as the juvenile and
probation departments, and has supervisory and inspectional pow-
ers with respect to county asylums for the insane, county tubercu-
lar sanatoria, county and city care of the poor, private child wel-
fare and child placing agencies, and jails and lock-ups within the
State. There are 17 State institutions under the management of
this board, namely: State hospital for the insane at Mendota,
Northern hospital for the insane at Winnebago, Central State hos-
pital for the criminal insane at Waupun, Wisconsin Psychiatric in-
stitute at Mendota, Northern Wisconsin colony and training school
for the feeble-minded and epileptics at Chippewa Falls, Southern
Wisconsin colony and training school for feeble-minded and
epileptics at Union Grove, Wisconsin State sanatorium for the
treatment of tuberculosis at Wales, State tuberculosis camp at
Tomahawk lake, Industrial school for boys at Wnukcsha, Indus-
trial school for girls at Milwaukee, State reformatory (for males)
at Green Bay, Industrial home for women at Taycheedah, State
prison at Waupun, school for the blind at Janesvilie, workshop
for the blind at Milwaukee, school for the deaf at Delavan and the
State public school at Sparta.
Agriculture and Live Stock.— -Wisconsin is one of the lead-
ing agricultural States of the United States. In 1925, 61-8%
of the total area of the State or 21,851,000 ac. was farm land.
68o
WISCONSIN
Of this 10,128,000 ac. was classified as crop land, 8,672,000 ac.
as pasture land and 3,053,000 ac. as woodland and miscellaneous.
Farm population decreased from 920,037 in 1920 (35% of the
total population) to 893,352^ 1925 (31-4% of the total), but
the number of farms increased, nevertheless, from 189,295 to
193)155- The average acreage of each farm decreased from 117
ac. in 1920 to 113-1 ac. in 1925. The value of all farm property
amounted in 1910 to $1,618,913,000, in 1920 to $2,677,283,000,
and in 1925 to $2,272,402,000 (an average of $11,765 per farm).
Between 1920 and 1925 the value of farm buildings increased
by $120,000,000, but farm machinery fell $21,000,000 in value
and live stock $96,000,000. The greatest decrease, however, was
represented in the fall of farm land values from $1,618,913,000
(an average of $73.09 per ac.) to $1,209,878,000 (average $55.37
per ac.). The highest farm land values are in the southern and
eastern counties where lands average more than $100 per acre.
The estimated value of all crops in Wisconsin was $291,000,000
for 1924, $336,000,000 for 1925, and $300,800,000 for 1926. In
the latter year the chief crops and their acreage were : tame hay,
3,368,000; oats, 2,577,000; corn 2,119,000; barley, 521,000; rye,
256,000; potatoes, 230,000; wild hay, 228,000; wheat, 128,000;
tobacco, 29,000. The total value of each crop (with the value
per acre in parenthesis) was as follows: tame hay, $86,130,000
($25.50); corn, $54,830,000 ($25.88); oats, $38,655,000 ($15.00);
potatoes, $32,568,000 ($141.60); tobacco, $4,269,000 ($147.20);
wheat, $3,262,000 ($25.48); rye, $3,226,000 ($12.60); wild hay,
$2,709,000 ($12.00). There were in addition 12,000 ac. of sugar-
beets raised in 1925 valued at $933,000, and 13,000 ac. planted in
1926. Wisconsin's climate is so favourable that anything like a
failure of any one crop is unknown.
A very small proportion of Wisconsin's crops is marketed
direct, but they are fed to the live stock on the farms, and the
farmers receive their income chiefly from live stock products.
Chief of these are dairy products, for Wisconsin is the leading
dairy State in the United States. In 1923 it was estimated that
53% of all farm income came from farm milk produce. In 1927
Wisconsin ranked third among the States in the total number of
cattle owned, the number being 2,975,000 and their value, $178,-
092,000. Of this number 2,014,000 were milch cows and heifers,
valued at $149,036,000, and in the number of milch cows Wiscon-
sin was far in the front of all other States. Doubtless it was the
large proportion of Swiss, German and Danish settlers in Wis-
consin that gave the cheese-making industry its momentum, for
very early these people were making and selling the famous
cheeses of their native lands. From 1920 to 1926 Wisconsin
annually produced nearly two-thirds of all the cheese made in the
United States. It also led in condensed milk products with one-
fourth the entire production of the United States. Its butter
production was in 1925 and 1926 exceeded only by that of Minne-
sota. The rapid increase in production of creamery butter, how-
ever, is shown by the fact that the 1925 output of 161,369,000 Ib.
was almost double the 82,860,000 Ib. produced in 1918. The entire
value of butter, cheese and condensery products in 1925 amounted
to $209,260,384 as against $72,859,000 in 1914.
The dairy industry is so dominant in Wisconsin farm life that
other live stock is forced into a minor position. Nevertheless in
the southern part of the State swine are important. There were
in 1927, 1,594,000 swine valued at $27,098,000; they form an
important share of the farm income (12% in 1923). Poultry
has a similar essential place in the farm organization and adds
about 10% to the farm income of the State. Sheep and lambs
are much less important, though there is a place for them in the
rough, bluff country. In 1927 they numbered 461,000, valued at
$4,507,000. The 1926 wool clip was 2,508,000 pounds. Horses
and mules on farms numbered 586,000 in 1927 and were valued
at $55,208,000.
Manufactures. — Manufacturing, as the result of a remarkable
growth, has become the chief industry of the State. The value
of its products in 1900 was $360,818,942; in 1914, $695,172,000;
in 1925, $1,859,244,000. Of the 1925 valuation it was estimated
that $774,496,000 was added by the manufacturing process.
Despite the tremendous increase in value of products between
MADE IN THE
RESTOFTHE U.S.
184.233.000
POUNDS
1914 and 1925 the number of manufacturing establishments de-
creased from 9,104 to 7,262, revealing a clear trend toward fewer
and larger factories. The number of wage earners increased from
194,310 in 1914 to 247,341 in 1925, and wages paid from $112,-
193,000 to $314,883,000. Between 1914 and 1925 Wisconsin con-
sistently held the rank of tenth among the States in value of its
manufactured products. Of these ten it was the youngest State.
Wisconsin's chief branch of
manufactures is that connected
with its great dairying industry.
In 1925 its butter, cheese, con-
densed and evaporated milk prod-
ucts were valued at a total of
$209,260,384, an amount giving it
the leadership among the States
in dairy products. The rate of
growth is seen when the 1925
amount is compared with $72,-
859,000 in 1914. This industry is
the most widely diffused of all
PROPORTION OF TOTAL UNITED manufacturing industries of the
^.^ss^r PRO- sta,vs facthories be,ingfsma11
and close to the supply of raw
material. Of the 7,262 manufacturing establishments in the State
more than one-third were creameries or cheese factories. Motor ve-
hicles to the value of $155,944,640 were manufactured in 1925.
This industry, now second in rank, was not deemed important
enough in 1914 by the census bureau to have the value of its prod-
ucts separately reported. Other manufacturing industries, listed in
order of importance, with the value of their output in 1925 are:
foundry and machine products, $125,063,220 (in 1914, $60,698,-
ooo); paper and wood pulp, $97,779,601 (in 1914, $31,205,000);
lumber and timber products, $89,306,150 (in 1914, $55>363,ooo) ;
slaughtering and meat packing $70,793,049 (in 1914, $34,698,-
ooo); motor vehicle bodies and motor vehicle parts, $59,403,191
(not listed separately in 1914); knitted goods, $58,086,110 (not
listed separately in 1914); boots and shoes, $53,954,002 (in 1914,
$17,832,000); furniture, $53>Qi5>957 ($22,587,000 in 1914); en-
gines and water wheels, $53,174,241 (not listed in 1914); elec-
trical machinery and supplies, $46,431,351 ($5,397,000 in 1914);
rubber tyres and inner tubes, $46,271,447 (not listed in 1914);
leather, $44,591,782 ($42,204,000 in 1914).
In 1910 Milwaukee was responsible for more than one-third
of the State's manufacturing output. The total value of this
city's products increased from $223,555,000 in 1914 to $541,911,-
ooo in 1925. In the same period, Kenosha, by increasing the value
of its output from $28,341,000 in 1914 to $124,748,000 in 1925*
passed Racine as the second manufacturing city of the State.
Racine's manufactures increased in value from $43,632,000 to
$89,165,000 in the same years. The fourth city, Janesyille, showed
an even more striking growth, its products increasing in value
from $5,659,000 in 1914 to $48,093,000 in 1925. Both Racine
and Janesville are famous producers of farm implements. Other
manufacturing cities in the order of their importance are: West
Allis, Madison, Oshkosh, Sheboygan, Beloit, Green Bay, Superior,
La Crosse, Manitowoc, Fond du Lac, Eau Claire and Appleton,
whose products ranged in value from $45,000,000 to $15,000,000.
Madison and Beloit are, together with Janesville, in the Rock
river valley which has offered a route for two of the leading
railroads from Chicago to the north-west. A more notable con-
centration of manufacturing cities is in the Fox river valley, in-
cluding the shores of Lake Winnebago. Here are Oshkosh, Fond
du Lac, Appleton and Green bay. Their location makes them the
centre for the paper-making and wood-working industries. This
is also the region of greatest development in water-power. It is
noticeable that only one of the important cities, La Crosse, is
on the Mississippi river, and one only, Superior, on Lake Superior.
Mines and Quarries. — Wisconsin's mineral products are
varied and though in value they fall far below the farm, forest
and factory products of the State, they nevertheless amount to
almost $20,000,000 annually. In 1920 they were valued at
$19,630,114. A sharp depression in 1921 caused the total to drop
HISTORY]
WISCONSIN
68 1
to $9,990,961, but a rapid recovery was made to $19,086,600 by
1923. In 1925 their value was $19,205,000.
The lead mines of south-western Wisconsin were the earliest
developed and they reached a peak production in the decade
1840-50 since which they have slowly declined. In 1918 there were
produced 4,533 short tons, valued at $643,686. In 1924 the pro-
duction was but 1,254 short tons, valued at $200,640. Most of the
lead is now only a by-product of zinc mining which has become
of main importance in the same region. The zinc-bearing ores are
chiefly found below the water level and their production was not
stimulated greatly until the rise in price of zinc about 1900. The
production of this metal amounted to 27,285 tons in 1920, 10,952
in 1922, 14,027 in 1924 and 26,800 in 1926. The value of the
1924 output was $1,823,510. Whereas early lead mining was
largely carried on by individuals in shallow mines, the deeper
zinc ores are mined almost exclusively by large companies using
modern power machinery for mining and milling.
Of the great Lake Superior iron-producing district shared by
Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, Wisconsin possesses the
smallest part. Two producing ranges extend into north Wisconsin,
but the richer portions of each are in the upper peninsula of
Michigan. The Wisconsin portion of the Penokee-Gogebic range
is in Iron county and a small portion of the Menominee range
extends into Florence county. Most of the ore is mined in the
former. Production in 1924 amounted to 786,006 tons and in
1925 to 817,000. The 1924 output was valued at $2,044,762. The
chief mineral output of Wisconsin is building and ornamental
stone, the value of which was $4,590,528 in 1923 and $4,087,133
in 1924. Granite of many different colours is quarried. The
lime product of 1924 was valued at $2,129,701. At hundreds of
places in the State clay deposits suitable for making brick and
tile are to be found, and products of this industry in 1924 were
valued at $1,063,164. Another important resource of the State is
its mineral waters, especially those from the springs near Wauke-
sha which arc bottled and sold widely. The value of bottled
waters in 1923 was $2,612,452 which placed Wisconsin foremost
among the States in this product.
Forests and Lumbering.-— Originally all of Wisconsin, except
a few thousand square miles of prairie region in the south, was
covered with forests, the heavier timber being in the northern
half of the State. Wisconsin's many rivers, fairly even topography
and nearness to the Great Lakes and Mississippi river, favoured
the rapid exploitation of these forests, and unrestricted and
wasteful cutting went on apace. The most valuable original tim-
ber, the white pine, is now almost exhausted as a result. The
great age of lumbering in Wisconsin was from 1890 to 1905, for
the last five years of which Wisconsin was the leading lumber
producing State of the United States. The value of rough lumber
reached nearly $70,000,000 annually. In 1922 Wisconsin ranked
1 4th in lumber output. By 1925 the development of forest re-
serves and fire protection was
helping to stabilize the industry,
and the State in that year rose to
nth in rank. Lumber amount-
ing to 1,069,000,000 ft. b.m. was
cut, besides an output of 54,-
440,000 shingles, 142,764,000
laths and 599,601 tons of wood
pulp. In wood pulp production
Wisconsin ranked below only
Maine and New York. The
State's timber resources are by LUMBER PRODUCED 1889-19Z7
no means exhausted. In 1923 the State Conservation Commission
estimated about 15,326,920,000 ft. b.m. of saw timber to be still
standing, besides 41,619,250 cords of fuel wood and 3,634,718
cords of pulp wood. Of this about one-third is hemlock, with
maple, birch, basswood, pine and elm next in order.
Commerce and Transport.— In Lake Superior, Lake Michi-
gan and the Mississippi river Wisconsin is supplied upon three
sides by unusual facilities for water shipping. In addition to their
actual commerce these waterways are of great importance because
of the continual check they supply upon land transport rates.
Receipts
Short tons
Shipments
Short tons
Ashland
Milwaukee
Green Bay .
740,ooo
5,611,000
i, 1 06 ,000
7,466,000
1,207,000
257,000
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Since pioneer days and the building of east-west railways the
Mississippi has lost its importance as an actual carrier, but the
Great Lakes have not. In 1925 the chief lake ports were as
follows :
In addition Wisconsin shared in the business of the great Duluth-
Superior port which in 1925 registered receipts of 10,935,000
short tons and shipments of 40,130,000 short tons.
The first railway in the State was constructed from Milwaukee
westward in 1851 and completed to the Mississippi river at Prairie
du Chien in 1857. The first railways were built cast and west
with the idea of connecting the waterways as quickly as possible,
but as the railways grew more independent the main lines were
built in a general north-west and south-east direction so as to
connect Chicago and Milwaukee with the cities of St. Paul and
Minneapolis by lines as direct as possible. Other lines run from
Milwaukee north-west to Ashland, Superior and Duluth. The
railway mileage in the State amounted to 7,501 m. in 1926 as
compared with 7,638 in. in 1915. The largest systems are the
Chicago and North-western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul
and Pacific and the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie.
For passenger service, railway lines have been supplemented since
1923 by an increasing network of motor-bus lines running over the
principal highways and connecting the chief cities.
There were in 1926, 78,964 m. of rural roads of which 28,318 m.
were surfaced. Of the 10,280 m. in the State highway system in
1927, 6,138 m, were gravel-surfaced and 2,070 m. paved. Expendi-
tures for State highways the same year amounted to $7,785,000.
Motor vehicles in the State increased from 79,741 in 1915 to
293,298 in 1920 and 662,282 in 1926.
HISTORY
The region comprising the present State of Wisconsin was first
explored by the French, who in their eagerness to find a "North-
west Passage" rapidly penetrated the Great Lakes waterways.
French Explorers and Traders. — Jean Nicolet came in 1634,
having been sent by Samuel Champlain, then governor-general
of New France to investigate rumours of a distant race called the
"People of the Sea" who, it was hoped, might be Asiatics. Nicolet
landed at a point in Green bay and made a treaty of alliance
with the "People of the Sea" whom he found were merely the
populous tribe of Winncbago Indians then living in the neigh-
bourhood. Champlain died shortly after Nicolet's return and no
further explorations in the West were undertaken for 20 years.
In 1654 Pierre Esprit, Sieur de Radisson and Medard Chouart,
Sieur cles GroseilJiers, two French traders, visited Green bay and
explored the country west and south. The vagueness of Radisson's
journal leaves the interpretation of their itinerary much in doubt.
Some scholars are disposed, from certain phases, to accord them
the honour of having entirely crossed Wisconsin and discovered
the Mississippi river, but this, while possible, is doubtful. The
same explorers undertook a second voyage into the west in .
1658-60 in which they were the first to skirt the Lake Superior
shore of Wisconsin. On Chequamegon bay they built a log hut —
the first white habitation, so far as is known, in the State — and
the following winter made a long inland trip to the Ottawa villages
in northern Wisconsin. In 1660 seven traders, accompanied by the
Jesuit, Father Rene Menard, the first missionary in Wisconsin,
wintered at Chequamegon bay on Lake Superior; and Menard,
the next summer, perished while trying to reach the Huron villages
near the sources of the Black river. In 1665 other traders came
into Lake Superior and with them came Father Claude Allouez
who, on the shores of Chequamegon bay, established the first
permanent mission in Wisconsin. In 1668 Jean Per£ began a
three-year exploration of Lake Superior and its northward con-
nections, and among other things located copper upon its shores.
682
WISCONSIN
[HISTORY
In 1668 Green bay was again visited, this time by Nicolas
Perrot and Toussaint Baudry who made several trips to inland
tribes on the Wolf and upper Fox rivers with whom they con-
cluded trading treaties. Other traders came. In 1669 Allouez
was succeeded at his Chequamegon mission by Father Marquette
and went into the Fox river valley where at the first rapids he
founded the mission of St. Francois Xavier, one of the most suc-
cessful of those established by the Jesuits in the west. It became
the centre for further missionary efforts to all the surrounding
tribes. In 1671 Father Marquette was forced by Indian wars to
abandon the Chequamegon mission and in 1673, in company with
Louis JoJiet, he set off down the Fox-Wisconsin water route to
discover the Mississippi river of which the Indians had told them,
On July 17 they reached the mouth of the Wisconsin and sailed
out upon the Mississippi waters.
In 1679 Daniel Greysolon Du Luth explored the upper Missis-
sippi, St. Croix and Black rivers. The same year Michel Accault,
accompanied by Father Hennepin, explored the Mississippi along
Wisconsin's western boundary until they met Du Luth who re-
turned with them by the Wisconsin-Fox route to the St. Francois
Xavier mission. Du Luth continued his explorations on the Missis-
sippi and Lake Superior until 1689 when he left the west never
to return. His work was supplemented by the Mississippi ex-
peditions of Perrot, who in 1686 built Fort St. Antoine on Lake
Pepin, an enlargement of the Mississippi river. Perrot was now
the French commandant in Wisconsin and most influential with
the Indian tribes. In 1671 Saint-Lusson at Sault Ste. Marie had
taken formal possession of the Great Lakes region in the name
of the king of France; in 1689 Perrot staged a similar ceremony
at his Fort St. Antoine on the Mississippi river. The 18 years
between the two events had marked the period of French dis-
covery and occupation of Wisconsin. Traders entered the region
in increased numbers, and to protect them from the Indians and
to control the trade properly a military force was necessary.
In 1712 the slaughter of a band of Foxes near Detroit was the
signal for hostilities which lasted almost continuously until 1740,
and in which every tribe in the Wisconsin country was sooner
or later involved either in alliance with the Foxes or with the
French. This war seriously interfered with the French plan of
trade and development. The difficulty of maintaining a chain of
settlements which might have connected Canada and Louisiana
was a contributing cause to the overthrow of French dominion.
Wisconsin was little disturbed by the Seven Years' War. How-
ever, the French and Indians of Wisconsin contributed a force
under the half-breed, Charles Michel de Langlade, which made
the long journey to lower Canada to share in the war. With the
fall of Montreal (1760), French rule in Wisconsin was over.
British Occupation.— The first period of British occupation
was brief for on the outbreak of Pontiac's conspiracy in 1763, the
evacuation of the Green bay fort was forced. When the con-
spiracy was crushed in 1765, Wisconsin was reopened to traders,
and not only French and English, but American traders from the
colonies entered the region. British prestige among the Indians and
the French habitants was hurt by a policy of confining the Indian
trade to the forts instead of permitting the traders to go into the
Indian villages. Little as they cared for their British rulers the
French and Indians in the region remained loyal to the British
during the Revolutionary War. De Langlade again led his French
and Indian forces against the American frontier communities west
of the Alleghanies.
The close of the war, although it conveyed the region to the
sovereignty of the United States, was not followed by American
occupation. The newly formed North-west company, a British
fur-trading organization, kept control of the posts, built new ones,
extended their trade and dominated the region. The control of
these posts was one of the issues in the War of 1812, for American
traders were becoming powerful enough to demand that the British
traders should be made to withdraw. The end of the war meant
the termination of British influence in Wisconsin, and actual
military occupation of the country by the United States came in
1816 with the establishment of garrisons at Green bay (Ft.
Howard) and Prairie du Chien (Ft. Crawford).
Incorporation with Michigan*— Wisconsin in 1800 had
nominally been attached to Indiana Territory; and in 1809, on the
admission of Indiana as a State, it was attached to Illinois. In
1818 Illinois was admitted to the Union and Wisconsin was in-
corporated in Michigan Territory. It was only at the latter date
that American civil government in Wisconsin was established on
an orderly and permanent basis. Until 1830 the fur-trade, con-
trolled largely by the American Fur company, continued to be
the predominating interest in the Wisconsin region, but then the
growing lead-mining industry in the south-western part of the
State began to overshadow the fur-trade. The lead-mining ac-
tivity which began in 1824 was the first incentive to genuine
settlement in the State since the fur-trade discouraged settlement
except around the few trading posts. In 1830 there were about
2,500 miners in the region. Friction between these settlers and
the Indians could not be avoided and in 1832 occurred the famous
Black Hawk War, which broke the Indian power within the State.
In addition the war made Wisconsin better known, and with the
Indian menace removed there was an appreciable impetus to
settlement. A series of Indian treaties in 1829, 1831, 1832 and
1833 extinguished the Indian titles and opened up vast areas to
settlement.
In 1834 two land offices were opened, and by 1836, 878,014 ac.
had been sold to settlers and speculators. In 1836 a special
census showed a population of 11,000; in 1840 the number was
about 40,000. From 1835 to 1845 settlers from the eastern States
poured into the south-eastern part of the State, founding Mil-
waukee and other cities along the lake shore.
Wisconsin Becomes a Separate Territory. — When Michigan
entered the Union in 1836 Wisconsin was erected into a separate
Territory which at first included not only its present area, but
the present Iowa and Minnesota and a portion of North and
South Dakota. Henry Dodge was appointed the first territorial
governor by President Jackson. The first territorial council met
in 1836 at Old Belmont, now Leslie, Lafayette county, but in
December of that year after a contest in which Fond du Lac,
Milwaukee, Racine, Green bay, Portage and other places con-
tended for the honour, Madison was selected as the capital.
Population increased so rapidly that it was not long before a
movement for the admission of Wisconsin as a State was taken
up in earnest and on Aug. 10, 1846, an enabling act for that
purpose passed Congress and was approved by President Polk.
The first Constitution drafted was rejected by the people, how-
ever, owing to liberal articles relating to the rights of married
women, prohibition of banks, the elective judiciary, etc. A second
convention, thought to be more conservative than the first, drafted
another Constitution which in 1848 received the approval of both
the people and Congress so that the State was admitted. The
State governmental officers were sworn into office in June with
Nelson Dewey in the governor's chair. In the same year the free
public school system was established, and the great stream of
German immigration set in. Railway construction began in 1851.
At the time of its admission Wisconsin, still a frontier State,
was strongly democratic in spirit. The incoming Germans were
likewise of the same sympathies. But Wisconsin was also a
strong anti-slavery State and as the Democratic Party affiliated
itself more and more completely with the cause of slavery, it
lost its hold on Wisconsin. In 1854, one of the first steps in
the organization of the Republican Party was taken at Ripon,
and in 1856 a Republican governor was elected. In 1854 also the
State supreme court rendered a decision which declared the
Fugitive Slave Law to be null and void in Wisconsin. In 1860
the State aided in the election of Lincoln and supported his ad-
ministration during the Civil War. To the Northern armies Wis-
consin furnished 91,379 troops out of a total population of
775,881. In 1874 a Democratic liberal reform administration came
into office and in the legislative session which followed the Potter
Law, one of the first attempts to regulate railway rates, was
passed. The Republicans regained control in 1876 and modified
the law. In 1889 the passage of the Bennett Law, providing for
the enforcement of the teaching of English in all public and paro-
chial schools, roused the Germans, both Catholic and Lutheran,
WISCONSIN— WISDOM
683
usually Republicans, so that they voted the Democratic ticket
and installed a Democratic administration from 1890 to 1895
which repealed the law. After 1895 the Republican Party grew
more secure. It placed on the statute books a series of progressive
enactments in regard to railway rate legislation, taxation, pub-
licity of campaign expenditures, civil service, forest conservation,
and finally a direct primary law. In all these reforms a leading
part was taken by Governor Robert M. La Follette, who was
elected to the U.S. Senate in 1905 when the reform movement
was at its crest. Opposition to his programme resulted in a
serious split in the Republican ranks, the opposition taking the
old name of "Stalwarts." La Follette continued to draw enough
support from the Democrats to maintain control of the State until
1914 when a political reaction resulted in the election of his op-
ponents. The governmental policy suffered slight change, however.
In 1920, the La Follette wing again came into power with the
election of John J. Elaine as governor, who was re-elected in 1922
and 1924. La Follette remained in the Senate until his death in
1925 and was succeeded by his son.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The various State departments and commissions
published reports and bulletins. Chief among them may be mentioned
Lawrence Martin, "Physical Geography of Wisconsin," Bulletin No. 36
(1916) ; W. O. Hotchkiss, "A Brief Outline of the Geology, Physical
Geography, Geography and Industries of Wisconsin," Bulletin No. 67
(1925); and A. R. Whitson, "Soils of Wisconsin," Bulletin No. 68
(1927). For archaeology consult The Wisconsin Archaeologist (1901
et seq.) a quarterly magazine published by the Wisconsin Archaeological
Society. The Wisconsin State Historical Society publishes a series of
Collections (1927) and a series of Proceedings (68th report issued
1921) ; also the Wisconsin Magazine of History (10,17 ct seq.). See also
H. Campbell, Wisconsin in Three Decades (1906) ; R. G. Thwaites,
Wisconsin (1908) ; F. C. Howe, Wisconsin, An Experiment in Democ-
racy (1912); Charles McCarthy, The Wisconsin Idea (1912); R. La
Follette, Autobiography (1913); E. B. Usher, Wisconsin, Its Story
and Biography (1914); F. Merk, Economic History of Wisconsin
during the Civil War Decade (1916) ; A, O. Barton, La Follette' s
Winning of Wisconsin (1922) ; M. M. Quaifc, Wisconsin, Its History
and Its People (1924) ; C. C. Platt, What La Follette9 s State is Doing
(1924) ; L. P. Kellogg, The French Regime tn the Northwest (1925).
(C. R. Fi.)
WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF, a co-educational insti-
tution of higher learning at Madison, Wis., the capital of the State.
It was established in 1848, is under State control, is supported
largely by the State and is a part of its educational system. The
university occupies a picturesque and beautiful site on an irregular
tract of 600 ac., including both wooded hills and undulating mead-
ow-lands stretching for a mile along the shores of Lake Mendota.
The main building, Bascom Hall, which crowns University hill, is
exactly one mile from the State capitol. The university includes
a college of letters and science made up of an experimental col-
lege, a library school, schools of commerce, education, journalism
and music, with general courses in liberal arts and special courses
in chemistry and pharmacy; a college of engineering with courses
in chemical, civil, electrical, mechanical and mining engineering;
a college of agriculture with a Government experimental station,
long, middle and short courses in agriculture, a department of
home economics, a dairy course, farmers' institutes and an exten-
sion service; a law school; a medical school; a graduate school;
and an extension division including departments of correspondence
study, debating and public discussion, and group and community
service. There is a summer session of six weeks for undergrad-
uates, and of nine weeks for graduates. Instruction is given in
the summer session in all colleges except the experimental college.
Several scientific institutions are associated with the university,
including the U,S. forest products laboratory, the U.S. weather
bureau, Washburn observatory, Wisconsin psychiatric institute,
the Wisconsin geological and natural history survey, the State
laboratory of hygiene and the State toxicological laboratory.
In June, 1927, the University library and the State historical
library, housed in the State Historical Library building, contained
613,000 bound volumes and 325,000 pamphlets; the special li-
braries housed in other buildings bring the totals up to 771,000
bound volumes and 378,000 pamphlets. In 1926-27 there were
8,837 students enrolled in the two semesters of the regular year—
5,485 men and 3,352 women. The summer session enrolled 5,165
students. The faculty for the regular year for both resident and
extension work consisted of 640 men and 136 women, making a
total of 776. Admission to the university is by examination or
certificate from accredited high schools or academies. Tuition is
free for residents of the State. Courses in the first two years are
largely prescribed; in the last two years, elective under a pre-
scribed system of majors and minors. The university is governed
by a board of regents of whom two — the president of the univer-
sity and the State superintendent of public instruction — are ex
officio members, and the others are appointed by the governor for
a term of three years, four from the State at large and one from
each congressional district. (C. A. S.)
WISCONSIN RAPIDS, a city near the centre of Wisconsin,
U.S.A., on the Wisconsin river; the county seat of Wood county.
It is served by the Chicago and North Western, the Chicago,
Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the Green Bay and Western and
the Soo Line railways. Pop. (1920) 7,243 (86% native white);
estimated locally at 10,000 in 1928. It is in the heart of a dairy
region which ships great quantities of cheese, and there are huge
cranberry bogs near the city. Hydro-electric power is generated
by local plants. Among the important manufactures are paper
and pulp, camp stoves and equipment, refrigeration machinery,
men's clothing, dairy products and fibre cartons. The city is
headquarters of the U.S. Indian agency for the Winnebago and
the Pottawattomie tribes. There is a fish hatchery on Nepco
lake, just south of the city. Under the name of Grand Rapids a
city on the cast bank of the river was chartered in 1869. In 1900
it annexed Centralia, on the west bank; and in 1920 the present
name was adopted.
WISDOM, BOOK OF. This book of the Apocrypha was
not — as its title runs — composed by King Solomon, but emanates
from the more intellectual circles of the Jewish Diaspora hi
Alexandria. It falls naturally into three parts which may or may
not be the work of a single writer: (a) chs. li.-vi.-8 in which,
in opposition to the views of the ungodly, the author argues that
so far as the righteous are concerned, death is not the end: on
the contrary "their hope is full immortality"; (b) vi. o/-xi. i which
is written more particularly to portray Wisdom; (c) xi. a-xix.
an historical retrospect which is introduced in order to explain the
origins and calamitous results of idolatry.
The book belongs to the closing period of the evolution of the
Jewish Wisdom Literature (q.v.). No part of it would appear
to have been written earlier than 150 B.C. Though Thackeray
favours 130-100 B.C., Gregg 125-100 and Gfrorer 100 B.C., some
modern opinion (e.g.y Goodrick) tends to favour a date as late
as A.D. 40 (as indeed did Farrar). On the hypothesis of diversity
of authorship, Holmes assigns the earlier part of the book to
50-30 B.C. and the last chapters (in his estimation an intentional
addition to the first part) to 30 B.C. to A.D, 10, In this case the
author was a younger contemporary of Philo (with whom Jerome
identified him), slightly a senior of Jesus of Nazareth; and he
had not long written his book when it fell into the hands of St.
Paul, provided the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews with
ideas and with terminology in which to express them, and, some-
what later, influenced, though to a much smaller extent, the au-
thors of Epistles of i Peter, St. James and of the Fourth Gospel.
The whole book, as is now generally maintained, originally was
written in Greek, and almost certainly in Alexandria by an Alex-
andrian Jew (or Jews) versed in the Septuagint translation of
the Old Testament. To what extent was the author really ac-
quainted with Plato's writings and with Plato's thought, with
Pythagorean speculations, with Stoicism and with the Greek
mystery cults?
For example, his doctrine of God's transcendence and unity
reaches the high-water mark of Jewish theology and piety. He
does not abandon the thoroughly Jewish conception of "spirit"
as the agent and medium of the transcendent Deity's self-revela-
tion to the Universe and to His chosen people; he even refers
twice to the "Word" in this connection without any indication
that he has heilenized it as Philo did. But in his description
of his favourite intermediary between earth and Heaven, "Wis-
dom/' it is difficult not to suppose that he was (though not so
directly as some scholars have urged) influenced by the Stoic doc-
684
WISDOM LITERATURE— WISE
trine of the anima mundi. In the end, however, he shows that
he has not really gone so far in the direction of hypostatizing
"Wisdom" as did the author of Proverbs ch. ix. (See especially,
Goodrick, The Book of Wisdom, Additional Notes D and F, pp.
404-410, 416-419.)
Till comparatively recently the view that the author was an
exponent of the doctrine of the pre-existence of souls was un-
challenged. The crucial passage is viii. 19, 20, which had hitherto
been read in the light of other passages such as i. 4, ix. 15, xi. 17,
which might seem to presuppose the evil of matter which was
originally "formless" and the body as the prison of the soul in
true Platonic fashion. But in 1908 F. C. Porter (Studies in
Memory of W . R. Harper) put forward the revolutionary thesis
that the author's statement in the passage has as its background
neither Platonic nor Pythagorean speculations. It is, he urged,
a native Hebrew evolution of primitive Semitic beliefs as to the
union of the Divine breath with the material clay which results
in the production of an individual man.
The tendency of the author's eschatology is equally problemati-
cal. It would appear that even if he contents himself with be-
lieving in the immortality of the soid only, he conceives of this
as ensuring the conscious survival of the individual's personality.
It is therefore difficult to believe that he does not ccfer to these
same dead righteous rather than (as some urge) to the living
righteous. It would seem that he did not completely abandon con-
temporary Jewish eschatological speculations of a materialistic
or semi-materialistic nature for Greek ideas as to the immortality
of individual souls. He accepted both without evolving a real
synthesis of them, probably without grasping the necessity for
one, as was obviously his tendency in regard to several other
doctrines in which he held to his Jewish beliefs though attracted
by their Hellenistic counterparts and the terminology of pagan
philosophers who had won his admiration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See especially Gregg in Camb. Bible (1909) ; Holmes
in Charles' Apocrypha and Psendepigrapha of the Old Testament, i.
518-534; Goodrick in Oxford Church Bible Commentary (1913),
where copious references will be found. (D. C. S.)
WISDOM LITERATURE. The extant writings of the
Jewish sages are contained in the books of Job, Proverbs, Ben-
Sira, Tobit, Ecclesiastes, Wisdom of Solomon, Fourth Maccabees,
to which may be added the first chapter of Pirke Aboth (q.v,),
certain of the Elephantine Papyri and isolated sections (e.g., the
parable of Jotham) and verses in the historical prophetical
Books, as well as Pss. viii.; xix. 2-7; xxix. 3-10; xxxvii., xlix.,
Ixxiii., xc. 1-12; xcii. 6-8 (5-7), cvii. 17-32, cxix., cxxxix., cxliv.
3 f., cxlvii. 8 f. The climax of the intellectual element in this
movement is to be found in Philo.
Most of the extant literature doubtless dates only from the
post-exilic period. But the Book of Proverbs (q.v.) contains
minor collections of proverbs which are now recognized as pre-
exilic in origin, while individual maxims contained in this and
other books may be part of the heritage of post-exilic days from
a comparatively hoary antiquity. The Wisdom Movement among
the Hebrews was, in fact, no isolated phenomenon, and at no
period in its development did it exist, as it were, in a watertight
compartment. As the mythology of the Hebrews, their earlier
religious ideas in general, many of their deities and several ele-
ments in their ecclesiastical calendar were shared with and mostly
derived by them from neighbouring peoples, so too it was with
the aspect of their culture comprised under the general term
"Wisdom." From Mesopotamia to Egypt there existed an "inter-
national" stock of traditional Wisdom which passed and repassed
from nation to nation, each adding its quota to the common
stock, and each adapting to the needs and the requirements of
its own culture what it received from those of others. Edom was
a famous centre of such "Wisdom" activity in Palestine, and the
Hebrew Humanists more than once admit their indebtedness to
those of Edom. But the great creative centres of "Wisdom"
activities were to be found in Babylonia and Egypt.
Doubtless the early Hebrew exponents of Wisdom at times did
more than merely borrow, Hebraise, and conserve the proverbs
of other nations. Hebrew tradition, at any rate, points to the
reigns of Solomon and Hezekiah as epochs of outstanding im-
portance in the development of Hebrew Wisdom literature. Cer-
tainly by the reign of Hezekiah the "wise men" formed a definite
stratum in Jerusalem society, and like the priests, prophets and
military leaders sought to shape, in accordance with their own
economic and political ideals, the fortunes of the Jewish state.
But, as the post-exilic period advanced, and Jewish history and
theology unfolded themselves, new problems arose for which no
satisfactory explanation could be given by the old religion of the
pre-exilic type, the new priestly development, the new scribism,
and the still newer "Chasidaean" piety. Prophecy of the pre-
exilic and exilic type was dead, and the principle of inspiration for
which it stood found its expression more especially in Apocalyptic
(q.v.). The latter, however, made its greatest appeal to the
masses. It remained for the exponents of Wisdom to attempt to
solve these problems in a form acceptable to men of culture and
to specialize in the instruction of the youth of aristocratic families.
Their intellectual instincts led them to look, not to Persia
whence Apocalyptic took so much of its imagery and some of its
central ideas, but to thfe new world of the Mediterranean.
With this world they were becoming increasingly familiar owing
to the conquests of Alexander the Great and his successors, the
rise of Greek cities in Palestine and the spread of Greek culture
in Palestine and elsewhere, particularly in Egypt where the Jew-
ish community mostly prospered and kept in close touch with
their co-religionists in Jerusalem. The book of Wisdom (q.v.)
emanated from this Alexandrian centre of Wisdom in the .first
Christian century, just as Egyptian Jewry in pre-hcllcnistic days
had produced the book of Tobit (q.v.). Ecclesiastes and Proverbs
(qq.v.) chs. i.-viii., on the other hand, are examples of the hel-
lenizing Wisdom literature of Palestine, while Ecclesiasticus be-
longs to the period before Hellenism had contributed much of
moment to the sages of Palestine.
The new problems which confronted these later sages were
numerous, both in the practical and in the theoretical sphere. In
the former, general looseness of life had to be combated. In the
latter, they had to face questions such as the following: If God
is transcendent, how can He still be held to intervene in mundane
matters? If God is the ruler of the whole universe, is it possible,
in the face of facts, still to maintain that His government of it is
moral? In particular, what is the bearing of the problem of suffer-
ing upon this question? If He is the God of the individual soul,
docs He abandon that individual at death? Each Wisdom writer
gave his own answer to these questions. Sometimes there is sub-
stantial agreement: sometimes they contradict each other. The
answers of the authors of Proverbs i.-viii., Ecclesiasticus and
Wisdom were constructive. In Ecclesiastes, in its original form,
and in Prov. xxx. 2-4 instances have been preserved of a sceptical
element in the Wisdom Movement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — T. K. Cheyne, Job and Solomon, or The Wisdom
of the Old Testament (1887) ; Friedliinder, Griechische Philosophic in
Alien Testament (1904) ; Meinhold, Die Weisheit Israels in Spruch,
Sage und Dichtung (1908) ; Ocsterley, The Books of the Apocrypha,
Their Origin, Teaching and Contents (1916). See further the Bibliog-
raphies to PROVERBS, BOOK or (for the earlier aspects) and WISDOM,
BOOK OF for the later developments. (D. C. S.)
WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876), American
politician and soldier, was born at Drummondtown (or Accomac),
Va., on Dec. 3, 1806. He graduated from Washington (now Wash-
ington and Jefferson) college, Pa., in 1825, and began to practise
law in Nashville, Tenn., in 1828. He returned to Accomac county,
Virginia, in 1830, and served in the National House of Representa-
tives in 1833-37 as an anti-nullification Democrat, but broke with
the party on the withdrawal of the deposits from the United States
Bank, and was re-elected to Congress in 1837, 1839 and 1841 as
a Whig, and in 1843 as a Tyler Democrat. From 1844 to 1847
he was minister to Brazil. In 1855 he was elected governor of the
State (1856-60) as a Democrat. John Brown's raid occurred
during his term, and Wise refused to reprieve Brown after sentence
had been passed. He strongly opposed secession, but finally voted
for the Virginia ordinance, was commissioned brigadier-general
in the Confederate army and served throughout the war. He died
at Richmond, Va., on Sept. 12, 1876. He wrote Seven Decades of
the Union 1790-1860 (1872).
WISE— WISHART
685
See the Life of H. A. Wise, by his grandson, B. H. Wise (1899).
WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900), American-Jewish
theologian, was born in Bohemia. From the moment of his arrival
in America (1846) his influence made itself felt. In 1854 he was
appointed rabbi at Cincinnati. Some of his actions, as his com-
piling of a new prayer-book, roused considerable opposition. He
was opposed to political Zionism, and in keeping with this denial
of a Jewish nationality, he believed in national varieties of Juda-
ism, and strove to harmonize the synagogue with local circum-
stances and sympathies. After a campaign lasting 25 years he
was instrumental in founding the Union of American-Hebrew
congregations in Cincinnati in 1873, and as a corollary in 1875
the Hebrew Union college, of which he was president and which
has trained a large number of the rabbis of America. Wise also
organized various general assemblies of rabbis, and in 1889
established the Central Conference of American rabbis. He
was the first to introduce family pews in synagogues, and in many
other ways "ocddentalized" Jewish worship. He was not only a
leader in liberal Judaism but also a scholar and the author of
many works. He died in Cincinnati on March 26, 1900.
Rabbi Wise's Reminiscences (1901) were translated with an intro.
by David Philipson (1901), who with Louis Grossman prepared a
biographical sketch for the Selected Writings (1900). A tentative
bibliography was prepared by A. S. Oko. See also D. Philipson, The
Reform Movement in Judaism (1907) ; M. B. May, Isaac Mayer Wise
(1916) ; and Henry Berkowitz, Intimate Glimpses of the Rabbi's
Career (1921).
WISEMAN, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN (1802-
1865), English cardinal, was born at Seville on Aug. 2, 1802,
the child of Anglo-Irish parents recently settled in Spain for
business purposes. On his father's death in 1805 he was brought
to Waterford. He was educated at Ushaw college, near Durham,
and at the English college in Rome, of which he became vice-
rector in 1827, and rector in 1828. He held the rectorship for
twelve years. From the first a devoted student and antiquary, he
studied the oriental mss. in the Vatican library, and a first volume,
entitled Horac Syriacac, published in 1827, gave promise of a great
scholar. Leo XII. appointed him curator of the Arabic mss. in
the Vatican, and professor of oriental languages in the Roman
university. At this date he had close relations, personal and by
correspondence, with Mai, Bunsen, Burgess (bishop of Salisbury),
Tholuck and Kluge. His student life was, however, broken by the
pope's command to preach to the English in Rome; and he
visited England in 1835-1836, and delivered lectures on the prin-
ciples and main doctrines of Roman Catholicism in the Sardinian
Chapel, Lincoln's Inn Fields, and in the church at Moorfields,
now pulled down. In 1836 he founded the Dublin Review. In the
winter of 1838 he was visited in Rome by Macaulay, Manning
and Gladstone.
In 1840 he was consecrated bishop, and sent to England as
coadjutor to Bishop Walsh, vicar-apostolic of the Central district,
and was also appointed president of Oscott College near Birming-
ham. Oscott, under his presidency, became a centre for English
Catholics, where he was also visited by many distinguished men,
including foreigners and non-Catholics. The Oxford converts
(1845 and later) added considerably to Wiseman's responsibilities.
It was by his advice that Newman and his companions spent
some time in Rome before undertaking clerical work in England.
Shortly after the accession of Pius IX. Wiseman was appointed
temporarily vicar-apostolic of the London district, the appoint-
ment becoming permanent in February 1849. On his arrival from
Rome in 1847 he acted as informal diplomatic envoy from the
pope, to ascertain from the government what support England
was likely to give in carrying out the liberal policy with which
Pius inaugurated his reign. In response Lord Minto was sent to
Rome as "an authentic organ of the British Government," but
the policy in question proved abortive.
Residing in London in Golden Square, Wiseman threw himself
into his new duties with many-sided activity, working especially
for the reclamation of Catholic criminals and for the restoration
of the lapsed poor to the practice of their religion. He was
zealous for the establishment of religious communities, both of
men and women, and for the holding of retreats and missions. He
preached (July 4, 1848) at the opening of St. George's, South-
wark, an occasion unique in England since the Reformation, 14
bishops and 240 priests being present, and six religious orders of
men being represented. The progress of Catholicism was unde-
niable, but yet Wiseman found himself steadily opposed by a
minority among his own clergy, who disliked his Ultramontane
ideas, his "Romanizing and innovating zeal."
In July 1850 he heard of the pope's intention to create him a
cardinal, and expected to be permanently recalled to Rome. But
on his arrival there he ascertained that a part of the pope's plan
for restoring a diocesan hierarchy in England was that he himself
should return to England as cardinal and archbishop of West-
minster. The papal brief establishing the hierarchy was dated
Sept. 29, 1850, and on Oct. 7 Wiseman wrote a pastoral, dated
"from out of the Flaminian Gate" — a form diplomatically correct,
but of bombastic tone for Protestant ears — in which he spoke
enthusiastically, if also a little pompously, of the "restoration of
Catholic England to its orbit in the ecclesiastical firmament."
Wiseman travelled slowly to England, via Vienna; and when he
reached London (Nov. 11), the wholo country was ablaze with
indignation at the "papal aggression," which was misunderstood
to imply a new and unjustifiable claim to territorial rule. But
Wiseman wrote an admirable Appeal to the English People in
which he explained the nature of the pope's action, and argued
that the admitted principle of toleration included leave to estab-
lish a diocesan hierarchy. In July 1852 he presided at Oscott
over the first provincial synod of Westminster. In 1854 Wiseman
was in Rome when the definition of the dogma of the immaculate
conception of the Blessed Virgin (Dec. 8), was promulgated.
In 1855 he applied for a coadjutor, and George Errington, bishop
of Plymouth, his friend since boyhood, was appointed, with the
title of archbishop of Trcbizond. Two years later Manning was
appointed provost of Westminster and he established in Bays-
water his community of the "Oblates of St. Charles."
In the summer of 1858 Wiseman paid a visit to Ireland, where,
as a cardinal of Irish race, he was received with enthusiasm. In
1863, addressing the Catholic Congress at Malincs, he stated that
since 1830 the number of priests in England had increased from
434 to 1,242, and of convents of women from 16 to 162, while
there were 55 religious houses of men in 1863 and none in 1830.
The last two years of his life were troubled by illness and by
controversies in which he found himself, under Manning's influ-
ence, compelled to adopt a policy less liberal than that which
had been his in earlier years. Thus he had to condemn the
Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christendom,
with which he had shown some sympathy in its inception in 1857;
and to forbid Catholic parents to send their sons to Oxford or
Cambridge, though at an earlier date he had hoped (with New-
man) that at Oxford at least a college or hall might be assigned
to them. He died on Feb. 16, 1865. On Jan. 30, 1907, his body
was removed with great ceremony from Kensal Green and re-
buried in the crypt of the new cathedral at Westminster.
Wiseman was one of the most learned men of his time. He was
the friend and correspondent of many foreigners of distinction,
among whom may be named Dollinger, Lamennais, Montalembert
and Napoleon III. He combined with the principles known as
Ultramontane no little liberality of view in matters ecclesiastical.
He insisted on a poetical interpretation of the Church's liturgy;
and while strenuously maintaining her Divine commission to
teach faith and morals, he regarded the Church as in other
respects a learner; and he advocated a policy of conciliation.
See the biography by Wilfrid Ward, The Life and Times of Cardinal
Wiseman (2 vols., 1897; fifth edition, 1900). (A. W. Hu.; X'.)
WISHART, GEORGE (c. 1513-1546)1 Scottish reformer,
was accused of heresy in 1538, and fled to England, where a
similar charge was brought against him at Bristol in the following
year. In 1539 °r !54° he started for Germany and Switzerland,
and returning to England became a member of Corpus Christi
college, Cambridge. In 1543 he went to Scotland in the train of
a returning embassy. Wishart began to preach in 1544, at Perth,
Edinburgh, Leith and Haddington. At Ormiston, in Dec. 1545,
he was seized by the earl of Bothwell, and transferred by order
686
WISLICENUS— WITCHCRAFT
of the privy council to Edinburgh castle on Jan. 19, 1546- Thence
he was handed over to Cardinal Beaton, who had him burnt at
St. Andrews on March i.
See Knox's Hist.; Reg. P. C. Scotland; Foxe's Acts and Monuments;
Hay Fleming's Martyrs and Confessors of St. Andrews; Cramond's
Truth about Wishart (1898) and Diet, of Nat. Biogr. vol. Ixii.
WISLICENUS, JOHANNES (1835-1902), German chem-
ist, was born on June 24, 1835 at Klein-Eichstedt, in Thuringia,
and emigrated to America with his father. In 1855 he was
appointed lecturer at the Mechanics' Institute in New York.
Returning to Europe in 1856, he continued his studies at Zurich
university, where he was subsequently professor of chemistry
from 1865 to 1872. He then obtained the chair of chemistry at
Wiirzburg, and in 1885, on the death of A. W. H. Kolbe, was
appointed to the same professorship at Leipzig, where he died
on Dec. 6, 1902. His work on the lactic acids cleared up many
difficulties concerning the combination of acid and alcoholic
properties in hydroxy-acids in general, and resulted in the dis-
covery of two substances differing in physical properties though
possessing a structure of proved chemical identity. So far back
as 1873, before the publication of the doctrine of J. H. van't
Hoff and J. A. Le Bel, Wislicenus expressed the opinion that the
ordinary constitutional formulae did not afford an adequate
explanation of certain carbon compounds, and suggested that
.account must be taken of the verse Itiede fie Lagernng ihrer A tome
im Raume. Later (sec Die raumliche Anordnung der Atome in
organischen Molekulen, 1887) he extended the application of the
van't Hoff-Le Bel theory to "geometrical isomers" — substances
like fumaric and maleic acids which have identical formulae but
are dissimilar chemically. Wislicenus and his pupils studied a
number of cases of this type of isomerism. He is also known
for his work on aceto-acetic ester and its application as a syn-
thetical agent and for his syntheses in the penta-methylene series.
He was awarded the Davy medal by the Royal Society in 1898.
WISMAR, a seaport town of Germany, in the republic of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, situated on the Bay of Wismar, one of
the best harbours on the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N. of Schwerin.
Pop. (1925) 25,397. Wismar is said to have received civic rights
in 1229, and came into the possession of Mecklenburg in 1301.
In the 1 3th and i4th centuries it was a flourishing Hanse town,
with important woollen factories. A plague carried off 10,000 of
the inhabitants in 1376. By the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it
passed to Sweden, but in 1803 Sweden pledged it to Mecklen-
burg, reserving, however, the right of redemption after 100 years.
WISSEMBOURG or WEISSENBURG, a town of France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Bas-Rhin, on
the Lauter, at the foot of the eastern slope of the Vosges mts., 42
m. N.E. of Strasbourg by the railway Basle-Strasbourg-Mannheim.
Pop. (1926) 4,203. Wisscmbourg grew up round a Benedictine
abbey which was founded in the 7th century by Dagobert II. and
became the seat of a famous school. Here Otfrid, who was a
native of the district, completed (c. 868) his Old High German
Gospel book. (Sec GERMAN LITERATURE.)
The town became a free imperial city in 1305. It has been the
scene of two memorable battles. In Oct. 1793 the Prussians and
Saxons under the Austrian general Wurmscr stormed the "Weis-
sembourg Lines." On Aug. 4, 1870, the Germans, under the crown
prince of Prussia, gained here the first victory of the Franco-
German War (q.v.),
WISTARIA, a genus of climbing shrubs of the family Le-
guminosae, inhabiting China, Japan and eastern North America.
The garden wistarias arc mostly W. chinensis, of China, and W.
floribunda, of Japan. Their violet-blue flowers, borne in long
racemes are very effective floral decorations against a house-wall
or on trellis-work. The silky wistaria (W. venusta), with vel-
vety leaves and very large white flowers, is a native of China.
The North American species, W. frntescens, found in the Southern
States, has lilac-purple, very fragrant flowers.
WESTER, OWEN (1860- ), American writer, was born
in Philadelphia, July 14, 1860. On graduating from Harvard in
1882 he intended to devote himself to music. He went abroad for
study; but family reasons forced him to return, and he spent
several years in Arizona and New Mexico. He then entered the
Harvard law school, graduating in 1888, was admitted to the bar
in 1889 and for two years practised in Philadelphia. Thereafter
he devoted his time to literary work.
His novel The Virginian (1902) has the distinction of doing as much
to shape the romantic conception of the cowboy West as any other
single factor. Red Men and White (1896) and Lin McLean (1898)
also contributed to the legends of the cunning horse thief, the chival-
rous rancher and the vanishing red man. Philosophy 4 (1903), a divert-
ing college story, and the romance Lady Baltimore (1906) were very
popular. Wistcr's other publications include Ulysses S, Grant (1900),
The Seven Ages of Washington (1907), The Pentecost of Calamity
(1915) and Neighbours Henceforth (1922).
WITAN or WITENAGEMOT, the council of the Anglo-
Saxon kings. It was in no sense a popular assembly, and its com-
position was determined by the king's pleasure. He would natur-
ally wish to consult his greater nobles and his bishops, and such
men are normally found in attendance at his councils. The eccle-
siastical element was sometimes reinforced by the abbots of im-
portant monasteries. The king's household officers were usually
present, and the council generally includes a varying number of
thegns without specific duties at court. The general character of
the council underwent little change throughout the Old English
period, though it inevitably tended to become a larger body as the
king of Wessex developed into a king of all England. Its essential
duty was to advise the king on all matters touching which he
chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches
or laymen, it consented to his issue of new laws or new statements
of ancient custom, and it helped him to deal with rebels and per-
sons suspected of disaffection. King Alfred asked its advice about
the testamentary disposition of his private inheritance. In late
Old English times the witan had ceremonial functions. It attended
the king when he received ambassadors, and in the nth century,
if not earlier, joined him in public feasting at Easter, Whitsuntide,
and Christmas, commonly meeting for this purpose at Winchester,
Westminster and Gloucester. At other times the king would
summon his witan to attend him wherever he might choose. Im-
portant meetings of king and council were held in royal manors
such as Wantage in Berkshire, Calne in Wiltshire and Andover in
Hampshire. In its composition and duties the witan closely re-
sembled its successor, the Commune Concilium of the Anglo-
Norman kings; the fundamental difference between these bodies
being the feudal tie which connected the baronial councillors of
the Norman time with the king. (F. M. S.)
WITCHCRAFT. The actual meaning of this word appears
to be the art or craft of the wise, as the word "witch" is allied
with "wit," to know. From about the i5th century the word has
been almost exclusively applied to workers of magic, whether
male or female. Magicians and sorcerers arc known in all parts
of the world; among savage communities they are usually credited
with supernatural powers by their fellow-tribesmen (see MAGIC).
Divination (q.v.) or foretelling the future is one of the common-
est forms of witchcraft; when this is done in the name of the
deity of one of the established religions it is called prophecy;
when, however, the divination is in the name of a pagan god it
is mere witchcraft. This distinction is very clear in the account
of the contest between Moses and Pharaoh's magicians as given
in Exodus; but in the demotic story, which appears to give the
Egyptian version of the incident, the wise priest of Egypt defeats
the miserable foreign sorcerer whom he had saved from the
water when a child.
Mediaeval Witches. — In England the legal definition of a
witch is, according to Lord Coke, "a person who hath conference
with the Devil to consult with him or to do some act."
The word "devil" (q.v.) is a diminutive from the root "div,"
from which we also get the word "divine." It merely means "little
god." It is a well-known fact that when a new religion is estab-
lished in any country, the god or gods of the old religion becomes
the devil of the new.
When examining the records of the mediaeval witches, we are
dealing with the remains of a pagan religion which survived, in
England at least, till the i8th century, 1,200 years after the intro-
duction of Christianity. The practices of this ancient faith can
WITCHCRAFT
687
be found in France at the present day, though with the name of
the deity changed; and in Italy la vecchia religione still numbers
many followers in spite of the efforts of the Christian Church.
The number of the witches put to death by the inquisitors and
other persecutors in the i6th and I7th centuries is a proof of the
obstinate paganism of Europe. Whole villages followed the be-
liefs of their ancestors; and in many cases the priests, drawn
from the peasant class, were only outwardly Christian and carried
on the ancient rites; even the bishops and other high ecclesiastics
took part. As civilization increased and Christianity became more
firmly rooted, the old religion retreated to the less frequented
parts of the country and was practised by the more ignorant
members of the community. This is very noticeable in the in-
numerable trials of the 15th to the i8th centuries.
The Witch-cult. — The religion consisted of a belief in a god
incarnate in a human being or an animal, and thus resembled in
many ways the religions of numerous primitive peoples of the
present day. This god, who was always called the Devil by the
Christian recorders of the trials, appeared to his worshippers dis-
guised in various animal forms or dressed inconspicuously in
black. The earliest form of the animal disguise is the figure of the
man clothed in a stag's skin with antlers on his head, which is
among the palaeolithic paintings in a cave in Ariege in southern
France. Another early example is carved on a slate palette of the
prehistoric period of Egypt; in this case the man is disguised as
a jackal. The goat disguise is not found in Great Britain though
common in France and Germany, where it is probably the sur-
vival of the god Cernunnos. In the British Isles the usual forms
were the bull, the dog and the cat.
The rites with which this god was worshipped are known to
all students of primitive or savage religions, ancient and modern.
The sacred dances, the feasts, the chants in honour of the god,
the liturgical ritual, and above all the ceremonies to promote
fertility, occurred at public assemblies as now in the islands of
the Pacific or in Africa. The fertility rites attracted the special
attention of the recorders of the legal trials. But to the fol-
lowers of the old god these rites were as holy as the sacred
marriage was to the ancient Greeks; to them, as to the Greeks,
it was the outward and visible sign of the fertility of crops and
herds which should bring comfort and wealth and life itself.
The assemblies or "Sabbaths" took place four times a year;
on Feb. 2 (Candlemas), May-eve (known later as Roodmas),
Aug. i (Lammas), and November-eve (All Hallow E'en). To
these joyous meetings came all the worshippers, from far and
near, to the number of many hundreds, old and young, men,
women and children, till the scene was like a great fair with
dancing and singing and feasting. The celebrations began in the
evening, lasted all night, and ended at dawn. These were the
great Sabbaths, and the dates show that the year was divided at
May and November. This division shows that the religion dates
back to a primitive period, probably before the introduction of
agriculture though after the domestication of animals, for the
festivals emphasize the seasons of the breeding of animals. There
were, however, smaller meetings (known in France as "esbats"),
which took place weekly or at short irregular intervals. To these
came the principal members of the cult, who held a position
analogous to the priesthood. There were in each district a band
of such persons, in number 13, i.e., a chief or "devil" and 12
members. This band was known as a "Coven." They celebrated
the religious rites, they practised as healers under the leadership
and instruction of their divine master, and were the consultants
in all cases where "witchcraft" was required. The earliest record
of a Coven is in the Haudlyng Synne, a work of the early i4th
century, in which the (Christian) priest's daughter and 12 "fools"
danced in the churchyard as a coueyne. The next record is in the
15th century in the trial of Gilles de Rais, where it is apparent
that he and his associates were 13 in number in the practice of
their rites. In the later trials the word Coven is continually
used, and the number in a Coven is always 13.
One of the most impressive and important rites was the sacri-
fice of the god, which took place at intervals of seven or nine
years. The accounts suggest that the sacrifice was by fire (for
similar sacrifices see Frazer's Golden Bough).
The Familiars. — There arc two kinds of familiars, the divin-
ing familiar and the domestic familiar. The divining familiar is
common to the whole of Europe and is found in all records of
the trials. In ancient Rome divination by animals, especially by
birds, was known as "Augury" (q.v,), and was considered a
legitimate means of learning the future, but when it was prac-
tised by "witches" in the i6th and i;th centuries their persecutors
claimed that they were inspired by the Devil. As a rule the
witches were instructed by their chief in the method of divining
by animals, and he usually appointed the class of animal which
each witch was to use. Thus Agnes Sampson of North Berwick
divined by dogs, so also did Elizabeth Style in Somerset; John
Walsh of Netherberry in Dorset had "a gray blackish culver,"
and Alexander Hamilton in Lothian divined by a "corbie" or a
cat. In France the familiar was always a toad, which was con-
sulted before going on a journey or undertaking any enterprise.
Spells and Charms (q.v,). — Forms of words with manual
gestures are used in all countries and in all periods to produce
results which cannot be obtained by physical means. They may
be used for good or evil purposes, for the benefit of the user or
for the benefit of someone else. A good harvest, a good catch of
fish, a favourable wind for a ship, victory over an enemy, could
all be obtained by formulae of words addressed to the appro-
priate power. But as the power was always incomprehensible,
not to say freakish, it was necessary that it should be approached
by those who knew the right methods. Sacrifice (q.v.) in the
temples of the ancient civilization was among the means to pro-
pitiate the god and render him favourable to the petitions of his
worshippers. When, however, there was more than one god, it
is obvious that if a prayer were ineffectual in one temple nothing
could be easier than to petition another deity.
Among the ritual methods to destroy an enemy one of the
most ancient as well as the most dramatic was the making of an
image, generally in wax, to represent the enemy, and gradually
destroying it. The earliest record of this charm is in the trial of
some women and officers of the harem of Rameses III. in Egypt,
about 1 100 B.C. They made wax images of the Pharaoh with
magical incantations, but unfortunately the record gives only
the outline of the trial without details.
Transformation into Animals (see LYCANTHROPY).— The
belief that certain persons can transform themselves into animals
is common to all parts of the world. The power belongs to the
shaman or priest. A wound inflicted on a human being when in
animal shape is believed to be visible when the person resumes
his human form. The method of transformation was by putting
on the skin of the animal, as did Sigmund the Volsung when he
became a wolf. This being the case, it is obvious that the wounds
received by the transformed person must certainly have remained
when he returned to his proper shape.
The Suppression of Witchcraft.— In comparing the witches
and witch-cult of the middle ages with the rites and beliefs of
pagan religions, whether ancient or modern, it becomes abund-
antly clear that in Europe traces of the ancient heathenism sur-
vived the adoption of Christianity. It was only when the new
religion had gained sufficient strength that it ventured to try con-
clusions with the old. Backed by the civil law, it overcame the old
religion, not only by persuasion but by the use of force, just as it
destroyed the ancient religion of Egypt and in later times the
religion of the Aztecs. That the old religion was not an ordinary
heresy is clearly shown by the fact that in England, Scotland,
France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands and in
New England, in the days of Cotton Mather, certain ministers of
some Christian bodies were as zealous as the priests of the Roman
Church in hunting down and bringing to trial and death persons
suspected of witchcraft.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For general works, see N. Remy, Daemonolalrre
(Lyons, 1595) ; Lecky's Hist, of Rationalism in Europe, vol. i. (new
ed., 1910); H. Williams, Superstitions of Witchcraft (1865); J.
Baissac, Les grands Jours de la Sorcellerie (1890); W. G. Soldan,
Gesch. der Hexenprozesse (new ed., 1910) ; E. B. Tylor, Primitive
Culture (new ed., 1920) ; M. A. Murray, Witchcraft in "West. Europe
(1921); J. W. Wickwar, Witchcraft and the Black Art (1925); M.
688
WITCHES' BROOMS— WITHERSPOON
Summers, Hist, of Witchcraft and Demonology (1926), Geog. of
Witchcraft (1927) and (cd.), J. Sprcnger and H. Institoris, Malleus
Maleficarum (1928). For ENGLAND, see J. Glanvil, Sadducismus Tri-
umphatus (1681) ; R. Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584); W.
Notcstein, Hist, of Witchcraft in England (1911) ; SCOTLAND: Pitcairn,
Criminal Trials (4 vols., 1830-33) ; FRANCE: Boguet, Discours des Sor-
ciers (1608) ; P. de Lancrc, Tableau de I'lnconstance des mauvais
Anges (1612) and rfncrtdttlitt et Mescreance du Sortil^e (1622);
Rodin, Fleau des Demons (1616); J. Garinct, Hist, de la Magie. en
France (1818) ; BELGIUM: Cannaert, Proces des Sorcteres en Belgique
(1847); ITALY: C. G. Leland, Aradia (1899); AMERICA: Burr (ed.),
Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases (1914)- (M. A. M.)
WITCHES' BROOMS, the name, in botany, by which
peculiar broom-like outgrowths found on the branches of a num-
ber of trees are known. They consist of a closely set mass of
short branching twigs formed at one place on a branch as a result.
of the irritating action of an insect or a fungus. They are very
common on the birch, being conspicuous when the tree is in a
leafless condition; the "brooms" have then the appearance of
birds' nests. They may be caused by the attack of a mite
(Eriophyes rudis) ; in other cases they are due to the species of
fungus, Exoascus tnrgidus, attacking the birch. An allied fungus
(E. cerasi) causes brooms of the same kind on cherry.
WITCH-HAZEL, the common name for a North American
shrub, Hamamelis virginica (family Hamamelidaceae), native
to low woods from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and south to
Florida and Texas. It grows from 10 to 25 ft. high, with smooth,
wavy-toothed leaves, somewhat unequal-sided at the base. The
showy bright -yellow flowers, borne in profuse axillary clusters,
appear in autumn as the leaves are falling. The fruit, a hard,
woody capsule that matures during the ensuing summer, con-
tains two black shining seeds, which are forcibly ejected when
ripe. A fluid extract, prepared from the leaves, is used as a tonic
and a lotion. The name witch-hazel is derived from the use of
the twigs as divining rods, just as hazel twigs were used in Eng-
land. The North American witch-hazel is occasionally planted for
ornament, as are H. japonica, of Japan, and II. inollis, of China.
WITCH OF AGNESI: sec CURVE, SPECIAL.
WITHER, GEORGE (1588-1667), English poet and satir-
ist, son of George Wither, of Hampshire, was born at Bentworth,
near Alton, on June n, 1588. He was sent to Magdalen College,
Oxford, at the age of fifteen, and then entered one of the Inns
of Chancery, eventually obtaining an introduction at court. He
wrote an elegy (1612) on the death of Prince Henry, and a vol-
ume of gratulatory poems (1613) on the marriage of the princess
Elizabeth, but his uncompromising character soon prepared
trouble for him. In 1611 he published Abuses Stript and Whipt,
twenty satires of general application directed against Revenge,
Ambition, Lust and other abstractions. In 1613 five editions
appeared, and the author was lodged in the Marshalsea prison.
The influence of the Princess Elizabeth, supported by a loyal
"Satyre" to the king, secured his release at the end of a few
months. He had figured as one of the interlocutors, "Roget," in
his friend William Browne's Shepherd's Pipe, with which were
bound up eclogues by other poets, among them one by Wither,
and during his imprisonment he wrote what may be regarded as
a continuation of Browne's work, The Shepherd's Hunting (print-
ed 1615), eclogues in which the two poets appear as "Willie"
and "Roget" (in later editions "Philarete"). The fourth of these
eclogues contains a famous passage in praise of poetry. After
his release he was admitted (1615) to Lincoln's Inn, and in the
same year he printed privately Fidelia, a love elegy, of which
there is a unique copy in the Bodleian. Other editions of this
book, which contained the lyric "Shall I, wasting in despair,"
appeared in 1617 and 1619. In 1621 he returned to the satiric
vein with Wither's Motto. Ncc habeo, nee careo, ncc euro. Over
30,000 copies of this poem were sold, according to his own ac-
count, within a few months. Like his earlier invective, it was said
to be libellous, and Wither was again imprisoned, but shortly
afterwards released without formal trial on the plea that the book
had been duly licensed. In 1622 appeared his Faire-Virhie, The
Mistress of Phil* Arete.
Wither began as a moderate in politics and religion, but from
this time his Puritan leanings became more and more pronounced,
and his later work consists of religious poetry, and of controversial
and political tracts. His Hymnes and Songs of the Church (1622-
1623) were issued under a patent (later disallowed) of King
James I. ordaining that they should be bound up with every copy
of the authorized metrical psalms offered for sale. (See HYMNS.)
Wither was in London during the plague of 1625, and in 1628
published Britain's Remembrancer, a voluminous poem on the
subject, which he had to print with his own hand in consequence
of his quarrel with the Stationers' Company. In 1635 he was
employed by Henry Taunton, a London publisher, to write Eng-
lish verses illustrative of the allegorical plates of Crispin van
Passe, originally designed for Gabriel Rollenhagen's Nucleus em-
blematum selectissimorum (1610-1613). The book was published
as a Collection of Emblemcs, Ancient and Moderne, of which the
only perfect copy known is in the British Museum. The best of
Wither's religious poetry is contained in Heleluiah: or Britain's
Second Remembrancer, printed in Holland in 1641. Besides
hymns proper, the book contains songs of singular beauty, espe-
cially the Cradle-song ("Sleep, baby, sleep, what ails my dear").
Wither had served as captain of horse in 1639 in the expedi-
tion of Charles I. against the Scottish Covenanters, but three
years after the Scottish expedition, at the outbreak of the Great
Rebellion, he is found definitely siding with the parliament. He
sold his estate to raise a troop of horse, and was placed by a
parliamentary committee in command of Farnham Castle. After
a few days' occupation he left the place undefended, and marched
to London. His own house near Farnham was plundered, and he
himself was captured by a troop of Royalist horse, owing his life
to the intervention of Sir John Denham on the ground that so
long as Wither lived he himself could not be accounted the worst
poet in England. After this episode he was promoted to the
rank of major. He was present at the siege of Gloucester (1643)
and at Naseby (1645). He had been deprived in 1643 of his
nominal command, and of his commission as justice of the peace,
in consequence of an attack upon Sir Richard Onslow, who was,
he maintained, responsible for the Farnham disaster. In the
same year parliament made him a grant of £2,000 for the loss
of his property, but he apparently never received the full amount.
An order was made to settle a yearly income of £150 on Wither,
chargeable on Sir John Denham's sequestrated estate, but there
is no evidence that he ever received it. A small place given him
by the Protector was forfeited "by declaring unto him (Cromwell)
those truths which he was not willing to hear of." At the Restor-
ation he was arrested, and remained in prison for three years. He
died in London on May 2, 1667.
His extant writings, catalogued in Park's British Bibliographer,
number over a hundred. Sir S. E. Brydges published The Shepherd's
Hunting (1814), Fidelia (1815) and Fair Virtue (1818), and a selection
appeared in Stanford's Works of the British Poets, vol. v. (1819).
Most of Wither's works were edited in twenty volumes for the
Spenser Society (1871-1882) ; a selection was included by Henry
Morley in his Companion Poets (1891) ; Fidelia and Fair Virtue are
included in Edward Arbcr's English Garner (vol. iv., 1882; vol. vi.
1883), and an excellent, edition of The Poetry oj George Wither was
edited by F. Sidgwick in 1902.
WITHERITE, a mineral consisting of barium carbonate
(BaCOa), crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and named
after W. Withering, who in 1784 recognized it to be chemically
distinct from barytes. The crystals are invariably twinned to-
gether in groups of three, giving rise to pseudo-hexagonal forms
somewhat resembling bipyramidal crystals of quartz; the faces
are usually rough and striated horizontally. The colour is dull
white or sometimes greyish, the hardness is 3-5 and specific
gravity 4-3. The mineral occurs in veins of lead ore near Hex-
ham in Northumberland, Alston in Cumberland, Anglezark, near
Chorley, Lanes., and a few other localities. It is the chief source
of barium salts, and is mined in considerable amounts in North-
umberland. It is used for the preparation of rat poison, in the
manufacture of glass and porcelain, and formerly for refining
sugar. (L. J. S.)
WITHERSPOON, JOHN (1723-1794), Scottish-American
divine and educator, was born at Gifford, Yestcr Parish, Scotland,
probably on Feb. 5, 1722 or 1723. He was educated at the Had-
dington grammar school and the University of Edinburgh (M.A.,
WITNESS
689
i739)> where he completed his theological studies in 1743. He
was called to the parish of Beith in 1745 and in 1757 became pas-
tor at Paisley. His militant tendencies, which made him a promi-
nent figure during the American Revolution, manifested them-
selves at the invasion of the Young Pretender and in his ecclesi-
astical controversies. These he waged by sermon, debate, pam-
phlet and essay, revealing himself as a keen dialectician, an effec-
tive satirist and a convincing and entertaining speaker. Among his
chief publications of this period are Ecclesiastical Characteristics
(1753), Essay on Justification (1756) and a three-volume collec-
tion of his essays and doctrinal sermons (1764).
Withcrspoorvs popularity as a preacher is shown by his refusal
of calls to Dundee, Dublin and Rotterdam ; but his acceptance of
a second call to the presidency of Princeton in 1768 marked a
turning-point in his career. Thereafter, although he was received
warmly by the American Presbyterian Church and although he
took a prominent part in the meetings of the synod and was first
moderator of the general assembly which he had advocated, he
was more distinguished as an educator and as a statesman than as
a clergyman. He seems to hnve brought to the struggling little
college centred in Nassau Hall a vision of its potentialities as a
cultural agency as well as a training-school for ministers. lie
opened a grammar school, announced graduate courses, encour-
aged the undergraduate societies, added Hebrew and French to the
curriculum, provided scientific equipment and set out immediately
on a quest for more money and more students. From arrival he
was an enthusiast about America. He encouraged Scottish immi-
gration, and in the dispute with the mother country ranged him-
self uncompromisingly on the side of the colonists. He presided
over the Somerset county committee of correspondence in 1775-
76; was a member of two provincial Congresses and of the New
Jersey constitutional convention in the spring of 1776; and in
1776-79 and 1780-82 he was a member of the Continental Con-
gress. He was the only clergyman to sign the. Declaration of In-
dependence; and in general he played a creditable part in the
congressional body both in debate and on committees. He was
especially distinguished for the soundness of his financial views,
some of which were published later in his Essay on Money (1786).
He died on his farm, Tusculum, near Princeton, Nov. 15, 1794.
The first edition of Dr. Witherspoon's Works was published in
four volumes in Philadelphia in 1800 with a biographical account by
Dr. John Rodpers. A nine volume edition was published in Edinburgh
in 1804-05. Sec his Lectures on Moral Philosophy (1918), edited by
V. L. Collins, and the biography by the latter (2 vols., 1925).
WITNESS, in law, a person who is able from his knowledge
or experience to make statements relevant to matters of fact in
dispute in a court of justice. The relevancy and probative effect
of the statements which he makes belong to the Jaw of evidence
(q v.). In the present, article it is only proposed to deal with mat-
ters concerning the position of the witness himself. In England, in
the earlier stages of the common law, the jurors seem to have been
the witnesses, for they were originally chosen for their knowledge
or presumed knowledge of the facts in dispute, and they could
(and can) be challenged and excluded from the jury if related to
the parties or otherwise likely to show bias (sec JURY).
Competency. — Modern views as to the persons competent to
give evidence are very different from those of Roman law and the
systems derived from it. In Roman law the testimony of many
'persons was not admissible without the application of torture, and
a large body of possible witnesses was excluded for reasons which
have now ceased to be considered expedient, and witnesses were
subject to rules which have long become obsolete. Witnesses must
be idonei or duly qualified. Minors, certain heretics, infamous
persons (such as women convicted of adultery), and those in-
terested in the result of the trial were inadmissible. Parents and
children could not testify against one another, nor could slaves
against their masters, nor those at enmity with the party against
whom their evidence was offered. Women and slaves could not
act as witnesses to a will. There were also some hard and fast
rules as to number. Seven witnesses were necessary for a will,
five for a mancipatio or manumission, or to determine the ques-
tion whether a person were free or a slave. As under the Mosaic
law, two witnesses were generally necessary as a minimum to prove
any fact. Unius responsio testis omnino non andiatur are the words
of a constitution of Constantinc. The evidence of a single wit-
ness was simply semi-plena probatlo, to be supplemented in de-
fault of a second witness, by torture or reference to oath. The
canon law followed the Roman law as to competence, but ex-
tended the disabilities to excommunicated persons and to a layman
in a criminal charge against a clerk, unless he were actually the
prosecutor. The evidence of a notary was generally equivalent to
that of two ordinary witnesses. The evidence of the pope and that
of a witness who simply proved baptism or heresy (according to
some authorities) are perhaps the only other cases in which canon
law dispensed with confirmatory evidence. It is probable that the
incompetence of Jews as witnesses in Spain in the i4th and isth
centuries was based on what is termed "want of religion," i.e.9 her-
esy or unwillingness to take the Christian oath on the gospels. But
in England until their expulsion they were on the status of slaves
(captivi) of the king. A policy similar to that of the Roman law
was followed for centuries in England by excluding the testimony
of parties or persons interested, of witnesses for a prisoner, and of
infamous persons, such as those who had been attainted or had
been vanquished in the trial by battle, or had stood in the pillory.
All these were said vocem non habere. In the days of trial by bat-
tle a party could render a witness against him incompetent by chal-
lenging and defeating him in the judicial combat. Women were
generally regarded as wholly or partially incompetent. English
law had also certain rules as to the number of witnesses neces-
sary. Thus under a statute of 1383 (6 Rich. II. st. 2 c, 5) the num-
ber of compurgators necessary to free an accused person from
complicity in the peasant revolt was fixed at three or four. Five
was the number necessary under the Liber feiidomm for proving
ingratitude to the lord.
In the course of the gradual development of the law of evidence,
which is in a sense peculiar to the English system, the fetters of
the Roman rules as to witnesses were gradually shaken off. In
civil cases all disabilities by interest, relationship, sex or crime
have been swept away. The witness need not be idoneous in the
Roman sense, and objections which in Roman law went to his com-
petence, in English law go to his credibility. The only general test
of competency is now understanding. It excludes lunatics, idiots,
dotards and children of tender years; a person convicted of per-
jury is said to be competent if convicted at common law, but in-
competent if convicted under the act of Elizabeth. No trial ever
takes place now under this act, and on this point the act seems
to have been virtually repealed by Lord Denman's act (1843; 6
and 7 Viet. c. 85). The disqualification is not absolute as to luna-
• tics; as to children it is sometimes made to depend on whether
they are able to understand the nature of the witness's oath.
And in certain cases within the Criminal Law Amendment Act,
1885, and the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904, the
unsworn evidence of children of tender years is admissible but.
needs corroboration.
Non-judicial witnesses are those who attest an act of unusual
importance, for the due execution of which evidence may after-
wards be required. They are cither made necessary by law, as
the witnesses to marriages and wills, or used by general custom,
as the witnesses to deeds. In some cases the attestation has be-
come a mere form, such as the attestation of the lord chancellor
to a writ of summons. (See WRIT.)
Number. — The rule of English law as to the number of wit-
nesses necessary is expressed in the phrase tcstes ponderantur non
numcrantur. But there are certain exceptions, all statutory. Two
witnesses are necessary to make a will valid; two are required to
be present at a marriage and to attest the entry in the marriage
register; and in the case of blasphemy, perjury, personation and
most forms of treason, two or more witnesses are necessary to
justify conviction. Witnesses to bills of sale under the Bills of
Sale Act, 1882, and witnesses on a charge of personation at
elections, are required to be '.'credible." And in the case of dis-
honour of a foreign bill of exchange the evidence of a notary
public is required, probably a survival from the law merchant or
a concession to Continental practice. A warrant of attorney must
WITNEY— WITOWT
be attested by a solicitor, and certain conveyances of property
held on charitable uses must be attested by two solicitors. In
certain civil cases the evidence of a single witness is not sufficient
unless corroborated in some material particular — not necessarily
by another witness — e.g., in actions of breach of promise of mar-
riage, or affiliation proceedings and matrimonial causes, or where
unsworn evidence of children is admissible. In practice, but not in
strict law, the evidence of an accomplice is required to be
corroborated.
In criminal cases an accused person could not formerly be
sworn as a witness or examined by the court, though he was free
to make statements. The origin of this rule is by some traced
to the rnaxim nemo tcnctur prude-re seipsum, by others to the
theory that the petty jury were the prisoner's witnesses. More-
over, witnesses for the detente could not be examined on oath in
cases of treason and felony until 1702 in England, 1711 in Ireland
and 1735 in Scotland. The husband or wife of the accused could
not be examined on oath as a witness either for the prosecution or
the defence except in prosecutions for treason or for personal in-
juries done by one spouse to the other. This exclusion was in
accord with the disqualification of parties to civil causes; but
there was a lack of reciprocity, for the prosecutor was a compe-
tent witness because the Crown is the nominal prosecutor. The
rule had to a certain extent a beneficial effect for the defence, in
saving the accused from cross-examination, which in certain peri-
ods and in political trials would have led to abuse. On the aboli-
tion of other disqualifications that of the accused was left. This
inconsistency led to much legal discussion and to piecemeal and,
ultimately, complete change in the law. Between 1872 and 1897
some 26 acts were passed rendering accused persons and their
wives or husbands competent (but not in general compellable)
witnesses in particular criminal cases; and finally, by the Criminal
Evidence Act, 1898, which abrogates the common law rule above,
and in practice supersedes, but does not repeal, the particular
statutes just mentioned, and does not apply to Ireland, every
person charged with an offence, whether solely or jointly, and the
wife or husband of such person is rendered a competent witness
for the defence, subject to certain specified conditions. For these
conditions, and for the rules regulating the attendance, oaths,
examination, and privileges of witnesses, see EVIDENCE.
The attestation of documents out of courts of justice is ordi-
narily not on oath; but where the documents have to be proved
in court the attesting witnesses are sworn like others, and the
only judicial exception is that of witnesses ordered to produce
documents (called in Scotland "havers") who are not sworn un-
less they have to verify the documents produced. Questions as to
competence (including questions of the right to affirm instead of
swearing or as to the proper form of oath) are settled by examin-
ation by the court without oath on what is termed the voir dire.
The evidences of judicial witnesses is taken viva voce at the trial,
except in interlocutory proceedings and in certain matters in the
chancery division and in bankruptcy courts. Where the witness
cannot attend the court or is abroad his evidence may be taken
in writing by a commissioner delegated by the court, or by a for-
eign tribunal under letters of request issued by the court in which
the cause is pending. The depositions are returned by the dele-
gated authority to the court of trial. Under English law evidence
must be taken viva voce in a criminal trial, with a few exceptions,
e.g., where a witness who has made a deposition before a magis-
trate at an earlier stage in the case is dead or unable to travel, or
in certain cases within the Merchant Shipping Acts, or of offences
in India or by Crown officials out of England. In Europe com-
missions vogatoires are freely used to obtain written depositions
for the purpose of criminal trials, and are allowed to be executed
in England.
On charges of treason lists of the witnesses to be called by the
Crown must be supplied to the. accused. In ordinary indictable
cases there is no such obligation, but the names of the witnesses
for the Crown are written on the back of the indictment; and
where the witnesses have not been examined at the preliminary
enquiry it is now established practice to require notice to the
accused of their names, and a precis of what they will be called
to prove. In Scotland, in ail indictable cases, a list of witnesses
must be served on the accused (the panel; (1887, c. 35), and the
same rule is observed in France. In the United States the same
course is adopted where a capital offence is charged.
(W. F. C.; S. L. PH.)
WITNEY, a market town in the Banbury parliamentary
division of Oxfordshire, England, on the river Windrush, a tribu-
tary of the Thames, 75^ m. W.N.W. of London on a branch of the
G.W. railway. Pop. of urban district (1921) 3,365. Witney is
the seat of an old-established industry in blanket-making, and
gloves and other woollen goods are also made. The great church
of St. Mary is cruciform with a lofty central tower and spire. The
tower is Early English, but the church exhibits the other styles,
including a remarkable Norman porch.
The manor of Witney was held by the see of Winchester before
the Conquest. It was sold in 1649, but was given back to the
bishopric at the Restoration. In the middle of the i8th century
it was leased by the bishop of Winchester to the duke of Marl-
borough. Witney was a borough by prescription at least as early
as 1278, and sent representatives to parliament with more or less
regularity from 1304 to 1330. There is reference to a fulling mill
in a charter of King Edgar dated 909. In 1641 the blanket-
makers petitioned the crown against vexatious trade regulations;
in 1673 the town is described as "driving a good trade for blankets
and rugs." In 1711 the blanket-makers obtained a charter mak-
ing them into a company, consisting of a master, assistants, two
wardens and a commonalty.
See J. A. Giles, History of Witney (1852) ; Victoria County History,
Own; W. J. Monk, History of Witney (1894).
WITOWT or WITULD (1350-1430), grand-duke of Lithuania,
son of Kiejstut, prince of Samogitia, first appears prominently
in 1382, when the Teutonic Order set him up as a candidate for
the throne of Lithuania in opposition to his cousin Jagiello
(see WLADISLAUS), who had treacherously murdered Witowt's
father and seized his estates. Witowt, however, convinced him-
self that the German knights were far more dangerous than his
Lithuanian rival; he accepted pacific overtures from Jagiello
and became his ally. When Jagiello ascended the throne of
Poland as Wladislaus II. in 1386, Witowt was at first content
with the principality of Grodno; but jealousy of Skirgiello, one
of Jagiello's brothers, to whom Jagiello committed the govern-
ment of Lithuania, induced Witowt to ally himself once more
with the Teutonic Order (treaty of Konigsberg, May 24, 1390).
He strengthened his position by giving his daughter Sophia in
marriage to Vasily, grand-duke of Muscovy; but he never felt
secure beneath the wing of the Teutonic Order, and when Jagiello
removed Skirgiello from the government of Lithuania and
offered it to Witowt, the compact of Ostrow (5th of August 1392)
settled ail differences between them.
Nevertheless, subsequent attempts on the part of Poland to
subordinate Lithuania drove Witowt for the third time into
the arms of the Order, and by the treaty of Salin in 1398, Witowt,
who now styled himself Supremus Dux Lithuaniae, ceded his
ancestral province of Samogitia to the knights, and formed an
alliance with them for the conquest and partition of Pskov and
Great Novgorod. He nourished the grandiose idea of driving out
the hordes of Tamerlane, freeing all Russia from the Tatar yoke,
and proclaiming himself emperor of the North and East. This
dream of empire was dissipated by his terrible defeat on the
Lower Dnieper by the Tatars on Aug. 12, 1399. He was now
convinced that the true policy of Lithuania was the closest
possible alliance with Poland. A union between the two countries
was effected at Vilna on Jan. 18, 1401, and was confirmed and
extended by subsequent treaties. Witowt was to reign over
Lithuania as an independent grand-duke, but the two states were
to be indissolubly united by a common policy. The result was
a whole series of wars with the Teutonic Order, which now
acknowledged Swidrygiello, another brother of Jagiello, as grand-
duke of Lithuania; and though Swidrygiello was defeated and
driven out by Witowt, the Order retained possession of Samogitia,
and their barbarous methods of "converting" the wretched in-
habitants finally induced Witowt to rescue his fellow-country-
WITTE— WITTENBERG
men at any cost from the tender mercies of the knights.
In the beginning of 1409 Witowt concluded a treaty with
Jagiello at Novogrudok for the purpose, and on July 19, 1410, the
combined Polish-Lithuanian forces, reinforced by Hussite aux-
iliaries, crossed the Prussian border. The rival forces encountered
at Grunewald, or Tannenberg, and there on July 14 or 15, 1410,
was fought one of the decisive battles of the world, for the
Teutonic Knights suffered a crushing blow from which they never
recovered. After this battle Poland-Lithuania began to be re-
garded in the west as a great power, and Witowt stood in high
favour with the Roman curia. In 1429, instigated by the emperor
Sigismund, whom he magnificently entertained at his court at
Lutsk, Witowt revived his claim to a kingly crown, and Jagiello
reluctantly consented to his cousin's coronation; but before it
could be accomplished Witowt died at Troki, on Oct. 27, 1430.
See, Jozef Ignacz Kraszewski, Lithuania under Witowt (Pol.)
(Wilna, 1850) ; Augustin Theiner, Vetera Monumenta Poloniae (Rome,
1860-1864) ; Karol Szajnocha, Jadwiga and Jagiello (Pol.) (Lemberg,
1850-1856) ; Tcodor Narbutt, History t>f the Lithuanian Nation
(Pol.) (Wilna, 18^5-18^6); Codex epistolaris Witoldi Magni (ed.
Prochaska, Cracow,' 1882). (R. N. B.)
WITTE, SERGE JULIEVICH, COUNT (1849-1915),
Russian statesman, was born at Tiflis, where his father (of Dutch
extraction) was a member of the Viceregal Council of the
Caucasus. After completing his studies at Odessa University
and devoting some time to journalism in close relations with the
Slavophils and M. Katkov, he entered in 1877 the service of the
Odessa State railway, and facilitated the transport of troops to
Turkey in 1877-8. He now became general traffic manager of
the South-Western railway of Russia and member of an Imperial
commission which had to study the whole question of railway
construction and management throughout the empire. Vish-
negradski, minister of finance, recognized his ability and made
him head o'f the railway department in the finance ministry. In
1892 he was promoted to be minister of ways of communication,
and in 1893 he succeeded Vishnegradski, as minister of finance.
Witte was an ardent disciple of Fricdrich List and sought
to develop home industries by means of moderate protection and
the introduction of foreign capital for industrial purposes. At
the same time he succeeded by drastic measures in putting a
stop to the great fluctuations in the value of the paper currency
and in resuming specie payments. The rapid extension of the
railway system was also largely due to his energy and financial
ingenuity, and he embarked on a crusade against the evils of
drunkenness by organizing a government monopoly for the sale
of alcohol. In 'foreign policy he extended Russian influence in
northern China and Persia. Witte struggled for what he con-
sidered the liberation of his country from the economic bondage
of foreign nations. During his ten years' tenure of the finance
ministry he nearly doubled the revenues o'f the empire, but he
made for himself a host of enemies. He was transferred, there-
fore, in 1903 from the influential post of finance minister to the
ornamental position of president of the committee of ministers.
The disasters of the war with Japan, and the rising tide of
revolutionary agitation, compelled the government to think of
appeasing popular discontent by granting administrative reforms,
and the reform projects were revised and amended by the body
over which M. Witte presided. But the Witte reforms were
obstructed by the other departments, especially by the police.
Naturally the influence of a strong man made itself felt, and the
president became virtually prime minister; but, before he had
advanced far in this legislative work, he was suddenly trans-
formed into a diplomatist and sent to Portsmouth, N.H., U.S.A.,
in August 1905, to negotiate terms of peace with the Japanese
delegates. In these negotiations he showed great energy and
decision, and contributed largely to bringing about the peace.
On his return to St. Petersburg he had to deal, as president of
the first ministry under the new constitutional regime, with a
very difficult political situation (see RUSSIA: History) \ he was
no longer able to obtain support, and early in 1906 he was
dismissed. His last service to the emperor had been to raise
a large loan in France which made the government practically
independent of the Duma. He died at St. Petersburg (Lenin-
grad) on March 12, 1915.
See Memoirs oj Count Witte ed. A. Garmolinsky (London and
New York, 1921), indispensable to the study of the period; also a
study of his career as minister of finance by D. A. Lutokhin (xgi5),
and his diaries, posthumously published in Pravda- (1918).
WITTELSBACH, the name of an important German family,
taken from the castle of Wittelsbach, which formerly stood near
Aichach on the Paar in Bavaria. In 11:14, Otto V., count uf
Scheyern (d. 1155), removed the resilience of his family to
Wittelsbach, and called himself by this name. His descendants
bore simply the title of counts of Scheyern until about 1 1 16, when
the emperor Henry V. recognized Count Otto V. «ts count palatine
in Bavaria. His son, Count Otto VI., who succeeded his father
in 1155, accompanied the German king, Frederick I., to Italy in
1154, where he distinguished himself by hrs courage, and later
rendered valuable assistance to Frederick in Germany, When
Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, was placed under
i the imperial ban in 1180, Otto's services were rewarded by the
investiture of the dukedom of Bavaria at Altenburg. Bavaria was
ruled by the Wittelsbachs from that time onwards until the revolu-
tion of 1918, and the history of the house is closely connected
with the history of Bavaria (q.v.). The ancestral castle of
Wittelsbach was destroyed in 1208.
In 1329 the most important of various divisions of the Wittels-
bach lands took place. By the treaty of Pavia in this year, Louis
IV., German king, formerly duke of Bavaria, granted the
Palatinate of the Rhine and the upper Palatinate of Bavaria
to his brother's sons, Rudolph II. (d. 1353) and Rupert I.
Rupert, who from 1353 to 1390 was sole ruler, gained the electoral
dignity for the Palatinate of the Rhine in 1356 by a grant of some
lands in upper Bavaria to the emperor Charles IV. It had been
exercised from the division of 1329 by both branches in turn. The
descendants of Louis IV. retained the rest of Bavaria, but made
several divisions of their territory, the most important, of which
was in 1392, when the branches of Ingoldstadt, Munich and
j Landshut were founded. These were reunited under Albert IV.,
duke of Bavaria-Munich (1447-1508) and the upper Palatinate
was added to them in 1628. Albert's descendants ruled over a
united Bavaria, until the death of Duke Maximilian III. in 1777,
when it passed to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore. The
Palatinate of the Rhine, after the death of Rupert I. in 1390,
passed to his nephew, Rupert II., and in 1398 to his son, Rupert
III., who was German king from 1400 to 1410. On his death it
was divided into four branches. Three of these had died out by
!559> and their possessions were inherited by the fourth or Sim-
mern line, among whom the Palatinate was again divided. (See
PALATINATE.)
In 1/42, after the extinction of the two senior lines of this
family, the Sulzbach branch became the senior line, and its head,
the elector Charles Theodore, inherited Bavaria in 1777. He died
in 1799, and Maximilian Joseph, the head of the Zweibrikkcn
branch, inherited Bavaria and the Palatinate. He took the title
of king as Maximilian I.
The Wittelsbachs gave three kings to Germany, Louis IV.,
Rupert and Charles VII. Members of the family were also
margraves of Brandenburg from 1323 to 1373, and kings of
Sweden from 1654 to 1718.
See J. Dollingcr, Das Hans Wittelsbach und seine Bedeutung in dcr
deutschen Geschichte (Munich, 1880) ; J. F. Bb'hmer, Wittehbachhche
Regesten bis 1340 (Stuttgart, 1854) ; F. M. Wittmann, Monumenta
Wittelsbacensia (Urkundenbuch, Munich, 1857-1861); K. T. Heigel,
Die Wittelsbacher (Munich, 1880) ; F. Lcitschuh, Die Wittelsbacher in
Bayern (Bambcrg, 1894).
WITTENBERG, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony,
situated on the Elbe, 59 m. by rail south-west of Berlin, on the
main line to Halle and at the junction of railways to Falkenberg,
Torgau and Rosslau. Pop. (1925) 23,426.
Wittenberg is mentioned as early as 1180. It was the capital
of the little duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, the rulers of which after-
wards became electors of Saxony. The Capitulation of Witten-
berg (1547) is the name given to the treaty by which John
Frederick the Magnanimous was compelled to resign the electoral
dignity and most of his territory to the Albert ine branch of the
692
WITTINGAU— WLADISLAUS
Saxon family. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and re-forti-
fied in 1813 by command of Napoleon; but in 1814 it was
stormed by the Prussians. Its defences were dismantled in 1873.
Wittenberg is interesting chiefly on account of its close con-
nection with Luther and the dawn of the Reformation, and several
of its buildings arc associated with the events of that time. Part
of the August ininn monastery in which Luther dwelt, at first as
a monk and in later life as owner with his wife and family, has
been fitted up MS a Luther museum. The Augusteum was built in
1564-83 on the site of the monastery. The Schlosskirche, to the
doors of which Luther nailed his famous 95 theses in 1517, dates
from 1439-99; it was> however, seriously damaged by fire during
the bombardment of 1760, was practically rebuilt, and has since
been restored. The old wooden doors, burnt in 1760, were re-
placed in 1858 by bronze doors, bearing the Latin text of the
theses. In the interior of the church are the tombs of Luther
and Melanchthon. The parish church, in which Luther often
preached, was built in the i4th century, but has been much
altered. It contains a magnificent painting by Lucas Cranach
the elder, representing the Lord's Supper, Baptism and Confes-
sion, also a font by Herman Vischcr (1457). The university
of Wittenberg, founded in 1502, was merged in the university of
Halle in 1815. Luther was appointed professor of philosophy
here in 1508; and the new university rapidly acquired a con-
siderable reputation from its connection with the early Reformers.
In opposition to the strict Lutheran orthodoxy of Jena it repre-
sented the more moderate doctrines of Melanchthon. The ancient
electoral palace is another of the buildings that suffered severely
in 1760; it now contains archives. Melanchthon's house and the
house of Lucas Cranach the elder (1472-1553), who was burgo-
master of Wittenberg, are also pointed out. The spot, outside
the Elster gate, where Luther publicly burned the papal bull in
1520, is marked by an oak tree.
See Meynert, Geschichte. der Stadt Wittenberg (Dessau, 1845) ; Sticr,
Die Schlosskirche ztt Wittenberg (Wittenberg, 1860) ; Zitzlaff, Die
Rcgrabnisstatten Wittenberg nnd ihre Denkmdler (Wittenberg, 1897) ;
and Gurlitt, "Die Lutherstadt Wittenberg," in Muther's Die Kunst
(Berlin, 1902).
WITTINGAU: see TREBON.
WITU or VITU, a sultanate of East Africa included in the
Tanaland province of Kenya Colony. It extends along the coast
from the town of Kipini at the mouth of the Ozi river (2° 30' S.)
to the northern limit of Manda bay (2° S.); area 1,200 sq.m.
The chief town, Witu, is 16 m. N. of Kipini. The state was
founded by Ahmed-bin-Fumo Luti, the last Nabhan sultan of
Patta (an island off the coast), who was defeated by Scyyid
Majid of Zanzibar. Ahmed, about 1860, took refuge in the forest
district, and made himself an independent chief, acquiring the
title of Simba or the Lion. In 1885 Ahmed was induced to place
his country under German protection, but in 1890 as the result of
the Anglo-German agreement of that year the protectorate was
transferred to Great Britain. In 1894 Omar-bin-Hamed of the
Nabhan dynasty — an ancient race of Asiatic origin — was recog-
nized as sultan, and Witu settled down to a peaceful life.
WIVELISCOMBE (wiv'els-kum), a market town in the
western parliamentary division of Somerset, England, 9 A m. W.
of Taunton by the G.W.R. Pop. (1921) 1,255.
Traces of a large Roman camp may still be seen to the south- |
east of Wiveliscombe (\Vellesconibe, Wilscombe, Wiviscombe),
which is near the line of a Roman road, and hoards of Roman
coins have been discovered in the neighbourhood. The town prob-
ably owed its origin to the suitability of its position for defence,
and it was the site of a Danish fort, later replaced by a Saxon
settlement. The overlords were the bishops of Bath and Wells.
WLADISLAUS (WLADISLAW), the name of four kings of
Poland and two Polish kings of Hungary1.
JIn Hungarian history the Polish Wladislaus (Mag. Ulaszl6) is
distinguished from the Hungarian Ladislaus (Laszlo). They are
reckoned separately for purposes of numbering. Besides the Wladislaus
kings of Poland, there were three earlier dukes of this name: Wladislaus
I. (d. 1 102), Wladislaus II. (of Cracow, d. 1163) and Wladislaus III.,
duke of Great Poland and Cracow (d. 1231). By some historians
these are included in the numbering of the Polish sovereigns. King
Wladislaus I. being thus IV. and so on.
WLADISLAUS I. (1260-1333), king of Poland, called Lokietek,
or "Span-long," from his diminutive stature, was the re-creator
of the Polish realm, which at the end of the i3th century had
split up into 14 independent principalities, and become an easy
prey to her neighbours, Bohemia, Lithuania and the Teutonic
Order. In 1296 the gentry of Great Poland elected Wladislaus,
then prince of Cujavia, to reign over them; but later changing
their minds, placed themselves under the protection of Wcnceslaus,
king of Bohemia, who was crowned at Gnesen in 1300. Wladislaus
obtained the support of Pope Boniface VIIL, and on the death of
Wenceslaus in 1305 Wladislaus succeeded in uniting beneath his
sway the principalities of Little and Great Poland. He had a long
struggle with the towns and the prelates headed by Muskata,
bishop of Cracow. He managed to suppress the magistrates of
Cracow, but had to invoke the aid of the Teutonic Order to save
Danzig from the margraves of Brandenburg; whereupon the Order
not only proceeded to treat Danzig as a conquered city, but
claimed possession of the whole of Pomerania. Wladislaus ap-
pealed to Pope John XXII. (1317) and ultimately (Feb. 9, 1321)
obtained locally a judgment with costs against the Order, which
however, appealed to Rome and got the judgment reversed. The
result was a six years1 war (1327-33) between Poland and the
Order, in which all the princes of Central Europe took part, Hun-
gary and Lithuania siding with Wladislaus, and Bohemia, Masovia
and Silesia with the Order. It was early on Sept. 27, 1332, that
Wladislaus, with his Hungarian allies, inilicted upon the knights
their first serious reverse, at Plowce. In March 1333 he died. He
had laid the foundations of a strong Polish monarchy, and with
the consent of the pope revived the royal dignity, being crowned
king of Poland at Cracow on Jan. 20, 1320.
See Max Pcrlbach, Preussisch-pulnischc Stndien zur Geschichte dfs
Mittelalters (Halle, 1886); Julius A. G. von Pflutfk-Harttung, Der
deittsche Ordrn hn Kampje Ludwigs des Baycrn mit der Kurie (1900).
WLADISLAUS 11., JAGIELLO (1350-1434), king of Poland, was one
of the 12 sons of Olgicrd, grand-duke of Lithuania, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1377. From the first Jagiello was involved in disputes
with the Teutonic Order, and with his uncle, Kiejstut, who ruled
Samogitia independently. By the Treaty of Dawidyszek (June t,
1380) he contracted an alliance with the knights, and two years
later, enticed Kiejstut and his consort to Krewo and there treacher-
ously murdered them (Aug. 15, 1382). This foul deed naturally
drove Witowt (Q.V.), the son of Kiejstut, into alliance with the
Order. But the two soon made common cause against the knights
and invaded Prussian territory. In search of allies, Wladislaus in
1384 offered his hand to Jadwiga, the young queen of Poland, on
condition they shared the Polish crown. Jadwiga renounced her
previous fiance, William of Austria. Jagiello was elected king of
Poland as Wladislaus II.; on Feb. 15, 1386, he adopted the Cath-
olic faith, and on Feb. 18 he married Jadwiga. He at once pro-
ceeded to convert Lithuania to his new faith. At Vilna, on Feb. 17,
1387, a stately concourse of nobles and prelates, headed by the
king, proceeded to the grove of secular oaks beneath which stood
the statue of Perkunos and other idols, and in the presence of an
immense multitude hewed down the oaks, destroyed the idols,
extinguished the sacred fire and elevated the cross on the dese-
crated heathen altars, 30,000 Lithuanians receiving Christian bap-
tism. A Catholic hierarchy was immediately set up. Ruthenia
with its capital Lemberg was persuaded to acknowledge the do-
minion of Poland; and there on Sept. 27, 1387, the hospodars of
WTalachia and Moldavia submitted voluntarily to Polish suzerainty.
The knights endeavoured to re-establish their position by sowing
dissensions between Poland and Lithuania. In this for a time
they succeeded (see WITOWT); but in 1401 Jagiello recognized
Witowt as independent grand-duke of Lithuania (union of Vilna,
Jan. 1 8, 1401), and their union was cemented in the battle of
Griinewald. which shook the fabric of the Order to its foundations.
Jagiello was married four times. At the dying request of the
childless Jadwiga he espoused a Styrian lady, Maria Cillei, who
bore him a daughter, also called Jadwiga. His third wife, Eliza-
beth Grabowska, died without issue, and in 1422 Jagiello married
Sonia, princess of Vyazma, a Russian lady rechristened Sophia,
who bore him two sons, Wladislaus and Casimir, both of whom
WLOCLAWEK— WODROW
693
ultimately succeeded him. Jagiello died at Grodko near Lemberg
in 1434. During his reign Poland had risen to the rank of a great
power, a position she was to retain for nearly 200 years.
WLADISLAUS III. (1424-1444), king of Poland and Hungary,
the eldest son of Wladislaus II., Jagiello, by his fourth wife,
Sophia of Vyazma, was born at Cracow, Oct. 31, 1424, succeeding
to the throne in his tenth year. He had a turbulent minority;
hut Poland was wisely controlled by Zbignicw Olcsnicki, while
Wladislaus himself defeated the arch-traitor Spytek of Mclztyn
at Grotnik on May 4, 1439. On the sudden death of the emperor
Albert, who was also king of Bohemia and Hungary, the Hunga-
rians elected Wladislaus king, and he was crowned at. Buda in July
1440. For three years, however, lie had to tight against the parti-
sans of the widowed Empress Elizabeth, till Pope Eugenius IV.
mediated between them to enable Wladislaus to lead a crusade
against the Turks. At the head of 40,000 men, mostly Magyars,
and with Hunyadi commanding under him, Wladislaus made a
glorious campaign in the Balkans in 1^43, and by the Peace of
Szeged (July i, 1444), the Sultan Murad II., engaged to sur-
render Serbia, Albania and whatever territory the Ottomans had
ever conquered from Hungary, including 24 fortresses, besides
paying an indemnity of 100,000 florins in gold. After swearing
to observe the treaty, however, Wladislaus broke it two days later
in the name of religion, and invaded the Balkans a second time,
losing his life and more than a fourth of his army at Varna on
Nov. 10, 1444. (See also POLAND and HUNGARY.)
WLADISLAUS IV. (1595-1648), king of Poland, son of Sigismund
111., king of Poland, and Anne of Austria, succeeded his father
on the throne in 1632. He had already served with distinction
under Zolkicwski in the Muscovite campaigns of 1610-12, and
under Chodkiewicz in 1617-18; and his first official act was to
march against, the Muscovites, who had declared war against
Poland immediately after Sigismund's death, forcing the Mus-
covite general, after bloody engagements (Aug. 7-22, 1632), to
raise the siege of Smolensk and surrender (March I, 1634).
Wladislaus then concluded peace (May 28), conceding the title
of tsar to Michael Romanov, who renounced all his claims upon
Livonia, Estonia and Courland, besides paying a war indem-
nity of 200,000 rubles. Wladislaus then marched to Lemberg, and
under, threat of invasion the Porte offered terms, which were ac-
cepted in October, whereby each Power engaged to keep its
borderers, the Cossacks and Tatars, in order, and divide between
them the suzerainty of Moldavia and Walachia, the sultan bind-
ing himself always to place philo-Polish hospodars on those
thrones. Tn the following year the long-pending differences with
Sweden were settled, very much to the advantage of Poland, by
the truce of Stumdorf (Sept. 12, 1635). Thus externally Poland
was everywhere triumphant. Internally, however, things were in
their usual deplorable state owing to the suspicion, jealousy and
parsimony of the estates. When Danzig rebelled openly against
dues lawfully imposed by the king, and a Danish admiral broke
(he blockade and almost destroyed the flotilla Wladislaus had sent
against the rebellious city, the Sejm connived at the destruction
of the national navy and the depletion of the treasury, "lest
warships should make the crown too powerful.'* For some years
after this humiliation, Wladislaus sank into a sort of apathy;
but the birth of his son Sigismund (by his first wife, Cecilia
Rcnata of Austria, in 1640) gave him fresh hopes and energy.
With the aim of bringing about a royalist reaction, he founded
the Order of the Immaculate Conception, consisting of 72 young
noblemen who swore a special oath of allegiance to the Crown,
and were to form the nucleus of a patriotic movement antago-
nistic to the constant usurpations of the diet. After the Sejm
had frustrated this attempt, Wladislaus, assisted by the grand
hetman of the Crown, Stanislaw Koniecpolski, tried to use the
Cossacks, who were deeply attached (o him, to chastise the
szlachta, at the same time forcing a war with Turkey, which would
make his military genius indispensable to the republic. Simultane-
ously Wladislaus contracted an offensive and defensive alliance
with Venice against the Porte, a treaty directly contrary, indeed,
to the pacta conventa he had sworn to observe. The ill-prepared
enterprise fell through; and the king, worn out, disillusioned and
broken-hearted at the death of his son (by his second wife, Marie
Ludwika of Angouleme, Wladislaus had no issue), died at Mer-
ecz on May 20, 1648.
See W. Czcrmak, The Plans of the Turkish Wars of Wladislaus
IV. (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895) ; V. V. Volk-Karachevsky, The Struggle
of Poland with the Cossacks (Rus.) (Kiev, 1899) ; Letters and other
Writings of Wladislaus IV. (Pol.) (Cracow, 1845).
WLOCLAWEK, a town of Poland in the province of War-
saw. Pop. (1921) 40,300. Situated on the left bank of the Vistula,
about ioo m. below Warsaw, 25 m. below Plock, and 25 m. above
Torun, Wloclawek has always been an important city, being the
capital of the district of Kujawia and the seat of one of the
ancient Catholic bishoprics. The mediaeval cathedral, built in the
"Vistula Gothic" style, still exists. The region suffered much in
the i4th century from the invasions of the Teutonic Knights. The
diocese of the bishops included all eastern Pomerania.
WLODIMIERZ-WOLYNSKI or WLODZIMIERZ,
town of Poland, province of Volhynia; population, mainly Jewish.
The town is the ancient capital of Volhynia, but it soon declined in
importance on the rise of Luck and other towns. Near the town
are the ruins of a church supposed to have been built by Vladimir,
grand prince of Kiev in 973. It became the capital of the inde-
pendent princes of Volhynia. Its name was Latinized as Lodo-
meria by the Austrians when they occupied it. The town contains
a good archaeological museum.
WOAD, a herbaceous plant, known botanically as I sat is
tinctoria (family Cruciferae), which occurs sporadically in Eng-
land in fields, on banks and chalk-pits. The erect branched stern,
i to 3 ft. in height, bears sessile leaves and terminal clusters of
small yellow flowers; the brown pendulous pods are \ in. long.
The ancient Britons stained themselves with this plant. It is still
cultivated in Lincolnshire.
WOBURN, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., jo m. N.N.W. of Boston; served by the Boston and
Maine railroad. Pop. (1920) 16,574 (24% foreign-born white);
1928 local estimate 20,000. The city has an area of 12-6 sq.nv,
and embraces several villages. Its manufacturing industries, con-
centrated in a small territory, had an output in 1925 valued at
$14,487.457. Woburn is the principal leather-manufacturing cen-
tre in New England. In the burial-ground are the graves of
ancestors of four presidents (Cleveland, Harrison, Pierce and
Garficld). The public library, on the Common, was designed
by H. H. Richardson. Among the colonial houses are the
birthplace of Count Rumford (built about 1714, and kept as a
museum) and the Baldwin mansion (1661), the home of Loammi
Baldwin (1780-1838), "the father of civil engineering in America."
Woburn was settled about 1638-40, and in 1642 was set off from
Charlestown and incorporated as a town. The town was chartered
as a city in 1888.
WOCHUA, a pygmy people of Africa, living in the forests
of the Mabode district, south of the Welle. They were discovered
(1880-1883) by Dr. W. Junker, who described them as "well
proportioned, though the oval-shaped head seemed somewhat too
large for the size of the body." Some are of light complexion,
like the Akka and Batwa, but as a general rule they belong to the
darker, crisper-haired, more genuine negro stock.
WODEN, a deity of the Anglo-Saxons, the name being the
Anglo-Saxon counterpart of the Scandinavian Odin (q.v.). In
German he was Wodan or Wuotan. Information is lacking as to
how far the character and adventures attributed to Odin were
known to other Teutonic peoples. Clearly, however, the god was
credited with special skill in magic, both in England and Ger-
many, and was also represented (see LOMBARDS) as the dispenser
of victory. By the Romans he was early identified with Mer-
curius; "Wednesday" (Woden's day) is dies Mercnrii.
WODROW, ROBERT (1679-1734), Scottish historian, was
born at Glasgow, being a son of James Wodrow, professor of
divinity. He was educated at the university and was librarian
from 1697 to 1701. From 1703 till his death, on March 21, 1734,
he was parish minister at Eastwood, near Glasgow. He had 16
children, his son Patrick being the "auld Wodrow" of Burns's
poem "Twa Herds." His great work is The History of the Suffer-
694
WOFFINGTON— WOLCOTT
ings of the Church of Scotland from the Restoration to the Revo-
lution (2 vols., 1721-22; new ed. with a life of Wodrow by Rob-
ert Burns, D.D., 1807-08).
WOFFINGTON, MARGARET [PEG] (x7i4?-i76o)f
English actress, was born at Dublin, of poor parents on Oct. 18,
probably in 1714. As a child of ten she played Polly Peachum
in a Lilliputian presentation of The Beggar's Opera, and danced
and acted in Dublin theatres until 1740, when her success as Sir
Harry Wildair in The Constant Couple secured her a London
engagement. In this, and as Sylvia in The Recruiting Officer, she
had a great success; and at Drury Lane and Covent Garden, as
well as in Dublin, she appeared in all the plays of the day. Among
her best impersonations were the elegant women of fashion, like
Lady Betty Modish and Lady Townley, and in "breeches parts"
she was unapproachable. She built and endowed almshouses at
Teddington, where she lived after her retirement in 1757. She
died there in 1 760.
See Austin Dobson's introduction to Charles Reade's novel Peg
Woffington (1899), and Augustm Daly's Woffington: a Tribute to the
Actress and the Woman (1888).
W6HLER, FRIEDRICH (1800-1882), German chemist,
was born at Eschcrsheim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, on July
31, 1800. In 1814 he began to attend the gymnasium at Frank-
fort, where he carried out experiments with his friend Dr. J. J.
C. Buch. In 1820 he entered Marburg university, and next year
removed to Heidelberg, where he worked in Gmelin's laboratory.
Intending to practise as a physician, he took his degree in med-
icine and surgery (1823), but was persuaded by Gmelin to devote
himself to chemistry. He studied in Berzelius's laboratory at
Stockholm, and there began a lifelong friendship with the Swedish
chemist. He then taught in the technical schools of Berlin
(1825-31) and Cassel (1831-36). In 1836 he was appointed to
the chair of chemistry in the medical faculty at Gottingen, hold-
ing also the office of inspector-general of pharmacies in the
kingdom of Hanover. This professorship he held until his death
on Sept. 23, 1882.
In 1827 Wohler first obtained metallic aluminium by heating
the chloride with potassium, and in the following year he isolated
beryllium by the same method. His great contribution to the
development of chemistry was the synthesis of the natural pro-
duct urea (<j.v.) in 1828. He worked with Liebig in a number
of important investigations. One of the earliest was the investi-
gation, published in 1830, which proved the polymerism of cyanic
and cyanuric acid, but the most famous were those on the oil
of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde) and the radicle bcnzoyl (1832),
and on uric acid (1837), which are of fundamental importance in
the history of organic chemistry. Most of Wohler's work, how-
ever, lay in the field of inorganic chemistry. Together with
Sainte-Claire Deville, he obtained "Adamantine boron," and with
H. Buff he investigated compounds of silicon and prepared a
hydride of that element. He also obtained pure titanium and
showed the similarity between this element and silicon and carbon.
The Royal Society's Catalogue enumerates 276 separate memoirs
written by him, apart from 43 in which he collaborated with others.
In 1831 he published Grundriss dcr anorganhchen Chemie, and in 1840
(trundriss der organise hen Chemie. Still more valuable for teaching
purposes was his Afineralanalvsc in Behpielen (1861), which first
appeared in 1853 as Prakthche Obnwten in der chemischen Analyse. He
translated three editions of the Lehrbnch of Berzelius ar.d all the
successive volumes of the Jahresbericht into German from the original
Swedish. He assisted Liebig and Poggendorff in the Handworterbuch
der reinen nnd anReivandten Chemie, and was joint-editor with Liebig
of the Antuilen dcr Chemie und Pharmacie.
A memoir by Hofmann appeared in the Ber. dent. chem. Gesellseh.
(1882), reprinted in Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freundc
(1888).
WOHLGEMUTH, MICHAEL (1434-1519), German
painter, was born at Nuremberg in 1434. In 1472 he married the
widow of the painter Hans Pleydenwurff, whose son Wilhelra
worked as an assistant, to his stepfather. Wohlgemuth was the
head of a large workshop, in which many different branches of
the fine arts were carried on by a great number of pupil-assistants,
including Albert Durer. In this atelier not only large altar-pieces
and other sacred paintings were executed, but also elaborate
retables in carved wood, consisting of crowded subjects in high
relief, richly decorated with gold and colour. Wood-engraving
was also carried on in the same workshop, the blocks being cut
from Wohlgemuth's designs. The Schatzbehalter der wahren
Reichthumer des Heils, printed by Koburger in 1491; and the
Historia mundi, by Schedel, 1493-1494, usually known as the
Nuremberg Chronicle, are both illustrated by woodcuts by Wohl-
gemuth and Pleydenwurff.
By Wohlgemuth arc the retable dated 1465, now in the Munich
gallery; the retable of the high altar in the church of St. Mary
at Zwickau (1479); and the great retable painted for the Austin
friars at Nuremberg, now in the museum. This last consists of a
great many panels. He died at Nuremberg in 1519.
See Burger Schmitz Beth, Die deutsche Malerei der Renaissance
(1919).
WOKING, a market town in the Farnham parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 24 m. S.W. of London by the S.
railway. Pop. of urban district (1891) 9,786; (1921) 26,423. The
modern town, which is growing rapidly, has sprung up near the site
of an older town. The river Wey and the Basingstoke canal pass
through the parish. St. Peter's church dates from the i3th century.
Modern structures include a public hall, and an Oriental institute
including a museum of Eastern antiquities, a mosque built in 1889
and residences for Orientals. In the vicinity are a crematorium
and Brookwood cemetery.
WOLCOT, JOHN (1738-1819), English satirist and poet,
known under the pseudonym of PETER PINDAR, was baptized at
Dodbrooke, Devonshire, on May 9, 1738. He was apprenticed to
his uncle, John Wolcot, a surgeon at Fowey, and he took his degree
of M.D. at Aberdeen in 1767. In 1769 he was ordained, and went
to Jamaica with Sir William Trelawny, the governor. In 1772 he
became incumbent of Vere, Jamaica, but on the death of his
patron (1772) he returned to England, and settled as a physician
at Truro. In 1781 Wolcot went to London, and took with him the
young Cornish artist, John Opie, whose talents in painting he had
been the lirst to recognize. He soon achieved fame by a succession
of pungent satires on George III. Two of Wolcot's happiest
satires on the "farmer king" depicted the royal survey of Whit-
bread's brewery, and the king's naive wonder how the apples got
into the dumplings. He had a broad sense of humour, a keen eye
for the ridiculous, and great felicity of imagery and expression.
Some of his serious pieces — his rendering of Thomas WarUm's epi-
gram on Sleep and his Lord Gregory, for example — reveal an un-
expected fund of genuine tenderness. He died at Latham
Place, Somers Town, London, on Jan. 14, 1819, and was buried
near Samuel Butler, the author of Uudibras, in St. Paul's, Covent
Garden.
Polwhele, the Cornish historian, was well acquainted with Wolcot
in his early life, and the best account of his residence in the west is
found in vol. i. of Polwhele's Traditions and in Polwhelc's Biographical
Sketches, vol. ii. Cyrus Redding was a frequent visitor at the old
man's house, and has described Wolcot's later days in his Past Celeb-
rities, vol. i., and his Fifty Years' Rrcollrctionsfvuls. i. and ii.
WOLCOTT, ROGER (1679-1767), American administrator,
was born in Windsor (Conn.), Jan. 4, 1679, the son of Simon
Wolcott (died 1687). He was a grandson of Henry Wolcot t
(1578-1655), who emigrated to New England in 1628; assisted
John Mason and others to found Windsor (Conn.), in 1635;
and was a member of the first general assembly of Connecti-
cut in 1637 and of the house of magistrates from 1643 to his
death. (Henry Wolcott the younger [died 1680] was one of the
patentees of Connecticut under the charter of 1662.) Roger
Wolcott was a member of the Connecticut general assembly in
1700, one of the bench of justices in 1710, commissary of the
Connecticut forces in the expedition of 1711 against Canada, a
member of the council in 1714, judge of the county court in 1721,
and of the superior court in 1732, and deputy governor and chief
justice of the superior court in 1741. He was second in com-
mand to Sir William Pepperrell, with rank of major general in
the expedition (1745) against Louisbourg, and was governor of
Connecticut in 1751*54. He died in what is now East Windsor,
on May 17, 1767.
He wrote Poetical Meditations (1725), an epic on The Agency
WOLF
695
of the Honourable John Winthrop in the Court of King Charles
the Second (printed in vol. iv., series i, Collections of Massachu-
setts Historical Society). His Journal at the Siege of Louisbourg
is printed in pp. 131-161 of vol. i (1860) of the Collections of the
Connecticut Historical Society.
His son OLIVER WOLCOTT (1726-1707) was graduated from
Vale in 1747 and studied medicine with his brother Alexander
(1712-95). In 1751 he was made sheriff of the newly established
Litchfield county and practised law in Litchfield. He was a mem-
ber of the council in 1774-86 and of the Continental Congress in
1 775-76, 1778 and 1780-84, and a commissioner of Indian affairs
for the northern department in 1775. During the War of Inde-
pendence he was active in raising militia in Connecticut. He was
one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence; com-
manded Connecticut militia that helped to defend New York city
in Aug. 1776; in 1777 organized more Connecticut volunteers and
took part in the campaign against Gen. John Burgoyne; and in
1779 commanded the militia during th$ British invasion of Con-
necticut. In 1784, as one of the commissioners of Indian affairs
for the northern department, he negotiated the treaty of Fort
Stanwix (Oct. 22) settling the boundaries of the Six Nations. In
1786-96 he was lieutenant governor of Connecticut, and in Nov.
1787 was a member of the Connecticut convention which ratified
the Federal Constitution. He became governor in 1796 upon the
death (Jan. 15) of Samuel Huntington, and served until his death
on Dec. i, 1797.
His son Oliver wrote a sketch of him in Sanderson's Biography
of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia,
1820-27).
Oliver's son, OLIVER WOLCOTT, Jr. (1760-1833), was graduated
from Yale in 1778, studied law in Litchfteld, and was admitted to
the bar in 1781. With Oliver Ellsworth he was appointed (May
1784) a commissioner to adjust the claims of Connecticut against
the United States. He was controller of public accounts of Con-
necticut and auditor of the Federal Treasury. In June 1791 he
became controller of the Treasury, and in Feb. 1795 succeeded
Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the Treasury. At the end of
1800 he resigned after a bitter attack by the press. He re-entered
politics as a leader of the "Toleration Republicans," and in 1817
presided over the State convention which adopted a new consti-
tution, and in the same year was elected governor, serving until
1827. He died in New York city June i, 1833.
His grandson George Gibbs (1815-1873) in 1846 edited Mem-
oirs of the Administration of Washington and John Adams
. . . from the Papers of Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the Treas-
ury. Wolcott wrote British Influence on the Affairs of the United
States Proved and Explained (1804).
WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824), German
philologist and critic, was born on Feb. 15, 1759, at Hainrode, in
the province of Hanover. He was educated at Nordhausen gram-
mar school and Gottingen university. There he chose philology
as his faculty, which then had no existence, and succeeded in carry-
ing his point. He was dissatisfied with Heyne's treatment of
Homer, and the two fell out. Later his edition of the Symposium
obtained for him a chair at Halle. The moment was a critical one
in the history of education. The literary impulse of the Renais-
sance was almost spent ; scholarship had become dry and trivial. A
new school, that of Locke and Rousseau, sought to make teaching
more modern and more human, but at the sacrifice of mental
discipline and scientific aim. Wolf was eager to throw himself into
the contest on the side of antiquity. In Halle (1783-1807), by the
force of his will and the enlightened aid of the ministers of Fred-
erick the Great, he was able to carry out his long-cherished ideas
and found the science of philology.
During his time at Halle Wolf published his commentary on
the Leptines of Demosthenes (1789) and a little later the cele-
brated Prolegomena to Homer (1795). This book, the work with
which his name is chiefly associated, was thrown off in compara-
tive haste to meet an immediate need. It has all the merits of a
great piece of oral teaching — command of method, suggestiveness,
breadth of view. From it originated the great Homeric controversy
and Wolf's main points, oral tradition, deliberate revision after
reduction to writing, and plurality of authorship, are still the
crucial questions. The French invasion swept away the university,
and the rest of his life was spent at Berlin, where he had another
professorship. His most finished work, the Darstcllung der Alter-
tumswissenschaft, though published at Berlin (1807), belongs
essentially to the Halle time. At length his health gave way. He
was advised to try the south of France. He got as far as Marseilles,
and died there on Aug. 8, 1824.
Mark Pattison wrote an admirable sketch of Wolf's life and work in
the North British Review of June 1865, reproduced in his Essay $
(1889); see also J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. iii. (1908), pp.
51-60. Wolf's Kleine Schriflen were edited by G. Bcrnhardy (Halle,
1869). Works not included are the Prolegomena, the Letters to Htyne
(1797), the commentary on the Leptines (Halle, 1780) and a transla-
tion of the Clouds of Aristophanes (1811).
WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903), German composer, was born
on the I3th of March 1860 at Windischgraz in Styria. His father,
who was in the leather trade, was a keen musician. From him
Hugo learned the rudiments of the piano and the violin. After
an unhappy school life, in which he showed little aptitude for
anything but music, he went in 1875 to the Conservatoire. He
appears to have learned very little there, and was dismissed in
1877 because of a practical joke in the form of a threatening
letter to the director, for which he was perhaps unjustly held
responsible. In 1884 he became musical critic to the Salonblatt,
a Viennese society paper, and contrived by his uncompromisingly
trenchant and sarcastic style to win notoriety.
The publication at the end of 1887 of twelve of his songs
seems to have definitely decided the course of his genius, for
about this time he retired from the Salonblatt, and resolved to
devote his whole energies to song-composition. The nine years
which followed practically represent his life as a composer. They
were marked by periods of feverish creative activity, alternating
with periods of mental and physical exhaustion, during which he
was sometimes unable even to bear the sound of music. By the
end of 1891 he had composed the bulk of his works, on which his
fame chiefly rests, 43 Morike Lieder, 20 Eichendorff Lieder,
51 Goethe Lieder, 44 Lieder from Geibel and Heyse's Spanisches
Liederspiel, and 22 from Heyse's Italienisches Liederbuch, a
second part consisting of 24 songs being added in 1896. Besides
these were 13 settings of lyrics by different authors, incidental
music to Ibsen's Fest auf Solhaug, a few choral and instrumental
works, an opera in four acts, Der Corregidor, successfully produced
at Mannheim in June 1896, and finally settings of three sonnets
by Michelangelo in March 1897. In September of this year the
malady which had long threatened descended upon him; he
was placed in an asylum, released in the following January, only
to be immured again some months later by his own wish, after
an attempt to drown himself in the Traunsee. Four painful years
elapsed before his death on the 2 2nd of February 1903.
What little success he obtained was due to the efforts of
friends, critics and singers, to make his songs known, to the
support of the Vienna Wagner- Verein, and to the formation in
1895 of the Hugo- Wolf -Verein in Berlin. No doubt it was also
a good thing for his reputation that the firm of Schott undertook
in 1891 the publication -of his songs, but the financial result after
five years amounted to 85 marks 35 pfennigs (about £4 ios.).
He lived in cheap lodgings till in 1896 the generosity of his friends
provided him with a house, which he enjoyed for one year.
Wolf's place among the greatest song-writers is due to the
essential truth and originality of his creations, and to the vivid
intensity with which he has presented them. No other composer
has exhibited so scrupulous a reverence for the poems which
he set. To displace an accent was for him as heinous an act of
sacrilege as to misinterpret a conception or to ignore an essential
suggestion. Fineness of declamation has never reached a higher
point than in Wolf's songs. (W. A. J. F.)
WOLF (Cants lupus], wild member of the typical section of
the genus Cants (see CARNIVORA), Excluding some varieties of
domestic dogs, wolves are the largest members of the genus, and
have a wide geographical range, extending over nearly the whole
of Europe and Asia, and North America from Greenland to Mex-
ico, but are not found in South America or Africa, where they
696
WOLFDIETRICH -WOLFE
are replaced by other members of the family. They present great
diversities of size, length and thickness of fur, and coloration,
although resembling each other in all important structural char-
acters. In North America there i- a second smaller species, called
the coyote (q.v.) or prairie-wolf (C. latrans). The wolf enters
the north-west corner of India, but in the peninsula is replaced
by the more jackal -like C. pallipcs.
The ordinary colour of the wolf is grey. In northern countries
the fur is longer and thicker, and the animal larger and more
powerful than farther south. It is especially known to man in the
countries it inhabits as the devastator of sheep flocks. Wolves
catch their prey by running it down in open chase, which their
speed and remarkable endurance enable them to do. Except dur-
ing summer when the young families of cubs are being separately
provided for by their parents they assemble in troops or packs,
and by their combined efforts are able to overpower and kill deer,
antelopes and wounded animals of all sizes.
The history of the wolf in the British Isles and its gradual ex-
tirpation has been thoroughly investigated by J. E. Harting in his
Extinct British Animals. Wolf-hunting was a favourite pursuit of
the ancient Britons as well as of the Anglo-Saxons, and it was not
until the reign of Henry VII. (1485-1500) that wolves appear to
have become extinct in England. In Scotland the wolf maintained
its hold for a much longer period. There is a well-known story of
the last of the race being killed by Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel
in 1680, but there is evidence of wolves having survived in Suther-
landshire well into the following century. In Ireland the date of
their extinction has been placed, upon the evidence of doubtful
traditions, as late as 1766.
It is owing to their position that the British Islands have been
able to clear themselves of these animals, for France, with no
natural barriers to prevent their incursions from the east, is liable
every winter to visits. In America wolves are now unknown east
of the Mississippi and Lake Huron, but are numerous in the
Rockies, on the Pacific coast and in North Canada. In Russia dur-
ing the last few years wolves have not only been abundant, but
numerous cases of rabies have occurred among them. In Tas-
mania, the name wolf is applied to the thylacine (q.v.).
WOLFDIETRICH, German hero of romance. The talc of
Wolfdietrich is connected with the Merovingian princes, Theo-
doric and Theodebert, son and grandson of Clovis; but in the
Middle High German poems of Or t nit and Wolfdietrich in the
Hcldenbuch (q.v.) Wolfdietrich is the son of Hugdietrich, em-
peror of Constantinople. Repudiated and exposed by his father,
the child was spared by the wolves of the forest, and was educated
by the faithful Berchtung of Meran. After the emperor's death
Wolfdietrich was driven from his inheritance by his brothers.
Berchtung and his 16 sons stood by Wolfdietrich. Six of these
were slain and the other ten imprisoned. After long exile in Lom-
bardy at the court of King Ortnit the hero returned to deliver the
captives and regain his kingdom. Wolfdietrich's exile and return
suggested a parallel with the history of Dietrich of Bern, with
whom he was often actually identified; and in the Anhang to the
Heldcnbuch it is stated, in despite of all historical considerations,
that Wolfdietrich was the grandfather jof the Veronese hero.
Among the exploits of Wolfdietrich was the slaughter of the
dragon which had slain Ortnit (q.v.). He thus took the place of
Hardheri, the original hero of this feat. The myth attached itself
to the family of Clovis, around which epic tradition rapidly
gathered. Hugdietrich is generally considered to be the epic coun-
terpart of Theodoric (Dietrich), eldest son of Clovis. After his
father's death he divided the kingdom with his brothers. Wolf-
dietrich represents his son Theodebert (d. 548), whose succession
was disputed by his uncles, but was secured by the loyalty of the
Prankish nobles. But father and son are merged by a process of
epic fusion in Wolfdietrich.
Ortnit and Wolfdietrich have been edited by Dr. J. L. Edlen von
Lindhauscn (Tubingen, 1906). G. Sarrazin, in Zeitschr. fur deutsche
Phil. (1896), compared the legend of Wolfdietrich with the history of
Gundovald, as given by Gregory of Tours in bfcoks vi. and vii. of his
Hist. Francorum.
WOLFE, CHARLES (1791-1823), Irish poet, son of Theo-
bald Wolfe of Blackball, Co. Kildare, was born on Dec. 14, 1791.
He was educated at English schools and at Trinity college, Dub-
lin, where he matriculated in 1809 and graduated in 1814. He
was ordained priest in 1817, and obtained the curacy of Bally-
clog, Co. Tyrone, which he shortly exchanged for that of Don-
oughmore in the same county. He died at Cork on Feb. 21, 1823,
in his 3 2nd year. Wolfe is remembered solely by his stirring
stanzas on the "Burial of Sir John Moore" written in 1816 in
the rooms of Samuel O'Sullivan, a college friend, and printed in
the Newry Tclcvraph.
WOLFE, HUMBERT (1885- ), C.B. (1925), poet and
writer, was born in Milan on Jan. 5, 1885, and educated at Brad-
ford Grammar School and Waclham College, Oxford. He entered
the civil service in 1908, and in 1918 was appointed principal
assistant secretary to the ministry of labour. He is also substitute
member on the governing body of the International Labour Office.
His first publications were London Sonnets and Shylock reasons
with Mr. Chesterton (both published in 1920); these were fol-
lowed by Circular Saws, g, volume of tales, in 1923. He showed
great promise in Kensington Gardens (1924) and The Unknown
Goddess (1925), which contained poems, delicate, original and
moving; Lampoons (1925) and News of the Devil (1926) proved
his powers as a writer of satire. His output of verse since then
has been plentiful and regular: after Ilnmoresqne in 1926 came
Others Abide (translations from the Greek Anthology), Requiem
and Cursory Rhymes (1927), and The Silver Cat and This Blind
Rose (1928); in these his talent, is thought by some to have -lost
freshness without gaining power. In prose he has written an article
on labour supply and regulation for the Encyclopedia Britannica,
printed separately in 1922, and Dialogues and Monologues, a vol-
ume of literary criticism (1928).
WOLFE, JAMES (1727-1759), was born at. Westerham,
Kent, on Jan. 2, 1727. He was the elder son of Lt.-col. Edward
Wolfe, an experienced soldier, who afterwards rose to the rank of
lieutenant-general, and of Henrietta, daughter of Edward Thomp-
son, of Long Marston, Yorks. He received his brief education at
private schools, the first at Westerham, the second at Greenwich.
From his earliest years he was determined to be a soldier, despite
his weak health, which just prevented him from sailing as a volun-
teer with the ill-fated Cartagena expedition of 1740. In 1741 he
received a commission in the Marines, but, having transferred
into the line, he was sent to Flanders in the spring of 1742 as an
ensign in the I2th Foot. Until the close of the War of the Austrian
Succession, he was continuously on active service, being present at
the battles of Dcttingen, Falkirk, Culloden and Laffeldt, where he
was wounded. His zeal, intelligence and gallantry won him the
regard of his superiors, notably the duke of Cumberland. In
1743 he was appointed adjutant of the i2th; next year he re-
ceived a captain's commission in the 4th; in 1745 and 1747 he
served as brigade-major; while in Scotland he was aide-de-camp
to Gen. Hawley.
In 1749 Wolfe, with the rank of major, was appointed acting-
commander of the 2oth Foot, whose lieutenant-colonel he became
in the following year. He was with this regiment for eight years,
during which it was stationed at several towns in Scotland and,
from 1753, at various places in the south of England.
In 1757 Wolfe was appointed quartermaster-general in Ireland,
but before entering upon his duties he was chosen by Pitt for the
same position in the expedition against Rochefort. Though the
enterprise failed utterly, Pitt and the English public had sub-
stantial grounds for their belief that it would have succeeded if
plans for landing suggested by Wolfe had been acted upon by the
commanders-in-chief. Wolfe was consequently selected to serve
as brigadier under Amherst in the force which was to attempt the
capture of Cape Breton and Quebec in 1758. At the siege of
Louisbourg he played a conspicuous and brilliant part.
Meanwhile, Wolfe had been made colonel of the 67th, but soon
after his return home Pitt gave him the command of the expedi-
tion which was to renew the attempt to take Quebec. He was to
have the local rank of major-general, and, though technically
under Amberst, to enjoy full discretion in his conduct of opera-
tions. Leaving England in Feb. 1759, Wolfe mustered his troops,
rather more than 9,000 in number, at Louisbourg; and thanks to
WOLFENBtJTTEL— WOLFF
697
the marvellous seamanship and the unselfish co-operation of Ad-
miral Saunders, they arrived without mishap before Quebec in
the last week of June. Wolfe's first intention was to land above,
though near, the town, so as to attack the weak fortifications
from the plains of Abraham; but the plan was abandoned, prob-
ably owing to the misgivings of Saunders. The British, however,
seized the heights on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, opposite
Quebec, which they were thus able to bombard, and established
a camp at the mouth of the Montmorency river, between which
and the city, Montcalm had entrenched nearly all his army. Per-
plexed by Montcalm's deliberate inactivity, Wolfe, on July 31,
made an ill-conceived, unsuccessful and costly assault on the
French lines. Wolfe, at this crisis, felt it his duty to consult
his three brigadiers. When they counselled a landing to the west
of Quebec, he readily concurred, and in a few days more than
3,000 men were transferred to ships above the town. Instead,
however, of landing 10 m., or even 20 m. above Quebec, as the
brigadiers thought of doing, Wolfe resolved to take a force
downstream and disembark it secretly" at the Ausc du Foulon, a
cove only i\ m. from the city. This operation he successfully
carried out in the early hours of Sept. 13. Montcalm was con-
strained to make a precipitate attack on Wolfe's force, and, as
Wolfe had expected, the terrible efficiency of the British musketry
decided the issue in a few minutes. Wolfe himself, however, was
mortally wounded by a musket-ball, and died just after the French
line gave way. Quebec fell five days later; and its capture, if
the British could hold it, meant the conquest of Canada.
R. Wright, Life of James Wolfe (1864), still most valuable; F. Park-
man, Montcalm and Wolfe (2 vols., 1885) ; A. G. Doughty and O. W.
Parmelee, The Siege of Quebec and Battle of the Plains of Abraham (6
vols., 1001-03) ; W. Wood, The Fight for Canada (1905) ; H. R. Cas-
grain, Wolfe and Montcalm (Makers of Canada) (1905) ; 13. Willson,
The Life and Letters of James Wolfe (1909) ; Logs of the Conquest of
Canada (edit. W. Wood, 1909) ; Capt. Knox's Journal, edit. A. G.
Doughty (3 vols., 1913) ; A. Wolfe- Ay Iward, Pictorial Life of James
Wolfe (1926).
WOLPENBUTTEL, a town of Germany, in the republic of
Brunswick, situated on both banks of the Oker, 7 m. S. of Bruns-
wick on the railway to Harzburg. Pop. (1925) 18,479. The
library is rich in Bibles and books of the early Reformation period,
and contains some fragments of the Gothic bible of Ulfilas.
A castle is said to have been founded on the site of Wolfen-
biittel by a margrave of Meissen about 1046. When this began
in 1267 to be the residence of the early Brunswick or Wolfcn-
biittel line of counts, a town gradually grew up around it. The
town passed wholly into the possession of the Brunswick-Wolfen-
btittel family in 1671, and for nearly one hundred years was the
ducal capital. In 1754, however, Duke Charles transferred his
residence to Brunswick.
WOLFF (less correctly WOLF), CHRISTIAN (1679-1754),
German philosopher and mathematician, the son of a tanner, was
born at Breslau on Jan. 24, 1679. At the University of Jena he
studied first mathematics and physics, to which he soon added
philosophy. In 1703 he qualified as Privatdozent in the University
of Leipzig, where he lectured till 1 706, when he became professor
of mathematics and natural philosophy at Halle through the in-
fluence of Leibniz, of whose philosophy his own system is a modi-
fication. In Halle Wolff limited himself at first to mathematics,
but presently added physics, and eventually all the main philo-
sophical disciplines. But the claims which Wolff advanced on be-
half of the philosophic reason (see RATIONALISM) appeared im-
pious to his theological colleagues. Halle was the headquarters of
Pietism, which, after a long struggle against Lutheran dogmatism,
had itself assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy. Wolff's
professed ideal was to base theological truths on evidence of
mathematical certitude, and strife with the Pietists broke out
openly in 1721, when Wolff, on the occasion of laying down the
office of pro-rector, delivered an oration "On the Practical Philo-
sophy of the Chinese" (Eng. trans. 1750), in which he instanced
the moral precepts of Confucius as evidence of the power of
human reason to attain by its own efforts to moral truth. For ten
years Wolff was subjected to attack, until irt a fit of exasperation
he appealed to the court for protection. His enemies, however,
I told Frederick William I. that, if Wolff's determinism were recog-
! nizcd, no soldier who deserted could be punished, since he would
only have acted as it was predetermined that he should. Wolff was
at once deprived of office and ordered to leave Prussia on pain
of death. He crossed over into Saxony, where the landgrave of
Hesse received him with every mark of distinction, and the cir-
cumstances of his expulsion drew universal attention to his teach-
ing at Marburg, where he was now established. Over 200 books
I and pamphlets appeared for or against Wolff's doctrine before
1737, not reckoning the systematic treatises of Wolff and his
followers. One of the first acts of Frederick the Great was to
recall Wolff (1740) to Halle. In 1743 he became chancellor of the
university, and in 1745 he received the title of Freihcrr from the
elector of Bavaria. But his matter was no longer fresh, he had
outlived his power of attracting students, and his class-rooms re-
mained empty. He died on April 9, 1754.
Wolff's most important works are as follows: Anfangsgriinde
aller mathetnatischcn Wissenschaften (1710; in Latin, Elementa
matheseos universae, 1713—15); Vermin jtige Gedankcn von den
Krdftcn dcs menschliehen Vcrstandes (1712; Eng. trans. 1/70);
Vern. Ged. von Gott, der Welt und der Seele dcs Menschen
(1719); Vern. Ged. von der Menschen Thun und Lassen (1720);
Vent. Ged. von dem gesellschaftlichen Lebcn der Menschen
(1721); Vern. Ged. von den IVirkungen der Nat ur (1723); Vern.
Ged. von den Absichten der naturlichen Dinge (1724) ; Vern. Ged.
von dem Gebrauche der Theile in Mcnschett, Thiercn und Pflanzen
(1725). The last seven may be described briefly as treatises on
logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy, political philosophy, theo-
retical physics, teleology, physiology: Philosophia rationalis,
sive logica (1728); Philosophia prima, sive Ontologia (1729);
Cosmologia generalis (1731); Psychologia empirica (1732); Psy-
chologia rationales (1734); Theologia naturalis (1736-37); Philo-
sophia practica univer salts (1738-39); Jus naturae and Jus Gen-
tium (1740-49); Philosophia moralis (1750-53). His Kleine
philosophische Schrifteit have been collected and edited by G. F.
Hagen (1736-40).
In addition to Wolff's autobiography (Ei^ene Lebensbeschreibung,
ed. H. Wuttke, 1841) and the usual histories of philosophy, see W.
Schrader in Allgentfinc deutsche Biographic, xliv.; C. G. Ludovici,
Ausfiihrlicher Entwurj einer vollstandigen Historie der Wolff'schen
Philosophic (1736-38) ; J. Deschamps, Cours abrtgt de la philosophic
wolffienne (1743) ; F. W. Klugc, Christian von Wolff der Philosoph
(1831) ; W. ArnsperRcr, Christian Wolffs Verhdltnis zu Leibniz (1807) ;
H. Pichlcr, Vbcr Christian Wolffs Ontologie (Leipzig, IQIO) ; H. Oster-
Uitf, Der philosophische Gehalt des Wolff-Manteuffelschen Briefwcchsels
(Leipzig, 1910).
WOLFF, SIR HENRY DRUMMOND (1830-1908),
English diplomatist and Conservative politician, son of Joseph
Wolff ((/.v.), entered (he foreign office as a clerk. In 1874-1880
he sat in parliament for Christchurch, and in 1880-1885 for
Portsmouth, being one of the small group known as the "Fourth
Party." In 1885 he went on a special mission to Constantinople
in connection with the Egyptian question, and as the result
; various awkward difficulties, hinging on the sultan's suzerainty,
j were got over. In 1888 he was sent as minister to Tehran,
and from 1892 to 1900 was ambassador at Madrid. He died on
the nth of October 1908. Sir Henry, who received the K.C.M.G.
j in 1862, and other honours later, was a chief mover in founding
the Primrose League.
WOLFF, PIERRE (1865- ), French dramatist, was born
at Paris, Jan. i, 1865. He began his literary career under the
auspices of his uncle, the brilliant and witty journalist Albert
Wolff. Like most of the outstanding playwrights of his time, he
wrote his first plays for the Theatre Libre, where his Jacques
Bouchard was produced in 1890. Lcurs Filles (1891) is in a
similar vein of mordant and provocative irony. In his later works,
Wolff tended more and more to take an indulgent if not optimistic
view of human relations. He achieved fame in the early years of
the 20th century with Le Secret de Polichinelle (1903), VAge
dy aimer (1904), and, above all, Le Ruisseau (1907), which deals
with the moral recovery of a fallen creature. Les Marionnettes was
produced at the Comedie Franchise in 1910, and established his
popularity. The best of his post-war plays is undoubtedly Les
Ailes brisees (1920). Wolff has collaborated with Dunernois, with
WULLAblUJN
whom he wrote Aprts V amour, in which Lucien Guitry achieved
one of his last successes.
WOLF-FERRARI, ERNANNO (1876- ), Italian
composer, was born at Venice on Jan. 12, 1876, his father being
a distinguished German painter and his mother an Italian. He
studied with Rheinberger at Munich, and on his return to Venice
brought out his oratorio, La Sulamite. He then went to Germany
and revised his early opera, Cinderella, for production at Bremen
in 1902. This was followed by Le dame curio se and / quattro
rusteghi (1906), both of which were performed at Munich. His
first great success came with // segreto di Susanna, a one-act
comedy, first given at Munich in 1909 and quickly taken up in
other places. Still more popular was The Jewels of the Madonna
(Berlin 1911), which gave him an international reputation. He
has also written a chamber symphony, Rispetti for soprano, op.
ii, and a pianoforte quintet (1920). From 1902-12 Wolf -Ferrari
was director of the Liceo Benedetto Marcello in Venice.
WOLFRAMITE or WOLFRAM, a mineral consisting of
an isomorphous mixture in varying proportions of the tungstates
of iron and manganese, Fc\VO4 and MnWO*. Varieties with dom-
inant iron are often called ferberite, with dominant manganese,
hubnerite, but since iron and manganese have nearly the same
atomic weight the percentage of tungsten reckoned as W0a (about
76%) shows little variation and the difference is of no commer-
cial importance. Wolframite crystallizes in the monoclinic system,
usually in prismatic forms, without end-faces, and there is a very
perfect pinacoidal cleavage. The colour is dark brown or black,
with a metallic lustre especially on cleavage faces. Hardness
5-5.5 and density 7-2-7-S-
Wolframite is very commonly associated with tin-ore in lodes
and veins in and around granites. This form occurs in Corn-
wall; north-west Spain and north Portugal; Saxony; Tavoy
(Lower Burma); the Malay Peninsula; Queensland; Tasmania.
In the United States the biggest producer is Boulder Co., Colo-
rado, where there is no tin, but many gold veins.
Wolframite is the chief ore of the metal tungsten, which is used
as a constituent of high-speed and other special steels, as well as
certain non-ferrous alloys; for the filaments of electric lamps;
and for various other technical uses, often as sodium tungstate.
During the World War there was a tremendous demand for tung-
sten steel for munition making, and many new sources of wolf-
ramite were developed. (R. H. RA.)
WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH, the most important
and individual poet of mediaeval Germany, flourished during the
end of the i2th and beginning of the i3th century. He was one
of the brilliant group of Minnesingers whom the Landgrave Herr-
mann of Thuringia gathered round him at the historic castle of the
Wartburg. We know by his own statement that he was a Bavar-
ian, and came of a knightly race, counting his achievements with
spear and shield far above his poetical gifts. The Eschenbach from
which he derived his name was most probably Ober-Eschenbach,
not far from Pleinfeld and Nuremberg; there is no doubt that
this was the place of his burial, and so late as the iyth century
his tomb was to be seen in the church of Ober-Eschenbach, which
was then the burial place of the Teutonic knights. Wolfram prob-
ably belonged to the small nobility, for he alludes to men of impor-
tance, such as the counts of Abenberg, and of Wertheim, as if he
had been in their service. Certainly he was a poor man, for he
makes frequent and jesting allusions to his poverty. Bartsch con-
cludes that he was a younger son, and that while the family seat
was at Eschenbach, Wolfram's home was the insignificant estate
of Wildenburg (to which he alludes), now the village of Wehlen-
berg. Wolfram seems to have disdained all literary accomplish-
ments, and in fact insists on his unlettered condition both in Par-
zival and in Willehalm. But this is somewhat perplexing, for these
poems are beyond all doubt renderings of French originals. Were
the poems read to him, and did he dictate his translation to a
scribe? The date of Wolfram's death is uncertain. We know that
he was alive in 1216, as in Willehalm he laments the death of the
Landgrave Herrmann, which took place in that year.
Wolfram von Eschenbach lives in, and is revealed by, his work.
He has left two long epic poems, Parzival and Willehalm (the
latter a translation of the French chanson de geste Aliscans), cer-
tain fragments, Titurel (apparently intended as an introduction
to the Parzival), and a group of lyrical poems, Wdchter-Lieder.
These last derive their name from the fact that they record the
feelings of lovers who, having passed the night in each other's
company, are called to separate by the cry of the watchman,
heralding the dawn. These Tage Lieder, or Wdchter Lieder, are
a feature of Old German folk-poetry, of which Wagner has pre-
served the tradition in the warning cry of Brangaene in the sec-
ond act of Tristan.
The problem of the source of the Parzival is the crux of
mediaeval literary criticism. (See PERCEVAL.) The Parzival is a
soul-drama; the conflict between light and darkness, faith and
doubt, is its theme, and the evolution of the hero's character is
steadily and consistently worked out. The teaching is of a char-
acter strangely at variance with the other romances of the cycle.
Instead of an asceticism, based upon a fundamentally low and
degrading view of women, Wolfram upholds a sane and healthy
morality ; chastity, rather 'than celibacy, is his ideal, and a loyal
observance of the marriage bond is, in his eyes, the very highest
virtue.
Wolfram has moments of the highest poetical inspiration, but
his meaning, even for his compatriots, is often obscure. He is in
no sense a master of language, as was Gottfried von Strassbourg.
This latter, in a very interesting passage of the Tristan, passes in
review the poets of the day, awarding to the majority praise lor
the excellence of their style, but one he doe's not name, only blam-
ing him as being so obscure and involved that none can tell what
his meaning may be; this un-named poet has always been under-
stood to be Wolfram von Eschenbach, and in a passage of Wille-
halm the author refers to the unfavourable criticisms passed on
Parzival. Wolfram and Gottfried were both true poets, but of
widely differing style. Wolfram was, above all, a man of deeply
religious character, and it seems to have been this which specially
impressed the mind of his compatriots; in the 13th-century poem
of Der Wartburg'Krieg it is Wolfram who is chosen as the repre-
sentative of Christianity, to oppose the enchanter Klingsor von
Ungerland. (J. L. W.)
Parzival was printed at Augsburg in 1477; other editions were issued
at Magdeburg (1833) and Leipzig (2 vols., 1858) by A. Schulz, and
at Berlin (1898) by W. Hertz. Titurel was also printed, probably at
Augsburg, in 1477; the Leben und Dichten Wolfram's von Eschen-
bach was edited by San Marte (A. Schulz) (2 vols., Magdeburg,
1836-41), and Wolfram von Eschenbach (Werke) by A. Leitzmann
(Munich, 1902 etc.). See also S. Singer, Wolframs Willehalm (1918);
A. Schreiber, Neue Bausteine zu einer Lebensgeschichte Wolframs yon
Eschenbach (1922) ; M. F. Richey, Gahmuret Anschevin: a contribu-
tion to the study of W. von Eschenbach (1923) ; W. Kupferschmid,
Ueber den Wortschatz der Berner Parzival- Handschrift (1923) ; I.
Buechel, Die Bezeichnungen jur psychologische Begriffe in Wolframs
Parzival (1925) ; K. Laserstein, Wolfram von Eschenbach germanischc
Sending (1928).
WOLGAST, a seaport town in the Prussian province of Pom-
erania, situated on the river Peene, which separates it from the
island of Usedom, 30 m. by rail E. of Greifswald. Pop. (1925)
7,198. Wolgast became a town in 1247, and after being the resi-
dence of the duke of Pomerania-Wolgast, it was ceded to Sweden
in 1648. It was captured in 1675 by Frederick William, elector
of Brandenburg. It was restored to Germany in 1815.
WOLLASTON, WILLIAM HYDE (1766-1828), English
chemist and natural philosopher, was born at East Dereham, Nor-
folk, on April 6, 1766. Wollaston was educated at Charterhouse,
and afterwards at Caius college, Cambridge. He was elected a
fellow of the Royal Society in 1793 and became its secretary in
1806. He died in London on Dec. 22, 1828.
Most of Wollaston 's original work deals more or less directly
with chemical subjects, but diverges on all sides into optics,
acoustics, mineralogy, astronomy, physiology, botany and even
art. In chemistry he made a specialty of the platinum metals.
Platinum itself he discovered how to work on a practical scale,
and he is said to have made a fortune from the secret, which, how-
ever, he disclosed in a posthumous paper (1829); and he was
the first to detect the metals palladium (1804) and rhodium
(1805) in crude platinum. In 1809 ^e proved the elementary char-
WOLLASTONITE— WOLSELEY
699
acter of columbium (niobium) and titanium. In optics he was the
first, in 1802, to observe the dark lines in the solar spectrum. Of
the seven lines he saw, he regarded the five most prominent as
the natural boundaries or dividing lines of the pure simple colours
of the prismatic spectrum, which he supposed to have four primary
divisions. He described the reflecting goniometer in 1809 and
the camera lucida in 1812, provided microscopists with the "Wol-
laston doublet," and applied concavo-convex lenses to the pur-
poses of the oculist. His cryophorus was described in 1813, in a
paper "On a method of freezing at a distance." In 1821, after
H. C. Oersted (1777-1851) had shown that a magnetic needle is
deflected by an electric current, Wollaston attempted to trans-
form that deflection into a continuous rotation, and also to obtain
the reciprocal effect of a current rotating round a magnet. He
failed in both respects, and when Michael Faraday, who overheard
a portion of his conversation with Davy on the subject, was subse-
quently more successful, he was inclined to assert the merit of
priority, to which Faraday did not admjt his claim.
In geological circles Wollaston is famous for the medal which
bears his name, and which (together with a donation fund) is
annually awarded by the council of the Geological Society of Lon-
don, being the result of the interest on £1,000 bequeathed by Wol-
laston for "promoting researches concerning the mineral structure
of the earth." The first award was made in 1831.
An appreciative essay on Wollaston will be found in George Wilson's
Reli&io Chemici (1862).
WOLLASTONITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of
calcium metasilicate, CaSiO3, crystallizing in the monoclinic
system and belonging to the pyroxene (q.v.) group. It differs,
however, from other members of this group in having cleavages,
not parallel to the prism-faces, but in two directions perpendicular
to the plane of symmetry. Crystals are usually elongated parallel
to the axis of symmetry and flattened parallel to the ortho-pin-
acoid, hence the early name "tabular spar"; the name wollastonite
is after W. H. Wollaston. The mineral usually occurs as white
cleavage masses. The hardness is 5, and specific gravity 2-85. It
is a characteristic product of contact-metamorphism, occurring,
especially with garnet, diopside, etc., in crystalline limestones.
Crystals are found in the cavities of the ejected limestone blocks
of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. At Santa Fe in the State of Chiapas,
Mexico, a large rock-mass of wollastonite carries ores of gold
and copper; here are found large pink crystals which are often
partially or wholly altered to opal. (L. J. S.)
WOLLIN, an island of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, the more easterly of the islands at the mouth of the
Oder which separate the Stettinischcs Haff from the Baltic sea.
It is divided from the mainland on the east by the Dievenow
channel, and from Usedom on the west by the Swine. It has an
area of 95 sq.m. Heath and sand alternate with swamps, lakes and
forest on its surface, which is flat, except for low hills in the
south-west. Cattle-rearing and fishing are the chief resources of
the inhabitants. Some of the villages are summer bathing resorts.
Wollin, the only town, is situated on the Dievenow, and carries on
the industries of a small seaport. Pop. (1925) 4,720.
Near the modern town once stood the ancient and opulent
Wendish city of Wolin or Jumne, called Julin by the Danes, and
Winetha or Vineta (i.e., Wendish town) by the Germans. The
Northmen made a settlement here about 970, and built a fortress
on the "silver hill," called Jomsburg, which is often mentioned
in the sagas. The stronghold of Jomsburg was destroyed in 1098
by King Magnus Barf od of Norway, This is probably the origin
of the legend that Vineta was overthrown by a storm or earth-
quake and overwhelmed by the sea. Some submarine granite rocks
near Damerow in Usedora are still popularly regarded as its
ruins. The town of W'ollin became in 1140 the seat of the Pomer-
anian bishopric, which was transferred to Kammin about 1170.
Wollin was burnt by Canute VI. of Denmark in 1183, and was
taken by the Swedes in 1630 and 1759 and by the Brandenburgers
in 1659 and 1675.
WOLLONGONG, an important town and seaport of New
South Wales, Australia. Pop. 7,600. It lies in, and is typical of,
the Illawarra district which extends south of Sydney from near
Clifton to the Shoalhaven River (c. 48 miles). Tectonic and ero-
sional processes have produced a narrow strip (2-12 miles broad,
widening southwards) of lowlands backed by steep and often
precipitous scarp (Illawarra "Range": Mount Kembla: 1,752 ft.).
Along this stream-dissected scarp the seams of the Sydney coal
basin are frequently exposed and can be worked by horizontal
adits. The lowlands with their mild and equable climate (av. ami.
temps, c, 70-54° F; av. ann. rainfall: 38-47 in.), hilly terrain, fer-
tile soils and favourable position made this one of the earliest, and
later one of the leading, dairying districts of Australia, and agri-
culture also flourishes in parts. Coal is mined at Bulli (q.v.),
Mount Kembla, Clifton and other places, though the exposed
nature of the coast tends to hamper direct loading on to vessels.
WOLOWSKI, LOUIS FRANCOIS MICHEL RAY-
MOND (1810-1876), French economist and politician, was born
in Warsaw and educated in Paris, but returned to Warsaw and
took part in the revolution of 1830. Sent to Paris as secretary to
the legation by the provisional government, he settled there on
the suppression of the Polish rebellion and was naturalized in 1834.
In 1833 he founded the Revue de legislation et de jurisprudence,
and wrote voluminously on economic and financial subjects. He
established the first Credit Fonder in France in 1852, and in 1855
became professor of political economy at the Conservatoire in
succession to J. A. Blanqui. He was a member of the national
assembly from 1848 to 1851, and again from 1871 till his election
as a senator in 1876. He was a free-trader and bimetallism
Of his works the following are the more important: Mobilisation
du cridll fancier (1839) ; De V organisation industrielle de la France
avant Colbert (1842) ; Les Finances de leu Rustic (1864) ; La Question
dcs banques (1864) ; La Liberte commerciale (1869) ; L'Or et lf argent
(1870).
See also E. Levasscur, La Vie et les travaux de Wolowski (1877) ;
Ant. Rouillet, Wolowski, sa vie et ses travaux (1880); T. Rambaud,
L'oeuvre economique de L. Wolowski (1882).
WOLSELEY, GARNET JOSEPH WOLSELEY, Vis
COUNT (1833-1913), British field marshal, eldest son of Major
Garnet Joseph Wolseley of the King's Own Borderers (2 5th Foot),
was born at Golden Bridge, Co. Dublin, on June 4, 1833. Edu-
cated at Dublin, he obtained a commission as ensign in the i2th
Foot in March 1852, and was transferred to the 8oth Foot, with
which he served in the second Burmese War. Promoted to be
lieutenant and invalided home, he exchanged into the goth Light
Infantry, then in Dublin. He accompanied the regiment to the
Crimea, and did duty with the Royal Engineers in the trenches
before Sevastopol. After the fall of Sevastopol Wolseley was
employed on the quartermaster-general's staff and was one of the
last to leave the Crimea in July 1856. After six months' duty
with the Qoth Foot at Aldcrshot, he went with it again, in March
1857, to join the expedition to China under Major-General the
Hon. T. Ashburnharn. Wrolselcy embarked in command of three
companies in the transport "Transit," which was wrecked in the
Strait of Banka. The troops were saved, and were taken to Singa-
pore, whence, on account of the Indian Mutiny, they were de-
spatched with all haste to Calcutta. Wolseley served at the relief
of Lucknow under Sir Colin Campbell in November, and in the
defence of the Alambagh position under Out ram, taking part in
the actions of Dec. 22, 1857, Jan. 12 and 16, 1858, and the repulse
of the grand attack of Feb. 21. In March he served at the final
siege and capture of Lucknow. He was then appointed D.A.Q.G.
on the staff of Sir Hope Grant's Oudh division, and was engaged
in all the operations of the campaign. In the autumn and winter
of 1858 he took part in the Baiswara, trans-Gogra and trans-Rapti
campaigns, ending with the complete suppression of the rebellion.
Having received his Crimean majority in March 1858, he was
in April 1859 promoted to be lieutenant-colonel, and received the
Mutiny medal and clasp. When Grant was nominated to the
command of the British troops in the Anglo-French expedition to
China in 1860, Wolseley accompanied him as D.A.Q.G. On his
return home he published the Narrative of the War with China
in 1860. In 1867 he was appointed deputy quartermaster-general
in Canada. In 1869 his Soldiers9 Pocket Book for Field Service
was published, and has since run through many editions. In 1870
he commanded the Red river expedition to put down a rising under
yoo
WOLSEY
Louis Kiel (q.v.).
Appointed assistant adjutant-general at the war office in 1871
he worked hard in furthering the Cardwell" schemes of army
reform. From this time till he became commander-in-chief
Wolseley was the prime mover and the deciding influence in prac-
tically all the steps taken at the war office for promoting the
efficiency of the army under the altered conditions of the day.
In 1873 he commanded the expedition to Ashanti, and. having
made all his arrangements at the Gold Coast before the arrival of
the white troops in January 1874, was able to complete the cam-
paign in two months, and re-embark them for home before the
unhealthy season began. This campaign made his name a house-
hold word in England. He fought the battle of Amoaful on Jan.
31, and, after five days' fighting, ending with the battle of
Ordahsu, entered Kumasi, which he burned. He received the
thanks of both Houses of Parliament, a grant of -£25,000, pro-
motion, and other honours. On his return home he was appointed
inspector-general of auxiliary forces, but had not hold the post
for a year when he was sent to Natal as governor and general
commanding. In 1878 he went as high-commissioner to the
newly acquired possession of Cyprus, and in 1879 to South
Africa to supersede Lord Chelmsford in command of the forces
in the Zulu War, and as governor of Natal and the Transvaal and
high commissioner of South-East Africa. On his arrival at Durban
in July he found that the war in Zululand was practically over,
and after effecting a temporary settlement he went to the Trans-
vaal. Having reorganized the administration there and reduced
the powerful chief Sikukuni to submission, he returned home in
May 1880 and was appointed quartermaster-general.
In 1882 he was appointed adjutant-general, and in August of
that year was given the command of the British forces in Egypt
to suppress the rebellion of Arabi Pasha. (See EGYPT: Military
Operations.) Having seized the Suez Canal, he disembarked his
troops at Ismailia. and after a very short and brilliant campaign
completely defeated Arabi Pasha at Tel-cl-Kebir, and suppressed
the rebellion. He was promoted general for distinguished service
in the field, and raised to the peerage as Baron Wolseley of Cairo
and Wolseley. In 1884 he was again called away to command
the Nile expedition for the relief of General Gordon and the
besieged garrison of Khartum. The expedition arrived too late:
Khartum had fallen, and Gordon was dead; and in the spring of
1885 complications with Russia over the Pcnjdeh incident oc-
curred, and the withdrawal of the expedition followed. Wolseley
was now created a viscount and a knight of St. Patrick. He
continued at the war office as adjutant-general until 1890, when
he was given the command in Ireland. He was promoted to be
field marshal in 1894, and was nominated colonel of the Royal
Horse Guards in 1895, in which year he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief. His powers were, however, limited by a new
order in council, and after holding the appointment for over five
years, he handed over the office to Earl Roberts in 1901.
Lord Wolseley married in 1867 Louisa, daughter of A. Erskine.
He published The Decline and Fall of Napoleon (1895), The Life
of John Churchill, Duke of Marl borough, to the Accession of
Queene Anne (1894"), and The Story of a Soldier's Life (1903).
He died at Mentone March 25, 1913, the title going by
special remainder to his only daughter, Frances. He w;»s buried
in St. Paul's Cathedral, and an equestrian statue of him on the
Horse Guards' Parade, Whitehall, London, was unveiled in 1920.
WOLSEY, THOMAS (c. 14*5-1530), English cardinal and
statesman, born at Ipswich about 1475, was son of Robert Wolsey
(or Wuley, as his name was always spelt) by his wife Joan.
Thomas was educated at Magdalen college, Oxford. He is said
to have graduated B.A. at the age of fifteen (i.e., about 1490);
but his earliest definite appearance in the records is as junior
bursar of Magdalen college in 1498-1499, and senior bursar in
M99-I500, an office he was compelled to resign for applying
funds to the completion of the great tower without sufficient
authority (W. D. Macray, Reg. of Magdalen College, i. 29-30,
I33-I34)- He must have been elected fellow of Magdalen some
years before. As master of Magdalen college school he had under
his charge three sons of Thomas Grey, first marquess of Dorset,
who presented him (1509) to the rectory of Limington in Som-
erset. He had been ordained priest in 1498.
Rapid Rise. — At Limington he came into conflict with the
sheriff, Sir Amias Paulet, who is said by Cavendish to have placed
Wolsey in the stocks; Wolsey retaliated long afterwards by con-
fining Paulet to his chambers in the Temple for five or six years.
Dorset died in 1501, but W'olsey found other patrons. Before
the end of that year he obtained a dispensation to hold two livings
in conjunction with Limington, and Archbishop Deane appointed
him his domestic chaplain. After Deane's death in 1503, Wolsey
became chaplain to Sir Richard Nanfan, deputy of Calais, "who
apparently recommended him to Henry VII. Nanfan died in
1507, but the king made Wolsey his chaplain and employed him
in diplomatic work. In 1508 he was sent to James IV. of Scot-
land, and in the same year he pleased Henry by his expeditious
despatch of the business in connection with the king's proposal
of marriage to Margaret of Savoy. His ecclesiastical preferments,
of which he received several in 1506-1509, culminated in his
appointment by Henry to the deanery of Lincoln on Feb. 2, 1509.
Henry VIII. made Wolsey his almoner immediately on his
accession, and the receipt of some half-dozen further ecclesiastical
preferments in the first two years of the reign marks his growth
in royal favour. In 1511 Wolsey became a privy councillor, and
secured a controlling voice in the government. The control of
affairs had been shared between the clerical and peace party led
by Richard Fox (q.v.) and Archbishop Warham, and the secular
and war party led by Surrey. W'olsey turned the balance in
favour of war, and his administrative energy found scope in the
preparations for the English expedition to Biscay in 1512, and
for the campaign in northern France in 1513. He arranged
peace with France and a marriage between Mary Tudor and Louis
XII. in 1514, and reaped his reward in the bishoprics of Lincoln
and Tournai, the archbishopric of York, which was conferred on
him by papal bull in September, and the cardinalate, which he had
sent Polydore Vergil to beg from Leo X. in May 1514, but did
not receive till the following year. Nevertheless, when Francis I.
in 1515 succeeded Louis XII. and won the battle of Marignano,
Wolsey took the lead in assisting the emperor Maximilian to op-
pose him; and this revival of warlike designs was resented by
Fox and Warham, who retired from the government, leaving Wol-
sey supreme. Maximilian proved a broken reed, and in 1518
Wolsey brought about a general pacification, securing at the same
time his appointment as legate a latere in England. He thus
superseded Warham, who was legatus natus, in ecclesiastical au-
thority; and though legates a latere were supposed to exercise
only special and temporary powers, Wolsey secured the practical
permanence of his office.
Foreign Policy. — The foreign policy followed after the elec-
tion of Charles V. (see HENRY VIII.) as emperor, was Wolsey's
policy. Friendship with the emperor served Wolsey's personal in-
terests, and at the conference of Calais in 1521 Wolsey had ranged
himself with the emperor. Parliament had in 1513-1515 showed
signs of strong anti-clerical feeling; Wolsey probably hoped
to distract attention from the church by a spirited foreign policy,
as Henry V. had done a century before. He had, moreover, re-
ceived assurances from the emperor that he would further Wol-
sey's candidature for the papacy; and although he protested to
Henry VIII. that he would rather continue in his service than
be ten popes, that did not prevent him from secretly instructing
his agents at Rome to press his claims. Charles, however, paid
Wrolsey the sincere compliment of thinking that he would not
be sufficiently subservient on the papal throne; while he wrote
letters in Wolsey's favour, he took care that they should not
reach their destination in time; and Wolsey failed to secure elec-
tion both in 1521 and 1524. This ambition distinguishes his for-
eign policy from that of Henry VII., to which it has been likened.
Henry VII. cared only for England; Wolsey's object was to play
a great part on the European stage.
In any case the decision taken in 1521 was a blunder. Wolsey's
assistance helped Charles V. to that position of predominance
which was strikingly illustrated by the defeat and capture of
Francis I. at Pavia in 1525; and the balance of power upon which
WOLVERHAMPTON
701
England's influence rested was destroyed. Her efforts to restore
it in 1526-1528 were ineffectual; her prestige had depended upon
her reputation for wealth derived from the fact that she had acted
in recent years as the paymaster of Europe. But Henry VII.'s
accumulations had disappeared; parliament resisted in 1523 the
imposition of new taxation; and the attempts to raise forced loans
and benevolences in 1526-1528 created a storm of opposition.
Still more unpopular was the brief war with Charles V. in which
Wolsey involved England in 1528. The sack of Rome in 1527
and the defeat of the French before Naples in 1528 confirmed
Charles V.'s supremacy. Peace was made in 1529 between the
two rivals without England being consulted, and her influence at
Wolsey's fall was less than it had been at his accession to power.
The Divorce. — This failure reacted upon Wolsey's position at
home. His domestic was sounder than his foreign policy. By his
development of the star chamber, by his firm administration of
justice and maintenance of order, and by his repression of feudal
jurisdiction, he rendered great services to the monarchy. But
the inevitable opposition of the nobility to this policy was not
mitigated by the fact that it was carried out by a churchman;
the result was to embitter the antagonism of the secular party
to the church and to concentrate it upon Wolsey's head. The
control of the papacy by Charles V., moreover, made it impossible
for Wolsey to succeed in his efforts to obtain from Clement VII.
the divorce which Henry VIII. was seeking from Charles'
aunt, Catherine of Aragon. Wolsey has been said to have been
,he originator of the divorce scheme. There is no evidence that
he first suggested it, though when he found that Henry was bent
upon it, he pressed for ^wo points: (i.) that an application
should be made to Rome, instead of deciding the matter in Eng-
land, and (ii.) that Henry, when divorced, should marry a French
princess. The appeal to Rome was a natural course to be advo-
cated by Wolsey, whose despotism over the English church de-
pended upon an authority derived from Rome; but its success
depended upon the problematical destruction of Charles V.'s
power in Italy. At first this seemed not improbable; French
armies marched south on Naples, and the pope sent Carnpeggio
with full powers to pronounce the divorce in England. But he had
hardly started when the French were defeated in 1528. Their ruin
was completed in 1529, and Clement VII. was obliged to come
to terms with Charles V., which included Campeggio's recall in
Aug. 1529.
Wolsey's Fall. — Wolsey clearly foresaw his own fall, the con-
sequent attack on the church and the triumph of the secular
party. Parliament, which he had kept at arm's length, was hos-
tile; he was hated by the nobility, and his general unpopularity is
reflected in Skelton's satires and in Hall's Chronicle. Even church-
men had been alienated by his suppression of monasteries and
by his monopoly of ecclesiastical power; and his only support
was the king, who had now developed a determination to rule
himself. He surrendered all his offices and all his preferments
except the archbishopric of York, receiving in return a pension
of 1,000 marks (equal to six or seven thousand pounds a year in
modern currency) from the bishopric of Winchester, and retired
to his see, which he had never before visited. A bill of attainder,
passed by the Lords, was rejected at Cromwell's instigation and
probably with Henry's goodwill by the Commons. The last few
months of his life were spent in the exemplary discharge of his
archiepiscopal duties; but a not altogether unfounded suspicion
that he had invoked the assistance of Francis I., if not of Charles
V. and the pope, to prevent his fall involved him in a charge of
treason. He was summoned to London, but died on his way at
Leicester abbey on November 30, 1530, and was buried there.
Character. — The completeness of Wolsey's fall enhanced his
former appearance of greatness, and, indeed, he is one of the
outstanding figures in English history. His qualities and his de-
fects were alike exhibited on a generous scale; and if his greed
and arrogance were colossal, so were his administrative capacity
and his appetite for work. "He is," wrote the Venetian ambassa-
dor Giustiniani, "very handsome, learned, extremely eloquent, of
vast ability and indefatigable. He alone transacts the business
which occupies all the magistrates and councils of Venice, both
civil and criminal; and all state affairs are managed by him, let
their nature be what it may. He is grave, and has the reputa-
tion of being extremely just; he favours the people exceedingly,
and especially the poor, hearing their suits and seeking to despatch
them instantly." As a diplomatist he has had few rivals and
perhaps no superiors. But his pride was equal to his abilities.
The familiar charge, repeated in Shakespeare, of having written
Ego et mciis rex, while true in fact, is false in intention, because
no Latin scholar could put the words in any other order; but
it reflects faithfully enough Wolsey's mental attitude. Giustiniani
explains that he had to make proposals to the cardinal before
he broached them to Henry, lest Wolsey "should resent the prece-
dence conceded to the king." "lie is," wrote another diplomatist,
"the proudest prelate that ever breathed." He arrogated to him-
self the privileges of royalty, made servants attend him upon
their knees, compelled bishops to tie his shoe-latchets and dukes
to hold the basin while he washed his hands, and considered it
condescension when he allowed ambassadors to kiss his fingers; he
paid little heed 'to their sacrosanct character, and himself laid
violent hands on a papal nuncio. His egotism equalled Henry
VIII. 's; his jealousy and ill-treatment of Richard Pace, dean of
St. Paul's, referred to by Shakespeare but vehemently denied by
Dr. Brewer, have been proved by the publication of the Spanish
state papers; and Polydore Vergil, the historian, and Sir R. Shef-
field, speaker of the House of Commons, were both sent to the
Tower for complaining of his conduct. His morals were of the
laxest description, and he had as many illegitimate children as
Henry VIII. himself. For his son, before he was eighteen years
old, he procured a deanery, four archdeaconries, five prebends and
a chancellorship, and he sought to thrust him into the bishopric
of Durham. For himself he obtained, in addition to his arch-
bishopric and lord chancellorship, the abbey of St. Albans, re-
puted to be the richest in England, and the bishopric first of Bath
and Wells, then of Durham, and finally that of Winchester. He
also used his power to extort enormous pensions from Charles V.
and Francis I. and lavish gifts from English suitors.
During the first half of his government he materially strength-
ened the Tudor monarchy by the vigorous administration of jus-
tice at home and by the brilliance of his foreign policy abroad.
But the prestige he secured by 1521 was delusive; its decline was
as rapid as its growth, and the expense of the policy involved
taxation which seriously weakened the loyalty of the people. The
concentration of civil and ecclesiastical power by Wolsey in the
hands of a churchman provided a precedent for its concentration
by Henry VIII. in the hands of the crown; and the personal ex-
ample of lavish ostentation and loose morals which the cardinal-
archbishop exhibited cannot have been without influence on the
king, who grew to maturity under Wolst-y's guidance.
The Letters and Papers of Henry VIII., vols. i.-iv., supplemented
by the Spanish and Venetian Calendars, contain almost all that is
known of Wolsey's public career, though additional lipht on the
divorce has been thrown by Stephen Ehses' Rb'mische Dokumentc
(1893). Cavendish's brief Life, which is almost contemporary, has
been often edited. Fiddcs's hutfe tome (1724) is fairly exhaustive.
Brewer, in his elaborate prefaces to the Letters and Papers (reissued
as his History of the Reign of Henry VIII.}, originated modern
admiration for Wolsey; and his views are reflected in Creiehton's
Wolsey in the "Twelve English Statesmen" series, and in Dr. Gairdner's
careful articles in the Diet. Nat. Biog. and Cambridge Modern History.
A less enthusiastic view is adopted in H. A. L. Fisher's volume (v.)
in Longmans' Political History (jgo6) and in A. F. Pollard's Henry
VIII. (1902 and 1905). See also E. Law, England's First Great War
Minister: how Wolsey made a new army and navy (1916) and
Cardinal Wolsey at Hampton Court (1923).
WOLVERHAMPTON, market town; municipal, county and
parliamentary borough, Staffordshire, England, 125111. N.W. of
London, on the L.M.S. and G.W. railways. Pop. (1921) 102,342.
It lies at the north-western edge of the group of great manufac-
turing towns extending south-east to Birmingham, but there are
residential suburbs to the west, where the country is well wooded.
The situation is elevated and healthy. The church of St. Peter
is a fine cruciform building, part being i3th century work, part
i $th, part lyth, the remainder in 1865. A free grammar school,
founded in 1515 by Sir Stephen Jermyns, occupies modern build-
ings (1876). There are a Blue Coat school (1710) and a school
702
WOLVERINE—WOMEN
of art. In the South Staffordshire coalfield, coal and iron are
extensively mined. There are enormous iron foundries and the
town manufactures ironmongery and steel goods, especially
locks, machinery, tools, cycles, enamel and galvanized ware,
papier-mache, rubber goods, chemicals, colours, varnishes, etc.
Market gardening is carried on in the west and north of the town.
An annual fair is held at Whitsuntide. The parliamentary borough
of Wolverhampton has three divisions, each returning one member.
Wednesfield (pop. 7,446), Heath Town or Wednesueld Heath
(12,430) and Willenhall (19,665) are neighbouring urban dis-
tricts, with populations employed in similar manufactures.
The town of Wolverhampton (Handone, Wolvernehamptone,
W ollernehampton) grew up round the church of St. Mary, prob-
ably founded in 996 by \Vulfruna, who endowed it with extensive
lands. The estates are enumerated in Domesday. In 1204 John
granted the manor of Wolverhampton to the church, and at the
Reformation it was held by the dean of the collegiate body; in
1553 Edward VI. granted the college and manor to Dudley, duke
of Northumberland, but Mary refounded the coflege and restored
its property, and this was confirmed by Elizabeth. Henry III.
(1258) granted the Wednesday market, which is still held, and
a fair for eight days, beginning on the eve of the feast of SS.
Peter and Paul (June 29). During the Great Rebellion Wolver-
hampton was royalist. In 1751 its chief and noted manufacture
was locks. In 1848 it was incorporated a municipal borough and
a county borough in 1888. It was first represented in parliament
in 1832, sending two members, but since 1885 it has sent three.
WOLVERINE: sec GLUTTON.
WOLVERTON, a town in the Buckingham parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, near the river Ouse, 52^
m. N.W. by N. of London by the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (19-1)
7,237. Its modern growth and importance are the result of the
establishment of carriage works by the railway company.
WOMBAT, the typical representative of the marsupial family
Phascolomyidae (see MARSUPIALIA). All the teeth are of con-
tinuous growth, having persistent pulps. The incisors are large
and chisel-like, much as in rodents. The body is broad and de-
pressed, the neck short, the head large and flat, the eyes small,
and the tail vestigial. The limbs are equal, stout, and short. The
feet have broad, naked soles; the forefeet with five toes, each
with a long nail. The hind-feet have a short naillcss first toe; the
second, third, and fourth toes partially united by skin, the fifth
distinct and shorter; these four with long nails. The wombat of
Tasmania (P. ur sinus) and the similar but larger P. platyrhinus
of southern Australia belong to the typical group of the genus,
with short ears, coarse fur, and naked muzzle. On the other hand,
in 'the hairy-nosed wombat (P. latifrons) of South Australia, the
fur is silky, the ears more pointed,
and the muzzle hairy.
In form and action wombats
resemble small bears, having a
similar shuffling walk, but they
are shorter in the legs and have
broader backs. They live on the
ground, or in burrows or holes
among rocks, and feed on grass,
roots, and other vegetable sub-
stances. They sleep during the
day but wander forth at night in
search of food. They are shy and
gentle, though they bite strongly WOMBAT (PHASCOLOMYIDAE PLATY.
when provoked. The prevailing KH.NUSK THE AUSTRAUAN BEAR
colour is brownish grey. The large wombat of the mainland is
variable in colour, some individuals being pale yellowish brown,
others dark grey and some black. The length of the head and
body is about 3ft. Fossil wombats, some of larger size than any
now existing, have been found in the Pleistocene of Australia.
WOMBWELL, an urban district in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, England, 4 m. S.E. of Barnsley on the L.M.S. and
L.N.E. railways. Pop. (1921) 19,041. The population is em-
ployed chiefly in the extensive collieries.
WOMEN, DISEASES OP: sec GYNAECOLOGY.
WOMEN, EDUCATION OF. Prior to the middle of the
19th century there was little provision for women or girls to en-
gage in serious study except in the early middle ages. Between
the 6th and roth centuries there were good scholars and Latin-
ists among the nuns, and the convents provided instruction to
girls in the same subjects as that given to boys. Later the educa-
tion received in the convent schools became increasingly meagre.
The wave of enthusiasm for learning in the i6th century affected
a limited number of women, mainly among the aristocracy.
Great Britain. — The movement for effecting a reform in
Great Britain began in several quarters. In 1848 Queen's college
(F. D. Maurice) led the way in providing scholarly intellectual
training for girls. Bedford college (Mrs. Jesser Reid) followed
in 1849: the North London collegiate school (Miss Buss) in 1850.
Cheltenham Ladies' college (Miss Beale) first provided sound edu-
cation under a boarding school system on the lines of that of the
great public schools for boys. Between 1860 and 1870 the move-
ment was promoted in various ways: (i) The schools inquiry
commission (1864-67) threw light on the miserable deficiencies
in the education of girls. (2) Various associations were formed: —
e.g., the North of England Council for promoting the Higher Edu-
cation of Women (1867); the London Schoolmistresses' Associa-
tion (1866); the Association for promoting the Higher Education
of Women in Cambridge (1869). (3) Local examinations were
opened to women (Cambridge 1865, Oxford 1870).
From 1870 things moved fast. The Education Act of that year
made education compulsory for girls ("the three Rs"; domestic
arts) as well as boys. Girton college (Miss Emily Davies) already
started at Hitchin in 1869, was established close to Cambridge in
1873. In JSyi Merton hall, Cambridge (Henry Sidgwick, Miss
A. J. Clough) was opened, to become Ncwnham hall in 1876 and
Ncwnham college in 1880. In 1871 the Women's Education Union
(Mrs. William Grey) was begun, parent of the Girls' Public Day
School Company (the Misses Gurney) which between 1873 and
1901 founded 38 day schools where girls could receive an educa-
tion parallel with the best afforded to boys. The reorganization of
trusts facilitated by the Endowed Schools Act of 1869 provided
excellent schools at low fees by devoting to girls a new and in-
creased share of the funds at their disposal — e.g., Harpur trust,
Bedford (1873), Grey Coat and Christ's hospitals, King Edward's
schools, Birmingham, Hulme trust, Manchester, St. Paul's, etc.
Good boarding schools were started (<?.#., Miss Lawrence's, Brigh-
ton— now Roedean — 1885). The Education Act of 1902 included
girls in all its provisions for new secondary schools.
In all provided and grant-earning schools and those recognised
as efficient the curriculum is now like that in boys' schools; the
same examinations arc entered for. In general less stress is laid on
the classics, mathematics and physical science. Some periods are
set aside for cookery, needlework, etc. The provision of science
teaching and science laboratories has recently been much im-
proved. In some schools a business training is afforded after, the
matriculation stage alternative to advanced courses for those who
proceed to the universities. In 1926-27 there were 160,022 girls in
grant-earning schools, the average leaving age being 16 years 2
months. The efficiency of the schools was made possible by the
opening of the universities to women — at first as regards lectures
and examinations only, later by full membership of every British
university except Cambridge, which bestows only titular degrees
on women. At first the proportion of graduate to non-graduate
teachers was low, now in all recognised schools there is a small
minority only of non-graduate mistresses. Most head mistresses
demand training as well as a degree from their mistresses. Sec-
ondary training is afforded in the university departments of educa-
tion; at the Maria Grey training college (1878) and St. Mary's
college, London; the Cambridge training college (1884). Govern-
.ment grants for training are made to women as to men with a
less maintenance allowance. Women sit equally with men on the
teachers' registration council. The number of women in the uni-
versities has steadily increased In the present century. In 1926-27
in the faculties of art, science and medicine they numbered 7,873
(Oxford 800, Cambridge 472, London 3,136, provincial univer-
sities 3,465). State and county scholarships and four-year-scholar-
WOMEN
7°3
ships for intending teachers have contributed to this increase. All
teaching posts are nominally open to women. Only in London and
Wales have women held professorships.
In Scotland the universities are open to women. Glasgow has
the largest number of women students of all British universities
(1,464). In the Secondary day schools, boys and girls work side
by side. There are good boarding schools for girls only; e.g. — St.
Leonard's school, St. Andrews (1877); George Watson's, Edin-
burgh. (See also EDUCATION: England, etc.; Secondary Educa-
tion, etc.)
The Continent. — On the continent the universities are, gen-
erally speaking, open to women. Girls receive a solid education
in state schools in France, Germany, the Scandinavian countries
and Holland. Educational legislation of the last few years shows
a tendency to assimilate the curricula in girls' schools to those for
boys except in countries where dual schools have been the rule
(e.g., Italy, Czechoslovakia) where the tendency has been in a
contrary direction. In France the assimilation is absolutely com-
plete. Competition for all certificates "and "agregations" is now
secured to women, though posts in boys' secondary schools
and in the universities are still practically confined to men. (See
also EDUCATION: France, Germany, etc.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Brcmner, Education of Girls and Women (1897)
(historical survey of girls' education in England and Scotland in all
its different brunches) ; Burstall and Douglas, Public Schools for Girls
(1911) (survey of the movement for the reform of girls' education in
England and Scotland) ; Clough, Life of Anne J. Clou^h (1897)
(includes history of the movement, for Higher Education [i] in the
north of England, [2] in Cambridge, with the rise and development of
Newnham College) ; Mannua, The Jubilee Book of the Girls' Public
Day School Trust (1923) ; Stephen, Emily Davies and Girton College
(1926) (includes an account of girls' education in the early Victorian
period and of the pioneer work of Emily Davies, Madame Bodichon,
Mrs. Garrett Anderson, etc.). (M. J. T.)
UNITED STATES
The first settlers brought with them from Europe the traditional
belief that marriage was the only reputable vocation for women.
During the colonial period the dame schools appear to be the first
place and up to a short time prior to the Revolution practically
the only place outside the home where girls might secure ele-
mentary instruction, though they were organized to prepare boys
for the grammar schools. In certain localities girls were favoured.
In New Hampshire when Hampton engaged a schoolmaster in
1649, and when Dover did likewise in 1658, it was with the under-
standing that instruction be given to all children both male and
female. In Philadelphia in 1689 tne Society of Friends estab-
lished their public school, the predecessor of the famous William
Penn charter school which was open to all classes and to both
sexes. At Nazareth, Pa., the Moravians organized a school for
girls in 1750. These, however, were the exception. In time the
grammar schools greatly increased in number, though only a few
admitted girls and then only at certain hours or at certain times
of the year. In 1784 Dorchester, Mass., permitted girls to attend
from June 6 to Oct. i. In 1789 Boston established the "double-
headed school/' and a private school for girls, the "academy," was
opened at Medford, Mass., which was the forerunner of similar
institutions eventually established in large numbers.
In 1821 Emma Willard established her Female Seminary at
Troy, N.Y., and in 1837 Mary Lyon founded Mt. Holyoke sem-
inary at South Hadley, Mass. Similar schools followed In New
England and in the South. By the middle of the igth century the
public high school had developed to provide secondary education
for the great mass of the people and very largely to displace the
academy and the seminary. Co-education is almost universal in
the public schools; the number of girls attending them has become
slightly in excess of that of boys, and equal educational opportuni-
ties are provided for both sexes. For the benefit of girls, courses
in home economics have been added in practically all high schools
and in the upper grades of the best grammar schools.
Higher Education for Women. — In 1833 Oberlin college,
founded in Oberlin, 0., signified its willingness to admit women.
In 1865 Vassar college was established at Poughkeepsie, N.Y., and
was the first separate college of unquestioned standing for women:
In 1839 the first State normal school was established at Lexington,
Mass., and in 1842 the New England Female Medical college was
founded.
Preparation in the fields of medicine, journalism, dentistry, law,
science, architecture and engineering is obtainable in the universi-
ties and technical schools. Secondary and higher liberal education
is passing through a period of readjustment. Professional educa-
tion is being standardized in the hope of producing more liberal
and better trained persons. Vocational education is developing
rapidly. (M. S. D.)
WOMEN'S COLLEGES
The history of the women's college in America may be said to
fall into three periods, each of the first two covering 40 years, the
third from 1915 on. The first period, roughly estimated from
1835 to 1875, was the age of beginnings. The institutions of this
period were almost without exception seminaries; among them,
Whcaton at Norton, Mass., opened in 1835, and Mount Holyoke
at South Hadley, in 1837. Both were founded as permanent
institutions for women. Mount Holyoke's first curriculum was
evidence of Mary Lyon's intention that although not called a
college, it should furnish to women as good educational opportun-
ities as the colleges for men then offered. Several other women's
colleges of to-day were established as seminaries during this
period, Wells, Lake Erie, the Western, Mills, Rockford, Mil-
waukee-Downer. The South shared in this interest, a development
cut short by the Civil War. Hollins college in Virginia, a co-educa-
tional seminary, in 1852 dropped the course for boys, thus becom-
ing the first chartered institution for girls in the State.
Among the earliest institutions authorized to grant degrees to
women were the Wesleyan Female college at Macon, Ga., founded
in the '305, and Elmira college in Elmira, N.Y., opened in 1855.
The first women's college having an endowment and curriculum
sufficient, from the point of view of the times, to realize this
ideal, was Vassar college, incorporated in 1861 and opened in
Poughkcepsie, N.Y., in 1865.
The Second Period.-— The period 1875 to 1915 was one of
expansion, and was marked by an advance in the education of
women, such as the world had never before seen. Three types
of institution were developed: the separate college for women;
the woman's college affiliated with the university; co-education.
Coincident with the beginning of this period came the opening
of two important colleges, both in Massachusetts: Smith at
Northampton, established by Sophia Smith; Wellesley at Welles-
ley, founded by Mr. and Mrs. Henry F. Durant in memory of
their only son. Ten years later Bryn Mawr college, founded by
Joseph W. Taylor, was opened at Bryn Mawr, Pa. The same
year the Woman's College of Baltimore City was incorporated,
under the auspices of the Methodist Church, with Dr. Goucher,
the first president, after whom it was subsequently named, as
the chief factor. In 1888 Mount Holyoke obtained its college
charter, five years later withdrawing the seminary course.
During this period several of the earlier seminaries became
colleges: Rockford in Illinois, Lake Erie and the Western in
Ohio, Milwaukee-Downer in Wisconsin, Mills in California, the
Woman's College of Pennsylvania at Pittsburgh. Wells college in
Aurora, N.Y., secured its college charter in 1870 after two years as
a seminary. The leading Southern colleges for women date
from this period: Agnes Scott college at Decatur, Ga. (1889),
Randolph-Macon College for Women at Lynchburg, Va. (1893)
and Sweet Briar at Sweet Briar, Va. (1906).
An outstanding illustration of another type of college for
women is Simmons college in Boston, established by the will of
John Simmons "as an institution in which might be given instruc-
tion in such branches of art, science and industry as would best
enable women to earn an independent livelihood, " and granted a
charter in 1899. Somewhat like Simmons college are Skidmore at
Saratoga Springs (1911), and Russell Sage at Troy, N.Y. (1916).
The Connecticut College for Women, at New London, Conn.,
opened in 1915, "owes its foundation to the wish and purpose of
people of Connecticut to provide within the State adequate
facilities for the higher education of women," the movement for
its establishment being begun by the College Club of Hartford.
704
WOMEN
Holding a place midway between the college on a separate
foundation and co-education is the women's college affiliated with
the university. The first one of this type was the H. Sophie New-
comb Memorial, opened at Tulane university in New Orleans in
1887. It was followed in 1888 by the Women's college at Western
Reserve university, Cleveland, the outgrowth of an informal
system of co-education, dating from 1872; Barnard at Columbia
in 1889, ten years after President Barnard had urged co-education
at Columbia college; the Women's college of Brown university,
authorized in 1892 to confer the Brown degree and made a depart-
ment of the university in 1897. Radcliffe college, incorporated in
1894 and authorized to confer the bachelor's and master's degrees
and Ph.D. subject to the approval of the president and fellows of
Harvard college, dates from the organization in 1879 °f the
Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women "for the purpose
of providing systematic instruction for women by professors and
other instructors in Harvard university."
Since the beginning of the present century, other "affiliated
colleges" have been established, such as the William Smith
college in Geneva, N.Y., opened as "co-ordinate" with Hobart
college, in 1908; and in 1910, Jackson college, taking the place
of entire co-education at Tufts college, Mass. By the so-called
"segregation policy," started at the University of Chicago in 1902,
and meaning separate instruction for women during the first two
years of their undergraduate course, the university provision for
women comes partially under the head of the affiliated college.
The Third Period. — The third period of the women's college
in the United States — from 1915 on — bids fair to be as distinctive
as the preceding epochs. It is not likely that the number of senior
colleges will increase in the same proportion, even if the numbers
seeking admission should continue, since the cost of establishing
a college and the conception of necessary equipment are so much
greater. A possible exception is along the line of the junior
college, A development of the last few years, the junior college
idea has taken possession of some of the long-established institu-
tions for girls, such as Bradford academy, as well as being the
type of an interesting new experiment — the Sarah Lawrence
college for women in Bronxville, N.Y. It has been most widely
developed in the co-educational sections of the country — the
middle and far West, especially on the Pacific coast. The success
of a junior college like Stephens college in Columbia, Mo.,
modelled on the women's college of the East, indicates a swing
of the pendulum toward that form of education, at least for the
first half of the college course.
Other indications are the establishment of Scripps college,
opened in 1927 as the first one of the projected group of "Clare-
mont colleges" in Claremont, Calif., of which Pomona, a, long-
established co-educational institution, is the "mother," and the
division of Occidental college in Pasadena into two institutions,
one for men and one for women. Until these recent developments,
Mills college was the only separate college for women on the
Pacific coast.
Popularity of Women's Colleges^-An outstanding char-
acteristic of the college for women has been its increasing popu-
larity. The fact that the leading colleges have had a large number
of applicants from whom to choose has probably had an influence
in several "trends." (i) The careful selection of candidates for
admission has resulted in a group qualified for the most part to
do college work and in turning into other fields those not fitted
for the liberal arts course, a benefit to the individual as well as to
college and community. (2) It has helped the college to hold
to its own field of work. Since the World War, there has been a
marked strengthening of the liberal arts course, a course which
the colleges for women have continued more consistently than
any other institution of higher education. The curriculum has
been enriched and made more flexible but with slight concession
to the strictly vocational. (3) It has led to stress'on the education
of the individual, rather than education en masse. The introduc-
tion of the "honour" as well as the "pass" course; the general ex-
amination in the major subject; an approach to the tutorial sys-
tem; sectioning on the basis of ability — these and other develop-
ments, resulting in greater attention to the individual student,
have been marked changes. (4) There has been an increase in
the number of graduates going in for advanced work in various
lines. (5) There has been an increase in the variety of profes-
sions and employments entered by graduates of the women's
colleges. There have been a large number of graduates of women's
colleges holding distinguished academic positions, distinguished
posts in medicine, scientific research, journalism, social work and
the arts, as well as in national and international organizations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. F. Palmer, "The Higher Education of Women,"
Forum (1891) ; M. Carey Thomas, "Education in the United States,"
Education of Women, in Colonial Schools, ed. (1900) ; W. H. Small,
"Girls in Colonial Schools," Education (1902) ; E. G. Dexter, A History
of Education in the United States (1906) ; R. G. Bonne, Education in
the United States (1907). (M. E. W.)
WOMEN, LEGAL POSITION OF. Within the last
seventy-five years by a gradual process, slower for the married
than for the unmarried woman, and very rapidly accelerated
since the partial political enfranchisement of women in 1918,
the greater number of the common law old established dis-
abilities of women have been abolished, so that in England and
Wales, in 1929, there is an approximation to a legal equality
between men and women, politically, professionally and edu-
cationally. On the other hand, during these same years, a num-
ber of new statutory restrictions or legal regulations and condi-
tions applicable only to women have been introduced, of which
the greater number either affect the capacity of a woman as an
industrial worker, or fix a wage lower for women than for nfen
for the same job.
Sovereign: Peeresses; Privy Council. — A woman, married
or unmarried, may be sovereign with all the rights and powers
of a male sovereign, but the sons of a sovereign and their issue
succeed before a daughter (Act of Settlement 1700). A woman
may be a peeress in her own right but the majority of peerages
descend only to males. Certain ancient peerages are held by
females in default of males and certain new peerages pass to a
daughter of the first peer in default of sons. Notwithstanding
the Sex Disqualification Act 1919 (see below) a woman who
holds one of these recently created peerages by special remainder
is not entitled to receive a writ of summons or to sit in the House
of Lords (Viscountess Rhondda's Claim 1922, 2 A.C. 339). It
has not been decided whether a Scottish peeress in her own right
is entitled to vote in the election of Scottish Peers to the House
of Lords or is eligible for election thereto. Unlike a male peer
a peeress in her own right may vote for a member of the House
of Commons. A woman may be a Privy Councillor.
Franchises and Eligibility: League of Nations. — A
woman, married or unmarried, is entitled to vote for, and is
eligible to be elected to, the House of Commons, a Town or
County Council or other local governing body on the same terms
as a man (Representation of the People [Equal Franchise] Act
1928 ss. i and 9; Sex Disqualification [Removal] Act 1919; and
Parliament [Qualification of Women] Act 1918 s. i). By the
Covenant of the League of Nations, which is the First Part of the
Treaty of Versailles, "all positions under or in connection with
the League, including the secretariat, shall be equally open to
men and women" (Article 7 [3]). By Part XIII. of the same
Treaty, which sets up the international Labour Organization,
"the principle that men and women shall receive equal remu-
neration for work of equal value" is laid down as well fitted to
guide the policy of the League (Article 427, Principle 7).
Other Political, Professional and Educational Rights.—
A woman may be registered as a medical practitioner (1876,
39 and 40 Viet. c. 41). All the Universities admit women to
degrees with certain exceptions ; and, except Cambridge, to mem-
bership. Midwifery has the status of a profession by the Mid-
wives Acts 1902 and 1918 and nursing by the Registration of
Nurses Act 1919. A sweeping change is made by the Sex Dis-
qualification (Removal) Act 1919, section i, as follows: —
A person shall not be disqualified by sex or marriage from the
exercise of any public function, or from being appointed to or holding
any civil or judicial office or post, or from entering or assuming or
carrying on any civil profession or vocation, or for admission to any
incorporated society (whether incorporated by Royal Charter or
WOMEN
7°5
otherwise) and a person shall not be exempted by sex or marriage
from the liability to serve as a juror:
Provided: —
(a) notwithstanding anything in this section His Majesty may by
Order in Council authorise regulations to be made providing for
and prescribing the mode of admission of women to the civil
service of His Majesty, and the conditions on which women admitted
to that service may be appointed to or continue to hold posts
therein, and giving power to reserve to men any branch of or
posts in the civil service in any of His Majesty's possessions overseas,
or in any foreign country; and (b) any judge, chairman of quarter
sessions, recorder or other person before whom a case may be
heard may, in his discretion, on an application made by or on
behalf of the parties (including in criminal proceedings the prosecu-
tion and the accused) or any of them, or at his own instance, make
an order that the jury shall be composed of men only or of women
only as the case may require, or may, on an application made by a
woman to be exempted from service on a jury in respect of any case
by reason of the nature of the evidence to be given or of the issues
to be tried, grant such exemption.
Following on this Act the professions of barrister, solicitor,
veterinary surgeon and the highest grade of the home civil service
have been opened to women but they have not been admitted
to the consular or diplomatic services. Many have since been
appointed justices of the peace; women now regularly serve on
juries; and have also been admitted to the Police force with the
same powers as men constables. They have also recently been
admitted to the Institute of Actuaries, the Society of Naval
Architects, the Institute of Bankers, the Auctioneers' and Estate
Agents' Institute, the Land Agents' Society, the Surveyors' Insti-
tute. The Church of England does not admit women to the
priesthood but there are women clergymen in the Congrega-
tional, the Baptist, and the Unitarian Churches and the Wesleyan
Church has authorised their admission.
Pay in the Civil Service and Local Government Employ-
ment.— Within the civil service, with one or two exceptions,
women are paid at a lower rate than men for the same work.
Women are required to resign on marriage. Under local authori-
ties, while there is no statute denning the respective salaries of
men and women grants under conditions are made by the central
government. For example, in the teaching profession, grants de-
pend on the payment of salaries on the Burnham scale, which lays
down a lower rate for women than for men. Till recently it had
been assumed that it was within the discretion of a local authority
to pay women at the same rate as men for the same job. But
this has become somewhat doubtful since the action of the authori-
ties at Woolwich, which would seem, if left unquestioned, to
affect the legal position of all women local government employees.
The Borough Council there had decided to give equal pay to
its men and women lavatory attendants and were allowed to pay
the rate they had fixed to the men, who were stated by the Gov-
ernment auditor at the audit of July 6th, 1928, to be "doing
work of no greater value than that of the women lavatory
attendants." But the Auditor disallowed, as illegal, the payment
to the women of the sum by which the men's rate exceeded what
he considered it was reasonable should be paid to a woman. The
Council was therefore, by reason of the penalties attached to a
surcharge, compelled to reduce the women's rate.
Industrial Employment. — The following are among the legal
restrictions and regulations affecting industrial employment which
apply to women only. A woman may not be employed below
ground in a mine (Coal Mines Act 1911 s. 91); or above ground
in connection with a mine in moving railway wagons or in lifting
weights likely to cause her injury, or for more than 54 hours
a week or continuously for more than five hours (ibid. s. 92);
or in a textile factory for more than 56 hours a week (Factory
and Workshops Act 1901 s. 24); or in a non-textile factory or
workshop for more than 60 hours a week (ibid. s. 26); or
in a factory or workshop to clean mill-gearing machinery in
motion (ibid. s. 13); or with certain exceptions on Sundays (ibid.
s. 34); or on certain holidays (ibid. s. 35); or inside and out-
side the factory on the same day (ibid. s. 31); or during meal
times and she must have her meals at the same time as other
workers (ibid. s. 33); or at wetspinning except under certain
conditions (ibid. s. 76); or in any factory or workshop for 4
weeks after the birth of her child (ibid. s. 61); or in any
industrial undertaking at night with certain exceptions (Employ-
ment of Women and Children Act 1920); or in certain lead
processes (Women4 and Young Persons [Employment in Lead
Processes] Act 1920); or in the painting of buildings with lead
paint (Lead Paint Protection against Poisoning Act 1926 s. 2)
except at "wall or ceiling paintings or any similar work of
decorative design" (Order of i4th Nov. 1926). Under s. 79
of the Factories and Workshops Act 1901 the Secretary of State
has power to schedule processes as dangerous or injurious and by
Order in Council to forbid them generally or to women only.
Under this power the employment of women, but not of men,
has been forbidden in a number of processes in the manufacture
of pottery (Statutory Rules and Orders, 1913, No. 2); in the
casting of brass (ibid. 1908, No. 484); in working between the
fixed and traversing parts of mule spinning machinery (ibid.
1905, No. 1103); in manipulating lead colour (ibid. 1907, No.
17) ; in lifting more than 65 pounds in woollen and worsted textile
factories (ibid. 1926, No. 1463); in certain rubber processes in-
volving the use of lead (ibid. 1922, No. 329); in the manufacture
of electric accumulators where manipulating red oxide of lead
or pasting is carried on (ibid. 1915, No. 28). (See also LABOUR
LAW.)
Trade Boards. — Under the Trade Boards Acts 1909 to 1918
minimum rates of wages may be fixed by Order in Council for
any class of worker and this has been interpreted as giving power
to fix different rates for men and women. Such minimum rates
then become legally enforceable by the worker against his em-
ployer. In a very few processes women are given the right to
enforce the payment of as high a rate of wage as men, e.g.,
in the chain trade, but there men are generally employed in the
jobs for which the higher rates have been fixed, and in the lace
finishing trade where chiefly women are employed. At October
1928 minimum rates had been fixed in 39 trades. In the follow-
ing 37 trades the rate per hour enforceable by the lowest grade
of woman worker is in general little more than half that enforce-
able by the lowest grade of man worker: — aerated waters; boot
and floor polish; boot and shoe repairing; brush and broom; but-
ton manufacturing; coffin, furniture and cerement making; cor-
set; cotton waste reclamation; dressmaking and women's light
clothing; drift nets mending; flax and hemp; fur; general waste
materials reclamation; hair, bass and fibre; hat, cap and milli-
nery; hollow ware; jute; laundry; linen and cotton handkerchief
and household goods and linen piece goods; made up textiles;
milk distribution; ostrich and fancy feather and artificial flow-
ers; paper bag; paper box; perambulator and infant carriage;
pin, hook and eye and snap fastener; ready made and wholesale
bespoke tailoring; retail bespoke tailoring; rope twine and net;
sack and bag; shirtmaking; stamped and pressed metal wares;
sugar, confectionery and food preserving; tin box; tobacco; toy;
and wholesale mantle and costume. The only trade in which
the lowest grade female workers' rate approaches the male rate
is in the boot and shoe repairing trade where the male rate is
thirteen pence halfpenny an hour and the female tenpence. In
this trade the rate is payable to both from the age of 21, while,
in general, the rate is payable to the woman from 18 and to the
man from 21 years. (See TRADE BOARDS.)
National Insurance. — A woman who has an insured husband,
even if not herself insured, is entitled to a cash maternity benefit
at the time of the birth of a child, to a pension of ten shillings
when she is 65 if her husband is 65, and, after the death of
her husband, to a pension of ten shillings a week and to weekly
cash benefits for her children of school age. On the other hand
a woman in the employment of her husband is excluded from
national insurance and a married woman is not allowed to be a
voluntary contributor under the scheme, while the employments
of domestic service and female nurses are excluded from unem-
ployment insurance. (See NATIONAL INSURANCE.)
Marriage. — A woman is capable of marrying at 16, the same
age as a man. A woman may sue a man, or a man a
woman (Harrison v. Cage 1698 Lord Raym. 386), for breach
of promise of marriage. The domicile of a married woman is
that of her husband. A husband cannot force his wife to live
706
WOMEN
with him (Rex. v. Jackson 1891, i Q.B. 671 C.A.). A husband
(Winsmore v. Greenbank [i 745.1 Willes 577) or a wife (Gray v.
Gee 1923, 39 T.L.R. 429) has an action for damages against a
third party who without just cause entices his or her spouse
away. A husband is required to maintain his wife. If he does
not, she may pledge his credit for necessaries suitable to his
station in life (Johnston v. Sumner [1858] 3 H.&N. 261). If
he wilfully refuses or neglects to do so by not providing money,
or not working, and she becomes chargeable under the poor law he
is liable (Vagrancy Act 1824 s. 3) and the guardians may apply
for an order against him for her support (Poor Law Amendment
Act 1868 s. 33). The guardians can similarly apply for an order
against a woman with separate property for payment for the
support of her husband who has become chargeable to the parish
(Married Woman's Property Act 1882 s. 20), but he cannot
pledge his wife's credit. A husband married after January ist,
1883, is liable for debts contracted by, or contracts entered into,
or torts committed by, his wife before marriage to the extent
of property he has acquired through her (ibid. s. 14) but a wife
has no corresponding liability. A husband is liable for a tort
committed by his wife during marriage unless the tort arises out
of a contract (Edwards v. Porter 1925, A.C. i) but a wife has
no corresponding liability.
A married woman is capable of acquiring, holding and dispos-
ing by will, or otherwise, of any real or personal property as if
she were unmarried (M.W.P. Acts 1882 & 1893). But there
may be attached to property given to a woman, but not to that
of a man, a restraint on anticipation. The restraint does not
operate while the woman is a spinster or a widow, and during
such time she can remove the restraint by deed, or dispose of
the property, but the restraint will attach during marriage. The
restraint makes void any attempted alienation or disposition of
the restrained property before it falls due. The court, however,
may order that payments be made from restrained property in
four cases : — to the woman's creditors when she is bankrupt,
having regard to the means of support of herself and her children
(Bankruptcy Act 1914, s. 52); for her benefit with her consent
(Law of Property Act 1925, s. 169); for the cost of litigation
she may have instituted (M.W.P.A. 1893, s. 2); and for the
variation of settlements after divorce (Churchwarden v. Church-
warden 1910, P. 195).
A married woman is capable of entering into and rendering
herself liable on any contract in respect of her separate property,
not restrained from anticipation, which at the time of the con-
tract or afterwards she may be entitled to; and she is capable
of suing and being sued in contract, and in tort, or otherwise,
in all respects as if she were unmarried (M.W.P. Acts 1882 &
1893). Certain judgments cannot be enforced against a married
woman by committal or attachment (Annual Practice 1929 pp.
2063 & 2064). A married woman is under a legal incapacity with
respect to income tax (Income Tax Act 1918, s. 237). Her in-
come is deemed to be her husband's. A married woman is
incapable of acting as a guardian ad litem except in certain cases.
(See Annual Practice 1929 p. 256.)
By the Guardianship of Infants Act 1925 a mother is given
the same rights of guardianship as the father in any case brought
before the courts. She is also given equal rights in giving consent
to the marriage of her child and in the naming of a guardian to
act after her death. (See INFANTS.)
Nationality of Married Women. — Before 1870 a British
woman with an alien husband did not lose her British nationality.
Now a married woman is under a statutory disability as to
nationality (British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914,
as amended in 1918 and 1922, s. 27). She is deemed to be British
if her husband is British and alien if he is alien (ibid. s. 10).
But there are three exceptions, namely: — a woman, with a British
husband, who changes his nationality during the marriage, has
the right to declare that she will retain her British nationality;
in time of war a woman, British by birth with an enemy husband,
may by declaration and with the consent of the Secretary of
State resume British nationality (ibid. s. 10) ; and a woman with
a husband, who is a naturalised British subject deprived of his
British nationality, remains British unless either the Secretary
of State orders that she shall also be deprived of British nation-
ality, or she herself makes a declaration of alienage, but, if
such woman is herself British born, the Secretary of State cannot
deprive her of British nationality unless he is satisfied that she
herself is disaffected or disloyal (ibid. 7 A). A married woman
cannot naturalise in her own right (ibid. s. 27 & s. 5f3]). A
woman who has lost her British nationality by marriage remains
an alien after the dissolution of such marriage by death or divorce
(ibid. s. II). But with the consent of the Secretary of State she
may be readmitted into British nationality on the same conditions
as an alien becoming naturalised as a British subject, except
that she is not required to satisfy the conditions as to residence
in British territory (ibid. s. 2 [5]).
Separation and Divorce. — A separation order may be granted
by a Court of Summary Jurisdiction to either a husband or a
wife on the ground that the other spouse (a) is an habitual drunk-
ard (Licensing Act 1902 s. 5) ; or (b) has been guilty of persistent
cruelty to the children (Summary Jurisdiction [Separation and
Maintenance] Act 1925 s. i). And such order may be granted to
a wife, but not to a husband, on any of the following additional
grounds: — that her husband (c) has been convicted summarily
of an aggravated assault upon her; or (d) has been convicted
on indictment of an assault upon her and sentenced to a fine of
more than five pounds, or to more than two months' imprison-
ment; or (e) has deserted her; or (f) has been persistently cruel
to her; or (g) has wilfully neglected to provide reasonable mainte-
nance for her and her infant children; or (h) has, while know-
ingly suffering from venereal disease, insisted on having inter-
course with her; or (i) has compelled her to submit herself to
prostitution (Summary Jurisdiction [Married Women] Acts
1895 & 1925), Such order may include maintenance for the
wife up to £2 a week (1895 Act s. 5 |cj), and this even if she
be the guilty party. It may also include an order for the custody
of the children, and, if this is given to the wife (ibid. s. $[bj),
that the husband shall pay a weekly sum for each child till the age
of sixteen, not exceeding io/- a week (Married Women [Mainte-
nance] Act 1920); and such orders are enforceable in any of the
British dominions which have adopted the Maintenance Orders
(Facilities for Enforcement) Act 1920.
The High Court may grant a decree of judicial separation to
either a husband or a wife on the ground that the other spouse
has been guilty of adultery; or of cruelty; or of desertion for
not less than three years (Judicature Consolidation Act 1925
s. 185). It may grant a decree of divorce to a husband on the
ground of his wife's adultery: or to a wife on the ground (a) of
her husband's adultery after the i7th of July 1923; or (b) of her
husband's adultery before that date coupled with either cruelty,
or desertion for two years, or incest, or bigamy; or (c) of his
having committed unnatural crime (ibid. s. 176). The custody of
the children is in general given to the innocent party.
Unmarried Parents.— The mother of an illegitimate child
is bound to maintain it till it is sixteen (Poor Law Amendment
Act 1834 s. 71). If married, her husband must maintain it. The
father is not bound to maintain such child, except that, on the
application of the mother and if paternity is proved he may be
ordered to pay (Bastardy Laws Amendment Act 1872, s. 4) not
more than 2O/- a week for its maintenance (Bastardy Act 1923,
s. 2). The mother has the custody of the child. An illegitimate
child inherits from its mother, if she dies intestate and without
other issue, as if it were legitimate (Legitimacy Act 1926, s.
9[i]), but not from its father. The subsequent marriage of the
parents of an illegitimate child whose father is domiciled in
England legitimates such child, if at the time of its birth both the
parents were unmarried (ibid. s. i[i]).
Succession. — A man or woman may will away all his or her
property from a surviving spouse and children. The intestacy laws
have been equal as between males and females except with respect
to an entailed interest since the Administration of Estates Act
1925 came into force. (See INTESTACY.)
Criminal Law, — Among crimes which can be committed only
against women are rape; carnal knowledge of a girl under six-
WOMEN
707
teen; procuration for immoral purposes; abduction of a girl
under sixteen. Among offences which can only be, or are in
general, committed by a woman are abortion; concealment of
birth; infanticide. Only prostitutes can be convicted of certain
street offences. And prostitutes are under certain disabilities as
to the use of places of refreshment which do not apply to male
profligates. A woman may not be whipped (1820, i Geo. IV., C.
57). The hair of a woman prisoner may not be cut. A woman
condemned to death who pleads pregnancy has the question
decided by a jury of matrons. A married woman who commits an
offence in her husband's presence is not now presumed to have
acted under his coercion but this defence is open to her (Criminal
Justice Administration Act 1925 s. 47). A husband, but not a
wife, may be convicted of knowingly receiving property stolen by
his or her spouse. A husband may, but a wife may not, be
an accessory after the fact to a felony committed by his or her
spouse.
Special Civil Actions Concerning Women. — By the
Slander of Women Act 1891 a woman 'has an action of damages
against anyone who imputes unchastity to her without requiring
to prove that she has suffered special damage. A father or master
deprived of the services of a daughter or servant who has been
seduced has an action for damages against the seducer, but the
woman herself has no such action.
Scotland. — The legal position of women in Scotland is in gen-
eral similar to that in England and changes have been parallel.
By the Married Women's Property (Scotland) Act 1920, section
i, the husband's right of administration is "wholly abolished" and
"a married woman shall with regard to her estate have the same
power of disposal as if she were unmarried." And by section 3 "a
married woman shall be capable of entering into contracts and
incurring obligations and be capable of suing and being sued as
if she were not married and her husband shall not be liable in
respect of any contract she may enter into or obligation she may
incur on her own behalf."
Neither a husband nor a wife can will away his or her property
from a surviving spouse or children. The surviving wife is
entitled to one third of the moveable estate of her deceased
husband, if there are children, and to one half, if there are no
children (jus relictae), and in addition to one third of the
rents of her husband's heritage for life (terce). The surviving
husband is entitled to the same share of his deceased wife's
moveables (jus relicti) and to the liferent of his deceased wife's
heritage, if there has been a living child of the marriage (cour-
tesy). Sons and daughters are entitled to equal shares in the
moveable estate of a deceased parent but the oldest son is
entitled to the heritage. Where a husband dies intestate and
without lawful issue, the surviving wife is entitled to ^500 of
her husband's estate and in addition to her rights of jus relictae
and terce in the residue (Intestate Husband's Estate Act 1911).
The grounds of divorce have been the same for husband and
wife since the reformation, namely: (a) desertion for the space
of four years or (b) adultery (Green's Encyclopaedia of Scots
Law, 2nd Ed. v. 4, p. 541 et seq.). The innocent wife on divorce
is entitled to jus relictae and terce as if the guilty husband had
died; while the innocent husband is entitled to courtesy but not
to jus relicti (ibid.). (C. MN.)
THE UNITED STATES
With the progressive breaking down of the legal conception
of the household as an entity ruled from within by a head, and
as an agency of social control, it becomes necessary to give legal
recognition ancl protection to individual interests of women in the
domestic relations, which at common law were supposed to be
secure through the internal economy of the household, or were
left unsecured in view of a paramount social interest in the
household as a social institution. Summarily, these may be put
as parental interests — interests of women in the relation of parent
and child, and marital interests — interests of women in the rela-
tion of husband and wife.
Parent and Child,— At common law the father was entitled
to the custody of his minor child and the mother had a right to
custody only after the father's death. In form this still stands
in the books as law, but in substance there has been a complete
change within a generation. Equity long ago refused to give
effect to the father's common law right of custody as against
the interest of the child, and by taking the equitable doctrine
of regard for the interest of the child over into the law, the
courts have been able to put father and mother upon an equality
for practical purposes in almost all jurisdictions. Yet the com-
mon law doctrine remains theoretically in force in the absence
of legislation, and legislation is still far from universal. One
decision, as late as 1905, holds that the father has a legal right to
control the religious training of the children (Hernandez v.
Thomas, 50 Florida Reports, 522, 536).
Husband and Wife. — Marital interests of women include
claims against the world at large growing out of the relation of
husband and wife, and claims of wives against husbands because
of that relation. As interests of personality a wife has claims to
the society of her husband, quite apart from any economic ad-
vantage; to the affection of her husband, analogous to the legally
recognized claim of the husband to the society and affection of
the wife; and to the chastity and constancy of the husband as
involving her self-respect and honour. These interests, however,
are not yet recognized to their full extent and are not fully se-
cured even in legal theory. The first and second are now protected
by an action for alienating the husband's affections, which has
come to be allowed by the overwhelming weight of American au-
thority (Turner v. Heavrin, 182 Kentucky Reports, 65, 1918).
The third was recognized more recently in New York (Oppenheim
v. Kridel, 236 New York Reports, 156). Generally it is at most
but partially recognized and indirectly secured; but it should be
said that the obvious inutility of the husband's means of redress,
which should be applied by analogy to make the law logically
complete, has had much to do with the apparent backwardness
of the law on this subject.
As an interest of substance the wife may claim to be secured in
the marriage relation as an economically advantageous relation,
providing her with support and shelter. Where the husband is
enticed or induced to abandon his wife or to divert earnings which
should be devoted to her support, the courts are coming to rec-
ognize this interest directly. (The wife's action was allowed in
Flandermeyer v. Cooper , 85 Ohio State Reports, 327, 1912; it
was denied in Brown v. Kistlcman, 177 Indiana Reports, 692,
1912.) On the other hand, in case of physical injury to, or ab-
duction of, the husband, the wife is still usually denied an action,
although the husband may recover in the converse case for "loss
of service." The claim of the wife to support was recognized
fully and secured adequately at common law. Legislation setting
up domestic relations courts and providing for criminal prosecu-
tion in case of non-support has only put more effective adminis-
trative machinery behind existing legal duties of the husband.
The most serious inequalities in this connection were in the
procedural difficulties encountered in enforcing the wife's legal
rights. Domestic relations courts, which have had a consider-
able development in the United States, are adapted especially
to removing these obstacles (see Smith, Justice and the Poor,
chap. ii.'). Modern legislation, although taking away from the
husband all control over the wife's property and earnings and
committing it solely to the wife, has left untouched the common
law duty of the husband to support the wife even if she has
property and he has none. Some courts go so far as to allow a wife
possessed of means who has supported herself out of her separate
estate to, sue the husband and obtain restitution of the amount
thus contributed (De Bauwere v. De Bauwerc, 203 New York
Reports, 460, 1911). A few Western States, however, now impose
upon a wife of means and ability a duty of supporting an indigent
and infirm husband, and allow an action by the husband to enforce
this duty (Hagert v. llagert, 22 North Dakota Reports, 290,
1911). American courts now recognize the separate domicile of
the wife substantially to the full extent of her individual interest
in free self-assertion (Williamson v. Osenton, 232 U.S. Reports,
619 19x4)-
So also with respect to actions by the wife against the husband.
708
WOMliN, WAK. WORK UF
The older Married Women's Acts, which in form merely removed
disabilities as to property and contract, were long construed as
not allowing such actions since they did not do so expressly, and
a policy against aggravation of domestic troubles by dragging
them into court was taken to be in the way. This sacrifice of
the individual interests of the wife to the supposed exigencies of
a social interest has now definitely given way, and conservative
courts are allowing such actions even under statutes in terms
dealing with projwrty rights only (Brown v. Brown, 88 Connecti-
cut Reports, 42, 1914). The more recent type of statute, provid-
ing that a married woman shall have the same legal existence
and personality after marriage as before marriage, necessarily
permits such litigation (Fielder v. Fielder, 42 Oklahoma Reports,
124, 1914). As to capacity to own, acquire, use and enjoy prop-
erty, very little remains of the old law, and there are but. few
jurisdictions where legislation might still be able to accomplish
anything.
In one respect, however, improvement by judicial decision is
still going forward. A number of States, by derivation directly or
indirectly from Spanish law, have the institution of "community
property/' in which with respect to certain property, and espe-
cially property acquired after marriage, husband and wife are
treated legally as a sort of property-owning entity. The older
view was that the husband was the administering agent of this
collectivity during their joint lives, and hence could dispose of
it, alter its form, and charge it with his personal debts; and that
it could even be taken in execution for his wrongful acts. Recent
decisions in some of these jurisdictions, recognizing the individual
interest of the wife, hold that the community property is not
liable for acts done by the husband outside of the reasonable
scope of his authority as agent of the community (Schramm v.
Steele, 97 Washington Reports, 309, 1917). Yet even there a
claim for an injury to the wife, being an acquisition after mar-
riage and community property, she is not allowed to sue therefor
if her husband refuses to join (Hynes v. Colman Dock Co., 108
Washington Reports, 642, 1919).
Protection of Women in Industry. — Courts have hesitated
to uphold legislation restricting freedom of contract on the part
of women in industry with respect to hours and conditions of
labour and minimum wage. When such statutes were first enacted,
they were held unconstitutional, as being arbitrary and unreason-
able interferences with liberty of contract by a court which had
no hesitation in keeping alive common law disabilities that had
long ceased to secure any individual or social interest. That de-
cision has been overruled (Ritchie v. Wayman, 244 Illinois Re-
ports, 509, 1910), and it seems to be settled that legislation may
take account of the facts of women's physical make-up and secure
the social interest in a healthy womanhood by regulating the hours
of labour of adult females (Midler v. Oregon, 208 U.S. Reports,
412, 1908; Bunting v. Oregon, 243 U.S. Reports, 416, 1917). But
it is now held that this may not be carried to the extent of fixing a
minimum wage for women employees (Adkins v. Children's Hos-
pital, 261 United States Reports, 525).
The political and legal emancipation of women is urged as a
reason against such legislation, as if the removal of political and
legal disabilities had any relation to, or effect upon, the physical
handicaps upon women in industry which are the occasion of
these statutes.
In 1917 California provided for the drawing of women upon
juries (Laws of 1917, p. 1283). Since the adoption of the igth
amendment of the Federal Constitution providing for woman
suffrage, 1920, it has been assumed generally that women are to
sit upon juries and such has come to be the prevailing practice.
But in some jurisdictions, out of caution, it was felt that the courts
should await express legislation and there have been differences
in legislative policy as to how far jury service by women should
be made compulsory. (R. Po.)
WOMEN, WAR WORK OF. It is impossible here to
attempt to describe the special work done by women of all the
belligerent countries in 1914-18; this article, therefore, is con-
fined to an outline of women's war work as organized in the
United Kingdom and the United States.
I. IN GREAT BRITAIN
On Aug. 3, before the official declaration of war, the executive
committee of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies
decided to suspend political action and devote the organizing
capacity of the Union to meet the changed conditions. The Lon-
don branch started a free bureau under the name of "Women's
Service" to direct the efforts of the thousands of non-professional
women eagerly desirous of finding useful work. Many young
women began at once to prepare themselves for nursing, joined
voluntary aid detachments and worked in auxiliary hospitals.
The raising of funds and making of comforts for the units of
the original Expeditionary Force absorbed others, and the ar-
rival of the Belgian refugees in England before the end of August
caused the formation of 2,500 local Belgian relief committees, of
whom the members were mostly women. Clubs to help the wives
of soldiers and sailors were started.
By the spring of 1915, when the country began to feel the
drain on its man-power, the Marchioness of Londonderry founded
the Women's Legion, which from the first was intended to be
a corps of paid women replacing paid men. A khaki uniform was
worn and the women were subject to regulations and discipline.
Ultimately over 40,000 were enrolled. This corps was the link
between the independent voluntary associations of women, such
as the Emergency Corps, formed on the outbreak of the war,
and the official women's services, two of which were sections of
the Women's Legion. *
Work on Land. — Throughout 1915 and 1916 efforts were
made by voluntary organizations, such as the Women's Legion
and the Women's Defence Relief Corps, as well as by the Govern-
ment, through the war agricultural committees of the Board of
Trade, to induce women to offer their services on the land and
to persuade farmers to accept them. The Women's Land Army
was instituted early in 1917 as a women's branch of the Ministry
of Agriculture.
Munition Making. — By the spring of 1915 shell work for
women was beginning; in March women tram conductors started
work at Glasgow, and girls were employed as telegraph operators
in Liverpool. In connection with the demand for skilled workers,
the London Society for Women's Suffrage, which promoted the
introduction of women into occupations hitherto reserved for men,
started a munitions and aircraft department in July 1915, and
arranged the first training classes in oxy-acctylcne welding. The
pupils were the first women welders to enter the engineering trade,
and after two years the Ministry of Munitions assumed financial
responsibility for the school. Messrs. Beardmore in Glasgow and
Messrs. Vickers at Barrow-in-Furness and at Erith employed
women on shell-making in the spring of 1915.
Enrolled and Non-enrolled Women. — The women's services
were of two types. First came those composed of enrolled women
in the legal sense, who were in the direct employment of the
war departments, and whose contracts brought them within the
regulations of the Defence of the Realm Act. The women could
be enrolled as mobile workers for home service only, or for
service at home and abroad; or as immobile workers, recruited
for local employment, who could not be required to move away
from the district. Secondly came those composed of non-enrolled
women in the legal sense, who did not render themselves liable to
penalties under the Defence of the Realm Act and might be
engaged on an annual or weekly contract. Some services enrolled
their women for a year only; others for the duration of the war.
The enrolled women consisted of the various army nursing
services; the Military Massage Service, which started its career
in Aug. 1914, under the name of the Almeric Paget Massage
Corps; the Women's Forage Corps; Queen Mary's Army Aux-
iliary Corps; the Women's Royal Naval Service, commonly
known as the "Wrens"; and the Women's Royal Air Force.
(See NURSING.)
In Queen Mary's Army Auxiliary Corps which was at first the
Women's Army Auxiliary Corps or familiarly the Waacs, the
women were enrolled as mobiles for home service only, or for
home or foreign service, and for the duration of the war; they
received a special rate of pay, not civilian or military, and were
WOMEN'S CLUBS— WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE
709
not enlisted under the Army Act. At first substitution overseas
only had been contemplated, but by March the number of women
recruited by the Department of National Service was so great
that home commands were included in the scheme. Recruiting
was afterwards carried on through the employment department
of the Ministry of Labour. In Dec. 1917, owing to the shrinkage
of available woman power, an immobile branch was formed.
Women employed in the Ordnance Army Pay Department and
Record offices at home were not made to join the Corps. In all
there were 1,200 officials and 56,000 women, of whom 9,500 were
the outside number employed in France at any one time.
As regards the Women's Royal Air Force, 566 officers and
31,764 other ranks passed through the service, the strength at
the time of the Armistice being rather over 25,000. The service
consisted of mobiles and immobilcs in approximately equal pro-
portions.
Non-enrolled women included the Anti-Gas Department, the
Army Pay Corps, the Army Remount Department and the Navy
and Army Canteen Board. Practically the whole of the work on
gas-mask manufacture was performed by women. There were
34 factories employing 12,000 under the immediate control of the
Anti-Gas Department, and 160 contractors employed a further
90,000 on work for the department.
Army Pay Corps. — The Army Pay department was one of the
earliest in the army to substitute female clerks. In July 1915,
479 were working and by Jan. i, 1916, there were 4,556 female
clerks and 13 lady superintendents. The engagement was a
weekly one and there was no form of contract till Aug. 1917.
Navy and Army Canteen Board. — When the Navy and
Army Canteen Board (then called the Army Canteen Committee)
started operations in April 1916, only 20 women clerks were
employed. During 1917 the Board's activities were enormously
expanded to include catering for the Imperial Overseas forces and
for the American and Allied troops. It was decided in March
1917 to institute a N.A.C.B. Women's Corps in mobile and im-
mobile sections, and by the date of the Armistice the women
employed in connection with canteen organization in the mobile
corps numbered 10,000 and the clerical staff in the immobile
corps, 2,000.
II. IN THE UNITED STATES
When the United States entered the World War in April 1917,
but one organization depending mainly on the efforts of women
was officially recognized by the Government, the Red Cross. Its
upwards of 8,000,000 regular volunteer women workers in 3.500
chapters produced in 20 months over 371,000,000 relief articles,
including surgical dressings, garments for the wounded and the
refugees, and a variety of comforts and conveniences for soldiers
and sailors. The value of (heir output was about $94,000,000.
The Red Cross enrolled during the war 23,822 women as nurses.
They served in the military and naval hospitals in the United
States, Europe and the Near East, as well as in convalescent homes
for soldiers and sailors and in relief work for adults and children
both in the United States and overseas. They worked in 700 Red
Cross canteens in the United States and 130 in France, serving
refreshments to moving troops, giving them medical care and
transferring them when sick.
When war was declared many large national organizations of
women applied to the Government for instructions. The Coun-
cil of National Defense appointed, at the end of April 1917, a com-
mittee of nine women (afterwards increased to eleven), to form
a plan by which the women of the country could be utilized.
This committee selected a woman in each State as a temporary
chairman. She called together the heads of all national organiza-
tions of women in her territory to elect permanent officers for a
State division. In turn the State division organized county com-
mittees and each county was to form a division in each city and
town. By December 1917 the county organization was complete
in 23 States, and a year later more than 80% of all the counties
in the country had county chairmen.
The Women's Committee through ten national departments
penetrated by means of this network throughout the country. It
registered women for service in key industries to replace men,
Michigan enrolling 989;, of its women; it conserved food, 5,223,-
850 pledge cards being signed in 39 States in the first few weeks
of the campaign; it "helped to safeguard the health of the children;
it assisted in keeping up the morale of the country by distributing
news letters, 40,000 pamphlets and bulletins and sending out
speakers to counteract rumours; it helped with the Liberty Loan
campaigns; it inspired its volunteers to home and foreign relief.
The War Department asked the V.M.C.A. in August, 1917, to
organize a group of women for welfare work with the American
Army somewhat similar to that of the Women's Auxiliary Army
Corps for the British troops. The American "Y" women served
in the United States, France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Constan-
tinople and Siberia, 1,665 enrolled in the home camps and 3,480
going overseas, 561 of the latter entertainers. A special unit of
coloured women was sent for work with the negro troops. The
"Y" women remained on after the armistice, serving with the
Army of Occupation from December 1918 until it was withdrawn
and afterwards with the American Forces in Germany. The
Y.W.C.A. organized in June 1917 a war council, under which it
developed a variety of clubs, both in the United States and over-
seas, particularly France, behind the lines. The hostess houses of
the association at the home camps of both white and coloured
soldiers looked after women visitors, a service which proved of
such value that the War Department at the close of the war took
the work under its educational and recreational branch. Some 50
buildings were turned over to the Government, by the war work
council of the Y.W.C.A. Overseas the association conducted clubs
which served Red Cross nurses and other women workers.
WOMEN'S CLUBS, THE GENERAL FEDERATION
OF, a federation of approximately 14,000 clubs in the United
States, 20 U.S. Territories and foreign countries. It was organized
and a constitution adopted on April 24, 1890 after a preliminary
meeting of women's clubs held in New York in 1889. It was in-
corporated under the laws of New Jersey in 1895, and a charter
was granted by Congress in 1901. Membership in the federation
is open to any women's club or organization which requires no
sectarian or political test for membership, is not a secret society,
does not tolerate violation of national or State laws, and agrees
to the constitution and by-laws of the General Federation. While
the membership of the organization extends into millions, no exact
figure can be given owing to overlapping memberships.
While the first clubs existed largely for self -culture, there was
unquestionably in the inner consciousness of the founders a real-
ization that, since the great economic changes of the world were
removing many tasks from the home, women must prepare to
play a new part in the affairs of their community, State and
country. That they looked forward to a programme of practical,
civic, educational and welfare work is plainly recorded in their
early writings.
The officers are elected by delegates from the member clubs at
a biennial convention. At this meeting and at the biennial council,
which meets on the alternate years, the members express them-
selves nationally in their endorsement of such movements or legis-
lation as they consider important to the national welfare. The in-
dividual clubs and State federations plan and carry on their own
activities. Some of the causes which the General Federation has
supported are: greater educational opportunities, scholarship loan
funds for girls, home economics teaching, home demonstration
agents, public libraries, travelling libraries, greater appreciation of
music, painting and sculpture, the eradication of illiteracy, training
in citizenship, Americanization of aliens, better working conditions
for women and children, the abolition of child labour, prison re-
form, adequate pure food laws, recognition by the U.S. Census of
home-making as an occupation, the raising of the standard of
home equipment, conservation of our natural resources, the
creation of national parks, prohibition, peace, and a better under-
standing of international relations. (M. SH.)
WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE. The Women's Suffrage Move-
ment dates, for all practical purposes from the middle of the igth
century. The systems of government of the ancient world were
all based upon the theory that women could take no part in polit-
ical matters, except when they became reigning queens.
10
WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE
In Great Britain.— In spite of Plato and a few other political
theorists, it was not until the French Revolution that the idea
that women might share in political power gained any support.
Then, however, Condorcet upheld it, and Mary Wollstonecraft
wrote her great book A Vindication of the Rights of Women in
1792. The French Revolution speedily became unpopular in Eng-
land, however, and although in the next 40 years a few isolated
advocates appeared, it was not until the Chartist Movement began
that it again attracted attention. The first draft of the ''Charter
of Rights and Liberties" was composed in 1838, and is stated to
have included Women's Suffrage; but it was not allowed to re-
main, as it was thought likely to bring ridicule upon the agitation.
Between 1840 and 1850 a certain number of politicians men-
tioned the subject in their speeches, in particular Richard Cobden,
who strongly supported it, and Disraeli, who spoke in its favour
when a resolution was introduced into the House of Commons by
Joseph Hume. The election of John Stuart Mill to parliament in
1865 marked its real beginning.
Mill was a convinced believer in the importance of this reform,
and it occupied a foremost place in his election address. His return
to parliament therefore encouraged those women who were think-
ing about the subject, and in 1866, when it was found that almost
all the 50 members of the Kensington Ladies' Discussion Society
were its supporters, a group of them, led by Barbara Leigh Smith
(Mme. Bodichon), Elizabeth Garrett (Mrs. Garrett Anderson),
Emily Davies and Bessie Rayner Parkes (Mme. Belloc.) decided
to form a provisional women's suffrage committee. Its first work
was to collect a petition to parliament, and 1,499 names were
secured. This petition, the first of a long series, was presented by
Mill in 1867, and in the same year he moved an amendment to
the Reform bill by which women were to be enfranchised.
A number of suffrage societies came into existence about this
time in London, Manchester, Bristol, Edinburgh and Birmingham,
and a real effort at propaganda was undertaken. Mill published
The Subjection of Women, which he had written seven years
earlier, and serious organization was begun. The leader m the
north of England was Miss Lydia Becker, a woman of unusual
political insight; and her first care was to make certain that women
were not already enfranchised under the existing law. Over 4,000
claims to be put on the parliamentary register were sent in by
women ratepayers in Manchester, and the same thing was done
in other parts of the country. The test case (Chorlton v. Lings)
was tried before the court of common pleas in 1868, and the de-
cision was that women were disqualified, and attention was there-
after directed to promoting a bill in parliament. In 1869 the mu-
nicipal franchise was extended to women ratepayers, and in the
following year, when the school boards were created, women
were made eligible and were actually elected to them.
In 1870 Jacob Bright brought forward a bill for extending the
parliamentary franchise to women, and it passed its second read-
ing, but was not allowed time to proceed further. The suffragists
then began to hold meetings in various parts of the country.
In 1880 the vote was given to women owners in the Isle of
Man, and it was subsequently extended to occupiers also.
During the years before the introduction of the Reform bill of
1884 the suffragists were very active. The political parties seemed
to be favourable, and a majority of the members of the House of
Commons was individually pledged, but W. E. Gladstone killed
their chances of securing the amendment they hoped for. He an-
nounced that women would "overweight the Bill" and must be
"thrown overboard," and accordingly 104 Liberal members broke
their pledges, and the thing was done. The women at last realized
the difficulty of trying to secure reform while they were them-
selves without political power. In 1888, when the county councils
were created, women were included among the electorate. Two
women were elected to the first London County Council, but their
eligibility was challenged, and rejected by the courts, and it was
not until 1907 that an act was passed making them eligible to
serve on these bodies, and also to hold the office of mayor. The
first woman mayor in Great Britain was Mrs. Garrett Anderson,
mayor of Aldburgh in 1908.
The suffrage movement passed through a period of comparative
discouragement after 1884, and though propaganda continued,
and huge petitions were yearly sent in, no fresh developments took
place. In the '903 a successful effort was made to interest the
working women of the north, and although no progress was ap-
parent in parliament the volume of support for the movement
steadily grew. In 1897 the scattered societies united in a National
Union, under the presidency of Mrs. Henry Fawcett, and their
efficiency greatly increased.
In 1903 an event occurred which was both a symptom of re-
newed interest and a cause of further progress, namely the forma-
tion of the Women's Social and Political Union. Before many
years were over this society, Jed by Mrs. Pankhurst, had de-
velot>ed "militant tactics."
The real development of this policy began in 1906, when the
Liberal Party came into power. The older societies were asking
for pledges from individual candidates, but the new society be-
lieved that the only hope lay in the action of the Government.
At a meeting in the Free Trade hall, Manchester, Christabel Pank-
hurst and Annie Kenney asked what the attitude of the new Gov-
ernment would be. Instead of an answer to their perfectly legit-
imate question, however, the two girls were seized by the stewards
and thrown roughly into the street ; and when they held an indig-
nation meeting they were arrested for obstruction, and sentenced
to fine or imprisonment. Both chose to go to prison ; and the sen-
sation caused by these events was an enormous advertisement to
the cause. Thereafter the "militants" adopted the policy of hecjk-
ling cabinet, ministers, of marching with petitions to parliament,
and of sending deputations to Downing street. Disturbances and
arrests followed, and with every such demonstration the strength
of their society grew.
From 1906 the movement entered upon its stage of greatest
effort. Organised societies expanded with great rapidity, and the
agitation they carried on became incessant. The meetings which
multiplied in halls and drawing rooms, in schools and chapels, at
street corners and on village greens were missionary meetings, and
new converts flocked into the ranks. In 1907 the first public
demonstration in the streets was organized, and on a wet afternoon
3,000 women took part in the "mud march" through London.
Nothing dreadful happened to them, and the demonstration was
repeated in other places. As time went on the scale increased, and
vast crowds gathered again and again in the Albert hall, in Hyde
park and in other open spaces, and processions, miles long, marched
with bands and banners through the streets. Both suffragists and
suffragettes developed great ingenuity in propaganda. They turned
everything to their uses, and their war-cry, "votes for women,"
cropped up in the most unexpected places. They chalked the
pavements, paraded in sandwich boards, sold their newspapers in
the streets, picketed the House of Commons and tlooded the
streets with leaflets and handbills.
All this commotion put the Government into a very uncomfort-
able position, since H. H. Asquith, the prime minister, was a
violent opponent of the cause. He was determined not to yield;
and yet nothing but the granting of the vote seemed likely to
stop the agitation. The militants courted arrest, and continued
their protests in prison. They adopted the method of hunger
striking, and after painful attempts at forcible feeding, which
they invariably resisted, the authorities were obliged to release
them. While the propaganda of both sections of suffragists de-
veloped, the political situation remained unaltered. Private mem-
bers' bills were introduced, but owing to the opposition of the
Government they were either defeated or blocked. In 1910 a
serious effort was made to find a solution of the problem, and a
conciliation committee of M.P.s with Lord Lytton as its chairman
and H. N. Brailsford as its secretary was set up. This committee
drafted a bill acceptable to all sections of suffragist opinion, and
the second reading was carried in the same year by no votes.
Asquith refused further facilities, but after the second general
election of 1910 the same bill was brought forward again, and
was again carried by an increased majority. But still the Liberal
Government would not grant facilities, and in the autumn of 1911
Asquith announced that he proposed to introduce a franchise bill
"for male persons only." This naturally enraged the suffragists,
WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE
711
and the militants began a campaign of greater violence, destroying
property and breaking windows to mark their protest. Early in
1912 the conciliation bill again came forward, but this time, owing
to the prospect of the franchise bill and the known wishes of the
prime minister, it was defeated by 14 votes — and that in the same
parliament as had carried the same bill by 167 votes not a year
before. This treatment of their cause still further angered and
stiffened the suffragists, but they fixed their hopes upon the coming
reform bill, which Asquith had promised would be open to amend-
ments including women.
In Jan. 1913 the committee stage of the reform bill was reached,
and the women's suffrage amendments were tabled. Then followed
a parliamentary surprise; for, by the Speaker's ruling these
amendments were declared so to alter the bill as to make it a
different one from that which had already passed its second read-
ing. The consequence was that the whole bill had to be withdrawn,
and the chances of women's suffrage seemed to be hopeless.
The militant outbreak which followed was met by the Govern-
ment with severely repressive measures. An act was passed, of-
ficially known as the Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for 111
Health) Act, but commonly known as the Cat and Mouse Act,
whereby released hunger strikers could be re-arrested and sent
back to prison when their health was restored. Many prisoners
were recaptured under this act, and Mrs. Pankhurst, who was
sentenced to three years in 1913 was re-imprisoned eight times;
yet even so she only served 30 days in the first year.
After the fiasco of the reform bill the National Union adopted
the election policy of supporting the party which officially advo-
cated their cause and at that time the only party to do so was
the Labour Party. In 1913 the National Union organised a pil-
grimage of women, which marched upon London from all over the
country, and culminated in a monster meeting in Hyde park. The
reception of the pilgrims all along the route was so friendly, and
the meetings they held in the towns and villages they passed
through were so enthusiastic that they began to feel sure that
public opinion was won, and that success was near at hand.
The course of the movement was interrupted in August 1914 by
the outbreak of the European war, and the members of the suf-
frage societies at once turned their energies to helping the country
through the economic difficulties of the time. "Let us prove our-
selves worthy of citizenship" said Mrs. Fawcett in a message to
her followers, "whether our claim be recognised or not." The
suffragette prisoners were pardoned and the Women's Social and
Political Union ceased to exist, but the National Union remained
as an organised body and undertook relief work of many kinds.
For a time it seemed as if the suffrage question was lost to sight ;
but the war work which women were able to do was of such value,
and they revealed such unsuspected powers and abilities that
public opinion became very favourable to them. In 1916 the
question of a new registration bill arose owing to the impossibility
of re-registering the men who were absent on war service under
the old act ; and when the suffragists pointed out that any change
in the basis of registration would be a change in the franchise,
and that if it were made the women's question ought at the same
time to be considered, they found not only the Coalition Govern-
ment, but the whole press and people of the country in agreement
with them. After several unsuccessful efforts to settle the matter
without raising the whole franchise issue, H. H. Asquith invited
the Speaker to call a conference representative of all the parties.
The conference reported in Jan. 1917 in favour of a limited form
of women's suffrage to householders and the wives of householders
provided they had reached the age of 30 or 35 years; and this
proposal, with the lower of the age limits, was inserted into the
bill which D. Lloyd George's Government introduced. In June
1917 the clause enfranchising women was carried in the House of
Commons by a majority of 7 to i, with the general approval of
the whole country. Early in the following year it passed the
House of Lords, and received the royal assent.
The reason for the insertion of the age limit and the other dif-
ferences between the franchises of men and women was to reduce
the numbers of women voters, so that they should not be in a
majority; and the suffrage societies, although continuing to work
for equality, accepted this as a first step. In Nov. 1918 the act
making women eligible for election to Parliament was passed, and
at the election of that year women not only voted for the first
time, but stood as candidates. The only one elected was the
Countess Markievicz, who, being a Sinn Feiner did not take her
seat; but in 1919 the Viscountess Astor was elected.
It immediately became evident that there was no danger of the
formation of a "Woman's Party," and the extension of the fran-
chise worked so smoothly that within a year or two all three
political parties declared themselves in favour of extending the
vote to women upon equal terms. In March 1928 the Conserva-
tive Government brought forward a new Representation of the
People bill for this purpose. This was carried with only ten dis-
sentients in the House of Commons, by 387 to 10. The bill passed
the House of Lords in May with a majority of 79, and received the
royal assent on July 2, 1928. With its passage into law complete
political equality was granted to women, and the Women's Suf-
frage Movement in Great Britain came to an end.
In the British Dominions.— In all the British Dominions
except South Africa some form of women's suffrage is in force.
New Zealand enfranchised its women in 1893, and the common-
wealth of Australia in 1902, South Australia having previously
granted state suffrage in 1894, and West Australia in 1899. New
South Wales granted it in the same year as the commonwealth,
Tasmania followed in 1903 and Queensland and Victoria in 1905
and 1908. Canada acted in the matter almost at the same time
as Great Britain. All the provinces except Quebec adopted it in
1916, and the Dominion followed in 1917. In Newfoundland
women vote at municipal elections on the same terms as men, but
at the age of 25 instead of 21 at parliamentary elections. In the
Irish Free State equal franchise and eligibility are in force. In
India the Government of India Act specifically left the question
to be decided province by province by the elected legislatures.
Cochin, Travancore and Jehalwar adopted it in 1921, Mysore in
1923, Assam in 1924, Bengal in 1925 and the Central Provinces
in 1927. Burmah also adopted women's suffrage in 1922 when it
became a province of India. Jamaica, South Rhodesia and British
East Africa gave votes to women in 1919 and 1920. At Trinidad,
Tobago and the Windward islands women vote at 30 and men at
21, and women are not eligible for election, and in the Channel
islands they vote on equal terms, but are eligible only in Guernsey.
In Other Countries. — Before the World War there were only
four countries where women exercised the franchise. In 1928 it is
the practice in the great majority of the countries of the world,
the principal exceptions being France, Italy and Spain. The
position in 1928, in countries other than Great Britain and the
Dominions, is as follows: Equal suffrage and eligibility for all
elected bodies prevail in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Es-
thonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Lettonia, Lithuania, Luxem-
burg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia and Sweden. In
Hungary women have the municipal franchise and the parliamen-
tary franchise at the age of 30 with eligibility. Municipal suffrage
is granted in Spain, in the Argentine (province of San Juan), in
Brazil (province of Rio Grande do Norte) and in Belgium, where
women are also eligible for Parliament, but without the right to
vote (except in the case of a limited class of war sufferers). In
Greece limited municipal suffrage without eligibility was passed to
come into force in 1927, but the necessary decree has not been
issued. In Italy a limited measure of municipal suffrage has been
granted, but is inoperative. In Palestine women have equal suf-
frage and eligibility for the Jewish National Assembly, but have
no voting rights under the constitution.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Women's Swtfragf (1912) and The Women's Victory
and After (1920) by Dame Milliccnt Fawcett describe the progress of
the Suffrage campaigns. Sylvia Pankhurst, The Suffragette (iqu) and
Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst, My Own Story (1914) deal with the mili-
tant movement, as does also Prisons and Prisoners (1914) by Lady
Constance Lytton. Ray Strachey, The Cause: A Short History of the
Women's Movement in Great Britain (1928) covers the whole field,
and contains a bibliography. (M. G. F.; R. ST.)
THE UNITED STATES
As the first experiment in a so-called democracy was made in
the new Government known as the United States, it seemed most
WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE
fitting that there it should reach its full fruition in complete and
universal suffrage. The earliest colonists recognized the value of a
vote for the law-makers and the laws, but in the beginning it was
very closely restricted to the members of certain specified churches
and to those whose names were on the tax list, while in some cases
a slight educational requirement was made. Women, even though
qualified, were almost universally excluded.
After the Revolutionary War when the convention met in
Philadelphia to organize the States no question aroused such
vehement discussion as that of the suffrage. It was so long con-
tinued that finally the only solution possible was to omit the sub-
ject from the National Constitution and leave each State free to
make its own qualifications for voting.
Meanwhile women were receiving the rudiments of an
education and slowly acquiring a voice. By 1832 the anti-slavery
question was becoming acute. Women were intensely interested
and were developing so much power as public speakers that the
question of allowing them on its platform had divided the Anti-
Slavery Association, the Garrison-Phillips branch standing by
Lucretia Mott and her contemporaries. Among these were the
"Quakers" who always had recognized the equal rights of women.
In later years Elizabeth Cady Stanton, of Revolutionary ancestry,
had joined the anti-slavery forces and she and Lucretia Mott
decided that the rights of women as well as those of the negro
slave needed redressing. In July 1848, at a Friends' Yearly Meet-
ing in Western New York, they issued a call for the first Woman's
Rights Convention in all history. It met in Seneca Falls, Mrs.
Stanton 's home, on July 19, and after a two days' session ad-
journed to Rochester.
This may be regarded as the beginning of the movement for
woman suffrage not only in the United States but in the world.
It received the wide publicity of the New York Tribune under
Horace Greeley and was followed in 1850 by a convention in
Worcester, Mass., under the auspices of Lucy Stone and a dis-
tinguished group of Eastern suffragists. The movement, however,
still lacked the dynamic force which was to put it into effective
action and this was soon supplied by Susan B. Anthony. In 1851
she first met Mrs. Stanton and the friendship began which re-
mained unbroken for over 50 years. Each was the needed comple-
ment of the other. Miss Anthony attended her first woman's
rights convention in Syracuse in 1852, her last in Baltimore in
1906, one month before her death.
At first no way of extending suffrage was known except through
amendments to State constitutions, which required the consent of
a majority of the male voters. The first attempt was made in
Kansas in 1867, immediately after the close of the Civil War, in
which for four years women had borne an heroic part. An amend-
ment was submitted at the same time to enfranchise the newly-
liberated male slaves, who had flocked into that State. Both were
defeated but the latter had a much larger majority in its favour.
The women then had their first lesson in what was before them.
All the States had the word "white" in the suffrage clause of their
Constitutions, and legislatures in a number of them submitted
amendments to the voters to take it out. In every instance they
were defeated and it was evident that some other method must be
found if the negro men were to vote, which the Republican Party
was very desirous that they should do. This Party was in power
in all the States and a measure was decided on that had rot been
attempted since early days, which was for the Congress to submit
an amendment to the National Constitution.
As soon as this intention was announced Miss Anthony and
some of the woman suffrage leaders rose up in arms and demanded
that this proposed amendment should not enfranchise only col-
oured men but all women. Most of the men who had been the
strongest advocates of woman suffrage opposed this demand and
they were supported by some of the women, all of whom feared
that it would imperil the success of the amendment. Women
were not included in this i4th amendment, and later, when a isth
was found necessary to strengthen it, they were also excluded.
The woman suffrage leaders, however, perceived a new method,
which did not seem so utterly hopeless as amending the Consti-
tution of every State by consent of a majority of the voters.
In New York city in 1869, at the close of the May anniversary
of the Equal Rights association, which had been formed soon after
the war to protect the negro men, they formed a National Woman
Suffrage association. Representatives from 19 States were pres-
ent and its object was declared by resolution to be to secure the
ballot for women by a i6th amendment to the Federal Consti-
tution. Mrs. Stanton was elected president and Miss Anthony
chairman of the executive committee. This organization held a
national convention every year thereafter for 50 years and went
before committees of every Congress asking for this amendment.
Its leaders soon learned that pressure from the States on their
representatives in the Congress would be absolutely necessary
and so they began to organize the States to work on the legis-
latures until every State was organized. In the autumn of 1869
another distinguished group, headed by Lucy Stone, organized a
national association called the American, solely for this purpose.
In 1890 the two organizations united under the name of National
American, which worked for both objects for almost 30 years.
Mrs. Stanton, Miss Anthony and their heroic contemporaries
passed away, leaving the work to be finished by their successors
in office, Dr. Anna Howard Shaw and Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt,
who now headed a determined army of women eventually in-
creased to many thousands. Individual States began to yield and
enfranchise their women and each one increased the members
of Congress elected partly by women, who were thus obliged to
vote for an amendment to the National Constitution. The rqv-
enues increased annually, $120,000 being subscribed in 1919 to
the work of the National Association, exclusive of the amounts
raised by the various States for their own work.
It was found that legislatures could give women the vote for
presidential electors and in some States the municipal and various
forms of local franchise. Those of Arkansas and Texas gave the
primary suffrage, equivalent to a full vote. Meanwhile campaigns
were being vigorously conducted to persuade the legislatures to
submit to the voters amendments to the State Constitutions con-
ferring the full suffrage in State affairs. This was accomplished
in New York in 1917 and was the greatest victory yet achieved.
By 1918 women had thus acquired equal suffrage with men in 15
States, offering the only instance in the world where the voters
themselves gave the franchise to women.
Meanwhile other associations national in character had been
formed. The Federal Association was organized in 1892, of which
the Rev. Olympia Brown was president for 17 years and many
prominent men and women were members. Its object was the
passage of a law by the Congress authorizing women to vote for
members of the lower house, which would have been constitu-
tional. The College Equal Suffrage League was organized in 1908
with Dr. M. Gary Thomas, president of Bryn Mawr college, at
its head during the nine years of its existence, and it co-operated
with the National American Association. This was true also of
the Friends' (Quakers') Association. Mississippi Valley Confer-
ences were organized in 1912 and Southern Women's Conferences
the following year, which did effective work in their sections as
auxiliaries of the National American as long as it was needed. A
Congressional Union was formed in Washington in the spring of
1913 to support the work of the association's Congressional
Committee, but in December it became an independent organiza-
tion with headquarters in Washington and Miss Alice Paul as its
head. Its object was a Federal amendment, which it attempted
to secure by aggressive and militant methods never 'before em-
ployed in the United States. At the time of the National Re-
publican Convention in Chicago in 1916 it adopted the name
National Woman's Party. Later it established permanent head-
quarters in Washington through a gift of Mrs. Oliver H. P.
Belmont, who became its president. In 1911 a National Men's
League for Woman Suffrage was organized in New York and soon
had many State branches officered by prominent men.
By 1918 the United States had entered the World War, and the
nation-wide response of the women to every demand made on
them and their valuable work broke down the barriers of the
opposition. All the political parties were committed to their
enfranchisement, but there was still enough opposition in the
WONOSOBO— WOOD
Congress to delay the final vote of both Houses to submit the
amendment to the legislatures until June 1919. The tremendous
struggle was then ahead of securing the ratification of three-
fourths of the legislatures in time for the women to vote at the
presidential election of Nov. 1920. Most of them had adjourned
and this would have to be done by special sessions. It was ac-
complished and the last certificate, that of Tennessee, was de-
livered to Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby at 4 o'clock in the
morning of Aug. 26, 1920. At 9 o'clock he issued the official
proclamation that the i9th amendment having been duly ratified
by 36 State legislatures "has become valid to all intents and pur-
poses as a part of the Constitution of the United States." It reads
as follows: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any
State on account of sex." From that hour complete and uni-
versal woman suffrage was the law of the land.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. C. Stanton, S. B. Anthony, M. J. Gage, and I. H.
Harper (ed.), History of Woman Suffrage (4 vols. 1876-1920) ; I. H.
Harper, Lije and Work of Susan B. Anthony (3 vols. 1899-1908) ; H.
K. Johnson, Woman and the Republic (1913) ; A. H. Shaw, The Story
of a Pioneer (1915) ; F. Bjb'rkman and A. G. Porritt (ed.), The Blue
Book; Woman Suffrage, History, Arguments and Results (1917);
K. H. Porter, A History of Suffrage in the United States (Chicago,
1918); 1. H. Irwin, The Story of the Woman's Party (1921); C. C.
Catt and N. R. Shuler, Woman Suffrage and Politics (1923) ; M. A. De
Wolfe Howe, Causes and Their Champions (1926). See also: Scrap-
books in the Library of Congress, Susan B. Anthony's Correspondence,
and Congressional Reports and Records. (I. H. H.)
WONOSOBO, a town in Central Java, residency Kedu, the
"capital" of Java's beautiful highland district known as the
Dieng Plateau, is 7,000 ft. high and surrounded by mountains.
Wonosobo is 3,400 ft. high and is connected by steam tramway
with the main railways of Java. Pop. 7,300. It has a delightful
climate and is visited mostly as a starting-point for excursions
to the Plateau. A motor road runs from Wonosobo to Garung,
five m. distant, and from there to the Plateau a rough road,
traversed on foot, or by sedan chair, leads, by way of the
charming lake of Mcndjcr, to Kejajar. A climb from here leads
past the native villages of Tieng, Lowang, Wadasputi and Par-
ikesit, on to the Plateau, where there is a small hotel and a
government rest-house (pasangrahan) . The Plateau has a cold
and bracing climate, almost Alpine scenery, small lakes, several
Arjuna temples of Hindu construction (see JAVA).
WOOD, ANTHONY A1 (1632-1695), English antiquary,
was the fourth son of Thomas Wood (1580-1643), B.C.L. of
Oxford, where Anthony was born on Dec. 17, 1632. He was sent
to New College school in 1641, and at the age of twelve was
removed to the free grammar school at Thame, where his studies
were interrupted by civil war skirmishes. He was then placed
under the tuition of his brother Edward (1627-1655), of Trinity
college. He was entered at Merton college in 1647, and made
postmaster. In 1652 he amused himself with ploughing and bell-
ringing, and "having had from his most tender years an extraordi-
nary ravishing delight in music," began to teach himself the
violin, and was examined for the degree of B.A. He engaged
a music-master, and obtained permission to use the Bodleian,
"which he took to be the happiness of his life." He was admitted
M.A. in 1655, and in the following year published a volume of
sermons by his late brother Edward. He began systematically
to copy monumental inscriptions and to search for antiquities
in the city and neighbourhood. He went through the Christ Church
registers, "at this time being resolved to set himself to the study
of antiquities." Dr. John Wallis, the keeper, allowed him free
access to the university registers in 1660; "here he layd the
foundation of that book which was fourteen years afterwards
published, viz., Hist, et Antiq. Univ. Oxon." He also came to
know the Oxford collections of Brian Twyne to which he was
greatly indebted. He steadily investigated the muniments of all
(he colleges, and in 1667 made his first journey to London, where
he visited Dugdale, who introduced him into the Cottonian library,
and Prynnc showed him the same civility for the Tower records.
]In the Life he speaks of himself and his family as Wood or &
Wood, the last form being a pedantic return to old usage adopted by
himself. A pedigree is given in Clark's edition.
On Oct. 22, 1669, he was sent for by the delegates of the press,
who arranged to publish his work. In 1674 appeared Historia et
antiquitates Universitatis Oxoniensis, handsomely reprinted "e
Theatro Sheldoniano," in two folio volumes, the first devoted
to the university in general and the second to the colleges. His
great work was produced by a London publisher in 1691-1692,
2 vols. folio, Athenae Oxonienses: an Exact History of all the
Writers and Bishops who have had their Education in the Uni-
versity of Oxford from 1500 to 1690, to which are added the
Fasti, or Annuls for the said time. On July 29, 1693 he was
condemned in the vice-chancellor's court for certain libels against
the late earl of Clarendon, fined, banished from the university
until he recanted, and the offending pages burnt. Wood died on
Nov. 28, 1695, and was buried in the outer chapel of Si. John
Baptist (Merton college), in Oxford, where he superintended the
digging of his own grave but a few days before.
Wood's original manuscript (purchased by the Bodleian in 1846)
was first published by John Gutch as The History and Antiquities
of the Colleges and /falls in the University of Oxford, with a con-
tinuation (1786-90, 2 vols. 4to), and The History and Antiquities
of the University of Oxford (1792-96, 3 vols. 4to), with portrait of
Wood. To these should be added The Antient and Present State
of the City of Oxford, chiefly collected by A. a Wood, with additions
by the Rev. Sir J. /Vj/ra// "(1773, 4to; the text is garbled and the
editing very imperfect). An admirable edition of the Survey of the
Antiquities of the City of Oxford, composed in 1661-66 by Anthony
Wood, edited by Andrew Clark, was issued by the Oxford Historical
Society (1889-99, 3 vols. 8vo.). Wood bequeathed his library (127
MSS. and 970 printed books) to the Ashmolcan Museum, and the
keeper, William Huddesford, printed a catalogue of the MSS. in 1761.
In 1858 the whole collection was transferred to the Bodleian, where
25 volumes of Wood's MSS. had been since 1690.
We are intimately acquainted with the most minute particulars
of Wood's life from his Diaries (1657-95) and autobiography; all
earlier editions are now superseded by the elaborate work of Andrew
Clark, The Life and Times of Anthony Wood, Antiquary, of Oxford,
1632-1695, described by himself (Oxford Historical Society, 1891-1900,
5 vols. 8vo). See also Reliquiae Hearnianae, ed. Bliss (2nd ed.,
1869, 3 vols. i2mo.) ; Hcarnc's Remarks and Collections (Oxford
Historical Society, 1885-1907), vols. i.-viii.; Macray's Annals of the
Bodleian Library (2nd ed., 1890) ; Nichols's Literary Anecdotes (q
vols., 1812-15), i. iv. v. viii.; T- Granger's Biogr. History of England
(3 vols., 1806, ed. by Noble), i.
WOOD, MRS. HENRY [ELLEN] (1814-1887), English
novelist, was born at Worcester on Jan. 17, 1814. Her maiden
name was Price; her father was a glove manufacturer in Wor-
cester. She married Henry Wood in 1836, and after her marriage
lived for the most part in France, her husband, who died in 1866,
being at the head of a large shipping and banking firm. In 1860
she wrote a temperance tale, Danesbnry House. Her first great
success was made with East Lynne (1861) which was translated
into several languages, and was dramatized with great success.
Other novels followed. She became proprietor and editor of the
Argosy magazine in 1867. She died on Feb. 20, 1887.
Memorials of Mrs. Henry Wood, by her son, were published in
1894.
WOOD, SIR HENRY EVELYN (1838-1919), British
field marshal, was born at Braintree, Essex, on Feb. 9, 1838, the
youngest son of Sir John Page Wood, Bart. Educated at Marl-
borough, he entered the Royal Navy in 1852, and served as a
midshipman in the Crimean War. He then transferred into the
army. Wood served in the Indian mutiny, and returned from
India with a V.C. and a growing reputation. In 1878 he be-
came regimental lieutenant-colonel of the 90th, which he im-
mediately joined in South Africa. In January 1879 be was in
command of the left column of the army that crossed the Zulu
frontier. At the close of the war Sir Evelyn Wood was appointed
to command the Chatham district. But in January 1881 he was
again in South Africa with the local rank of major-general, and
after Sir G. P. Colley's death at Majuba he negotiated the armis-
tice with General Joubert. He returned to the Chatham com-
mand in 1882, having meantime been promoted substantive
major-general. In 1882 he commanded a brigade in the Egyptian
expedition. Wood remained in Egypt for six years. From 1883
to 1885 he was Sirdar of the Egyptian army, which he reorganized
and in fact created. During the Nile operations of 1884-85 he
commanded the forces on the line of communication of Lord
714.
WOOD
Wolseley's army. In 1886 he returned to an English command,
and in January 1889, he was appointed to the Aldershot com-
mand. In 1891 he went to the War Office as quartermaster-
general. Four years afterwards he became adjutant-general. He
was promoted full general in 1895. He commanded the II. Army
Corps and Southern Command from 1901 to 1904, being pro-
moted field marshal on April 8, 1903. In 1907 he became colonel
of the Royal Horse Guards. After retiring from active service
he took a leading part, as chairman of the Association for the
City of London, in the organization of the Territorial Force.
He died on Dec. 2, 1919. Sir Evelyn Wood published several
works, perhaps the best known of which to the soldier are
Achievements of Cavalry (1897) and Cavalry in the Waterloo
Campaign (1896). He also wrote The Crimea in 1854 and in
1894; an autobiography, From Midshipman to Field AfarsJml;
and The Revolt in Hindostan. In 1917 he published a volume of
reminiscences entitled Winnowed Memories.
WOOD, SIR HENRY JOSEPH (1860- ), English con-
ductor and musician, was born in London on March 3, 1869. His
musical education was largely received at the Royal Academy
of Music, and at the age of ten he became deputy organist, at
St. Mary's Aldermanbury. As a conductor he first appeared in
1889 with Rousbey opera company, and for some years he toured
with various companies, including the Carl Rosa (1891). His
name has been closely bound up with the musical life of London
since 1895, when the Queen's Hall Promenade concerts were
started under a system of guarantees, with himself as conductor
and Robert Newman as manager. These increasingly popular con-
certs, held nightly during August and part of September, have
been conducted by Sir Henry Wood throughout, although the
management has thrice changed hands and the concerts have,
since 1927, been under the direction of the British Broadcasting
Corporation. The educative results of Sir Henry's liberal pro-
gramme policy have been very remarkable. As conductor of the
Queen's Hall Symphony concerts, established in 1897, he has
made for himself a high international reputation and has greatly
raised the standard of orchestral playing in England. lie was
knighted in 1911.
WOOD, JOHN (c. 1705-1754), British architect, was born
about 1705, probably in Yorkshire. He settled in Bath in 1727,
and is known as "Wood of Bath." He paid several earlier visits
to Bath for the purpose of constructing roads. As an architect
he was particularly successful in his designs for streets or groups
of houses, and became well known as a follower of the Palladian
school. His designs in Bath include Queen's square; Prior park,
built for Ralph Allen; and the Royal crescent, designed by him-
self, but built under the direction of his son. The Bristol (1740-
43) and Liverpool (1748-55) exchanges were also designed by
Wood, and he restored Llandaff cathedral. His best work is, how-
ever, to be seen in Bath, where his classical style harmonized
with the spirit of the town as he found it. He died on May 23,
1754. Many of his designs were carried out after his death by
his son John (d. 1782), who also, in addition to many groups of
houses, built the Hot bath and the Royal Private baths.
The elder Wood wrote Choir Ganre (Stonehenge, 1747) ; Essay
Towards a Description of Bath (2 vols., 1742; reprinted, 1749
and 1765); and several other works on architecture.
WOOD, LEONARD (1860-1927), American soldier, was
born at Winchester, N.H., Oct. 9, 1860. He graduated from the
Harvard medical school in 1884, was appointed acting assistant
surgeon, U.S. army, in 1885, becoming assistant surgeon with the
rank of first-lieutenant in 1886, when he was assigned to Capt.
Lawton's expedition against the Apaches in the South-west, re-
sulting in the capture of Geronimo. For distinguished services he
was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honour. Jn 1891 he was
promoted captain and full surgeon, and later, while stationed in
Washington, D.C., became the close friend of Theodore Roosevelt,
then Assistant-Secretary of the Navy. On the outbreak of the
Spanish-American War in 1898 Wood was commissioned colonel
ist U.S. Volunteer Cavalry (the famous Rough Riders) with
Roosevelt as lieutenant-colonel. For conduct at Las Guasimas and
San Juan Hill, Wood was promoted brigadier-general, July 1898,
and in Dec. major-general of volunteers. He was military gov-
ernor of Cuba from 1899 to 1902, when the Cuban Republic was
established. He was appointed brigadier-general U.S.A. Feb. 1901.
In 1903 he was sent to the Philippines and appointed governor of
the Moro province, being promoted major-general in that year.
In 1908 he returned to America as commander of the Eastern De-
partment. In 1910 he was appointed chief of staff, U.S. Army,
serving until 1914, when he was again given command of the East-
ern Department.
Gen. Wood as early as 1908 had urged preparedness. To
him was largely due the establishment of a summer camp at
Plattsburg for training civilian officers, which was taken as a
model for other camps of the kind after America's entrance into
the World War. Just before America's entrance into the World
War in 1917 Gen. Wood was assigned to the South-eastern Division
but was later transferred to Camp Funston, where he trained the
Sgth Div., N.A., the loth Div. of the regular army and other
troops. In 1919 he was put in command of the Central Department,
with headquarters at Chicago. In 1920 he was a prominent candi-
date for the presidential nomination at the Republican National
Convention. Harding, a "dark horse," was nominated on the
roth ballot, with 692^ votes to 156 for Gen. Wood. In 1921 Gen.
Wrood was sent at the head of the Wood-Forbes mission to the
Philippine islands. Prior to leaving he was appointed head of the
University of Pennsylvania, but did not assume charge because
of the President's desire that he should remain in the Philippines
as governor-general, a position which he held from Oct. 1921 until
his death which occurred in Boston, Mass., on Aug. 7, 1927. Wood
was the author of The Military Obligation of Citizenship, lectures
at Princeton and elsewhere (1915); Our Military History, Its
Facts and Fallacies (1916); Universal Military Training (1917);
and America's Duty as Shown by Our Military History (1921).
See I. F. Marcosson, Leonard Wood, Prophet of Preparedness
(1917) ; Joseph H. Sears, The Career of Leonard Wood (1919) ; and
Leonard Wood on National Issues (1920), compiled by Evan J.
David; Herman Hagcdorn, That Human Being, Leonard Wood
(1920) ; Walter Robb, The Khaki Cabinet and Old Manila (1926).
WOOD, ROBERT WILLIAMS (1868- ), American
physicist, born in Concord, Mass., May 2, 1868. He graduated
at Harvard in 1891, studied a year at Johns Hopkins university
and two years at the University of Berlin (1892-94). He was
assistant professor in physics at the University of Wisconsin,
1897-1901, and then became professor of experimental physics
at Johns Hopkins. A method which he originated in 1898 of thaw-
ing frozen water mains and service pipes by passing an electric
current through them has been widely adopted. He was awarded
the Rumford medal for investigations in light, particularly for
his work upon the optical properties of metallic vapours, and the
John Scott Legacy medal for his diffraction process of colour
photography. Besides scientific papers and monographs he is the
author of Physical Optics (1905; rev. ed., 1911) and Researches
in Physical Optics (2 vols., 1913-19).
WOOD. In all classes of plants, including for instance ferns,
more highly organized than mosses, wood occurs in all members of
the plant and is continuous from the finest rootlets up the root and
stem, into the leaves and flowers or the equivalents of these.
Wood performs two functions in the plant's life: first, it serves
for the transport of water and contained salts, absorbed by the
roots, to parts where this "raw sap" is needed and especially to
the leaves; secondly it gives mechanical strength to the plant.
In palms and bamboos the wood of the leaves is string-like in
form and is confined to the nerves or veins ; from these the strings
extend into the trunk or stem, where they descend but join one
another at intervals thus producing a more or less basket-like or
loose loofah-like complex, which is embedded in the general mass
of tissue composing the rest of the trunk. Thus it is this linked
net-like complex of woody strings that corresponds to the solid
mass of wood of a pine or oak.
Wood that has attained only slight thickness and accordingly
cannot be termed timber, is nevertheless utilized, for instance in
the form of thin branches and twigs to make besoms and baskets.
Even when wood attains greater thickness it is not always timber,
WOODBINE— WOOD-CARVING
7*5
since there are some woods so soft, light in weight, and weak that
they have little or no value as structural material upon which there
is a demand for strength: such wood supplies means of flotation
for fishing-nets and buoys, and insulation, while the lightest of all
are pith-like and are the materials of which sun-helmets are
composed. Some of these hats are known as "solar topees," yet
the word "solar" has no relation to the sun as it is a perversion
of the East Indian name, solah, of the aquatic plant producing
this wood. (See also TIMBER.) (P. GM.)
WOODBINE, a plant name, applied in England to the honey-
suckle (q.v.) and in America to the Virginia creeper (q.v.).
WOODBRIDGE, a market town in Suffolk, England; 79 m.
N.E. by E. from London by the L.N.E.R. Pop. (1921) 4,595.
Woodbridge Abbey, built by Seekford, occupies the site of an
Augustinian foundation of the i2th century. There is a large
agricultural trade, and general fairs and horse fairs are held.
WOODBURY, LEVI (1789-1851), American political
leader, was born at Francestown, N.H., on Dec. 22, 1789. He
graduated from Dartmouth college in 1^09, was admitted to the
bar in 1812, and was a judge of the superior court from 1816 to
1823. In 1823-24 he was governor of the State, in 1825 was
a member and speaker of the State house of representatives, and
in 1825-31 and again in 1841-45 was a member of the U.S.
Senate. He was secretary of the Navy in 1831-34, secretary of
the Treasury in 1834-41, and associate justice of the U.S. Su-
preme Court from 1846 until his death at Portsmouth, N.H.,
Sept. 4, 1851.
WOOD-CARVING, the process whereby wood is orna-
mented with design by means of sharp cutting tools held in the
hand. The term includes anything within the limit of sculpture in
the round up to hand-worked mouldings such as help to compose
the tracery of screens, etc. (For the technique of this art, see
SCULPTURE TECHNIQUE, WOOD-CARVING.) (X.)
AFRICAN
In dealing with African woodwork, a distinction must be drawn
between the Mohammedan and the fetishistic countries.
Mohammedan Art. — In the Mohammedan countries, which
are mainly in the north, the art has remained decorative, and
statuary has been excluded; this is due partly to the natural bent
of the Semitic race, which, coming from Arabia, has dominated
these regions since the time of Mohammed, and partly to specific
commandments in the Koran. Objects in daily use, furniture,
and semi-architectural work are consequently almost the only
forms of art for which the natives have used wood in Egypt, Trip-
oli, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco, and among the scattered tribes
north of Lake Chad and the Niger. Among objects in daily use,
mention may be made of the powder-flasks of the Berber tribes of
northern Morocco, carved with geometrical designs, and in some
cases ornamented with copper studs and filigree-work; rifle-stocks
inlaid with silver, ivory, and mother-of-pearl; mirrors, small
chests, and boxes, similarly inlaid, particularly among the peoples
more directly influenced by Egypt and the East.
Special attention has been paid by the Egyptians to furniture,
and they have always excelled in inlaying, marquetry, and turned-
wood work. There are but few types, however. Some are of a
liturgical character, like the knrsi, or Koran reading-desk, and
the minbar, or pulpit, while others are for household purposes,
like the sandnq or clothes-chest and the marfoa or dresser. These
have often, particularly in Morocco, been carved with palm-leaves
or conches and painted in gay colours. The Moors had also bed-
ends, small cupboards, and large armchairs used at marriage-
feasts, of chased wood, painted with delicate floral and geometrical
designs. But it is in large-scale architectural decoration that the
African Muslims have displayed the highest degree of skill.
The mqarbe or bees'-nest process consists in constructing arches,
niches, or cupolas by placing together a large number of small
wooden pales, all capable of reduction to seven fundamental forms,
and each projecting corbel-wise in the manner of a trumpet. A
series of these little trumpets is formed into vaults or portions
of vaults hollowed out into hundreds of cells and bristling with
stalactites, producing the most opulent effect.
Another process is the large-scale mosaic in wood, used mainly
for ceilings and doors in magnificent buildings. For ceilings it is
used in two ways: (i) The beams being left visible and assembled
in lines agreeable to the eye, panels of various shapes being inter-
posed between them at intervals to produce a large mosaic pre-
senting various combinations and geometrical flourishes. (2)
A rough framework, which is not visible, having inlaid upon it
panels of wood on which baguettes and leaves of wood are applied
so as to form a. mosaic in relief. In the case of doors the processes
are much the same, except that uprights and lintels take the place
of beams and joists. This art of wood mosaic has been practised
with great success, especially in Morocco and Egypt. In Morocco
it has almost always been embellished with very delicate ara-
besques, painted with size, varnished, and gilded. In Egypt, in
the best periods, it was adorned with elements in ivory, ebony,
or even precious metal, with thin sheets of wood here and there.
Turned woodwork has been used mainly for balustrades and
partitions. The native method is to fit little twirls between turned
baguettes. Both twirls and baguettes are made on primitive lines,
with a wire saw wielded in one hand, the other hand holding a
chisel which is guided with the foot. The method is still in use
among the Spaniards in certain Andalusian towns. Partitions
of turned wood have been used chiefly by the Egyptians, for the
kind of loggia called musharrabieh which gives so picturesque
an appearance to the streets of old Cairo.
The Muslims have produced some most beautiful interior
decoration in the form of wood-carving. In Morocco more es-
pecially, the inner courtyards of the houses in the i4th, i5th and
1 6th centuries were ornamented throughout with corbelled pent-
houses, friezes, lintels, and mural facings in carved wood. The
carving is not very deep; it is a bas-relief, with sometimes an inter-
mediate plane between the foundation and the most salient parts.
The decorative motifs are floral twines composed of two-
branched palm-leaves, interspersed with conches and pineapples.
There are also inscriptions in Arabic characters artistically inter-
twined with the floral elements. The depth of the hollows is
from 3 to 4 centimetres. Very often, however, especially in
more modern buildings, the wood has been simply engraved on
the surface, so as to accentuate the painting a little more heavily.
In practice these different methods of decoration are often
combined. So in doors or very elaborate ceilings in wood mosaic,
the boards may be carved with interlaced palm-leaves. The
panels of which inlaid ceilings are composed are not always
ornamented with mosaic; many of them are merely engraved
with rectilinear geometrical designs. Again, partitions of turned
wood are frequently embellished with baguettes forming com-
binations or even inscriptions in stylized Curie characters.
It should be added that all these methods of woodworking have
also been applied to objects not directly concerned with archi-
tecture, such as mihrabs (niches indicating the direction of Mecca
in mosques), and in particular to some minbar s (pulpits).
At the present day the native woodwork is not so excellent as
it used to be; but highly-5killed joiners, carpenters, and wood-
carvers are still to be met with in Morocco. Marshal Lyautey,
while he was administrator attached to Sultan Mulay Yussef,
helped to preserve these traditions of craftsmanship. Among the
best-known examples are: At Cairo, the rich collections of the
museum of Arab art, several doors and minbars of mosques, lids
of tombs, etc.; at Kairuan (Tunis), the minbar (gth century)
and the maqsura (nth century) of the Sidi-Okba mosque; at
Algiers, the minbar of the chief mosque (nth century); at Fez,
the splendid decorations in the inner courtyards of the Medersas
of Buanania, El Attarin, El Mesbahiya, Es Sahrij (i4th century),
and Esh Sharrabin (i6th century); at Marrakesh, the minbar of
the mosque of El Kutubia, the wall-facings and friezes of the
Ben-Yussef Medersa (i6th century), and the stalactite vault of
the mausoleum of the Saadian princes (i6th century).
Fetishistic Art. — In the Fetishistic countries, peopled by
black races, the development of art has been entirely opposite
to that in the Mohammedan countries; it has been concerned
mainly with the representation of living beings. This art is
essentially religious. The carved wooden images are mostly
716
WOOD-CARVING
statuettes of gods and goddesses and masks for ritual dances.
Drinking-cups, scats, head-rests, etc., are also met with. Though
long regarded as purely barbarous, in recent .years negro art has
attracted the attention of a large number of enthusiastic collectors,
who recognize in it not merely an unusual and individual charac-
ter, but qualities of construction, synthesis, and even frequently
expression, together with a striking decorative power and delicacy
of ornament in objects of daily use. Few of the examples that
have reached us are of any great age, the oldest dating back only
some two or three centuries. According to the closest students,
however, they follow for the most part traditional types the
canons of which were established in very remote times. One of
the features of the human effigies is the intentional smallness of
the lower limbs. Some say that this deformity is intended to
represent the primitive inhabitants of Africa, the Pygmies or
Negrillos, who are supposed to have been deified by the negroes.
Roughly, the chief centres of negro art are : Benin, where local
traditions have mingled with Portuguese influences dating from
the 1 4th and isth centuries, with engaging results; the Ogowe*, in
the north of Gaboon, where wooden fetishes sheathed in copper
plating are the chief feature, the human form being completely
conventionalized into a geometrical figure; Dahomey, where the
human figures are much more realistic; the Congo, where there
are statuettes covering a fairly wide range of types, and also, in
the Kasai basin, objects of daily use which are remarkable both
in form and in ornamentation — goblets, drinking-cups, musical
instruments, chairs, etc.
Guinea, the Oil rivers, the Sudan, the Ivory coast, the Gold
coast, Dahomey, Liberia, the Camcroons, Gaboon, etc., have
produced statues and masks displaying the most painstaking work-
manship. Wood-carving is also found in Loango and Angola. The
finest collections of negro art are in the British museum, the
Trocadero museum at Paris, the Tervueren museum near Brussels,
and various museums in Germany. (J. GAJ,.)
Muslim Art: See S. Lane-Poole, The Art of the Saracens in Egypt
(1886) ; M. Herz, Catalogue, of the National Museum at Cairo (1896) ;
H. Saladin, Manuel d'Art Musulman; vol. i; L' Architecture (1907) ;
G. Migeon, Manuel d'Art Musulman; vol. //.; Lex Arts Plastiques
et Industries (1907) ; G. Manuals, La Chaire de la Grande Mosquet
d'Alger (1921) and Manuel d'Art Musulman (2 vols., 1926); J.
Gallotti, Le Jardin et la Maison Arahes au Maroc (1926).
Negro Art: See C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton, Antiquities from the
.City of Benin (1899); A. H. L. Fox-Pitt-Rivers, Antique Works of
Art from Binin (1900) ; M. de Zayas, African Negro Art (1916) ;
C. Einstein, Negerplastik (Munich, 1916) and Africanische Plastik
(1921) ; H. Clouzot and A. Level, L'Art Negre et I'Art Oceanien (1919)
and Sculptures Africaines et Octaniennes (1924) ; E. von Sydow, Kunst
dcr Naturvolker (1923) ; Handbook to the Ethnographical Collection
at the British Museum (2nd cd. 1925) ; G, Hardy, L'Art negre (1927).
PAR EASTERN
Splendid examples of Japanese 8th century wood-carving may
be found in the phoenix and musical angels adorning the canopy
hung in the Kondo of Horyuji and in the gigaku masks carved
in paulownia wood and preserved in the Imperial treasure-house
Shosoin, the Horyuji monastery and other ancient temples in
Japan. The gigaku masks in the Shosoin, numbering 164, the
majority of which are in wood, the most of which are in paulownia,
if not all, the rest being in dry-lacquer, are believed to have been
used in connection with religious services observed at Todaiji,
especially at the inauguration ceremony of the Great Buddha
which took place on April 9, 752. The belief is substantiated by
the carvers' signatures and dates written on the inside of the
masks, and also on the original bags which contained them. In-
scriptions on some of the masks indicate the number of days
spent in carving the mask, some being 5 and 7 and others 9 days.
The wooden maiks used in bugaku, the music of which is still
preserved and occasionally performed in the Palace, are smaller
and less grotesque in appearance, as may be seen from the old
masks scheduled as "national- treasures" and preserved in some
temples. The no masks, all carved in wood, which came into
existence in the i6th century, taxed the resources of the talented
carvers, and a large number of masterpieces are now in possession
of the head families of the different schools of no drama.
Up to the 1 5th century, the work of the wood-carver was con-
fined to the embellishment of the temples : carvings on the pede-
stals, nimbus, and baldachins of Buddhist figures, and some slight
ornamentations on the building itself, such as the carving of the
beam-ends into animal heads and the use of the kaeru-mata, a
simple decoration between the beams. But in the second half of
the 1 6th century, the decorative wood-carving came to assume an
importance in palatial mansions of the shoguns and in shrines
where wood carvings were inserted into the kaeru-mata between
the beams, attached under the rafters, used as the panels of the
gate, etc., a large number of which may still be seen at Kitano
Jinsha and Nishi Hongwanji of Kyoto, Chikubushima Jinsha in
Lake Biwa, etc. The predominance of wood-carving as an archi-
tectural decoration in the i/th century may be seen at the
mausoleums of the Tokugawa shoguns at Shiba, Tokyo, and at
Nikko, where both the interior and exterior of the buildings are
profusely covered with wood-carvings ranging over a wide variety
of subjects faithfully executed and realistically coloured.
The taste for simplicity has not tolerated wood-carving in the
architecture of dwelling Houses. The only place the carver could
display his art was in ramma, the ventilating panel in the narrow
partition wall over the sliding screens that separate one room
from another. The ramma carving has made a special develop-
ment of its own, all sorts of subjects being treated: flowers and
birds, animals and insects, figures in history and romance, land-
scapes and mists, clouds and waves, etc., carved on board to give,
together with the decoration on the sliding screens, a character
to the room.
Some fine carving in wood, the temple decoration in miniature
scale, may be seen in the family shrine (bntsu-dan) where the an-
cestral tablets are kept, generally fitted into a recess in the room.
In their profuse and minute decoration some of the portable
shrines (mikoshi}, used in the procession at the festival, are also
beautiful examples of the art of wood-carving. So also are the
small ornaments for cabinet decoration or for the tokonoma, the
recess in the guest room for objects of art. Some wonderful
workmanship in wood has been produced by the netsnke (orna-
mental button for suspending a pouch or medicine case) carvers
when many of the talented sculptors in wood turned their atten-
tion from carving Buddhist figures to the production of smaller
objects in greater demand.
The Chinese have utilized the wood-carving more lavishly than
the Japanese in their home architecture. They have carved their
heavy beams on the ceiling and the massive pillars as well with
delicate tracery. The simplest of their chairs and tables are in-
variably carved in the "key"-pattern, some simpler than others,
and the doors are in delicate trelliswork design or ornamented with
carvings in low relief. Lanterns with diapers or some other inter-
esting designs in pierced work are held by brackets or arms carved
in forms of dragon heads. Although rich in variety, the designs
used in the wood-carving, show a fondness for geometric patterns
that is distinctly Chinese. The following are some of the other
motives resorted to by the wood-carvers: emblems of richness and
happiness, clouds and thunder patterns, the curious mask of a
creature "TaoTieh," "The Eight Trigrams" or "Pa Kwa," "The
Four Quadrants," "The Five Elements," etc. Sacred scenes and
figures incised in floral scrolls, intermingled with series of conven-
tional emblems of one religion or another form subjects for wood-
carvers in decorating the Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian temples.
Sacred to Buddhism are the eight symbols, the chief among which
is the lotus, an emblem of purity, chosen because the lotus lifts out
of the mud its rosy or white blossoms unsullied, forming a fitting
resting place for the Buddha. Taoists have their symbols of eight
immortals and derive many floral emblems of longevity from sa-
cred plants, the most prominent among which is the peach, the tree
of life of their paradise, bearing fruits ripening but once in 3,000
years which confer immortality to those who partake of it. While
Confucianism has no distinct emblem of its own, the symbol of
culture and examples of filial piety, such as the well known 24
examples of filial piety, are sometimes attributed to it.
Artistic vitality characterizes even the highly conventionalized
designs of the Japanese wood-carvers, but the bulk of the Chinese
work reveals a sense of laborious and mechanical execution. On
WOOD -CARVING
Pi.ATK I
* •
DECORATIVE WOODWORK OF MOHAMMEDAN AFRICA
1. Part of a series of wooden arcades in a medresseh of Fez. Morocco. 2. Mosaic doorway of wood In the Medresseh
Bou-Anania, Fez. 3. Painted wooden table and pottery, Fez. 4. Marriage throne of carved and painted work
I'l.ATK II
WOOD-CARVING
WOOD-CARVING OF AFRICAN NEGROES
1. Wooden drum carved with geometrical designs and a human face In 4. Head of an antelope from the Sudan, where the sculpture bears a re-
relief, Belgian Congo semblance to that of the primitive Egyptians
2. Mask for ceremonial dance
3. Wooden fetish copper covered In ihe form of . convention., human floure 5' Part °' ° """" reBresentin" "» »odde" of -".Urnlty
(bakota) $ Mas^ with beard of animal hair worn in a ceremonial dance
WOOD-CARVING
PI.ATK HI
FETISHES, GOBLETS AND A MASK CARVED IN WOOD BY AFRICAN NEGROES
1. Statuette fetish from Gaboon
2. Statuette fetish from Dahomey
3. Statuette fetish from the Congo with a cavity In the abdomen to receive
a special charm
4. Goblets ornamented with the geometrical designs characteristic
African negro art (Kagai)
5. Mask from the Ivory Coast worn In a ceremonial dance
of
PLATE TV
WOOD-CARVING
•Y COUWSY OF (I, 2, 3, S, I) THE DIRECTOR OF THE VICTORIA AND ALICRT MUSEUM
EXAMPLES OF FAR EASTERN WOOD-CARVING
1, 2, 3. Chinese shop fronts. Carving of minute and delicate character
4. Carved ramma at Nishi Hongwanjl, Kyoto
5, 6. Elaborately carved beams from Chinese houses
7. Wood-carving at Kitano Jinsha, Kyoto
8. Carved Chinese screen
9. A Chinese tomplo elaborately carved
10. Wood-carving at the Nikko Shrine, Japan
11. Wood-carving on the wall of the Nikko Shrine
12. Carving of a sleeping cat at the Nikko Shrine
13. Carved ramma at Nishi Hongwanji, Kyoto
WOOD-CARVING
717
the whole, the Chinese wood-carvings are more effective as a
design and ornament compared with the Japanese work, which,
while the thing carved on is well decorated, carry a far less
decorative value. The former aims more for the effect, while
the latter pays much greater attention to the mode of execution
and technical skill. The former covers the carving with paint or
lacquer, while the latter delights in appreciating, whenever possible,
the clear cut chisel marks in natural wood. Even the decorative
panels in the temples and shrines which are coloured, show traces
of the Japanese wood-carver's pleasure and satisfaction derived
from the clear cuts of his chisel. There is a tendency in both for
an effort to surmount formidable difficulties in design and execu-
tion, defying time and labour, with little regard for the artistic
merit in the result achieved. (See INDIAN ART AND SINHALESE,
INDONESIAN and FURTHER INDIAN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY,— Temples and their Treasures, Dept. of Interior,
Japan; F. T. Piggott, The Decorative Art of Japan (1910); S. W.
Bushell, Chinese Art (1904-1909). (J. HAR.)
GOTHIC .
Such meagre fragments of woodwork as have come down to
us from the nth and I2th centuries, tend to show that the
woodworker was following the stoneworker in every particular,
and that where he failed to be constructive, he had to call in the
help of the metalworker to make his ware hold together. The
stoneworker was paramount until about the isth century. From
that time onward it was the woodworker who became predomi-
nant. By that time he had found that wood should be treated
in quite a different manner from stone, and, inspired by new ideas
and new motives, he invented new methods for the construction
and embellishment of his work. The wood-carver, then, no longer
followed the patterns and designs of the stone-carver, but he
made them for himself in a manner to suit the material and tools
he worked with, in fact he began to influence the stoneworkers
in such a way as sometimes to divert them from their intrinsic
principles.
Early Period. — The earliest examples of wood-carving are
some remnants of Scandinavian carving dating from the ninth
and tenth centuries. They are carved framings of doorways made
of thick planks of pincwood. They follow the same form of
designs as are found on Celtic stone crosses, or in the elaborate
initial letters of early illuminated manuscripts. This carving is
in low relief, and it is always kept up to the surface of the ma-
terial out of which it is made. The designs are of interlacing
stems sometimes foliated, and often terminating1 in a monster's
head. Occasionally the stem is doubled and criss-crossed, and
invariably the space which is decorated is so much filled with
pattern as to leave scarcely any ground showing. An example of
this kind of carving is shown in the reproduction of a Norwegian
chair of the Qth or loth century. (PI. V., fig. i.)
Of the Norman period in England only a few isolated pieces
remain, and these are only enriched with a row of moulded arches,
as in the railing at Compton church, Surrey, or the desks at
Rochester, or the tomb at Pitchford church, Shropshire, which
has also a shield carved in oak in each arch of the arcaded side
of the tomb, supporting the carved wood effigy of Sir John Pitch-
ford, which was made at the very end of the Norman period. It
may be conjectured that the characteristic feature of Norman
wood-carving is the rounded surface of most of the foliated forms,
which appear to have avoided hollows. The leaves were often a
series of lobes with a V-shaped sinking round the edge. Even in
the mouldings, beads or rounds preponderated over hollows, and
in the grotesque beaked heads carved on the arches to many a
doorway the surface treatment is generally a series of ribs or
small rolls, rather than a succession of hollows or V cuts as was
the case in Byzantine ornament. Sometimes the stems of the
foliage were enriched by a small bead carved on either side of
a rounded stem, as may be seen on the Prior's doorway at Ely
cathedral.
Of the early English period which lasted roughly from 1190 to
1310— a little over 100 years,— there is not a great deal of wood-
carving remaining, though there is sufficient to tell us what it was
like, even in elaborate work, as in the stalls at Winchester cathe-
dral. These however were executed at the very end of the i3th
century. They are carved with the utmost care and skilfulness
but the work follows the idiosyncrasies of the stonemason and
carver, inasmuch as it is cut out of solid blocks of oak and the
forms and designs are identical with that of stonework. Some pf
the designs for foliage follow the typical early English forms,
whilst others might be taken for the work of the next great
divisional period of architecture which followed. The miserere
seat from the Priory church at Christchurch, Hampshire is a
good example of early English carving. (PI. V., fig. 2.) Others may
be found in Henry VII. 's Chapel at Westminster, and at Exeter.
In the traditional carvings of the I3th century the curves of
the foliage are very simple. The leaves start from a fairly thick
stem which is generally cut very square in section. Sometimes
the curve of the stem is reversed as it nears the end of the
spray, but more often than not it is one simple curve which
quickens as it reaches the end of the leaf, and finally buries itself
in a deep pocket in the centre lobe. The variations of this form
of foliage are wonderful and beautiful in the extreme. The build-
ing where this form of carving may best be studied in England
is Wells cathedral. Towards the end of the i3th century the
wood workers were coming into greater prominence. There is an
example of a groined roof with carved bosses at the junction
of the ribs at Warmington, Northamptonshire, and of carved roof
beams at Bradficld, Berkshire; and Rochester cathedral has a
lean-to roof with moulded beams.
Decorated Style.— The next phase of Gothic work, which be-
gan about 1300, is known in England as the Decorated style. It
lasted for the comparatively short time of 70 years, before it
gave place to another type. Even during these 70 years carving
had more than one character. At first there was a tendency to
follow more closely naturalistic forms, though treating them con-
ventionally, but this is rather more apparent in the stone-carver's
work than in the wood-carver's. This faithful portraying of natu-
ral forms does not appear to have lasted for more than 10 to 20
years. What succeeded was a very conventional and exaggerated
treatment of the surface of foliage applied indiscriminately to
leaves of every description. It consisted of a large bump in the
middle of the leaf, a smaller one in the centre of each lobe and
a still smaller one on every serration. The effect of this arrange-
ment was a deep hollow round each protuberance in the centre
of the leaf, partly broken by the lip or raised edge to the circular
eyes which divide the main lobes of the leaf.
The Fifteenth Century.— The isth century was produc-
tive of the finest quality and of the largest amount of decorative
Gothic woodwork that the world has 'even seen. Although there
was a distinct style pervading the whole period, there was more
variety in expressing it than had been the case in any of the
previous developments in architecture. This period of work which
is known as the Perpendicular style began about the year 1390
and continued until about 1550; after that date it was practised
in a debased form for another 100 years.
It was a time of prosperity. Spacious and noble churches were
built and sumptuously furnished and decorated. Not only did one
parish vie with another in erecting churches with costly and elabo-
rate fittings richly painted and gilded, but the merchants also
built noble houses for themselves. There was no difference in
the style of building between domestic and ecclesiastical edifices,
save that many houses were constructed of timber. Screens,
pulpits and font covers were invariably prepared with gesso and
sometimes minute decoration added to the faces of the buttresses,
as at Southwold, and then gilded, and sprays of flowers painted
on the broad hollows. The headings were picked out with a
chevron, or a twist of two or more colours like a barber's pole.
The corner posts generally received a greater or less degree of
carved ornamentation such as is here shown from a house in
Suffolk (PL V., fig. 4).
The most noticeable features of the work of this period are
that carving became flatter, tracery was built up of several
boards as one order was superimposed upon another and not cut
out of one thick piece of oak as had formerly been done. It will
be seen that in the emblems of S.S.«John and Matthew (PL V.,
7i8
WOOD-CARVING
fig. 3), the work is applied and that a broad simple treatment is
the outstanding characteristic of these vigorous carvings. Whereas
in Decorated carving the prominent projections on the surface of
leaves were made into round bumps, in Perpendicular carving
these projections were made to take a rectangular form. Above
all the carver worked in a manner that suited his tools and
material. In the latter half of the isth century some of the
carved foliage is composed almost entirely of hollows divided by
a V cut to represent the stem of the leaf, or by a softly carved
raised stem. The edges of the leaves are kept up and the serra-
tions are produced by a vertical cut with a gouge at right angles
to the edge of the leaf and a hollow cut with the same tool on the
edge of the leaf, getting deeper until the chip falls out as the
cut meets the first incision. The inner edge of these gouge cuts
form the centre stems of the serrations. The Poppy-head from
Walpole St. Peter (PL V., fig. 5) partly illustrates this. It will be
seen from this how very different is the carver's expression to what
it was when every serration was elaborately carved with a swelling
in the middle and a hollow round it. One type of leaf which was
invented, for there is nothing in nature like k, was that in which
the corners of the leaf ended in a tightly rolled ball, as may be
seen in the left hand leaf on the miserere seat from Ripon cathe-
dral, on which Samson is shown carrying away the gates of Gaza
(PL V., fig. 6).
The wealth of pattern and fanciful design in crestings, strings,
bosses, tracery, poppy-heads, bench ends, etc., is wonderful, and
the rendering of fables and biblical stories in the miserere seats
inimitable. The repeating patterns in carved tracery and crest-
ing, etc., are always interesting, because although there is a
sameness, there is never an exactitude. The curves of tracery are
never mechanical but are drawn freely, and great care was taken
to get a breadth of effect. The hollows of the tracery are very
flat, and not like the cast iron effect produced by some revivalists
who make the section of the hollow almost a quarter of a circle.
In a few of the East Anglican churches an effect of great richness
is produced by carving the back of the top rail of each bench
with a simple band of ornament, as in Dennington church, Suf-
folk (PL V., fig. 8). As band beyond band is seen when viewed
from the west end the impression it gives is quite startling.
An extraordinary development took place at this period in the
erection of timber roofs. The skill and imagination of the car-
penter together with the conception of the figure and foliage
carvers produced a wealth of grand architectural effects that has
never been surpassed. The roof of Westminster Hall will for ever
be a wonder for its construction and magnitude.
In England the type of work differs considerably in different
parts of the country. There is a great deal of beautiful oak carving
of this period to be seen in France, Germany and Flanders. In
St. Paul's church at Abbeville, there is a beautiful reredos (PL V.,
fig. 10) which is Flemish in character, illustrating the lace-like ef-
fect so often found in French carvings. Perhaps the most striking
piece of work on account of its vast amount, its completeness, and
its elaboration is the stalls at Amiens cathedral, which were begun
in 1508 and completed in 1522. One characteristic feature of
French Gothic tracery carving is that the section is often but little
more than a chamfer and when there is a double order it is often
made by dividing the chamfer by a square incision. Most of the
fofiage carving is expressed by the use of the gouge, that is to
say it is composed of broad hollows. In German work the tendency
is for the designs to be more intricate and to contain less breadth
and freedom in the carving. Most of this work is very much
undercut and the chief aim appears to have been definition of
outline and strong shadows.
At the end of the i5th century Renaissance influence begins to
make its appearance, and although the structural parts of wood-
work remain purely Gothic in design, it is in the carvings that the
innovation first makes its presence known. The four oak panels
(PL VI.) are dated 1540 and indicate the effect the new style is
beginning to have on the carver. The suggestion is that carvers
were introduced from Flanders with which there was constant
intercourse in connection with the trade in wool, and it is from this
source that the splendid traditions of the Gothic period were
undermined. When the fashion for this new form of art took hold
of the popular imagination, the end of Gothic was not far off;
although tradition born of centuries is hard to kill; for it was not
quite dead until the middle of the sixteenth century. (See also
SCULPTURE TECHNIQUE: Wood-carting; GOTHIC ART.)
(L. A. T.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— -A. C. Pugin, Gothic Ornaments (1831); J. K.
Colling, Gothic Ornaments (2 vols., 1847-50), and English Mediaeval
Foliage (1874) ; F. A. Crallan, Details of Gothic Wood Carving
(1896) ; E. Philipson, Choir Stalls and their Carvings (1896) ; J. C.
Cox and A. Harvey, English Church furniture (1907) ; Francis Bond,
Fonts and Font Covers (1908), Screens and galleries in English
Churches (1908), and Wood Carvings in English Churches (1910);
Fred. B. Bond and Rev. Dom Bede Camm, O.S.B., Roodscreens and
Roodlofts (1909) ; F, E. Howard and F. H. Crossley, English Church
Woodwork (1917).
MODERN
With the passing of the Gothic the symbolism that inspired the
wood-carver gave place to ornament almost devoid of ideas.
Under the influence of the builders it functioned to give expression
to proportion and structural design, and to convey something of
the joy of life in those effects with which man delights to sur-
round himself. When ' symbolism or aesthetic understanding is
not guiding the decorative instinct, manipulative skill becomes
easily a snare, hence, the styles of decoration which have arisen
throughout Europe since the Renaissance have provoked a con-
stant struggle between sincerity and technical dexterity. Espe-
cially has this been the case with wood-carving. Wood is an in-
tractable material to carve but, in skilful hands, lends itself
to the production of tours de force. The wood-carver's method
of cutting with gouges leaves the trace of the tool on modelled
surfaces to a greater or lesser degree, according to the vigour
and spontaneity of his work.
The Renaissance, — The wood-carving of the Renaissance was
chiefly in walnut, and is best understood if it be realized that the
structural design of the woodwork was reminiscent of building
and that structural features such as pilasters, capitals, etc., were
employed decora tively. Further, the Renaissance being in essence
the revival of classic motifs, familiarized by ancient examples
in marble, which material was especially understood in Italy,
it is not surprising that much of the work lacks a distinctive
wood-like effect. Nevertheless the release from the domination
of the middle ages with their limited symbolism brought a free-
dom and vitality into design that made the Italian carving the
inspiration of the greater part of Europe for many centuries,
and the inventiveness and opulence displayed have never been
excelled or rarely equalled elsewhere. Its motifs taken freely
from nature and treated naturalistically to an extent unknown in
the classic prototypes on which the Renaissance was founded,
were combined with arabesques, woven into designs by means of
sinuous and scroll movements, and modelled to produce to the
utmost a play of light and shade.
Towards the end of the i5th century, France felt the inspiration
of the Renaissance. It was there welcomed avidly by the carvers,
who had the Gothic insight to a degree never attained by the
Italians. Perhaps the highest beauty achieved by the Renaissance
was in the admixture of the new details and Gothic structure, so
common in France, suggesting that it is during transitional periods
in art that man is most vital and creative. The French under-
stood the treatment of wood and, although sometimes over-lavish
and small in detail, their technique was easy and unsophisticated,
and in the designs of the best examples provision was made
freely for surfaces broad enough to display the grain and beauty
of the wood. A characteristic example of the period are the doors
of St. Maclou, Rouen, which are attributed to Jean Gougon
and if this work be compared with much of the stonework of
the time it would appear that stone was influenced by wood.
The work of nearly the whole of Europe was gradually influ-
enced by Italy either directly or through an intervening country.
The influence was too vital to incite mere reproduction, even
had the means existed to make this possible, so that, except
where the craftsman was imported, the expression of Renais-
sance Ideas in each country had its distinctive idiom. The
Plateresque of Spain is noteworthy for the exceptional profusion
WOOD-CARVING
PLATE V
DV COURTESY O
•. C. CLAYTON
GOTHIC WOOD-CARVING
1. Chair of the 9th or 10th century, from Tydalen, Norway, an example of
the earliest type of extant wood-carving
2. Miserere seat of conventionalized foliage with writhing dragons, from
the Priory church of Christ Church, Hampshire, early 13th century.
The miserere or misericord, a projection on the under side of a hinged
stall seat for giving support to a standing person, afforded a rich
field to the ingenuity of the Gothic carver
3. Emblems of St. John and St. Matthew, 15th century applied carving
4. Corner post from a house fn Bury St. Edmunds, ornamented with tracery
and the family arms; 2nd quarter of the 16th century
5. Fleur-de-lis poppy-head, or finial of a bench end, Walpole St. Peter,
Norfolk, 15th century
6. Miserere seat in Ripon cathedral. Yorkshire. 1490. showing Samson
carrying away the gates of Gaza. As In the case with most Old
Testament subjects employed by the mediaeval wood-carver, the
story is symbolical of events in the New Testament, Samson repre-
senting Christ rising from the tomb
7. Pigs and bagpipes, a miserere seat in Rlpon cathedral, 1490, one of
many satires in wood directed against minstrelsy
8. Pew railing from Dennlngton church, Suffolk, late 15th century
9. Square "ship" bench end, church of East Budleigh, Devonshire, 1537
10. Reredos in St. Paul's church at Abbeville, France, showing the lace-
like effect characteristic of French carving
11. Square bench end from the church of Combe-in-Telgnhead, Devonshire,
carved with niched figures representing Sts. George, Agnes, Genest
(In fool'i cap and bells) and Hubert, 15th or 16th century
PLATE VI
WOOD-CARVING
T**^!;?'". t|*fpg»
M
m
r^rr,^
EXAMPLES OF GOTHIC CARVING
Carved wood portal of Beauvais Cathedral, Beauvais, France. Most of the foliage carving is expressed by use of the
gouge (composed of broad hollow«). Photograph shows the delicate lace-like effect often found In French carvlno
WOOD-CARVING
PLATE VII
MODERN WOOD-CARVING
1. Choir stalls (1499), Church of Sta Maria In Organo, Verona. 2. Choir
stalls (1535), Church of S. Pietro del Cassinensl, Perugia. 3, 4. North
transept door, Church of St. Maclou, Rouen. 5. Stalls north side. Mayor's
leat (1697), by Grinling Gibbons (1648-1720). In St. Paul's cathedral.
London. 6. Door of the boudoir of Mario Antoinette, Chateau de Ram*
bouillet. 7. Sixteenth century panels in Beauvals cathedral. 8. Pulpit by
Fredrtk F. Verbruggen (1655-1724), Church of St. Qudule, Brussels
PLATE VIII
WOOD-CARVING
•Y COURTESY OP (3) EUGENE BOR
EXAMPLES OF MODERN WOOD-CARVING
1. "Black Mare," carved fn mahogany and lacquered black by William Q.
Simonds. 2. "Mother and Child," carved in limewood by Charles Wheeler.
"Madonna" by Eugene Borga. held to be a remarkable example of carving
in wood. 6. "Oxen of Siena," a carved wood panel pierced, painted and
WOODCHUCK— WOODCRAFT
719
of small surface detail, sometimes of great refinement. In Ger-
many, the Netherlands and England the Renaissance carving is
associated with the development of strapwork, in some examples
of which it scrolls vigorously while in others groups of fruit,
grotesque masks and figures sculptured in high relief, enrich it.
At a later date the Baroque carving of large figures was in Ger-
many more remarkable for skill than taste and in Italy for wild-
ness in its application to its architectural setting. Of great interest
to the wood-carver as further examples of his art when un-
controlled by architectural considerations are a number of the
pulpits of Belgium. That by Verbruggen, 1699, in St. Gudule,
Brussels, is the most extravagant of the school and it was not
improved by the addition of the elaborate railing in 1780.
The Eighteenth Century.— The most radical change in style
after the Renaissance was the so-called Rococo (q.v.) of the
reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. It reflects the artificiality and
extravagance of its time and is distinguished by its arrangements
of "C" scrolls and attenuated foliage for structural as well as
decorative purposes, and for the substitution of richly orna-
mented broken curved movements for straight horizontal lines.
Its draftsmanship is superb, and for effect it relies upon the
perfect technique of its somewhat fantastic designs.
The inception of the i8th century in England, which is singu-
larly remarkable for the fertility of its designers and carvers,
witnessed the development of the art of Grinling Gibbons who
fashioned wood with a freedom and delicacy unprecedented. His
work has provoked controversy as to the suitability of wood for
masses of fruit and flowers in such high relief and so freely
undercut. The preservation of his work, in spite of the ravages
of the wood-worm justifies the apparent liberties he took with
his material and his freedom from the shackles of tradition; the
variety of his designs and his sense of decoration proclaim him
a great artist and craftsman. His most restrained work and prob-
ably his best, was done in association with Sir Christopher
Wren for the choir of St. Paul's cathedral, London.
The effects of the French Rococo were disastrous everywhere.
"In Italy and Germany the character of the style was interpreted
with a crudeness that almost amounted to a burlesque ; and only
in England, notably in the hands of Chippendale, were its sugges-
tions controlled by refinement and discretion. The swing of
the pendulum led to the production of the ornament of Louis
XVI. in France, Biedermeyer in Germany, and the Adams broth-
ers in England. These styles were a return to more severe
classic ideals, and the enrichments involved the repetition of
small patterns and motifs that had been exhausted in the past.
Decline of Wood-carving-— Since the end of the i8th cen-
tury, wood-carving all over Europe and America has been almost
confined to the reproduction of the styles of the past without
any regard for nationality or the expression of individuality.
L'art nouveau of France towards the close of the i9th century
had its repercussions elsewhere but passed away rapidly because
its tones were untrue to material; its wood-carving conveying
the impression of metal or modelled clay. The carver works with
the architect and furniture designer, and the tendencies of mod-
ern Europe influencing these in the direction of simplicity of
structure and effect, his art has languished. In Scandinavia,
where modern architecture is achieving triumphs, it is exceptional
for carved wood to be employed as decoration.
In America the wood-carver has not produced anything national
but there, as in Europe, are signs of activity and impending
fruition. He is producing objets d'art and entering the domain of
sculpture, hitherto almost monopolized by bronze and marble;
and in harmony with the modern spirit in decoration which is re-
discovering the nature of materials that may be fashioned
artistically, he is using woods which have been carved rarely in
the past, because of their grains and markings, and carving them
with the partial object of bringing out these peculiar features.
The general tendency is towards severe conventions, economy of
method and occasional colouring, but is otherwise too individual
to be categoried. The greatest encouragement is being given to
this work in Germany and Czecho-Slovakia but there the animat-
ing motive is derived from a revolt against pre-war ideals and
consequently, being largely a negative impulse, it would be
devoid of promise but for the stimulating and modifying influ-
ences which in modern times circulate internationally.
(H. H. G.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. S. Meyer, A Handbook of Ornament (1893; 2nd
rev. ed., by H. Stannus, 1894) ; B. Fletcher and Sir B. F. Fletcher,
A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method (1896; 8th ed.,
rev. and enlarged, 1928) ; A. Speltz, The Styles of Ornament from
prehistoric times to the middle of the XlXth century (trans, rev.
and ed., by R. P. Spiers, 1910). For special periods, see G. J.
Oakeshott, Detail and Ornament of the Italian Renaissance (1888) ;
A. N. Prentice, Renaissance Architecture and Ornament in Spain
(1894) ; G. von Bezold, Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Deutschland,
Belgien und Ddnemark (7 vols., 1900) ; J. Durm, Handbuch der Archi-
tektur, etc. (1880, etc.) ; Sir R. Blomfield, A History of French Archi-
tecture 1404-1661 (2 vols,, 1911), and A History of French Architec-
ture 1661-1774 (2 vols., 1921) ; A. D. F. Hamlin, A History of
Ornamentt Renaissance and Modern (1923). See also SCULPTURE
TECHNIQUE: Wood-carving.
WOODCHUCK, the North American representative of the
marmots (see MARMOT), scientifically known as Marmota monax.
The woodchuck measures about 18 in. in length. In colour it is
usually brownish black above, with the nose, chin, cheeks and
throat tending to whitish, and the under parts brownish chestnut ;
while the feet and tail are black and blackish. Like other marmots
it is a burrower.
WOODCOCK, a bird in high favour with the sportsman and
the epicure. It has a long bill, large eyes, and a mottled plum-
age of black, browns, greys, buff, and white, the latter confined
to the tip of the lower side of the tail quills. There is much
variation in the individual plumage, which is highly protective.
The woodcock (Scolopax rusticula) breeds in suitable localities
from Ireland to Japan, migrating southward in autumn, reaching
India, Ceylon and northern Africa. It feeds largely on earth-
worms, which it gets by probing soft ground with its sensitive bill.
The nest is made on the ground, and the four eggs, laid during
March, are yellowish in colour, blotched and spotted with reddish
brown. During this season the male performs a remarkable flight
(called in England "roding"). At dawn and at sunset he flies
in a great triangle, often a mile in perimeter, travelling fast by
means of slow, steady wing beats, and uttering a drumming sound
at intervals. The young birds are carried between the thighs of
their parents to suitable feeding grounds.
In North America there is a similar but smaller woodcock, 5.
minor, having its three outer primaries attenuated.
WOODCRAFT, the knowledge of forest conditions which
enables one to enjoy and to supply oneself with the crude com-
forts of life in the wilderness. It includes a sufficient knowledge
of mechanics to enable one to manufacture tools and weapons;
to make stone axes; to dress and prepare skins; to build rafts and
canoes of logs, bark or skins; to make baskets and cooking uten-
sils; to procure food, drink, shelter and clothing, and to build and
maintain fires for cooking and warmth from the materials supplied
by the wilderness itself.
For untold centuries primitive man has understood the habits
of animals and the causes which impel them to action; a knowl-
edge absolutely necessary for primitive man's existence, a knowl-
edge which is a fundamental of woodcraft. It was necessity as a
task master, nature and the red men as instructors, which de-
veloped woodcraft in the United States to a fine art and produced
such master woodsman as Boone, Kenton, Crockett and Carson.
In woodcraft one must be able to forecast the weather from
the action of birds and mammals, as well as from the wind, and
the appearance of the sky. Every language supplies weather prov-
erbs, originally from wilderness folks.
On a gloomy, overcast day an oid scout was asked to point
north. He looked slowly up at the sky, up at the trees, around at
the ground. Then, with his hand outstretched, his index finger
pointed to the true direction. He was unable to tell how he made
his decision because he did not know how to describe his own
process of reasoning. It was not that spider webs are on the south
side of trees; that fallen timber indicates the direction of ancient
storms; that the limbs of the trees are heavier on the south side
and thicker in diameter; that oak, ash, mesquite, hickory and
720
WOODCUTS AND WOOD-ENGRAVING
elm trees have moss or mould on the north side; that leaves are
longer, darker green with lighter veins on the north side; that fly-
ing squirrels' holes favour the east side; that gum is soft and
dusty on the south side of coniferous trees, or any one of these
signs, but rather the accumulated evidence which impressed him.
On very hot days fishermen versed in woodcraft look for fish
in the cool depths, in the shade of rocks or marine plants, knowing
that fish, like cattle, seek shade in hot weather. One should under-
stand birds, their calls and their actions. Birds understand cer-
tain weather signs and from their higher and more extended view-
point are able to detect the approaching storm before a man on
the ground can see the signs. The beach combers and sea-faring
men know that atmospheric conditions affect the sea birds and
that they invariably seek the shelter on shore from the onrushing
storm. It was the great number of sea birds flocking in from
Mobile bay, some years ago, that gave the first alarm of an
approaching devastating storm.
The location of water holes and springs in desert and dry places ;
the knowledge which tells the traveller of the succulent plants
with which he may quench his thirst and where to find such plants
is an essential part of woodcraft. So also is the ability to find a
trail and to know by the conformation of the land where trails must
exist ; to know that land inhabited by large game animals always
has trails which can be traversed by man. The experienced wood-
crafter knows that nothing can pass through the forest without
leaving telltale marks on its trail; it may be only the misplaced
leaf or the stone which has been lately turned over. Even the
grass or weeds show where they have been pushed in front of
travelling beasts. The trailer can point out the trail made by large
animals early in the winter and since covered by succeeding falls
of snow, because at a little distance, the slight depressions are
marked by faint blue shadows.
The expert in woodcraft knows the language of the woods. He
is familiar with the cry of alarm given by the different birds and
different animals. He also knows from experience that that cry is
understood by all the other denizens of the woods. When the
squirrels are playing among the branches of the trees and the
crow, detecting the approach of a trespasser, gives its cry of alarm,
every squirrel will immediately disappear into its hiding place.
The fallen tree by the brook side showing the marks of large
chisel-like teeth told the woodcrafter that beaver had cut and
felled the tree. The bark gnawed from another sapling by smaller
chisel-like teeth told him that porcupines had been there. The torn
bark of a black spruce, commencing at a point as high as a man
can reach, exposing the fleshy part of the tree, from which sticky
sap is exuding, proclaims a large bear has been there; it is the
habit of these animals to rear up and scratch the trees with their
claws. It also gives an accurate measure of the size of the bear.
The bleeding tree indicates recent wounds.
A maple stripped and displaying marks of horse-like teeth
shows the work of moose; whereas another tree which has been
^carred, and from which the splinters of the wood are protrud-
ing from the lower edge of the scar, is evidence that the lynx,
or wild cat, has, like the bear, "sharpened his claws." The freshly
dismantled and broken rotten log is, to the expert, a note from
Bruin saying, "Here I lately dined on ants' eggs."
To know how to build shelters; how to make and mend snow
shoes, moccasins and wearing apparel from the material found in
the woods; what to do in time of flood and storm; what to do
when overtaken by a blizzard ; how to avoid danger of avalanches
and the knowledge that the danger from them is greater when the
sun is high than in cool evenings and mornings, is essential.
It was the settlement of the United States which produced a
renaissance of woodcraft or rather a new and more vigorous art.
The tide rift of adventuresome pioneers preceding the advance of
civilization were compelled to learn when and how to cut logs
for their cabins; what wood was best for rails for their fences,
how to substitute the semi-transparent skins of animals for glass
in their windows. From the Indians, frontiersmen learned how to
grind corn with stone, to parch corn for trail rations, to make
cakes, to make maple syrup and sugar, to jerk meat or to make
pcmmican for emergencies.
It was the free trappers and the employees of the fur companies
who learned how to trail like blood hounds and hide their own
trails with skill surpassing that of the fox, by walking on stony
places and wading the beds of streams. They developed their
five senses to a superlative degree. (D. C. B.)
WOODCUTS AND WOOD-ENGRAVING. To-day the
woodcut is used as a direct expression of artists who themselves
cut and print the block. During the greater part of its history the
medium, has been used quite differently. It has been a reproduc-
tive process; a craft rather than an art. Craftsmen have cut
out of the block drawings made for the purpose by artists and
then passed the block to other craftsmen for printing. This is
comparable to our photo-engraving reproductive process — the dif-
ference being that the older method was done by hand whereas the
present one is mechanical. In both cases the method was merely
a means to an end and quite detached from the original concep-
tions of the artists involved. In making drawings for reproduction,
either by woodcut or photo-engraving, artists are thinking in terms
of ink or pencil lines on p&per — not of lines which their hands are
carving out of wood. A work so detached from its medium does
not exploit the peculiar quality of that medium. It lacks unity and
completeness. It loses force. For some ten centuries of its known
history the woodcut, as a process, has been so handicapped. Only
during the last thirty or forty years has it arrived at what might
be called its full functioning maturity.
TECHNICAL PROCESSES
Technically speaking the woodcut is pictorial type. It prints
pictures as type prints letters of the alphabet, by raised lines or
areas that catch ink from a roller and deposit it on paper under
moderate and more or less even pressure. This analogy roots in
history as well as fact. The first printed letters were woodcut
type carved into pictorial woodcut blocks in explanation of the
picture. The first movable type was a cutting up of this block
type in order to save labour by rearrangement and re-using. The
woodcut raised line is the opposite of the intaglio, or sunken line,
which is etched or engraved on copper. (See INTAGLIO.) In the
print etched or engraved lines catch the light and cast minute
shadows, thus giving a life or sparkle to the work that is impos-
sible with any other mediums. The woodcut gives a flat surface
print, with an interplay of solid black and white, and a slightly
varying texture and intensity that is quite unique.
The raised line of the woodcut is simply a part of the original
untouched surface of a block or plank of wood; if no cutting away
were done the print from this block would be solid black. Each
stroke of the tool removes a section of the ink-holding surface,
thus preventing its printing and letting the white of the unprinted
paper into the black of the printejj. Like the world at dawn, the
woodcut-picture actually emerges from blackness into light.
There are two kinds of woodcuts, the black line and the white
line. The black line, or woodcut proper, is one for which a draw-
ing is made on the block and all spaces between lines gouged out
or cut away. In other words a black line drawing is reproduced
in approximate (but never complete) facsimile. The black lines
are conscious lines. The white lines or spaces are left-overs which
receive either secondary or no consideration per se. In the white
line cut, or engraving, the reverse holds; the white line that is
gouged out will receive first attention, the black lines and spaces
between, second. In the first case the artist conceives his draw-
ing as starting with white paper and growing towards black; in
the second as emerging from black into light, as in actual fact it
does. Both systems have their advantages but the second, or
white line, being the natural method, because it makes a positive
instead of a negative use of each gouge or cut, would seem to be
the most logical.
Cutting the Blocks—The black line cut is ordinarily made on
a plank or block of soft wood like beach, apple, pear, cherry,
sycamore or whitewpod cut parallel to the grain as in ordinary
lumber. Preferably it is of type height (about J in. as shown in
fig. 2), planed and sanded to a perfectly smooth and level surface,
and cut with a sharp knife. An ordinary pen knife will serve as
a makeshift, but the carver (fig. i) set in a cord-wrapped handle
WOOD ENGRAVING
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PLATE II
WOOD ENGRAVING
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EARLY WOODCUTS
1. "The Buxheim St. Christopher," from a facsimile reproduced by the
American Institute of Graphic Arts; earliest dated woodcut In Europe, made
1420. 2. Early Florentine woodcut. 3. Woodcut from Hans Holbein's
"Dance of Death Series." 4. "Crucifixion" by Albrecht Durer. 5. Frontis-
piece to Breydenbach's "Pilgrimage to Jerusalem," 1486. First known
woodcut in which cross-hatching was used. 6. Print made about 1560,
typical of the decorative Italian style. 7. A woodcut of an owl from an
Illustration in Thomas Bewick's "History of British Birds," published in
1825. 8. White line woodcut by William Blake, one ot the first woodcuts
to have the Qualities of the art today
WOODCUTS AND WOOD-ENGRAVING
721
is better. The knife makes a sloping cut which tapers upward
along each side of each line, thus supporting the line on a widened
base (as shown in fig. 2).
When two lines are close together and parallel the sloping cuts
on adjacent sides of each would remove a V-section between them.
This V-cut can be made with one stroke instead of two by
using the "V" or parting tool shown in fig. i. Larger areas are
SOLID BURIN OR GRAVER
f - SQUARE
2 • LOZENGE
3 - SQUARE BASE
4- ROUND BASE
CUTS
TffltW
f . 2 ft 3 POINTS or A POSSIBLE DOZEN
4 -ROUND BASE V--^^.,--
5 - SQUARE BASE / 5COOPERS
o -THREADING TOOL
SOLID TINT
STIF?LE GRAVER
FOR CUTTING DOTS OR DASHES
IT is FLECKED OUT OF THE WOOD BY
A ROCKING MOVEMENT OF THE HAND
HOLLOW V" OR PARTING TOOLS
FlG. 1. — TYPES OF TOOLS USED IN WOOD ENGRAVING. AND SHAPES OF
CUTS
removed with gouges of varying widths and depths (fig. i). The
method requires, as is readily seen, two or more cuts to release a
single black line — two if the lines are in a parallel and close-
together series, four if a line is segregated, and anywhere up to
eight if the lines are cross-hatched. (See A, B, and C, respectively,
fig. 2.) Laborious, round-about, forced — such is the reproductive
black-line method.
The white line is engraved, rather than cut, into the end-grain
of very fine hard wood, usually box-wood. The box-wood blocks
are about -J in. high and across the grain. Into this hard fine grain
lines are gouged out with hollow V- or U-shaped parting tools or
gouges, or with solid metal burins or scoopers. All these tools are
shown in their varying widths, depths and shapes in fig. i. The
burins, tint-tools and scoopers are held in the palm of the hand
(Plate I.), and pushed forward; the threading tool cuts several
lines at once. The knife in cutting is pulled toward the body and
may be held as shown in Plate I., fig. 3 or grasped as one would
grasp a dagger. Chisels may be pushed by the hand or hit with
a wooden mallet. In the process of cutting, the block is held on
a leather bag filled with sand. The left hand holds and turns the
block easily against the pressure of the cutting tool in the right.
(Plate I., fig. 2.)
Fundamentally, the methods of the white and the black line
woodcuts are the same in the actual technical process and the
ultimate end achieved. In the black line cut the cutter is conscious
only of the black lines he is reproducing; in the white line engrav-
ing he is exploiting the white lines, at the same time being fully
conscious of the blacks by which he must obtain the whites.
Xylography is a general title that covers both methods.
In etching and pencil drawing (qq.v.) the point glides easily-
over a smooth surface, flexibility and freedom being the con-
sequent result. In copper-plate and wood-engraving there is re-
sistance to a cutting tool which must be forced through resisting
material. This tends to give a certain directness and rigidity to
all lines, straight and curved. A slow uniformly changing curve
would be more natural than a jerky, hectic, quickly curving one.
The medium, therefore, lends itself to an abstract quality
peculiarly adapted to contemporary creative expression. This
adaptability, no doubt, explains the preponderance of woodcuts
among the so-called "modern" works in prints.
Artists of Western civilisation, it is interesting to note, have
never made use of the potentially different characteristics inherent
in lines of different types as have the artists of Japan and China.
In Japanese art, for instance, there are the eighteen types of lines
varying from stiff wiry ones expressing the starched garments of
court nobles to the jagged ones expressing the rags of beggars.
Among Western woodcutters, John J. A. Murphy has probably
canvassed such possibilities more thoroughly than any other artist.
Drawing on Block. — There are a number of ways of drawing
on the block. For a black line cut the drawing to be reproduced
can be made with India ink, or Chinese black, with corrections in
Chinese while. For a white line-cut the simplest and most flexible
method, in that it allows erasing as easily as on paper, is with a
lead pencil. The pencil drawing can be fully developed and then
translated into white lines as the cutting proceeds. When mechani-
cal exactness is required the subject can be photographed directly
on a block prepared by the proper sensitizing of its surface. Photo-
graphs or wash drawings on the block have been commonly used
during the latter part of the reproductive period — i.e., up to the
end of the last century. Timothy Cole, for instance, so photo-
graphed his subjects onto his block and then proceeded to interpret
the photograph into white lines.
Printing. — Woodcut printing is of two kinds, black and colour,
and may be done either by hand or on a regular type-printing
press. For black printing the finest obtainable quality of proving
ink ground in oil is used. The ink is spread on a glass or marble
slab with a special composition hand-roller (of the same type
as used in printing presses). After a thorough working onto the
CROSS SECTION OF ONE LINE
CUT OUT OF BLOCK
CROSS SECTION OF Two
LINES CUT OUT OF BLOCK
WITH V" cur BETWEEN
FIG. 2
roller in a uniform and exceedingly thin layer the ink is trans-
ferred to the surface of the block by several movements of the
roller across the block in different directions. The paper may be
India in several textures or soft hand-made Japanese such as
the Gifu. Or it can be the less enduring machine-made domestic
in many varieties. The India is adapted to the white line engrav-
ing, the harder textures to the finer lined blocks; the Japanese
and domestic to the coarser lined blocks.
In the case of a hand print, the right sized sheet is laid over the
inked block and pressed down with a sheet of cardboard. A second
WOODCUTS AND WOOD-ENGRAVING
cardboard coated with beeswax to make it slide easily, a steel
burnisher, as in fig. i, or a Japanese baren, is then rubbed over
the first with considerable pressure which will vary in different
sections of the block as the nature of the work demands. Less
pressure means greyer and less even blacks, more means blacker
blacks. This flexible control of pressure by the printer allows a
quality of varied tone and texture in the hand-made print that
can never be rivalled by any other method. In distinguished print-
ing of this character a single print will take from 15 minutes to
3 hours of printing time. Corners of the print may be lifted to
test results during this hand process.
In the case of a machine print the block is mounted in a print-
ing press like any type form and the print made with uniform
pressure. This pressure, however, can be varied artificially by
the same overlay and underlay system used in type printing. When
darker blacks are required thin sheets of paper are cut to proper
size and pasted to the proper spot under the block itself or on the
tympan against which the paper lies, in a registered position. The
thicker these are the heavier the pressure in that spot, the darker
the resulting black and the greyer the surrounding blacks.
Colour Printing. — Colour printing may be done from one
block or a series of blocks. When printed from one block the
colours are painted with a brush into the desired section of the
uncut surface as in the case of a monotype. Each print thus
becomes an original painting which is transferred by pressure to
paper. If the colour is to be in spots no lines are necessary
except guide lines. It facilitates the process of painting the
block if these guide lines are white lines gouged out of the block
around separate patches of colour. In the print the white un-
printed line becomes part of the decorative pattern, giving a
hint of mosaic effect. This process could never be used for a
realistic picture. A regular line block could of course be printed
in colour instead of black, thus getting a different effect. When
many blocks are used for one print we have the Japanese colour
printing process undoubtedly the highest developed art of colour
printing the world has so far produced. (See JAPANESE PAINTING
AND PRINTS.)
In this process there is a key line block to be printed in black
or any desired colour. Each succeeding block, then, prints one,
or sometimes two or three well-separated (so they do not overlap
in painting on the black) colours onto the same key-block print.
The number of blocks so printed may run all the way from two
or three to a dozen or fifteen, gaining in range and subtlety as
the number increases. The blocks are larger than the actual print
thus including an unprinted margin in which two sunken notches
are cut into the block to take one corner and one edge of the
paper and thus provide accurate registration, All the blocks, of
course, are printed in succession on the same piece of paper.
Colour printing ink is made of any kind of finely ground dry
ink colour mixed with water instead of oil. It is applied with
brushes of varying widths, a separate one for each colour, which
paint over the entire block high and low sections alike. The brush
charged with colour is dipped into a paste made of finely ground
rice flour either before it is applied to the block or immediately
after, the paste and the water-paint being thoroughly mixed by a
sufficient brushing on the block. This paste changes the character
of the colour from a mat finish to a more brilliant one. Also
it gives adhesive quality which under the pressure of printing
incorporates it thoroughly with the paper. Carefully dampened
paper is laid on the block and rubbed directly on the paper with
a Japanese bamboo-covered, stiff, slightly convex pad called a
baren. (Plate I.) The amount of pressure determines the in-
tensity of the colour of the print. (See JAPANESE PAINTING AND
PRINTS.)
Chiaroscuro (clear-obictire).— In Europe during the i6th
century another type of colour printing developed called chiaro-
scuro. The method comprised two prints from two blocks on one
paper. One was a usual black line print, which as a line picture
was complete in itself. The other was a tone block to be printed
as one solid ground-colour in sepia, soft warm grey or other
colours from which certain spots were gouged out to leave
significant white highlights in the print. The final result resem-
bled the wash-drawings of the masters and undoubtedly came
into use as a means of approximating their effect.
The method is said to have been invented by Jobst de Negker
at Augsburg. In Germany Hans Baidung Grien (1475-1552),
Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) and Burgkmair (1473-1531) were
among the first to practice it. In Italy Ugo da Carpi who worked
in Venice and whose first print was dated 1518 was its foremost
exponent. After dying out it was revived in Germany at the end
of the 1 8th century and has persisted to the present. In the
United States Rudolph Ruzika, A. Allen Lewis and others are
practising the method today.
Uses. — "The possibilities of the wood block," says Frank
Weitcnkampf in his How to Appreciate Prints, "have been ex-
ploited to a remarkable degree. It has rendered line and tone,
given the precision of the pen and ink sketch or the etching, and
the free, granular irregularity of the charcoal smudge, translated
paintings with the set regularity of the line engraving on copper
or, abandoning the Ymc^per set with an attention to tone and
colour and texture, which often gave even the illusion of brush
marks. It has been used for the rudest handbills and for the
most elaborate reproductions of famous works of art; it has
served as an original art, as a direct means of expression, and,
crossing the bounds of black and white, it has imitated wash-
drawings in two or three tints, and has entered the domain of
colour printing in elaborate reproductions, as well as in the
highly sensitive form of art exemplified in the Japanese chromo-
xylograph. It has been employed to illustrate in the rudest form
the songs and ballads hawked about the streets, and in perfection
of craftsmanship works such as the Dore Bible; it has been put
to the practical use of reproducing wallpaper, and it has brought
forth works treasured by the collector, though so different in
style as the engravings of Diirer or Holbein, and those which are
the work of some of the modern disciples of art in the United
States."
HISTORY OP THE WOODCUT
The principle of cutting relief characters in metal, wood or
stone has been practised far back toward the dawn of history.
Cut metal plates were used in Egypt, India, Greece and Rome.
Carved stamps or dyes were used for pressing letters into the
moist clay of bricks in Egypt and for branding slaves in Rome.
Both intaglio and relief carvings were known and used for these
various purposes. Woodcuts were used in the Middle Ages to
stamp monograms and to print colour designs on textiles, a cus-
tom practised in the Orient from time immemorial.
The earliest prints on paper so far found come from China of
the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-905) when woodcuts in one colour
were produced in great quantities as cheap substitutes for
religious paintings. The oldest of such cuts now known is dated
A.D. 868 and was found by Sir Aurel Stein in 1907 vin the caves
of a thousand Buddhas at Tun-huang in Chinese Turkistan.
Throughout their history in China no artist of any note designed
expressly for the woodcut. Even when the complex colour print-
ing from many blocks came into use, beginning, so far as is known,
about the time that colour printing began in the Chiaroscuro prints
of Europe, i.e., in the i7th century, this medium was used by
craftsmen for the reproduction of paintings. The earliest known
Chinese colour print is from a book called "Shih chu chai Shu
hua p'u" and is dated 1625.
The method spread to Japan in the 8th century and for a
long time was confined to reproducing popular religious figures.
In Japan, however, there arose a whole school of artists who,
though like the Chinese, still valuing painting as the supreme
medium, did design expressly for the woodcut, thus conceiving
their designs in terras of the carved line and colour block. The
best of these were masters of the first rank.
For the greater part of their entire history, then, particularly as
a reproductive process, woodcuts have been a widely used pictorial
medium. Cheap in price, printed in quantity, close to the hearts
and minds of common people in their choice of subject and story,
they were used not as the collectors' items they have become to-
day, but in every home as part of the furniture of actual life.
WOOD CUTS AND WOOD ENGRAVING
PLATE ITT
CONTEMPORARY WOOD CUTS
1. "Frauenkopf" by Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884- ), German
2. "The Way of the Cross" by Eric Gill (1882- ), English
3. A wood cut hy John Nash (1893- ), English
4. "Memories" by John J. A. Murphy (1888- ), American
5. "Weib vom Manne beflehrl" by Max Peehstein (1880- ), Ger
6. "The Dance" by Cecil Buller, American, contemporary
7. "Lovers Surprised by Storm" by Douglas Percy Bliss (1900—
English
8. "Dunes — Pheasants" by B. Essers, Dutch, Contemporary
9. "Twilight of Man" by Rockwell Kent (1882- ), American
WOODCUTS AND WOOD-ENGRAVING
723
They were looked at, studied, talked about, absorbed. They took
the part of picture books when books were still the hand-lettered
creations of monks, chained to the "library" tables of churches
and kings. They were books in embryo, in fact.
In the religious cuts (and in the beginning practically all were
religious) the people could see the characters of the Christian
drama intimately in a form different from but related to the
great paintings in the churches. Brief printed captions began to
appear beneath the pictures telling the story of their heroes.
These cut into the block were the first type. Later, about 1436,
when Gutenberg invented printing, cut into separate letters,
they became the first movable type. When the printing of books
began the woodcut inevitably became the means of illustration.
Being pictorial type it went with letter-press type. In fact the
harmony between text and illustration of the-isth and i6th
centuries has never since been equalled in general practice. So
right was the combination that even when, in the i8th century,
taste ran to the greater elegance of copper plate engraving and
the almost total abandonment of the 'woodcut, the latter still
kept alive in incredibly rude form in chap books and other
popular literature. It carried over in fact to the revival in the
iQth century when again it became the main medium of illustra-
tion in press and books. Memory in this country can easily go
back to its general use in magazines and elsewhere. The form
was decadent as it gradually died out before the advance of the
cheaper photo-engraving process, but it was still the medium of
the people as it had always been. Taking its history as a whole
through its great period in the i6th century, decline in the i7th,
decay in the i8th and revival in the weakened form of the white
line toned picture in the igth, the woodcut is undoubtedly a close
second to the book in the role of entertainer, instructor and guide
to the human race in the last 500 years of its struggle toward its
present civilization.
In Europe the earliest known woodcuts were playing-cards
dating back to the beginning of the 1 5th century. Pictorial prints
go back as far as 1410. The earliest dated pictorial print is
generally (but not always) admitted to be the St. Christopher of
1423. It is simple, crude, and naive. It was done with single
lines, almost an outline drawing, for its full effect it, and prac-
tically all prints of its time, depended upon hand-colouring after
the print was made.
From 1423 to 1490 the black line woodcut developed from a
crude beginning through the block-books that immediately pre-
ceded type printing to a mastering of the medium that has not
been surpassed in that department to this day. The block books
originated in Germany and the Netherlands — the oldest ones
being Biblia Pauperum (c. 1450) of German origin, and the
Apocalypse, the Canticum Canticorcm and Biblia Pauperum (c.
1470) of the Netherlands. Dlirer's drawings on the block made
from 1492 to 1526 and cut laboriously by craftsmen woodcarvers,
were complex, sophisticated, varied in quality of line and texture,
yet they attained this complexity with lines that were most
natural to the medium, that avoided, except in the darkest shad-
ows, the forced (in this medium) cross hatching of pen and ink
drawings. Here, then, at the time that America was being dis-
covered was a mature art in mediaeval Germany, which set the
pace for other nations. The subjects were mostly religious.
Diirer (q,v.) was the first great master to use the woodcut
extensively as a way of reproducing drawings made for it. With-
out attaining the unity of means and expression typical of today
he refined and widened the process. He had many followers,
among them the little masters Altdorfer, the Behams, Pencz
and others who forgot the usual religious subjects to record,
with a touch of un-German decorative quality learned from Italy,
the labours, merriment or debauchery of the everyday life of their
time. Influence flowed back and forth between Italy and Ger-
many, Diirer influencing leading Italians like Marcantonio Rai-
mondi (1480-1530), and vice versa. By 1490 in the north
countries individual blocks were giving way to blocks cut for such
newspapers of the day as the Nuremberg Chronicle of 1493 and
for book illustrations. In Italy the art centred in book illustra-
tions from the beginning. Lippmann, in his Art of Wood Engrav-
ing in Italy in the Fifteenth Century, notes this difference between
the North and the South by saying, "In Germany the proper
function of book illustration was instruction; in Italy, ornament."
In thus stating the case he must have meant obvious ornament
for there is a decorative design quality in the German work that
goes far beyond "instruction."
Holbein (q.v.) was the next great artist to design particularly
for the woodcut. Working through the woodcutter, Hans LuUel-
burger, the greatest master of the knife the craft has produced,
he achieved what is probably as complete a synthesis between the
means and the expression as is possible with the black line
method. His Dance of Death series of blocks is one of the out-
standing attainments of the medium.
In France the woodcut started in Paris with the cutting of
blocks for the popular and frequently published Books of the
Hours. Its chief masters in the i6th century were Jean Cousin
and Bernard Salomon who worked around 1550. In the iyth and
1 8th it gradually declined. In 1766 Jean Michel Papillon wrote
his famous Treatise on Engraving and showed in his work the
minuteness of technique that was typical of the decline.
Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) did not invent the white line
pictorial wood-engraving, there being evidence in his work that
he was influenced by CroxalTs cuts in his Aesop of 1722. He
was, however, the first to give it popularity. The woodcut during
the 1 8th and igth century decline rivalled the camera as a
recording instrument. By adapting itself to the mirroring of a
dozen mediums it had been forced into a sphere not its own.
Bewick furnished the mechanism for this decline as well as that
for the revival from it. The illustration of one of his blocks in
Plate II. fig. 7. shows the nature of his work. His finest produc-
tions are the illustrations to British Quadrupeds (1790) and
British Birds (1797).
William Blake (1757-1827) made only a few small woodcuts.
He used the white line method. Technically they were not par-
ticularly skillful. But pre-eminently they are w00rf-engravings.
They emerge from blackness into light. They are plastic. They
exploit the inherent quality of the medium. In doing these things
they are the forerunners in character as well as technic of the
significant work of today. (See BLAKE, WILLIAM.)
At the end of the century we find Felix Vallotton in Paris
playing with solid areas of blacks and whites — one of the first to
pick up the thread begun in Florence 500 years ago (see the early
Florentine woodcut shown in PL II. fig. 6.) the thread that in the
2oth century is to develop into the dominant means of the modern
expression.
MODERN TENDENCIES
The writer's contention that the present is the most fertile
period in the history of the woodcut, in actual, contemporary
achievement and in future possibilities is supported by two main
reasons. The revolution in the mental approach to the making of
pictures, which is the contribution of the first quarter of our
2oth century to art history, and which involves a change from
thinking of pictures as imitations or reports of nature to a con-
ception of them as creatively reorganized interpretations, has
brought the woodcut (which has been more sensitive to the new
vitality than any other print medium) back into the fold of the
grand tradition. Next in importance to this exceedingly significant
event, the woodcut has found itself technically. That is, it has, in
the last thirty or forty years, ceased forced service as proxy for
another medium, the line drawing, and blossomed into a self-
expression based on its inherent qualities. Its usefulness, how-
ever, has passed from the multitude who now find their pictorial
entertainment in the photo and the pen and ink "funnies," to the
few who care to seek out and pay the higher costs of what has
become an aristocratic art—aristocratic, yet the lowest priced
of all original pictorial works of art. (Prints made and signed by
the artist are counted originals.)
This grand tradition includes work that is universal rather than
particular in conception, creative rather than reportorial; it is
older than the woodcut medium by many centuries. Work of
today is rooted in fertile soil only when it belongs in both of
these classifications. From the one it gains timefewness; from
72+
WOODFALL— WOODPECKER
the other time/j'ncss. (For articles relating to the woodcut, see
ENGRAVING; LINE ENGRAVING; PHOTO-ENGRAVING; PRINTING;
ETCHING; LITHOGRAPHY.) (R. PN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— William A. Chatto, Treatise on Wood Engraving
(London, 1839) ; W. J. Linton, Masters of Wood Engraving (1889,
Privately Printed) ; W. J. Linton, History oj Wood Engraving in
America (1884); George E. Woodbcrry, History of Wood Engraving
(New York, 1883) ; Frank Weitcnkampf, How to Appreciate Prints
(New York, 1907 and 1921) ; Frank Weitenkampf, American Graphic
Art (New York, 1912); Frank Weitenkampf, Wood Engraving of
Today (New York, 1917); Laurence Binyon, Catalogue oj Japanese
and Chinese Woodcuts in the British Museum (London, iqi6) ;
Laurence Binyon and J. J. O'Brien Sexton, Japanese Color Prints
(London, 1923) ; Modern Woodcuts and Lithographs (London Studio,
igiq); Prints and Their Production (A Bibliography}, New York
Public Library (1919); Malcolm C. Salaman, Woodcut of Today
(The Studio, London, 1927); Herbert Furst, The Modem Woodcut
(London, 1926).
WOODFALL, HENRY SAMPSON (1739-1805), English
printer and journalist, born in London on June 21, 1739. His
father, Henry Woodfall, was the printer of the Public Advertiser,
and the author of the ballad Darby and Joan, for which his son's
employer, John Darby, and his wife, were the originals. From
1758-93 H. S. Woodfall controlled the Public Advertiser in which
appeared the famous letters of ujunius." He died on Dec. 12,
1805. His younger brother, William \Voodfall (1746-1803), also
a journalist, established in 1789 a daily paper called the Diary, in
which, for the first time, reports of the parliamentary debates
were published on the morning after they had taken place.
WOODFORD, an urban district in the Walthamstow (S.W.)
parliamentary division of Essex, England, 9 m. N.E. from Liver-
pool Street station, London, by a branch of the Great Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901) 13,798. Its proximity to the southern
outskirts of Epping Forest has brought it into favour both with
residents and with holiday visitors from London. A converted
mansion, Woodford Hall, forms a convalescent home. On high
ground to the N. is the ecclesiastical parish (one of three) of
Woodford Wells, where there is a mineral spring.
WOOD GREEN, an urban district in the Wood Green par-
liamentary division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London,
7 m. N. of St. Paul's cathedral, on the L.N.E. railway. Pop.
(1921) 50,707. The name covers a popu-
lous residential district lying north of
Hornsey and west of Tottenham.
WOOD-LOUSE, a name commonly
applied to certain terrestrial Isopoda
(Crustacea) (tf.iO, found in damp places,
under stones or dead leaves, or among de-
caying wood. They form the tribe Oniscoi-
dea and are distinguished from all other
Isopoda by living on land and breathing
air, and by the small size of the anten-
nules and the absence of the mandibular
palp. The head bears a pair of sessile com-
pound eyes as well as the minute anten-
nules and the longer antennae. Each of
the seven thoracic segments carries a pair or CONNECTICUT-
of walking legs. The appendages of the WOOO-LOUSE OR PILL
abdomen (except the last pair) are flat BUG <°NISCUS ASELLUS)
membranous plates and serve as organs of respiration. In many
cases their outer branches have small cavities opening to the out-
side by slit-like apertures, and giving rise internally to a system
of ramifying tubules filled with air somewhat similar to the air
tubes or tracheae of insects and other air-breathing Arthropods.
The female wood-louse carries her eggs, after they are extruded
from the body, in a pouch or "marsupium" which covers the under
surface of the thorax and is formed by overlapping plates attached
to the bases of the first five pairs of legs. The young on leaving
this pouch are like miniature adults except that they are without
the last pair of legs. Some twenty-four species of wood-lice occur
in the British Islands. Some, like the common slaty-blue Porcellio
scaber, are practically cosmopolitan. (W. T. C.)
WOODPECKER, the name applied to certain birds, form-
ing together with the wrynecks (q.v.) the family Picidae, whose
ABOVE; MALE AND FEMALE DOWNY
WOODPECKERS (DRYOBATES PUBES-
CENS): BELOW; HAIRY WOOD-
PECKER (DRYOBATES Y1LLOSUS),
BOTH NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES
nearest allies are the toucans (q.v.). They generally have a bright
particoloured plumage; the feet have two toes behind and two
in front and the tail-quills are usually stiffened to form a prop on
which the bird partially supports itself when climbing the trunks
of trees.
The commonest species in Britain is the green woodpecker or
yaffle (from its laughing cry), Picus viridis. It is about the size
of a jay; the plumage is green, with a red crown and yellow
rurnp. It obtains its food, con-
sisting mainly of grubs, from the
bark and rotten wood of trees; in
search of these, it mounts trees in
a spiral direction and bores holes
in the decaying portions with its
chisel-like beak. It also feeds
much on the ground, being espe-
cially fond of ants. The nest con-
sists of a hole drilled in the trunk
of a tree, continued as a horizon-
tal passage that reaches the core,
whence it runs downwards for
nearly a foot to expand into a
chamber in which about six white
eggs are laid on a bedding of
chips. The two other British
species, the greater and les&r
spotted woodpeckers (Dryobates
major and D. minor) are similar
in habits, but have a plumage of
black and white. They share with
the red-headed woodpecker
(Melanerpes erythrocephalus) of
America, and other species, the habit of drumming with the beak
on dead branches, etc., in lieu of a love-song. Inhabiting the pine
forests of the Old World is the great black woodpecker (P. mar-
tins), larger than any of the previous species and with a black
plumage and red crest. It is replaced in North America by the
pileated woodpecker or log-cock, Ccophloeus pileatus, which is
variegated with white.
The Californian woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus, displays
an amount of providence beyond almost any other bird in the
number of acorns it fixes tightly in holes which it makes in the
bark of trees, and thus a large pine forty or fifty feet high will
present the appearance of being closely studded with brass nails,
the heads only being visible. This is not done to furnish food in
winter, for the species migrates, and only returns in spring to the
forests where its supplies are laid up. The acorns thus stored are
always those which contain a maggot, and, being fitted into the
sockets prepared for them cup-end foremost, the enclosed insects
are unable to escape, as they otherwise would, and are thus ready
for consumption by the birds on their return from their winter
migration to the south.
All woodpeckers are fond of ants, but one form, Colaptes aura-
tus, the golden-winged woodpecker or flicker of North America,
lives largely on grasshoppers and other ground insects and in this
connection exhibits several interesting modifications, the bill being
less sharp. The red is, in this species, reduced to a crescent on the
neck. The red-shafted flicker (C. cafer) is a closely related spe-
cies; the two interbreed where their ranges overlap, producing a
variety of segregating types. Other common North American
forms are the hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus) and the
smaller downy woodpecker (D. pubescent), both black and white
forms, The North American sapsuckcrs (q.v.) are also wood-
peckers. Nearly one-half of the known species of woodpeckers
occur in the New World. The remainder inhabit all parts of the
Old World except Madagascar and the Australian region east of
Celebes and Flores.
Some other woodpeckers deserve especial notice — the Colaptes
or Soroplex campestris, which inhabits the treeless plains of Para-
guay and La Plata; also the South-African woodpecker Geocolap-
tes olivaceus, which lives almost entirely on the ground or rocks,
and picks a hole for its nest in the bank of a stream.
WOOD PULP— WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY
725
WOOD PULP: see PAPER MATERIALS.
WOODRUFF (Asperula odorata), a small herb of the mad-
der family (Rubiaceae), found widely throughout Europe and
northern Asia, native to Great Britain, and sparingly naturalized
in the eastern United States. It has an erect stem, about 8 in. high,
bearing lance-shaped leaves mostly in whorls of 8, and small white
flowers in loose clusters. The dried leaves emit a hay-like fra-
grance.
WOODSTOCK, a town and port of entry of Oxford county,
Ontario, Canada, 80 m. S.W. of Toronto by rail, on Cedar
creek, the Thames river and the Canadian National and Canadian
Pacific railways. Pop. (1921) 9,935. It is one of the best agri-
culture sections of the province and has a large export trade in
cheese, butter and farm produce. Organs, pianos and agricultural
implements are manufactured.
WOODSTOCK, a town and municipal borough in Oxford-
shire, England, 8 in. N.W. of Oxford and the terminus of a
branch of the G.W. railway. Pop. (1921) 1,510. The River
Glyme divides the town into New and Old Woodstock. The
church of St. Mary Magdalene, in New Woodstock, is Norman
but has additions in later styles, and a west tower built in 1785.
After the battle of Blenheim the manor of Woodstock was
bestowed in perpetuity on John, duke of Marlborough. In 1723
it was destroyed and the site levelled after the erection of Blen-
heim house, a mansion erected by parliament for the duke of
Marlborough in consideration of his military services, and
especially his decisive victory at Blenheim. The sum of £500,000
was voted for the purchase of the manor and the erection of the
building, erected by Sir John Vanbrugh (q.v.), in a heavy Italo-
Corinthian style. The magnificent park contains Fair Rosa-
mund's well, near which stood her bower. On the hill stands a
column commemorating the duke.
Domesday describes Woodstock as a royal forest; it was a
royal scat from early times and Aethclrcd is said to have held a
council there, and Henry I. to have kept a menagerie in the park.
Woodstock was the scene of Henry IT.'s courtship of Rosamund
Clifford ("Fair Rosamund"). It was a favourite royal residence
until the Civil War, when the manor house was destroyed.
See Rev. E. Marshall, Early History of Woodstock Manor (Oxford,
1873) ; Adolphus Ballard, Chronicles of Royal Borough of Woodstock;
Victoria County History, Oxfordshire.
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY includes the various
classes of tools for performing the operations en timber, from the
rough log to the finished product. This group of machine-tools
differs from those for metal-working in two important particulars.
The speeds of cutting the material are relatively much greater,
and the methods of holding or feeding it are usually quite differ-
ent. These facts affect the design of the machines in numerous
ways, while the saws, cutters, and knives possess much keener
angles than those used on metal. Heavy pieces, such as logs, are
held on a carriage or table which provides the means of movement
in relation to a saw; in other cases ribbed rollers press against
partly finished pieces and feed them along. There is also a good
deal of direct hand feeding, with the assistance of fences or guides
which keep the wood in a correct path, although much mechani-
cally operated equipment is now in use.
Sawing Machines. — Taking the machines according to their
class of operation, the. saws comprise a wide range, from those
dealing with big logs to the finest cutting necessary for cabinet
work, and running blades of either circular, reciprocating, or band
type. The first operation after tree-felling is to cross-cut the logs
into suitable lengths for transport; for this purpose a stiff recipro-
cating blade, which cuts on the inward stroke, is driven by a steam
or compressed air cylinder, the sole of the machine resting upon
the ground. Or a crank-disc is driven by electric motor to re-
ciprocate the blade, if current should be available. Tree-felling
may be done by the same sort of machine differently mounted.
Swing machines using a circular saw are likewise used for the
cross-cutting of the smaller logs.
Several types of machines are employed for breaking down logs.
A rapid-cutting machine which is much used, although it is rather
wasteful of material, runs a big circular saw; past this the log is
fed by a carriage on rollers, the log being held securely by a set of
spiked dogs. A similar style, of feed also occurs with the vertical
band saws, with a, blade thinner than that of the circular saw.
The horizontal band-saw is a very fast-cutting and accurate ma-
chine, feeding the log by means of a carriage between two up-
rights up and down which the saw frame may be adjusted
to cut successively the several boards or flitches from the log.
The width of the saw blade reaches to a foot in the big machines,
taking logs to 7 ft. diameter. Another manner of breaking down
logs is with the log frame, with a feeding movement between up-
rights as with the horizontal band-saw; but. the log is divided up
by a number of reciprocating saws operated by a crank-shaft.
What are termed re-sawing machines do not deal with logs, but
cut up the products from the latter, such as deals and flitches, into
boards, etc. Such deal or flitch frames cut by a vertically recipro-
cating set of saws. For more varied cutting, a band re-saw is em-
ployed, this having the band-saw running vertically and the mate-
rial fed over the table by ribbed feed rollers. A like class of feed
apparatus is fitted to circular saw benches for re-sawing purposes.
Saws for cross-cutting arc used extensively, being of circular blade
class, and with one saw, or two to cut to definite lengths. The
pendulum saws are also utilized for this service, consisting of
a frame pivoted from an overhead beam so that the circular saw
at the bottom of the frame may be pulled by a hand motion
through the wood. For general sawing the circular-saw bench is
made in various styles, with a fence which guides the wood. The
most complete types are the dimension saws which have a
complete system of adjustments to angles and positions, with
graduated scales for reading the amount that all sorts of cutting,
as ripping, cross-cutting, bevelling, mitring, rebating, grooving,
etc., require. Single machines carry one saw, double ones two, for
ripping and cross-cutting respectively; cither of these can be
swung up through the table when required. By the use of a
cutter-blcck on a saw spindle further operations beyond the ca-
pacity of a saw are practicable.
Band-sawing machines, and to a lesser degree fret-saws have to
be utilized to cut straight and curved parts which cannot be dealt
with by means of a circular saw. The table, through which the
blade runs, may be used either in the horizontal attitude, or
canted for bevel cutting. These saws need careful design in order
to keep working well; the tension on the blade must be sensitive,
and the latter has to run in anti-friction guides above and below
the table so as to cut truly.
Planing Machines. — Those which finish sawn material on
various faces vary greatly in design. The smallest, are the hand-
feed planers, along the surface of the table of which the operator
slides the wood past the revolving cutter-block. For hand ma-
chines this has to be of the safety type, forming almost a cylinder
so that the fingers cannot be drawn into the machine as with
the older square cross-sectional shape. A vacuum effect is
thus secured by the eccentric formation, leaving a space as
marked. This both tends to draw the wood down on to the cut-
ters and to suck away the drippings. The panel planers or thick-
nessing machines feed the wood along a table underneath the. cut-
ter cylinder, so that thick or thin pieces may be planed to uniform
dimensions. With a second cutter-cylinder below the table each
side of the wood is planed simultaneously. And with two extra
vertical spindles, each carrying a short cutter-block, the edges of
the timber may be treated as well, including tonguing, grooving,
moulding, or rebating. Roller feed is applied to these panel
machines. The most elaborate planing machines are those for
flooring-boards, etc., the big ones having eight feed-rollers to pro-
pel the timber past the cutters and knives, the latter being of
non-revolving class to impart a high finish after' the revolving
cutters have roughed off the surface. The rate of feed will some-
times exceed 400 ft. per minute. Machines for smaller dimensions
of stuff are also made with four or five cutters, and either sort
will do matching on the edges of the timber. The bottom cutter
heads are constructed to draw out by means of a heavy slide, so
that adjustments and settings may be effected and the head slid
back into the working position.
Moulding machines produce shapes, planing all four sides at one
WOOF—WOOL
pass, and for mass production are built somewhat after the style
of the large planing machines just mentioned. The vertical shaper
or circular moulder has a cutter spindle standing up from a flat
table, and the cutters may be of any desired profile, and will
mould either straight, curved, or irregular mouldings. Fences of
suitable shape guide the wood. Tenoning machines operate with
cutters of appropriate shape, above and below the timber, which
is fed along by a carriage. A grooving or drunken saw is often
used: this is a circular saw set askew on its spindle, so that it
wobbles and produces the groove. Dovetails are cut in machines
of single- or multiple-spindle design. For the first, a pitching ar-
rangement moves the wood into the successive positions for the
high-speed cutter to pass through, and in the second all the dove-
tails are made at one feed, by the several cutters set at the correct
distance apart.
Holes of round, square, or oblong shape are made in the boring
and mortising machines. The first resemble drilling machines for
metal in general form, but are of rather simpler construction.
Mortising may be performed with a reciprocating chisel, which is
pulled down by a slide and lever to penetrate the wood ; but the
hollow chisel is a faster-cutting tool. This is a hollow tool within
which an auger revolves and removes the bulk of the stuff
and as it is fed in the sharp corners at the end of the chisel square
out the hole. Some machines, such as those for railway carriage
and wagon work, have several boring spindles and a hollow auger
spindle. Another fast -cutting machine is the chain mortiser. This
has an endless steel chain the links of which are formed with chisel
teeth, and it runs around a long guide bar that is fed into the
wood, the teeth cutting the way before and producing the mortise.
Lathes. — Lathes produce all the numerous turned chisels, some
of which are evolved with hand-controlled chisels and gouges sup-
ported on the hand-rest, others by means of a slide-rest having
slides moved with handles and screws. When the contours of
articles vary (e.g., those of spokes, pick handles, cricket bats, or
gun-stocks) a copying lathe is employed. This carries a model of
the piece with one spindle and the roughly shaped wood with the
other; the cutting is done by means of a revolving cutter block,
and the frame holding this is moved in accordance with the copy,
so that the shape of the latter becomes exactly reproduced on
the wood.
Sandpapering machines finish wood of different shapes, some
against a flat disc, others on an endless band. The drum machines
are the largest kinds, for extensive output, and have three drums
for successive action. The first has coarse paper, the second
finer, and the third finer still with a soft cushion beneath to pro-
duce a high finish. A brush cleans off the dust.
Woodworking machines are extensively fitted with bail or roller
bearings, to enable their high speeds to be maintained without
heating and excess consumption of power. The mass of sawdust
or chips, which is soon enormous with some machines, has to be
taken away by a suction apparatus, as mentioned under FANS.
(F. H.)
WOOF. Another name for Weft: see WAKP and WEFT,
WOOL, Animal fibres are usually spoken of as hair, with the
exception of the coat of the sheep which is usually termed wool.
Before the researches of Professor Cossar Ewart (Edinburgh)
wool was looked upon as a modified form of hair. Now it is usual
to look upon wool as the simpler structure and hair as a develop-
ment from this structure. The difference between wool and hair
is best realized by a study of the double coat of the primitive wild
sheep. The under coat is fine wool — the fibre showing a twofold
structure, inner or cortex and outer or cuticle. Microscopic ex-
amination of this fibre shows a highly imbricated or serrated sur-
face. The outer coat is coarse hair — the fibre showing a threefold
structure, medulla along with cortex and cuticle. The medulla is
probably an air or gas-filled core of the fibre which markedly
changes both the appearance and physical properties of the fibre.
Certain animals are covered with wool only, others with hair only
and others with both hair and wool. The sheep is possibly the only
animal carrying a fleece of wool only and not every variety of
sheep does this. Certain varieties of sheep are stated to carry
hair only, but such animals as goats, cattle, horses, etc., are the
chief hair-bearing animals. A few years ago the hair of the Angora
goat (termed mohair) would have been classed as a hair but
Duerdon (Grahamstown) has shown that it is the under-coat and
therefore ought to be ranked as wool. That there may be grada-
tions from wool to hair was shown by an analysis of the coat of
the blackface sheep by Barker (Leeds) but further researches on*
this coat by Janet Blyth (Edinburgh) suggest rather modifications
of the two extreme types of fibres towards a common type. The
differentiation between the two types, however, is very difficult for
both probably arise from the inturned epidermis; but as the sheep
has two skins separated by a layer of fat it is suggested that the
physiological process of bringing a fibre up from the lower skin
produces hair and the process of bringing a fibre from the upper
skin produces wool. This is borne out by the fact that if a small
lock of wool is jerked from a fine merino sheep it brings the upper
skin away with it. The camel produces two distinctive coats but
perhaps the most interesting animal of this class is the "musk ox"
or ovibos of the Arctic regions. This creature grows an under-coat
of beautifully soft fibre/ which perhaps should be regarded as
wool, which it casts once a year; and an outer coat of strong hair
of which presumably it distributes the casting throughout the
entire year.
Wool in Britain. — Wool is one of the most important of the
textile fibres. Owing to the ease with which it may be spun into
thread, and the comfort derived from clothing made of wool, it
would naturally be one of the first textiles used by mankind for
clothing. Ancient records prove the high antiquity of wool tex-
tiles and the early importance of the sheep. The different kinds
of wool and the cloth made from them in antiquity are described
by Pliny and referred to by other writers. The sheep certainly
was a domestic animal in Britain long before the period of the
Roman occupation; and it is probable that some use was made of
sheep skins and of wool. But the Romans established a wool fac-
tory whence the occupying army was supplied with clothing, and
the value of the manufacture was soon recognized by the Britons,
of whom Tacitus remarks, "Inde etiam habitus nostri honor et fre-
quens toga" (Agric. c. 21). The product of the Winchester looms
soon established a reputation abroad, it being remarked that "the
wool of Britain is often spun so fine that it is in a manner com-
parable to the spider's thread." This reputation was maintained
throughout the middle ages, and the fibre was in great demand in
the Low Countries and other continental centres. There are many
allusions to woollen manufactures in England in early times ; but
the native industry of the island could not rival the products of
the continent.
In the time of William the Conqueror Flemish weavers settled
under the protection of the queen at Carlisle, but later
they were removed to Pembrokeshire. At various subsequent pe-
riods there were further immigrations of skilled Flemish weavers,
who were planted at different places throughout the country. The
cloth fair in the churchyard of the priory of St. Bartholomew
was instituted by Henry II.; gilds of weavers were established;
and the exclusive privilege of exporting woollen cloth was granted
to the city of London. Edward III. made special efforts to en-
courage wool industries. He brought weavers, dyers and fullers
from Flanders; he himself wore British cloth; but to stimulate
native industry he prohibited, under pain of life and limb, the ex-
portation of English wool. Previous to this time English wool had
been in large demand on the continent, where it had a reputation
exceeded only by the wool of Spain. The customs duties levied
on the export of wool were an important source of the royal
revenue. Edward III.'s prohibitory law was, however, found to
be unworkable, and the utmost that both he and his successors
were able to effect was to hamper the export trade by vexatious
restrictions and to encourage much smuggling of wool. Thus while
Edward III. limited the right of exporting to merchant strangers,
Edward IV. decreed that no alien should export wool and that
denizens should export it only to Calais. Legislation of this kind
prevailed till the reign of Elizabeth, when the free exportation of
English wool was permitted; and Smith, in his Memoirs of Wool,
points out that it was during this reign that the manufacture made
the most rapid progress. In 1660 the absolute prohibition of the
WOOL
727
export of wool was again decreed, and it was not till 1825 that this
law was finally repealed. The results of the prohibitory law were
exceedingly detrimental; the production of wool far exceeded the
consumption; the price of the raw material fell; wool-" running'*
or smuggling became an organized traffic; and the whole industry
became disorganized. Extraordinary expedients were resorted to
for stimulating the demand for woollen manufactures, among
which was an act passed in the reign of Charles II. decreeing that
all dead bodies should be buried in woollen shrouds — an enactment
which remained in the Statute Book, if not in force, for a period
of 120 years. On the opening up of the colonies, every effort was
made to encourage the use of English cloth, and the manufacture
was discouraged and even prohibited in Ireland.
Wool was "the flower and strength and revenue and blood of
England," and till the development of the cotton trade, towards
the end of the i8th century, the wool industries were, beyond
comparison, the most important sources of wealth in the country.
Towards the close of the 1 7th century the wool produced in Eng-
land was estimated to be worth £2,ot>o,ooo yearly, furnishing
£8,000,000 worth of manufactured goods, of which there was ex-
ported about £2,000,000 in value. In 1700 the official value of
woollen goods exported was about £3,000,000, and in the third
quarter of the century the exports had increased in value by about
£500,000 only. In 1774 Dr. Campbell (Political Survey of Great
Britain) estimated the number of sheep in England at 10,000,000
or 12,000,000, the value of the wool produced yearly at £3,000,000
(or about 55. per Ib.}, the manufactured products at £12,000,000,
and the exports at £3,000,000 to £4,000,000. He also reckoned
that the industry then gave employment to 1,000,000 persons.
In 1800 the native crop of wool was estimated to amount to
96,000,000 Ib; and, import duty not being imposed till 1802, the
quantity brought from abroad was 8,600,000 Ib., 6,000,000 Ib. of
which came from Spain. In 1825 the importation of colonial wool
became free, the duty leviable having been for several previous
years as high as 6d, per Ib, and in 1844 the duty was finally re-
mitted on foreign wool also.
British Wools.— English wool, known the world over as
being of a long and lustrous type was doubtless the kind so
much in demand in the middle ages. That it was as long and lus-
trous as the typical Leicester or Lincoln of to-day is doubtful, as
the new Leicester breed of sheep was only fully developed by
Bakewcll after the year 1747, and the latter day Lincoln is even
a later development of a similar kind. As already remarked, the
long and lustrous wools are the typical English, being grown in
Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Devonshire, etc., in fact
in all those districts where the pasturage is rich and specially fitted
for carrying a heavy sheep. It is claimed that the lustre upon the
wool is a direct result of the environment, and that to take a
Lincoln sheep into Norfolk means the loss of the lustre. Attempts
were made in the i8th century to develop a fine wool breed in
England, George IV. importing a number of merino sheep from
Spain. The discovery was soon made that it was difficult to main-
tain a breed of pure merinos in Great Britain, but the final out-
come was by no means unsatisfactory. By crossing with the in-
digenous sheep a race of fairly fine woolled sheep was developed,
of which the present day representative is the Southdown — a sheep
which feeds naturally on the downs of Sussex, etc., forming a
marked contrast to the artificially turnip-fed Lincoln, Leicester,
etc., sheep. Following the short, crimpy Southdown, but rather
longer, come the Hampshire and Oxford down sheep; these are
followed by Suffolk, Shropshire, Kent and Romney Marsh (Demi-
lustre), until at last the chain from the Southdown to the Lincoln
(lustre) is completed. Of course there are several British wools
not included in this chain. Scotch or black-face wool is long and
rough, but well adapted for being spun into carpet yarns. Welsh
wool has the peculiarity of early attaining its limit of shrinkage
when washed, and hence is specially chosen for flannels. Shetland
wool is of a soft nature specially suited for knitting yarns, while
Cheviot wool — said to be a cross between merino sheep saved
from the wreck of the Great Armada and the native Cheviot
sheep — has made the reputation of the Scottish manufacturers for
tweeds. North wool— wool from an animal of the Border Lei-
cester and Cheviot breed — Wensleydale, Masham and Ripon wools
are also specially noted as lustre wools.
Merino. — For centuries the finer wools used for cloth-making
throughout Europe had been obtained from Spain — the home of
the famous merino, breed developed from races of sheep originally
introduced into the peninsula by the Moors. Till early in the igth
century the superiority of Spanish merinos remained unchallenged,
but the Peninsular War and its attendant evils produced a de-
preciation of quality concurrently with the introduction of Saxon
and Silesian wools, which suddenly supplanted the product of
Spain. The Spanish merino sheep had been introduced into Saxony
by the elector in 1765, and by judicious crossing with the best
native race developed the famous electoral breed. Merinos were
carried to Hungary in 1775, and to France in 1776, and in 1786
Daubenton brought them to Rambouillet, whence a famous race
developed. In 1802 the first merinos known to have left pure de-
scendants were taken to the United States, and in 1809-1810 an
importation (4,000) of merino sheep was made.
Wool in Australasia. — The introduction of the merino sheep
into Australasia about the end of the i8th century and later into
South America was an important move. It is probable that the
marked improvement in the appearance of the first sheep taken
out by the early colonists suggested the possibilities of Australia
as a wool-growing country. As has been noted above, marked en-
deavours were being made at this time to extend the merino breed
of sheep, so that it was but natural that this breed should be given
the first chance. It should here be noted that the Australian
fine wools were first shipped from Botany bay (near Sydney),
hence the now universal term "botany" for fine wools. The colo-
nists were not to be repressed, however, and eventually, through
the endeavours of Captain MacArthur, the Rev. Samuel Marsden
and others, notwithstanding the opposition of Sir Joseph Banks,
the president of the Royal Society, the merino breed became estab-
lished on a firm basis, and in a comparatively short time Australian
wools were no longer a drug on the market. In the igth century
the possibilities of raising larger sheep on the better coastal pastur-
age was naturally suggested. Until about 1885 this tendency was
largely repressed owing to the demand for merino as distinct from
cross-bred wool. In other words wool was the dominating factor.
But with the possibilities and the development of the frozen meat
trade from 1880 to 1890 this condition was changed, and the tend-
ency to breed a large sheep of an early maturing type, with a
valuable carcass and mediocre wool grew apace. New Zealand
was specially adapted for this development; thus New Zealand
frozen mutton completely dominated New Zealand wool. In this
manner it came about that cross-bred wool supplanted merino
wool to a very considerable extent throughout Australasia.
The final results of these crossings are somewhat peculiar. The
Lincoln crossed on to the Merino and in-bred for at least ten
generations has produced the world renowned "Corriedale" sheep
which on a large body carries a heavy fleece of 48Vs6's quality
of wool. The half-bred Down cross Merino produces an early
fattening lamb with a wool between the Down and the Merino.
The Romney Marsh sheep has proved a wonderful sheep for New
Zealand especially from the frozen mutton trade point of view.
Its wool may be a useful demi-lustre but unfortunately has been
allowed to deteriorate. This deterioration, however, is now being
suppressed and wools at present being tested in the University of
Leeds (1928) show a return to a useful quality. Any cross be-
tween an English breed and a Merino which has been crossed to-
wards the Merino again produce the fine "cross-bred'* or "Come-
back" wools for which Australia is specially noted. The Corrie-
dale sheep crossed on to the Merino and in-bred for many genera-
tions form the Polworth sheep and wool.
A somewhat different evolution has taken place in later years
with reference to the interior sheep stations. The merino sheep
will thrive where a larger sheep would starve, hence its value
for the stations where salt-bush and blue-bush dominate all vege-
tation, But the merino sheep is a "wool" sheep, not a "frozen
mutton" sheep, hence all crossing here was carried out with the
idea of simply developing the weight of fleece and if possible
retaining the merino wool characteristics.
728
WOOL
South American WooL — Hardly second in importance to
Australia as a wool-growing country comes South America. In
most years Australia has produced the greater bulk, but until
recently occasionally S. America has come out top. To-day, how-
ever, although Patagonia and Chile have shown remarkable sheep
developments, South America as a whole has relatively declined
as a wool-growing continent. Cattle and cereals prove the better
paying products. The history of the introduction of merino sheep
into S. America may be briefly summed up as follows. In 1842
Henri Solanet, a Frenchman, began to shear the comparatively
few sheep round Buenos Aires. His example was soon followed by
Edouardo Olivera and Jose Planer. The idea almost at once
came to these pioneers of importing well-bred rams, and as S.
America is essentially a Latin country it was but natural that the
French flocks of Rambouillet should be first drawn upon. With
the development of the meat trade — just as in the case of Australia
and New Zealand — a larger carcass was then sought after. This
led to the introduction of the Lincoln ram and the development
of cross-bred flocks about the year 1885. Perhaps this cross was
favoured owing to the skill of the Bradford spinners, who made
excellent use of the cross-bred wool produced. Flocks of sheep
were first introduced into the Falkland islands in 1867. The pastur-
age here being limited, the flocks have probably attained their
limit, but from the Falkland islands flocks have been passed on to
Punta Arenas, where there is practically unlimited pasturage.
The chief centres from which wool from S. America comes to
Europe are Buenos Aires, which exports chiefly long and cross-bred
wools, Montevideo, which exports chiefly merino wools, and the
Falkland islands and Punta Arenas, which export mostly wools of
the finer Cheviot type. The industry is largely in the hands of
Englishmen. In Peru the weight of fleece carried and the number
of sheep are being so increased that Peru may soon be exporting
over 100,000,000 Ib. of wool annually in addition to its export
of vicuna, alpaca, and llama markets.
South African Wool. — Prior to the introduction of the merino
sheep into Australia it had been introduced into S. Africa by the
Dutch. There the climate was not so helpful as was that of Aus-
tralia. The newly acclimatized sheep appears to have cast its
wool at about the fifth generation and to have generally deterior-
ated, necessitating the reintroduction of fresh blood from Europe.
In this manner have been developed the Cape flocks and the con-
siderable Cape wool trade — largely centred at Port Elizabeth,
East London, Cape Town, Mossel Bay and Port Natal. The coun-
try is evidently specially adapted for the rearing of the merino
type of sheep, as cross-bred Cape wool is almost unknown. In
1907 some thousands of Australian merino sheep were introduced,
and this has been followed up by more recent importations.
Thus to-day Cape merinos rival those of Australia.
Such remarkable advances have been made in the weights of
fleeces carried by sheep of particular breeds that it is difficult to
say if finality has been reached. The following list gives average
weights :
Breed
Weight of
average
fleece
Breed
Weight of
average
fleece
Merino (Austra-
lian) .
Merino (South
American)
Corriedale .
8 to 10 Ib.
4 to 6j Ib.
8 to 10 Ib.
Southdown
Lincoln
Shetland
Cashmere
6 IK
I2lb.
4lb.
4 oz.
In 1885 the average weight of wool per sheep per year was about
S Ib., while 7 to 8 Ib. is now the average weight. The weights of
Australian fleeces are to-day about double as compared with 1885.
The Colour of Wool. — The prevailing colour of sheep's wool
is white, but there are races with black, brown, fawn, yellow and
grey shades of wool. For manufacturing purposes generally white
wool is, of course; most valuable, but for the homespuns, which
in earlier times absorbed the bulk of wool, natural colours were
in many cases used with good effect. In domestic spinning, knitting,
and weaving, natural colours are still largely taken advantage of,
as in the cases of rough yarns, Shetland knitted shawls, Highland
tweeds, etc.
TABLE I.— The World's Sheep (millions)
.3
6
«3
>. d
Year
^
•si
f3
A *
?'c
^j
a
*n
• - c
l/j
*•* .y
3 hfl
C/3
.53
2
1
,«?•£
3
£3 '
£<
P
'1
S
19OO
31
go
13
7oJ
48
IQOS
20
9^2
272*
68
37J
187*
187*
1910
657
31
116
22*
93
445
153
I53,
1915
634
942
26
IIO
42 J
155^
issi
IQ2O
23 i
101
22
302
97*
157*
IQ 'I
587
24
105
28
56
38
116
155
573
24
103
35
54i
37i
115
135
19*3
55»
24
97
28
54
30
1 06
140
1024
25 i
07']
304
.«2
39
107?
i48
1925
600
26J
107! -
32
Sol
39
no
163*
1026
603
27i
1 193
3 2
5°}
41
101
1 66
'Numbers for nearest years.
TABLE 11.— The World's Wool (millions of Ib.)
.2
c
z
J
•s.S
Year
-o
"S'S
1
^C5
3 <
^
Si
TJ
to
;s.s
'-3.2 *^
3 -a o>
^ c c
'A
.3
1
i£
<
pQPc/i
HJ cd'w
u>
<
w
1900
2,685
140
510
791*
536
289
274
806
1905
2,605*
131
520
63!
470
295
210*
666*
1910
2,053
143
834
112
544
321
218
670
1915
2, S3 7
122
767
170
408
289
273
68 1
1920
2,894*
105
718
119
40.S*
3H*
327*
6^6*
1921
3,003
IO1
818
230
485
273
327
798
1922
2,701
103
816
1/6
317
261
265
559
1923
2,720
1O2
770
164
279a
282$
28()
555
1924
2,720
103
760 J
180
374*1
282}
289
554
1925
2,826
109
880^
175
406
301
289
513
1926
3,022
"3
9754
190
439
258
560
*Lb. for nearest year.
Tables I. and II. give useful particulars of the World's sheep
and wool and also illustrate recent developments in wool-growing.
The Physical Characteristics of Wool. — The most important
physical characteristics of the wool fibre are the cell structure, the
fibre diameter and the fibre length. Researches into the external
structures of ranges of British and Merino wools reveal interesting
differences which largely explain the felting qualities observable in
the respective wools. It is usual to consider British wools under
the headings — mountain wools, lustre wools, demi-lustre wools
and down wools.
Fig. i illustrates typical fibres taken from the Swaledale (an
improved Blackface Scotch sheep) showing in K the external
structure of the kemp, in /. medullated and non-delullated coarse
fibres and in //. the finest fibre, which in this case approaches the
merino fibre in actual scale structure.
Fig. 2 illustrates typical fibres taken from the Lincoln sheep,
typical of the lustre wool class ; in this case in /. there are con-
tinuous and intermittent medullated fibres.
Fig. 3 illustrates typical fibres taken from the Romney Marsh
sheep, typical of the demi-lustre class. This is a remarkably good
felting wool and the very clearly defined external scale structure is
probably a dominant factor with reference to this quality.
Fig. 4 illustrates fibres taken from Southdown sheep — the best
of the fine British breeds — which are particularly interesting in
that there are no medullated fibres, while both thick and thin
fibres clearly show a merino origin. This is not a milling wool.
In fig. 5 a photo-micrograph of a typical merino fibre is shown,
from which it will be gathered that the typical merino structure
is of the coronal pattern in which each scale tends to encircle the
shaft of the fibre and rests in the cup formed by the scale be-
neath it.
In fig. 6 a photo-micrograph of a New Zealand cross-bred fibre
(Lincoln X merino) is given, this presenting a curious blend of
the British and merino wools external fibre structures.
Wool fibres vary in diameter from more than 7^*" to less
than 5555". In the best bred merino wools, say a 70 s quality,
WOOL
72C
shoulder staples or locks of wool will snow a useful uniformity I
varying only from about j-Jjs" to ^53", whereas in the typical '
mountain wools variations from ffa" to ^fa" are quite usual.
The explanation is that the well-bred merino wool is entirely the
under coat of the wild sheep, while the mountain wool appears
to be composed of fibres from both the under and outer coats of
the wild sheep with modified fibres coming in between the two
types.
Just as the life history of a fish may be recorded in its scales
so the life history of a sheep is recorded in its wool fibres. The
single factor — fibre diameter — usually reveals important facts
with reference to both "race" and "environment."
Wool fibres vary in length from under one inch to more than
1 8 inches, in fact, on several occasions when sheep have accident-
ally missed shearing for two or three years a wool growth, in the
case of crossbreds, has been recorded to more than 40 inches. The
yearly growth of wool, however, is within the limits indicated.
The following are the average yearly growths of the most impor-
tant breeds of sheep. •
Blackface . . . 18" to 10" Southdown . . 3 " to 4"
Lincoln . . . I2"toi8" Clothing Merino . iV'toa"
Romncy . . . 6" to 8" Combing Merino . 2i"tos"
Shropshire . , 4" to 6"
It should be noted that the first year's growths of wool, sheared
from what arc termed "hogg" or "teg" sheep, are usually rather
longer than the above owing to the lambs being dropped from
February to April and the shearing not taking place until the fol-
lowing May or June. Hogg wool also reveals itself in its pointed
fibre tips.
The dominant physical characteristics of the four classes of
wool referred to are: — For mountain wools, strength of fibre and
in some cases a free intermixture of coarse and fine fibres; for
lustre wools, that lustre which the manufacturer can develop in
his lustre fabrics; for demi-lustre wools, either an approach to a
lustre type or more frequently a loftiness in handle well suiting
the type of wool for the coarser hosiery fabrics. For down wools,
a fineness combined with loftiness which specially fits these wools
for the finer hosiery styles ; and for merino wools, a special fibre
fineness with plasticity of handle which enables the spinner to pro-
duce the finest possible wool yarns and the manufacturer to obtain
a superb "handle" in his fabrics.
The other distinguishing qualities of good wool are uniformity
and strength of fibre with freedom from tender or weak portions in
its length, a condition which not unfrequently arises from ill
health in the sheep, or is due to violent climatic changes. In ill-
bred wool there may also be found intermingled "kemps" or dead
hairs — straight, coarse, dull fibres which show conspicuously
among the wool, and become even more prominent in the manu-
factured and dyed goods, as they will not take dye.
The Chemical Characteristics of Wool. — Wool as it comes
from the sheep's back is in anything but a pure form. The follow-
ing analyses carried out at Leeds university (Barker and Wilson)
give an idea of the problem facing the wool-scourer who, receiving
wool "in the grease/' is expected to turn it out clean with a
moisture content of about 16% in the weight of the clean dried
wool.
Type of wool
Wool fat
Suint
Australian wools
%
%
Geelong, So's quality ...
35.3
14-2
Merino, 64'$ quality ....
41-0
Corriedalc, 56*5 quality
45-8 ! 23-5
AJrican wools
|
Eastern state, 7c's quality . .
-'7*0
20-0
Swagershock, (>4's quality
jg-6
21-4
Grootfontcin, yo's quality
41-4
12-0
Peruvian
Ordinary, 56*5 quality
9*4
29-2
Improved, 60/04 's quality . . 14-0
35*O
English
Wcnslcydale, 46*5 quality
9-3
-'7-3
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
50-8
7-2
18-5
. 21-2
Sulphur
2-3
z
**%
1
1
£2
Type of wool
fc
a
u
v
(/}
-81
4->
§
J
S
••g
rt '
o
tj^
k4
qj
CJ
£
C/3
fe
PH
S
£
Lincoln
%
%
%
*/o
%
%
%
(washed)
73-3
13-4
5-32
3-77
2-06
i-63
99*48
Merino
9-0
1.3-0
24-0
4-0
6-0
IOI-0
Corriedale
54*0
13-0
10-0
12-0
5'9
6-0
100-9
Southdown
50-0
IJ-O
16-0
IO-O
8-0
100-2
Burry
62-0
12-8
9'3
10-0
4'5
4-6
IO2-Q
A careful analysis of typical wools (Speakman) usefully indi-
cates the percentages on the weights of the clean dry wool of
"wool fat" and "suint" usually present.
The variations here in evidence are remarkable and well illus
trate the difficulties with which the wool-scourer has to contend
It is usual now to recover the wool fat which is placed on th<
market as "lanoline," but it is not usual to attempt to recove
the potash salts.
Chemical Composition. — According to Dr. Bowman, th
chemical composition of the cell structure of the average wool
fibre is: —
100-0
It is said to be a most complex body of which the probabl
formula is C42Hi57NiSOi5.
If wool is burnt, it largely resolves itself into ammonia gas-
whence it derives its characteristic odour — and carbon "beads" o
"remains," which serve to distinguish wool from cotton, which
upon being burnt, does not smoulder but burns with a flash an<
leaves no beads. For further particulars on the organic nature o
the wool-fibre see FIBRES.
Lamb, Hogg and Wether Wool.— The bulk of the wool o
commerce comes into the market in the form of fleece wool, th
product of a single year's growth, cut from the body of the livin
animal. The first and finest clip, called lambs' wool, may be takei
from the young sheep at about the age of eight months. When th
animal is not shorn till it attains the age of twelve or fourteei
months the wool is known as hogg or hogget, and, like lambs
wool, is fine and tapers to a point. All subsequently cut fleeces ar
known as wether wool, and usually possess relatively somewha
less value than the first clip. Fleece wool as it comes into th
market is "in the grease," that is, unwashed, and with all the dirl
etc., present; or it is received as "washed" wool, the washin
being done as a preliminary to the sheep-shearing; or, in som
few cases, it is scoured and is consequently stated as "scoured.
Skin wool is that which is obtained from sheep which have eithe
died or have been killed. Typical skin wool is that which has beei
removed by a sweating process or by painting with sulphide
Sheep Washing. — Where there is abundance of water am
other conveniences it is the practice to wash sheep previous t
shearing, and such wool comes onto the market as washed. Wher
running streams exist, the sheep are penned by the side of th
water, and taken one by one and held in the stream while they ar
washed, one man holding and the other washing. Sheep washin
appliances are now largely employed, the arrangement consistin
of a pen into which the sheep are driven and subjected to a stron
spray of water cither hot or cold, which soaks the fleece am
softens the dirt. This done, they are caused to swim along
tank which narrows towards the exit, and just as they pass ou
of the pen they are caught and subjected to a strong douche o
pure water. They should then be kept on gras3 land free fron
straw, sand, etc., so that the wool may be sheared free fron
vegetable matter, etc. After a few days the wool of a washei
sheep is sufficiently dry for shearing or clipping.
Sheep Shearing.— A skilful shearer will clip the fleece from ,
sheep in one unbroken continuous sheet, retaining the form am
relative positions of the mass almost as if the creature had beei
730
WOOL
skinned. In this unbroken condition each fleece is rolled up by
itself and tied with its own wool, which greatly facilitates the
sorting or stapling which all wool undergoes for the separation
of the several qualities which make up the fleece. Mechanical
shears have almost revolutionized the shearing industry, a good
shearer shearing from 100 to 200 sheep per day.
Wool Classing. — On the great Australian sheep stations wool
classing is one of the most important operations, largely taking
the place of sorting in the English wool trade. This is no doubt
due to the wonderful success which has attended the efforts of
the Australian sheep breeders to breed a sheep of uniform staple
throughout. Thus the fleeces as taken from the sheep are skirted
and trimmed on one table and then passed on to the classer, who
places them in the s6's, 60 \s, 64*5, 70*5, 8o's or QO'S class accord-
ing to their fineness, these numbers approximately indicating the
worsted counts to which it is supposed they will spin. The shorter
Australian wools not coming under any of these heads are classed
as super-clothing, ordinary clothing, etc., being more suitable for
the woollen industry.
The technique of sheep shearing, skirting, classing, packing and
transporting has been brought up to a wonderful state of perfec-
tion in Australia, and the "get up" of the wool is usually much
superior to the "get up" of the "home-clip."
Wool Sorting. — Sorting or stapling was formerly a distinct
industry, and to some extent it is so still, though frequently the
work is done on the premises of the comber or spinner. Clothing
wools are separated and classed differently from combing wools,
and in dealing with fleeces from different breeds, the classification
of the sorter varies. In the woollen trade short-staple wool is
separated into qualities, known, in descending series from the
finest to the most worthless, as picklock, prime, choice, super, head,
seconds, abb and breech, and the proportions in which the higher
and lower qualities are present are determined by the "class" of
the fleece. In the worsted trade the classification goes, also in
descending series, from fine, blue, neat, brown, breech, downright,
seconds, to abb for English wools. The last three are short and
not commonly used in the worsted trade. The greater proportion
of good English long wool will be classified as blue, neat and
brown; it is only in exceptional cases that more than from 5 to
8% is "fine" on the one hand, or of lower quality than breech on
the other. Generally speaking, the best portion of a fleece is from
the shoulders and side of the animal. The quality decreases
towards the tail end of the sheep, the "britch" being frequently
long, strong and irregular. The belly wool is short, worn and dirty,
as is also the front of the throat, while on the head and shins
the product is short, stiff and straight, more like hair than wool
and is liable to contain grey hairs. The colonial wools come
"classed," and consequently are only as a rule sorted into three
or four qualities. Thus a 6o's fleece may be sorted into 56*5,
ordinary 6o's, super 6o's and skirtings.
The sorter works at a table or frame covered with wire netting
through which dust, and dirt fall as he handles the wool. Fleeces
which have been hard packed in bales, especially if unwashed, go
into dense hard masses, which may be heated till the softening of
the yolk and the swelling of the fibres make them pliable and
easily opened up. When the fleece is spread out the stapler first
divides it into two equal sides; then he picks away all straws, large
burrs, and tarry fragments which are visible; and then with mar-
vellous precision and certainty he picks out his separate qualities,
throwing each lot into its allotted receptacle. Sorting is very far
removed from being a mere mechanical process of selecting and
separating the wool from certain parts of the fleece, because in
each individual fleece qualities and proportions differ, and it is
only by long experience that a stapler is enabled, almost as it were
by instinct, rightly to divide up his fleeces, so as to produce even
qualities of raw material. Cleanliness is most essential if the wool
sorter is to keep his health and not succumb to the dread disease
known as "anthrax" or "wool-sorters' disease." Certain wools
such as Persian, Van mohair, etc., are known to be very liable
to carry the anthrax bacilli, and must be sorted under the con-
ditions imposed by government for "dangerous wools." Fortu-
nately wools can now be readily disinfected at the Government's
station at Liverpool. Ordinary or non-dangerous wools are per-
fectly harmless from this point of view.
Scouring. — The washing which a fleece may have received on
the live sheep is usually not sufficient for the ordinary purposes
of the manufacturer. On the careful and complete manner in
which scouring is effected much depends. The qualities of the
fibre may be seriously injured by injudicious treatment, while,
if the wool is imperfectly cleansed, it will dye unevenly, and the
manufacturing operations will be more or less unsatisfactory.
The water used for scouring should be soft and pure, both to save
soap and still more because the insoluble lime soap formed in
dissolving soap in hard water is deposited on the wool fibres and
becomes so fixed that its removal is a matter of extreme difficulty.
In former times stale urine was a favourite medium in which
to scour wool; but that is now a thing of the past, and a specially
prepared potash soap is the detergent principally relied on. Excess
of uncombined alkali has to be guarded against, since uncombined
caustic acts energetically on the wool fibre — especially in the
presence of heat — and is indeed a solvent of it. A soap solution
of too great strength leaves the wool harsh and brittle, and the
same bad result arises if the soapy solution is applied too hot.
The scouring of wool has passed through many changes during
the past fifty years, but to-day the principle upon which all scour-
ing machines are based is that wool naturally opens out in water.
The mechanical arrangements of the machines are such .as to en-
sure the passage of the wool without undue lifting and "stringing";
to obviate the mixing of wool grease, sand, dirt, etc., once taken
out of the wool with that wool again ; to give time for the thorough
action of the scouring agents, so that neither too strong a solution
nor too great a heat be employed; and to allow of the ready
cleansing of the machines so that there is no unnecessary waste of
time. In England the recognized type of merino wool-washing
machine is the fork-frame bowl. Three to five of these machines
are employed. The "scour" is strongest and hottest in the first
bowl (unless this is used as a "steeper") as the wool at first is
protected from the caustic by the wool-fat, etc., present. The last
bowl is simply a rinsing bowl. With modern "nip rollers" botany
wool is sufficiently dry to be passed on directly — say by pneumatic
conveyers — to the carding. This the worsted spinner does, thereby
saving time and money. The woollen spinner, however, may
require the wool for blending, and so may require it dry and in a
fit state for oiling. He, therefore, will employ one or other of the
drying processes to be immediately described. For English and
cross-bred wools more agitation in the scouring bath may be
desirable. If so, the eccentric fork action machine is employed,
in which the agitation of the bath is satisfactorily controlled by
the setting of the forks which propel the wool forward. An average
wool will be in the scouring liquor about eight minutes, the tem-
perature will vary from 120° F to 110° F, and the length of
bath through which it will have passed will be from 48 to 60 ft.
It is interesting to note that the "emulsion" method of wool
scouring as described above is practically universal in England. In
the United States of America the "solvent" method is largely in
use. The agent employed — say benzene — is recovered by volatil-
izing and condensing, thus being used over and over again.
Wool Drying. — The more gently and uniformly the drying can
be effected the better is the result attained; over-drying of wool
has to be specially guarded against. By some manufacturers the
wool from the squeezing rollers is whizzed in a hydro-extractor,
which drives out so much of the moisture that the further drying
is easily effected. The commonest way, however, of drying is
to spread the wool as uniformly as possible over a framework of
wire netting, under or over which is a range of steam-heated pipes.
A fan blast blows air over these hot pipes, and the heated air
passes up and is forced upwards through the layer of wool which
rests on the netting, or downwards, as the case may be. In either
case, unless the wool is spread with great evenness, it gets un-
equally dried, and at points where the hot air escapes freely it may
be much over-dried. A more rapid and uniform result may be
obtained by the use of the mechanical wool drier, a close chamber
divided into horizontal compartments, the floors of which have
alternate fixed and movable bars. Under the chamber is a tubular
WOOL
731
heating apparatus, and a fan by which a powerful current of.
heated air is blown up the side of the chamber, and through all
the shelves or compartments successively, either following or
opposing the wool in its passage through the machine. The wool
is introduced by a continuous feed at one end of the chamber;
the strength of the blast carries it up and deposits it on the upper
shelf, and by the action of the movable bars, which are worked
by cranks, it is carded forward to the opposite end, whence
it drops to the next lower shelf, and so on it travels till at the
extremity of the lower shelf it passes out by the delivery lattice
well and equally dried. Another drying machine in extensive use is
what is known as the "Jumbo dryer." This consists of a large
revolving cylinder or churn which turns over the wool — as a churn
turns butter — and owing to its inclination passes it from one end
to the other. A hot air blast follows the wool through the machine.
Teasing. — The dried wool may be in a partially matted con-
dition. If so, it must be opened out and the whole material brought
into a uniformly free and loose condition. This is effected in the
Willey, which consists of a large drum and three small cylinders
mounted in an enclosed frame. The drum is armed with ranges of
powerful hooked teeth or spikes, and is geared to rotate with great
rapidity, making about 500 revolutions per minute. The smaller
cylinders, called workers, are also provided with strong spikes;
they are mounted over the drum and revolve more slowly in a
direction contrary to the drum, the spikes of which just clear those
of the workers. The wool is fed into the drum, which carries it
round with great velocity; but, as it passes on, the locks are caught
by the spikes of the workers, and in the contest for possessing
the wool the matted locks are torn asunder till the whole wool
is delivered in a light, free and disentangled condition. It is a
debatable point as to whether willowing should precede scouring.
Burring. — For certain classes of wool, notably Buenos Aires,
still another preparing operation is essential at this stage — that is,
the removal of burrs or small persistently adherent seeds and
other fragments of vegetable matter which remain in the wool.
Two methods of effecting this — one chemical, the other mechanical
— may be pursued. Thi chemical treatment consists in steeping
the wool in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid (or other carboniz-
ing agent), draining off the dilute acid by means of the hydro
extractor, and then heat-drying in a temperature of about 250° F.
The acid leaves the wool practically uninjured, but is concentrated
on the more absorbent vegetable matter, and the high heat causes
it to act so that the vegetable matter becomes completely carbon-
ized. The burrs are then crushed and the wool washed in water
rendered sufficiently alkaline to neutralize any free acid which may
remain, and dried. The same burr-removing effect is obtained by
the use of a solution of chloride of aluminium, a method said to be
safer for the wool and less hurtful to the attendant workmen
than is the sulphuric acid process. For mechanical removing of
burrs, a machine something like the Willey in appearance is
employed. The main feature of this apparatus is a large drum or
swift armed with fine short spikes curved slightly in the direction
in which it rotates. By a series of beaters and circular brushes
the wool is carried to and fed on these short spikes, and in its
rotation the burrs, owing to their weight, hang out from the swift.
The swift as it travels round is met by a series of three burning
rollers rotating in an opposite direction, the projecting rails of
which knock the burrs off the wool. The burrs fall on a grating
and are ejected, with a certain amount of wool adhering to them,
by another rotating cylinder. With wools not too burry the worsted
spinner largely depends upon burring rollers placed upon the first
cylinder of the "carder," and possibly to one or other of the
patent pulverizing processes applied further on in the card. In
the latter process a complete pulverizing of the burrs is aimed
at, this being effected by the introduction of specially constructed
pulverizing rollers between the first doffer and the last swift of
the carding engine. Wooled skins are now successfully deburred
by a recently introduced machine — an Australian invention.
(A. F. B.)
Wool in the United States*-~The three types of wool pro*
duced in the United States are usually classified as fine, medium
and long. Fine wools come from Merino and Rambouiilet sheep
or crossbreds which show a preponderance of Rambouiilet o
Merino blood. They vary from i to 4 in. in length. The iQ2c
Census showed that 42-2% of the purebred sheep were of th<
fine wool breeds. The fineness, crimp, elasticity and good feltinj
qualities of sucjh wools make them suitable for a wide range o:
uses. They are well adapted to the making of choice woollen am
worsted yarns, from which many different fine-textured goods
such as suitings, dress goods and broadcloths are manufactured
Medium wools, which are coarser than the fine wools, but no
usually as coarse as the long wools, come largely from the South
down, Hampshire, Shropshire, Oxford and Dorset breeds; knowi
as Down breeds. Wool from many different kinds of crossbret
sheep similar to the Down breeds is also included as medium wool
The length of medium wool varies from 2 to 5 inches. According
to the 1920 Census 54-1% of purebred American sheep belonge<
to medium wool breeds. This kind of wool docs not usually
possess the elasticity or such well-defined crimp as the fine wools
While it is used in the manufacture of woven fabrics of nearly
every description, it is particularly well adapted for blankets
tweeds, and flannels, as well as suitings. It also makes very choic<
knitting yarns.
The long wools, or "coarse wools" come from Lincoln, Lei
cester, Cotswold and Romney sheep. This wool is usually coarse
than the medium wool, very lustrous, and varies from 5 to 15 in
in length. The 1920 Census showed that only 3-7% of purebre*
American sheep were of the long wool breeds. Long wools ari
used for the most part in the manufacture of bright, lustrous yarn
for linings, mantel fabrics, braids and dress goods.
Dividing the United States into its geographic divisions an<
arranging these divisions in the order of their purebred sheep pro
duction, they would rank as follows: Mountain, East North Cen
tral, Pacific, West North Central, Middle Atlantic, West Soutl
Central, South Atlantic, East South Central and Northeast. Th<
Mountain States lead the country in wool production. In thi
area is the largest production of fine wool, medium wool beinj
next in importance. The Pacific division ranks third. Fine woo
is important in this region, coming from both Rambouillets. an<
Merinos. Medium wool also plays an important part in thi
production of this region. The two divisions just described con
stitute what is commonly known as the range area of the Unite<
States. The estimates of the U.S. Department of Agriculture fo
the year 1928 showed 26,722,000 sheep of the total 47,171,001
for the entire United States to be in these two regions.
In the East North Central States, medium wool, from Dowi
breeds, prevails, although fine wools are important, especially ii
Ohio and Michigan. In the West North Central division, and ii
the Middle Atlantic States, the production of medium wool fron
Down breeds also predominates, although Pennsylvania produce
considerable fine wool from Merinos. In the West South Centra
States, medium wools prevail with the exception of the westen
half of Texas. Texas, the krgest wool-producing State in thi
Union, grows mostly fine wool on its western range area an<
supplies altogether about 10% of the total wool of the country
The South Atlantic States, and the East South Central States
produce, for the most part, medium wool. There is also a con
siderable amount of fine wool produced in the northern part o
West Virginia, mostly from Merino sheep. In the New Englan<
division, the medium wool is mostly from Shropshires, althougi
other Down breeds are represented. Wrhile less wool is produce*
in the New England region than in any other, it was at one tim
a leading wool-producing area. As a result of the developmen
of the lamb-meat trade, which is associated principally with shee]
which produce medium wool, the production of fine and long woe
has been decreasing and that of medium wool has been increasini
since about 1900. (J. I. H.)
WOpL, WAR CONTROL OP. Wool is an indispensabl
article in war. No fibre has yet been discovered, the propertie
of which can equal, for the clothing of armies, its hygienic an<
durable qualities; whilst for munition purposes, such as fel
washers, for shells, guns, submarine and aeroplane engines, tor
pedoes, tanks, etc. and other equipment such as water bottl
covers, wool is essential. A soldier's clothing and equipment con
732
WOOL
sumes on a war basis from four to ten times the average wool
consumption of a civilian in times of peace.
The question of wool supplies during the World War was in
part met by each country from its domestic production, and by
the utilisation of old woollens in the manufacture of new goods.
By this latter method and by substitution by inferior materials,
the German armies, in fact, maintained their military clothing
supplies throughout the war on a level of efficiency adequate for
their purpose, in spite of the Allied blockade which effectually
prevented supplies of overseas wool from reaching Germany and
her Allies. Germany achieved this, however, at the expense of
her non-combatants, who had to rely largely upon inferior sub-
stitutes for all their textile requirements.
From the point of view of the Allies the importance of con-
serving supplies could not be minimised. It was true that 85%
of the wool production of Australia consisted of the finer merino
quality not specially required for military purposes. After some
discussion, however, the British Government agreed in the
autumn of 1916 to purchase the whole wool production, exclud-
ing local manufacturing requirements, of Australia and New
Zealand on a f.o.b. basis of 55% over average pre war prices
(1913-14) with the stipulation that this price should be main-
tained for all military and other Government requirements both
of Great Britain and of her Allies, but that in respect of civil
consumption the fullest possible price should be obtained, and any
net profit resulting be divided equally between the Treasuries
of the imperial Government and the Governments of the common-
wealth and the dominion. The purchase was repeated in prac-
tically the same terms for the 1917-18 and 1918-19 seasons.
In 1915 the French Government had requisitioned its domestic
wool clip on a price basis 25% over pre war, in 1916 the British
Government requisitioned the British domestic clip on a level
of 35% over pre war prices. The latter was a gesture rather than
a necessity. In 1917 the price paid for the British clip was raised
to 50% over pre war prices and in 1918 to 60%.
Institution of Control. — Owing mainly to factors external to
its own peculiar difficulties the War Office in the autumn of 1916
found itself launched on a huge wool purchase scheme and had
immediately to devise ways and means of dealing with the raw
wool which it now owned. In the first place, arrangements were
made with the shipping authorities by which the wool was brought
from Australasia by requisitioned shipping at Blue Book rates.
Special storage and transport arrangements had to be improvised
both in Australia and at British ports. In the previous spring an
organisation had been set up by the War Office for the valuation,
collection, and distribution of the British domestic clip, a rela-
tively small matter of 120,000,000 Ib. The Australian and New
Zealand clips, amounting to about 1,000,000,000 Jb., were valued,
collected, and brought to Australasian ports by a machinery set
up by the selling brokers and other trade organisations under the
supervision of their Governments, which worked amazingly well
within a very short time. When it is realised that whilst the
average price of Australian wool was isid. there were almost a
thousand different prices in the schedules prepared, the detailed
work of valuation alone will be appreciated.
The War Office then expanded its British wool purchase execu-
tive under a wool controller to deal with the supplies of colonial
wool now coming forward. The distribution of wool and tops to
manufacturers at fixed prices made it possible to fix also the
prices at which the finished cloth was to be delivered. In making
purchases of cloth and other textiles, the War Office contracts
department up to the end of 1916 endeavoured to purchase within
fixed prices, but owing to rising prices of raw material this method
in practice broke down. Not only was wool now issued for
military but also for civilian purposes, whilst control of the raw
material gave automatically the opportunity of controlling the
use to which machinery should be put and ensured the supply
of finished war material at fixed prices. To cope with these diffi-
cult problems a department of wool textile production was set up.
The shipping and political factors involved wet* not known by
and could not, therefore, be justly appreciated by the trade. It
seemed, indeed, to a vast majority of those in the wool textile
industry that an unnecessary degree of State control and inter-
ference had been instituted and this was vigorously opposed. As
a method of understanding, a board of control of the wool textile
industries was set up consisting of Government officials, mainly
brought in from the trade, employers* and also trade union rep-
resentatives. This board in practice represented a buffer between
the War Office and the trade, and under its auspices problems
concerning the rationing and control of civilian trade were de-
centralised. The responsibility, however, for meeting the increas-
ingly growing demands not only of the British military, naval,
and air forces, but of the armies of Russia, Belgium, Serbia and
to a certain extent of Italy and France, and later the entire equip-
ment in Europe of the American troops, remained with the
responsible officials. In addition they were responsible for sup-
plies of essential public services, both voluntary and Government,
throughout the empire, including the Red Cross and prisoners of
war organisations, post office, police and municipal requirements
at home and abroad, women's organisations, as well as such
services as the Indian and Egyptian Government services, to-
gether with the initiation and control of standard clothing schemes
for the civil population and for the needs of demobilisation after
the war.
In March 1918, when the British armies lost large reserves of
stores in France, and the demands of the Allies and America were
rapidly increasing, the department had to extend its production
by over one million yards of material per week. It did this trith-
out apparent difficulty. A costings department was set up to
investigate and fix conversion costs at each stage of production,
but owing to technical complications the fixing of these rates
was a most difficult business. The practical workings of a central
statistical and costings staff necessarily lacked the flexibility of
the normal play of individual units in competition. The system
inevitably tended to fix the recognised conversion rate in excess of
average efficiency, for otherwise output suffered.
Success of the Scheme. — Viewed broadly the scheme achieved
its object. It produced necessary supplies at a calculable price.
To produce the varied and changing demands of peace at com-
petitive prices, the system must have broken down, but to meet a
fairly standardised demand, in which finance as the governing
factor was absent, the system was satisfactory, and inevitable in
the circumstances of war.
The Wool purchase scheme was of special beneftMo Australia
and New Zealand. During the first year of the purchase the
imperial Government paid to the commonwealth and dominion
Governments £25,000,000 and received for sales £330,000. By
June 1918, it had paid out over £100,000,000 and received not
much more than £50,000,000 by the end of 1919. A year after
the war the imperial Government had expended many millions
sterling in the purchase of wool more than it had received and
at the conclusion of hostilities it was responsible for about
£75,000,000 of wool accumulated in Australasian ports owing to
lack of shipping to transport it. In addition, an arrangement was
entered into by the surveyor-general of supply, who had been
appointed in 1917 to control all War Office supply services, by
which one clear season's (1919-20) wool clip after the war was
purchased by the imperial Government. During the war a large
part of the South African clip was also purchased, on optional
terms to growers, as well as that of the Falkland islands and of
Iceland (from which country wool cargoes had been running the
North sea blockade). East Indian wool was marketed at fixed
levels of prices under a special scheme. Numerous proposals
were from time to time put forward for the purchase of the wool
clips of South America but were in turn all vetoed by the Treas-
ury owing mainly to exchange difficulties.
In all 9,895,000 bales (approximately 3,250,000,000 Ib. of
wool) were purchased, for which approximately £300,000,000
was paid and a net profit of £70,000,000 was divided' equally
between the British and colonial Governments. The aggregate
sales of British wool amounted to £40,000,000 on which a profit
of £5,000,000 was made. Within one year of the war the whole
organisation of the department of wool textile production was
liquidated, but owing to the new arrangement made with regard
WOOL
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XXIII.
WOOL COMBING— WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE
733
to the further purchase, wool control was maintained, and a wool
control board set up to advise the War Office and the liquidation
commission concerning the various post-war questions which arose.
Government wool control continued until 1921, when its func-
tions were taken over by a company, called the British Australian
Wool Realisation Association, referred to as B.A.W.R.A. This re-
arrangement was made in order to avoid the restrictions and
international complications which direct Government trading in-
volved, and, incidentally, to minimise domestic political inter-
ference. During the post-war period the policy was followed of
establishing price by the release of wool at auction at calculated
quantities and at reserve prices based upon estimates prepared
from centralised Government and other statistics, and this for a
short time appeared very successful. The basing of potential con-
sumption figures upon such estimates proved, however, within a
short time unreliable. In spite of having at its command the
fullest possible information, and in addition, being in the enor-
mously strong position of the largest holder of wool stocks, the
wool control was unable to make any estimate of a useful nature
of future wool consumption, or to control the market, and as a
result its predictions on price did not eventuate, and sudden and
severe slumps overwhelmed the world wool trade both in 1920
and 1924. Apart, however, from this post-war experiment, which
endeavoured somewhat unsuccessfully to control prices, it is gen-
erally conceded that the wool control exercised during the war was
justified in the circumstances and by its results. (E. F. H.)
WOOL COMBING: see COMBING.
WOOLF, VIRGINIA, English writer, daughter of Sir Leslie
Stephen, married in 1912 Leonard Woolf. They control the Ho-
garth Press, by which most of her books have been published.
Her first novel, The Voyage Out (1915), was realized to be
a remarkable book, and its success was followed up with
Night and Day (1919) and Jacob's Room (1922). Meanwhile,
Mrs. Woolf had published several shorter experiments in a
new method, which were collected in Monday or Tuesday
(1921). In this new style are written the rest of her novels,
Mrs. Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927), and, to
a lesser extent, Orlando, a "biography" (1928). Instead of writing
novels in which the thoughts of the characters are to be deduced
from what they say and do, and, except in so far as they determine
action, are for the most part deemed irrelevant, or novels in
which the thoughts of individuals are recorded in order to show
to what sort of person they belong, Mrs. Woolf chose to write
novels in which thought is so minutely revealed that words and
actions (their springs being clearly understood) themselves lose
much of their importance; the merit of her books lies partly in
her understanding of those about whom she writes, partly in the
felicity with which she uses words. These same gifts place her
among the best literary critics of her time; she has published a
volume of critical Essays, The Common Reader (1925) and a
pamphlet on the novelist's art, Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown
(1924).
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE. The processes described in
the article WOOL are common to English, cross-bred and botany
wools, whether intended for woollen or for worsted yarns. From
this point, however, differentiation starts. Wool may be manipu-
lated with the idea of converting i^into felt (q.v.), "woollen"
fabrics or "worsted" fabrics.
Woollen and Worsted.— In a general way it may be said that
woollen yarns are those made from short wools usually possessed
of high felting qualities, These are prepared for spinning by the
process of carding, a process which so thoroughly blends or mixes
the fibres — long and short, black and white or coloured, or even of
different materials — that a homogeneous fibrous mass in broad
film form is obtained, which is then divided up longitudinally, as
it emerges from the carder, into a number of pith-like filaments.
These filaments are then extended into finer filaments and twisted
to form the woollen thread upon the mule or mule-frame.
On the other hand worsted yarns are generally made from the
long lustrous varieties of wool; the fibres are so combed as to bring
them as far as possible parallel to each other; the spinning is
usually effected on the frame, and the yam is spun into a compact)
smooth and level thread, which, when woven into cloth, is not
necessarily milled or felted. At all points, however, woollen and
worsted yarns and cloths as thus defined overlap each other, some
woollens being made from longer wool than certain worsteds, and
some worsteds inade from short staple wool, carded as well as
combed. The most fundamental distinction between the two rests
in the crossing and intercrossing of the fibres in preparing woollen
yarn, while for worsted yarn the fibres are treated by processes
designed to bring them into a smooth- parallel relationship to each
other.
Woollen Yarn Manufacture. — To obtain a sliver which can
be satisfactorily spun into a typical woollen thread the following
operations are necessary: willowing, oiling and blending, teasing,
carding (two or three operations), condensing and possibly roving.
Spinning upon the woollen mule or frame completes the series of
operations all of which are designed to lead up to the desired re-
sult. Of the foregoing operations the carding is perhaps the most
important as it is certainly one of the most interesting. At the
same time it must be fully realized that deficiencies in any one of
these operations will result in bad work at every subsequent pro-
Cess. For example, let an unsatisfactory combination of materials
be blended together and there will be trouble in both carding and
spinning. The roving operation included above is not always
necessary. In the old days, if a really fine thread were required,
roving was absolutely necessary, as the carder could not turn off a
sliver fine enough to be spun at one operation. To-day, however,
with the "tape" condensers, such fine slivers can be turned off the
condenser that it is easy to spin directly to the Required count.
Blending and Oiling.-— At the beginning of the igth century
woollen cloths were made of wool — some of them of the very
finest wool obtainable. To-day woollen cloths are made from any
and every kind of material, of which the following are the most
important: noils (botany, cross-bred, English, alpaca and mohair),
mungo, shoddy, extract, flocks, fud (short mill waste), cotton
sweeping, silk waste, etc. ; in fact it is said that anything which has
two ends to it can be incorporated into a woollen thread and cloth.
It does not follow, however, that all woollen cloth is cheap and
nasty. On the contrary the west of England still produces the
finest woollen fabrics of really marvellous texture and beauty, and
Batley, Dewsbury, etc., produce many fabrics which are certainly
cheap and yet not cheap appearing. The first essential for blending
is that the materials to be blended should be fairly opened out.
This is effected by passing each material, if necessary, through the
willow or through the "fearnaught" — a machine coming between
the willow and card — prior to beginning the "blend-stack." Some-
times it may be that a blending of different colours of wools to
obtain a definite "colour mixture" is necessary, more often it will
be a blending of various materials, such as noils, mungo, cotton,
etc., to obtain a cheap blend which may be spun into a satisfactory
warp or weft yarn. The blender proceeds as follows : first a layer
of No. i material — say wool — is spread over the required area on
the floor; it is then lightly oiled. A layer of No. 2 material — say
noils — is now added to the first layer; then another layer of wool
with rather more ojling; then No. 2, then No. i with still more oil
until all the material is built up into layers in the stack. The stack
is now beaten down sideways with sticks or pulled, and then the
more or less mixed mass is passed through the willow and fear-
naught still further to mix it prior to carding, where the true and
really fine mixing takes place. After passing through the fear-
naught the material is sheeted and left to "mellow," this no doubt
consisting in the oil applied distributing itself throughout the ma-
terial. If wool and cotton are blended together the wool must be
oiled first, or the blend will not work to the greatest advantage.
The oil may be best Gallipoli olive oil — which should not turn
rancid— but there are many good oils— and unfortunately many
bad oils — placed on the market at a reasonable rate which the
really skilled judge may use to advantage. The percentage of oil
varies from 2% to 12%— this remark applies both to the woollen
and worsted trades— -and there is no guide as to the amount re-
quired, saving and excepting experience, observation and common
sense. Automatic oiling arrangements have now been applied in the
woollen trade with a considerable amount of success, the sprink-
734
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE
ling of the oil by means of a watering-can on the stack, made as
described above, still being much in favour. The oil serves to
lubricate the fibres, and to render them more plastic and conse-
quently more workable, and to hold the fibrous mass together
and thus prevent "fly" during the passage through the cards.
Carding. — Carding was originally effected by hand, two flat
boards with convenient handles, covered with teeth or card cloth-
FIG. i
ing, serving as a means of teasing out lock by lock, fibre by fibre,
reversing root to tip and tip to root, so that a perfect mixing of
the fibres resulted. It was but natural that, when an attempt was
made to render the carding operation more mechanical, the opera-
tion should be converted into a continuous one through the adop-
tion of rollers in place of flats. Flats combined with rollers still
maintain their position in cotton carding, but in wool carding the
pure roller card is employed. The factors of carding are size of
rollers, speeds of rollers, inclination and shape of teeth and density
of card clothing. Probably no operation in the textile industries is
so little understood as carding. Thus the long wool carder would
think a man an idiot who suggested the running of the teeth of the
various cylinders actually into one another, while the short mungo
carder regularly carries out this idea, and so on. The underlying
principle of carding, however, is shown in fig. i, in which a sec-
tional drawing of part of a card is given. The wool is carried into
the machine on a travelling lattice and delivered to the feed rollers
A, A', A" of which A and A" in turn are stripped by the licker-in
B working at a greater speed point to smooth side. This in turn is
stripped by the angle stripper C again working at a greater speed
point to smooth side, which in its turn is stripped by the breast D
— the "carrying-forward" and swiftest carding cylinder in the ma-
chine. The swift carries the wool forward past the stripper E —
which as a matter of fact is stripped by the swift still working
point to smooth side — into the slowly retreating teeth of the first
worker F, which, being set a fair distance from the swift, just
allows well laid-down wool to pass, but catches any projecting and
uncarded staples. The worker in its turn is stripped by the strip*
per E, which in turn is stripped by the swift as already described.
The passage of the wool forward through the machine depends up-
on iU being carried past each worker in turn. Thus from beginning
to end of a machine the workers are set closer and closer to the
swift, so that the last worker only allows completely carded wool to
pass it. Immediately on passing the last worker F' the wool is
brushed up on the surface of the swift by the "fancy" G — as a rule
the only cylinder whose teeth actually work into the teeth of the
swift and the only cylinder with a greater surface speed than the
swift. The swift then throws its brushed-up coating of wool into
the slowly retreating teeth of the doffer H, which carries it forward
until angle stripper C' strips the doffer, to be in its turn stripped
by swift D' and so on. The speeds of the cylinders are in the first
place obviously dependent upon the principle of carding adopted,
the greater speed always stripping (save in the case of the fancy).
As to whether the speed shall be obtained by actual revolutions or
by a larger diameter of cylinder depends upon the nature of the
wool to be carded (long or short), the part which each cylinder
has to play in the card, and upon the question of wear of clothing
and power consumed. As a rule the strippers are all driven from a
smaller circumference of the swift to obtain conveniently the
necessary reduction in speed, and the slowly revolving workers are
chain driven from the doffer, which indirectly receives its motion
from the swift. The principles involved in the relative inclinations
of teeth are very apparent, but the principles involved in the
relative densities of teeth on the respective cylinders are again
much involved and little understood.
A complete scribbler or first card engine consists of a breast, or
small swift, and two swifts with the accompanying workers, strip-
pers, fancies, doffers, etc. The wool is stripped from this card as a
thin film by means of the doffing comb. This film is sometimes
weighed on to the next machine — whether intermediate or con-
denser— a given weight giving a definite count of condensed sliver.
Should an intermediate carder be employed, there must be an
automatic feed, taking the wool, as stripped from the last doffer of
the intermediate, and cross-feeding it evenly on to the feed sheet
of the condenser. It is now more usual to automatically weigh into
the scribbler and automatically feed the condenser or, if an inter-
mediate is employed, both the intermediate and condenser. The
condenser is a one-swifted or two-swifted card, the only difference
in principle being that, whereas the sliver comes out of the
scribbler or intermediate 'in one broad film, it is broken up into a
number of small continuous slivers or films as it issues from the
condenser, each one of which will ultimately be drafted or drawn
out and twisted into a more or less perfect thread. These slivers —
which are delicate and pith-like in substance — are wound on to
light bobbins, and these bobbins are placed on the mule for the
roving, or final spinning operations. There are many forms of
condensing mechanisms such as the single-doffer, the double-
doffer and the tape-condensers, which cannot be described here.
Mule Spinning. — The principles involved in mule spinning are
comparatively simple, but the necessary machinery is very com-
plex; indeed it is questionable if a more ingenious machine than
the mule exists. The pith-like slivers received from the card must
be attenuated until the correct count of yarn is obtained; they
must be twisted while this attenuation or drafting is in process,
otherwise they would at once break; and after being attenuated to
the required fineness the requisite number of turns must be in-
serted. Great stress must be laid on the effects of what is termed
the "drafting-twist" noted above; it is probably this simultaneous
drafting and twisting which develops the most pronounced char-
acteristics of the woollen yarn and cloth, and differentiates it en-
tirely from the worsted yarn and cloth. The mule (see fig. 2) con-
sists fundamentally of the delivery cylinders A, upon which the
sliver bobbins B from the condenser are placed, which deliver the
slivers as required to the front delivery rollers C (these rollers
controlling perfectly the delivery of sliver for each stretch of the
carriage), and the carriage EE carrying the spindles which may be
FIG. z
run close up to the front delivery rollers and about two yards
away from them to effect the -"spin," which is of an intermittent
character. The spindles D are turned by bands passing round a
tin drum K in the carriage, but this motion, and every other mo-
tion in the mule, is controlled perfectly from the headstock. In
brief, the operation of spinning is as follows : as the carriage be-
gins to recede from the delivery rollers these rollers deliver con-
densed sliver at about the same rate as the carriage with its
spindles moves out, the spindles putting in a little twist. When the
carnage has perhaps completed half its traverse (say 36") away
WOOLLEY— WOOLSACK
735
from the front rollers these suddenly stop delivering the condensed
sliver, the carriage travelling more and more slowly outwards until
it completes its traverse, drafting the sliver out to perhaps double
the length. This drafting could not be effected but for the "draft-
ing-twist," which, running into the thin parts of the yarn during
drafting, strengthens them and thus from beginning to end equal-
izes the thread. Upon the completion of drafting the spindles are
thrown on to "double speed" to complete the twisting of the 72"
of yarn just spun as rapidly as possible, the carriage being allowed
to run inwards for a few inches, to allow for the take-up due to
twisting. The mule now stops dead, backs-off the turns of yarn
from the top of the spindle to the bottom, the faller H wire falls j
into position to guide the thread on to the spindle to form the re-
quired cop G, and the counter-faller I wire rises to maintain a nice
tension on the yarn. The carriage now runs in, the spindles being
revolved to wind up the yam, and, in conjunction with the guiding
on of the faller wire, builds up a firm cop or spool.
Woollen mules are made with several hundred spindles and of
varying pitch to suit particular requirements. Thus if the mules
are to follow a set of say three machines with a tape condenser,
and are required to spin fine counts, the pitch of the spindles may
be much finer than ordinarily, but a greater number will be re-
quired to work up the sliver delivered by the set of machines.
There are many other details which require careful consideration;
the inclination of the spindles, for example, must be suited to the
material to be spun.
The mule-frame to which reference has been made is a ring-
spinning frame arranged to spin condensed woollen slivers con-
tinuously, thus producing about double the weight per spindle as
compared with the intermittent mule. Drafting-twist is introduced
in this case between two pairs of drafting rollers by a "twizzler"
which, however, only inserts false twist. The true twist is inserted
later by the spindle and traveller. This method of spinning neces-
sitates more twist than that necessary in mule spinning so that
"frame" woollen yarn is most suitable for warp and is usually not
soft enough for weft yarn.
The yarn as delivered by the mule is "single" and will serve as
warp or weft for the great bulk of woollen cloths, warp being as a
rule twisted harder than weft. Sometimes for strength, sometimes
for colour, however, it will be necessary to twist two or more of
these single strands together. This is best effected on a twisting
frame of the ring type, which consists of delivery rollers, to de-
liver a specified length of yarn in relationship to the turns of the
spindles, and the spindles, which serve to put in twist and to wind
the yarn upon the bobbin or tube, which they effect by reason of
the retarding action of the traveller. Fancy twists such as knops,
loops, slubs, etc., may also be produced if the frame is fitted up
with two pairs of delivery rollers and two or three special but
simple appliances.
For woollen and worsted weaving, sec WORSTED MANUFACTURE.
(A. F. B.)
WOOLLEY, MARY EMMA (1863- ), American edu-
cationist was born at South Norwalk (Conn.), on July 13, 1863.
She was instructor at Wheaton college, Norton (Mass.), 1886-
91, before going to Brown university, where she graduated in
1894. She was a teacher of biblical history in Wellesley college,
1895-98, becoming in the latter year professor and head of the
department of biblical history and literature. She was appointed
president of Mount Holyoke college in 1900 and became one of
the most influential women educationists in the United States.
WOOLLY APPLE APHIS, an American aphid (Eriosoma
lanigera), sometimes called the woolly root-louse of the apple.
Although of American origin, this insect has become a cosmopoli-
tan pest of the apple and pear. Making its appearance in England
toward the close of the i8th century, it became known as the
American blight ; and either from England or from America it has
been carried to many different parts of the world, probably on
nursery stock, It is likely to have been an indigenous pest of
Crataegus and to have established at a very early date an
alternate food plant in the American elm.
* In the northern part of the United States and in general
throughout its whole northern range, the insect lives almost en-
tirely upon the roots of its host plants, causing swellings and
other deformations and interfering seriously with the sap flow.
In the southern par^ of its range it lives for the most part above
ground, preferably upon suckers from the trunks but also upon
normal twigs and even upon leaves. In south England and most
parts of Europe, the aerial form predominates. This form is con-
centrated upon the tender growth and is conspicuous, the colonies
appearing as whitish cottony masses beneath which are the reddish
insects themselves. The winter eggs are laid in crevices of the
bark on elm and occasionally on apple, and hatch in the spring.
They develop parthcnogenetically, winged forms appearing occa-
sionally, by means of which the insect spreads. In the United
States, the fourth generation is winged and migrates from elm to
apple. There are usually seven generations each summer.
At present the insect is known in nearly all the European coun-
tries, in a number of South American countries, and also in Japan,
Australia and New Zealand. It has many natural enemies among
the insects, just as all plant lice have, and it has one specific para-
site— Aphelinus mail — which since 1920 has been carried from
America to many countries and has been acclimatized in France,
Italy, Uruguay, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.
(L. 0. H.)
WOOLMAN, JOHN (1720-1772), American Quaker preach-
er, was born in Northampton township, Burlington county (N.J.),
Oct. IQ, 1720, the son, according to himself, "of religious parents,"
for whom "he wrought on the plantation." Although he chronicles
some small faults in his youth, the majority of his life was one of
the most unaffected piety, humility, and devotion to the cause of
mankind. In 1772 he sailed for London to visit Friends in the
north of England, especially Yorkshire, and died in York of small-
pox, Oct. 7. He spoke and wrote against slavery, refused to draw
up wills transferring slaves, induced many of the Friends to set
their negroes free, and during the yearly meeting in 1 760 at New-
port (R.I.), urged the submission to the legislature of a petition
he had prepared forbidding the slave-trade. In 1763, in spite of the
dangers, he "felt inward drawings" to preach to the Indians at
Wehaloosing (now Wyalusing), on the Susquehanna. For the fate
of the red man his heart yearned, as it did for the negro and the
poor white. He was particularly concerned about the sale of rum
to the Indians, and about the loss of their lands through the supe-
rior cunning and force of civilized man. Nevertheless remember-
ing "that the people on the frontiers, among whom this evil is too
common, are often poor," he was "renewedly confirmed in a belief
that, if all our inhabitants lived according to sound wisdom, labour-
ing to promote universal love and righteousness, and ceased from
every inordinate desire after wealth, and from all customs which
are tinctured with luxury, the way would be easy to live comfort-
ably on honest employments," without temptation to unjust deal-
ing.
Woolman's writings include Some Considerations on the Keep-
ing of Negroes (1854; part ii., 1862); Considerations on Pure
Wisdom and Human Policy, on Labour, on Schools, on the.
Right Use of the Lord's Outward Gifts (1758) ; Considerations on
the True Harmony of Mankind, and How it is to be Maintained
(1770); A Word of Remembrance and Caution to the Rich
(i703) ; and the most important of his works, the Journal (1774),
which was begun in his 36th year and was continued until the
year of his death.
The works of John Woolman appeared in two parts in 1774 and
have been frequently reprinted. The best-known edition of the Jour-
nal is that prepared, with an introduction, by John G. Whittier in
1871; it was translated into French and German; and it is in Every-
man's Library. The most recent and scholarly edition is The Journal
and Essays of John Woolman, edited from the original manuscripts
with a biographical introduction by Amelia M. Gummere (1922). See
also W. T. Shore, John Woolman: His Life and Our Times (1913).
WOOLSACK, a sack stuffed with wool and covered with
red cloth upon which the lord chancellor sits in the House of
Lords. Originally there were four woolsacks in the parliament
chamber, upon which were seated the judges, barons of the
exchequer, serjeants-at-law and masters in chancery. The upper-
most woolsack now alone survives, but it is regarded as technically
outside the precincts of the House.
736
WOOLSEY— WOOLWICH
WOOLSEY, THEODORE DWIGHT (1801-1889),
American educationalist, born in New York city Oct. 31, 1801.
He was the son of a New York merchant, a^ nephew of Timothy
Dwight, president of Yale, and a descendant of Jonathan Edwards.
He graduated at Yale at the head of his class in 1820: became a
tutor there after studying theology and law at Princeton, in
1823-25; studied Greek at Leipzig, Berlin and Bonn in 1827-30;
became professor of Greek language and literature at Yale in
1831; and was elected president of the college and entered the
Congregational ministry in 1846. He resigned the presidency in
1871, and died July i, 1889, in New Haven. During his adminis-
tration the college grew rapidly, the scientific school and the
school of fine arts were established, and the scholarly tone of
the college was greatly improved. Much of his attention in his
last years was devoted to the American commission for the
revision of the authorized version of the New Testament, of
which he was chairman (1871-81). He prepared excellent editions
of Alcestis (1834), Antigone (1835), Prometheus (1837) and
Gorgias (1843). He published several volumes of sermons and
wrote for various periodicals. His Introduction to the Study of
International Law (1860) and his Essay on Divorce and Divorce
Legislation (1869) went through many editions. He also wrote
Political Science (1877), and Communism and Socialism (1880).
See the memorial address by president Timothy Dwight (1890), and
Theodore Divi^ht Woolse.y — A Biographical Sketch by his son T. S.
Woolsey (1912), also in the Yale Review (new scr., vol. i).
WOOLSTON, THOMAS (1669-1731), English deist, born
at Northampton in 1669, entered Sidney College, Cambridge, in
1685, and was made a fellow. After studying Origen, he devoted
himself to the allegorical interpretation of Scripture, and advo-
cated its use in his first book, The Old Apology for the Truth of
the Christian Religion against the Jews and Gentiles Revived
(1705). In 1720-1721 his open challenges to the clergy brought
him into trouble. It was reported that his mind was disordered,
and he lost his fellowship. From 1721 he lived in London, on an
allowance of £30 a year from his brother, and other presents. His
influence on the deistical controversy began with his book, The
Moderator between an Infidel and an Apostate (1725, 3rd ed.
1729). The "infidel" was Anthony Collins (Q.V.). Woolston de-
nied the proof from miracles, called in question the resurrection
of Christ and other miracles of the New Testament, and main-
tained that they must be interpreted as types of spiritual things.
Two years later in a series of Discourses, he applied his principles
to the miracles in detail. The Discourses, 30,000 copies of which
were apparently sold, were six in number, the first appearing in
1727, the next five 1728-1729, with two Defences in 1729-1730.
For these publications he was tried before Chief Justice Raymond
in 1729 and sentenced (November 28) to pay a fine of £25 for
each of the first four Discourses, with imprisonment till paid,
and also to a year's imprisonment and to give security for his
good behaviour during life. He failed to find this security, and
remained in confinement until his death on Jan. 21, 1731.
Sec Life of Woolston prefixed to his Works in five volumes (London,
*733) » Memoirs of Life and Writings of William Whiston (London,
1749. PP- 231-235) ; Appendix to A Vindication of the Miracles of
our Saviour, etc., by J. Ray (2nd cd., 1731) ; J; Cairns, Unbelief in the
Eighteenth Century (1880) ; Sayous, Les Deistes anglais (1882); and
the article DEISM, with its bibliography.
WOOLWICH, a metropolitan borough of London, England.
Pop. (1921) 140,389. Area, 8,282 acres. It lies mainly north of
the river Thames. The most populous part is situated between
Shooter's Hill Road and the river, the site falling from an
elevation of 418 ft. to the river level. To the east lie the
Plumstead marshes and in the south of the borough is Eltham.
Woolwich (Wulewich) is mentioned in a grant of land by
King Edward in 964 to the abbey of St. Peter at Ghent. In
Domesday the manor is mentioned as consisting of 63 ac. of
land. The Roman Watling street crossed Shooter's hill. Numerous
Roman urns and fragments of pottery have been dug up. Early
in the i6th century Woolwich rose into prominence as a dockyard
and naval station. Ships were built there in the reign of Henry
VII. but it was with the purchase by Henry VIII. of two parcels
of land in the manor, called Boughton's Docks, that the founda-
tion of the town's prosperity was laid, the launching of the
"Harry Grace de Dieu," of 1,000 tons burden, making an epoch in
its history. Woolwich remained the chief dockyard of the English
navy until the introduction of iron ship building, but the dockyard
was closed in 1869. The town became the headquarters of the
Royal Artillery on the establishment of a special branch of the
service in 1806.
In 1664, land was acquired for storehouses and sheds for re-
pairing ship's carriages. In 1667, batteries were erected against
the invading Dutch fleet. In 1668 guns, carriages and stores were
concentrated at Woolwich, and in 1695 the laboratory was moved
hither from Greenwich. Before 1716 ordnance was obtained
from private manufacturers and proved by the Board of Ord-
nance. In 1741 a school of instruction was establishes. It was
not until 1805, however, that the establishments at Woolwich
became the Royal Arsenal.
By the London Government Act 1899 Woolwich was brought
into line with other London districts. Woolwich returns two
members to parliament. • (X.)
ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY
The Royal Military Academy, situated on Woolwich common
and familiarly known as "The Shop," dates from 1741. It was
composed not only of cadets but also of young and untrained
officers. Intended for the artillery and engineers, the curriculum
also included a general education. The ages of the students varied
from 10 to 30. Cadets were admitted on the nomination of the
master-general of the ordnance without examination, but as many
possessed no education whatever an entrance examination of an
easy character was introduced in 1774. This system has remained
in force until our own day. In the early days discipline was of a
low standard, and was enforced by corporal punishment or con-
finement to a dark cell on bread and water diet. The number of
cadets in 1782 was 30, rising to 90 in 1812. By 1870 the strength
had increased to about 150. From 1900 onwards the strength has
varied between 200 and 250, except during the World War, when
as many as 500 cadets were in residence. Between 1905 and
1911, owing to lack of accommodation at Sandhurst, cadets
destined for infantry and cavalry were trained at Woolwich.
In 1806 buildings were erected on the present site and the
academy was confined to cadets. Age limits for admission were
fixed a few years later at 14 to 16, and in 1820 cadets were obliged
to leave at the age of 20 or after having spent five years at the
academy. In 1815 the rank of under officer (selected from cadets
of the senior term) was instituted. In 1859 tne east an(l west
wings, gymnasium and racquet courts were built.
The honour roll of the cadets includes Gen. Gordon (1852),
the duke of Connaught (1867), Lord Kitchener (1868), and the
prince Imperial (1872). At the R.M.A. cadets are trained for
commissions in the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers and Royal
Corps of Signals. A few vacancies arc reserved for specially
selected n.c.o.'s recommended for commissions, for nominations
by the New Zealand Government and for selected Egyptian,
Siamese and 'Iraqi cadets. The course consists of three terms, of
which there are 'two per year. (Feb. ist to mid July, and from
Sept. ist to Christmas.) Cadets enter each term in batches of
75 to 85 at the age of 18 to 19.
The army entrance examination is conducted by the Civil
Service Commission. With the exception of certain candidates
nominated by the Army Council, candidates are required to
possess a school certificate before being permitted to sit for the
examination. The cadets are organized in four half companies on
the lines of an infantry battalion, and cadets of the senior term
act as non-commissioned officers. The staff of the academy con-
sists of a commandant, chief instructors and company officers for
each half company (four), and a number of civilian instructors.
These latter are especially responsible for instruction in non-
military subjects, viz., imperial and foreign affairs, mathematics,
science, languages. The military part of the course includes conduct
of war, strategy, tactics and organization — illustrated from mili-
tary history — map reading, military law, drill, riding and physical
training. At the end of the course commissions are allotted in
WOOLWORTH-— WORCESTER
737
the three branches of the service according to existing vacancies
— choice of corps being given to those high up in the order of
passing out. The normal fee is £100 a term and in addition cer-
tain charges are made for uniform, books, etc. The sons of
officers of H.M. forces are, subject to certain conditions, ad-
mitted at a reduced normal rate of £60 a term. A limited number
of cadets are admitted at still further reduced rates on account of
pecuniary need at the discretion of the Army Council. A certain
number of scholarships are available for cadets on entering the
academy (awarded on results of army entrance examination) and
other scholarships are available for cadets during their course, and
for young officers during the first five years of their service. The
conditions of admission, fees and the syllabus of the army en-
trance examination are subject to alteration by the War Office from
whom further information should be sought. (See also OFFICERS'
TRAINING CORPS.) (J. V. D.)
WOOLWORTH, FRANK WINFIELD (1852-1919),
American merchant, was born near Rodman (N.Y.), April 13,
1852. In 1879 he opened in Utica (£*.Y.) his first "five cent"
store, which was a failure. Later in the same year he established a
"five and ten cent" store in Lancaster (Pa.), followed by another
in Harrisburg. When the F. W. Woolworth Co. was incorporated
in New York in Dec. 1911 he became president. In 1912 the
Woolworth building in New York city was completed from the
designs of Cass Gilbert. It ia 76oft. high, has 57 storeys, and,
excepting the Eiffel Tower in Paris, was the tallest building in the
world at the time. He died at Glen Cove (L.I.), April 8, 1919,
leaving an estate appraised at $27,000,000.
WOOLWORTH CO., F. W., an American chain store sys-
tem, was started in Feb. 1879, in Utica, N.Y., by F. W. Wool-
worth (q.v.). Woolworth's brother, C. S. Woolworth, his cousin
Seymour H. Knox and his close friends F. M. Kirby and E. P.
Charlton, as well as his old mentor W. II. Moore, all started stores
of their own after F. W. Woolworth.
All of these parties operated independent units until 1912 when
they were merged into the present F. Wr. Woolworth Co. There
were 598 stores in the combined organization on Jan. i, 1912.
On Dec. 31, 1928, the chain had grown to 1,724 stores, and the
business had grown from $60,557,767 for the year 1912 to over
$287,000,000 for the year 1928. The stores of the F. W. Wool-
worth Co. cover every State in the Union, also Canada and Cuba.
In addition to the United States Company, the F. W. Woolworth
and Co. Ltd. of England, which started in the autumn of 1910,
operates 330 stores; and the F. W. Woolworth Co. of Germany,
which started in 1927, operates 27 stores. The F. W. Woolworth
Co. of New York holds controlling interest in both of these
foreign corporations. (H. T. P.)
WOONSOCKET, a city of Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the
Blackstone river. Pop. (1920) 43,496 (37% foreign-born white,
of whom over half were French Canadians); 1928 local estimate
53,400. The river with its tributaries, the Mill and the Peters,
provides abundant water-power. The city manufactures woollen
and worsted yarns, pile fabrics, rayon, rubber articles and clothes
wringers. Its output in 1925 was $83,357,763. The city's assessed
valuation for 1927 was $86,339,350. Settlement began about
1666, when Richard Arnold built a saw-mill on the Blackstone.
Woonsocket was separated from Cumberland and incorporated
in 1867 and was chartered in 1888.
WOOSTER, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., the county seat of Wayne
county; on the Lincoln highway. Population (1920) 8,204
(92% native white); 1928 local estimate over 10,000. It is the
seat of the College of Wooster (Presbyterian; 1866), occupying
a beautiful site of 100 ac. on a hill 1,100 ft. above sea-level; and
of the Ohio agricultural experiment station, which operates 2,000
ac. of farmlands and 17,000 ac. of forests at different points
in the State. The city has the largest paint-brush factory in the
country and is headquarters of the oil and gas industry of the
county, whose farms are nearly all under lease for drilling.
Wooster was laid out in 1808, incorporated in 1817 and as a city in
1869. It was named in honour of Gen. David Wooster (1710-77).
WOOTTON BASSETT, a market town in Wiltshire, Eng-
land. Pop. (1921) 2,112. It is the junction of the railway between
London and the Severn tunnel with the main line of the Great
Western. Wootton Bassett received its first charter from Henry
VI., and returned rnembers to parliament from 1446-1447 until
the Reform Act of 1832.
WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.
Urso de Abitot, constable of Worcester castle and sheriff of
Worcestershire, is erroneously said to have been created earl
of Worcester in 1076. Walcran de Beaumont (1104-1166), count
of Meulan in France, a partisan of King Stephen in his war with
the empress Matilda, was probably earl of Worcester from 1136 to
1145. He was deprived of his earldom, became a crusader and
died a monk. From 1397 to 1403 the earldom was held by Sir
Thomas Percy (c. 1343-1403), who in 1403 joined the other
Percies in their revolt ; he was taken prisoner at Shrewsbury, and
subsequently beheaded, the earldom becoming extinct. The title
of earl of Worcester was revived in 1421 in favour of Richard
Beauchamp, Lord Abergavcnny, but lapsed on his death in 1422.
The next earl was John Tiptoft, or Tibetot, a noted Yorkist
leader during the wars of the Roses, who was executed in 1470
(see below). On the death of his son, Edward, in 1485 the carl-
dom reverted to the crown.
In February 1514 the earldom was bestowed by Henry VIII.
on CHARLES SOMERSET (c. 1460-1520), a bastard son of Henry
Beaufort, duke of Somerset. Having married Elizabeth, daughter
of William Herbert, earl of Huntingdon, he was styled Baron
Herbert in right of his wife, and in 1506 he was created Baron
Herbert of Ragland, Chepstow and Gowcr. He was chamberlain
of the household to Henry VIII. His son Henry, 2nd earl (c.
1495-1548), obtained Tintern Abbey after the dissolution of the
monasteries. The title descended in direct line to Henry, the 5th
earl (1577-1646), who advanced large sums of money to Charles
I. at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion, and was created mar-
quess of Worcester in 1643.
EDWARD SOMERSET, 2nd marquess of Worcester (1601-1667),
is better known by the title of carl of Glamorgan, this earldom
having been conferred upon him, although somewhat irregularly,
by Charles I. in 1644. Under the Commonwealth he was formally
banished from England and his estates were seized. At the
Restoration his estates were restored, and he claimed the duke-
dom of Somerset promised to him by Charles I., but he did not
obtain this, nor was his earldom of Glamorgan recognized.
See Henry Dircks, Life, Times and Scientific Labours of the 2nd
Marquess of Worcester (1865) ; Sir J. T. Gilbert, History of the. Irish
Confederation and the War in Ireland (Dubin, 1 882-1891) „
His only son HENRY (1629-1700), the 3rd marquess, abandoned
the Roman Catholic religion and was a member of one of Crom-
well's parliaments. But he was quietly loyal to Charles II., who
in 1682 created him duke of Beaufort. As the defender of Bristol,
the duke took a considerable part in checking the progress of the
duke of Monmouth in 1685, DUt *n IO"S8 he surrendered the city
to William of Orange. He inherited Badminton, still the residence
of the dukes of Beaufort, and died there on the 2ist of January
1700. The Worcester title was henceforth merged in that of
Beaufort (q.v.). Henry, the 7th duke (1792-1853), was one of
the greatest sportsmen of his day, and the Badminton hunt owed
much to him and his successors, the 8th duke (1824-1899) and
9th duke (b. 1847).
WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. i4i5-c. 1482), English
chronicler, was a son of William of Worcester, a Bristol citizen,
and is sometimes called William Botoner, his mother being a
daughter of Thomas Botoner. He was educated at Oxford and
became secretary to Sir John Fastolf. WTicn the knight died in
1459, Worcester, although an executor, found that nothing had
been bequeathed to him, and with a colleague, Sir William Yelver-
ton, he disputed the will, obtaining some lands near Norwich and in
Southwark. He died about 1482. His Itinerarium of England is
of great value. Portions were printed by James Nasmith in 1778,
and the part relating to Bristol is in James Dallaway's Antiquities
of Bristowe (Bristol, 1834).
Worcester also wrote Annales rerum An%Ucarumt a work of some
value for the history of England under Henry VI. This was published
by T. Hearne in 1728, and by Joseph Stevenson for the "Rolls" series
WORCESTER
with his Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in
France during the Reign of Henry VI. (1864). Stevenson also printed
here collections of papers made by Worcester respecting the wars of
the English in France and Normandy. Worcester's other writings
include the last Ada domini Johannis Fastolf. See the Paston Letters
edited by J. Gairdner (1904); and F. A. Gasquct, An Old English
Bible and other Essays (1897).
WORCESTER, episcopal city situated i2oj m. N.W. of Lon-
don (Pop. [1921] 48,833) on a ridge parallel with the left bank
of the River Severn.
The cathedral church of Our Lord and the Blessed Virgin Mary
is beautifully placed close to the river. The see was founded
about 679 though, owing to the opposition of the bishop of Lich-
field it was not established till 780. (See Worcester County.)
The bishop's church of St. Peter's, with its secular canons, was
absorbed by Bishop Oswald into the monastery of St. Mary. The
canons became monks, and in 983 Oswald finished the building of
a new monastic cathedral. After the Norman Conquest the bishop
of Worcester, Wulfstan, the only English prelate left in possession
of his see, undertook the building of a Norman church. Of his
work much remains, including (1084) one of the four apsidal
crypts in England. The Norman cathedral was dedicated in 1218,
and then the monks built a lady chapel and extended the building
by 50 ft. In 1224 was begun the present splendid Early English
choir. The nave was remodelled in the i4th century, and is prin-
cipally Decorated early Perpendicular work. A Jesus chapel
(an uncommon feature) is separated from the North aisle by a
beautiful modern screen in the Perpendicular style. The exterior
is plain, save the ornate tower, which dates from 1374, and is
196 ft. in height. The dimensions of the cathedral are — length 425
ft. (nave 170 ft., choir 180 ft.), width 145 ft. (choir 78 ft.),
height of nave 68 ft. The cloisters are Perpendicular engrafted
upon Norman walls. A Norman chapter house adjoins them, its
Perpendicular roof supported on a central column, while on the
south lies the Refectory, a fine Decorated room (1372) now the
Cathedral school. There are also picturesque ruins of the Guesten
hall (1320). A restoration was begun in 1857, upwards of
£100,000 being spent.
Of the 1 1 parish churches, St. Alban's has considerable Norman
remains, St. Peter's contains portions of all Gothic styles, St.
Helen's has Gothic portions. The Commandery, founded in
1085, was a hospital. It was rebuilt in Tudor times, and there
remains a beautiful hall, with music gallery, canopied dais, and a
fine bay window, together with other parts. There are many old
half-timbered houses. The guild-hall (1723) is an admirable
building in the Italian style. The Festival of the Three Choirs
is maintained here alternately with Gloucester and Hereford.
Public buildings include the shire-hall (1835), Corn Exchange
and market-house. Fairs are held thrice annually. The cathe-
dral school was founded in 1541; Queen Elizabeth's, in a modern
building, in 1563; there are also a choir school, and munic-
ipal art, science and technical schools. In the vicinity there is
a Benedictine convent, at Stanbrook hall, with a beautiful modern
chapel. The company of glovers was incorporated in 1661. The
market day is Saturday. Among the trades are iron goods and
engineering, carriage and motor car making, rope spinning, boat
building, tanning and the production of chemical manures and
of cider and perry. There is a considerable traffic on the Severn.
Traces of British and Roman occupation have been discovered
at Worcester (Wigeran Ceaster, Wigornia), but its history begins
with the foundation of the episcopal see. Being the chief city
on the borders of Wales, Worcester was frequently visited by
the kings of England. In 1139 it was taken by the Empress Maud
and retaken and burnt by Stephen in 1149. It surrendered to
Simon de Montfort in 1263. In 1642, during the Great Rebellion,
a handful of cavaliers was besieged here, and in spite of an
attempted relief by Prince Rupert, the city was pillaged, as it was
again in 1646. In 1651 Charles II. with the Scottish army was
defeated here by Cromwell and Lambert.
During the re;gn of King Alfred, Aethelred and Aethelflead,
ealdorman and lady of the Mercians, deferring to the request of
the bishop, "built a burgh at Worcester." King Richard I. in
1189 granted the town to the burgesses, and Henry III. in 1337
granted a gild merchant. The first incorporation charter was
granted by Philip and Mary in 1554, but James I. in 1632 made
the city a separate county. By the Municipal Reform act of 1835
the government was again altered. The burgesses returned two
members to parliament from 1295 to 1885, when the number was
reduced to one. As early as 1203, the manufacture of cloth is
mentioned and in 1590 the weavers, walkers and clothiers received
an incorporation charter, but by 1789 had ceased to exist. Its
place was taken by the manufacture of porcelain, introduced in
1751 by Dr. Wall, and by the increasing manufacture of gloves, a
trade which is known to have been carried on in the isth century.
Battle of Worcester, 1651.— Early in Aug. 1651 (see GREAT
REBELLION) Charles II. crossed the Scottish border with 16,000
men, nearly all Scots, in a last attempt to regain the English
throne by invasion. His first intention was to march on London,
hoping that recruits would flock to his standard ; on the contrary,
the local militia everywhere took arms to oppose him, Cromwell's
cavalry clung to his flank and heels, and Cromwell himself fol-
lowed a few days' march behind. In despair Charles turned west-
ward, still hoping for a rising in his favour, and on Aug. 22
reached Worcester, where he was brought to bay. Worcester lies
on the left bank of the Severn, with a small suburb, St. John's,
on the right bank, a bridge connecting the two. The city was
fortified, but its walls had been demolished in 1646 and, though
partially restored, presented in 1651 no formidable obstacle. Fort
Royal, outside the south-eastern gate, was still of some strength,
and this and the rest of the fortifications were now strengthened
by Charles to the best of his limited means. The nearest bridges
to Worcester were at Upton, 6 m. down stream, and Bewdley,
15 m. north. Bewdley bridge was already in the hands of the
Parliamentarians, but Upton bridge the Royalists destroyed; on
Aug. 28, however, it was seized by Lambert and repaired, Charles'
last hope of commanding a considerable stretch of west country
being thus snatched from him. None the less, his position was a
strong one. About a mile below Worcester the river Teme joins
PLAN OF THE BATTLE OF WORCESTER, SEPTEMBER 3, tesi
the Severn, making a formidable obstacle to an advance up the
right bank of the Severn from the south, whilst a smaller stream,
running into the Teme from the north, formed some defence for
the western approach to St. John's. If only the walls of the city
itself on the left bank had been in their proper condition Charles
might well have held out for a considerable time. The king posted
the main body of his army between the Severn and the Teme,
using the city and its walls as a bridge-head. Cromwell himself
reached Worcester on the 28th, and found himself in command of
about 30,000 men, with many thousands more, chiefly militia,
WORCESTER— WORCESTERSHIRE
739
within a few days' march. He at once reconnoitred the Royalist
position and, realizing that Charles could, by reason of Worcester
bridge, operate upon either bank, decided that his numerical
superiority entitled him to divide his army and to act simulta-
neously upon both. He directed Fleetwood to advance up the right
bank of the Severn, force the passage of the Teme, and destroy the
Scottish forces between that river and Worcester; he himself
would attack Fort Royal and the city. To connect the two opera-
tions a bridge of boats was to be laid across the Severn just above
its junction with the Teme, and a similar bridge across the Teme
close to its junction with the Severn. A force of cavalry was sent
to Bewdley to cut off the Royalists' line of retreat to the north.
The preparation of the bridges took a few days, but the time was
well employed by Cromwell's guns on the high ground east of the
city, which pounded the fortifications mercilessly and reduced the
already exhausted defenders to a state of despair. Sept. 3, the
anniversary of his great victory at Dunbar, was chosen by Crom-
well for the day of his attack, and its watchword, "The Lord of
Hosts," repeated. Fleetwood advanced *in two columns, that on
the right being directed upon the junction of the Teme and Severn,
where the bridges were to be laid, that on the left against Powick,
just north of which a bridge crossed the Teme. Little opposition
was met with till the Teme was reached, but here the Scots were
found to be in great strength, whilst the road bridges over this
.river, both at Powick and further west, had been destroyed. The
left column's attempt to cross the Teme was repulsed with some
loss, but in the meantime the bridge of boats had been successfully
thrown across the Severn and Cromwell himself led a brigade of
horse across on to the right bank. The second bridge over the
Teme was quickly laid, and Fleetwood's right column joined Crom-
well's horse, which had been already reinforced by foot. For a
time the Scots fought fiercely to recover their river defences, but
the odds against them were too heavy and they fell slowly back
towards St. John's. Fleetwood's left column now crossed near
Powick and it looked as if the battle would soon be over. But
Charles was soldier enough to make the one throw still left to him,
and for which his dispositions had been designed. Seeing that
Cromwell had transferred a considerable part of his own force to
the right bank to join Fleetwood's attack, the king decided to make
a sortie from his bridge-head on the left bank and strike the re-
mainder of the Parliamentary forces still lying on that side of the
river. Issuing from the walls under cover of Fort Royal, Charles'
cavalry supported by such infantry as he could collect, made a
furious attack upon the troops opposing them. The militia wavered,
but they were stiffened by two regiments of regulars, and before
long cavalry joined in the fight. For an hour or more the issue was
in doabt, but Cromwell, warned of the danger, recrossed the Severn
with reinforcements and gradually forced the exhausted Scotsmen
back within the walls. Following close upon their heels, Crom-
well's men burst into the city and, before any fresh resistance
could be organized, had fallen upon the unfortunate Scotsmen and
put them to the sword. Panic spread like wildfire through the city
and, in spite of all the efforts of Charles and his generals, the
Royalist army dissolved into a rabble of fugitives. Fleetwood
blocked the line of retreat to the west but some of the cavalry,
including Charles himself, escaped northwards, though most of
them were cut down or captured in the relentless pursuit. Charles
himself got clear away to France, but his army was completely de-
stroyed— 3,000 of his men were dead, more than 10,000 prisoners
— whilst the Parliamentarians admitted a loss of but 200 men.
The "Crowning Mercy" was complete.
WORCESTER, town of South Africa, near the Hex River
mountains, is the centre of a fruit growing area. The annual
rainfall is under 12 in., but irrigation is obtained from the Hex
river. It is also intended to irrigate 8,000 ac. from the Breede
river. Much wine and brandy is produced, and fresh and dried
fruit is exported. Mauy of the South African raisins come from
this district.
WORCESTER, a city of Massachusetts, U.S.A., 40 m. W.
of Boston, on the Blackstone river. Population (1920) 179,-
754 (30% foreign-born white, representing most of the countries
of Europe) ; 1928 estimate 197,600.
The city occupies 38-41 sq.m., at an altitude of 480 feet. On
its eastern border is Lake Quinsigamond (4 m. long), spanned by
a reinforced concrete bridge. Worcester is an important edu-
cational centre, the seat of Clark university (q.v.)] Worcester
academy (1832); the Worcester Polytechnic institute (1865), one
of the oldest and best equipped schools of engineering in the
country; the Jesuit College of the Holy Cross (founded in 1843
by the second bishop of Boston); Assumption college (1903);
and a State normal school (1874). The public school system in-
cludes 72 grammar, a junior high, 4 high schools, a boys' trade
school (1909) and a girls' trade school (1911). There are ten
parochial schools, three of which have high-school departments.
The public library (founded 1859) was one of the first in America
to admit readers on Sunday. In the library and museum of the
American Antiquarian Society (established 1812) are many valu-
able early portraits, books and pamphlets. The Art museum
(founded in 1896 by Stephen Salisbury) contains, among other
important collections, the Bancroft collection of Japanese art.
The Worcester Natural History Society (1829) and the Wor-
cester Historical Society (1875) both maintain museums. An
annual music festival is held. There are five daily newspapers,
including one in French and one in Finnish. The city has more
than 100 churches, and a boys' club of 5,500 members.
Worcester is a large producer of machine tools and of wire
and wire products and mill machinery. In 19:5 there were 518
factories, employing an average of 31,142 wage-earners and with
an output of $210,461,220. The city's trade area embraces a
population of 450,000, and retail sales aggregate $90,000,000
annually. Four insurance companies, with combined assets of
$100,000,000, have their home offices here. Bank resources amount
to over $200,000,000, and Worcester boasts never to have had a
bank failure. Bank debits in 1926 aggregated $928,925,000. The
city's assessed valuation for 1927 was $339,552,850.
The first grant of land was made in 1657, and in 1668 the
plantation of Quinsigamond was laid out, a committee of the gen-
eral court expecting it to support from 30 to 60 families. In
1675, <>n the outbreak of King Philip's War, the settlement was
abandoned. It was revived in 1684, and was named after the
English home of several of the settlers. In 1702 it was aban-
doned owing to attacks by Indians. In 1713 a tavern and a mill
were built, and a turnpike was constructed to Boston. Worcester
became a town in 1722, and in 1780 was incorporated. Until the
Revolution it remained an isolated frontier settlement and as late
as 1783 its population was not over 2,000. During the Shays
Rebellion it was taken by the insurgents and the courts were
closed.
Utilization of waterpower and establishment of industries
began about 1800, and by 1825 the town was manufacturing hats,
clocks, chairs, paper, cards, carpets, corduroy, fustians, textile
machinery and many other articles. In 1828 the Blackstone canal
was opened from Worcester to Providence. The railroad to
Boston was completed in 1835; to Norwich in 1840; to Providence
in 1847; and to Springfield in 1849. In 1848 the town was incor-
porated as a city. Strong anti-slavery sentiment led to a serious
riot in 1854,- owing to an apparent attempt to enforce the Fugitive
Slave Law. By 1860 the population had grown to 24,960, and
there has been a steady increase ever since. Many famous men and
women of America have lived for longer or shorter periods in or
near Worcester, including the inventors Elias Howe, Eli Whitney,
Erastus Bigelow, Russell L. Hawes, Thomas Blanchard, Samuel
Crompton, Lucius James Knowles, Draper Ruggles, Joel Nourse
and J. C. Mason; and Gen. Artemas Ward, Gen. Rufus Putnam,
Col. Timothy Bigelow, Isaiah Thomas, Dr. William T. G. Morton,
Eli Thayer, Gen. Charles Devens, George Frisbie Hoar, George
Bancroft, Dorothea Lynde Dix, Clara Barton, Edward Everett,
Hale and John B. Gough.
WORCESTERSHIRE, a midland county of England. Area
(excluding water), 455.214 acres. It covers a portion of the rich
valleys of the Severn and Avon with their tributaries, the Stour
and the Teme, The Avon valley, known as the vale of Evesham
lies on the Lias clays, and provides an excellent soil for orchards
and market-gardening. The Jurassic escarpment of the CotswoW
740
WORDSWORTH
hills rises sharply from it in the south-east, the outlier of Bredon
hill being a conspicuous spur. Salmon and lampreys are taken in
the Severn; trout and grayling in the Teme and its feeders. The
Malverns rise from the flat vale of Worcester and reach a height
of 1,395 and 1,114 ft. in the Worcester and Hereford beacons.
The ridge is continued in the Abbcrley Hills to the north. The
Lickcy Hills (900 ft.) in which there are Silurian, Cambrian and
Pre-Cambrian rocks, cross the north-cast corner of the county.
Their northern parts, the Clcnt Hills (1,028 ft.)/ are formed
of Permian breccias. Partly within the county arc the sites of j
two ancient forests. That of the Wyre on the northern boun-
dary, retains some of its ancient character; but Malvern Chase
is hardly recognizable. Road metal is extensively quarried in the
Malvcrn hills (Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian) and in the Lickey
hills (Cambrian); lime is obtained from the Silurian limestones;
coal is mined in portions of the Forest of Wyre, and the South
Staffordshire coal-fields which conic within the county.
History and Early Settlement. — Worcestershire was largely
wooded in early times and is consequently not rich in prehistoric
remains but some stone implements have been found on the sur-
rounding hills and some bronze implements along the Severn,
pointing perhaps to river communications or perhaps to occupa-
tion of the river banks. The great earthwork on the Malvern
hills of Romano-British or late pre-Roman date should be spe-
cially mentioned, and there arc others at Berrow Hill above the
Teme west of Worcester and at Round Hill by Spetchley.
The earliest English settlers were a tribe of the Hwiccas of
Gloucestershire, who spread along the Severn and Avon valleys
in the 6th century. By 679 the Hwiccan kingdom was formed into
a separate diocese with its sec at Worcester, and the Hwiccas had
made themselves masters of nearly the whole of the modern
county. From this date the town of Worcester became not only
a religious centre, but the chief point of trading and military com-
munication between England and Wales. The shire originated as
an administrative area after the recovery of Mercia from the
Danes. Worcester was destroyed by Hardicnnutc in 1041.
In no county has the monastic movement played a more
important part. Foundations existed at Worcester, Evesham,
Pershore and Fladbury in the 8th century; at Great Malvern
in the nth century, and in the I2th and i3th centuries at Little j
Malvern, \Vestwood, Bordesley, Whistones, Cookhill, Dudley,
Halesowen and Astley. At the time of the Domesday Survey
more than half Worcestershire was in the hands of the church.
This prevented the rise of a local aristocracy, and Dudley
castle was the sole residence of a feudal baron. Worcester Castle
passed in the i2th century to the Beauchamps, who owned Elmley
and Hanley castles. The possessions of William Fitz Osbern in
Doddingtree hundred and the Teme valley fell to the crown
in 1074 and passed to the Mortimers. Hanley Castle and Malvern
Chase were granted by Henry III. to Gilbert de Clare. The early
political history focusses on the city of Worcester. In the Civil \
War of the i/th century Worcestershire was conspicuously loyal,
The Droitwich salt-industry was very important at the time
of the Domesday Survey. In the i^th and i4th centuries Bordes-
ley monastery and the abbeys of Evesham and Fershgre exported
wool, and in the i6th century the Worcestershire clothing industry
gave employment to 8,000; fruit-culture with the manufacture of
cider and perry, nail-making and glass-making also flourished.
The clothing industry declined in the i/th century, but the silk-
manufacture replaced it at Kidderminster and Blockley. Coal
and iron were mined at Dudley in the i3th century.
Architecture. — There are remains of the great abbeys at
Evesham and Pershore, and the priory church at Malvern, besides
the cathedral at Worcester. There are further monastic remains
at Halesowen and at Bordesley, and there was a Benedictine
priory at Astley. Good Norman work remains in the churches
of Martley, Astley, Rous Lench, Bredon and Bockleton; while
the Early English churches of Kempsey and Ripple are note-
worthy. Half-timbered buildings add to the picturesqueness of
many towns and villages; and among country houses this style
is well exemplified in Birts Morton Court, Eastington Hall,
Elmley Lovett Manor, and in Pirton Court. Westwood Park is
a mansion of the i6th and i7th centuries; the site was formerly
occupied by a Benedictine nunnery. Madresfield Court embodies
remains of a fine Elizabethan moated mansion.
Agriculture.— The climate is equable and healthy, and is
very favourable to the cultivation of fruit, vegetables and hops,
the red marls and the rich loams being good both for market
gardens and tillage. About 82% of the county is under cultivation;
of this 65% is in permanent pasture. Orchards of apples, pears
and plums are extensive, and there are large tracts of woodland.
Wheat and oats are the principal grain crops. Beans, potatoes,
peas, turnips and mangolds arc important crops covering about
20,000 acres. Near Worcester there are large nurseries.
Industries. — In the north Worcester includes a portion of the
Black Country. Dudley, Netherton and Bricrley Hill, Stourbridge,
Halesowen, Oldbury and the south and west suburbs of Birming-
ham, have a vast population engaged in iron-working, in chemical
and glass works, and motor engineering. Worcester is famous for
porcelain, Kidderminster for carpets and Redditch for needles,
fish-hooks, etc. Salt is produced from brine at Droitwich and
Stoke. The fire-clays and limestone of the north unite with the
Coal Measures to form a basis of the industries in the Black
Country. Furniture, clothing and paper-making and leather-
working are also important.
Communications. — The county is served by the G.W.R. main
lines connecting \Vorcester with Birmingham, Oxford, Gloucester, t
Hereford and Shrewsbury, the L.M.S.R. serves the north, and the
Birmingham-Bristol line passes through the county. The Severn
is an important highway; the Avon, though locked up to Evesham,
is little used. Canals follow the courses of the Stour and the
Salwarpe, and serve the towns of the Black Country.
Administration and Population. — The area of the ancient
county is 480,560 ac., with a population in 1921 of 405,842. The
area of the administrative county is 458,352 acres. The county
has detached portions enclaved in Herefordshire, Staffordshire,
Warwickshire and Gloucestershire. It comprises five hundreds.
The county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at WTor-
cester. It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided into 22
petty sessional divisions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Victoria County History, Worcestershire; F. T. S.
Houghton, Worcestershire (1922) ; W. M. Ede, Cathedral Church
. . . of Worcester (1925) ; F. B. Andrews, Memorials of Old Worcester
(IQII) ; L. J. Wills, Worcestershire (IQII). See also publications of the
Worcestershire Historical Society. The classic work of reference is
T. R. Nash, Collections for the History of Worcestershire, 2 vols.,
1781-99.
WORDSWORTH, CHARLES (1806-1892), . Scottish
bishop, son of Christopher Wordsworth, Master of Trinity, was
born in London on Aug. 22, 1806, and educated at Harrow and
Christ Church, Oxford. He was a brilliant classrcal scholar, and
a famous cricketer and athlete. He was tutor at Christ Church
(1834-35) and then second master at Winchester. In 1839 hp
brought out his Greek Grammar, which had a great success. In
1847, he became warden of Tr.'nity College, Glenalmond, the new
Scottish Episcopal public school and divinity college, where his
views on Scottish Church questions brought him into opposition
at some important points to W. E. Gladstone. In 1853 he was
consecrated bishop of St. Andrews, Dunkeld and Dunblane.
Wordsworth was a strong supporter of the establishment, but
conciliatory towards the Free churches. He was a voluminous
writer, and one of the company of revisers of the New Testament
(1870-1881), among whom he displayed a conservative tendency.
He died at St. Andrews on Dec. 5, 1892.
See his Annals of my Early Life (1891), and Annals of My Life.
edited by W. Earl Hodgson (1893) ; also The Episcopate of Charles
Wordsworth, by his nephew John, bishop of Salisbury (1899).
WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1774-1846), young-
est brother of the poet, was bom on June 9, 1774, and became a
fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1798. He obtained pre-
ferments through the patronage of Manners Sutton, bishop of
Norwich, afterwards (1805) archbishop of Canterbury. In 1810
he published an Ecclesiastical Biography in 6 volumes. On the
death of Bishop Mansel, in 1820, he was elected Master of Trurty,
and retained that position till 1841. His proposal as vice chancellor
WORDSWORTH
(1821) for a Classical Tripos, though then rejected, was adopted in
1822. He died on Feb. 2, 1846, at Buxted. In his Who wrote Ikon
Basilike? (1824), he advocated the authorship of Charles I.; and in
1836 he published, in 4 volumes, a work of Christian Institutes, se-
lected from English divines. He married in 1804 Miss Priscilla
Lloyd (d. 1815), a sister of Charles Lamb's friend Charles Lloyd;
and he had three sons, John W. (1805-1839), Charles (q.v.) and
Christopher (q.v.)', the two latter both became bishops, and
John, who became a classical lecturer at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, was an erudite scholar.
WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1807-1885), Eng-
lish bishop and man of letters, was born in London on Oct. 30,
1807, and was educated at Winchester and Trinity, Cambridge.
He, like his brother Charles, was distinguished as an athlete as
well as for scholarship. He was public orator at Cambridge,
Headmaster of Harrow from 1836-44, and bishop of Lincoln in
1869. He died on March 20, 1885. He married in 1838 Susanna
Hartley; his eldest son was John, bishop of Salisbury, and author
of Fragments of Early Latin (1874),' and his daughter Eliza-
beth was first principal of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. As a
scholar he is best known fcr his edition of the Greek New
Testament (1856-60), and the Old Testament (1864-70), with
commentaries; and for h's Inscriptiones Pompeianae (1837).
His Life, by J. H. Overton and Elizabeth Wordsworth, was published
in 1888.
WORDSWORTH, DOROTHY (1771-1855), English
writer and diarist, the third child and only daughter of John
Wordsworth, of Cockermouth, and his wife, Anne Cookson-
Crackanthorpe, was born on Dec. 25, 1771, and, after her mother's
death in 1778, lived chiefly at Halifax with a Mrs. Threlkeld, her
mother's cousin. In 1787 she went to live with her maternal
grand-parents in Pcnrith, where she was not very happy. From
1788-93 she stayed with an uncle at Forncett, in Norfolk. She
and her brother William, the poet, who was a year older than
Dorothy, were early drawn to one another; in 1794 they visited
the Lakes together, and in the autumn of the following year they
combined their small capitals and set up house at Racedown, in
Dorsetshire, where they lived a frugal but ideally happy life. In
1797 they made the acquaintance of Coleridge, and in the same
year moved to Alfoxden, on the northern slope of the Quantock
hills, Coleridge about the same time settling near by in the town
of Nether Stowey. On Jan. 20, 1798, Dorothy Wordsworth began
her invaluable Journal, used by successive biographers of her
brother, but first printed in its quasi-e.ntirety by Prof. W. Knight
in 1897. The Wordsworths, Coleridge and Chester, left England
for Germany on Sept. 14, 1798; and of this journey also Dorothy
Wordsworth preserved an account, portions of which were pub-
lished in 1897. On May 14, 1800, she started another Journal at
Dove cottage, Grasmere, which she kept very fully until Dec.
31 of the same year. She resumed it on Jan. i, 1802, for another
12 months, closing on Jan. n, 1803. These were printed first in
1889. She composed Recollections of a Tour in Scotland, in 1803,
with her brother and Coleridge; this was first published in 1874.
Her next contribution to the family history was her Journal of a
Mountain Ramble, in Nov. 1805, an account of a walking tour in
the Lake District with her brother. In July 1820 the Wordsworths
made a tour on the Continent, of wh'ch Dorothy preserved a very
careful record, portions of which were given to the world in 1084,
the writer having refused to publish it in 1824 on the ground that
her "object was not to make a book, but to leave to her niece a
neatly-penned memorial of those few interesting months of our
lives." Meanwhile, without her brother, but in the company of
Joanna Hutchinson, Dorothy Wordsworth had travelled over
Scotland in 1822, and had composed a Journal of that tour. In
1829 she had a serious nervous breakdown, from which she never
recovered. For the last 26 years of her life her mind and body
seemed broken; she died on Jan. 25, 1855, five years after Wil-
liam's death in 1850.
Dorothy Wordsworth claims a distinct place in the history of
English prose as one of the very earliest writers whj noted, in
language delicately chosen, and with no other object than to
preserve their fugitive beauty, the little picturesque phenomena
of homely country life amid simple scenes and quiet people.
A Lije, by E. Lee, was published in 1886; but it is only since i8g7,
when Prof. Knight collected and edited her scattered mss., that
Dorothy Wordsworth has taken her independent place in literary
history. The Journals of Dorothy Wordsworth, edit, by W. Knight,
were published in 1924; see also C. M. Maclean, Dorothy and William
Wordsworth (Cambridge, 1927)-
WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850), English poet,
was born at Cockermouth, Cumberland, on April 7, 1770, the
second son of John Wordsworth, attorney-at-law and agent to Sir
James Lowther (afterwards first earl of Lonsdalc). His mother
was Anne, daughter of William Cookson, a Penrith mercer, and
Dorothy, born Crackanthorp, "of the ancient family of that name,
who from the time of Edward the Third had lived in Newbiggen
Hall, Westmorland" (Autobiographical Memoranda). The
Wordsworths were a Yorkshire family "settled at Pcniston . . .
probably before the Norman Conquest" (ifr.)j the first of the
family to settle in the Lake District was the poet's grandfather.
Wordsworth's mother died in 1778; and in that year he was
sent to the ancient grammar school of Hawkshead, boarding in the
village with Anne Tyson, at the cottage still known as "Words-
worth's cottage." His father died five years later— Wordsworth
speaks of him as having "never recovered his usual cheerfulness"
after the loss of his wife. The family were placed under the
guardianship of two uncles, Richard Wordsworth and Christopher
Crackanthorp. Beyond the claims which he had against the
Lowther family (amounting to well over £4,000), claims which
were the subject of protracted dispute, until they were acknowl-
edged and discharged, in 1802, by the second earl of Lonsdale, the
father had left small provision for his children. Wordsworth,
however, was sent in 1787 to St. John's, Cambridge, of which
college his uncle, William Cookson, had been a fellow. Already he
had contracted both the habit of verse and the temperament of
poetry. Among his published works are included two sets of
verses written as early as 1786; and "1 wrote," he says, "while yet
a schoolboy, a long poem running upon my own adventures and
the scenery of the country in which I was brought up": a poem
containing "thoughts and images" most of which were used later
in the poet's "other writings." He had been sufficiently well
taught at Hawkshead, at least in mathematics, to have "a full
twelve months' start" of the freshmen of his year at St. John's;
and to this circumstance he attributes it that he "got into rather
an idle way," "reading nothing but classic authors according to
my fancy, and Italian poetry" (Autobiogr. Mem.). His Italian
master was a man who had "been well acquainted with the poet
Gray." During his freshman year he composed a large part of the
Evening Walk, finishing it in 1789. Of his Cambridge friends the
chief was Robert Jones, who subsequently took orders, with whom,
in 1790, Wordsworth undertook the walking tour in France and
Switzerland which is commemorated in Descriptive Sketches.
Forty years later, Jones, "fat and roundabout and rosy, and puff-
ing and panting" up very moderate hills, "looked back to that
journey as the golden and sunny spot in his life" (Dorothy Words-
worth: Letters ii., 497).
In Jan. 1791 Wordsworth took his B.A. degree. It is clear
from Books iii.-vi. of the Prelude that he conceived himself to
have derived from his three years residence in Cambridge little
intellectual profit; and "the manners of the young men," he wrote
later, "were very frantic and dissolute at that time" (Letters, i.,
162). His guardians had destined him for the Church. But the
thought of "vegetating on a paltry curacy" made no strong appeal
to him (ib. i.7 33) ; and it is probable that already before he had
taken his degree he had experienced some unsettlement both of
religious and of moral belief. He pleaded for delay; and he seems
to have persuaded his guardians that the best preparation for the
study of oriental languages (pressed upon him as a likely means of
advancement) would be a year spent in learning French. He went
to France at the end of Nov. 1791, and he remained tehere till the
end of 1792, for the most part in Orleans and Blois. He took to
France a keen sympathy with the principles of the revolution;
and his faith in the revolutionary idea was deepened and intensi-
fied by the intimate friendship which he formed in Blois with
Michel de Beaupuy, a captain (later general) in the republican
742
WORDSWORTH
army. The ninth book of the Prelude bears witness to the pro-
found influence exercised upon his political thinking by Beaupuy.
In Orleans he formed an attachment to Marie-Anne Vallon ("An-
nette"). a girl of royalist family, by whom he had a daughter,
Anne-Caroline (baptised Dec. 15, 1792); and by whose marriage
in 1816 with Jean Baptiste Martin Baudouin he has a number of
French descendants. Of "Annette" the Prelude tells us nothing.
Yet, as first sketched, it contained the story of Vaudracour and
Julia, of which the earlier sections, at least, were not written with-
out some thought of her. The amatory colouring of the second
paragraph of the poem is unlike the Wordsworth whom we know
best; and the third paragraph attempts (we must suppose) such
justification of the "Annette" episode as Wordsworth felt to be
possible. He felt himself to have been betrayed by a false philos-
ophy, by his creed of nature and freedom:
tempted to decline
To perilous weakness, and entrust the cause
To nature, for a happy end of all.
During his sojourn in France he wrote the greater part of
Descriptive Sketches. Isolated passages crudely expressed his
revolutionary sympathies, his deep moral dejection; and even a
mood of religious unbelief. Yet as late as May 1702, "it is at
present my intention," he writes, "to take orders in the approach-
ing winter or spring. My uncle the clergyman will furnish me with
a title" (Letters, i., 42). "I should certainly have wished to defer
the moment" (Letters, i., 42). The failure here, at once of re-
ligious and moral conviction, seems complete.
In Feb. 1793 Wordsworth published both Descriptive Sketches
and An Evening Walk. Of both poems perhaps the principal inter-
est resides in the conflict between style and substance: things
freshly and romantically observed fight for expression within the
limits of a diction which has all the faults of the worst i8th-cen-
tury work. In the same month England declared war upon France
— the first real shock, Wordsworth tells us, which his moral na-
ture had received (Prelude x., 268 et seq.). At once he ranged
himself on the side of his country's enemies. February 1793 was
further notable in that it saw the publication of Godwin's Po-
litical Justice, Hitherto, Wordsworth had been content to take
his philosophy from Rousseau, in ethics deifying ''nature," and in
politics making a gospel of "the general will." Under the influ-
ence of Godwin, he began now to deify Reason, the individual
reason — collective reason being only another name for the gen-
eral will, that is, for a tyranny.
The period 1793-96 is, in respect both of the external and of
the internal biography of Wordsworth, still involved in consider-
able obscurity; an obscurity not much illumined by the rather
confused account of his own development which he himself fur-
nishes to us in Bonks xi.-xii. of the Prelude. Early in 1793 he
wrote the "Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff ... by a Republi-
can," in which he is still the champion of the general will. The
Letter attacks monarchy, the clergy and (here under Godwinian
influence) the- state penal code. For the bishop, a renegade liberal,
Wordsworth entertains some such sentiments as, later, were felt
tor himself by Hazlitt and others. The Letter was not published
until 1876. If its self-conscious loftiness of style and sentiment
does not altogether lift it out of the commonplace, it is yet a
composition which may be accounted, for the years from which
it proceeded, remarkable. In the autumn of 1793, he began upon
Gitilt and Sorrow, his first considerable poem, in many parts of it
distinctively "Godwinian." It was finished in 1794, and a portion
of it, under the title of The Female Vagrant was printed in the
Lyrical Ballads (1798); the whole saw the light (a good deal
revised) in 1842. In 1795 he began, and in 1796 finished. The
Borderers: A Tragedy, of which the gloomy perversities show
him struggling out of the Godwinism in which he had been for
two painful years involved. Sometime in 1795 he wrote his first
truly characteristic piece, "Nay, Traveller, rest . , .", in which
the victory over Godwinism is already complete.
For two years since his return from France Wordsworth had
led a wandering life, making no attempt to find for himself a
profession. In the early part of 1795 occurred the death of his
friend Raisley Calvert. who left him a bequest of £900. He used
the independence afforded to him to settle with his sister Dorothy
at Racedown, Crewkerne. It was here that The Borderers was
finished; and here (more important) Margaret , or The Ruined
Cottage (incorporated, later, in Book i. of The Excursion) was
begun. The poem was finished at Alfoxden, whither, in the sum-
mer of 1797, the Wordsworths moved, in order to be near Cole-
ridge at Nether Stowey. In the Prelude Wordsworth traces the
recovery of his moral, and poetical, health to the influence, first
of his sister, and secondly of Coleridge. It was while these "three
persons and one soul" were living in close conjunction in Somer-
set that the Lyrical Battads were conceived and written.
The publication (September 1798) of tht Lyrical Ballads con-
stitutes the most important event in the history of English poetry
after Milton. Of the genesis of the book Coleridge has given,
in the first section of chap. xiv. of the Biographia Literaria,
an account which may be summarised by saying that, while his
own share in the work was directed towards illustrating (in
The Ancient Manner) the naturalness of the supernatural, Words-
worth's task was to poini the supernatural meanings, the inner
spirituality of actions and incidents the most natural conceivable.
We are concerned here only with Wordsworth; and it is notable
that the Advertisement to the Lyrical Ballads is concerned only
with him (save for the excuses made, in its last section, for the
diction of The Ancient Mariner). "It is the honourable charac-
teristic of poetry" — says the opening sentence of the Advertise-
ment— "that its materials are to be found in every subject which
can interest the human mind/' That is only to say that the natural,
the ordinary, the obvious, has its poetry, its supcrnaturalness. It
states the theme which, in Coleridge's account, it was Wordsworth's
task to illustrate. But if poetry can draw its supernatural effects
from natural objects and happenings, to what extent can it employ
(its primary means being language) merely natural language? The
Ballads, says the Advertisement, are an "experiment" to discover
"how far the language of conversation ... is adapted for the
purposes of poetic pleasure." Perhaps the principal result of it was
the discovery of a new blank verse — that of what Coleridge chris-
tened the "Conversation Poem." If we leave aside The Ancient
Mariner, the best of the Lyrical Ballads of 1 798 is that part for
which blank verse is used ; a blank verse neither Shakespearian nor
Miltonic; domestic, but with a telling quality wanting to the do-
Amestic blank verse of Cowper; individual without eccentricity;
lattaining its perfection in Tintern Abbey. The same conversational
triumph meets us in the second volume of the Lyrical Ballads
(1800) in "There was a Boy . . .", Michael and The Brothers;
and indeed, wherever in the two volumes blank verse is used, it is
used to fine effect.
In the purely lyrical species Wordsworth is, in the 1798 volume,
less successful. Perhaps, in this kind, only "It is the first mild
day of March . . ." and "I heard a thousand blended notes . . ."
have the perfect lyric quality which, two years later, he was to
show in the Lucy Poems, The Fountain, The Two April Mornings,
the Poetls Epitaph. Several of the lyrical experiments fail badly;
e.g., Goody Blake, to which the Advertisement unhappily di-
rected special attention. But the volumes of 1798 and 1800 con-
tained, together, a sufficient number of lyrical successes to afford
an overwhelming demonstration of the power of poetry to use
natural language, even the "language of conversation." But
Wordsworth had an affection for his failures ; and in the preface of
1800 he threw after them many paradoxes of theory and much
false history.
It is, however, neither a theory of diction nor the successful
practice of a new diction which gives to the Lyrical Ballads the
importance which they have in literary history. The greatness of
the book may more truly be conceived to lie in the metaphysic of
the imagination from which it proceeds (and from which, indeed,
the theory of diction itself proceeds). The outlines of this meta-
physic are hinted in Wordsworth's Prefaces and Notes, and in
passages of the poems themselves (the Prelude being, in this con-
nection, particularly valuable). The Lyrical Ballads owe their
greatness ^o the power with which they revindicate for poetry
the life of the senses. We are only poets in so far as we confide
ourselves to the senses. We see into the life of things only when
WORK— WORKERS
743
we receive the impressions of sense in a "wise passiveness," dis-
connecting ourselves from the tie of reason and custom, from
"the meddling intellect" — the operation of which is only one of the
effects of custom. The source of truth — poetic truth — is not
reason, but the eyes and ears. What is the matter with the poetry
of the Age of Reason is that it had lost the art of seeing and
hearing, or of performing these acts purely, in a fashion, that
is to say, not vitiated by custom or theory. It had lost, at the
same time, the gift of pure expression, using a mere customary
or conventional diction. It is the supreme achievement of the
Lyrical Ballads to have brought back the glory and the fresh-
ness of the senses. The work is done with the greater power and
convincingness from the circumstance that Wordsworth had won
his way back to nature and the senses through the valley of the
shadow, through the rationalism of Godwin. To say that he had
come back from Godwin to Rousseau would be to misconceive
him. Obviously he supposes his later naturalism to escape the
perils of Rousseauism. Obviously also he believes his metaphysic
of the imagination — which might easily .be taken for a very bare
philosophic "sensationalism" — to rise above the difficulties of the
ordinary sensationalist creed. A logical demonstration of his
metaphysic he nowhere essays. We may be content with that prac-
tical demonstration of it which his poetry furnishes.
The six months following the publication of the Lyrical Ballads
Wordsworth spent in Germany. In Oct. 1799 he settled in Gras-
mcre; and in that neighbourhood, save for occasional tours in
Scotland and on the Continent, the rest of his life was spent. A
new edition of the Lyrical Ballads was called for in 1800, and this
edition Wordsworth enriched by the famous preface and by a sec-
ond volume of poems — among them some of his best and most
original pieces. A third edition appeared in 1802 (with the ap-
pendix on Poetic Diction), and a fourth in 1805. In 1804 he
married Mary Hutchinson — in 1802 he had visited "Annette,"
and her story had been revealed to Mary.
In the year in which the first edition of the Lyrical Ballads ap-
peared, Wordsworth had already begun upon the Prelude (de
Selincourt, p. xxxi.) ; and in the year which saw the fourth edition
of the Ballads he finished it. In this poem, uafter Paradise Lost
the greatest long poem in the language" (A. C. Bradley), he traces
his spiritual autobiography, "the Growth of a Poet's Mind," from
earliest childhood, from the first intimations which came to him
of poetry and immortality, down to the date at which he took the
resolution of devoting himself wholly to poetry. As a document
of the romantic revival the book (not published until after his
death) is of the first importance; and apart from this historical
interest, it constitutes a handbook of the imaginative life unique
in subtlety and power. It was intended to be a preparation for
"a philosophical poem, containing views of Man, Nature and
Society," of which the Excursion was a part (the only part fin-
ished). Of the same poem another part is the impressive frag-
ment of The Recluse, written in 1800 but only published some
years after in 1888.
In 1807 Wordsworth published the Poems in Two Volumes.
These show a wide extension of his poetical power. New life is
given to the sonnet — used with fine effect to express lofty patriotic
sentiment — and to the ode — here were printed for the first time
the Ode to Ditty and the immortal Ode on Intimations of Immor-
tality. The volumes of 1800 and 1807 establish Wordsworth as one
of the great inventors of poetical forms. But, form apart, these
volumes, taken together with the Prelude, the Recluse fragment,
Margaret, or the Ruined Cottage (all written before 1807), consti-
tute a body of poetical work of which the compass and original
power are such as to place him among the greatest poets. By 1807,
in fact, his best work was done; not all his good work, but his best
work. The death, in 1805, of his brother John Wordsworth (of
whom the Happy Warrior is, in part, a commemoration) had
affected deeply a temperament to which melancholy was native, in-
ducing in Wordsworth a regress upon religious orthodoxy, and
upon orthodoxies less venial. By the end of the first decade of the
nineteenth century his thinking, in religion and in politics, loses
that speculative rebel quality from which it drew so much of its
early strength; and his imagination, ever a miser of its memories,
and now more so, tends to hoard barren incidents and trivial
perceptions, to be the material of later poetry. It requires, hence-
forth, some cause in which his affections are passionately engaged
to educe the old power. Perhaps he is, after 1808, most like him-
self, not in poetry, but in the noble prose of the tract upon the
Convention of Cimra (1809). In 1814 appeared the Excursion.
"This will never do," said Jeffrey. Yet Keats thought it "one of
the three things to rejoice at in this age." Even outside the two
first books, which belong to the Somerset period, the poem has
lofty and noble reaches. The general decline of power, however
(especially if it be compared with the Prelude), is marked. In 1815
was published the first collected edition of the poet's works (with
the Essay Supplementary to the Preface)', in the same year the
White Doe of Rylstone; in 1819 Peter Bell (written in 1798) and
the Wagoner; in 1820 The River Duddon, and Miscellaneous
Poems. A further decline of power is witnessed, in 1822, by the
Ecclesiastical Sketches and the Memorials of a Tour on the Con-
tinent. To the last, however, it is unsafe to regard Wordsworth
as negligible; at any moment the old power is apt to reassert itself.
It is to the period of his decline that we owe, in the Prelude, the
magic of the famous description of Newton's statue—
The marble index of a mind for ever
Voyaging through strange seas of thought alone.
Many, again, of his best sonnets come from the late period. Here
and there, from the Evening Voluntaries (1835) the old greatness
flashes out. After 1835 Wordsworth published nothing new in
poetry.
"Up to 1820 the name of Wordsworth," said De Quincey, "was
trampled under foot; from 1820 to 1830 it was militant; from
1830 to 1835 it has been triumphant." In 1839 Wordsworth re-
ceived the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the University of Ox-
ford: he was presented by Keble, and the ceremony showed how
deep was the hold that his poetry now Lad on young and old alike.
In 1842 he was awarded a civil list pension of £300 a year (re-
signing the Distributorship of Stamps which he had held since
1813, a sinecure which had brought on him many reproaches). In
1843 he was appointed poet laureate, in succession to Southey.
He died on April 23, 1850; and is buried in the churchyard of
Grasmere. His wife survived him by nine years. Of his five chil-
dren, two had died in 1812; his daughter, Dora, wife of Edward
Quillinan, had died in 1847. Two surviving sons, John and Wil-
liam, left children. The present literary representative is the poet's
grandson, Gordon Wordsworth of Ambleside.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The authorised edition of the Poetical Works is that
published by Moxon in 1849-50 (6 vol.) ; which, however, docs not
contain The Prelude (first printed in 1850) or The Recluse (1888, Mac-
millan). Of subsequent texts the. principal are: W. Knigbt, 1882-80,
8 vols.; E. Dowden, 1892-93, 7 vols. ; Nowcll Smith, 1908, 3 vols. ; and
in one volume, J. Morley, 1888; T. Hutchinson, 1895. In 1926 E. dc
Selincourt published, from the original mss., Wordsworth's first version
of The Prelude (with the "authorised" text vis-a-vis). The Prose
Works were collected by A. B. Grosart, 1876, 3 vols. (out of print), and
are accessible in W. Knight's edition, 1896, 2 vols. The Letters of the
Wordsworth Family were printed by W. Knight in 1907 (out of print) ;
other letters of Wordsworth are in Edith Morley's Correspondence of
Crabb Robinson with the Wordsivorth Circle (1927). Wordsworth's
Tract on the Convention of Cintra was edited separately by A. V.
Dicey in 1915; the Guide to the Lakes by E. dc Selincourt in 1906; the
Poems and Extracts from the Works of Anne, Countess of Winchelsea
by J. R. Rees in 1905. A Concordance to the Poems of W. W. by Lane
Cooper was published in 1911.
For the life of Wordsworth chief authorities are: Memoirs of W. W.,
by Christopher Wordsworth, 1851 (with the poet's " Autobiographical
Memoranda"); Life of William Wordsworth by W. Knight, 1889;
William Wordsworth, his Life, Works and Influence, by W. Harper
(containing new material 1910) ; The Early Life of Wordsworth by E.
Legouis, E.T., 1897. New facts about Wordsworth are to be found in
W. Harper's Wordsworth's French Daughter , 1921, and in E. Legoui*'
Wordsworth in a New Light, 1923. Among general interpretative
studies of Wordsworth may be mentioned those of F. W. H. Myers,
W. Raleigh, H. W. Garrod, O. Elton ; among special studies E. Barstow,
Wordsworth's Theory /?/ Poetic Diction, 1917; W. Beatty, William
Wordsworth: his Doctrine and Art in their Historical Relations, 1927.
Upon bibliographical questions Two Lake Poets: a Catalogue, etc., by
T. J. Wise (1927), should be consulted. (H. W. GA.)
WORK: see LABOUR.
WORKERS, EDUCATION OF: see ADULT EDUCATION
744
WORKHOUSE— WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION
WORKHOUSE. The workhouse (in Scotland known as the
poorhouse) is a British institution in which paupers are main-
tained. It is administered in England and Wales by the board of
guardians (the parish council in Scotland), under regulations pre-
scribed by a central authority, the Ministry of Health or the Scot-
tish Board of Health. Destitute persons arc admitted to the work-
house by a written order of the board of guardians or the reliev-
ing officer, or in exceptional cases by the master or matron with-
out an order. All inmates are subject to strict discipline whilst
remaining in the workhouse, and, under ordinary circumstances,
may not leave the institution without first giving "reasonable
notice," which is usually held to mean not less than 24 hours and
in some situations it may be as long as three days.
Primitive workhouses were set up here and there in the i/th
century under the Poor Relief Act of 1601, which directed the
overseers of every parish, amongst other things, to raise funds "for
providing a convenient stock of flax, hemp, wool, thread, iron and
other ware and stuff to set the poor on work." But in this early
period the authorities were for the most part content with "houses
of correction" for the chastisement of the vagabond.
The 1 8th century saw the establishment of workhouses in
towns and rural parishes. The administration was either brutally
hard or incredibly lax; they ranged, it has been said, from
'houses of terror" to "houses of debauchery." In 1834 the
modern system was introduced. The 15,000 parishes of Eng-
land and Wales were organized into a few hundred poor law
"unions," each of which was required to set up a "well-regulated
workhouse." Only in this institution could an able-bodied man and
his family get relief, and in order to deter him from coming, the
regimen was purposely made repugnant.
The Workhouse Condemned. — But in the course of the iQth
century the strict principles of 1834 were generally relaxed, and
in 1909 a royal commission found the state of the workhouses with
few exceptions deplorable, and unanimously recommended their
abolition. They were not abolished, but some improvement was
effected under pressure from the central authority. In particular,
a better "classification" of the inmates was enjoined. Married
couples aged over 60 are now not to be separated if they wish to
live together, and children between the ages of 3 and 16 may not
be maintained in the workhouse. Some boards of guardians, how-
ever, have persisted in breaking this latter regulation, and in 1927
it was reported that in Somerset 15%, in Dorset 31% and in
Cornwall 37% of the pauper children were in the workhouses. An
effort was also made to render the workhouse less repellent to the
poor by calling it "the institution," but there was no popular
enthusiasm over this, and the old name continued in general use.
After the World War, with the general relaxation of the restric-
tions on outdoor relief, the workhouse became less than ever a
place for "testing" the able-bodied by disagreeable tasks of work.
The inmates are chiefly aged and infirm. (See POOR LAWS.)
(C. M. L.)
WORKING MEN'S CLUBS have existed for workmen
in England and Wales (there are few in either Scotland or Ire-
land) since the middle of the nineteenth century.
The majority are organized in the Working Men's Club and
Institute Union, which owes its existence to the Rev. Henry
Solly, a Unitarian minister, and was born at a meeting held in the
rooms of the Law Amendment Society at which Lord Brougham
presided, on June 14, 1862.
Many of the clubs were eleemosynary and had but a fitful ex-
istence. Scarcely one then founded is in existence to-day. It
was also intended that such clubs should be teetotal, but this policy
was abandoned. Apart from this change the objects of the clubs
remain as in the beginning, and arc as follows:
(1) That working men's clubs and institutes are calculated not
only to diminish excessive use of intoxicating liquors, but
also to promote self-culture and the growth of a healthy pub-
lic spirit among the mass of people.
(2) That there are few social reforms of greater importance
to this country than the substitution of clubs and institutes
for public houses as places of resort for the recreation and
business of the working classes.
Although the Union did not become entirely independent of
outside support till 1890 it had, under the guidance of Hodgson
Pratt, worked steadily to that end. In 1884 it became completely
democratic in constitution. J. J. Dent became Secretary in 1883
and was largely responsible for the establishment of the Union
on a firm and financially sound basis. In 1928 the Union included
2,530 clubs with nearly a million members. The clubs are un-
equally distributed over the United Kingdom. There are at least
500 workmen's clubs outside the Union. There were also in 1928
some 700 ex-Service men's clubs (remaining of a total of 1,200
in 1923). The Association of Conservative Clubs with a mem-
bership of 1,500 and the National Union of Liberal Clubs (50)
include purely working class organizations.
The Union maintains four convalescent homes, accommodating'
about 5,000 members yearly. The net income of the Union apart
from that of the homes, is (1928) approximately £17,000 annually,
of which some 20 per cent is allotted to educational work.
See B. T. Hall, Our Sixty Years (1922).
WORKINGTON, a ocaport in Cumberland, England, 34 m.
S.W. of Carlisle. Pop. (1921) 26,471. It stands on the river
Derwent, and the Lonsdale dock is 4^ ac. in extent, with a depth
of 27 ft. at spring tide. There are large collieries (some work-
ings extend beneath the sea), and blast furnaces, engineering
works, cycle and motor works, shipbuilding yards and paper mills.
Near the town is the castellated Workington Hall.
WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION. Until 1880 the only
remedy which the law of Great Britain provided for a workman
who had suffered physical injury in the course of his employment
was a common law action in which the plaintiff had to establish
that his injury was due to some personal fault in the employer,
as that the employer had been guilty of personal negligence, or
had knowingly employed an incompetent servant, or had com-
mitted a breach of some statutory duty. Even if the expense
which had to be incurred was not an insurmountable obstacle, the
cases where a workman would hope to recover damages for his
injury by means of a common law action were comparatively
rare. In an action for negligence formidable defences were avail-
able to the employer. Contributory negligence in the workman
himself would be pleaded as a matter of course, and if it was es-
tablished that the plaintiff could, by the exercise of ordinary care,
have avoided the consequences of the defendant's negligence the
action must fail. The doctrine of volenti non fit injuria might
destroy the injured workman's right to damages on the ground
that, knowing the risk he was running, he expressly or impliedly
agreed to accept that risk. Then there was the defence of "com-
mon employment," which deprived the plaintiff of his right to
damages when his injury was due to the negligence of a fellow
workman. Moreover, the position of the dependants of a
workman whose injuries had proved fatal was more desperate
still, for the right of action was personal to the injured man and
died with him. Lord Campbell's Act of 1846 created an exception
to this rule in favour of a wife, husband, parent, or child of the
deceased, and enabled an action to be brought for the benefit of
that limited class of persons in respect of the workman's death as
a result of another's wrongful act or negligence. But the de-
fences which were available in an action by the injured workman
himself remained available as against the dependants of a work-
man whose injuries had proved fatal. So where a bricklayer was
killed by the collapse of scaffolding which had been erected by
men in the employment of the same employer who had not himself
superintended the work, it was held that the master builder was
under no liability (Wigmore v. Jay 5 Ex. 354).
Thereafter two different currents of opinion as to the manner
in which the unsatisfactory state of the law should be remedied
are observable. On the one hand, there was the view that any
remedial measure should fit into the framework of the existing
common law rules, and that all that was necessary was that those
rules should be modified to remedy particular grievances. This
school of thought found expression in the Employers' Liability
Bill, introduced in 1893 by Asquith, who thus indicated its three
vital principles: 'The first is that it abolishes the doctrine of
common employment; the second is that it prohibits contracts by
WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION
745
a workman renouncing his statutory rights; and thirdly, it sim-
plifies the procedure by means of which the workman can seek
his statutory remedy." The views of the opposing body of opin-
ion were expressed in the amendment moved by Joseph Chamber-
lain when Asquith's bill was before the house of commons : "That
no amendment of the law relating to employers' liability will be
final or satisfactory which does not provide compensation to
workmen for all injuries sustained in the ordinary course of their
employment and not caused by their own acts or default." The
House of Commons passed Asquith's bill, but abandoned it rather
than accept an amendment of the House of Lords, the purpose of
which was the preservation of the principle of contracting out,
although subject to certain safeguards.
The British Workmen's Compensation Acts. — The Work-
men's Compensation Act 1897 introduced a new principle into the
law of the relationship between master and servant by imposing
a liability on the employer to pay compensation to an injured
workman, or if his injury proved fatal, to his dependants, al-
though there had been no wrongful act x>r omission on the part
of the employer or of anyone employed by him. Liability was im-
posed no less upon the employer who was blameless than upon him
who had been guilty of negligence. Contracting-out was for-
bidden, save where an equally advantageous scheme, duly cer-
tified as such by the Registrar of Friendly Societies, was substi-
tuted for liability under the Act.
The Act of 1897 came up for review before a departmental
committee appointed for the purpose in 1903. Many of the rec-
ommendations of that committee (Report of Departmental Com-
mittee on Compensation for Injuries to Workmen, 1904, Cmd.
2,208) were embodied in the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906,
by which the Act of 1897 was repealed. In 1919 the departmental
committee generally known as the Holman Gregory committee
was appointed to report, what alterations of the law were required
"to remedy defects which experience has disclosed"; and "whether
it would be desirable to establish a system of accident assurance
under the control or supervision of the State." The committee re-
ported in 1920 (Report of Departmental Committee on Compen-
sation for Injuries to Workmen, 1920, Cmd. 816; Minutes of Evi-
dence, Cmd. 908 and 909). Post-war conditions were not favour-
able to the achievement of the whole of the scheme of reform
recommended by the committee, but a good deal of it was embod-
ied in the amending Act of 1923. Finally, the consolidating Act
of 1925 was passed and there the law must now be sought.
The Act of 1906 applied to the United Kingdom of Great Brit-
ain and Ireland. When the 1923 Act was passed the status of Ire-
land had changed. The present Act applies to England and Scot-
land only. It does not extend to Northern Ireland "except where
otherwise expressly provided," and since the Irish Free State has
dominion status it, of course, has its own legislation. Northern
Ireland has passed an Act corresponding with the British Act.
From the first the remedy by way of the Workmen's Com-
pensation Acts has, in Great Britain, been an alternative, and not
an exclusive remedy. If circumstances are such that the Work-
men's Compensation Act applies, the injured workman or his
representatives are not barred from bringing an action at common
law or under the Employers' Liability Act if the evidence neces-
sary to support an action is forthcoming. The principle is laid
down, however, that the employer is not to be liable to pay com-
pensation twice over in respect of the same accident.
Employments to Which the Acts Apply. — The Workmen's
Compensation Act of 1897 applied only to the more dangerous
industries, and in effect to employers of the class best able to bear
the liability. But the Workmen's Compensation Act 1900 applied
the 1897 Act to "the employment of workmen in agriculture by
any employer who habitually employs one or more workmen in
such employment." Whereas the first Workmen's Compensation
Act excluded from its scope all workmen not expressly included,
the Act of 1906 included all "workmen" except the few classes
expressly excluded, namely, non-manual workers whose remunera-
tion exceeded £250 a year (the limit was raised to £350 by the 1923
Act) ; persons employed casually otherwise than for the purposes
of the employer's trade or business ; outworkers ; members of the
employer's family dwelling in his house; members of a police force,
and persons in the army and navy. With the specific exceptions
mentioned, the expression "workman" is defined to include "any
person who has entered into or works under a contract of service
or apprenticeship with an employer whether by way of manual
labour, clerical work or otherwise." The sweep of the Act was
thus widened in 1906 so as to include not only the coal miner and
the engineer, but also the clerk in the counting-house, the shop
assistant and the general servant.
Yet there were still workers excluded from the protection of
the Act. These cases are a result of the general rule of law that,
in the absence of an intention indicated in the Statute the pre-
sumption is that Parliament does not design its Acts to operate
beyond the territorial limits of Great Britain. A seaman on a
British ship meeting with an accident when abroad would be out-
side the Acts; so with the crews of British aircraft, when outside
Great Br'tain. Again, if the legal relationship between, say, a
cab proprietor and his driver is that of bailor and bailee, the
relationship, the basis of which is a contract of service, which is
the fundamental test for inclusion in the Acts, is absent. To
bring such cases within the Workmen's Compensation Acts specific
enactment has accordingly been necessary.
By Whom Compensation Is Paid. — The liability to pay com-
pensation is imposed directly on the employer. It is not paid out
of a fund to which the workman is himself a subscriber, as under
national insurance. Nor does the employer's liability begin and
end with the payment to a compensation fund, as in countries
where there is a State scheme of workmen's compensation.
Although in Great Britain insurance in respect of these risks is
not compulsory, most employers do, in fact, transfer their lia-
bility to an insurance company.
What Injuries Arc Within the Acts^-The law defining the
liability of employers is as follows: If, in the employments to
which the Act applies, "personal injury by accident arising out
of and in the course of the employment is caused to a workman,
his employer shall, subject as hereinafter mentioned, be liable to
pay compensation." It is quite true that this form of words has
given rise to an unprecedented crop of litigation. Nevertheless, a
simpler and more satisfactory formula appears to be hard to find,
for the formula has remained unaltered to the present day.
Furthermore, the British form of words has been generally adopt-
ed in the Workmen's Compensation statutes of the British domin-
ions and the United States, and in the Act recently passed by
India the same formula appears.
On analysis it will be seen that the formula requires four con-
ditions to be satisfied, (i) There must have been an "accident."
This may include heat-stroke, murder and rupture of an aneur-
ism by the strain of work. It does not include disease which,
although traceable to the workman's employment, is gradual in
its onset, (ii) The personal injury must have resulted from the
accident. The incapacity or death must not be the consequence
of some new intervening cause. So, if a workman dies from the
effects of anaesthetics during an operation made necessary by an
accident, the fact that the anaesthetic and not the accident was
the immediate cause of death does not render the occurrence any
the less a "personal injury by accident." Not so, however, if the
fatal result was due to unskilful treatment of the injury, (iii)
The accident must have arisen "in the course of" the employ-
ment. If it occurred before the employment began or after it
had ended, compensation will not be payable. The beginning of
employment is not the same thing as the beginning of work: the
employment may begin when the workman reaches, say, a private
road leading to the place of actual work: it may extend to at-
tendance at the employers' premises for the purpose of drawing
wages when not actually at work, (iv) The accident must have
arisen "out of" the employment. The circumstances in which an
accident may happen are infinite, and the meaning of the three
words "arising out of" has to be gathered from literally hun-
dreds of decisions in the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords.
No universal test, whether an accident arose "out of* the employ-
ment, seems possible; but Lord Sumner in L. & Y. Rly. v. Highley
[1917] A.C. 352 suggested a test which has been frequently ap-
746
WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION
plied, namely, "was it part of the injured person's employment
to hazard, to suffer or to do that which caused his injury? If yea,
the accident arose out of his employment. If nay, it did not."
Compensation is not necessarily payable because illness over-
takes a workman while at work. For compensation to be payable
for disablement or death due to disease, it must either be shown
that the illness resulted from an accident, as where blood poison-
ing sets in as a consequence of a wound, however slight, received
when at work; or the disease must be one of those to which the
Workmen's Compensation Acts are specially applied, viz., anthrax,
lead, phosphorus, mercury or arsenic poisoning and the miner's
disease known as ankylostomiasis, together with the long list of
other industrial diseases brought within the scope of the Acts by
order of the home secretary in pursuance of his statutory powers.
Conditions Which Disqualify for Compensation. — In
some of the dominions and the United States, it is provided that
an injury which is self-inflicted, or was the result of intoxication,
shall not be the subject of compensation. In Great Britain it has
been left to the courts to rule out such cases, and only two dis-
qualifications for compensation arc the subject of specific enact-
ment, namely, serious and wilful misconduct (but only in cases
not resulting in death or serious and permanent disablement) and
the fact that the incapacity did not extend beyond what is known
as "the waiting period."
It is alleged in justification of this "waiting period" that it
excludes a vast number of trivial claims, the cost of investigating
and dealing with which would be disproportionate to the amount
at stake. The British Act applies the simple plan by which com-
pensation is payable after the first three days in all cases and
from the date of the accident if the incapacity lasts four weeks
or more. It is a condition to the granting of compensation that
the accident has been brought to the knowledge of the employer
as soon as possible and a claim for compensation made within six
months from the occurrence of the accident, or, in fatal cases,
within six months from the date of death, unless the absence of
notice or failure to make the claim can be excused on one or other
of the grounds indicated in the Statute, such as mistake, absence
from Great Britain or "other reasonable cause."
Scale of Compensation. — In fatal cases compensation takes
the form of a lump sum payment to or for the benefit, of the de-
ceased workman's dependants. Where the accident results in in-
capacity only, compensation is paid to the injured workman, and
takes the form of a weekly payment during incapacity. The sum
payable in fatal cases varies, in the first place according as the
workman leaves total or partial dependants or no dependants at
all and, in the second place, according as the dependants do or
do not include children under the age of 15. If the deceased
workman leaves any person entitled to rank as a dependant with-
in the definition of the Act wholly dependent upon his earnings,
the lump sum payable is £200 or a sum equal to the workman's
earnings during the previous three years, whichever is the larger,
but not exceeding £300. If the workman leaves only partial de-
pendants, compensation is the sum which is "reasonable and pro-
portionate to the injury" suffered by the dependants as a result of
the workman's death, subject to the same maximum. If no de-
pendants are left, only expenses of medical attendance and burial
up to £15 are payable. Until 1923 no distinction was made be-
tween the case where the only dependant was, say, a young widow,
and the case where a middle-aged widow and a family of small
children were left to be provided for. The 1923 Act made pro-
vision for compensation additional to the above, where the work-
man leaves a widow or other member of his family dependant
upon his earnings and in addition leaves one or more dependant
children under the age of 15. This additional "children's allow-
ance" is calculated according to the formula laid down in the
Act and depends on the number of children and their respective
ages. By way of illustration take the case of a workman earning
305. a week, who leaves a widow and two children respectively
seven and 14 years of age, all totally dependent upon his earn-
ings. If the widow had been the only dependant the compensation
payable would have been £234. But the "children's allowance"
payable in addition is £105 6s.. so that the total compensation
payable amounts to £339 6s. The absolute maximum payable in a
fatal case, including children's allowances, is £600. The lump sum
payable in fatal cases is not paid direct to the dependants who,
being generally persons unused to dealing with large sums, would
possibly use it in an improvident manner, but is paid into the
county court and by that court paid out to the dependants, ac-
cording to their needs, in periodical instalments.
Where the workman is injured, but not killed, his weekly pay-
ment during total incapacity is a sum equal to 50% of his aver-
age weekly earnings but not exceeding 305. So that compensation
may not be wholly inadequate for the necessaries of life, provi-
sion is made by which workmen earning less than 505. a week re-
ceive compensation in excess of 50% of earnings. Thus a work-
man whose earnings were 305. a week would receive as compensa-
tion for total incapacity 2os. a weekj and a workman earning only
2os. a week would get compensation amounting to as much as
75% of his weekly earnings. If the injury leaves him not totally
but only partially incapacitated, so that a certain degree of work-
ing capacity exists, his compensation will be on a scale designed
to give him one-half the difference between his earnings before
and after the accident, special consideration being shown to
workmen on the lower scales of wages.
Special provision is made for the case of minors who may meet
with injury at their work when receiving only a low rate of
wages, which rate, however, would normally be substantially in-
creased when they become fully skilled workmen. Seeing" that
compensation is based on the wage rate during the time immedi-
ately preceding the accident, it would manifestly be unjust that
compensation based on an apprentice's wages should continue
without possibility of increase after the time when, but for the
accident, he would be qualified for an adult workman's wages.
Compensation may be reviewed, and diminished or increased,
according as the workman's condition gets better or worse. Most
commonly such a review takes place when the workman, hitherto
totally incapacitated, recovers part but not the whole of his
earning capacity.
The authors of the original Act expected that disputed cases
would in general be settled by private arbitration without resort
to the courts. In fact, however, workmen's compensation cases
are, with very few exceptions, dealt with by the county courts.
Systems Adopted in the Dominions and U.S.A. — In Great
Britain, the employer is allowed to insure against his liability, or
not, according to his discretion. But in certain of the States of
the United States of America, and in a majority of the Canadian
provinces, and in Queensland, the earlier Acts on the British
model have been changed and the State, through the agency of a
public department, levies upon employers compulsory contribu-
tions and itself assumes the liability to pay compensation. It is to
the State fund and not to the individual employer that the injured
workman or his dependants must look for compensation. The
system, including the determination of disputes, is in reality a
system of State insurance.
An intermediate position is occupied by the Australian States
(with the exception of Queensland) and is common in the United
States of America. There State intervention in workmen's com-
pensation matters is directed to the compulsory insurance of
workmen's compensation risk coupled, in the case of Victoria and
New South Wales and sometimes in the United States, with the
setting up of a State accident insurance office with which, however,
private insurance enterprise is allowed to compete. In New Zea-
land, without the incentive of compulsory insurance, the accident
branch of the Government insurance department provides an al-
ternative to private insurance companies.
The German System.— In Germany, compensation for indus-
trial accidents is one part of a code of social insurance of which
sickness insurance, and invalidity, old age pensions, and widows'
and orphans' pensions insurance are other branches. In Great Brit-
ain the latter forms of social insurance are contained in separate
statutes and are administered by a distinct department.
The existing German law relating to accident insurance is con-
tained in Part iii. of the Social Insurance Code of 1911 as re-
vised in 1924, but its origin goes back to the period 1883 to 1889
WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION*
747
when, by the triple scheme of social insurance then established in
Germany, it became compulsory not only to insure, but to be a
member of an association with liability to support a particular
fund. Germany was indeed the first country to admit this liability.
Germany imposes the liability not on individual employers but
on groups of employers organized in mutual trade associations.
The industries broaoUy include the manufacturing and mining in-
dustries, the building trades, commercial undertakings and trans-
port. Agriculture and navigation by sea constitute separate parts
of the code. The financial liabilities of each association are de-
termined annually and the levy on members necessary to cover
compensation, reserves and administration expenses is based on
the wage roll, modified by the risk as manifested by the accident
rates for the particular industry or occupation. Compensation is
paid through the post office. The workers contribute in some de-
gree in that in respect of accidents causing temporary incapacity
for work for a period not longer than 13 weeks, the case is dealt
with by the sickness insurance organization and benefit paid by the
sickness insurance fund to which employers and employed con-
tribute in proportions of one-third and two-thirds. Only from the
i4th week does the accident insurance organization take over the
case.
Compensation for industrial accidents provides an incentive to
employers to avoid conditions likely to result in accidents and ill-
ness. The German code requires the employers' accident associa-
tions to issue regulations concerning the arrangements for the pre-
vention of accidents and the rules of conduct to be observed by
the workers. (C. M. KN.)
The United States. — Workmen's compensation was under-
taken as an American experiment long after it had been accepted
in European countries. The first legislation on the subject, a co-
operative insurance law in Maryland in 1902, was declared un-
constitutional in 1904. Congress in 1908 enacted a compensation
law applicable to some Federal employees which was greatly am-
plified in 1916. In 1910 Montana inaugurated a State co-operative
insurance fund for miners, but the plan collapsed before charges
of unconstitutionality. (Cunningham v. North-western Improve-
ment Co. 44 Mont. 180, 1911.)
Commission Period. — Thorough-going study of workmen's
compensation begins with what may be called the commission
period. Between 1909 and 1913 over 26 commissions were ap-
pointed by various States. They frequently submitted proposed
drafts for legislation, and reports with extensive statistical data.
Several of the reports discussed at length the question of con-
stitutionality. Among the. most capable and thorough were the
reports of the New York commission, and of the Employers'
Liability and Workmen's Compensation Commission of the United
States, appointed by joint resolution of Congress, June 25, 1910.
With almost complete unanimity the commissions rejected the
idea of employers' liability acts and urged the enactment of some
form of compensation legislation. But the forms varied greatly
and in the 43 States and three Territories in which workmen's
compensation is in force, the legislation is anything but uniform.
The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State
Laws produced a model law which was adopted in 1914 after a
committee had worked on the draft for four years. No State has
taken the suggested draft in its entirety; only Hawaii, Idaho and
Vermont have adopted parts, and these wilh modifications.
Legislative Enactments.— Legislation followed close upon the
reports of the commissions. The first law of general application
was passed in New York in 1910, providing for compulsory
compensation in certain enumerated hazardous occupations, and
elective compensation in most other occupations. The New York
court of appeals declared the law unconstitutional in 1911 (Ives v.
South Buffalo R. Co. 201 N.Y. 271). Thereupon the State Con-
stitution was amended in order to permit the enactment of another
compulsory insurance law in 1914. By 1913 24 States had enacted
workmen's compensation laws under the impetus of the in-
vestigations, and thereafter the movement spread steadily.
Sociological legislation in the United States has had generally
to survive the onslaught of constitutional lawyers, and the work-
men's compensation legislation furnishes no exception. The
phraseology of the i4th amendment and of similar provisions of
State Constitutions had to be laid beside the new legislative
efforts to determine whether they were subversive of the guaran-
tees of American fundamental law. The test was not long delayed.
It was, furthermore, a searching test which resulted in giving a
clean bill of health to practically every important feature of
workmen's compensation legislation, in its varying forms.
Supreme Court Decisions. — Within four years, the U.S. su-
preme court handed down five opinions sustaining the legislation
in New York, Iowa, Washington, Texas and Arizona. These cases
in order arc: New York Central R.R. Co. v. White, 243 U.S. 188
(1916); Hawkins v. Bleakly, Auditor of the State of Iowa, 243
U.S. 210 (1916); Mountain Timber Company v. State of Wash-
ington, 243 U.S. 219 (1916); Middle ton v. Texas Power and Light
Co. 249 U.S. 152 (1918) and Arizona Employers Liability Cases,
250 U.S. 400 (1918). By progressively emphatic holdings, these
cases swept away the principal constitutional objections. The
opinion of the majority, in each case written by Mr. Justice
Pitney, was forthright and unequivocal. The White case, being
the first, definitely silenced any objection to legislative action
depriving the employer of the defences of the fellow servant rule,
contributory negligence and the doctrine of the assumption of
risk, — those common law defences which had thrown the whole
burden of industrial accident upon the shoulders of the employees.
"No person has a vested interest in any rule of law entitling him
to insist that it shall remain unchanged for his benefit" (243 U.S.
at 198). In the Arizona Employers' Li-ability Cases Mr. Justice
Pitney summarizes the four preceding cases: (p. 419-20): —
These decisions have established the propositions that the rules of
law concerning the employer's responsibility for personal injury or
death of an employee arising in the course of the employment are
not beyond alteration by legislation in the public interest; that no
person has a vested right entitling him to have these, any more than
other, rules of law unchanged for his benefit ; and that, if we exclude
arbitrary and unreasonable changes, liability may be imposed upon
the employer without fault, and the rules respecting his responsibility
to one employee for the negligence of another and respecting con-
tributory negligence and assumption of risk are subject to legislative
change.
Thus the action of the legislatures is upheld and their exercise
of the police power in this regard fully sanctioned. The Arizona
case also points out the real kernel of workmen's compensation
theory, i.e., that the cost, borne as it always is and should be in
the first instance by the employer is, in reality, borne by the
industry and the public, since the employer can charge it "as
part of the cost of the product of the industry." The White case
and the Arizona cases are at extreme poles. The former held con-
stitutional a compulsory insurance law applicable to hazardous
employments, which abrogated the common law defences but
which likewise forced the employee to accept the benefits of the
compensation law without resort to the courts. The Arizona
case abrogated the common law defence of the fellow servant rule
and directed that questions of contributory negligence and as-
sumption of risk be left to the jury, while giving the employee
the right either to sue at law under these circumstances and get
what a jury would give him, take advantage of the employers'
liability act, or the compulsory compensation law as he chose.
Compulsory Insurance Feature. — In both cases the State
compulsory insurance compensation law was upheld. But while
the opinion in the first case was concurred in by the entire court,
in the Arizona cases four judges dissented. Mr. Justice Pitney, it
may be observed, in the majority opinion, swept away any doubts
which qualified statements in the White case had engendered, in
no uncertain terms. These cases establish the fundamental con-
stitutional soundness of workmen's compensation legislation and,
while constitutional complaints have been made since, they relate
to less vital matters. In one important particular the State legis-
lation has encountered a difficulty. The case of Southern Pacific
Co. v. Jensen, 244 U.S. 205 (1916) holds that State workmen's
compensation laws cannot apply to maritime workers, as maritime
matters are under the jurisdiction of Congress. The result of
this case was congressional action in the form of the Longshore-
men's and Harbour Workers' Compensation Act of 1927, modelled
upon the New York statute and administered by Federal agencies
748
WORKS AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS— WORLD WAR
with the co-operation of State authorities.
Compensation Payments. — All the laws passed are compensa-
tion laws, but many in addition to establishing the right to com-
pensation include insurance features. Of prime importance is
security for the compensation payments. The methods generally
used are either self-insurance; i.e., satisfactory evidence given by
the employer to the State authority of solvency, sometimes by
giving a bond or insurance in some approved company or in a
State insurance fund. There is wide variety as to the employ-
ments covered, which may be broadly classified as hazardous,
extra-hazardous and non-hazardous. Sometimes the compensation
law is elective, sometimes compulsory, but usually, where elec-
tive, the alternative is the abrogation of the common law de-
fences. Ordinarily an employee may not retain his common law
rights and his rights under the statute at the same time.
The States differ greatly in the waiting period required and in
the amount of compensation paid. Herein lies a source of con-
stant study, in order that the payments shall approximate in
some rational way the loss suffered by the employee. It involves
a nice adjustment of medical and economic knowledge. To this
problem one finds the International Association of Industrial
Accident Boards and Commissions directing its attention, this
body being a clearing house and an instrument of progress. The
injuries included, again, afford opportunity for variation. Occu-
pational diseases were included in none of the original acts but
are now recognized in some by amendment.
The effective handling of disputes about compensation pay-
ments is of great importance and receives attention in most
statutes. The machinery in different jurisdictions for such ad-
justment varies. But its employment represents a striking move
in the direction of administrative as opposed to judicial justice.
The inability of the courts to function swiftly and inexpensively
has made administrative machinery imperative. Although this
machinery does not always function efficiently and although there
is a great deal of room for improvement, the State boards and
commissions do make available to injured workmen the relief
which the courts could not effectively give. (R. P. B.)
WORKS AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS, OFFICE OF:
see GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.
WORKS' COUNCILS: see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.
WORKSHOP LAW: see LABOUR LAW; HOURS or LABOUR.
WORKSOP, a town, in Nottinghamshire, England, on the
Chesterfield Canal. Pop. (1921) 23,206. To the south lies the
Dukeries (q.v.). The church of St. Mary and St. Cuthbert be-
longed to an old priory. At the Reformation only the west portion
was spared, and it was restored with Perpendicular additions. Be-
hind it are the ruins of the Lady chapel, with fine Early English
work. The priory gatehouse (i4th century) remains. The town
hall and free library are the principal public buildings.
WORLD COURT: see PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNA-
TIONAL JUSTICE.
WORLD SOUL, in the history of philosophy, denotes the
conception that there is in the world a universal spirit or soul
which is related to the material world in a way that is similar or
analogous to the relation of the human soul to the body. This
view was taught by various Greek philosophers, notably by Plato
and the Stoics. In modern times Schelling held a similar concep-
tion, and attributed to the world-soul the function of acting as an
organizing principle of the material world, which is thereby made
into a coherent system. See PLATO, STOICS, SCHELLING.
WORLD WAR. The aim of this articfc is to trace the main
strategic currents of the World War, as also the conditions and
ideas which guided them. The causes of the war are not within its
scope. (For the political and diplomatic history of the struggle
see the article EUROPE.) A process of 50 years had gone to make
Europe inflammable, and a few days were enough to detonate it.
To study the causes of the conflict on the German side we should
have to trace the influence of Prussia on the creation of the Reich,
the political conceptions of Bismarck, the German philosophical
tendencies, her economic situation — a medley of factors which
transmuted Germany's natural desire for commercial outlets, un-
happily difficult to obtain, into a vision of world-power. We should
have to analyse that heterogeneous relic of the middle ages known
as Austria-Hungary, appreciate her complex racial problems, the
artificiality of her governing institutions, the superficial ambitions
which overlay a haunting fear of internal disruption and fran-
tically sought to postpone the inevitable end.
On the other side we should have to examine the strange mixture
of ambition and idealism which swayed Russian policy; we should
have to understand the constant and justifiable fear of fresh ag-
gression which France had suffered since 1870, and follow the
regrowth of confidence which fortified her to resist further threats;
finally, we should have to trace Britain's gradual movement from
a policy of isolation into membership of the European system and
her slow awakening to the reality of German ambitions. Beside
these fundamental causes the international "incidents" that took
place between 1899 and 1914 are but symptoms.
I. INTRODUCTION
The Armed Forces.— The World War may be briefly epito-
mized as a progress from convention through chaos to co-opera-
tion. The nations entered upon the conflict with the conventional
outlook and system of the i8th century merely modified by the
events of the igth century. Politically, they conceived of it as a
struggle between rival coalitions based on the traditional system
of diplomatic alliances, and militarily as between professional
armies — swollen, it is true, owing to the continental system of
conscription, yet essentially fought out by soldiers while the-mass
of the people watched, from scats in the amphitheatre, the efforts
of their champions. The Germans alone had a glimpse of the
truth, but — one or two prophetic minds apart — the "Nation in
Arms5' theory evolved by them during the iQth century visualized
the nation rather as a reservoir to pour its reinforcements into
the army than as a mighty river in which are merged many tribu-
tary forces, of which the army is but one. Their conception was
the "Nation in Arms," hardly the "Nation at War." Even to-day
this fundamental truth has yet to be grasped in its entirety and
its full implications understood. Progressively throughout the
years 1914-18 the warring nations enlisted the research of the
scientist, the inventive powers and technical skill of the engineer,
the manual labour of industry and the pen of the propagandist.
For long this fusion of many forces tended to a chaotic maelstrom
of forces; the old order had broken down, the new had not yet
evolved. Only gradually did a working co-operation emerge, and
it is a moot point whether even in the last phase co-operation of
forces had attained to the higher level of co-ordination — direction
by unity of diversity.
The German army of 1914 was born in the Napoleonic wars,
nursed in infancy by Gneisenau and Scharnhorst, and trained in
adolescence by the elder Moltke and Roon. It reached maturity in
the war of 1870, where it emerged triumphantly from a test
against the long-service army of France. Every physically able
citizen was liable to service, and the State took the number it
desired, trained them to arms for a short period of full-time
service, and then returned them to civil life. The feature, as also
the object, of this system was the production of a huge reserve
by which to expand the active army in war. A man served two or
three years full-time, according to his branch of the service, fol-
lowed by five or four years in the regular reserves. He then went
into the Landwehr for 12 years, and finally passed into the Land-
Sturm from 39 till 45. Further, an Ersatz reserve was formed of
those who were not called on for service with the colours.
In this organization and the thoroughness of the training lay
the secret of the first great surprise of the war, one which almost
proved decisive. For instead of regarding their reservists as troops
of doubtful quality, fit only for an auxiliary role or garrison duty,
the Germans during mobilization were able to duplicate every first
line army corps with a reserve corps — and had the courage, justi-
fied by events, to use them in the opening clash. This surprise
upset the French calculations, as it dislocated their plan.
The Germans have been reproached for many miscalculations;
less than justice has been done to the correctness of many of
their intuitions. They alone realized what is to-day an axiom —
that, given a highly trained cadre of leaders, a military machine
INTRODUCTION]
WORLD WAR
749
can be rapidly manufactured from the levies of the led, like
molten liquid poured into a mould. The German mould was a
long-service body of officers and n.c.o.s who in their standard of
technical knowledge and skill had no. equal in the world. But if the
machine was manufactured by training, it gained its solidity from
another process. The psychological element plays an even greater
part in a "national" than in a professional army. Esprit de corps
is not enough; the stimulus of a great moral impulse to action is
necessary, a deep-rooted belief in the policy for which citizens
are called on to fight. The leaders of Germany had worked for
generations to inspire their people with a patriotic conviction of
the grandeur of their country's destiny. And if their opponents
went forth to battle in 1914 with as intense a belief in their
country's cause, this flaming patriotism had not the time to con-
solidate such a disciplined combination as years of steady heat
had produced in Germany. The German people had an intimacy
with and a pride in their army, notwithstanding its severity of dis-
cipline, that was unknown elsewhere.
This unique instrument was handled by a general staff which,
by rigour of selection and training, was unmatched for professional j
knowledge and skill, if subject to the mental "grooves" which
characterize all professions. Executive skill is the fruit of prac-
tice; and constant practice, or repetition, tends inevitably to
deaden originality and elasticity of mind. In a professional body,
also, promotion by seniority is a rule difficult to avoid. The Ger-
mans, it is true, tended towards a system of staff control, which
in practice frequently left the real power in the hands of youthful
general staff officers. As war memoirs and documents reveal, the
chiefs of staff of the various armies and corps often took momen-
tous decisions with hardly a pretence of consulting their com-
manders. But such a system had grave objections, for such a
happy combination as that of a Hindcnburg and Ludendorff is
rarely found, and from it came the grit in the wheels which not
infrequently marred the otherwise well-oiled working of the
German war-machine.
Tactically, the Germans began with two important material
advantages. They alone had gauged the potentialities of the heavy
howitzer, and had provided adequate numbers of this weapon.
And if no army had fully realized that machine-guns were "con-
centrated essence of infantry," nor fully developed this prepon-
derant source of fire-power, the Germans had studied it more than
other armies, and by their method of grouping the machine-guns
under regimental control, instead of distributing them among
battalions, were able to exploit its inherent battlefield-dominating
power sooner than other armies. Strategically, also, the Germans
had brought the study and development of railway communica-
tions to a higher pitch than any of their rivals.
The Austro-Hungarian army, if patterned on the German model,
was a vastly inferior instrument. Not only had it a tradition of
defeat rather than of victory, but its racial mixture prevented
the moral homogeneity that distinguished its ally. This being so,
the replacement of the old professional army by one based on
universal service lowered rather than raised its standard of effec-
tiveness. The troops within the borders of the empire were often
racially akin to those beyond, and this compelled her to a polit-
ically instead of a militarily based distribution of forces, so that
kinsmen should not fight each other. And her human handicap
was increased by a geographical one — the vast extent of frontier
to be defended. Nor were her leaders, with rare exceptions, the
professional equals of the Germans, and if common action was
better than with the Entente Powers, Austria did not accept Ger-
man direction gladly.
Yet despite all its evident weaknesses this loosely knit con-
glomeration of races withstood the shock and strain of war for
four years, in a way that surprised and dismayed her opponents.
The explanation is that this complex racial fabric was woven on a
stout Germanic and Magyar framework.
From the Central we turn to the Entente Powers. France pos-
sessed but 60% of the potential man-power of Germany, and
this debit balance had forced her to call on the services of prac-
tically every able-bodied male. A man was called up at 20, did
three years' full-time service, then n in the reserve and finally
two periods of seven years each in the Territorial Army and Terri-
torial Reserve. This system gave France an initial war strength
of some 4,000,000 men, equal to her German rival, but, in contrast,
she placed little reliance on the fighting values of reservists. The
French command counted only on the semi-professional troops of
the first line, about 1,500,000 men, for the short and decisive cam-
paign which they expected and prepared for. Moreover, they
assumed a similar attitude on the part of their enemy — with dire
result. But this initial surprise apart, a more profound handicap
was the lesser capacity of France for expansion, in case of a long
war, due to her smaller population — under 40,000,000 compared
with Germany's 65 millions. Col. Mangin, later to become famous,
had advocated tapping the resources in Africa, the raising of a
huge native army, but the Government had considered the dangers
to outweigh the advantages of such a policy.
The French general staff, if less technically perfect than that of
Germany, had produced some of the ablest military thinkers in
Europe, and its level of intelligence could well bear comparison.
Unfortunately, in recent years a sharp division of thought had
arisen, which did not make for combined action. Worse still the
new French philosophy of war in its abstraction with the moral
element had become more and more separated from the insep-
arable material factors. Abundance of will cannot compensate a
definite inferiority of weapons, and the second factor, once real-
ised, inevitably reacts on the first. In materiel, the French had
one great asset in their quick-firing 75 mm. field gun, the best in
the world, but its very value had led them to undue confidence
in a war of movement and a consequent neglect of equipment and
training for the type of warfare which came to pass.
Russia's assets were in the physical sphere, her defects in the
mental or moral. If her initial war strength was no greater than
that of Germany, her man-power resources were immense and the
courage and endurance of her troops were famous. But corruption
and incompetence permeated her leadership, her rank and file
lacked the intelligence and initiative for scientific warfare — they
formed an instrument of great solidity but little flexibility — and
her manufacturing resources for equipment and munitions were
far below those of the great industrial Powers. This handicap was
made worse by her geographical situation, cut off from her allies
by ice- or enemy-bound seas, and with immense land frontiers.
Another radical defect was the poverty of her rail communica-
tions, the more essential as she relied for success on bringing into
play the weight of her numbers. In the moral sphere Russia's
condition was less clear. Her internal troubles were notorious
and must be a brake on her efforts unless the cause was such
as to prove a crusade-like appeal to her primitive and incoherent
masses.
Between the military systems of Germany, Austria, France and
Russia there was a close relation, differences of detail rather than
of fundamental, and this similarity threw into greater contrast the
system of the other great European Power — Britain. Throughout
modern times she had been essentially a sea-power, intervening on
land through a traditional policy of diplomatic and financial sup-
port to Allies, whose military efforts she reinforced with a leaven
from her own professional army. This regular army was primarily
maintained for the protection and control of the overseas de-
pendencies— India in particular — and had always been kept down
to the minimum strength for this purpose. The reason for the
curious contrast between Britain's determination to maintain a
supreme navy and her consistent neglect, indeed starvation of the
army, lay partly in her insular position, which caused her to regard
the sea as her essential life-line and main defence, and partly in a
constitutional distrust of the army, an illogical prejudice, which
had its almost forgotten source in the military government of
Cromwell. Small as to size, it enjoyed a practical and varied
experience of war without parallel among the Continental armies.
Compared with them, its professional handicap was that the
leaders, however skilled in handling small columns in colonial
expeditions, had never directed large formations in la grandc
guerre.
Further, the foundations of a general staff had only been laid
since the bitter lessons of the South African War, and the interval
750
WORLD WAR
[INTRODUCTION
was too short, the distractions too great, for this to have been
developed to the level of Germany and France. For the progress
in organization in the years before 1914, the British army owed
much to Lord Haldane, and to him also was due the creation of
a second line of part -trained citizens — the Territorial Force. Lord
Roberts had pleaded for compulsory military training, but the
voluntary principle was too deeply embedded in the national mind
for this course to be adopted, and Haldane wisely sought to de-
velop Britain's military effectiveness within the bounds set by
traditional policy. As a result, 1914 found England with an expe-
ditionary force of some 160,000 men, the most highly trained
striking force of any country — a rapier among scythes, and to
maintain this at strength the old militia had been turned into a
special reserve for drafting. Behind this first line stood the Terri-
torial Force, which if only enlisted for home defence had a per-
manent fighting organization unlike the amorphous volunteer
force which it superseded. The British army had no special out-
standing asset in war armament, but it had developed a standard
of rifle-shooting unique among the world's armies.
The reforms by which the army was brought into line with
Continental models had one defect, which was accentuated by the
close relations established between the British and French general
staffs since the Entente. It induced a "Continental" habit of
thought among the general staff, and predisposed them to the role,
for which their slender strength was unsukcd, of fighting along-
side an Allied army. This obscured the British army's traditional
employment in amphibious operations through which the mobility
given by command of the sea was exploited. A small but highly
trained force striking "out of the blue" at a vital spot could
produce a strategical effect out of all proportion to its slight
numbers.
The last argument brings us to a comparison of the naval situ-
ation, which turned on the balance between the fleets of Britain
and Germany. Britain's sea supremacy, for long unquestioned,
had in recent years been challenged by a Germany which had
deduced that a powerful fleet was the key to that colonial empire
which she desired as an outlet for her commerce and increasing
population. To the spur of naval competition the British people
eventually responded, determined at any "cost to maintain their
"two-power" standard. If this reaction was instinctive rather
than reasoned, its subconscious wisdom had a better foundation
than the catchwords with which it was justified, or even than the
need of defence against invasion. The industrial development of
the British Isles had left them dependent on overseas supplies
for food, and on the secure flow of seaborne imports and exports
for industrial existence. For the navy itself this competition was
a refining agency, leading to a concentration on essentials. Gun-
nery was developed and less value attached to polished brasswork ;
warship design and armament were transformed — the "Dread-
nought" ushering in a new era, of the all big-gun battleship. By
1914 Britain had 29 such capital ships and 13 building, to the 18
built and nine building, of Germany. Further, Britain's naval
strength had been soundly distributed, the main concentration
being in the North sea.
More open to criticism, in view of the forecasts of several naval
authorities, was her comparative neglect of the potential menace
of the submarine. Here German opinion was shown rather by
the number building than those already in commission. It is to
Germany's credit that though lacking a sea tradition, her fleet an
artificial rather than a natural product, the technical skill of the
German navy made it a formidable rival to the British ship for
ship, and perhaps its superior in scientific gunnery.
But in the first stage of the struggle the balance of the naval
forces would affect the issue far less than the balance on land.
For a fleet suffers one inherent limitation — it is tied to the sea, and
hence cannot strike direct at the hostile nation. The fundamental
purpose of a navy is therefore to protect a nation's sea communi-
cations and sever those of the enemy, and, although victory in
battle may be a necessary prelude, blockade is the ultimate pur-
pose. And as blockade is a weapon slow to take effect, its influ-
ence could only be decisive if the armies failed to secure the
speedy decision on land, upon which all counted.
The Economic Forces.— In this idea of a short war lay also
the reason for the comparative disregard of economic forces. Few
believed that a modern nation could endure for many months
the strain of a large-scale conflict. The supply of food, of muni-
tions and their manufacture, of funds, were problems only studied
on brief estimates. Of belligerents, all could feed themselves save
Britain and Germany, and Germany's deficit of home-grown
supplies could only be serious in the event of a struggle of years.
But Britain would starve in three months if her outside supplies
were cut off.
In munitions and other war material Britain's industrial power
was greatest of all, though conversion to war production was
a necessary preliminary, and all, again, depended on the security
of her sea communication. France was weak, and Russia weaker
still, but the former, unlike the latter, could count on outside
supplies so long as Britain held the seas. As Britain was the
industrial pivot of the one alliance, so was Germany of the other.
A great manufacturing nation, she had also a wealth of raw mate-
rial, especially since the annexation of the Lorraine iron-fields after
the 1870 war. But the stoppage of outside supplies must be a
handicap in a long war, increasing with its duration, and serious
from the outset in such tropical products as rubber. Moreover,
Germany's main coal and iron fields lay dangerously close to her
frontier, in Silesia on the east and in Westphalia and Lorraine on
the west. Thus for the Central Alliance a quick decision and an
offensive war were more vital than for the Entente.
Similarly, the financial resources were calculated on a short
war basis, and all the Continental Powers relied mainly on
large gold reserves accumulated specially for war purposes.
Britain alone had no such war chest, but she was to prove that
the strength of her banking system and the wealth distributed
among a great commercial people furnished the "sinews of war,"
in a way that few pre-war economists had realized.
The Psychological Forces.— If the economic forces were
neglected in the war calculations of the Powers, the psycho-
logical forces were an unexplored region, except in their purely
military aspect. And even here little study had been devoted
to the moral element compared with the physical element. Ardant
du Picq, a soldier-philosopher who fell in the 1870 war, had
stripped battle of its aura of heroic fictions, portraying the reac-
tion of normal men in the presence of danger. Several German
critics had described from experience the reality of battle moral
as shown in 1870, and had deduced how tactics should be based
on the ever-present and balancing elements of fear and courage.
At the close of the century a French military thinker, Col. Foch,
had demonstrated how great was the influence of the moral element
in the higher sphere of command. But only the fringe of the
subject had been penetrated. Its civil aspects were untouched,
and in the opening weeks of the conflict the general misunder-
standing of national psychology was to be shown in the undue
muzzling of the Press, followed by the equally stupid practice
of issuing communiques which so veiled the truth that public
opinion became distrustful of all officicil news and rumour was
loosed on its infinitely more damaging course. The true value
of wisely calculated publicity and the true application of the
propaganda weapon was only to be learnt after many blunders.
The Rival Plans. — In this survey the German plan justly takes
priority, for not only was it the mainspring which set in motion
the hands of the war clock in 1914, but it may even be said to
have governed the course of the war thereafter. It is true that
outwardly this course from the autumn of 1914 onwards seemed
to be of the nature of a stupendous "siege" of the Central Pow-
ers, an idea which is incompatible with the terms we have used.
But the conception of the Germanic alliance as a besieged party,
although true of the economic sphere, suggests a passivity which
their strategy contradicts. Although the initial German plan mis-
carried, even in its failure it dictated the general trend of opera-
tions thereafter. Tactically, most of the fighting resembled siege
operations, but the actual strategy on land for long erred rather by
its disregard of these tactical conditions than by its conformity
with them.
The Germans were faced with the problem that the combined
INTRODUCTION]
WORLD WAR
751
forces of themselves and Austria were decidedly inferior to those
of France and Russia. To offset this adverse balance, however,
they had a central position and the anticipation that Russia's
mobilization would be too slow to allow her to exert serious pres-
sure in the opening weeks. While this assumption might suggest
a decisive blow at Russia before she was ready, it was equally
probable that she would concentrate her main forces too far
back for such a German blow to reach — and the experience of
Napoleon was not an example to encourage an advance deep
into the interior of Russia, with its vast distances and poor com-
munications. The plan adopted by Germany was, therefore, a
rapid offensive against France while holding the Russian advanced
forces at bay, and later, when France was crushed, to deal with
the Russian army.
But this plan, in turn, was complicated by the great natural
and artificial barriers which the French frontier offered to an
invader. It was narrow, only some 150 m. across, and so afforded
little room for manoeuvre or even to deploy the masses that
Germany planned to launch against her foe. At the south-eastern
end it abutted on Switzerland, and after a short stretch of flat
country known as the Gap of Belfort the frontier ran for 70 m.
along the Vosges mountains. Thence the line was prolonged by
an almost continuous fortress system, based on Epinal, Toul,
Verdun and just beyond the last-named lay not only the frontiers
of Luxembourg and Belgium but the difficult Ardennes country.
Apart from the strongly defended avenues of advance by Belfort
and Verdun, the only feasible gap in this barrier was the Trouee
de Charmes between Epinal and Toul, left open originally as a
strategic trap in which the Germans could be first caught and
then crushed by a French counter-stroke.
Faced with such a mental and physical blank wall, the logical
military course was to go round it — by a wide manoeuvre through
Belgium. Graf von Schlieffen, chief of the German general staff
from 1891 to 1906 conceived and developed from 1895 onwards
the plan, by which the French armies were to be enveloped and
a rapid decision gained, and as finally formulated it came into
force in 1905. To attain its object Schlicffen's plan concentrated
the mass of the German forces on the right wing for this gigantic
wheel and designedly took risks by reducing the left wing, facing
the French frontier, to the slenderest possible size. The swinging
mass, pivoting on the fortified area Metz-Thionville, was to con-
sist of 53 divisions, backed up as rapidly as possible by Landwehr
and Ersatz formations, while the secondary army on the left wing
comprised only nine divisions. Its very weakness promised to aid
the main blow in a further way, for if a French offensive pressed
them back towards the Rhine, the attack through Belgium on the
French flank would be all the more difficult to parry. It would be
like a revolving-door— if a man pressed heavily on one side the
other side would swing round and strike him in the back. The
German enveloping mass was to sweep round through Belgium
and northern France and, continuing to traverse ^ vast arc,
would wheel gradually east. With its extreme right passing south
of Paris and crossing the Seine near Rouen it would then press the
French back towards the Moselle, where they would be hammered
in rear on the anvil formed by the Lorraine fortresses and the
Swiss frontier.
Schlieffen's plan allowed ten divisions to hold the Russians in
check while the French were being crushed. It is a testimony to
the vision of this remarkable man that he counted on the inter-
vention of Britain, and allowed for an expeditionary force of
100,000 "operating in conjunction with the French." To him also
was due the scheme for using the Landwehr and Ersatz troops in
active operations and fusing the resources of the nation into the
army. His dying words are reported to have been, "It must come
to a fight. Only make the right wing strong."
Unhappily for Germany, if happily for the world, the younger
Moltke, who succeeded him, lacked his moral courage and clear
grasp of the principle of concentration. Moltke retained Schlief-
fen's plan, but he whittled away the essential idea. Of the nine
new divisions which became available between 1905 and 1914
Moltke allotted eight to the left wing and only one to the right.
True, he added another from the Russian front, but this trivial
increase was purchased at a heavy price, for the Russian army of
1914 was a far more formidable menace than when Schlieffen's
plan came into force. In the outcome two army corps were taken
from the French theatre at the crisis of the August campaign,
in order to reinforce the Eastern front.
If the fault of the final German plan was a lack of courage,
that of the French plan was due to an excess. In their case, also,
a miasma of confused thought seemed to creep over the leader-
ship in the years just before the war. Since the disasters of 1870
the French command had planned an initial defensive, based on
the frontier fortresses, followed by a decisive counter-stroke. To
this end the great fortress system had been created, and gaps
like the Trouee de Charmes left to "canalize" the invasion ready
for the counter. But in the decade before 1914 a new school of
thought had arisen, who argued that the offensive was more in
tune with French character and tradition, that the possession of
the "75" — a field gun unique in mobility and rapidity of fire —
made it tactically possible, and that the alliance with Russia and
Britain made it strategically possible. Forgetful of the lessons of
1870 they imagined that clan was proof against bullets. Napoleon's
much quoted saying that "the moral is to the physical as three
to one" has much to answer for; it has led soldiers to think that
a division exists between the two, whereas each is dependent on
the other. Weapons without courage are ineffective, but so also
are the bravest troops without efficient weapons to protect them
and their moral.
The outcome was disastrous. The new school found in Gen.
Joffre, appointed chief of the general staff in 1912, a lever for
their designs. Under the cloak of his authority, the advocates of
the offensive a outrance gained control of the French* military
machine, and, throwing aside the old doctrine, formulated the
now famous, or notorious, Plan XVII. It was based on a nega-
tion of historical experience — indeed, of common sense — and on
a double miscalculation — of force and place, the latter more sen-'
ous than the former. Accepting the possibility that the Govern-
ment might employ their reserve formations at the outset, the
strength of the Germany army in the West was estimated at a
possible maximum of 68 infantry divisions. The Germans actu-
ally deployed the equivalent of 83 J, counting Landwehr and
Ersatz divisions. But French opinion was and continued to be
doubtful of this contingency, and during the crucial days when
the rival armies were concentrating and moving forward the
French Intelligence counted only the active divisions in its esti-
mates of the enemy strength — a miscalculation by half! If the
plan had been framed on a miscalculation less extreme, this
recognition does not condone but rather increases its fundamental
falsity, for history affords no vestige of justification for a plan
by which a frontal offensive was to be launched with mere equality
of force against an enemy who would have the support of his
fortified frontier zone, while the attackers forswore any advantage
from their own.
The second miscalculation, of place, was that although the
possibility of a German move through Belgium was recognized,
the wideness of its sweep was utterly misjudged. The Germans
were expected complaisantly to take the difficult route through
the Ardennes in order that the French might conveniently smite
their communications! Based on the idea of an immediate and
general offensive, the plan ordained a thrust by the ist and 2nd
Armies towards the Saar into Lorraine. On their left were the
3rd Army opposite Metz and the 5th Army facing the Ardennes,
which were either to take up the offensive between Metz and
Thionville, or, if the Germans came through Luxembourg and
Belgium, to strike north at their flank. The 4th Army was held
in strategic reserve near the centre and two groups of reserve
divisions were disposed in rear of either flank — relegation to such
a passive role expressing French opinion on the capacity of reserve
formations.
Britain's share in this plan was settled less by calculation than
by the "Europeanization" of her military organization during the
previous decade. This Continental influence drew her insensibly
into a tacit acceptance of the role of acting as an appendix to the
French left wing, and away from her historic exploitation of the
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WORLD WAR
[WESTERN FRONT
mobility given by sea-power. At the council of war on the out-
break, Lord Roberts, summoned from retirement, advocated the
dispatch of the expeditionary force to Belgium — where it would
have stiffened the Belgian resistance and threatened the flank
of the wheeling German mass. But his was a voice crying in
the wilderness, and in any case the British general staff, through
Gen. Wilson, had virtually pledged themselves to act in direct
co-operation with the French. When the general staffs of the
two countries conducted their informal negotiations between 1905
and 1914 they little realized that they were paving the way for
a reversal of England's centuries-old policy, for a war effort such
as no Englishman had ever conceived.
On the Eastern front, the plans of campaign were more fluid,
less elaborately worked out and formulated — although they were
to be as kaleidoscopic in their changes of fortune as in the
Western theatre. The calculable condition was geographical;
the main incalculable, Russia's rate of concentration. Russian
Poland was a vast tongue of country projecting from Russia
proper, and flanked on three sides by German or Austrian terri-
tory. On its northern flank lay East Prussia with the Baltic sea
beyond. On its southern flank lay the Austrian province of Galicia
with the Carpathian mountains beyond, guarding the approaches
to the plain of Hungary. On the west lay Silesia. As the Germanic
border provinces were provided with a network of strategic rail-
ways whilst Poland, as well us Russia itself, had only a sparse
system of communications, the Germanic alliance had a vital
advantage, in power of concentration, for countering a Russian
advance. But if they took the offensive, the further they pro-
gressed into Poland or Russia proper the more would they lose
this advantage. Hence their most profitable strategy was to lure
the Russians on into position for a counter-stroke rather than to
inaugurate an offensive themselves. The one drawback was that
such a Punic strategy gave the Russians time to concentrate and
set in motion their cumbrous and rusty machine.
Prom this arose an initial cleavage between German and Aus-
trian opinion. Both agreed that the problem was to hold the
Russians in check during the six weeks before the Germans, it
was hoped, having crushed France, could switch their forces east-
wards to join the Austrians in a decisive blow against the Russians.
The difference of opinion was on the method. The Germans,
intent on a decision against France, wished to leave a minimum
force in the East, and only a political dislike of exposing national
territory to invasion prevented them evacuating East Prussia and
standing on the Vistula line. But the Austrians, under the influ-
ence of Conrad von Hb'tzendorf, chief of their general staff, were
anxious to throw the Russian machine out of gear by an immedi-
ate offensive, and as this promised to keep the Russians fully
occupied while the campaign in France was being decided Moltke
fell in with this strategy. Conrad's plan was that of an offensive
north-eastwards into Poland by two armies, protected by two
more on their right, further east. Complementary to it, as orig-
inally designed, the Germans in East Prussia were to strike south-
east, the two forces converging to cut off the Russian advanced
forces in the Polish "tongue." But Conrad failed to induce Moltke
to provide sufficient German troops for this offensive thrust.
On the opposing side, also, the desires of one ally vitally af-
fected the strategy of the other. The Russian command, both
for military and for racial motives, wished to concentrate first
against Austria, while the latter was unsupported, and leave Ger-
many alone until later, when the full strength of the Russian army
would be mobilized. But the French, anxious to relieve the Ger-
man pressure against themselves, urged the Russians to deliver
n simultaneous attack against Germany, and got the Russians to
consent to an extra offensive for which they were neither ready,
in numbers, nor organized. On the south-western front two pairs
of two armies each were to converge on the Austrian forces in
Galicia; on the north-western front two armies were to converge
on the German forces in East Prussia. Russia, whose proverbial
slowness and crude organization dictated a cautious strategy, was
about to break with tradition and launch out on a gamble that only
an army of high mobility and organization could have hoped to
bring off.
II. THE CLASH IN THE WEST
The Detonation. — On June 28, 1914, the murder of the Aus-
trian Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo set light to a
powder trail which within a brief span exploded the European
magazine in a series of detonations. Exactly one month later
Austria-Hungary declared war against Serbia, whose appeal to
her ally and protector led Russia to order a partial mobilization on
her southern front. The same day, July 29, an Imperial council
at Potsdam decided on war against Russia, and, as a corollary,
against France, although hoping to bargain for Britain's neutrality.
While the chancelleries of Europe argued at cross-purposes, the
military tide swept them off their feet. On July 31 Russia ordered
a general mobilization and Germany, taking equivalent steps, sent
a 12 hours' ultimatum. Austria, seeking belatedly to temporize,
was dragged in the train of her more determined ally. By noon
on Aug. i a state of war existed between Russia and Germany
and next day German troops entered French territory. At 7 P.M.
came Germany's ultimatum to Belgium, demanding an unopposed
passage. On Aug. 3 Germany's formal declaration of war on France
followed, and on Aug. 4 her troops crossed the Belgian frontier,
for the sanctity of which England stood guarantor. At midnight,
in reply, England also entered the war — while the Belgian popu-
lace, rising to resist the German invaders, sounded the death-
knell of gladiatorial wars and inaugurated the new warfare of
peoples. And coincidently, by Italy's declaration of her neutrality,
her refusal to fulfil the alliance with her hereditary enemy —
Austria — the artificiality of the political alliance system broke
down before the new wave of national feeling which was to char-
acterize the World War.
Invasion of Belgium. — The German advance into France was
designed as a methodical sweep, so that unexpected checks should
not upset its time-table. Confronted with the fact that the Bel-
gians would resist, a detachment was formed under Gen. von
Emmich to clear a passage through the Belgian plain north of
the Ardennes, ready for the ordered advance of the main armies
concentrating behind the German frontier. The ring fortress of
Liege (g.v.) commanded this channel of advance, but, after an
initial check, a German brigade penetrated between the forts
and occupied the town. The interest of this feat is that it was
due to the initiative of an attached staff officer, Ludendorff, whose
name ere long was to be world-famous. The forts themselves
offered a stubborn resistance and forced the Germans to await
the arrival of their heavy howitzers, whose destructive power
was to be the first tactical surprise, of the World War.
The very success of the Belgians' early resistance cloaked the
weight of the main German columns and misled the Allies' intelli-
gence. The Belgian field army lay behind the Gettc covering
Brussels, and even before the Liege forts fell the advanced guards
of the German ist and 2nd Armies were pressing against this line.
The Belgians, deprived of support owing to the mistaken French
plan and pritish conformity with it, decided to preserve their
army by falling back on the entrenched camp of Antwerp — where
its location would at least make it a latent menace to the German
communications. The Germans, their passage now clear, entered
Brussels on Aug. 20, and on the same day appeared before
Namur, the last fortress barring the Meuse route into France. It
must be noted that despite the Belgian resistance the German
advance was slightly ahead of its time-table.
French Offensive in Lorraine.— -Meanwhile, away on the
other flank, the French offensive had opened on Aug. 8 with the
advance of a force under Gen. Pau into upper Alsace, a move
intended partly as a military distraction and partly for its political
effect. Soon brought to a halt, it was renewed on the igth, only
to meet with a fresh check. Thereafter the pressure of disasters
elsewhere compelled the abandonment of the enterprise and the
dissolution of the force — its units being dispatched westward as
reinforcements. Meantime the main thrust into Lorraine by the
French ist (Dubail) and 2nd (de Castelnau) Armies, totalling
19 divisions, had begun on Aug. 14 and. been shattered in the
battle of Morhange-Sarrebourg, Aug. 20 (see FRONTIERS, BATTLES
OF THE) where the French discovered that the material could
subdue the moral, and that in their enthusiasm for the offensive
WESTERN FRONTj
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753
they had blinded themselves to the defensive power of modern
weapons, a condition which was to throw out of balance the whole
mechanism of orthodox warfare. Yet it is but fair to add that
this abortive French offensive had an indirect effect on the
German plan, although this would hardly have been so if a Schlief-
fen or a Ludendorff had been in charge at German headquarters
instead of the vacillating opportunist Moltke. The fact that
Moltke had almost doubled the strength of his left, compared
with Schlieffen's plan meant that it was unnecessarily strong for
a yielding and "enticing" defensive such as Schlieffen had con-
ceived, while lacking the superiority necessary for a crushing
counter-offensive. But when the French attack in Lorraine de-
veloped and Moltke appreciated that the French were leaving
their fortified barrier behind he was tempted momentarily to
postpone the right wing sweep and instead seek a decision in
Lorraine. This impulse led him to divert thither the six newly
formed Ersatz divisions that should have been used to increase
the weight of his right wing.
He had hardly conceived this new pjan before he abandoned
it and, on Aug. 16, reverted to Schlieffen's "swing-door" design.
But the princely commanders in Lorraine were loath to for-
feit this opportunity of personal glory. The Crown Prince Rup-
precht of Bavaria, instead of continuing to fall back and draw
the French on, halted his 6th Army on the i/th, ready to accept
battle. Finding the French attack slow to develop, he planned
to anticipate by one of his own. He struck on Aug. 20 in conjunc-
tion with the 7th Army on his left, but although the French were
taken by surprise and rolled back from the line Morhange-Sarre-
bourg, the German counter-stroke had not the superiority of
strength (the two armies now totalled 25 divisions) or of strategic
position to make it decisive. Thus its strategic result was merely
to throw back the French onto a fortified barrier which both
restored and augmented their power of resistance. Thus they
were enabled to despatch troops to reinforce their western flank —
a redistribution of strength which was to have far-reaching results
in the decisive battle, on the Marne.
With similar disregard of superior authority, the German
Crown Prince, commanding the pivotal 5th Army between Metz
and Thionville, attacked when he hnd been ordered to stand on
the defensive. The lack of what Col. Foch had termed "intellec-
tual discipline" was to be a grave factor in Germany's failure, and
for this the ambitions of "court" generals were to be largely
responsible.
The North-West Frontier.— While this "see-saw" campaign
in Lorraine was taking place, more decisive events were occurring
to the north-west. The attack on Liege awakened Joffre to the
reality of a German advance through Belgium, but not to the
wideness of sweep. And the sturdy resistance of Liege confirmed
him in the opinion that the German right would pass south of it,
between the Meuse and the Ardennes. Plan XVII. had visualized
such a move, and prepared a counter. Grasping once more at
phantoms, the French command embraced this idea so fervently
that they transformed the counter into an imaginary coup de
Krdce. Their 3rd Army (Ruffey) and the reserve 4th Army (de
Langle de Cary) were to strike north-east through the Ardennes
against the rear flank of the Germans advancing through Belgium.
The left wing (5th) Army, under Lanrezac, was moved further
to the north-west into the angle formed by the Sambre and Meusc
between Givet and Charleroi. With the British expeditionary
force coming up on its left, it was to deal with the enemy's forces
north of the Meuse and to converge on the supposed German
main forces in conjunction with the attack through the Ardennes.
Here was a pretty picture — of the Allied pincers closing on the
unconscious Germans! Curiously, the Germans had the same
idea of a pincer-like manoeuvre, with roles reversed, and with
better reason.
The fundamental flaw in the French plan was that the Germans
had deployed twice as many troops as the French Intelligence
estimated, and for a vaster enveloping movement. The French
3rd and 4th Armies (23 divisions) pushing blindly into the
Ardennes against a German centre supposedly denuded of troops,
blundered against the German 4th and 5th Armies (20 divisions)
and were heavily thrown back in encounter-battles ground Virton-
Neufchateau. Fortunately the Germans were also too vague as
to the situation to exploit their opportunity.
But to the north-west the French 5th Army (13 divisions) and
the British (four divisions) had, under Joffre's orders, put their
head almost into the German noose. The German masses of the
ist and 2nd Armies were closing on them from the north, and the
3rd Army from the east — a total of 30 divisions. Lanrezac alone
had an inkling of the hidden menace. All along he had suspected
the wideness of the German manoeuvre, and it was through his
insistence that his army had been permitted to move so far north-
west. It was due to his caution in hesitating to advance across
the Sambre, to the arrival of the British on his left unknown
to the German Intelligence, and to the premature attack of the
German 2nd Army, that the Allied forces fell back in time and
escaped from the trap.
Retreat to the Marne.— The British, after concentrating near
Maubeuge, had moved up to Mons on Aug. 22, ready to advance
further into Belgium as part of the offensive of the Allied left
wing. On arrival, however, Sir John French heard that Lanrezac
had been attacked on the 2ist and deprived of the crossings of
the Sambre. Although thus placed in an exposed forward position,
he agreed to stand at Mons to cover Lanrezac's left. But next day
Lanrezac had word of the fall of Namur and of the appearance
of the German 3rd Army (Hausen) on his exposed right flank
near Dinant, on the Meuse. In consequence, he gave orders for
a retreat that night. The British, after resisting the attacks of
six German divisions during the day, fell back on the 24th in con-
formity with their allies. Not a moment too soon in view of the
fact that the rest of the German ist Army was marching still
further westward to envelop their open left flank.
At last Joffre realized the truth and the utter collapse of Plan
XVII. Resolution was his greatest asset, and with imperturbable
coolness he formed a new plan out of the wreckage. He decided
to swing back his centre and left, with Verdun as the pivot,
while drawing troops from the right and forming a fresh 6th
Army on his left to enable the retiring armies to return to the
offensive.
The German Breakdown.— His optimism might have been
again misplaced but for German mistakes. The first was Moltke's
folly in detaching seven divisions to invest Maubeuge and Givet
and watch Antwerp, instead of using Landwehr and Ersatz troops
as Schlieffen had intended. More ominous still was his decision
on Aug. 25 to send four divisions to check the Russian advance
in East Prussia. All these were taken from the right wing, and
the excuse afterwards given for this violation of the principle of
concentration was that the German command thought that the
decisive victory had already been won ! Further, the German com-
mand lost touch with the advancing armies and the movements
of these became disjointed. The British stand at Le Cateau and
Lanrezac's riposte at Guise (sec FRONTIER, BATTLES OF THE: Le
Cateau; Guise) were also factors in checking the German envelop-
ing wing, and each had still greater indirect effects. For Lc Cateau
apparently convinced the German ist Army commander, Kluck,
that the British army could be wiped from the slate, and Guise
led Bulow (2nd Army) to call on the ist Army for support, where-
upon Kluck wheeled inwards, thinking to roll up the French left.
The idea of a Sedan was an obsession with the Germans, and led
them to pluck the fruit before it was ripe. This premature wheel
before Paris had been reached was an abandonment of the
Schlieffen plan, and exposed the German right to a counter-
envelopment. One further factor must be mentioned, perhaps
the most significant of all : the Germans had advanced so rapidly,
out-running their time-table, that their .supplies failed to kee'p
pace. Thus, in sum, so much grit had worked into the German
machine that a slight jar would suffice to cause its breakdown.
This was delivered in the battle of the Marne (q.v.).
III. THE CRISIS OP THE MARNE
The Abandoned Plan. — Let us trace the sequence of events.
The first, highly coloured, reports from the army commands in
the battles ^of the Frontiers had given the German supreme com-
mand the impression of a decisive victory. Then the compara-
754
WORLD WAR
[WESTERN FRONT
lively small totals of prisoners raised doubts in Moltke's mind and
led him to a more sober estimate of the situation. The new pessi-
mism of Moltke combined with the renewed optimism of his
army commanders to produce a fresh change of plan, which con-
tained the seeds of disaster. When, on Aug. 26, the British left
wing fell back southwards badly mauled from Le Cateau, Kluck
had turned south-westwards again. If this direction was partly
due to a misconception of the line of retreat taken by the British,
it was also in accordance with his original role of a wide circling
sweep. And by carrying him into the Amiens-Peronne area, where
the first elements of the newly formed French 6th Army were just
detraining after their "switch" from Alsace, it had the effect of
dislocating J off re's design for an early return to the offensive —
compelling the 6th Army to fall back hurriedly towards the shelter
of the Paris defences.
But Kluck had hardly swung out to the south-west before he
was induced to swing in again. For, in order to ease the pressure
on the British, Joffre had ordered Lanrezac to halt and strike back
against the pursuing Germans, and Biilow, shaken by the threat,
called on Kluck for aid. Lanrezac's attack, on Aug. 29, was
stopped before Billow needed this, but he asked Kluck to wheel
in nevertheless, in order to cut off Lanrezac's retreat. Before
acceding Kluck referred to Moltke. The request came at a mo-
ment when Moltke was becoming perturbed in general over the
way the French were slipping away from his embrace and, in par-
ticular, over a gap which had opened between his 2nd and 3rd
Armies through the latter having already turned south, from
south-west, to help the 4th Army, its neighbour on the other
flank. Hence Moltke approved Kluck's change of direction —
which meant the inevitable abandonment of the original wide
sweep round the far side of Paris. Now the flank of the wheeling
German line would pass the near side of Paris and across the
face of the Paris defences. By this contraction of his frontage
for the sake of security Moltke sacrificed the wider prospects
inherent in the wide sweep of the Schlieffen plan. And, as it
proved, instead of contracting the risk he contracted a fatal
counterstroke.
The decision to abandon the original plan was definitely taken
on Sept. 4, and in place of it Moltke substituted a narrower
envelopment, of the French centre and right. The 4th and 5th
Armies were to press south-east while the 6th and yth Armies,
striking south-westwards, sought to break through the fortified
barrier between Toul and Epinal, the "jaws" thus closing inwards
on either side of Verdun. Meantime the ist and 2nd Armies were
to turn outwards and, facing west, hold off any counter move
which the French attempted from the neighbourhood of Paris.
The Allied Counter. — But such a counter move had begun
before the new plan could take effect.
The opportunity was perceived, not by Joffre, who had ordered
a continuance of the retreat, but by Gallicni, the military governor
of Paris. On Sept. 3 Gallicni realized the meaning of Kluck's
wheel inwards, directed Maunoury's 6th Army to be ready to
strike at the exposed German right flank, and next day with some
difficulty won Joffrc's sanction. Once convinced, Joffre acted with
decision. The whole left wing was ordered to turn about and
return to a general offensive, beginning on Sept. 6. Maunoury
was already off the mark on the 5th and as his pressure developed
on the Germans' sensitive flank, Kluck was constrained to draw
off first one part and then the remaining part of his army to
support his threatened flank guard. Thereby a 30 m. gap was
created between the ist and 2nd German Armies, a gap covered
only by a screen of cavalry. Kluck was emboldened to take the
risk because of the rapid retreat of the British opposite, or rather
with their backs, to this gaping sector. Even on the 5th, when the
French on either flank were turning about, the British continued
a further day's march to the south. But in this "disappearance"
lay the unintentional cause of victory. For, when the British re-
traced their steps, it was the report of their columns advancing
into the gap which, on Sept. 9, led Bulow to order the retreat of
his 2nd Army. The temporary advantage which the ist Army,
already isolated by its own act, had gained over Maunoury was
thereby nullified, and it fell back the same day. By the nth the
retreat had extended, independently or under orders from Moltke,
to all the German armies. The attempt at a partial envelopment,
pivotting on Verdun, had already failed, the jaw formed by the
6th and 7th Armies merely breaking its teeth on the defences of
the French eastern frontier. The attack by Rupprecht's 6th Army
on the Grand Couronne, covering Nancy, was a particularly costly
failure. It is difficult to see how the German command could
have reasonably pinned their faith on achieving as an improvised
expedient the very task which in cool calculation before the war
had appeared so hopeless as to lead them to take the momentous
decision to advance through Belgium as the only feasible alterna-
tive.
Thus, in sum, the battle of the Marne was decided by a jar and
a crack. The jar administered by Maunoury's attack on the Ger-
man right flank causing a crack in a weak joint of the German
line, and this physical crack in turn producing a moral crack in
the German command.
The Pursuit Fails.— The result was a strategic but not a
tactical defeat and the German right wing was able to re-knit and
stand firmly on the line of the Aisne. That the Allies were not
able to draw greater advantage from their victory was due in part
to the comparative weakness of Maunoury's flank attack and
in part to the failure of the British and the French 5th Army (now
under Franchet d'Esp6rey) to drive rapidly through the gap while
it was open. Their direction of advance was across a region inter-
sected by frequent rivers, and this handicap was intensified \>y a
want of impulsion on the part of their chiefs. It seems, too, that
greater results might have come if more effort had been made
as Gallieni urged, to strike at the German rear flank instead of the
front, and to direct reinforcements to the north-west of Paris for
this purpose. This view is strengthened by the sensitiveness
shown by the German command to reports of landings on the
Belgian coast, which might threaten their communications. The
alarm caused by these reports had even led the German command
to contemplate a withdrawal of their right wing before the battle
of the Marne was launched. When the moral effect of these phan-
tom forces is weighed with the material effect — the detention of
German forces in Belgium— caused by fears of a Belgian sortie
from Antwerp, the balance of judgment would seem to turn
heavily in favour of the strategy which Lord Roberts had advo-
cated in vain. By it the British expeditionary force might have
had not merely an indirect but a direct influence on the struggle,
and might have made the issue not merely negatively but posi-
tively decisive.
But, considering the battle of the Marne as it shaped, the fact
that 27 Allied divisions were pitted against 13 German divisions
I on the decisive flank is evidence, first, of how completely Moltke
I had lapsed from Schlieffen's intention; second, of how well Joffre
I had re-concentrated his forces under severe pressure; third, of
j how such a large balance afforded scope for a wider envelopment
I than was actually attempted. The frontal pursuit was checked on
! the Aisne before Joffre, on Sept. 17, seeing that Maunoury's
attempts to overlap the German flank were ineffectual, decided to
form a fresh army under de Castelnau for a manoeuvre round and
belund the German flank. By then the German armies had re-
covered cohesion and the German command was expecting and
ready to meet such a manoeuvre, now the obvious course.
IV. THE SECOND CRISIS—STALEMATE
Centre of Gravity Shifts.— On the Aisne was re-emphasized
the preponderant power of defence over attack, primitive as were
the trench lines compared with those of later years. Then followed,
as the only alternative, the successive attempts of either side to
overlap and envelop the other's western flank, a phase known
somewhat inaccurately as the "race to the sea." This common
design brought out what was to be a new and dominating strategi-
cal feature — the lateral switching of reserves by railway from one
part of the front to another. Before it could reach its logical and
lateral conclusion, a new factor intervened. Antwerp, with the
Belgian field army, was still a thorn in the German side, and
Falkenhayn, who had succeeded Moltke, determined to reduce it
while a German cavalry force swept across to the Belgian coast as
an extension of the enveloping wing in France.
WESTERN FRONT]
WORLD WAR
755
Belgian Operations.— -We must pause here to pick up the
thread of operations in Belgium from the moment when the Bel-
gian field army fell back to Antwerp, divergently from the main
line of operations. On Aug. 24 the Belgians began a sortie against
the rear of the German right wing to ease the pressure on the
British and French left wing, then engaged in the opening battle
at Mons and along the Sambre. The sortie was broken off on
the 26th when news came of the Franco-British retreat into
France, but the pressure of the Belgian army (six divisions) led
the Germans to detach four reserve divisions, besides three
Landwehr brigades, to hold it in check. On Sept. 7 the Belgian
command learnt that the Germans were despatching part of this
force to the front in France; in consequence King Albert launched
a fresh sortie on Sept. 9 — the crucial day of the battle on the
Marne. The action was taken, unsolicited by Joffre, who seems to
have shown curiously little interest in possibilities outside his
immediate battle zone. The sortie led the Germans to cancel the
despatch of one division and to delay that of two others to France,
but the Belgians were soon thrown back. Nevertheless the news
of its seems to have had a distinct moral effect on the German
command, coinciding as it did with the initiation of the retreat of
their ist and 2nd Armies from the Marne. And the unpleasant
reminder that Antwerp lay menacingly close to their communica-
tions induced the Germans to undertake, preliminary to any fresh
attempt at a decisive battle, the reduction of the fortress and the
seizure of potential English landing places along the Belgian
coast.
A Strategic Key. — The menace to Britain, if the Channel
ports fell into German hands, was obvious. It is a strange reflection
that the British command should have neglected to guard against
the danger hitherto, although the first lord of the Admiralty,
Winston Churchill, had urged the necessity even before the battle
of the Marne. When the German guns began the bombardment
of Antwerp on Sept. 28 England awakened, and gave belated recog-
nition to Churchill's strategic insight. He was allowed to send a
brigade of marines and two newly-formed brigades of naval
volunteers to reinforce the defenders, while a regular division and
cavalry division, under Rawlinson, were landed at Ostend and
Zeebrugge for an overland move to raise the siege. Eleven Terri-
torial divisions were available in England, but, in contrast to the
German attitude, Kitchener considered them still unfitted for an
active role. The meagre reinforcement delayed, but could not
prevent, the capitulation of Antwerp, Oct. 10, and Rawlinson's
relieving force was too late to do more than cover the escape of
the Belgian field army down the Flanders coast.
Yet, viewed in the perspective of history, this first and last
effort in the West to make use of Britain's amphibious power
applied a brake to the German advance down the coast which just
stopped their second attempt to gain a decision in the West. It
gained time for the arrival of the main British force, transferred
from the Aisne to the new left of the Allied line, and if their
heroic defence at Ypres, aided by the French and Belgians along
the Yser to the sea, was the human barrier to the Germans, it
succeeded by so narrow a margin that the Antwerp expedition
must be adjudged the saving factor.
Second German Bid for Victory*—In the French theatre of
operations, the month following the battle of the Marne was
marked by an extremely obvious series of attempts by each side
to turn the opponent's western flank. On the German side this
pursuit of an opening was soon replaced by a subtler plan, but
the French persevered with a straight forward obstinacy curiously
akin to that of their original plan. By Sept. 24, de Castelnau's
outflanking attempt had come to a stop on the Somme. Next a
newly formed loth Army under de Maudhuy tried a little further
north, beginning on Oct. 2, but instead of being able to pass round
the German flank soon found itself struggling desperately to hold
Arras. The British expeditionary force was then in course of
transfer northwards from the Aisne, in order to shorten its com-
munications with England, and Joffre determined to use it as part
of a third effort to turn the German flank. To co-ordinate this
new manoeuvre he appointed Gen. Foch as his deputy in the
north. Foch sought to induce the Belgians to form the left of
this wheeling mass, but King Albert, with more caution, or more
realism, declined to abandon the coastal district for an advance
inland that he considered rash. It was. For on Oct. 14, four days
after the fall of Antwerp, Falkenhayn planned a strategic trap for
the next Allied outflanking manoeuvre which he foresaw would
follow. One army, composed of troops transferred from Lorraine,
was to hold the expected Allied offensive while another, composed
of troops released by the fall of Antwerp and of four newly-
raised corps, was to sweep down the Belgian coast and crush in
the flank of the attacking Allies. He even held back the troops
pursuing the Belgians in order not to alarm the Allied command
prematurely.
Meanwhile, the new Allied advance was developing piecemeal,
as corps detrained from the south and swung eastwards to form a
progressively extended "scythe." The British expeditionary force,
now three corps strong, deployed in turn between La Bassee and
Ypres, where it effected a junction with Rawlinson's force. Beyond
it the embryo of a new French 8th Army was taking shape, and
the Belgians continued the line along the Yser to the sea. Al-
though the British right and centre had already been held up,
Sir John French, discounting even the underestimate of the Ger-
man strength furnished by his Intelligence, ordered his left to
begin the offensive from Ypres towards Menin. The effort was
still-born, for it coincided with the opening of the German offen-
sive, on Oct. 20, but for a day or two Sir John French persisted in
the belief that he was attacking while his troops were barely hold-
ing their ground. With Foch the delusion persisted still longer, and
this failure to grasp the situation was partly responsible for the
fact that Ypres was essentially, like Inkerman, a "soldiers' battle. "
Already, since the iSth, the Belgians on the Yser had suffered
growing pressure which threatened a disaster that was ultimately
saved by the end of the month through the opening of the sluices
and the flooding of the coastal area. At Ypres the crisis came later
and was repeated, Oct. 31 and Nov. n marking the turning points
of the struggle. That the Allied line, though battered and terribly
strained, was in the end unbroken was due to the dogged resistance
of the British and the timely arrival of French reinforcements.
(See YPRES, BATTLE OF, 1914.)
This defence of Ypres is in a dual sense the supreme memorial
to the British regular army, for here they showed the inestimable
value of the disciplined morale and unique standard of musketry
] which were the fruit of long training, and here was their tomb-
I stone. "From failing hands they threw the torch" to the new
national armies rising in England to the call of patriotism. With
, the Continental Powers the merging of conventional armies into
| national armies was a hardly perceptible process, because of their
system of universal service. But with Britain it was clearly
stamped as revolution, not evolution. While the little professional
army sacrificed itself as the advanced guard of the nation, the
truth of the new warfare of peoples was beginning to come home
to the civilian population. Lord Kitchener, a national symbol
because of his imperial achievements, had been summoned to the
post of war minister, and with a supreme flash of vision had
grasped, in contrast to Governments and general staffs alike, the
probable duration of the struggle. The people of Britain responded
to his call to arms, and like an ever-rising flood the "New Armies"
came into being. By the end of the year nearly 1,000,000 men
had enlisted, and the British empire had altogether some 2,000,000
under arms. Perhaps Kitchener was wrong in not basing this
expansion, from a professional to a national scale, on the existing
Territorial foundation. It must be remembered, however, that
the Territorial Force was enlisted for home defence and that
initially its members' acceptance of a wider role was voluntary.
Perhaps, also, he was tardy in recognizing their military value.
The duplication of forces and of organization was undoubtedly
a source of delay and waste of effort. Kitchener has also been
reproached for his reluctance to replace the voluntary system by
conscription, but this criticism overlooks how deeply rooted was
the voluntary system in British institutions, and the slowness with
which lasting changes can be effected in them. If Kitchener's
method was characteristic of the man, it was characteristic of
England. If it was unmethodical, it was calculated to impress
756
WORLD WAR
[RUSSIAN FRONT
most vividly on the British people the gulf between their "gladia-
torial" wars of the past and the national war to which they were
committed.
While a psychological landmark, the battle of Ypres is also a
military landmark. For, with the repulse of the German attempt
to break through, the trench barrier was consolidated from the
Swiss frontier to the sea. The power of modern defence had tri-
umphed over attack, and stalemate ensued. The military history
of the Franco-British alliance during the next four years is a story
of the attempts to upset this deadlock, either by forcing the
barrier or by finding a way round.
On the Eastern front, however, the greater distances and the
greater differences between the equipment of the armies ensured
a fluidity which was lacking in the West. Trench lines might form,
but they were no more than a hard crust covering a liquid expanse.
To break the crust was not difficult, and once broken, mobile
operations of the old style became possible. This freedom of
action was denied to the Western Powers, but Germany, because
of her central position, had an alternative choice, and from Nov.
1914 onwards her command adopted a defensive in France while
seeking to cripple the power of Russia.
V. THE RUSSIAN FRONT
Invasion of East Prussia. — In the East the opening encounters
had been marked by rapid changes of fortune rather than by any
decisive advantage. The Austrian command, emulating their allies
in violating the principle of concentration, detached part of their
strength in an abortive attempt to crush Serbia. (See SERBIAN
CAMPAIGNS.) And their plan for an initial offensive to cut off
the Polish "tongue'' was further crippled by the fact that the
German part of the pincers did not operate. It was, indeed, being
menaced by a Russian pair of pincers instead, for the Russian
commander-in-chief, the Grand Duke Nicholas, had urged his ist
and 2nd Armies to invade East Prussia without waiting to com-
plete their concentration, in order to ease the pressure on his
French allies. As the Russians had more than a two-to-one
superiority, a combined attack had every chance of crushing the
Germans between the two armies. On Aug. 17, Rennenkampfs
ist Army (six and a half divisions and live cavalry divisions)
crossed the East Prussian frontier, and on Aug. 19-20 met and
threw back the bulk (seven divisions and one cavalry division)
of Prittwitz's 3rd Army at Gumbinnen. On Aug. 21 Prittwitz
heard that the Russian 2nd Army (ten divisions and three cavalry
divisions) under Samsonov had crossed the southern frontier of
East Prussia in his rear, which was guarded by only three divisions.
In panic Prittwitz momentarily spoke of falling back behind the
Vistula, whereupon Moltke superseded him by a retired general,
Hindenburg, to whom was appointed as chief of staff, Ludendorff,
the hero of the Liege attack.
Developing a plan which, with the necessary movements, had
been already initiated by Col. Hoffmann of the 8th Army staff,
Ludendorff concentrated some six divisions against Samsonov's
left wing. This force, inferior in strength to the Russians, could
not have been decisive, but Ludendorff, finding that Rennenkampf
was still near Gumbinnen, took the calculated risk of withdrawing
the rest of the German troops, except the cavalry screen, from
that front and rushing them back against Samsonov's right wing.
This daring move was aided by the absence of communication
between the two Russian commanders and the ease with which the
Germans deciphered Samsonov's wireless orders to his corps.
Under the converging blows Samsonov's flanks were crushed and
his centre surrounded. The outcome of this military masterpiece,
afterwards christened the battle of Tannenberg (q.v.), was the
destruction of almost the whole of Samsonov's army. Then re-
ceiving two fresh army corps from the French front, the German
commander turned on the slowly advancing Rennenkampf, whose
lack of energy was partly due to his losses at Gumbinnen and
subsequent lack of information, and drove him out of East Prussia.
(See MASURIAN LAKES.) As a result of these battles Russia had
lost a quarter of a million men and, what she could afford still
less, much war material. But the invasion of East Prussia had
at least, by causing the despatch of two corps from the West,
helped to make possible the French "come-back" on the Marne.
Galician Battles. — Away on the southern front, moreover,
the scales had tilted against the Central Powers. The offensive
of the Austrian ist and 4th Annies into Poland had at first made
progress, but this was nullified by the onslaught of the Russian
3rd and 8th Armies upon the weaker 2nd and 3rd Armies which
were guarding the Austrian right flank. These armies were heavily
defeated (Aug. 26-30), and driven back through Lemberg. The
advance of the Russian left wing thus threatened the rear of the
victorious Austrian left wing. Conrad tried to swing part of his
left round, in turn, against the Russian flank, but this blow was
parried and then, caught with his forces disorganized by the
renewed advance of the Russian right wing, he was forced on Sept.
1 1. to extricate himself by a general retreat, falling back almost
to Cracow by the end of September. (See LEMBERG, BATTLES OF.)
Austria's plight compelled the Germans to send aid, and the bulk
of the force in East Prussia was formed into a new gth Army and
switched south to the south-west corner of Poland, whence it
advanced on Warsaw in combination with a renewed Austrian
offensive. (See VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES OF.) But the Russians
were now approaching the full tide of their mobilized strength;
regrouping their forces and counter-attacking, they drove back the
advance and followed it up by a powerful effort to invade Silesia,
The Grand Duke Nicholas formed a huge phalanx of seven
armies — three in the van and two protecting either flank. A further
army, the loth, had invaded the eastern comer of East Prussia
and was engaging the weak German forces there. Allied hopes
rose high as the much-heralded Russian "steam-roller" began its
ponderous advance. To counter it the German eastern front was
placed under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, who devised yet an-
other master-stroke, based on the system of lateral railways
inside the German frontier. The Qth Army, retreating before the
advancing Russians, slowed them down by a systematic destruc-
tion of the scanty communications in Poland. On reaching its
own frontier, unpressed, it was first switched northward to the
Poscn-Thorn area, and then thrust south-east on Nov, n, with
its left flank on the Vistula, against the joint between the two
armies guarding the Russian right flank. The wedge, driven in by
Ludendorff 's mallet, sundered the two armies, forced the ist back
on Warsaw and almost effected another Tannenberg against the
2nd, which was nearly surrounded at Lodz (q.v.), when the 5th
Army from the van turned back to its rescue. As a result, part of
the German enveloping force almost suffered the fate planned for
the Russians, but managed to cut its way through to the main
body. If the Germans were baulked of decisive tactical success,
this manoeuvre had been a classic example of how a relatively small
force, by using its mobility to strike at a vital point, can paralyse
the advance of an enemy several times its strength. The Russian
"steam-roller" was thrown out of gear, and never again did it
threaten German soil.
Within a week, four new German army corps arrived from the
Western front, where the Ypres attack had now ended in failure,
and although too late to clinch the missed chance of a decisive
victory, Ludendorff was able to use them in pressing the Russians
back by Dec. 15 to the Bzura-Ravka river line in front of War-
saw. This set-back and the drying up of his munition supplies
decided the Grand Duke Nicholas to break off the see-saw fighting
still in progress near Cracow and fall back on winter trench lines
along the Nida and Dunajec rivers, leaving the end of the Polish
"tongue" in the hands of the enemy. Thus, on the East as on
the West, the trench stalemate had settled in, but the crust was
less firm and the Russians had drained their stock of munitions
to an extent that their poorly industrialized country could not
make good.
The Beginning of Air Attack.—The same period witnessed
the dawn of another new form of war which helped to drive home
the new reality that the war of armies had become the war of
peoples. From Jan. 1915, Zeppelin. raids began on the English
coast and reached their peak in the following winter, to be suc-
ceeded by aeroplane raids. The difficulty of distinguishing from
the air between military and civil objectives, smoothed the path
for a development which, beginning with excuses, ended in a frank
J9i5 DEADLOCK]
WORLD WAR
757
avowal that in a war for existence the will of the enemy nation,
not merely the bodies of their soldiers, is the inevitable target.
The Psychological Situation. — The first psychological symp-
tom of the World War, as it seemed to many, was an immeasurable
sigh of relief. Had the peoples of Europe sat on the safety-valve
too long? The war-weary mind of to-day cannot reconstruct the
tension and anxiety, the strain and stress of hope and fear of the
long years of the peace that was no peace and yet was not war.
It may be read as a revolt of the spirit against the monotony and
triviality of the everyday round, the completion of a psychological
cycle when the memories of past war have faded, and paved the
way for the emergence and revival of the primal "hunting" instinct
in man.
This first phase of enthusiasm was succeeded by one ol passion,
the natural ferocity of war accentuated by a form of mob spirit
which is developed by a "nation in arms." The British army was
relatively immune because of its professional character, whereas
in the German army, the most essentially "citizen," it gained
scope because of the cold-blooded logic ol the general staff theory
of war. With the coming of autumn 1914, a third phase became
manifest, more particularly, among the combatants. This was a
momentary growth of a spirit of tolerance, symbolized by the
fraternization which took place on Christmas Day, but this in
turn was to wane as the strain of the war became felt and the
reality of the struggle for existence came home to the warring
sides.
VI. THE EVENTS OF 1915
The Deadlock on Land. — Well before the end of 1914, the
reality of the deadlock on the Western front was clear to the
Governments and general staffs of the warring countries, and
each was seeking a solution. The reaction varied in form and in
nature according to the mental power and predisposition of the
different authorities. With the Central Powers the opinion of
Falkenhayn was the decisive factor, and the impression derived
not merely from his critics but from his own account is that
neither the opinion nor the direction was really clear as to its ob-
ject. He was too. obsessed with the principle of security at the
expense of the principle of concentration, and in his failure to
fulfil the second he undermined the foundations of the first.
On his appointment after the Marnc reverse, he still adhered
to the Schlierfen plan of seeking a decision in the West, but he did
not follow the Schlieffen method of weakening his left wing in
order to mass on the vital right wing. The October-November
attack round Ypres was made largely with raw formations, while
war-experienced troops lay almost idle between the Aisne and the
Vosges. Col. Groner, chief of the field railways, even went so far
as to submit a detailed plan to Falkenhayn for transferring six
army corps to the right wing, but it was rejected. When we
remember how close to breaking point was the Allied line at
Ypres, it can only be said that for a second time the German
supreme command saved the Allies. At this juncture, too, Luden-
dorff was pleading for reinforcements to make his wedge-blow at
the Russian flank near Lodz decisive, but Falkenhayn missed the
chance by delaying until the Ypres failure had passed from assur-
ance to fact.
Convinced at last of the strength of the Allied trench-barrier,
Falkenhayn took the momentous decision to stand on the de-
fensive in the West. But his object in so doing seems to have
been vague. His feeling that the war must ultimately be decided
in France led him to distrust the value, as he doubted the possi-
bility, of a decision against Russia. Hence while he realized that
the Eastern front was the only practicable theatre for operations
in the near future, he withheld the necessary reinforcements until
forced to do so by the threatening situation of the Austro-Hun-
garian front. And even then he doled out reserves reluctantly and
meagrely, enough to secure success but never in the quantity and
the time for decisive victory.
It is to his credit, however, that he realized a long war was
now inevitable, and that he set to work to develop Germany's
resources for such a warfare of attrition. The technique of field
entrenchment was carried to a higher pitch than with any other
country, the military railways were expanded for the lateral move-
ment of reserves, the supply of munitions and of the raw material
for their manufacture was tackled so energetically and compre-
hensively, that an a/nple flow was ensured from the spring of
1915 onwards — a time when the British were only awakening to
the problem. Here were laid the foundations of that economic
organization and utilization of resources which was to be the
secret of Germany's resisting power to the pressure of the Brit-
ish blockade. For the scientific grasp of the economic sphere in
war Germany owed much to Dr. Walter Rathenau, a brilliant
captain of industry. She was also a pioneer in the psychological
sphere, for as early as the autumn of 1914, she launched a vast
scheme of propaganda in Asia, to undermine British prestige and
the loyalty of Britain's Mohammedan subjects. The defect of
her propaganda, its crudeness, was less apparent when directed
to primitive people than when applied to the civilized peoples of
Europe and America.
The same period witnessed also the one great success for Ger-
man diplomacy, the entry of Turkey into the war, although this
was fundamentally due to a combination of pre-war causes with
military events. Since 1009 the country had been under the con-
trol of the Young Turk party, to whom traditions, including that
of friendship with Britain, were abhorrent. Germany, filled with
her own dream of a Germanic Middle East — of which the Bagh-
dad railway was the symbol, had skilfully exploited the oppor-
tunity to gain a dominating influence over the new rulers of Tur-
key. Their leader, Enver Pasha, had been military attache in Ber-
lin, German instructors permeated the Turkish army, and a defi-
nite understanding existed between Germany and the Young
Turk leaders as to common military action — urged by the com-
mon bond of necessary safeguard against danger from Russia.
The arrival of the "Goeben" and "Brcslau" reinforced the moral
pressure of Wangenheim, the German ambassador, and eventually
on Oct. 29 the Turks committed definite acts of war, at Odessa
against Russia, and in Sinai against Britain.
Falkenhayn has shown "the decisive importance of Turkey
joining in the struggle" — first as a barrier across the channel of
munition supply to Russia, and secondly as a distraction to the
military strength of Britain and Russia. Under German dictation,
Turkey struck as early as mid-December against the Russians in
the Caucasus (q.v.\ but Enver's over-ambitious plan ended in
disaster at the battle of Sarikamish. Turkey was no more for-
tunate in her next venture; to cut Britain's Suez canal artery
with the East. The Sinai desert was a check on an invasion in
strength, and the two small detachments which got across were
easily repulsed, at Ismailia and El Kantara, although allowed to
make good their retreat. But if both these offensives were tactical
failures, they were of great strategic value to Germany by
pinning down large Russian and British forces.
As an offset to Turkey joining the Central Powers, Italy defi-
nitely threw over the artificial ties of the old Triple Alliance and
joined the Entente. On May 24 she declared war on Austria —
her hereditary enemy — although avoiding an open breach with
Germany. If her main object was to seize the chance of redeem-
ing her kinsmen in Trieste and the Trentino from Austrian rule,
there was also a spiritual desire to reassert her historic traditions.
Militarily, however, her aid could not have an early or great
effect on the situation, for her army was unready to deliver a
prompt blow, and the Austrian frontier was a mountainous ob-
stacle of great natural strength.
Franco-British Plans.— On the Entente side the reality of
the trench deadlock produced different and diverse reactions. If
the desire to hold on to her territorial gains swayed German strat-
egy, the desire to recover her lost territory dominated French
strategy. It is true that their mental and material concentra-
tion on the Western front, where lay the main armed force of the
enemy, was justified by military tenets, but without any key to
unlock the barrier they were merely knocking themselves to
pieces. Winter attacks in Artois, on the Aisne, in Champagne and
the Woevre afforded costly proof, and against the Germans' skill
in trench-fighting Joffre's "nibbling" was usually attrition on the
wrong side of the balance sheet. As for any new key, the French
were singularly lacking in fertility of idea.
Britain's trouble was rather an excess of fertility, or rather an
758
WORLD WAR
[DARDANELLES EXPEDITION
absence of concentration in choosing and bringing to fruition these
mental seeds. Yet in great measure this failing was due to the
obscurantism of professional opinion, whose attitude was that of
blank opposition rather than expert guidance.
British-inspired solutions to the deadlock crystallized into two
main groups, one tactical, the other strategical. The first was to
unlock the trench barrier by producing a machine invulnerable
to machine-guns and capable of crossing trenches, which would
restore the tactical balance upset by the new preponderance of
defensive over offensive power. The idea of such a machine was
conceived by Col. Swinton in October 1914, was nourished and
tended in infancy by Winston Churchill, then first lord of the
Admiralty, and ultimately, after months of experiment hampered
by official opposition, came to maturity in the tank of 1916.
The strategical solution was to go round the trench barrier. Its
advocates — who became known as the "Eastern" in contrast to
the "Western" school — argued that the enemy alliance should be
viewed as a whole, and that modern developments had so changed
conceptions of distance and powers of mobility, that a blow in
some other theatre of war would correspond to the historic attack
on an enemy's strategic flank. Further, such an operation would
be in accordance with the traditional amphibious strategy of
Britain, and would enable it to exploit the advantage of sea-power
which had hitherto been neglected. In October 1914, Lord Fisher,
recalled to the office of first sea lord, had urged a plan for a
landing on the German coast. In Jan. 1915, Lord Kitchener ad-
vocated another, for severing Turkey's main line of eastward
communication by a landing in the Gulf of Alexandretta. The
post-war comments of Hindenburg and Enver show how this
would have paralysed Turkey. It could not, however, have exer-
cised a wider influence, and it was anticipated by another project
— partly the result of Churchill's strategic insight and partly due
to the pressure of circumstances.
This was the Dardanelles expedition, about which controversy
has raged so hotly that the term just applied to Churchill may
be disputed by some critics. This is answered by the verdict of
Falkenhayn himself: "If the straits between the Mediterranean
and the Black sea were not permanently closed to Entente traffic,
all hopes of a successful course of the war would be very consider-
ably diminished. Russia would have been freed from her signifi-
cant isolation . . . which offered a safer guarantee than military
successes . . . that sooner or later a crippling of the forces of
this Titan must take place . . . automatically." The fault was
not in the conception, but in the execution. Had the British used
at the outset even a fair proportion of the forces they ultimately
expended in driblets, it is clear from Turkish accounts that vic-
tory would have crowned their undertaking.
The cause of this piecemeal application of force and dissipa-
tion of opportunity lay in the opposition of Joffre and the French
general staff, supported by Sir John French. Despite the evi-
dence of the sequel to the Marne, of the German failure at Ypres,
and subsequently of his own still more ineffectual attacks in
December, Joffre was still confident of his power to achieve an
early and decisive victory in France. His plan was that of con-
verging blows from Artois and Champagne upon the great salient
formed by the entrenched German front, to be followed by an
offensive in Lorraine against the rear of the enemy armies. The
idea was similar to that of Foch in 1918 but the vital difference
lay in the conditions existing and the methods employed. A
study of the documents conveys the impression that there has
rarely been such a trinity of optimists in whom faith was divorced
from reason as Joffre, Foch, his deputy in Flanders, and French
— albeit the latter's outlook oscillated violently. In contrast the
British Government considered that the trench-front in France
was impregnable to frontal attacks, had strong objection to wast-
ing the man-power of the new armies in a vain effort, and at the
same time felt increasing concern over the danger of a Russian
collapse. These views were common alike to Churchill, Lloyd
George and Lord Kitchener, who on Jan. 2, 1915, wrote to Sir
John French: "The German lines in France may be looked upon
as a fortress that cannot be carried by assault and also that cannot
be completely invested, with the result that the lines may be
held by an investing force while operations proceed elsewhere."
Lloyd George advocated the transfer of the bulk of the Brit-
ish forces to the Balkans both to succour Serbia and to develop
an attack on the rear of the hostile alliance. This view was
shared by a section of French opinion and, in particular, by
Gallieni, who proposed a landing at Salonika as a starting point
for a march on Constantinople with an army strong enough to
encourage Greece and Bulgaria to combine with the Entente, The
capture of Constantinople was to be followed by an advance up
the Danube into Austria-Hungary in conjunction with the Ru-
manians. But the commanders on the Western front, obsessed
with the dream of an early break-through, argued vehemently
against any alternative strategy, stressing the difficulties of trans-
port and supply and insisting on the ease with which Germany
could switch troops to meet the threat. If there was force in their
contention, it tended to ignore the experience of military history
that "the longest way round is often the shortest way there," and
that the acceptance of topographical difficulties has constantly
proved preferable to that of a direct attack on an opponent firmly
posted and prepared to meet it.
The weight of military opinion bore down counter-proposals
and the Balkan projects were relinquished in favour of a con-
centration of effort on the Western front. But misgivings were
not silenced and at this juncture a situation arose which revived
the near Eastern scheme in a new if attenuated form.
The Dardanelles Expedition. — On Jan. 2, 1915, Kitchener
received an appeal from the Grand Duke Nicholas for a diversion
which would relieve the Turkish pressure on Russia's army in
the Caucasus. Kitchener felt unable to provide troops and sug-
gested a naval demonstration against the Dardanelles, which
Churchill, appreciating the wider strategic and economic issues,
proposed to convert into an attempt to force the passage. His
naval advisers, if not enthusiastic, did not oppose the proposal
and in response to a telegram the admiral on the spot, Garden,
submitted a plan for a methodical reduction of the forts and
clearance of the mine-fields. Fisher, while clinging to his own
North sea project, strongly advocated a combined naval and mili-
tary expedition. On Jan. 13, the War Council decided for a naval
expedition to "take the Gallipoli peninsula, with Constantinople
as its objective." A naval force, mainly of obsolete vessels was
got together with French aid, and after preliminary bombard-
ment, entered the straits on March 18. /Drift mines, however,
caused the sinking of several ships, and the attempt was aban-
doned.
It is a moot point whether a prompt renewal of the advances
would not have succeeded, for the Turkish ammunition was ex-
hausted, and in such conditions the mine obstacle might have
been overcome. But the new naval commander, Admiral de
Robeck decided against it, unless military aid was forthcoming.
Already, a month before, the War Council had determined on a
joint attack, and began the despatch of a military force under
Sir Ian Hamilton. (See DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN.) But as the
authorities had drifted into the new scheme, so were they tardy
in releasing the necessary troops, and even when sent in inade-
quate numbers, several more weeks' delay had to be incurred — at
Alexandria — in order to redistribute the force in its transports
suitably for tactical action. Worst of all, this fumbling policy
had thrown away the chance- of surprise, which was vital for a
landing on an almost impregnable shore. When the preliminary
bombardment took place in February only two Turkish divisions
were at the straits ; this was increased to four by the date of the
naval attack, to six when Hamilton was at last able to attempt
his landing. For this he had only four British divisions and one
French division — actually inferior, in strength to the enemy in
a situation where the inherent preponderance of defensive over
offensive power was multiplied by the natural difficulties of the
terrain. His weakness of numbers and his mission of aiding the
passage of the fleet compelled him to choose a landing on the
Gallipoli peninsula in preference to one on the mainland or on
the Asiatic shore; and the rocky coastline limited his possible
landing places.
On April 25, he made his spring, at the southern tip of the
NEUVE CHAPELLE]
WORLD WAR
759
peninsula near Cape Hellas and — with Australian and New Zea-
land troops — near Gaba Tepe, some 15 m. up the Aegean coast;
the French, as a diversion, made a temporary landing at Kum Kale
on the Asiatic shore. The troops effected the impossible and
made good their lodgment on beaches strewn with barbed wire and
swept by machine-guns. But the momentary asset of tactical
surprise had passed, the difficulties of supply were immense, while
the Turks held the commanding heights and were able to bring
up their reserves. The invaders managed to hold on to their
two precarious footholds, but they could not expand them ap-
preciably, and the stagnation of trench warfare set in. They
could not go on, and national prestige forbade them to go back.
Ultimately, in July, the British Government decided to send a
further five divisions to reinforce the seven by now on the penin-
sula. By the time they arrived the Turkish strength in the
region had also risen to 15 divisions. Hamilton decided on a
double stroke — a reinforced blow from Gaba Tepe and a new
landing at Suvla bay a few miles north — to sever the middle of
the peninsula and secure the heights commanding the Narrows.
He deceived the Turkish command and achieved surprise (Aug.
6), but the first blow failed and the second lost a splendid chance
by the inexperience of the troops and still more the inertia and
fumbling of the local commanders. For over 36 hours, before
reserves arrived, only one and a half Turkish battalions barred
the path. Energetic new commanders, for whom Hamilton had
previously asked, were sent out when the opportunity had passed.
The British were once more condemned to hang on to tenuous
footholds, and with the autumn rains setting in their trials were
increased. The Government had lost faith and were anxious to
withdraw, but fear of the moral effect delayed their decision.
Hamilton was asked for his opinion, however, and when he pro-
nounced in favour of continuing — in which course he still had
confidence — he was replaced by Sir Charles Monro, who immedi-
ately declared for evacuation. Kitchener was then set out to in-
vestigate, and on his verdict a withdrawal was sanctioned and
carried out from Suvla and Anzac on the night of Dec. 18-19
and from Hellas on that of Jan. 8-9. If the bloodless evacuation
was an example of masterly organization and co-operation it was
also a proof of the greater ease of such operations in modern
warfare. Thus the curtain rang down on a sound and far-sighted
conception marred by a chain of errors in execution almost
unrivalled even in British history.
The Menace to Russia.— While the British were striving to
unlock the back door to Russia, the Germanic Powers were ham-
mering their Russian allies, whose resistance was collapsing in
large measure from a lack of munitions which could only be made
good by foreign supplies through that locked entrance, the Dar-
danelles. On the Eastern front, the campaign of 1914 had shown
that a German force could count on defeating any larger Russian
force, but that when Russians and Austrians met on an equality
victory rested with the Russians. Falkenhayn was forced, re-
luctantly, to despatch German reinforcements as a stiffening to
the Austrians, and thus was dragged into an offensive in the East
rather than adopting it as a clearly defined plan. Ludendorff, in
contrast, had his eyes firmly fixed on the ultimate object, and
from now on advocated unceasingly a whole-hearted effort to
break Russia. Ludendorff's was a strategy of decision, Falken-
hayn's a strategy of attrition.
In the conflict of wills between these two men lies the clue to
the resultant strategy of Germany — highly effective, yet not de-
cisive. On the other side the fresh Russian plan embodied the
lessons of experience and was soundly conceived, but the means
were lacking and the instrument defective. The Grand Duke
Nicholas aimed to secure both his flanks solidly before attempt-
ing a fresh blow towards Silesia. From January until April, under
bitter winter conditions, the Russian forces on the southern flank
of the Polish salient strove to gain possession of the Carpathians
and the gateways into the Hungarian plain. But the Austrians,
with a German infusion, parried their efforts, and the loss was
disproportionate to the small gains. The long-besieged fortress
of Przemysl (?.v.), however, at last fell into their hands on
Marcfe 22. In northern Poland the Russians were preparing to
strike upwards at East Prussia, when they were forestalled by a
fresh Ludendorff stroke eastwards towards the frontier of Russia
proper. The blow was launched on Feb. 7, over snow-buried roads
and frozen swamps, and was distinguished by the envelopment
of four Russian divisions in the Augustovo forests. (See MA-
SURIAN LAKES.) Moreover, it extracted the sting from the Rus-
sian attack further west.
These moves were, however, merely a "curtain-raiser" to the
real drama of 1915. But before turning to this it is necessary
to fiance at events on the Western front, the importance of
which is partly as a signpost to the future and partly because
of their reaction on the Eastern front.
The Western Front. — While a way round the trench barrier
was being sought in Gallipoli and experiments with a novel key
were being carried out in England, the Allied commands in
France were trying more orthodox solutions. The most signifi-
cant was the British attack at Neuve Chapelle (q.v.) on March
10. Save as a pure experiment the attempt stood self-condemned.
For it was an isolated attempt on a small front with inadequate
resources. The arrival in France of several new regular divisions
made up from foreign garrisons, of the Indian Corps, and the ist
Canadian Division had brought the British strength up to 13
divisions and 5 cavalry divisions, besides a number of selected
territorial battalions. This increase enabled French to divide his
forces into two armies and gradually to extend his share of the
front. But Joffre was insistent that he should relieve the French
of the Ypres salient, which they had taken over in November,
and made the intended French attack contingent on this relief.
Sir John French considered that he had not sufficient troops for
both purposes, and so decided to carry out the attack single-
handed. An additional motive was his resentment of the constant
French criticisms that the British were not "pulling their weight."
In design, however, the attack, entrusted to Haig's ist Army,
was both original and well thought out. After an intense bom-
bardment of 35 minutes duration on a 2,000 yd. frontage, the
artillery lengthened their range and dropped a curtain of fire to
prevent the reinforcement of the enemy's battered trenches, which
were rapidly overrun by the infantry.
Complete surprise was attained and most of the first positions
captured, but when in the second phase, the frontage was ex-
tended, the artillery support was inadequate. Further, owing to
scanty information and to the two corps commanders waiting
upon each other a long pause occurred which gave the Germans
five clear hours to organize fresh resistance. Then, too late and
mistakenly, the attack was ordered to be pushed "regardless of
loss.7' And loss proved the only result. An underlying factor
was that the narrowness of the attack sector made the breach
more easy for the defenders to close, although this defect was
unavoidable owing to the general shortage of munitions. The
British had been slower than the Germans to awaken to the scale
of ammunition supply required for this new warfare, and, even
so, deliveries fell far behind contract, owing largely to the handi-
cap imposed by trade union rules on the dilution of skilled labour.
These could only be modified after long negotiation and the
shortage of shells became so obvious in the spring of 1915 as to
lead to a public outcry which culminated in the establishment of
a Ministry of Munitions, under Lloyd George, to co-ordinate and
develop both manufacture and the supply of raw materials. Apart
from shells, the crudeness and inferiority of all the British trench-
warfare weapons compared with those of the Germans, made such
a radical organization overdue, and its urgency was emphasized
by the near approach of the time when Britain's new armies
would take over the field. If the task was undertaken late, it was
carried out with energy and thoroughness, and by 1916 the flow
of munitions reached a volume, still expanding, which finally
removed any material handicap on the strategy of the British
leaders.
The tactical sequel of Neuve Chapelle was less fortunate. It
was clear that the small-scale experiment had only missed success
by a narrow margin and that there was scope for its develop-
ment. But the Entente commands missed the true lesson, which
was the surprise attainable by a short bombardment that com-
760
WORLD WAR
[DUNAJEC
>cnsated its brevity by its intensity. And only partially did they
pprcciate that the sector attacked must be sufficiently wide to
•revent the defender's artillery commanding, ,or his reserves clos-
ig the breach. Instead, they drew the superficial deduction that
nere volume of shell-lire was the key to success. Not until 1917
lid they revert to the Neuve Chapelle method. It was left to
he Germans to profit by the experience against the Russians in
tfay.
But before (hat came, the Western front was destined to in-
rease the tally of military blunders. In the first, it was the (Ser-
ins' turn to find and misuse a new key to the trench deadlock,
'his was the introduction of gas, and, unlike the British intro-
uction of tanks later, the chance, once forfeited, did not return,
wing to the relative ease of providing an antidote. In a local
ttack in Poland on Jan. 31, the Germans had tried the use of
as-shells, but the experiment had been a failure owing to the
ullifying effect of the intense cold. At the next attempt it was
ischarged from cylinders owing to the failure of the authorities
3 provide the inventor, Ha her, with adequate facilities for the
lanufacture of shells. Further, the initial disappointment led
ic German command to place little trust in its value. In conse-
uence, when discharged against the French trenches at Ypres
n April 22, there were no reserves at hand to pour through the
idc breach it created. (See YPRES, BATTLES OF, 1915.) A
range green vapour, a surging mass of agonized fugitives, a 4 m.
ap without a living defender — such was the sequence of events.
ut the heroic resistance of the Canadians on the flank of the
reach and the prompt arrival of English and Indian reinforce-
lents saved the situation in the absence of German reserves.
The chlorine gas originally used was undeniably cruel, but no
orse than the frequent effect of shell or bayonet, and when it
as succeeded by improved forms of gas both experience and
:atistics proved it the least inhumane of modern weapons. But
was novel and therefore labelled an atrocity by a world which
jndones abuses but detests innovations. Thus Germany incurred
le moral odium which inevitably accompanies the use of a novel
capon without any compensating advantage. (See CHEMICAL
/ARFARE.)
On the Entente side, wisdom would have counselled a period
F waiting until their munition supply had grown and the new
ritish armies were ready, but the desire to regain lost territory
id the duty of relieving the pressure on Russia, combined with
l-founded optimism to spur Joffrc to premature offensives. The
erman losses were exaggerated, their skill and power in defence
nderrated, and a series of diffused and unconnected attacks were
lade. The chief was by the French between Lens and Arras,
ider Foch's direction, and the earlier experience of failure to
take an effective breach in the trench barrier was repeated,
he attack was launched on May 9 by d'Urbal's army on a four-
lile frontage. It was quickly checked with murderous losses
urept on the front of Petain's corps which, thanks to meticulous
reparation, broke through to a depth of three miles. But the
jnetration was too narrow, reserves were late and inadequate
id the gap closed. Foch, however, persevered with vain attacks
hich gained a few acres of ground at excessive loss. Meantime
[aig's ist Army had attacked towards Aubcrs Ridge simultane-
jsly with the larger French attempt. The plan was to penetrate
: two points north and south of Neuve Chapeile, 4 m. apart, the
>tal frontage of the two being 2\ m., and then to converge in
cploiting the double penetration. But the Germans, profiting
Iso from the experimental value of Neuve Chapelle, had de-
eloped their defences. Thus the attack died away quickly from
surfeit of German machine-guns and an insufficiency of British
lells. Under pressure from Joffre the attack was renewed on
lay 15 on the Festubert sector south of Neuve Chapelle, and
>ntinued by small bites until May 27. The larger French offen-
vc between Lens and Arras was not abandoned until June 18,
hen the French had lost 102,000 men — rather more than double
ic defender's loss.
The effect of these attacks was, moreover, to convince even the
ubious Falkenhayn of the strength of his Western line and of
ic remoteness of any real menace from the Franco-British forces.
His offensive on the Eastern front had already opened. Tactically
unlimited, its strategic object was at first only the limited one of
relieving the pressure on the Austrian front and, concurrently, re-
ducing Russia's offensive power. Conrad proposed and Faiken-
hayn accepted a plan which aimed at a rupture of the Russian
centre as the best means to this end, and in which the Dunajec
sector between the upper Vistula and the Carpathians was selected
as offering the fewest obstacles to an advance and best pro-
tection to the flanks of a penetration. The break-through was
entrusted to Mackensen, whose force comprised the newly formed
German nth Army — strengthened by divisions from the West,
and the 4th Austro-Hungarian Army. The Ypres gas attack and a
large cavalry raid from East Prussia were initiated to cloak the
concentration on the Dunajec river of 14 divisions and 1,500
guns against a front held by only six Russian divisions and lacking
rear lines of trenches.
The Dunajec Break-through. — On May 2, after an intense
bombardment had flattened the Russian trenches, the attack was
launched and swept through with little opposition. The surprise
was complete, the exploitation rapid, and despite a gallant stand
on the Wisloka river, the whole line along the Carpathians was
rolled up, until on May 14 the advance reached the San, 80 m.
from its starting point. Defeat almost turned into disaster when
this was forced at Jaroslav, but the impetus of the advance had
momentarily spent itself and reserves were lacking. A new factor
was introduced by Italy's declaration of war against Austria, but
Falkenhayn persuaded the Austrian command, with some diffi-
culty, not to move troops from the Russian front, and to main-
tain a strict defensive on their Italian frontier, which was secured
by the mountain barrier. He realized that he had committed him-
self too far in Galicia to draw back, and that only by bringing
more troops from France could he hope to fulfil his object of
transferring troops back there, as this could only be possible when
Russia's offensive power was crippled and her menace to Austria
removed. Strengthened by these reinforcements, Mackensen at-
tacked again in co-operation with the Austrians, retook Przemysl
on June 3 and captured Lemberg on June 22, cutting the Russian
front into two separated portions.
But the Russians, from their vast man-power resources had al-
most made good the loss of 400,000 prisoners, and Falkenhayn's
anxiety about the stability of his Austrian allies decided him to
continue the offensive, although still with limited objects and with
one eye on the situation in France. He changed its direction, how-
ever, from eastwards to northwards, between the Bug and Vistula,
where lay the main Russian forces. In conjunction, Hindenburg
was ordered to strike south-east from East Prussia, across the
Narew (q.v.) and towards the Bug. Ludendorff disliked the plan
as being too much of a frontal attack; the Russians might be
squeezed by the closing in of the two wings but their retreat
would not be cut off. He urged once more his spring scheme for
a wide enveloping manoeuvre through Kovno on Vilna and Minsk,
but Falkenhayn rejected it, fearing that it would mean more
troops and a deeper commitment. The result justified Luden-
dorff s expectation — the Grand Duke extricated his troops from
the Warsaw salient before the German shears could close on
him. Falkenhayn, on the other hand considered that Ludendorff
had not put his full weight into the attack. (See further BREST-
LITOVSK, BATTLES OF.)
Nevertheless, 750,000 prisoners had been taken by the middle
of August, Poland had been occupied, and Falkenhayn decided to
break off large scale operations on the Eastern front. Bulgaria's
entry into the war was now arranged and he wished to support
the combined attack of Austria and Bulgaria against Serbia, as
well as to transfer troops back to meet the French offensive ex-
pected in September. Mackensen was sent to the Serbian front
and Ludendorff was given a belated permission to carry out his
Viina scheme, with such resources as he had, but as an independ-
ent operation.
It began on Sept. 9, Below's Army of the Niemen and Eich-
horn's loth Army forming two great horns which gored their
way into the Russian front, the one east towards Dvinsk and
the other south-east towards Vilna. The Russians were driven
ITALY AND SERBIA: 1915]
WORLD WAR
761
back in divergent directions and the Germany cavalry advancing
between the horns far overlapped Vilna and drew near the Minsk
railway. But the German strength was slender, the Russians free
to concentrate against this isolated menace, and in face of the
stiffening resistance Ludendorff took the wise course of suspend-
ing operations. The crux of the situation was that the Russian
armies had been allowed to draw back almost out of the net
before the long delayed Vilna manoeuvre was attempted; the
degree of success attained with such weak forces was confirma-
tion of its practicability and of Ludendorff's claim that a power-
ful blow delivered while the Russians were deeply enmeshed in
the Polish salient might have annihilated the armed force of Rus-
sia. She had been badly lamed, but not destroyed, and although
never again a direct menace to Germany, she was able to delay
the full concentration of German strength in the West for two
years, until 1918. Falkenhayn's cautious strategy was to prove
the most hazardous in the long run, and indeed to pave the way
for Germany's bankruptcy.
Thus, at the end of September, ths Russian retreat, after a
nerve-racking series of escapes from the salients which the Ger-
mans systematically created and then sought to cut off, came to
a definite halt on a straightened line, stretching from Riga on the
Baltic to Czcrnowitz on the Rumanian frontier. But the Russian
armies had gained this respite at a ruinous price, and their West-
ern allies had effected little in repayment of Russia's sacrifice on
their behalf in 1914.
Allied Offensive in the West.— For the Franco-British re-
lief offensive of Sept. 25 had been no more fruitful than its
predecessors. The main blow was launched by the French in
Champagne (q.v.), in conjunction with a Franco-British attack
in Artois, on cither side of Lens. One fault was that the sectors
were too far apart to have a reaction on each other, but a worse
was that the command tried to reconcile two irreconcilable fac-
tors— they aimed at a break-through but preceded it with a pro-
longed bombardment which gave away any chance of surprise.
Joffre's plan was that the break-through in these two sectors was
to be followed by a general offensive on the whole Franco-British
front which would "compel the Germans to retreat beyond the
Meuse and possibly end the war." The unquenchable optimist!
The British attack at Loos (q.v.) was undertaken against the
opinion of Haig, whose ist Army had to carry it out. The Brit-
ish resources in artillery were still much less than those of the
French, and Haig, after personal reconnaissance, reported that the
sector was unsuitable for an attack. But Joffre, with the en-
chantment that distance lends, declared that it was "particularly
favourable ground." Sir John French vacillated as usual, but
finally ordered the attempt under pressure from Kitchener. The
latter, in this reversal of his own previous attitude was apparently
influenced by the grave situation in Russia, as well, perhaps, by
his reaction from the disappointment at the Dardanelles. But as
he had long since declared his view that the Western front was
impassable, it is difficult to see how he could feel that a hope-
less offensive there could bring fresh hope to the Russians. Both
in Champagne and Artois the attacks penetrated the forward
German positions without difficulty, but the delay in bring-
ing reserves forward allowed the German reserves to close the
gaps, a task simplified by the narrowness of the attack front-
age. The slight gains of ground in no way compensated for the
heavy price paid for them — the Allied loss was approximately
242,000 against 141,000 Germans, And if the Allied commands
had gained more experience so had the Germans, in the art of de-
fence. The British share in this offensive is, however, notable as
marking the appearance in strength of the New Armies; at Loos
they were "blooded" and if inexperience detracted from their ef-
fectiveness, their courage and driving force were an omen of
Britain's* power to improvise a national effort comparable with
the long-created military machines of the Continent.
The direction of this effort inspired less confidence, and Sir
John French gave place to Sir Douglas Haig as commander-in-
chief, just as already in September the Russian command had
been transferred from the Grand Duke Nicholas, nominally to
the Tsar, as a moral symbol, but actually to a new commander-in-
chief, Gen. Alexeiev, the newly appointed chief of staff.
The Italian Front, 1915. — Italy's military contribution to
the Allied cause was handicapped not only by her unreadiness
but by the awkward strategic position of her frontier, difficult
for initiating an offensive and hardly more favourable for a secure
defensive. The Italian frontier province of Venezia formed a
salient pointing to Austria and flanked on the north by the Aus-
trian Trentino, on the south by the Adriatic. Bordering on the
Adriatic was a stretch of relatively low ground on the Isonzo
front but the frontier then followed the Julian and Carnic Alps
in a wide sweep round to the north-west. Any advance eastwards
inevitably suffered the potential menace of an Austrian descent
from the Trentino upon its rear.
Nevertheless, the eastern front, though difficult enough, seemed
to offer more prospect of success, besides threatening a vital part
of Austria, than an advance northward into the Alps. When Italy
was preparing to enter the war Gen. Cadorna, who assumed com-
mand, drew up his plan on this basis of an offensive eastwards
and a defensive attitude in the north. The overhanging menace
of the Trentino was mitigated by the expectation of simultaneous
pressure upon Austria from Russia and Serbia. But on the eve
of Italy's declaration of war this hope faded, the Russian armies
falling back under Mackensen's blows, while the Serbs, despite
requests from the Allies, failed to make even a demonstration.
This enabled the Austrians to despatch five divisions to the Isonzo
from the Serbian front, these being relieved by three newly
formed German divisions. Even so there were only some eight
divisions in aft available to oppose the Italians, who had a
numerical superiority of more than three to one.
In order to secure good covering positions on the north a
limited advance was made into the Trentino, with success, but
another into the north-east corner of the frontier salient — towards
Tarvis in the Carnic Alps — was forestalled. This local failure
was to have unfortunate results later for it left the Austrians
with a good strategic sally port into the Tagliamento valley.
Meantime the main Italian advance, by the 2nd and 3rd Armies,
had begun at the end of May, but out of their total of 14 divi-
sions only seven were ready. Bad weather increased the handicap,
the Isonzo coming down in flood, and the initial advance soon
came to a standstill. The Isonzo front crystallized, like the others,
into trench warfare. The Italian mobilization, however, was now
complete and Cadorna mounted a deliberate attack, which opened
on June 23. This first battle of the Isonzo continued until July 7
with little gain to show. A fresh series of efforts after a ten days'
pause were hardly more effective, and the front then relapsed into
the spasmodic bickering characteristic of trench warfare, while
Cadorna made preparations for a new and larger effort in the
autumn. When it was launched in October he had a two to
one superiority in numbers but was weak in artillery. This defect
coupled with the superior experience of the defender rendered
the new offensive as barren as its predecessors. It was sustained
perhaps too obstinately and when finally broken off on Dec. 5,
the Italian loss in the six months' campaign totalled some 280,000
— nearly twice that of the defenders, who had shown on this
front a fierce resolution which was often lacking when they
faced the Russians.
The Conquest of Serbia, Oct., 1915.— While stalemate, al-
though with marked changes beneath the surface, had once more
settled in on both the Eastern and Western fronts, the latter
months of 1915 witnessed fluid operations elsewhere which were
to have an uncalculated influence on the war.
Austria had proved capable of holding the Italians on the
Isonzo, and once the Russian danger began to fade under the
pressure of the summer offensive, her command was anxious to
deal with Serbia conclusively. Austria's attempted invasions in
August and September 1914, and again in November, had been
brusquely repulsed by Serbian counter-strokes, and it was not
pleasant for a great Power, especially one with so many Slav
subjects, to swallow such military rebuffs. Her impatience coin-
cided with Falkenhayn's desire to gain direct railway communica-
tion with Turkey, hard pressed at the Dardanelles. Throughout
the summer the rival coalitions had been bidding for Bulgaria's
762
WORLD WAR
[SALONIKA AND MESOPOTAMIA
support, and in this bargaining the Entente suffered the moral
handicap of military failure and the material handicap caused by
Serbia's unwillingness to give up any part of Macedonia — of
which she had despoiled Bulgaria in 1913. As' Austria had no ob-
jection to offering territory that belonged to her enemy, Bulgaria
accepted her bid. This accession of strength enhanced the chance
of a decision against Serbia and in August Falkenhayn decided
to reinforce Kovess's Austrian 3rd Army with Gallwitz's German
nth Army from the Russian front. In addition two Bulgarian
armies were available. Mackensen was sent to direct the opera-
tions. To meet this new threat Serbia, apart from her own rela
tively small forces, had only a treaty guarantee of Greek aid and
promises from the Entente Powers. The first disappeared with
the fall of Venizelos, the pro-Ally Greek premier, and the second,
as usual, was too late.
On Oct. 6, 1915 (see further, SERBIAN CAMPAIGNS) the Austro
German armies attacked southwards across the Danube, with a
flanking movement across the Drina on the right. The sturdy
resistance of the Serbs in delaying actions, and the natural diffi-
culty of the mountainous country, checked the advance, but be-
fore Franco-British reinforcements could arrive, the Bulgarian
armies struck westwards into southern Serbia, across the rear of
the main Serbian armies. This drove a deep wedge between the
Serbs and their allies, moving up from Salonika, and automati-
cally loosened the props of the resistance in the north. With their
line bent at both ends until it resembled a vast bow, threatened
with a double envelopment, and with their retreat to the south
cut off, the Serbian armies decided to retire west through the
Albanian mountains. Those who survived the hardships of this
mid-winter retreat were conveyed to the island of Corfu, and
after being re-equipped and reorganized, joined the Entente force
at Salonika in the spring of 1916. The conquest of Serbia, though
not, as it proved, of Serbian military power, relieved Austria of
danger on her southern frontier, and gave Germany free com-
munication and control over a huge central belt from the North
sea to the Tigris. For the Entente this campaign dug a military
sump-pit which for three years was to drain their military re-
sources, there to lie idle and ineffective. Yet ultimately that sump-
pit was to overflow and wash away one of the props of the Central
Alliance.
The Salonika Expedition.— When at the beginning of Octo-
ber the Entente Governments had awakened to Serbia's danger,
British and French divisions had been despatched hurriedly from
Gallipoli to Salonika, which was the only channel of aid to Serbia
—by the railway to Uskub. The advanced guard of this relieving
force — which was under the command of Gen. Sarrail — pressed
up the Vardar and over the Serbian frontier, only to find that
the Bulgarian wedge had cut it off from the Serbians, and it was
forced to fall back on Salonika, pursued by the Bulgarians. On
military grounds an evacuation of Salonika was indicated, but
political reasons induced the Allies to remain. The Dardanelles
failure had already diminished their prestige, and by convincing
the Balkan States of German invincibility had induced Bulgaria
to enter the war and Greece to break her treaty with Serbia. To
evacuate Salonika would be a further loss of prestige, whereas by
holding on the Allies could check German influence over Greece,
and maintain a base of operations from which to aid Rumania,
if, as expected, she entered the war on their side. To this cad the
Salonika force was augmented with fresh British and French divi-
sions, as well as contingents from Italy and Russia, and there also
the rebuilt Serbian army was brought. But apart from the cap-
ture of Monastir in Nov. 1916, and an abortive attack in April
1917, the Entente force made no serious offensive until the au-
tumn of 1918. Its innocuousness was partly due to the natural
difficulties of the country — the chain of mountain ridges which
guarded the approach to the Balkans, partly to the feeling of the
Allied Governments that it was a bad debt, and partly to the
personality of Sarrail, whose conduct and reputation for political
intrigues failed to command the confidence and co-operation es-
sential if such a mixed force was to "pull its weight." On their
side the Germans were content to leave it in passivity, under
guard of the Bulgarians, while they steadily withdrew their own
forces for use elsewhere. With gentle sarcasm they termed Salon-
ika their "largest internment camp," and with half a million Allied
troops locked up there the jibe had some justification— until 1918.
(See further SALONIKA CAMPAIGN.)
The Mesopotamia Expedition to the Fall of Kut.— Nor
was Salonika the only "drain" opened in 1915. Mesopotamia
was the site of a fresh diversion of force from the centre of
military gravity, and one which could only be excused on purely
political grounds. It was not, like Salonika and the Dardanelles,
begun to relieve a hard-pressed ally, nor had it the justification
of the Dardanelles expedition of being directed at the vital point
of one of the enemy States. The occupation of Mesopotamia
might raise British prestige, and it might annoy Turkey, but it
could not endanger her power of resistance. Although its origin
was sound, its development was another example of "drift," due
to the inherent faultiness of Britain's machinery for the conduct
of war. (See further MESOPOTAMIA OPERATIONS.)
The oilfields near the Persian gulf were of essential importance
for Britain's oil supply, and thus when war with Turkey was
imminent, a small Indian force, of one division, was despatched
to safeguard them. To fulfil this mission effectively it was neces-
sary to occupy the Basra vilayet at the head of the Persian gulf,
in order to command the possible lines of approach.
On Nov. 21, 1914, Basra was captured, but the rising stream
of Turkish reinforcements compelled the Indian Government to
add a second division. The Turkish attacks in the spring of 1915
were repulsed, and the British commander, Gen. Nixon, judged
it wise to expand his footing, for greater security. Townshend's
division was pushed up the Tigris to Amara, gaining a brilliant
little victory, and the other division up the Euphrates to Nasiriya.
Southern Mesopotamia was a vast alluvial plain, roadless and
railless, in which these two great rivers formed the only chan-
nels of communication. Thus a hold on Amara and Nasiriya
covered the oilfields; but Nixon and the Indian Government, in-
spired by these successes, decided to push forward to Kut-al-
Amara, a move which was 180 m. further into the interior but
had a partial military justification in the fact that at Kut the
Shatt-el-Hai, issuing from the Tigris, formed a link with the
Euphrates by which Turkish reserves might be transferred from
one river line to the other.
Townshend was sent forward in August, defeated the Turks
near Kut, and his cavalry carried the pursuit to Aziziya, half way
to Baghdad. Enthusiasm spread to the home Government,
anxious for a moral counterpoise to their other failures, and Nixon
received permission for Townshend to press on to Baghdad, But
after an indecisive battle at Ctesiphon, the growing superiority of
the Turkish strength compelled Townshend to retreat to Kut.
Here, isolated far from help, he was urged to remain, as several
fresh divisions were being sent to Mesopotamia. Kut was in-
vested by the Turks on Dec. 8, 1915, and the relieving forces
battered in vain against the Turkish lines covering the approach
on either bank of the Tigris. The conditions were bad, the com-
munications worse, the generalship faulty, and at last on April
29, 1916, Kut was forced to surrender. However unsound the
strategy which despatched Townshend on this adventure, it is
just to emphasize that the actual achievements of his small force
in face of superior numbers, with inadequate equipment and
primitive communications, and utterly isolated in the heart of an
enemy country, wrote a glorious page of British history. When
these handicaps are compared with the four to one superiority in
number, and highly organized supply system of the force which
ultimately took Baghdad, the comparison explains the awe in
which Townshend and his men were held by the Turks.
The Home Front 1915.— Perhaps one of the most significant
landmarks of the transition of the struggle from a "military"
;o a "national" war was the formation of a National Ministry
n Britain which occurred in May 1915, For the prototype of
Parliaments to abandon the deep-rooted party system and pool
the direction of the war was proof of the psychological upheaval
of traditions. The Liberal prime minister, Asquith, remained,
>ut the real lead began to pass insensibly into other hands, notably
:hose of Lloyd George. Churchill, whose vision had saved the
VERDUN, 1916]
WORLD WAR
763
menace to the Channel ports and made possible the future key
to the deadlock, was shelved, as already had been Haldane, the
creator of the expeditionary force.
Political changes were general in all countries, and were symp-
tomatic of a readjustment of popular outlook. The early fervour
had disappeared and been replaced by a dogged determination
which, if natural to the British, was in strange contradiction to
popular, if superficial, conceptions of the French temperament.
Economically, the strain had yet to be felt severely by any
country. Finance had shown an unexpected power of accommo-
dation, and neither the blockade nor the submarine campaign
had seriously affected the food supply. If Germany was begin-
ning to suffer some shortage, her people had more tangible omens
of success to fortify their resolution than had their enemies.
VIL FROM VERDUN TO THE ENTRY OF AMERICA
Verdun, 1916. — In 1914 the centre of gravity of the World
War had been on the Western front, in 1915 it shifted to the
Eastern front, and in 1916 once more moved back to France.
Although the Entente had dissipated some of their strength in
Salonika and Mesopotamia, the rising tide of England's new
armies and of her munition supplies promised the power for an
effort far larger in scale than before to break the trench dead-
lock. Measures had also been taken to keep these new divisions
up to strength. By the end of 1915 the British force in France
had risen to 36 divisions through the entry into the field of
"Kitchener's Army/' as well as of the territorial divisions.
Although the principle of voluntary enlistment had not yet been
abandoned, the method was systematized and based on a na-
tional register. This scheme, launched in Oct. 1915, under the
aegis of Lord Derby, aimed to reconcile the demands of the
army with the needs of industry, calling up men by groups as
they were wanted, and taking single men first. But the response
among the latter was not adequate to preserve this graduated
principle and in Jan. 1916, by the Military Service Act, the volun-
tary system — system is hardly the correct term — was replaced
by conscription.
At the close of 1915 the first serious effort to obtain unity
of action between the Allies was made, and a conference of the
leaders of the French, British, Belgian and Italian armies, with
representatives present from the Russian and Japanese, was
held at Joffre's headquarters in December. As a result they
adopted the principle of a simultaneous general offensive in 1916
by France, Britain, Russia and Italy. In view of the rawness of
the British troops, it was recognized that time must be allowed
for training, and that the offensive could not begin before the
summer of 1916, although it was hoped to carry out preliminary
attacks to wear down the enemy's strength.
But German action was to dislocate this scheme, and only the
British share came fully into operation, and not even that into
full effect. Falkenhayn was about to fulfil his long-cherished plan
for a Western offensive, but with characteristic limitations.
Always a believer in the strategy of attrition, he now carried this
ruling idea into tactics, and produced the new form of attack
by methodical stages, each with a limited objective. In a memo-
randum to the German emperor at Christmas 1915 he argued that
England was the staple of the enemy alliance. "The history of
the English wars against the Netherlands, Spain, France and
Napoleon is being repeated. Germany can expect no mercy from
this enemy, so long as he still retains the slightest hope of
achieving his object." Save by submarine warfare, however, Eng-
land and her army were out of reach, for their sector of the front
did not lend itself to offensive operations. "In view of our feel-
ings for our arch-enemy in the war that is certainly distressing,
but it can be endured if we realize that for England the campaign
on the Continent ... is at bottom a side-show. Her real wea-
pons here are the French, Russian and Italian armies." He re-
garded Russia as already paralysed, and Italy's military achieve*
ments as unlikely to affect the situation, "Only France remains.
France has almost arrived at the end of her military effort. If
her people can be made to understand clearly that in a military
sense they have nothing more to hope for, breaking-point would
be reached, and England's best sword knocked out of her hand."
He added that a break-through in mass was unnecessary, and
that instead the Germans should aim to bleed France to death
by choosing a point of attack "for the retention of which the
French command would be compelled to throw in every man
they have." Such objectives were either Belfort or Verdun, and
Verdun was chosen, because it was a menace to the main Ger-
man communications, because it offered a salient and so cramped
the defender, and because of the moral effect if so renowned a
place was lost to France.
The keynote of the tactical plan was a continuous series of
limited advances which by their menace should draw the French
reserves into the mincing-machine of the German artillery. And
each of these advances was itself to be secured from loss by an
intense artillery bombardment, brief for surprise and making up
for its short duration by the number of batteries and their rapid-
ity of fire. By this means the objective would be taken and con-
solidated before the enemy could move up his reserves for
counter-attack. Although the French Intelligence branch at gen-
eral headquarters gave early warning of the German preparations,
the Operations branch were so full of their own offensive schemes
that the warning fell on deaf ears. Further, the easy fall of the
Belgian and Russian fortresses had led to a commonly held view
that fortresses were obsolete, and Joffre, persuading the French
Government to "declass" Verdun as a fortress, had denuded it of
guns and troops. The forts were only used as shelters and the
trench lines which took their place were inadequate and in poor
repair. Yet in the outcome eight months' bombardment was to
leave the forts almost undamaged !
At 7.15 A.M. on Feb. 21, the German bombardment began, on
a front of 15 m., and progressively trenches and wire were flat-
tened out or upheaved in a chaos of tumbled earth, giving to
the countryside a weird resemblance to the surface of the moon.
At 4.45 P.M. the German infantry advanced, although the first
day only on a 2% m. front. From then until Feb. 24 the de-
fenders' line east of the Meuse was crumbled away as by the
erosion of the tide.
"Operations" still argued that it was only a feint, but Joffre
decided to send de Castelnau to discover the true situation and
with full powers to act. De Castelnau swung back the right
flank but ordered the line of the forts to be held at all costs
and entrusted the defence to Peiain, for whose use a reserve
army was assembled. Plain's first problem was not so much de-
fence as supply — the German heavy guns had closed all avenues
into the salient except one light railway and the Bar-le-Duc road.
While gangs of territorial troops worked night and day to keep
this in repair and widen it, Petain organized the front into sectors
and threw in repeated counter-attacks, which, helped by the
narrowness of the front, at least slowed down the advance.
Falkenhayn sought, somewhat late, to widen the front, and on
March 6 the Germans extended the attack to the west bank of
the Meuse. But the defence was now stiffening, the numbers
balanced, and the immediate thrust to Verdun was checked.
A slight lull followed, and during it the Allies of France made
efforts to relieve the pressure on her. The British took over the
Arras front from the French loth Army, their front becoming
now continuous from the Yser to the Somme, the Italians made
their fifth attack, though in vain, on the Isonzo front, and the
Russians hurled untrained masses on the German front at Lake
Narocz, near Vilna, once more striking prematurely and gal-
lantly sacrificing themselves to help their Allies. The slight
gains were soon lost through a counter-stroke. These efforts did
not prevent Falkenhayn pursuing his attrition offensive at Ver-
dun. (See further VERDUN, BATTLES OF.) The advances were
slight but they were cumulative in effect, and the balance of loss
turned definitely against the defenders. On June 7 Fort Vaux
fell, and the German tide crept ever closer to Verdun, seeming
to the anxious watchers to resemble the forces of nature rather
than of men. And in the Asiago (q.v.) region, Conrad had
launched his offensive against Italy's Trentino flank.
Brusiloy's Offensive,— Again Russia came to the rescue. In
the spring of 1916 she had 130 divisions, but was woefully short
764
WORLD WAR
L BRUSILOV'S OFFENSIVE
of equipment, facing 46 German and 40 Austrian divisions. The
preparation and reorganization for her intended share in the
year's Allied offensive were cut short by the emergency at Verdun
and in relief of her French allies she had launched a costly and
obstinately prolonged attack at Lake Narocz in March. When
it was at last broken off, the preparations for the main offensive
were resumed. This was to begin in July, coincidently with the
Somme offensive and Brusilov, commanding the south-western
front, was ordered to prepare such attacks as he could stage from
his own resources as a distraction of the enemy's attention from
the main offensive. But the distraction was released prematurely,
on June 4, in response to Italy's appeal to Russia to prevent the
Austrians reinforcing their Trentino attack. Without warning,
because without any special concentration of troops, Brusilov's
troops advanced against the Austrian 4th Army near Luck (q.v.)
and the Austrian 7th Army in the Bukovjna, whose resistance
collapsed at the first shock. In three days Brusilov took 200,000
prisoners. This last vital effort of the Russian army in the war
had important consequences. It stopped the Austrian attack on
Italy, already impaired by an Italian riposte. It compelled Falk-
enhayn to withdraw troops from the Western front, and so aban-
don his plan for a counter-stroke against the British offensive pre-
paring on the Sommc, as well as the hope of nourishing his Verdun
attrition process. It led Rumania to take her fateful decision to
enter the war on the Entente side, and caused the supersession of
Falkenhayn in the supreme command and his replacement by
Hindenburg — with Ludendorff, officially styled First Quarter-
master-General, as the directing brain.
Although Rumania's entry was the ostensible reason, the under-
lying one was the fact that Falkenhayn 's "limited'* strategy in
1915 had made possible- the Russian recovery which stultified the
strategy of 1916. Falkenhayn was history's latest example of
the folly of half-measures, the ablest and most scientific general
— "penny wise, pound foolish" — who ever ruined his country
by a refusal to take calculated risks. In 1916 he had turned back
westwards to pursue his long cherished goal, and his strategy had
faithfully fulfilled the canons of military orthodoxy by taking
for its objective the enemy's strongest acmy and the strongest
point of that army's position. It certainly achieved the object
of compelling the French to pour their reserves into the Verdun
"blood-bath," but did not effect any decisive strategic result.
Falkenhayn had rejected Conrad's proposal for a concentration
against Italy such as had previously overthrown Serbia. Con-
rad's reasons had been that such a blow against the "hereditary
enemy" would act as a tonic to the Austro-Hungarian forces and
that the theatre of war lent itself to decisive results by a thrust
southwards from the Trentino against the rear of the Italian
armies engaged on the Isonzo. The success attained by the rela-
tively light blow of 1917 — Caporetto — lends historical support
to his contention. But Falkenhayn was dubious both of the
feasibility and value of the plan and was unwilling even to lend
the nine German divisions which Conrad asked for to relieve
Austrian divisions in Galicia. In default of this aid Conrad per-
sisted in attempting his design single-handed, taking some of his
best divisions from Galicia, and thereby exposing their front to
Brusilov's advance without obtaining adequate force to achieve
his Italian front plan. Falkenhayn 's smouldering resentment at
this disregard of his views was fanned into flame by the Galician
disaster, and he intervened in Vienna to procure the deposition
of Conrad. His own fall followed hard on Conrad's heels.
Brusilov's offensive continued for three months with fair suc-
cess, but reserves were not at hand for immediate exploitation,
and before they could be moved down from the north the Ger-
mans were patching up the holes. His later efforts were never
so dangerous, but they absorbed all the available Russian re-
serves, and their ultimate loss of 1,000,000 casualties completed
the virtual ruin of Russia's military power.
The Somme. — Great as was the influence of Brusilov's offen-
sive on German strategy, its effect on the Verdun situation was
less immediate, and on June 23 the Germans almost reached the
Belleville height, the last outwork of Verdun. P£tain made all
ready for an evacuation of the east bank of the Meuse, though to
his troops he showed no sign of anxiety, and ever repeated the
now immortal phrase, "On les aura!'*
But on July i, the long-planned offensive on the Somme (f/.v.).
began, and from that day on the Germans at Verdun received no
new divisions, and their advance died away from pure inanition.
Nevertheless, although the Germans at Verdun had fallen short
of their object, moral and material, they had so drained the
French army that it could play but a slender part in the Allied
plan for 1916. The British had now to take up the main burden
of the struggle, and the consequence was to limit both the scope
and effect of the Entente strategy.
On July i, after a week's prolonged bombardment, the British
4th Army (recently created and placed under Rawlinson) at-
tacked with 15 divisions on a front of 15 m. north of the Somme,
and the French with five divisions on a front of 8 m., mainly
south of the river, where the German defence system was less
highly developed. The unconcealed preparations and the long
bombardment had given away any chance of surprise, and in face
of the German resistance, weak in numbers but strong in organiza-
tion, the attack failed along most of the British front. Owing to
the dense and rigid wave formations that were adopted the losses
were appallingly heavy. Only on the south of the British front,
near Fricourt and Montauban, did the attack gain a real footing
in the German defences. The French, with slighter opposition,
and being less expected, made a deeper advance.
This setback negatived the original idea of a fairly rapid pene-
tration to Bapaume and Cambrai, and Haig adopted the attrition
method of limited advances aimed to wear down the German
strength. Rejecting Joffre's desire that he should again throw his
troops frontaJly on the Thicpval defences, the attack was resumed
on the southern British flank alone, and on July 14 the capture
of the Germans' second position offered the chance of exploita-
tion, which was not taken. From now onward a methodical but
costly advance continued, and although little ground was gained
the German resistance was seriously strained when the early onset
of winter rains suspended operations in November. The effect,
however, can be exaggerated, for it did not prevent the Germans
withdrawing troops for the attack on Rumania. But in one re-
spect the Somme shed a significant light on the future, for on
Sept. 15 the first tanks (q.v.) appeared. Their early employment
before large numbers were ready was a mistake; losing the chance
of a great strategic surprise, and owing also to tactical mishan-
dling and minor technical defects they only had a limited success.
Although the higher military authorities lost faith in them, and
some urged their abandonment, more discerning eyes realized that
here was a key which, when properly used, would unlock the
trench barrier. The Somme offensive had a further indirect effect,
for its relief to the Verdun pressure enabled the French to prepare
counter-strokes, carried out by Mangin's corps on Oct. 24 and
Dec. 15, which regained most of the lost ground with small casu-
i alties. These economic successes were due to a revival of surprise,
to a more elastic use of the limited objective method, and to a
high concentration of artillery, with a minimum of infantry, to
occupy the defences crushed by the guns.
The Conquest of Rumania.— Rumania, sympathetic to the
Entente cause, had been waiting a favourable opportunity to enter
the war on their side, and Brusilov's success encouraged her to
take the plunge. Her command hoped that this success, combined
with the Allied pressure on the Somme and at Salonika, would
draw off the German reserves. She might have fared better and
contributed more if she had taken the decision earlier, when
Serbia was still an active force and Russia a real one. The two
years of preparation had doubled the numbers of the Rumanian
army, but in reality reduced its relative efficiency, for while other
armies had developed with experience, Rumania's isolation and
the incapacity of her military leadership had prevented the trans-
formation of her army from a militia of "bayonet men" into a
modern force. Her 10 active divisions had only a low proportion
of inachine-gims, 5 of the 1 3 newly formed divisions had none at
all, the artillery was inadequate and the air force negligible. She
had only six weeks' supply of ammunition at the start and her
allies failed to fulfil their guarantees of supply. Moreover, her
CAPTURE OF BAGHDAD]
WORLD WAR
765
strategical situation was another source of weakness — her terri-
tory forming an "L" reversed with the bottom section, Wallachia,
sandwiched between Transylvania and Bulgaria, while the length
of the frontier was out of all proportion to the depth of the
country, with a shortage of lateral railways and the capital within
30 m. of the Bulgarian frontier. Further, she had in the Dobruja,
on the other side of the Danube, a "back-yard" strip which offered
an easy way of access.
These handicaps were accentuated by the divergent counsels of
the Allies. While the British General Staff favoured a southward
advance against Bulgaria which might have crushed the latter
between the Rumanians and the Salonika army, the Russians urged
a westward advance which would, in theory, be in closer co-
operation with their own Bukovina advance. The political and
moral advantages of a move into Transylvania led the Rumanians
to adopt the second course. This has been much criticized, but
without sufficient appreciation of the fact that the advance into
Transylvania placed the Austro-German command in an awkward
predicament, which might easily have btj^n disastrous if the inva-
sion had not been so sluggish. At the outset she had 23 divisions
against 7 opposing her, but within a week the enemy would be,
and were, able to raise this figure to 15.
The Rumanian advance began, on Aug. 27, with three main
columns each of about 4 divisions, moving north-west through the
Carpathian passes, the general conception being to pivot on the
left and wheel the right up into line facing west when the Hun-
garian plain was reached. To guard the Danube three divisions
were left and three more in the Dobruja, whither the Russians
had promised to send two — Rumania's original stipulation had
been that a force of 150,000 Russians should be sent.
The slow and cautious advance of the Rumanian columns, ham-
pered by the poverty and destruction of communications, but not
by resistance, withheld danger from the five weak Austrian divi-
sions which covered the frontier and enabled their reinforcement
by five German and two Austrian divisions. In fulfilment of the
other half of the plan, made by Falkenhayn before his fall, four
Bulgarian divisions with Austro-German technical troops were
to be placed under Mackenscn for the invasion of the Dobruja.
While the Rumanian columns were creeping westward into
Transylvania, Mackensen stormed the Turtucaia bridgehead on
Sept. 5, destroying the three Rumanian divisions which covered
the Danube front, and then, with his flank secure, pressed east-
wards into the Dobruja. This automatically drew away reserves
from, and thereby halted the Rumanian offensive in Transylvania,
while Falkenhayn had arrived to take charge. Finding that the
Rumanian columns, now at a standstill1 were dispersed over a
2oo-mile front, Falkenhayn concentrated against the southern
column which had crossed the Rother Turm Pass, while using
smaller forces to hold off the others. Having thrown this
column back through the mountains by a convergent man-
oeuvre in which the Alpine Corps made a 5o-mile march in three
clays, Falkenhayn then profited by the despatch of the Rumanian
reserves against Mackensen to concentrate his forces against the
Rumanian centre column at Brasov (Kronstadt). By Oct. 9 he
had driven this back in turn but he missed his greater goal of
encircling it, which would have opened for him a clear passage into
Rumania. The mischance jeopardised the whole German plan and
almost saved Rumania, for with all the passes still in their hands,
her troops sturdily repulsed all efforts to press through on their
heels. A prompt attempt by Falkenhayn to swing further south
and force a way by the Vulcan and Szurduk passes was foiled and
the beginning of the winter snows was on the point of blocking
operations when a concentrated last-hour effort at the same point,
Nov. 11-17, broke through. It was the signal for the next move
in the German plan. Mackensen had switched his main forces
westwards, and on Nov. 23 crossed the Danube close to Bucharest,
on which both armies now converged. It fell on Dec. 6, and,
despite belated Russian aid, the Rumanian forces were driven
north into the upper section of the Rumanian "L." The bril-
liantly co-ordinated German strategy had crippled their new foe,
gained possession of the bulk of Rumania, with its oil and wheat,
and gave the Russians another 300 m. of front to hold. Sarrail,
at Salonika, had not succeeded in detaining the Bulgarian re-
serves.
The Capture of Baghdad.— The only territorial success that
the Entente could Show for their year's campaign was away in
Mesopotamia — the capture of Baghdad, and this moral token was
seized on with an enthusiasm which, militarily, it hardly war-
ranted. The bitter experience of the past had damped the ardour
of the British Government, and Sir William Robertson, the new
Chief of the Imperial General Staff, was opposed to any further
commitments which drained the strength available for the West-
ern front. But Maude, the new commander on the spot, by subtle,
if unconscious, steps succeeded in changing this defensive policy
into one of a fresh offensive. After thorough reorganization of
the Mesopotamian force and its communications, he began on
Dec. 12, 1916, a progressive right wheel and extension of his
front on the west bank of the Tigris above and below Kut. These
methodical trench-warfare operations had placed him ready for a
spring across the Tigris at the Turks7 line of retreat, which was
thus parallel to his front. But despite his four-to-one superiority
of force, the failure of his right to pin down the enemy and of
his cavalry to cut off their retreat prevented a decisive success.
But it led to permission for an advance on Baghdad, and he en-
tered the Mesopotamian capital on March n, 1917. A series of
skilfully conducted operations then drove the Turks into divergent
lines of retreat and secured the British hold on the province.
The Advance on Palestine. — Ever since the abortive Turk-
ish attempt to invade Egypt early in 1915, the British had kept
large forces there, even when the Dardanelles expedition was cry-
ing out for troops. When Gallipoli was evacuated, the release of
the Turkish forces threatened a fresh move on Egypt. To antici-
pate this by gaining command of the Sinai desert, Sir Archibald
Murray advanced in the spring of 1916, defeating the Turkish
forces, freshly arrived, at Romani, Magdhaba and Rafa. The rate
of advance was governed by the time taken in extending a railway
and pipe-line (for water), across the desert. This new ''Exodus"
inspired the British Government to carry out an invasion of Pal-
estine, at as cheap a cost in troops as possible. The towns of
Gaza, on the coast, and Beershcba, 25 m. inland, guarded the ap-
proach to Palestine. Murray attacked Gaza on March 26, but the
attempt fell short when on the brink of success. By nightfall
Gaza was practically surrounded but the victorious position was
given up bit by bit, not under enemy pressure but on the orders
of the executive British commanders, through faulty information,
misunderstandings and over-anxiety. Nor did the harm end there
for Murray reported the action to the Government in terms of a
victory, and without hint of the subsequent withdrawal, so that
he was encouraged to attempt, without adequate reconnaissance
or fire support, a further attack on April 17-19 which proved a
costlier failure against defences now strengthened. (See further
PALESTINE CAMPAIGNS.)
The Capture of Gorizia. — The Austrian offensive in the Tren-
tino had interrupted Cadorna's plans for a renewed effort on the
Isonzo, but when the former was halted, Cadorna switched his
reserves back to the Isonzo. In preparation for this offensive
the whole sector from Monte Sabot ino to the sea was entrusted
to the Duke of Aosta's 3rd Army, under which 16 divisions were
concentrated, against six Austrian divisions. Following a prelim-
inary feint near the sea on Aug. 4, the attack opened well two
days later. North of Gorizia Capello's corps swept over the long
impregnable Monte Sabotino, which guarded the approach to the
river, and, crossing the river on the night of Aug. 8, occupied the
town. This compelled an Austrian retreat on the Carso sector to
the south, but attempts to exploit the success eastward failed
against fresh positions of resistance. Three more efforts were
made in the autumn and if they imposed a wearing strain on the
Austrians they caused greater loss to the attackers. During the
year Italians had suffered some 483,000 casualties and inflicted
260,000.
The War at Sea, 1915-16.-— Oerraany's first submarine cam-
paign—associated by Allied opinion with the name of Admiral
von Tirpitz, the exponent of ruthlessness— had been a signal fail-
ure, both in its meagre results and the disproportionate ethical
766
WORLD WAR
[WESTERN CAMPAIGN, 1917
damage it did to Germany's cause. A series of Notes exchanged
between the American and German Governments, culminated in
April 1916 in a virtual ultimatum from President Wilson, and Ger-
many abandoned her unrestricted campaign/ The deprivation of
this weapon spurred the German navy to its first, and last, attempt
to carry out the initial plan on which it had begun the war. On
May 30, 1916, the British Grand Fleet left its bases on one of
its periodical sweeps through the North sea, but with reason to
expect a possible encounter. On. May 31, early in the morning, the
German High Sea Fleet also put to sea, in the hope of destroying
some isolated portion of the British fleet.
For such an encounter the British admiral, Jellicoe, had formu-
lated an outline plan in the early months of the war. Its basis
was the cardinal necessity of maintaining the unimpaired suprem-
acy of the Grand Fleet, which he viewed as an instrument not
merely of battle but of grand strategy, the pivot of the Allies*
action in all spheres, economic, moral and military. Hence while
desirous of bringing the German tlcct to battle under his own
conditions he was determined not to be lured into mine and sub-
marine infested waters.
Early in the afternoon of May 31, Beatty, with his battle-
cruisers and a squadron of battleships, after a sweep to the south
was turning north to rejoin Jellicoe, when he sighted the German
battle-cruisers, five in number. In the initial engagement two of
Realty's six battlecruisers were hit in vital parts and sunk; when
thus weakened he came upon the main German fleet under Ad-
miral Scheer. He turned north to lure them into reach of Jellicoe,
50 m. distant, who raced to support him. To describe the intricate
and much debated manoeuvres which followed is neither possible
nor would it be just within the limits of this article, a strategical
and not a tactical survey. Mist and failing light put an end to an
indecisive action, which, however, left the British fleet between
the German and its bases. During the night Scheer broke through
the destroyer guard, and, although sighted, was not reported. Then
he slipped safely through a net which Jellicoe dared not draw too
close in view of his guiding principle and the danger of torpedo
attack.
But if the battle of Jutland (</.v.) could be counted a tactical
advantage to the Germans, it had no effect on their strategic posi-
tion. Britain's command of the sea was intact, and the grip on
the blockade on Germany unrelaxed. Once more she fell back on
submarine warfare, and the first development was an extension
of range. In July one of her new large submarine-cruisers ap-
peared off the American coast and sank several neutral ships. In
British and Mediterranean waters the pressure began seriously
to affect the sea-borne trade and food supplies of the Entente.
Various remedies were tried — the most effective being a system
of sailing in convoys — but the only truly adequate measure, that
of penning the Germans in their bases by close-in minefields, was
debarred by Britain's failure to obtain a decisive battle success.
But if Britain was feeling the strain of economic pressure, so also
was Germany, and her lenders feared that the race between de-
cisive success on land and economic collapse would end against
her. The naval authorities declared that a renewal of the "unlim-
ited" submarine campaign, which with her increased numbers
could now be far more intense, would bring the Entente to their
knees. Accepting this opinion, Ludendorff consented to a step
which he had hitherto opposed, and on Feb. i, 1917, it was inau-
gurated— with the full realization that it involved the weight of
America being thrown into the scales against them.
VIII. THE PENULTIMATE YEAR
Despite incessant provocation for two years, since the "Lusi-
tania" incident, President Wilson had held to his neutral policy,
and if his excess of patience angered many of his own people it
.at least was the means of consolidating American opinion and
reconciling it as a whole to intervention in the war. Meantime
he strove by speech and by the agency of Col. House — his unoffi-
cial ambassador — to find a basis of peace on which the belligerents
could agree. This effort was doomed to failure by its misunder-
standing of the psychology of the warring peoples and of the
fundamental objects for which they were fighting. He was still
thinking in terms of traditional warfare, between governmental
policies, while the conflict had long since passed into the wider
sphere of the struggle of peoples dominated by the primitive
instinct of self-preservation.
The declaration of the unlimited submarine campaign brought
convincing proof of the futility of these peace hopes and of the
reality of the German intentions, and when followed by the delib-
erate sinking of American ships and an attempt to instigate
Mexico to action against the United States, President Wilson hesi-
tated no longer, and on April 6, 1917, America entered the war
against Germany.
Her potential force in man-power and material was illimitable
but, even more unready than Britain in 1914, it must be long in
exerting more than a moral influence, and Germany confidently
anticipated that the submarine campaign would take decisive
effect within a few months. How near her calculation came to
fulfilment the record of 1917 and 1918 bears witness.
The Western Front Campaign of 1917. — The year 1916
closed in gloom for the Entente The simultaneous offensive on
all fronts, planned a year before, had misfired, the French army
was at a low ebb, the Russian still lower, the Somme had failed
to produce visible results in any way proportional to its cost, and
another fresh ally had been overrun. At sea the negativeness of
Jutland was a disappointment, and although Germany's first
submarine campaign had been abandoned a stronger one was
threatened. To offset these debits, the Entente could only shqw
the capture of distant Baghdad and the limited Italian success at
Gorizia in August, whose value, however, was mainly as a moral
tonic to Italy herself.
Among the Allied peoples and their political representatives
there was a growing sense of depression. On the one hand it took
the form of dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war and, on
the other, of discouragement over the prospects of a victorious
conclusion to the war, and a tendency to discuss the possibilities
of a peace by negotiation. The first-named tendency was the
first to come to a head and was signalized in London, the political
mainspring of the Allies, by the replacement of Asquith's Govern-
ment on Dec. 1 1 by one with Lloyd George as its chief. The order
of precedence in events had a significant effect. For Lloyd George
had come into power as the spokesman of a widespread demand
for a more vigorous and more efficient prosecution of the war.
The second tendency received an impulse from the German
peace move of Dec. 12, after the fall of Bucharest, which pro-
posed an opening of peace discussions. This suggestion was re-
jected as insincere by the Allied Governments, but it afforded
the opportunity of President Wilson, on whose behalf Col. House
had long been sounding the belligerent Governments as to the
prospects of mediation, to invite these to define their war aims
as a preliminary to practical negotiation. The German reply was
evasive, the Allied replies were considered by their opponents
inacceptable as a basis of discussion, and the tentative peace
moves subsided.
But while this wave of depression was surging on the "home-
front," the Allied commanders continued optimistic. In Novem-
ber Joffre assembled, at Chantilly, a further conference of the
commanders at which it was agreed that the Germans were in
great difficulties on the Western front, and that the situation of
the Allies was more favourable than it had ever been.
The fighting strength of the British army had grown to about
1,200,000 men, and was still growing. The fighting strength of
the French army had been increased by the incorporation of
native troops to some 2,600,000, so that, including the Belgians,
it was estimated that the Allies disposed of about 3,900,000 men
against about 2,500,000 Germans.
Joffre declared that the French army could maintain its strength
for one more great battle, but that thereafter it must progres-
sively decline, as France had no longer a sufficient number of men
of military age to replace losses. He therefore warned Haig that
during the coming year the burden must fall more and more upon
the British army. It was also agreed that in view of these factors
the relative superiority of the Allies on the Western front would
be greater in the spring of 1917 than at any time which could be
WESTERN CAMPAIGN, 1917]
WORLD WAR
767
foreseen with certainty. In consequence it was decided to take
the earliest opportunity of pressing the advantage gained on the
Somme, and to continue the process of exhausting the enemy's re-
serves as preparation for an effort which should be decisive. An
alternative proposal was made by Gen. Cadorna that the French
and British should co-operate in a combined thrust from the
Italian front against Austria with the object of knocking this
"weaker partner" out of the war. But it was rejected by the
French and British commanders, despite Lloyd George's espousal
of it at the Allied conference held in Rome in January. Their
objection was that it involved a fresh diversion of strength away
from the main front, where alone, they held, success could have
decisive results.
The Entente plan for 1917 was soon to be complicated by
changes in the command. French opinion had tired of the meagre
results of Joffre's attrition strategy, and the method of the
limited objective had fallen into disfavour because of the un-
limited losses on the wrong side, which accompanied it without
apparent gain. They contrasted the dull course of his strategy
with the brilliant results gained by Mangin at Verdun, in the
autumn, under Nivelle's direction, and as a result Joffre gave
place to Nivelle, who promised a real break-through. His con-
fidence so inspired Lloyd George, the new British prime minister,
that Haig was subordinated to him for the forthcoming opera-
tions— an arrangement which violated the axiom that a general
cannot direct one force while exercising executive command of
another. For carrying out a plan essentially audacious, Nivelle
had two further handicaps; he failed to convert several of his
subordinates to the idea, and he was given less rein by the Gov-
ernment than his predecessor. Again, while Joffre had intimated
that the British must take the chief part, Nivelle changed this
policy, and in his desire to conserve the glory for France over-
looked how severely the French fighting power had been strained.
Joffre's plan had been for a convergent attack on the great Ger-
man salient Lens-Noyon-Reims, first against its west flank and
then against its south — the British to attack north of the Somme,
including but extending beyond the old battle ground, and the
French south of it to the Oise. The attacks were to begin early
in February and to be followed by a French main attack in
Champagne. Nivelle's change was to ask the British to take over
more of the front — south of the Somme — in order to release
French troops for the Champagne blow, and as a result the start
was postponed a month.
Before it could begin the Germans had dislocated it. Luden-
dorffs first step had been to set on foot a complete programme
for the reorganization and expansion of German man-power,
munitions and supplies. While this was developing, he intended to
stand on the defensive, hoping that the new submarine campaign
would either decide the issue or pave the way for a decisive
blow on land when his new reserves of men and material were
ready. Anticipating the renewal of the Entente advance on the
Somme, he had a new line of defence, of great artificial strength,
built across the chord of the arc Lens-Noyon-Reims. Then after
devastating the whole area inside the arc, he began a methodical
retirement, by stages, to the new line called by the Germans the
"Siegfried" and by the Allies the "Hindenburg" line. A con-
summate manoeuvre, if brutal in application, it showed that
Ludendorff had the moral courage to give up territory if cir-
cumstances advised it. The British, confronted with a desert,
were inevitably slow in pursuit, and their preparations for an
attack on this front were thrown out of gear, limiting them to
the sector around Arras (q.v.), where the front was unchanged.
On April 9 Allenby's 3rd Army opened the spring offensive at
this point, taking the long-sought Vimy ridge, but failed to de-
velop its initial success, and continued the attack too long after
the resistance had hardened. This costly action was partly pro-
longed in order to take the pressure off the French. For the
French blow between the Somme and the Oise had been stulti-
fied by the German retirement, and the main attack on April 16
east and west of Reims (see CHAMPAGNE, BATTLES IN) was a
worse fiasco with a dangerous sequel. With a prolonged bom-
bardment giving away any chance of surprise, and without first
drawing away the German reserves, the idea of a rapid break-
through was doomed to fail. The high hopes that had been raised
caused the greater reaction, and the troops were weary of being
thrown against barbed wire and machine-guns to no apparent
effect. Accentuated by service grievances, mutinies broke out in
the French armies, and no less than 16 corps were affected. In
these circumstances Nivelle was replaced by Petain, whose first
concern was to restore the shaken morale of the French troops,
and for the rest of the year the British bore the brunt of the
campaign. Their strength in France was now at its highest— 64
divisions, supplied with an abundance of artillery and ammuni-
tion. The strain, however, was increased by the failure of Russia
to make any effective contribution to the pressure on Germany,
owing to the revolution which broke out in March. Haig decided
to keep the Germans occupied by carrying out the original plan
for an offensive in Belgium, and if the principle was right the
method and choice of site were open to criticism.
The initial move was an attack on the Messines (q.v.) ridge in
order to straighten out the Ypres salient and attract the enemy's
reserves. Carried out by the 2nd Army under Plumer, with Har-
ington as chief of staff, it proved a model example of the "limited"
attack with success economically gained by able staff work and
co-operation between the arms.
It was followed on July 31 by the main attack at Ypres (see
YPRES, BATTLES OF, JQI?) which, hampered by the heavy rain,
was foredoomed by its own destruction of the intricate drainage
system of the area. The British command had persevered for
two and a half years with the method of a prolonged preparatory
bombardment, believing that quantity of shells was the key to
success, and that, unlike all the great captains of history, they
could disregard the element of surprise. The offensive at Ypres,
which was finally submerged in the swamps of Passchendaele in
early November, threw into stronger relief than ever before the
fact that such a bombardment blocked the advance for which
it was intended to pave the way — because it made the ground im-
passable. The discomfiture was increased by the new German
method of defence, which Ludendorff introduced, of thinning
the front defences and using the men so saved for prompt local
counter-attacks. The defence was built up of a framework of
machine-guns distributed in concrete "pill-boxes" and disposed
in great depth. On the British side the profitless toll of this
struggle in the mud was to some extent mitigated by better staff
work when the direction of the attack was handed over to
Plumer's 2nd Army.
Three months of dreadful struggle came to an end with the
British not appreciably nearer their immediate object of driving
the Germans from their submarine bases in the Belgian ports,
and if they had worn down the German strength they had worn
down their own still more.
The Renaissance of Surprise at Cambrai. — The 1917 cam-
paign in the West closed, however, on a note brighter in promise
if not in accomplishment. Appreciating from the first days the
futility of using tanks in these Flanders swamps, the Tank Corps
headquarters looked around for an area where they could try out
a new and different method. The chief general staff officer, Col.
Fuller, drew up a project for a large scale raid to scour a canal-
enclosed "pocket" near Cambrai (q.v.), where the rolling down-
land lent itself to tank movement. The basic idea was the release
of a swarm of tanks without any preparatory bombardment to
give warning of the attack. When their hopes at Ypres waned,
the British command adopted the scheme, retaining the basic
idea, but transforming the operation into a definite offensive with
far-reaching aims, for which they had not the resources because
of the drain of Ypres. The operation was to be carried out by
Byng's 3rd Army with six divisions, and the date was fixed for
Nov. 20. Led by nearly 400 tanks, the attack came as a com-
plete surprise, and despite minor checks achieved a penetration
far deeper and at less cost than any past British offensive. But
all the available troops and tanks were thrown into the first blow,
and the higher command failed to give Byng the few reserves
they still possessed in time to exploit the success. The cavalry,
as always throughout the operations on the Western front, proved
y68
WORLD WAR
[CAPORETTO
totally unable to carry out this important r61e.
Thus the advance died away, and on Nov. 30 the German
army commander, Marwitz, launched a counter-stroke against
the flanks of the salient created by the British advance. In the
north it was parried, but in the south broke through, and a
disaster was only averted by the superb counter-attack, first of
the Guards Division and later of a tank brigade. But if Cambrai
was a disappointment it revealed that surprise and the tank were
the combination by which the trench barrier could be unlocked.
Meanwhile Petain, after overhauling his instrument, the French
army, sought to test its readiness for 1918. In August a stroke
by Guillaumat's army recovered all the remainder of the ground
lost in 1916, and in October Maistre's army flattened the south-
west corner of the German front, seizing the Chcmin des Dames
ridge.
The Collapse of Russia. — The temporary breakdown of the
French fighting power was not the worst of the troubles which
together crippled the Entente offensive in 1917. The collapse,
first partial and then complete, of Russia was a loss which even
the entry of America into the war could not possibly compensate
for many months, and before the balance was restored the West-
ern Allies were to be perilously near the brink of defeat. Russia's
enormous losses, due to her own defective machine but incurred
in sacrifice for her Allies, had undermined the morale even more
than the material endurance of her forces. Revolution broke out
in March, superficially against the corrupt entourage of the tsar,
but with more deep-seated moral causes beneath. The tsar was
forced to abdicate and a moderate Provisional Government
climbed into the saddle, but without reins. This was only a
makeshift, and in May another succeeded it, more Socialist in
tendency and outwardly led by Kerensky. While clamouring for
a general peace and undermining discipline by a system of com-
mittee control suitable to a trade union but not to the field of
battle, Kerensky imagined he could send troops against the enemy
by platform appeals.
Brusilov succeeded Alexeiev in the supreme command, and on
July i the army gained some initial success against the Austrians,
especially in the region of Stanislau, only to stop as soon as real
resistance was met, and to crumble directly the Germans counter-
attacked. By early August the Russians had been driven out of
Galicia and the Bukovina, and it was only policy which halted
the Austro-German forces on the frontiers of Russia itself. In
September the Germans took the opportunity to practise their
new method of attack intended for use in France, and this sur-
prise attack, under Hutier's command, resulted in the capture
of Riga. Next month the Bolsheviks under Lenin overthrew the
wordy Kerensky, imposed their self-constituted rule on the Rus-
sian people and sought an armistice with Germany, which was
concluded in December.
Italy's Caporetto Disaster. — The defection of Russia did not
end the Entente tale of woe. Each autumn, with demoralizing
regularity, Germany had seized an opportunity to eat up one of
the weaker Allies. In 1915 it had been Serbia's fate, in 1916
Rumania's, and now it was Italy's turn, or so the Germans in-
tended. Ludendorffs decision, taken in September, was deter-
mined by the appeals of the Austrian authorities, who felt that
their troops could not endure the strain of another defensive
battle on the Italian frontier. In May, Cadorna had attacked once
nitre on the Isonzo front, but an Austrian counter-attack in the
Carso sector had retaken part of the small gains. Losses, how-
ever, were more nearly balanced than formerly. The question of
Allied co-operation on the Italian front was raised afresh with-
out result, but Cadorna, nevertheless, initiated in August an
"eleventh battle of the Isonzo." Capello's 2nd Army captured
a large part of the Bainsizza plateau, north of Gorizia, but a long
sustained effort brought no further success and Cadorna was
forced to break off the offensive after four weeks' struggle. But
it had so strained the Austrian resistance that, in LudendorfFs
words, "it became necessary to decide for the attack on Italy
in order to prevent the collapse of Austria-Hungary."
Ludendorff had a difficult problem to solve. Russia had not yet
capitulated, the front there was already weakly held for its
extent, and the British offensive in Flanders made impossible a
large withdrawal of troops from France. All he could spare was
his slender general reserve of six divisions, which had already
been his instrument in countering the Kerensky offensive and in
the Riga coup. His adviser in the strategic design of operations,
Lt.-Col. Wetzell, was, however, of opinion that the application
of even this small force at a "soft spot" such as was offered by
the Tolmino-Caporetto sector, north of the Bainsizza plateau,
would suffice to cripple the Italian menace. The result proved
him right — the trouble was that it unduly exceeded the most
sanguine expectations. On Aug. 29 Waldstatten, of the Austrian
general staff, had brought to Ludendorff a scheme for a break-
through at Tolmino, followed merely by rolling up the Isonzo
front. But this plan was expanded into a more ambitious one with-
out an increase of means. The Germans at Caporetto, like the
British subsequently at Cambrai, were to provide an example
of the profound strategic error of not "cutting your coat accord-
ing to your cloth."
On hearing the Austrian, proposals Ludendorff sent Gen. Krafft
von Dcllmensingen, an expert in mountain warfare and com-
mander of the Alpine Corps in the Rumanian campaign, to
reconnoitre the ground, and on receiving his report, approved the
scheme. The six German divisions with nine Austrian formed
the 1 4th German Army under Otto von Below, with Krafft as
chief of staff and guiding brain. These troops were to penetrate
the mountain barrier at the north-east corner of the Venetian
salient, while Boroevic's two Austrian armies were to advance
along the stretch of lower ground near the Adriatic shore. The
organization and deployment of the attack in such mountainous
country were difficult, but were ably overcome. Guns were
brought up mostly by hand and at night; the infantry came up
by night marches with all their ammunition and supplies on pack
animals. Thanks to skilful precautions and the Italians' limited
air reconnaissance, the concentration was undiscovered. On Oct.
24, after four hours' gas shell bombardment and one hour general,
the blow was launched and pushed deep down the western slopes
of the mountains, imperilling the Italian forces to both south and
north. On Oct. 28 Below's van reached Udine, the former Italian
general headquarters, and on Oct. 31 the Tagliamento.
Not the least significant feature of this offensive was the way
it was prepared by a moral bombardment. Propaganda has been
exploited for months as a means of sapping the Italian disci-
pline and will to resist. But its effect can be exaggerated — the
most formidable propaganda, as with the French in April, was
that supplied by the attrition strategy of the Italian command,
which had sickened the troops by its limited results at unlimited
cost. Cadorna, too, offset undoubted ability by his lack of touch
with and understanding of the fighting troops. Troops already too
highly tried were kept too long without relief. Despite warnings
of a hostile offensive, he had paid too little heed to Capello's
complaints about the defensive suitability of the positions on
which the Italian offensive had stopped, and had overruled his
desire to forestall the enemy by a flank thrust northwards from
the Bainsizza plateau.
But the result also surprised Ludendorff, who, with his slender
forces, had not calculated on such distant objectives as were
now possible of attainment. Boroevic was slow in following up
the Italian right, and Ludendorff tried to switch part of his force
to Conrad's army which flanked the north of the Venetian salient,
but was foiled by the inadequacy of the rail communications.
Even so, Cadorna, with his centre broken through, only saved his
wings by a precipitate retreat to the line of the Piave, covering
Venice, and on Nov. 9 the whole Italian army was behind this
river, except for 250,000 prisoners in the enemy's hands, and
nearly twice as many other casualties — killed, missing or sick.
The same day Cadorna was superseded in supreme command by
Diaz. Italy's allies had begun to rush reinforcements, a British
and a French army corps, to her aid, and on Nov. 5 their po-
litical and military chiefs arrived at Rapallo for a conference,
out of which sprang the Allied Council at Versailles, and ulti-
mately a unified command.
The invaders had outrun their transport, and the resistance of
CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM]
WORLD WAR
769
the Italians, morally braced by the emergency, succeeded in hold-
ing the Piave (q.v.) in face of direct assaults and strenuous ef-
forts by Conrad to turn their left flank from the Trentino. Here
Cadorna's preparations for defence had been long initiated and
were well matured. At the beginning of December the British and
French, who had been waiting in reserve in case of a fresh break-
through, moved forward to take over vulnerable sectors, but
the attack was only renewed in the north, and on Dec. 19 it
came to an end with the snows. If Caporetto seriously damaged
Italy, it also purged her, and after an interval of recuperation
she was to vindicate herself at Vittorio Veneto.
The Capture of Jerusalem. — Once more a distant theatre
of war provided the sole triumph of the Entente cause during the
year — this time in Palestine (Q.V.). The second reverse at Gaza,
in April 1917, had led to a change in command, Murray being
succeeded by Allenby, who was strong enough and fortunate
enough to obtain the adequate force for which Murray had asked
in vain. The British Government was anxious for a spectacular
success to offset the moral depression «f the Nivelle failure and
the decline of Russia, and the British general staff desired to
dislocate the Turkish attempt to recapture Baghdad by drawing
away their reserves.
Allenby took over in July and devoted the first three months
to intensive preparations for an autumn offensive, when the sea-
son would be suitable. The command was reorganized, the com-
munications developed, and his own headquarters moved forward
from Cairo to the front. By complete secrecy and ruses he de-
ceived the Turks as to the main point of attack. The defences
of Gaza were bombarded from Oct. 20 onwards, and an attack
followed on Nov. i to pin the enemy and draw in his reserves.
Meanwhile, as a necessary preliminary to the real blow, the inland
bastion of Beersheba was seized by a convergent manoeuvre on
Oct. 31, a prelude to the decisive attack on Nov. 6, which broke
through the enemy's weakened centre and into the plain of
Philistia.
Falkenhayn, now in command at Aleppo, had also been plan-
ning an offensive, but the better communications of the British
had decided the race, and although Falkenhayn tried to stem the
tide by a counter-stroke against. Beersheba, the breaking of his
centre compelled a general retreat. The pursuit was hampered
owing to lack of water, but, even so, by Nov. 14 the Turkish
forces were driven apart in two divergent groups, the port of
Jaffa was taken, and Allenby wheeled his main force to the right
for an advance inland on Jerusalem. He gained the narrow hill
passes before the Turks could block them, and after a necessary
pause to improve his communications, brought up reserves for a
fresh advance, which secured Jerusalem on Dec. 9. By the time
the winter rains set in the British had expanded and consolidated
their hold on the region. As a moral success the feat was valu-
able, yet viewed strategically, it seemed a long way round to the
goal. If Turkey be pictured as a bent old man, the British, after
missing their blow at his head — Constantinople — and omitting to
strike at his heart — Alexandretta — had now resigned themselves
to swallowing him from the feet upwards, like a python dragging
its endless length across the desert.
The Conquest of East Africa. — The year 1917 witnessed
another overseas success, the clearing of German East Africa,
although not the close of the campaign. More than a year elapsed
after the rebuff at Tanga before a serious attempt was made to
subdue the last German stronghold on the African continent.
To spare troops from the main theatres was difficult, and the
solution was only made possible by the loyal co-operation of
the South African Government. In Feb. 1916 Gen. Smuts was
appointed to command the expedition, and formed the plan of
a drive from north to south through the difficult interior, in order
to avoid the fever-rampant plain on the coast. In conjunction
with this central wedge, a Belgian force under Tombeur was to
advance eastwards from Lake Tanganyika, and a small British
force under Northey was to strike in from Nyasaland in the
south-west. The Germans under Lettow-Vorbeck were weak in
numbers but handled with masterly skill, and with all the ad-
vantages of an equatorial climate, a vast and trackless region —
mountainous in parts and covered with dense bush and forest —
to assist them in impeding the invader. From Dar-es Salaam on
the coast to Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika ran the one real line of rail
communication, across the centre of the colony. After driving
the Germans back across the frontier and seizing the Kiliman-
jaro gap, Smuts moved direct on this railway at Morogoro,
over 300 m. distant, while he dispatched a force under Van
Deventcr in a wide sweep to the west to cut the railway further
inland and then converge on Morogoro. Lettow-Vorbeck de-
layed this manoeuvre by a concentration against Van Deventer,
but Smuts's direct advance compelled him to hurry his force
back, and thus enabled Van Deventer to get astride the railway.
However, Letto-Vorbeck evaded the attempt to cut him off and
fell back in September on the Uluguru mountains to the south.
The Belgians and Northey had cleared the west, and the net had
been drawn steadily closer, confining Lettow-Vorbeck to the
south-east quarter of the colony. Early in 1917 Smuts returned
to England, and Van Deventer conducted the final operations
which ended with Lettow-Vorbeck, avoiding envelopment to the
end, slipping across the frontier into Portuguese Africa. Here
he maintained a guerrilla campaign throughout 1918 until the
general Armistice. With an original force of only 5,000, 5%
being Europeans, he had caused the employment of 130,000
enemy troops and the expenditure of £72,000,000.
The Mastering of the Submarine. — The military side of
1917 is thrown into shadow by the naval, or more strictly the
economic, side. The vital issue turned on the balance between
Germany's submarine pressure and Britain's resistance. April
was perhaps the most critical month. The Allies lost nearly a
million tons of shipping, 60% British, and although the German
navy's promise of victory by the end of the month was proved
a miscalculation, it was clear that, ultimately, the continuance
of such a ratio of loss must starve the civilian population and
automatically prevent the maintenance of the armies. Britain,
indeed, had only food enough to sustain her people for another
six weeks. The British Government sought to counter the menace
by the indirect means of rationing, increasing home production
and the expansion of shipbuilding; by the direct means of the
system of convoys with naval escorts, and a counter-offensive
against the submarine. Aided by new devices to detect the pres-
ence of submarines and the use of thousands of patrol craft,
this highly organized campaign exacted an ever-rising toll, and
by the end of 1917 the menace, if not broken, was at least sub-
dued. In this task America's aid became a potent factor long
before her military assistance. It embraced her provision of light
craft to reinforce the British anti-submarine fleet, her rapidly
developed construction of new mercantile ships, and still more
her financial aid. By July 1917 Britain had spent over £5,000,-
000,000, her daily expenditure had risen to £7,000,000, and the
burden of financing her Allies as well as her own efforts was
straining even her resources, when America's aid came to ease
the pressure.
These were the defensive benefits; the offensive were at least
as great. No longer was the grip of the naval blockade ham-
pered by neutral quibbles, but instead, America's co-operation
converted it into a strangle-hold under which the enemy must
soon grow limp, since military power is based on economic en-
durance. As a party to the war, the United States, indeed, wielded
the economic weapon with a determination, regardless of the re-
maining neutrals, far exceeding Britain's boldest claims in the
past years of controversy over neutral rights. The submarine
menace, crippled in 1917, was ended to all intents during the
early months of 1918. To this conclusion the greatest single con-
tribution was the laying of a mine-barrage by the American
navy across the 250 m. wide passage between Norway and Scot-
land. This was a direct counter to the main submarine operations
against the ocean-brought supplies of Great Britain. For the
small submarines which carried out the shorter range operations
the ports on the Belgian coast had afforded a base unpleasantly
close to English shores, but these also were now closed by the
daring attacks of Sir Roger Keyes's force on Zeebrugge and
Ostend. Yet the removal of the menace should not lead to an
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WORLD WAR
[GERMANY'S BID:
underestimate of its powers for the future. The 1917 cam-
paign was launched with only 148 submarines and from the
most unfavourable strategic position. Great. Britain lay like a
huge breakwater across the sea approaches to northern Europe
and the submarines had to get outside through narrow and closely-
watched outlets before they could operate against the arteries of
supply. And despite these handicaps they almost stopped the
beat of England's heart.
The Air Offensive. — Another new form of action reached
its crest at the same time as the submarine campaign. As the
submarine was primarily an economic weapon, so was the aero-
plane primarily a psychological weapon. The explosive bullet
had virtually ended the Zeppelin raids in 1916, but from early
in 1917 aeroplane raids on London grew in intensity until, by
May 1918, the air defences were so thoroughly organized that
the raiders thereafter abandoned London, as a target, for Paris.
If the stoicism of the civil population took much of the sting from
a weapon then in its infancy, the indirect effect was serious,
interrupting business and checking output in industrial centres,
as well as drawing off, for defence, many aircraft from the front.
In reply the British formed an Independent Air Force, which
carried out extensive raids into Germany during the closing
months of the war, with marked effect on the declining morale of
the "home front." To relate the action of aircraft in the military
sphere is not possible, for it formed a thread running through
and vitally influencing the whole course of operations, rather
than a separate strategic feature.
The beginning of 1918 witnessed the development and thor-
ough organization of another psychological weapon, when Lord
Northcliffe was appointed director of propaganda in enemy coun-
tries, and for the first time the full scope of such a weapon was
understood and exploited.
IX. GERMANY'S BID FOR VICTORY
On the Threshold of 1918.— The middle years of the World
War had been, in a military sense, a tussle between a lean
Hercules and a bulky Cerberus. The Germanic alliance was
weaker in numbers but directed by a single head, the Entente
stronger in numbers but with too many heads. Owing to their
own excessive losses, diffusion of effort and the collapse of Rus-
sia, the Entente, at the end of 1917, were faced with the grim
fact that the numerical balance had been reversed, and months
must elapse before the prospective stream of America's new
divisions came to tilt the scales once more in their favour.
The emergency paved the way for the creation of a unified com-
mand, but it still needed disaster to bring it into being.
At the conference at Rapallo in November, the formation of
a Supreme War Council was decided upon, to be composed of the
principal ministers of the Allies, with military representatives,
and to sit permanently at Versailles. If the fundamental de-
fect was that it merely substituted a formal for an informal
committee, a further flaw was that the military representatives
had no executive status. In the economic sphere, where delibera-
tion rather than instant action was necessary, it led to a real
improvement in the combination of shipping, food and munition
resources. Militarily, it was futile, for it set up a dual ad-
visorship — the Versailles representatives on the one hand and
the chiefs of the national general staffs on the other. As the
menace of the German attack grew closer and with it the need
for common action, this advisory body was converted into a mili-
tary executive committee to handle an inter-Allied general reserve,
a fresh compromise which set up a dual control — the commanders-
in-chief and the Versailles committee.
If concentration of control was lacking, so also was concen-
tration of force. Since early in November the stream of German
troop-trains from East to West had been steadily swelling. When
the 1917 campaign opened there had been a proportion of nearly
three Allies to two Germans — actually, in March 178 British,
French and Belgian divisions against 1 29 German divisions. But
now the Germans had a slight balance and the likelihood of
bringing still more. But the Allied statesmen, recalling how often
their own offensive had failed with equal or greater superiority
of force, were slow to appreciate the gravity of the menace or
to respond to the sudden fall in the temperature of military
opinion. Nor could they agree to draw reinforcements from the
other fronts. The Italians strove against any withdrawal of the
Allied contingents from their front, and the French opposed any
reduction of the Salonika force. Lloyd George went further and
urged an offensive in Palestine, a scheme which was sanctioned
on the understanding that no reinforcements went there from
France, but which also meant that none came from there to
France. Robertson, the chief of the imperial general staff, dis-
agreed both with this Palestine plan and the creation of the Ver-
sailles executive committee, and resigned, being succeeded by Sir
Henry Wilson. The position was still further weakened by the
insistence of Clemenceau, the new French premier, that the
British should extend their front south to the Oise. This meant
that Gough's 5th Army was dangerously stretched out and took
over ill-prepared defences on the very front that Ludendorff was
about to strike. Meantime, the German strength had increased
to 177 divisions by the end of January, with 30 more to come.
The Allied strength, owing to the despatch of divisions to Italy
and the breaking up of others owing to the French shortage
of drafts, had fallen to the equivalent of 173 — counting as double
the four and one-half large size American divisions which had
arrived. For the French and British had been constrained to
follow the Germans in reducing their divisions from 12 to 9
battalions each. "
The prolonged pouring of soldiers' lives into the swamps be-
yond Ypres had led Lloyd George and his cabinet to withhold
reinforcements for fear of encouraging fresh squandering. This
undoubtedly weakened Haig's initial power of resistance to the
German onslaught, yet it is just to point out that it was weak-
ened worse — in quality as well as quantity — by the 400,000 Brit-
ish casualties suffered in the offensive of the later part of 1917.
Moreover, we should not forget that the Government had the
heavy responsibility of being the trustees for the lives of the
nation. The real ground of criticism is that it was not strong
enough to make a change in, or place a check upon, a command
which it did not trust, while supplying the reinforcements neces-
sary for defence. And for this lack of moral strength the public
must share the blame, for they had already shown themselves
too easily swayed by clamour against political interference with
the generals, and too prone to believe that the politician is in-
variably wrong on such occasions. The civilian public, indeed,
is apt to trust soldiers too little in peace, and sometimes too
much in war.
These political handicaps, and their accompanying tendency
to work deviously towards what dared not be demanded openly,
were also seen in the project for a unified command. The prime
minister, indeed, had gone so far in December as to disclaim
faith in his own long-sought cure. Instead he sought a palliative
in an inter-Allied executive committee, under Foch's chairman-
ship, which should control a common general reserve of 30 divi-
sions. This scheme was stillborn in face of the opposition of the
respective commanders-in-chief, Haig and Petain. The decisive
act came from Haig, who, when called on by Foch for his con-
tribution of seven divisions, replied that he could spare none. He
and Petain united in preferring an arrangement between them-
selves for mutual support.
When the test came, a week later, this broke down, and Haig
then took a foremost part in hastening and facilitating the ap-
pointment of a generalissimo, which he had formerly opposed.
For the actual breakdown the blame has been commonly thrown
upon the French, and there is no question that Haig under-
stood from Petain on March 24 that if the Germans continued
their rapid progress the French reserves would have to be
used to cover Paris. But in fairness it is essential to add that,
whereas the original compact had only pledged the aid of some
six French divisions, Petain actually sent nine by March 24, and
21 (including four of cavalry) by March 26. If these reinforce-
ments were, perhaps, slower in coming into action than in des-
patch, it does not affect the fact that the original pledge was
amply exceeded. Thus, the fundamental fault would seem to lie
GERMAN PLAN]
WORLD WAR
771
in trusting to an arrangement for such slender support by either
Ally.
The German Plan. — On the German side the submarine
panacea for victory had been replaced by a military panacea, and
hopes were perhaps exaggerated by the unexpected collapse of
Russia. But although Ludendorff promised victory in the field,
he did not disguise that a Western offensive would be a far harder
task than the conquests in the East. He realized also that it
would be a race between the effect of Germany's blow and the
arrival of American reinforcements, although he hoped to win
the race. To secure the rear of his offensive, a definite peace was
won from the Bolshevik Government of Russia by a military
demonstration, and also forced on Rumania. And to secure if
possible the economic base of his offensive the Ukraine was oc-
cupied, for its wheat supplies, with little resistance except from
Czechoslovak troops, who had formerly been taken prisoners
from the Austrian army.
Ludendorff s next problem was to decide his first point of
attack. The sector between Arras and ^t. Quentin was chosen, on
the western face of the great salient formed by the German front
in France. The choice was governed by tactical reasons — this
sector was the enemy's weakest point and the ground offered
fewer difficulties than elsewhere — although Ludendorff had in
mind the possibility of separating the Allied armies and driving
the British back against the Channel coast, too closely penned
in to evade the blows. From the experience of the vain Allied
attacks Ludendorff had drawn the deduction that "Tactics had
to be considered before purely strategical objects which it is
futile to pursue unless tactical success is possible." Hence he
formulated a strategical plan based on the principle of taking
the tactical line of least resistance. Presumably he hoped by
firm control to guide these tactical movements to a strategic
destination. If so, he failed.
Where did the fault, lie? The general view at the end of the
war was that the tactical bias had led Ludendorff to change
direction and dissipate his strength. That if the Franco-British
command had previously erred^ by aiming at the strategically
correct target without enough attention to the tactical difficul-
ties, the German command had followed it with an equal if oppo-
site error by concentrating on tactical success at the expense of
the strategical goal. But a closer examination of the German
documents since available, and of Ludendorffs own orders and
instructions, throws a different light on the question. It would
seem, indeed, that the real fault was that Ludendorff failed to
carry out in practice the new principle he had adopted in theory;
that he either did not grasp or shrank from the full implication
of this new theory of strategy. He dissipated too large a part
of his reserves in trying to redeem tactical failures and hesitated
too long over the decision to exploit his tactical successes. Luden-
dorff's strategy in the East had been so masterly and so far-
sighted that his indecision and short-sight in the West is difficult
to explain. Perhaps he himself was feeling the strain of directing
so many vast operations; perhaps it was that he missed the
strategical insight and balanced view of Hoffmann who, after
being at his side throughout the 1914-16 campaigns, had stayed
in the East when Ludendorff went to the supreme command. The
modern vice of seniority prevented Germany from making the
fullest use of the man who perhaps approached nearer to military
genius than any other military figure of the war.
In any case the campaign leaves the impression that Ludendorff
had neither his former clearness as to the goal, nor quite the
same grip on the changing situations. But in the organization of
his attacks his powers^ were at their highest level. Surprise was
to be the key by which a gate in the long-locked front was opened.
In forging the key gas-shell was to be the main constituent, for
Ludendorff had failed to grasp the significance of the tank and
neglected to develop it in time. Only in Aug. 1918, when it was
used to strike him a mortal blow did he put it in the -'urgent"
class of war material. The troops were trained in the new in-
filtration tactics already tested at Riga, and the most thorough
arrangements were made for concealing and for exploiting the
attacks. The assaulting divisions were to be brought up over
night, the masses of artillery brought close to the front line in
concealment, and their ranges obtained by methods which did
away with preliminary "registration." The bombardment was
to be brief but intense, and its surprise effect to be increased by
lavish use of gas and smoke shell. Further, while Ludendorff
had settled to strike first on the Somme sector, to which blow
the code-name "Michael" was given, he also made preparations
for successive attacks at other points, which besides being in
readiness for the future helped to mystify the enemy. Two were
on the British front and one on the French — "St. George I."
against the Lys sector, "St. George II." against the Ypres sector
and "Blikher" in Champagne.
The "Michael" attack was to be made by the German lyth,
2nd, and i8th Armies (62 divisions in all) on the 47 m. front
Arras-St. Quentin-La Fere, but its main force was intended to
be exerted north of the Somme, and after breaking through, the
iyth and 2nd Armies were to wheel north-west and press the
British army against the coast, while the river and the i8th Army
guarded their flank. This plan was radically changed in execu-
tion because Ludendorff gained rapid success where he desired
it little and failed to gain success where he wanted it most.
The attack was launched on March 21 (see ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE
OF 1918), and the surprise was helped by an early morning mist.
But while the thrust broke through completely south of the
Somme, where the defence — but also the attacking force — was
thinnest, it was held up near Arras, a check which reacted on all
the attack north of the river. Ludendorff, violating his new
principle, spent the following days in trying to revive his attack
against the strong, and strongly held bastion of Arras, main-
taining this direction as his principal line of effort. Meantime
he kept a tight rein on the i8th Army which was advancing in
the south without serious check from its opponents. As late as
March 26 he issued orders which restrained it from crossing the
Avre and tied it to the pace of its neighbour, the 2nd, which
in turn was held back by the very limited success of the i;th
Army near Arras.
Thus we see that in reality Ludendorff was bent on breaking
the British army by breaking down its strongest sector of resist-
ance in a direct assault. And because of this obsession he failed,
until too late, to throw the weight of his reserves along the line
of least resistance south of the Somme. The intended wheel to
the north-west might have come to pass if it had been made after
passing the flank, and thus being directed against the rear, of
the Arras bastion. On March 26 the attack north of the Somme
(by the left wing of the i/th Army and the right of the 2nd
Army) was visibly weakening as the price of its hard-earned
gains. South of the Somme the left of the 2nd Army reached,
and was now to be embarrassed by, the desert of the old Somme
battlefields — a brake on progress and supply. The i8th Army
alone was advancing with unslackened impetus. This situation
led Ludendorff to adopt a new plan, but without relinquishing
his old. He ordered for March 28 a fresh and direct attack on
the high ground near Arras — by the right of the lyth Army and
to be followed by a 6th Army attack just to the north between
Vimy and La Bass£e. But the promising situation south of the
Somme led him to indicate Amiens as an additional main objec-
tive. Even so, he restrained the i8th Army from pushing across
the Avre without further orders! On March 28 the fresh Arras
attack was launched, unshielded by mist or surprise, and failed
completely in face of the well prepared resistance of Byng's 3rd
Army. Only then did Ludendorff abandon his original idea, and
direct his main effort, and some of his remaining reserves, to-
wards Amiens. By March 27 the advance had penetrated nearly
40 m. and reached Montdidier, cutting one railway to Paris; by
March 30 the German flood was almost lapping the outworks
of Amiens. Once the crust was broken, the very elaboration of
the methods of control communication built up during three
years of static warfare caused the greater flux behind the front.
The extent of the retreat was primarily the measure of the loss
of control by the British commanders.
Disaster had driven the Allies to an overdue step, and on Haig's
appeal and Lord Milner's intervention Foch had been appointed
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WORLD WAR
[FINAL PHASE
on March 26 to "co-ordinate" the operations of the Allied armies.
If he had fallen into disfavour owing to the heavy cost of his
attacks in Artois during 1915 and the barren fruit of the Somme
in 1916, his will-power and energy earned and created confidence.
On April 14 he was definitely made commander-in-chief of the
Allied armies. But before this a fresh German menace had devel-
oped— though not intended as such.
When Ludendorff decided to change his main line of attack to
the sector south of the Somme, he diverted reserves thither. But
meantime he ordered the i8th Army to mark time for two days.
When the attack was renewed in force on March 30 it made little
progress in face of a resistance that had been afforded time to
harden, helped by the cement of French reserves which were
now being poured into the breach. A further effort on April 4
had still less success and Ludendorff, rather than be drawn into
an attrition struggle, suspended the attack towards Amiens. With
a large part of his reserves holding the vast bulge south of the
Somme, Ludendorff turned, if without much confidence and
merely as a diversion, to release, on April 9, his "St. George I."
attack. (Sec LYS, BATTLE OF THE, 1918.) Its astonishing early
success against a weakened front led him to convert it bit by
bit into a major effort. The British were desperately close to
the sea, but their resistance stopped the German tide after a
10 m. invasion just short of the important railway junction of
Hazebrouck, and an attempt to widen the front towards Ypres
was nullified by Haig's swinging his line back just before and
by the gradual arrival of French reinforcements. Haig com-
plained strongly that Foch was too slow in sending French re-
serves northward, but the event justified Foch's reluctance to
commit himself thither and his seeming excess of optimism in
declaring that the danger was past. Ludendorff had doled out
reserves sparingly, usually too late and too few for real success;
so apprehensive that his new bulge would become another sack,
that after the capture of Kenmel Hill, when opportunity opened
its arms, he stopped the exploitation for fear of a counter-stroke.
Thus Ludendorff had fallen short of strategic results; on the
other hand he could claim huge tactical successes — the British
casualties were over 300,000. The British lion had been badly
mauled, and although fresh drafts to the number of 140,000
were hurried out from England and divisions brought back from
Italy, Salonika and Palestine, months must elapse before it could
recover its offensive power. Ten British divisions had to be
broken up temporarily, while the German strength had now
mounted to 208, of which 80 were still in reserve. A restoration
of the balance, however, was now in sight. A dozen American
divisions had arrived in France and, responding to the call, great
efforts were being made to swell the stream. Further, Pershing,
the American commander, had placed his troops at Foch's dis-
posal for use wherever required. For Germany the sands were
running out, and, realizing this, Ludendorff launched his
"Bluchcr" attack between Soissons and Reims, on May 27. Fall-
ing by surprise with 15 divisions against seven, it swept over
the Aisne and reached the Marne on May 30, where its impetus
died away. (See CHEMIN-DES-DAMES, BATTLE OF THE, 1918.)
This time the German superiority of force had not been so pro-
nounced as before nor aided by nature's atmospheric cloak. It
would seem that the extent of the opening success was due in
part to the strategic surprise — the greater unexpectedness of the
time and place of the blow — and in part to the folly of the local
army command in insisting on the long-exploded and obsolete
method of massing the defenders in the forward positions — there
to be compressed cannon-fodder for the German bombardment.
Petain's recent instructions for a deep and elastic system of
defence had been disregarded. This indeed was an additional
form of surprise, for the object of all surprise is the disloca-
tion of the opponent's moral and mind and the effect is the same
whether he be caught napping by deception or allows himself to
be trapped with his eyes open. Further, the Germans* success on
May 27, 1918, deserves study in comparison with their other
offensives whose success was almost in mathematical ratio to
their degree of surprise. This final year, indeed, read in the light
of previous years, affords fresh proof that surprise — or, more
scientifically, the dislocation of the enemy's balance — is essen-
tial to true success in every operation of war. At the bar of
universal history, any commander who risks lives without seeking
his preliminary guarantee stands condemned.
But once again Ludendorff had obtained a measure of suc-
cess for which he was neither prepared nor desirous. The sur-
priser was himself surprised. The attack had been conceived merely
as a diversion, to attract the Allied reserves thither preparatory
to a final and decisive blow at the British front in Flanders. But
its opening success attracted thither too large, yet not large
enough, a proportion of their own reserves. Blocked frontally by
the river, an attempt was made to push west, but it failed in face
of Allied resistance — notable for the appearance of American
divisions at Chateau-Thierry, where they gallantly counter-
attacked.
Ludendorff had now created two huge bulges, and another
smaller one, in the Allied front. His next attempt was to pinch
out the Compiegne "tongue" which lay between the Amiens and
Marne bulges. But this , time there was no surprise, and the
blow on the west side of the "tongue," June 9, was too late to
coincide with the pressure on the east. A month's pause followed.
Ludendorff was anxious to strike his long-cherished decisive blow
against the British in Belgium, but he considered that their re-
serves here were still too strong, and so again decided to take the
line of least tactical resistance, hoping that a heavy blow in the
south would draw off the British reserves. He had failed to
pinch out the Compiegne "tongue" on the west of his Marne
salient; he was now about, to attempt the same method on the
east, by attacking on either side of Reims. But he needed an
interval for rest and preparation, and the delay was fatal, giving
the British and French time to recuperate, and the Americans to
gather strength. The British divisions previously broken up
had now been reconstituted, and as a result of an urgent appeal
made to President Wilson in the crisis of March, and the provi-
sion of extra shipping, American troops had been arriving at the
rate of 300,000 a month since the end of April. The tactical
success of his own blows had been Ludendorff 's undoing; yield-
ing to their influence, he had pressed each too far and too long,
so using up his own reserves and causing an undue interval be-
tween each blow. He had driven in three great wedges, but none
had penetrated far enough to sever a vital artery, and this stra-
tegic failure left the Germans with an indented front which
invited flanking counter-strokes.
X. THE FINAL PHASE
The Turning of the Tide.— On July 15 Ludendorff launched
his new attack, but its coming was no secret. East of Reims it
was foiled by an elastic defence, and west of Reims the German
penetration across the Marne merely enmeshed them more deeply
to their downfall — for on July 18 Foch launched a long-prepared
stroke against the other flank of the Marne salient. (See MARNE,
SECOND BATTLE OF THE.) Here Petain, who directed the opera-
tion, turned the key which Ludendorff lacked, using masses of
light tanks to lead a surprise attack on the Cambrai method. The
Germans managed to hold the gates of the salient open long
enough to draw their forces back into safety and straighten their
line. But their reserves were depleted, Ludendorff was forced
to postpone if not yet to abandon the offensive in Flanders and
the initiative definitely and finally passed to the Allies. Foch's
first concern was to keep it, by giving the enemy no rest while his
own reserves were accumulating. To this end he arranged with
Haig, Petain and Pershing for a series of local offensives, aimed
to free the lateral railway communications and to improve the
position of the front ready for further operations. To Haig
he proposed an attack in the Lys sector, but Haig saw "no advan-
tage in an advance over this flat and marshy region" and sug-
gested instead the Somme area as more suitable and .more stra-
tegically effective. Already, before the Marne counter-stroke,
Rawlinson, commanding the British 4th Army in front of Amiens
(?.v.), had submitted to Haig a plan for a large surprise attack
there, and Foch agreed to this in place of his own proposal. He
also placed under Haig the French ist Army (Dcbeney) to
FIRST PEACE NOTE]
WORLD WAR
773
extend the attack to the south. Rawlinson's army was doubled,
and by skilful precautions the enemy were kept in the dark until,
on Aug. 8, the attack was delivered — led by 450 tanks. The blow
had the maximum shock of surprise, falling on an opponent who
had done nothing to strengthen his position by entrenchments,
and south of the Somme the troops of the Australian and Cana-
dian Corps rapidly overran and overwhelmed the German for-
ward divisions. By Aug. 12 when the advance came to a halt
through reaching the tangled wilderness of the old 1916 battle-
fields, if also through lack of reserves, the 4th Army had taken
21,000 prisoners at a cost of only 20,000 casualties. Great, if not
fully exploited, as a material success, it was far greater as a
moral one.
Ludendorff has said: "Aug. 8 was the black day of the Ger-
man army in the history of the war. ... It put the decline of
our fighting power beyond all doubt. . . . The war must be ended."
He informed the emperor and the political chiefs that peace
negotiations ought to be opened before the situation became
worse, as it must. After July 18 Lud&ndorff had by no means
lost hope and as late as Aug. 2 was ordering preparations for
four fresh attacks, including his cherished Flanders design, if on
a reduced scale. But after Aug. 8 these dreams vanished. The
conclusions reached at a Crown Council held at Spa were that
uWe can no longer hope to break the war-will of our enemies by
military operations" and "the object of our strategy must be to
paralyse the enemy's war-will gradually by a strategic defensive."
In other words the German command had abandoned hope of
victory or even holding their gains, and hoped only to avoid sur-
render— an insecure moral foundation.
On Aug. 10 Koch issued a fresh directive for the preparation
of an "advance" by the British 3rd Army "in the general direc-
tion of Bapaume and Peronne." Meantime he wished Haig to
continue the 4th Army's frontal pressure, but Haig demurred to
it as a vain waste of life and gained his point. Economy of force
was henceforth to be added to the advantages of the new strategy
now evolved. Thus the momentum of the 4th Army had hardly
waned, before the 3rd Army moved. From then on Foch beat a
tattoo on the German front, a series of rapid blows at different
points, each broken off as soon as its initial impetus waned, each
so aimed as to pave the way for the next, and all close enough in
time and space to react on each other. Thus Ludendorff's power
of switching reserves to threatened spots was stopped, as his
balance of reserves was drained.
On Aug. 10 the French 3rd Army had struck to the south;
then on Aug. 17 the French loth Army still farther south; next,
on Aug. 21, the British 3rd Army, followed by the British ist
Army on Aug. 26. Ludendorff s order to the troops holding the
Lys salient to retire was hastened in execution by the attacks
of the reformed British 5th Army, and by the first week in Sep-
tember the Germans were back on their original starting line—
the strong defences of the Hindenburg line. And on Sept. 21
Pershing completed the series of preliminary operations by eras-
ing the St. Mihiel (q.v.) salient — the first feat of the Americans
as an independent army. Pershing had originally intended to
make this a stepping stone to an advance towards the Briey coal-
fields and the eastern end of the Germans' main lateral railway
near Metz, but the project was abandoned for reasons that will
be referred to later. Thus no exploitation of the success was
attempted.
The clear evidence of the Germans' decline and Haig's assur-
ance that he would break the Hindenburg line where the German
reserves were thickest, decided Foch to seek victory that autumn
instead of postponing the attempt until 1919. All the Allied
armies in the West were to combine in a simultaneous offensive.
The Collapse of Bulgaria.— -But before it could develop an
event occurred in the Balkans which, in the words of Ludendorff,
"sealed the fate of the Quadruple Alliance." He had still hoped
to hold fast in his strong lines in the West, falling back gradually
to fresh lines if necessary, and with his strategic flanks in Mace-
donia and Italy covered, while the German Government was
negotiating for a favourable peace. At the same time there was
alarm as to the moral effect of the Western front defeats on the
German people, their will-power already undermined by shortage
of food, and perhaps also by propaganda.
But on Sept. 15 the Allied armies in Salonika (q.v.) attacked
the Bulgarian front, which crumpled in a few days. Guillaumat,
who had succeeded Sarrail in Dec. 1917, had prepared the plan
for an offensive, and when recalled to France in the crisis of
July as governor of Paris he won over the Allied Governments
to consent to the attempt. His successor in Salonika, Franchet
d'Esperey, concentrated a Franco-Serb striking force, under
Michich, on the Sokol-Dobropolye sector, west of the Vardar,
where the Bulgarians trusted to the strength of the mountain
ridges and were weak in numbers. On Sept. 15 Michich attacked
and while the British attack at Doiran pinned a large part of the
Bulgarian reserves, he broke right through towards Uskub. With
their army split into two parts the Bulgarians, already tired of
the war, sought an armistice, which was signed on Sept. 29.
Franchet d'Esperey's achievement not only knocked away the
first prop of the Central Alliance but opened the way to an
advance on Austria's rear.
The Collapse of Turkey. — The offensive planned for the
spring in Palestine had been interrupted by the crisis in France
and the consequent withdrawal of most of Allenby's British
troops. The depletion was made up by reinforcements from India
and Mesopotamia, and by September Allenby was again ready
to take the offensive. (See PALESTINE, CAMPAIGNS IN.) He
secretly concentrated, on the Mediterranean flank, the mass of
his infantry, and behind them the cavalry. In this way he changed
a two to one superiority on the general front into four to one
at the decisive point. At dawn on Sept. 19 the western mass
attacked, rolling the Turks back north-east towards the hilly
interior — like a door on its hinges. Through the open doorway
the cavalry passed, riding straight up the coastal corridor for
30 m., before swinging east to cut the Turkish communications
and close all exits of retreat. Completely trapped, the main
Turkish armies were rounded up, while the British cavalry ex-
ploited the victory of Megiddo by a swift and sustained pursuit
which gained first Damascus and finally Aleppo. Defenceless,
and threatened with a direct advance of Milne from Macedonia
on Constantinople, Turkey capitulated on Oct. 30.
The First Peace Note.— The capitulation of Bulgaria, con-
vinced Ludendorff that it was necessary to take a decisive step
towards securing peace. WThile he was scraping together a paltry
half dozen divisions to form a new front in Serbia, and arrang-
ing a meeting with the political chiefs, Foch's grand assaults fell
on the Western defences, Sept. 26-28, and the line threatened to
crack.
The German supreme command lost its nerve — only for a
matter of days, but that was sufficient, and recovery too late.
On Sept. 29 they took the precipitate decision to appeal for an
armistice, saying that the collapse of the Bulgarian front had
upset all their dispositions — "troops destined for the Western
front had had to be despatched there." This had "fundamentally
changed" the situation in view of the attacks then being launched
on the Western front, for though these "had so far been beaten
off their continuance must be reckoned with."
This remark refers to Foch's general offensive. The American
attack in the Meuse-Argonne had begun on Sept. 26, but had
come practically to a standstill by the 28th. A Franco-Belgo-
British attack had opened in Flanders on the 28th, but if un!-
pleasant did not look really menacing. But on the morning of
the 29th Haig's main blow was falling on the Hindenburg line,
and the early news was disquieting.
In this emergency Prince Max was called to be chancellor
to negotiate a peace move, with his international reputation for
moderation and honour as its covering pledge. To bargain effec-
tively and without confession of defeat he needed, and asked, a
breathing space "of ten, eight, even four days, before I have
to appeal to the enemy." But Hindenburg merely reiterated
that "the gravity of the military situation admits of no delay,"
and insisted that "a peace offer to our enemies be issued at once."
Hence on Oct. 3 the appeal for an immediate armistice went
out to President Wilson. It was an open confession of defeat to
774
WORLD WAR
[GERMAN REVOLUTION
the world, and even before this — on Oct. i — the supreme com-
mand had undermined their own home front by communicating
the same impression to a meeting of the leaders of all political
parties.
Men who had so long been kept in the dark were blinded by
the sudden light. Ail the forces of discord and pacifism received
an immense impulse.
While the German Government was debating the conditions
for an armistice and questioning Ludendorff as to the situation
of the army for further resistance if the terms were unaccept-
able, Foch continued his military pressure.
The Final Advance. — The plan agreed upon between Foch
and the Allied commanders had been for a series of convergent
and practically simultaneous attacks: —
i and 2. By the Americans west of the Meuse, and by the
French west of the Argonne, both in the direction of Mczieres —
beginning on Sept. 26. (See MEUSE-ARGONNE, BATTLE OF THE.)
3. By the British on the St. Quentin-Cambrai front in the
general direction of Maubeugc — beginning on Sept. 27. (See
HINDENBURG LlNE, BATTLES OF, IQl8.)
4. By the Belgian and Allied forces in the direction of Ghent
— beginning on Sept. 28.
The general aspect was that of a pincer-like manoeuvre against
the vast salient jutting out between Ypres and Verdun. The
attack towards Mezieres would shepherd that part of the Ger-
man armies towards the difficult country of the Ardennes and
away from their natural line of retreat through Lorraine; it was
also dangerously close to the hinge of the Antwerp-Meuse line
which the Germans were preparing in rear. The attack towards
Maubeuge would threaten the other main line of communication
and retreat through the Liege gap, but it had further to go. In
these attacks, the Americans had the hardest natural obstacle,
the Argonne forest; the British had to face the strongest defences
and the heaviest weight of enemy troops.
Pershing's attack, adding surprise to its five to one superiority
in numbers, opened well, but lost impetus owing to the difficul-
ties of supply and exploitation in such country. When it was
eventually suspended on Oct. 14, after bitter fighting and severe
losses, the American army was still far distant from the vital
railway. A new force, it was suffering the growing pains which
the British had passed through in 1915-16. Pershing's difficul-
ties were enhanced by the fact that he had waived his own pro-
posal for an exploitation of the St. Mihiel success towards Metz
in view of Haig's objection to a move which, however promising
in its ultimate aim, would diverge from the general direction of
the other Allied attacks. Haig desired that Pershing's attack
should converge towards his in order more immediately to ease the
task of the British troops. Koch's original plan for the general
offensive had accordingly been readjusted, and in consequence
Pershing had not only a more difficult sector but a bare week in
which to prepare his blow. The shortness of time led him to
use untried divisions instead of switching the more experienced
divisions used at St. Mihiel. But in the outcome, Haig's insist-
ence was proved unnecessary, for the British attack broke
through the Hindenburg line before the Meuse- Argonne attack
had drawn away any German division from his front.
Haig, by pushing forward his left wing first, facilitated the
attack of his right on the strongest section of the Hindenburg
line — the Canal du Nord — and by Oct. 5 the British were through
the German defence system, with open country beyond. But on
this front the attackers were in actually inferior numbers to the
defenders, their tanks were used up, and they could not press
forward fast enough to endanger the German retreat.
Within a few days the supreme command became more cheer-
ful, even optimistic, when it saw that breaking into the Hinden-
burg line had not been followed by an actual break-through of
the fighting front. More encouragement came from reports of
a slackening in the force of the Allies' attacks, particularly in the
exploitation of opportunities. Ludendorff still wanted an armis-
tice, but only to give his troops a rest as a prelude to further
resistance and to ensure a secure withdrawal to a shortened
defensive line on the frontier. By Oct. 17 he even felt he could
do it without a rest. It was less that the situation had changed as
that his impression of it had been revised. It had never been
quite so bad as he had pictured it on Sept. 29, But his first
impression had now spread throughout the political circles and
public of Germany — as the ripples spread when a pebble has
been dropped in a pool.
The combined pressure of the Allied armies, and their steady
advance, were loosening the will-power of the German Govern-
ment and people. The conviction of ultimate defeat, slower to
appeal to them than to the army chiefs, was the more forcible
when it was realized. And the indirect moral effect of military
and economic pressure was accentuated by the direct effect of
peace propaganda, skilfully directed and intensively waged by
Northcliffe. The "home front" began to crumble later but it
crumbled quicker than the battle front.
The Collapse of Austria. — The last Austrian attempt at an
offensive on the Italian front, in conjunction with the German
assaults in France, had been repulsed on the Piave in June. Diaz
waited until conditions were ripe for an offensive in return, until
Austria's internal decay was spreading and she was without hope
from Germany. On Oct. 24 Cavan's army moved to seize the
crossings of the Piave and on Oct. 27 the main attack opened,
driving towards Vittorio Veneto (g.v.) to divide the Austrians in
the Adriatic plain from those in the mountains. By Oct. 30 the
Austrian army was split in two and the retreat became a rout,
and the same day Austria asked for an armistice, which was
signed on Nov. 4.
The Curtain Falls on the Western Front. — Already on
Oct. 23 President Wilson had replied to the German requests by
a note which virtually required an unconditional surrender.
Ludendorff wished to carry on the struggle in hopes that a suc-
cessful defence of the German frontier might damp the deter-
mination of the Allies. But the situation had passed beyond his
control, the nation's will-power was broken, and his advice was
in discredit. On Oct. 26 he was forced to resign.
Then, for 36 hours, the chancellor lay in coma from an over-
dose of sleeping draught after influenza. When he returned to
his office on the evening of Nov. 3, not only Turkey, but Aus-
tria, has capitulated. If the situation on the W'estern front was
felt to be rather easier, Austrian territory and railways were now
available as a base of operations against Germany. Several weeks
before, military opinion had tended to regard such a contingency,
then unrealized, "as decisive/' Next day revolution broke out in
Germany, and swept rapidly over the country. And in these last
days of tremendous and diverse psychological strain the "red-
dening" glare behind was accentuated by a looming cloud on the
Lorraine front — where the renewed American pressure, since
Nov. i, was on a point more sensitive than other parts, where
"they must not be allowed to advance if the Antwerp-Meuse line
was to be held any longer." If this continued the Rhine and not
the frontier would have to be the next line of resistance.
But hourly the revolution was spreading, fanned as peace
negotiations were delayed, by the Kaiser's reluctance to abdicate.
Compromise with the revolutionaries was the only chance, and
on Nov. 9 Prince Max resigned to the Socialist Ebert. Ger-
many had become a republic in outward response to President
Wilson's demand and in inward response to the uprising of the
German people against the leaders who had led them into disaster.
The German fleet had already mutinied when their commanders
sought to send them out on a forlorn hope against the British.
On Nov. 6 the German delegates left Berlin to treat for an,
armistice. Their acceptance of the severe terms was hastened
less by existing military events than by collapse of the "home
front," coupled with the imminence of a fresh blow. The Allied
advance was still continuing, in some parts seeming to gather
pace in the last days, but the main German forces had escaped
from the perilous salient, and their complete destruction of roads
and railways made it impossible for supplies to keep pace with
the advancing troops. A pause must come while these communi-
cations were being repaired, and thus the Germans would have
breathing space to rally their resistance. The advance reached
the line Pont a Mousson-Sedan-Mezieres-Mons-Ghent by Nov.
EPILOGUE]
WORLD WAR
775
MOM WINSTON CHURCHILL, "WORLD CRUISCS," IY PKRMIStlON OF THE PUBLISHERS
WORLD MAP SHOWING THE GENERAL NAVAL SITUATION OVERSEAS EARLY IN OCTOBER, 1914
11 — the line of the opening battles in 1914 — but strategically it
had come to a standstill.
To meet this situation Foch had concentrated a large Franco-
American force, of 28 divisions and 600 tanks, to strike below
Metz directly east into Lorraine. The general Allied advance had
almost absorbed the enemy's reserves, and now this decisive
manoeuvre was to fall on his bared flank. It promised the chance
of turning the whole of his new line of defence along the Meuse
to Antwerp and if rapidly successful might intercept his retreat
to the Rhine. In addition Trenchard's Independent Air Force
was about to bomb Berlin, on a scale hitherto unattempted in air
warfare. And the number of American divisions in France had
risen to 42. Whether this final thrust, intended for Nov. 14,
would have solved the hitherto insoluble problem of maintaining
the momentum of advance after an initial break-through can
never be known. The conditions behind the Lorraine front were
at least more favourable. But the attempt was unnecessary. For
with revolution at home and the gathering menace on their
frontier — their frontiers indeed — the German delegates had no
option but to accept the drastic terins of the Armistice, which
was signed in Foch's railway-carriage in the Forest of Compiegne
at 5 A.M. on Nov. n, and at n o'clock that morning the World
War came to an end.
XI. EPILOGUE
Controversy has long raged as to what was the deciding act
of the conflict, what were the causes of victory, and, even less
profitably, which country won the war. If it be accepted that
the mind of the enemy's ruling power is the ultimate target,
aimed at indirectly through the bodies of their troops and their
civil foundations, then, so far as any military act was decisive,
the memoirs of Ludendorff, amply confirmed from other sources,
reveal that it was the attack of Aug. 8, reinforced by the over-
throw of Bulgaria. But if these would have ensured peace it is
most improbable that Germany would have accepted the condi-
tions ultimately secured.
The truth is that no one act, still less one cause, was, or could
be, decisive. The Western front, the Balkan front, the tank, the
blockade and propaganda have all been claimed as the cause of
victory. All claims are justified, none is wholly right. In this
new warfare between nations victory is a cumulative effect, to
which all weapons — military, economic, and psychological — con-
tribute. Victory comes, and can onlv come, through the utiliza-
tion and combination of all the resources existing in a modern .
nation, and the dividend of success depends on the way in which
these manifold activities arc co-ordinated.
Among the fundamental causes of Germany's surrender the
blockade, wielded by the British navy, is seen to assume larger
and larger proportions as the fog of war disperses in the clearer
light of these post-war years. It was a constructive hold which
the Germans were powerless to loosen and which their efforts
only succeeded in tightening. Helplessness induces hopelessness,
and history attests that loss of hope and not loss of lives is what
ultimately decides the issue of war. The intangible all-pervading
factor of the blockade intrudes into every consideration of the
military situation. The question is often raised whether Ger-
many, if she had stood on the defensive in the West and consoli-
dated her gains in the East, would have fared better in the out-
come. Militarily, there is every justification for such a view.
But it overlooks the command of the sea. For it was the strangle-
hold of the British navy which, in default of a serious peace move,
constrained Germany to carry out that final felo de se offensive
in 1918. She was haunted by the spectre of slow enfeeblement
ending in eventual collapse.
The naval factor again intervenes in the question whether
Germany could have avoided capitulation in Nov. 1918 and
whether, but for the revolution, her armies could have stood firm
on their own frontiers. For even if the German people, roused
to a supreme effort in visible defence of their own soil, could
have held the Allied armies at bay the end could only have been
postponed — because of the grip of sea-power.
But in hastening the surrender, in preventing a continuance of
the war into 1919 military action ranks foremost. Hence the
success of the Allied armies is chief among the immediate causes
of victory. That conclusion does not necessarily, or even natur-
ally, imply that at the moment of the Armistice Germany's mili-
tary power was broken or her armies decisively beaten. Nor that
the Armistice was a mistaken concession. Rather does the record
of the last "hundred days,'* when sifted, confirm the immemorial
lesson that the true aim in war is the mind of the hostile rulers,
not the bodies of their troops; that the balance between victory
and defeat turns on mental impressions and only indirectly on
physical blows. It was the shock of being surprised and the
feeling that he was powerless to counter potential strategic moves
which shook Ludendorffs nerve more than the loss of prisoners,
guns, and acreage.
776
WORLD WAR
It is even more futile to ask which country won the war; France
did not win the war, but unless she had held the fort while the
forces of Britain were preparing and those of America still a
dream the release of civilization from this nightmare of militar-
ism would have been impossible. Britain did not win the war,
but without her command of the sea, her financial support and
her army to take over the main burden of the struggle from 1916
MOM CARtTON HAYES, -BRIEF HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR" (MACMILLAN)
SAFETY LANES FOR NEUTRALS IN MINE FIELDS
onwards, defeat would have been inevitable. The United States
did not win the war, but without their economic aid to ease the
strain, without the arrival of their troops to turn the numerical
balance, and, above all, without the moral tonic which their com-
ing gave, victory would have been impossible. And let us not
forget how many times Russia had sacrificed herself to save her
Allies; preparing the way for their ultimate victory as surely
as for her downfall. Finally, whatever be the verdict of history
on her policy, unstinted tribute is due to the incomparable endur-
ance and skill with which Germany more than held her own for
four years against superior numbers, an epic of military and
human achievement.
The development of the means and methods of warfare dur-
ing the struggle are described in the articles: STRATEGY; TACTICS;
TANKS; CAVALRY; ARTILLERY; INFANTRY; AIR WARFARE.
The campaigns and battles have received separate and detailed
treatment in articles such as the following: ANTWERP, SIEGE
OF, 1914; ASIAGO, BATTLE OF, 1916; BELGIUM, INVASION OF, 1914;
BRKST-LITOVSK, BATTLES OF, 1915; CAMBRAI, BATTLE OF, 1917;
CAMEROOXS, OPERATIONS 1914-16; CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF;
CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE; CAUCASUS, CAMPAIGNS IN THE;
DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN; DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE; EAST
AFRICA, MILITARY OPERATIONS 1914-18; FRONTIERS, BATTLES
OF THE; JUTLAND, BATTLE OF; LEMBERG, BATTLES OF; LODZ,
BATTLE OF, 1914; LUCK (LUTSK), BATTLES OF, 1916; MARNE,
BATTLE OF THE; MASURIAN LAKES, BATTLES OF THE; MESOPO-
TAMIA CAMPAIGN; NAREW, BATTLES OF THE, 1915; NAROCZ,
BATTLE OF LAKE; WORLD WAR, NAVAL; PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF
1914-15; SALONIKA CAMPAIGN; SERBIAN CAMPAIGN; SOMME,
BATTLES OF THE; VERDUN, BATTLES OF; VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES
OF THE; VITTORIO VENITO; YPRES, BATTLES OF: Battles of 1914;
Battles of 1915; Battles of, 1917; YSER BATTLE OF THE; ZEE-
BRUGGE, ATTACK ON.
The mechanism of war, the organization of naval, military
and air forces, and the scientific aspects of military machinery
are also dealt with in such articles as those on ADMIRALTY, BOARD
OF; AIR FORCES; BALLISTICS; BOMBS; BRIDGING, MILITARY;
CAMOUFLAGE; CHEMICAL WARFARE; FLAME-THROWLRS ; IN-
TELLIGENCE; MlNELAYING AND MlNESWEEPINGJ MOTOR TRANS-
PORT, MILITARY; ORDNANCE; PARAVANE; RANGE-FINDERS;
SMALL ARMS; SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY.
(B. H. L. H.)
NAVAL
To follow the worldwide ramifications of naval operations dur-
ing the World War it is best to consider, year by year, the events
in each area. At the outset they covered all the seas of the earth,
but as the net was drawn around the Central Powers, the area of
naval warfare was gradually reduced to European waters and
to the seas around the British Isles. In the end, it was due
to the irresistible force of sea power (q.v.) that the war was
brought to a close.
Preliminary Moves. — In July 1914 in place of the usual
summer manoeuvres, a test mobilisation of the British Fleet in
Home waters was carried out. The ships of the 2nd and $rd
Fleets, their crews completed from the Reserves, joined the
ist Fleet at Portland on July i6th for exercises in the Channel.
On July 23, the day of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, the
fleets were ordered to disperse. The ships of the 2nd and 3rd
Fleets returned to their Home Ports.
The ist Fleet remained at Portland, the defence flotillas were
sent to their stations around the coast, and at the same time
f FAROE IS,
SHETLAND
•^'ORKNEY is.
•f
.•tfL
.
Stavangeror
NORTH s«*oi***°*
rftOM CARL TON HAVES, "BRIEF HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR" (MACMILLAN)
GERMAN WAR ZONE. FEBRUARY. 1915
the Mediterranean fleet was ordered to concentrate at Malta.
On July 29 the ist fleet left Portland for Scapa Flow, and, by
Aug. 2 the ist and 2nd fleets were at their war stations, the 3rd
fleet was on the move, the defence flotillas were at their posts,
and the organisations for taking up auxiliaries and for arming
merchant liners were in force. On Aug. i the order for general
mobilisation was issued, followed next day by the calling up of
the naval reserve. Owing to the recent exercise the machinery
HOME WATERS, 1914]
WORLD WAR
777
of mobilisation worked smoothly and by the morning of Aug. 4
the state of naval readiness around the British Isles was such as
to preclude the possibility of surprise before the outbreak of
hostilities.
The German High Sea Fleet, which had been visiting Nor-
wegian ports, was recalled. By July 30 all ships had returned to
Wilhelmshaven and Kiel and no German ships were sighted by the
British Fleet as it passed northward to its war stations.
Distribution of Fleets.-— The following table shows the dis-
tribution of the British and German Fleets upon the outbreak of
hostilities.
British
German
North Sea and Home
Dreadnought battleships:
Wa
tcrs
13-5 inch guns
10
12 inch guns
10
{j
1 1 inch guns
4
Pre-dreadnought battleships .
Battlecruisers
. ^8*
4
22f
4
Cruisers
Light cruisers
24
5
Destroyers
144
Submarines
~6s*
28 (?)§
North Atlantic and
Trade Routes
Cruisers
20
Mediterranean
Battlecruisers . ....
3
,
Cruisers . ...
4
Light cruisers . ....
4
i
Destroyers . ....
16
Submarines . ....
6
North A merica and
West Indies
Cruisers
4
Light cruisers
2
South Atlantic and
West Coast of Africa
Cruisers
4
Light cruisers
j
Gunboats
i
-
Cape of Good Hope
Light cruisers
3
East Indies Station
Pre-d read nought battleship
i
Light cruisers
2
I
Sloops and gu nboats
4
China Station
Pre-d read nought battleship .
I
Cruisers
2
2
Light cruisers
2
•j
Destroyers and torpedo boats .
12
Submarines
3
Sloops and gunboats
161
3
A uslralia and
New Zealand
Battlecruiser
i
Light cruisers
?II
Destroyers .
3
Submarines
2
Sloops .
I
West Coast of
North America
Sloops
2
Submarines
2
"Including 5 "Canopus" and 9 "Majesties," obsolete ships of the
third fleet.
| Including 10 obsolete "Wittelsbach" class stationed in the Baltic.
in6 attached to Grand Fleet and Harwich Force. Remainder were
old boats employed in patrol flotillas,
§Number is uncertain.
lio of these were non-seagoing river gunboats.
||3 of these were old ships of the "P" class.
THE NORTH SEA AND CHANNEL 1914
The Commencement of Hostilities. — On the morning of
Aug. 4 the Grand Fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe,
left Scapa Flow on the first of its many "sweeps" through the
North Sea. Its object was to intercept any German commerce
raiders that might put to sea before war was declared. At
ir P.M. that night all ships received the fateful wireless mes-
sage to "commence hostilities against Germany." For three days
the fleet cruised without seeing an enemy and on Aug. 7 returned
to Scapa. The loth Cruiser squadron, drawn from 3rd fleet
cruisers, was not yet complete and this shortage of cruisers en-
abled one raider, the "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse," to escape
through the cordon. Meanwhile the Harwich Force (Commodore
Tyrwhitt) made a search of the Heligoland Bight, which resulted
in the sinking of the minelayer "Kb'nigin Luise" by the "Am-
phion." But the German mines had been laid and the "Amphion''
ran into them on her return and was sunk. Thus early was first
blood drawn upon both sides and Germany showed her intention
to disregard, not only the customs of the sea, but her own signa-
ture to the Hague convention, by laying mines without warning, in
international waters.
The Expeditionary Force. — The decision, on Aug. 5, to send
the Expeditionary Force to France threw upon the navy the
duty of safeguarding its passage. In the Channel were stationed
the 5th, yth and 8th Battle squadrons (eighteen pre-dread-
noughts) with one French and two British Cruiser squadrons.
The Dover Straits were guarded by British and French destroyer
and submarine flotillas, and an aerial patrol was established be-
tween the North Foreland and Ostend. Further north the Har-
wich Force patrolled the "Broad Fourteen*" to the Dutch coast
and the Grand Fleet, took up a position in the centre of the
North Sea, its cruisers and destroyers spread southward, ready
to counter any move of the High Sea Fleet. Several unsuccessful
submarine attacks were made upon ships of the Grand Fleet and
on Aug. 9, "U. 15" was rammed and sunk by the cruiser "Bir-
mingham" close to the fleet rendezvous. Regardless of the sub-
marine risk, (ho fleet maintained its watch and from Aug. 15 to
17, when the bulk of the troops were afloat the Heligoland Bight
was closely blockaded. Nothing was seen of the German fleet,
whose inertness appeared surprising, it not then being realised that
the policy of the German High Command was to preserve its
fleet and to make only minor attacks with submarines and mines.
By Aug. 18 the first four divisions were in France without the
loss of a man and five days later the 5th Division was safely
across. The enemy made their only appearance on Aug. 18, when
two cruisers were sighted but escaped without being brought to
action. The safe transport of the main body of troops being
complete the Grand Fleet battleships withdrew to the west coast
of Scotland, leaving two battlecruisers in the Humber to support
the southern force.
Heligoland Bight Action.— To assist the Belgian army in
creating a diversion on the German flank a brigade of Royal
Marines was sent to Ostend: they landed with difficulty, in bad
weather, on Aug. 27-2$ from battleships of the Channel Fleet.
This force being exposed to a sudden blow from the German Fleet,
the Harwich flotillas, supported by battlecruisers and cruisers
from the Grand Fleet, made an organised drive towards the Ger-
man coast on the morning of Aug. 28. The outcome was the
battle of the Heligoland Bight (q.v.) in which three German light
cruisers and a destroyer were sunk and several other ships dam-
aged, whilst the damage to British ships was small. This success
in the first serious contact with the enemy at sea, did much to
dispel the gloom cast by the retreat of the Allied armies before
the German advance.
The shifting of the British army base from the Channel Ports
to St. Nazaire, following the retreat from Mons threw a heavy
burden upon the navy and especially upon the Admiralty trans-
port service. Ships could no longer be spared for the Ostend
diversion and the Royal Marine brigade was withdrawn on Aug.
31. The moving of the base began on Sept. 2 and was smoothly
and rapidly completed.
In the last days of August. German mines, laid in the open
778
WORLD WAR
[TRADE ROUTES
sea off the Humber and Tyne caused the loss of several neutral
ships and of the minesweeping gunboat "Speedy." Submarines
were active in the North Sea and on Sept. i, the report that one
had entered Scapa Flow caused the Grand fleet to put hurriedly
to sea. After sweeping in force to the Skaagerak the fleet re-
turned on Sept. 5 to Loch Ewe to fuel and on that day the
British navy suffered its first loss by submarine attack, when the
scout "Pathfinder1' was sunk by "U. 29."
On Sept. 10, in order to cover the passage of the 6th Division
to France, a great sweep was made through the North Sea by
the Grand Fleet supported by the Harwich Force and the Channel
squadron. The Bight of Heligoland was searched but no German
ships were seen excepting several submarines, one of which was
rammed by the "Zealandia." On Sept. 12 the British submarines
scored their first success when "E. 9" sank the cruiser "Hela" off
Heligoland. The High Sea Fleet being known to be escorting troops
in the Baltic, the opportunity was taken to give the Grand Fleet
a few days rest, the first since war broke out. The fleet arrived
at Loch Ewe on Sept. 13: its rest was but a short one for on the
1 7th it was again sweeping down the North Sea to the Horns
Reef following the sinking of the "Cressy," "Hogue" and
"Aboukir." These three cruisers were sunk within an hour by a
single submarine ("U. 9"). They were steaming in line abreast
on the "Broad Fourteens" patrol, having been deprived of their
destroyer support by bad weather. The "Aboukir" was hit first
and the other two were torpedoed in succession as they closed to
pick up survivors, In this disaster 1,400 lives were lost: and
orders were given that in future, heavy ships were not to stop to
pick up survivors of consorts torpedoed by submarines, nor were
armoured ships to be used for patrol or examining merchant
ships in submarine waters.
The Fall of Antwerp. — In the closing days of September,
the Belgian Government asked for assistance in the defence of
Antwerp. Some naval guns were sent and a brigade of Royal
Marines reached the city on Oct. 2, followed by two untrained
brigades of the newly formed Royal Naval Division. On Oct. 2
the eastern approach to the Dover Straits was closed by a mine-
field, extending from the Goodwins to Ostend, every publicity
being given to its limits. The 7th Division was landed at Zee-
brugge on Oct. 7 without loss, in spite of a number of submarine
attacks, but this desperate attempt to support the Belgian Army
failed. Antwerp surrendered on Oct. 10 and the coast ports fell
into the hands of the enemy as the Belgian Army retreated to the
line of the Yser. One of the Naval Brigades, in the retreat, was
forced across the Dutch frontier and interned. The German pur-
suit of the exhausted Belgian Army along the coast was stayed
by the gallant work of a British flotilla under the command of
Rear-Admiral Hood. (See BELGIAN COAST OPERATIONS.) Mean-
while the Harwich Force watching for a move on the part of the
Germans, obtained its reward on Oct. 16, when the "Undaunted"
and four destroyers met and chased four German destroyers and
sank them all. This was the only attempt, apart from submarine
activities, by the German navy to interfere on the Belgian Coast
at this phase.
Submarine Menace to the Grand Fleet — The last days of
September saw the Grand Fleet at Scapa Flow and from Oct. 2-12
the whole fleet was at sea engaged in safeguarding the passage of
the Canadian convoy. On Oct. 7 a German submarine entered
Loch Ewe, rendering that place unsafe as a fleet anchorage. The
fleet returned to Scapa Flow, where a partial submarine obstruc-
tion was in place, on Oct. 12. At this time submarines were active
in the vicinity of the northern bases and several attacks were made
upon patrolling cruisers. On Oct. 15 the cruiser "Hawke" was
sunk with heavy loss off the Aberdeen coast and the next day a
submarine was again reported inside Scapa Flow. Knowing that
the German fleet was still in the Baltic, Jellicoe decided to seek
a safe anchorage to the westward until the submarine defences
of Scapa Flow could be made secure. On Oct. 20 he took the
fleet to Lough Swilly where it remained until the end of the
month, resting and carrying out practices. Meanwhile three
British "E" class submarines had entered the Baltic. They were
not successful in attacking the German fleet, but their presence
caused much anxiety and gave moral support to the Russian fleet.
Loss of the "Audacious." — On Oct. 26, whilst carrying out fir-
ing practices off Lough Swilly, the battleship "Audacious" struck
a mine. In spite of endeavours to tow her into harbour, she sank
some hours later, her crew being saved. The loss was a serious
one and came at an unfortunate moment. On that day the Belgian
army supported by Hood's flotilla were making their last grim
stand upon the Yser (see BELGIAN COAST OPERATIONS) and news
of the Grand Fleet so far away might tempt the Germans to strike
a blow at Hood before help could reach him. Also war with
Turkey hung in the balance and news of a disaster to the Grand
Fleet might have affected the issue. Consequently the Govern-
ment kept the loss secret until the necessity was past.
Lord Fisher. — On Oct. 29 Lord Fisher (q.v.) relieved the
Marquis of Milford Haven as First Sea Lord. A conference was
held at the Admiralty, which Admiral Jellicoe attended, to decide
upon future naval policy. On Nov. 2 the British Government
declared the whole of the North Sea a prohibited area and warned
all neutrals that, unless they adhered to the routes prescribed by
the British authorities, they used the area at their own risk. On
Nov. 3 a German cruiser squadron appeared off the Suffolk coast
in the morning mist, fired a few shells on to the beach at Gor-
leston and at the old gunboat "Hazard" and retired. The battle
squadrons having left Lough Swilly on Nov. 2, remained in the
north part of the North Sea whilst a search was made by the
battlecruisers and light forces, and returned to Scapa Flow, on
Nov. 17. The German cruiser "Yorck," on her way home from
the Gorleston raid, struck a mine off the Jade River and was sunk.
The defences of Scapa Flow were now far enough advanced to
give a certain sense of security to the fleet, but between Nov.
23-26, when the fleet was absent in support of aerial operations
in the Heligoland Bight, six submarines were sighted close to the
base and one ("U. 18") was sunk by the local defence flotilla.
Nov. 26 was marked by the loss of the battleship "Bulwark,"
which blew up at Sheerness owing to accidental ignition of cordite
and sank with great, loss of life.
The Scarborough Raid.— The Grand Fleet returned to Scapa
Flow on Nov. 27 and there followed a month of gales of excep-
tional violence which delayed the completion of the submarine
defences. On Dec. 15 a German force was reported at sea and
the 2nd battle squadron and battlecruisers were sent south. The
weather was so heavy that some of the light cruisers and de-
stroyers had to be left behind, and to this fact and to the mist,
the German force that raided Scarborough and the Hartlepools
on Dec. 16, owe their narrow escape. The two towns were bom-
barded, 120 civilians were killed and over 400 wounded and, after
laying mines off the Yorkshire coast, the Germans retired. In
the mist and heavy sea a short, indecisive fight took place be*
tween the light forces, but the heavy ships, although very close,
did not sight one another. The Grand Fleet swept in full force
into the Bight on that day and Dec. 17, but the enemy had retired
behind his minefields. It returned to Scapa on Dec. 26 and on
Christmas Day was again in the Heligoland Bight, supporting
an air raid upon Cuxhaven, after which it returned to Scapa on
Dec. 27 in a heavy &ale.
THE TRADE ROUTES 1914
Germany's oceanic trade was brought to a standstill at the
very outset of the war, the approaches to her Home Ports being
closed by the British Fleet, and with the cutting of the German
cables in the Dover Straits on Aug. 5, she was isolated from the
ports of the world. At the outbreak of hostilities there were per-
manent British squadrons stationed in China, Australia, the East
Indies, at the Cape and in the Mediterranean, while the Home
fleet protected the all important trade routes of the Atlantic. In
August 1914, there was one light cruiser in the South Atlantic and
the 4th Cruiser squadron (Craddock), detached from the ist fleet,
was in the West Indies. The 5th Cruiser squadron (Stoddart)
was at once dispatched to the mid-Atlantic, between Africa and
Brazil, and the ships of the 6th Cruiser squadron were scattered
on special escort duties on the Atlantic Routes. The gth Cruiser
squadron (de Robeck) operated between Finisterre-Azores-Ma-
FAR EAST]
WORLD WAR
779
deira; the roth Cruiser squadron (de Chair) formed the northern
patrol with the Grand Fleet; the nth Cruiser squadron was sta-
tioned off the west coast of Ireland and the I2th Cruiser squad-
ron, supported by a French squadron, guarded the Channel
approaches.
Germany was credited with the intention of arming merchant
ships as commerce raiders and ttye small enterprise she displayed
in this direction was one of the surprises of the early months of
the war. Only five such ships appeared: the "Kaiser Wilhelm der
Grosse," which evaded the Grand Fleet, the "Kronprinz Wilhelm"
from New York, the "Cap Trafalgar" from the River Plate,
the "Cormoran" and "Prince Eitel Friedrich" in China. The
"Dresden" and "Karlsruhe/* in the West Indies, were the only
German cruisers in the Atlantic.
The British nth and i2th Cruiser squadrons, besides protecting
trade, were at first occupied in safeguarding the passage of the
Expeditionary Force. De Robeck kept a close watch upon the
Spanish ports where some of the 70 interned German ships were
suspected of trying to get to sea and ann. None did so and on
Aug. 26 the "Highflyer," of his squadron, found the "Kaiser
Wilhelm der Grosse" coaling off the African Coast and sank her.
The North Atlantic. — The "Dresden" was at Port au Prince
(Haiti) on July 26, and the "Karlsruhe" at Havana on July 28.
Both sailed for unknown destinations and Craddock sent the "Ber-
wick" and "Bristol" to locate them, following himself in the
"Suffolk." On Aug. 6 the "Suffolk" came upon the "Karlsruhe"
engaged in arming the "Kronprinz Wilhelm." The merchant ship
made off and the "Suffolk" chased the "Karlsruhe" until dark,
when she was headed off by the "Bristol." A short moonlight ac-
tion ensued, but the German's superior speed enabled him to es-
cape. The "Dresden's" whereabouts were unknown and Craddock,
anxious for the safety of the North Atlantic trade, took his squad-
ron to the northern area. Several German ships in New York
were expected to attempt to get to sea and arm, but none ven-
tured to move and by Aug. 13 the "Karlsruhe" had been located
at Curagoa and the "Dresden" off Pernambuco. The Admiralty
on that day stated that British trade in the North Atlantic was
proceeding as usual. Craddock, with his flag now in the "Good
Hope," sailed south in search of the two German cruisers. Leav-
ing two French cruisers to watch the West Indies, he searched the
Pernambuco and mid-Atlantic areas and then joined hands with
Stoddart. By the beginning of September, a number of armed
merchant ships had joined the British Cruiser squadrons, which
were also reinforced by four old battleships. By this time the
North Atlantic was clear of enemy cruisers and owing to the
movements of the squadron under von Spee, interest was trans-
ferred to the southern part of that ocean, to which Craddock's
command was specially allocated.
The "Cap Trafalgar" which left the River Plate on Aug. 22 was
found by the "Carmania" on Sept. 14 off Trinidada Island. After
spirited action between the two armed merchant ships, the Ger-
man ship sank and the damaged "Carmania" crawled back to
Gibraltar for repairs. With the West Indian cruisers pre-occupied
in watching the newly opened Panama Canal, the "Karlsruhe"
was successful as a raider until she blew up at sea on Nov. 4;
she had several narrow escapes and during her three months'
career captured 17 ships.
THE PAR EAST AND PACIFIC 1914-15
When war was declared, Admiral Jerram was at Hongkong com-
pleting his mobilisation. With his squadron concentrated on Aug.
12, he destroyed the German wireless station at Yap Island. By
Aug. 20 he had established a close watch on Tsingtau. Admiral
von Spee was at the Caroline Islands with the cruisers "Scharn-
horst," "Gneisenau" and "Nurnberg." He left on Aug. 6 for
Pagan Island, where he was joined on the I2th by the cruiser
"Emden," which had slipped out of Tsingtau, on Aug. 7, with
supply ships. At Pagan Island von Spee heard of the Japanese
ultimatum to Germany. Japan commenced hostilities against Ger-
many on Aug. 22 and Jerram was thus freed to co-operate with
the Australian squadron (Admiral Patey) in preventing von Spee
from breaking through to the Indian Ocean.
The Fall of Tsingtau. — The primary objective of the Japan-
ese was the German stronghold at Tsingtau. As soon as war
was declared the por.t was blockaded by the Japanese Fleet and
H.M.S. "Triumph" and Japanese troops were landed on Sept. 2.
By Sept. 21 the fortress was invested by land and sea and on
the next day, British troops having joined the Japanese, the gen-
eral attack commenced. Tsingtau held out until Nov. 7 when it
surrendered.
The Pacific Expeditions.— The Australian squadron, under
Admiral Patey concentrated at Port Moresby on Aug. 7 and, on
the gth, appeared off Rabaul, the government centre of German
New Guinea. No German ships were present and after destroying
telegraphic communication the squadron sailed to meet the New
Zealand Samoa Expedition at Suva. Von Spec's whereabouts being
unknown, the presence of the battlecruiser "Australia" with this
expedition was necessary. Samoa surrendered on Aug. 30 and
Patey sailed to escort the Australian expedition against Rabaul.
Little resistance was made to the landings on Sept. n and Ger-
man New Guinea, with the Bismarck Archipelago, capitulated on
Sept. 15. Patey's force was thus freed to attend to the Aus-
tralian and New Zealand convoys, as by this time it was certain
that von Spec's destination was South America.
The "Emden." — On Aug. 28 the German light cruiser "Emden"
entered the Indian Ocean by way of the Molucca Strait and after
being nearly found by the British cruiser "Hampshire" on
Sept. 4 she made her dramatic appearance off the River Hoogly
on Sept. 14. She ranged the Bay of Bengal until Sept. 25, bom-
barding Madras on the 22nd. Then for a month she cruised in
the western approaches to Ceylon, coaling at Diego Garcia. On
Oct. 21, after a narrow escape from the "Hampshire" and the
armed merchant cruiser "Empress of India," she crossed the In-
dian Ocean, appearing off Penang on the 28th. There she sank
the Russian cruiser "Zhemchug" and the French destroyer
"Mousquet," and doubled back round the north of Sumatra. Un-
able to find her storeships, which had been sunk by the "Yar-
mouth," she made for the Cocos Islands. There on Nov. gth, she
was brought to action and sunk by H.M.A.S. "Sydney," so ending
her remarkably successful raiding career in which she had sunk
15 ships.
Von Spee in the Pacific.— With Japan's entry into the war,
von Spec's position in Chinese waters became untenable, and he
decided to make for South America. After despatching the "Em-
den" on her memorable cruise, he sailed east, passing through the
Marshall Islands on Aug. 22. Here he detached the "Nurnberg"
to Honolulu and sailed himself for Christmas Island. Arriving
on Sept. 6, the "Nurnberg" rejoined next day, having cut the
British cables at Fanning Island. On Sept. 14 von Spee appeared
off Samoa and finding the place already in British hands, again
sailed east. By this date Craddock had taken over the command
of the South Atlantic and was coming south in search of the
"Dresden." Von Spee, after bombarding Tahiti on Sept. 22,
visited the Marquesa Islands on Oct. i and arrived at Easter
Island on Oct. 12. Here he was joined by the light cruisers "Leip-
zig" from North America and "Dresden" from the Atlantic. On
Sept. 15 Craddock was ordered to concentrate his force upon the
Falkland Islands and was promised reinforcements. He heard on
Sept. 26 that the "Dresden" was off Chile and it was by then cer-
tain that South America was von Spec's destination. By Oct. 22
Craddock had collected his ships at the Falkland Islands and he
then searched round the Horn, leaving the old and slow battleship
"Canopus" to join him through the Magellan Straits. Meanwhile
von Spee had arrived off Valparaiso and was cruising off the coast.
Coronel and the Falkland Islands Battles, — Craddock,
after rounding the Horn, continued his search to the north and
sent the light cruiser "Glasgow" into Coronel. Von Spee hearing
of her at that port on Oct. 31, turned south to cut her off. Crad-
dock, having heard the "Leipzig's" wireless, was searching for her
on his way north. Neither admiral was aware of the proximity
of the other until they met on tbe evening of Nov. i, and the
battle of Coronel (q.v.) was fought. The cruisers "Good Hope"
and "Monmouth" were sunk and the other British ships made
their escape and returned to the Falkland Islands. Von Spee, after
780
WORLD WAR
[OVERSEA CAMPAIGNS
his victory, paid a visit to Valparaiso and then sailed south to St.
Quintin Bay, about 300 miles north of the Magellan Straits.
The news of the Coronel defeat created consternation in Eng-
land and immediate steps were taken to retrieve the position. The
battlecruisers "Invincible" and "Inflexible," from the Grand Fleet,
were placed under the orders of Admiral Sturdee, who was given
a wide commission to seek out and destroy von Spce, wherever
he might be, in the South Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. Sturdee left
Plymouth on Nov. n and concentrated his force at the Abrolhos
Rocks on Nov. 26, the same day that von Spec left St. Quintin
Bay for the Falkland Islands. Now that von Spec's position was
better known four other squadrons were quickly concentrated
in order to deal with him. Patey, in the battlecruiser "Aus-
tralia," with a squadron of British and Japanese ships watched the
middle Pacific; a Japanese squadron was concentrated at the
Galapagos Islands and the Battlecruiser "Princess Royal" was
sent to the West Indies, in case von Spec should attempt to
pass the Panama Canal. De Robcck on the African Coast and
Stoddart off Montevideo were reinforced with armoured ships,
in case von Spce should escape Sturdee, who, after searching the
South American Coast, arrived at Port Stanley on Dec. 7 Von
Spee rounded the Horn on Dec. 2, delayed for three days to coal
from a prize in the Beagle Channel, and arrived off Port Stanley
on the morning of Dec. 8. Sturdee put to sea and there followed
the battle of the Falkland Islands (q.v.) in which the German
squadron was destroyed, only one ship, the "Dresden," escaping.
The End of the Cruiser Campaign. — Despite the incessant
demands for the protection of troop convoys and support for
military expeditions that had so hampered the Admirals in their
first duty of commerce protection, the British Navy in the first
eight months of the war cleared the German flag from the outer
seas. By the end of 1914, only one of the thirteen German cruisers
abroad was unaccounted for and of the five armed merchantships
only two remained at large. The "Dresden," escaping from the
Falkland Islands battle, was hunted and helpless until she was
sunk by the "Glasgow" and "Kent'' at Juan Fernandez on Mar.
14. The "Kronprinz Wilhelm" (April 8) and "Prinz Eitcl Fried-
rich" (Mar. 12) were interned at Newport News, and the "Konigs-
berg," having been discovered in hiding in the Rufiji River was
destroyed on July n. By the end of Mar. 1915, the Canadian,
Australian, New Zealand and Indian armies had been carried
overseas, garrisons abroad had been replaced by territorial troops,
without the loss of a troopship and naval support had been given
to six considerable military operations. This was accomplished
with the loss to the Navy upon the outer seas of three cruisers
("Good Hope," "Monmouth" and "Pegasus") and of 62 merchant
ships. The German cruisers had caused a loss amounting to less
than two thirds of irv, of British seaborne commerce during the
period.
THE MEDITERRANEAN 1914
The Goeben and Breslau.— The first duty of the British Med-
iterranean squadron was to watch the movements of the German
cruisers "Goeben" and "Breslau." On Aug. 3, their whereabouts
being unknown, Admiral Milne stationed the ist Cruiser squadron
(Troubridge) with destroyers to prevent them entering the Adri-
atic and sent the battlecruisers "Indomitable" and "Indefatigable"
towards Gibraltar to stop them interfering with the transport of
Algerian troops or escaping into the Atlantic. At 10.30 A.M. on
Aug. 4 the German cruisers, who that morning had bombarded
Phillipville, were sighted by the British battlecruisers and were
shadowed by them into Messina. On Aug. 5, the situation was
complicated by the Italian declaration of neutrality and by Austria
not yet being at war with Britain, while the information received
by Milne was conflicting. Expecting the Germans to break west*
ward, he placed his force to prevent them escaping from the north
of Messina, leaving Troubridge to deny them the Adriatic. On the
evening of Aug. 6th the Germans sailed from the south of the
Straits, gallantly and skilfully shadowed by the "Gloucester."
Troubridge did not bring them to action and when they passed
Cape Matapan, the "Gloucester" was recalled from her pre-
carious position. Milne followed into the Aegean on the 9th but
was too late to prevent the two German ships entering the Darda-
nelles on Aug. 10. Their escape was unfortunate as it had a far-
reaching effect upon subsequent events in the Near East.
After the safe passage of the Algerian troops the security of the
Mediterranean was undertaken by the French fleet, which, using
Malta as its base from Aug. 16, established a blockade of the
Adriatic. Admiral Garden was appointed to command the reduced
British force in the Mediterranean and with it he established a
blockade of the Dardanelles. On Nov. 3rd, on Turkey declaring
war, he bombarded the outer forts of the Dardanelles as a demon-
stration. The watch upon the Dardanelles was kept with few
ships for the cruisers were called upon to guard the Malta-Port
Said route during the passage of troop convoys. It was uneventful,
except for the daring exploit of Submarine "B. n," which on Dec.
13 dived through five rows of mines in the Dardanelles, torpedoed
and sank the Turkish battleship "Messudieh" and returned safely.
OVERSEA CAMPAIGNS 1914-15
Togoland and the Cameroons. — A stroke by the Gold Coast
forces on the outbreak of war led to the occupation of Togoland
and the destruction of the important German wireless station
at Kanima. Before the end of August the colony had surrendered
and an attack was launched upon the German Cameroons. On
Aug. 25 the British cruiser "Cumberland" and the gunboat
"Dwarf" left Sierra Leone to attack Duala, followed by the
cruiser "Challenger" and the Niger flotilla with a British and
French military force. A base was established in the Cameroon
estuary and after a month of flotilla warfare, in which the "Dwarf"
played a prominent part, the river was cleared of mines and
obstructions. The "Challenger" then entered and on Sept. 27
Duala surrendered to a combined naval and military attack. Nine
large German steamers, a floating dock and two railway termini
were captured. River warfare in support of the military advance
inland then developed. The "Cumberland," "Challenger" and
French cruiser "Bruix," being required elsewhere, were relieved
by the cruiser "Astraea" from the Cape and with the arrival
of the old cruiser "Sirius" and the sloop "Rinaldo" in April 1915
a blockade was established to prevent supplies reaching the enemy
from the Spanish island of Fernando Po. The colony was, by
this time, in Allied hands, but fighting in the hinterland continued
for two years.
German South West Africa.— The attack upon this colony,
started in Aug. 1914 by the South African Government, was de-
layed by the Boer revolt, but, the revolt having been suppressed,
it was resumed early in 1915. The Union Army, escorted by the
battleships "Albion," the "Astraea" and two armed merchant
cruisers occupied Walfisch Bay and Swakopmund in January. The
"Albion" was then sent to the Dardanelles and the "Astraea" to
the Cameroons and, with the exception of some naval armoured
cars the campaign became a purely military one. It was brought
to a successful conclusion in July 1915 by the surrender of the
colony.
German East Africa. — The German cruiser "Kom'gsberg"
was at sea on the outbreak of war and on Aug. 6 she made her only
prize in the Gulf of Aden. Two days later, the "Astraea" and
"Pegasus" appearing off Dar-es-Saiam, the Germans blocked the
entrance to the port, but agreed that the ships there should be
considered British prizes, and the wireless station was destroyed.
The "Konigsberg," her base closed against her, was not heard of
until Sept. 20, when she appeared off Zanzibar and finding the
"Pegasus" with engines disabled in the roadstead, sank her at her
moorings. Admiral Charlton, with the Cape squadron, was, by
now, on the "Konigsberg's" trail and she took refuge amidst the
swamps of the Rufiji River, where she was located by the "Chat-
ham." On Nov. i the East African Expeditionary Force, escorted
by the battleship "Goliath" and cruiser "Fox," arrived from India.
On Nov. 2 the troops landed at Tanga, under cover of the "Fox,"
but the attack made two days later was repulsed and the troops
were re-embarked.
Following this reverse no serious military operations against
the colony were undertaken until early in 1916. The 600 miles
of coastline, with its many harbours, remained in the hands
of the Germans and it was not until March 1915 that ships
HOME WATERS]
WUKLL) WAR
781
could be spared to establish an efficient blockade. Meanwhile
a strict watch had to be kept upon the "Konigsberg" in the
Rufiji River and several relief ships slipped through with arms
and stores for the colony. On Dec. 14, boats sent in to Dar-es-
Salam to take possession of the prizes, were fired upon and the
town was then bombarded and the ships sunk. In the Rufiji
River a ship was sunk to block the "Konigsberg" in, but the
cruiser was unapproachable until the arrival of shallow draught
ships and aeroplanes. On June 3, 1915 the small monitors "Se-
vern" and "Mersey" arrived with four seaplanes, and a month was
occupied in preparing these craft for their work. On July 6 the
first attack was made, the "Konigsberg" was damaged but the
monitors were forced to retire. On July u the attack was re-
newed and pressed home by the monitors, and the "Konigsberg"
was destroyed.
Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia.— An Indian Division, es-
corted by the "Ocean," and the sloops "Espiegle" and "Odin"
arrived at Bahrein late in October and on the 3oth received orders
to commence hostilities agajnst Turkey. On Nov. 6, after bom-
barding Fort Fao at the entrance of the 'Shatt-el-Arab, the troops
landed. Advancing against considerable opposition, supported by
the "Espiegle" and "Odin," an entrenched position was estab-
lished at Abadan by Nov. 10. The force pressed forward sup-
ported by the two sloops and Basra was entered on Nov. 22,
and a further advance ended on Dec. 9, in the occupation of Kur-
nah, at the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates. By this rapid
and well planned stroke the command of the Persian Gulf and
of the outlet from the Persian oilfields was assured.
In December the "Ocean" was withdrawn to the Dardanelles
and the flotilla consisted of ,the "Espiegle" and "Odin," 'the
vessels of the Royal Indian Marine and a number of armed
river steamers and launches. In March of 1915 the "Clio"
and four armed boats arrived from Egypt and in the late autumn
the first of the new "Fly" class gunboats arrived from England.
Baghda
~
MESOPOTAMIA
RIVER CAMPAIGN
1914 - 1917
Riven Land
Baghdad to Kut 215 103
Kut to 'Amara /53 120
'Amara to Al Ourna 89
AlQurna to Basra 48 66
Basra to Fao 68
Baghdad to Fao 571
Draught to Basra 19
• toAiqurna 14'
above Eirab Tomb 3'4to4'
Low water July to Nov.
Flood Dec. to Jun*
FlG. 1. — MESOPOTAMIA RIVER CAMPAIGN, ENDED ON MARCH 11, 1917
Throughout 1915 the flotilla formed the spearhead of the ad-
vance of the Army. It protected the oil pipe line by patrolling
the Karun River and in April the Euphrates flotilla assisted in
defeating the Turkish attack upon Basra. The remarkable amphib-
ious battle north of Kurnah on May 31, was followed by the
dash up the river by the flotilla after the retreating Turks, with
General Townshend on board, and the capture of Amara. With
the flotilla reinforced by four seaplanes from the Rufiji River,
Townshend captured Kut and continued his pursuit of the Turks
until he was brought up at Ctesiphon on Oct. <?. The political
and military situation in the Near East then led to the illfated
attempt upon Baghdad. The naval flotilla consisted of the
gunboat "Firefly," the "Comet," two armed launches and four
armed horse boats. -After the repulse of the army at Ctesiphon,
the withdrawal of the river transport was covered by the flotilla
with the loss of "Firefly," "Comet" and "Shaitan," which
grounded and were abandoned. Townshend reached Kut on Dec.
3, but by the Qth that place was invested and the flotilla was with-
drawn down river.
Egypt. — By mid-November 1914, the careers of the "Emden"
and "Konigsberg" being ended the Indian Ocean was secure. The
British cruisers were ordered homewards and Admiral Peirse, in
the battleship "Swiftsure," reached Suez on Dec. i and detained
in the Canal enough ships to meet the threatened Turkish at-
tack upon Egypt. During December the "Doris" and the Rus-
sian cruiser "Askold" made a series of successful raids in the
Gulf of Iskandcrun and on the Syrian Coast, At the end of
January 1915, when the Turkish attack developed, a strong
naval force under Peirse's command took up its position in the
Canal. The Turks made their attempt on the Canal on February
2 and 3 and were easily repulsed, the Canal traffic being but little
interfered with. By Feb. n, all threat to the Canal having dis-
appeared, Peirse was able to send most of his ships to reinforce
Garden's forces at the Dardanelles. A further threat to the Canal
in April 1915 was frustrated by the presence of strong British
and French naval forces.
HOME WATERS AND THE BALTIC 1915
The Battle of the Dogger Bank. — The year opened with
the loss of the battleship "Formidable," which was torpedoed by
"U. 24" off the Start on the morning of Jan. i. In the North
Sea the first weeks of January passed quietly, but on the 19th re-
ports of German activity brought the British battlecruisers into
the Heligoland Bight. Nothing was seen, but a Zeppelin raid
on the East Coast indicated a repetition of the Scarborough raid.
The battlecruisers remained concentrated in a position south of
the Dogger Bank, supported by the Grand Fleet battleships
to the northward. On the morning of the 24th the Germans
were sighted and there followed the battle of the Dogger Bank
(q.v.). The German squadron was driven back to its base with
the loss of the cruiser "Bliichcr" and two battlecruisers badly
damaged. Beatty's flagship "Lion" was severely damaged but
returned safely to Rosyth. After the Dogger Bank action a
change was made in the command of the High Sea Fleet and a
policy of extreme caution was initiated. The German fleet put
to sea only to cover minelaying operations and always retired
behind its minefields on the approach of the enemy. Four of
these "one day out and one day back" sorties in March, April and
May were threatened by the Grand Fleet in force and the Ger-
mans retired.
The Baltic.— In the Baltic the Russian fleet, assisted by a few
British submarines, was successful in holding the older ships
of the German fleet in check. In June a German attempt to
land troops in Courland in support of their army was defeated
by the Russian destroyers and on July 2 the German minelayer
"Albatross" was driven ashore by the Russian cruisers and the
cruiser "Prinz Adalbert"- was torpedoed and seriously damaged
by the British submarine "E. 9." In August a part of the High
Sea Fleet made a serious attempt to force the Gulf of Riga, but
on Aug. 19 the battlecruiser "Moltke" was badly damaged by a
torpedo from submarine "E. i." The operations were abandoned
and for some time the Baltic was the scene of only minor
operations, but, in the closing months of 1915, the German iron
trade with Sweden was harassed by British submarines, which
sank 14 steamers engaged in the trade and the cruisers "Prinz
Adalbert" and "Bremen" and a destroyer.
The Grand Fleet. — Improvements in the British intelligence,
especially in directional wireless, gave timely warning of any
movements of the German Fleet. By the end of the first quarter in
1915, the Allied flank in Flanders was stabilized, supplies to the
army were ensured by the grip of the Dover and Harwich forces
uoon the narrow seas while the northern bases had been made
782
WORLD WAR
[DARDANELLES
GERMAN OPERATIONS
OCT. 19J7
TAG A BAY & ARENSBERG
Rig*
practically submarine proof. These factors led to a general re-
distribution of the British fleet. The Channel fleet was broken
up and most of its ships were sent out to the Dardanelles. The
Grand Fleet battle squadrons remained at Seapa Flow and Cro-
marty and the battlecruisers at Rosyth. During the year the
Battle fleet swept down the North Sea to the Heligoland Bight
no less than 17 times and
many other searches were made
of the Danish and Norwegian
coasts by the battlecruisers
and light forces. During one
of these cruises "U. 29" was
rammed by the "Dreadnought."
The British Navy was short
of destroyers until the autumn,
when the new vessels began
to appear. Until then constant
calls were made upon the Grand
Fleet for destroyers to assist
the auxiliary patrol in hunting
submarines. The work of the
destroyers was incessant and
arduous and due to their effi-
ciency the Germans gained no
major success with submarine FIG. 2.— MAP SHOWING GERMAN
or mine against the British fleet OPERATIONS AT TAGA BAY AND
, . ., rr. .1 ARENSBERG. OCTOBER, 1917
during the year. The northern
blockade was maintained with increasing efficiency by the loth
Cruiser squadron, now composed entirely of armed merchant
cruisers. The fleet base at Scapa Flow developed into a great
training establishment for new personnel. A system of gunnery
and other training was organised which brought the many new
ships joining the fleet to a state of fighting efficiency in minimum
time and new officers and 'men were trained for the ancillary
services all over the world. This year of strenuous work was
marked by no outstanding event after the Dogger Bank action
and it closed with the disaster to the armoured cruiser "Natal,"
lost by internal explosion at Cromarty on New Year's eve. Dur-
ing August and September, Zeebrugge and Ostend were , several
times bombarded by the monitors and other ships of the Dover
Patrol, in support of the Allied offensive. The results were in-
conclusive owing to the difficulties of fire observation and to
the fact that the ships, finding themselves outranged by the
heavy German shore guns were forced to keep at extreme range.
Submarine Warfare. — By the beginning of 1915 the ocean
high-ways had been made safe for commerce, but the narrow seas
around the British Isles were becoming unsafe for any traffic.
On Feb. 17, 1915, Germany declared these wutets to be a "War
Zone" and announced her intention of using submarines to sink
merchant-ships. Thus commenced the submarine campaign
(q.v.). In the first quarter of 1915, 38 British ships were sunk
by submarines and by Dec. 31 this number was swelled to 259.
In the same period 48 ships were sunk by mines and the tonnage
loss for the year approached 900,000 tons. For these two forms
of warfare against trade Britain was unprepared and the sub-
marine and minelaying tactics of the enemy produced a situation
beyond the capacity of the weak and scattered coastal patrol and
minesweeping flotillas. Trawlers, drifters, yachts and small steam
and motor vessels of all kinds were armed to reintorce the
flotillas. By the beginning of 1915, no less than 750 of these
craft were in commission and their numbers were rapidly swelled
at the opening of submarine warfare. By August 1915 the
auxiliary patrol was a complete organization and the coastal
waters were divided into twenty-one patrol areas. In each area
destroyers and auxiliary craft were employed in submarine hunt-
ing, minesweeping, guarding channels, guiding traffic, rescue work
and in many other duties. The auxiliary ships were manned
by seamen, yachtsmen and fishermen, enrolled in the Royal
Naval and Royal Naval Volunteer Reserves. As in days of old,
the seafaring population of the country, of all classes, came for-
ward in the hour of need and in its ceaseless watch around the
coast until the end of the war, the auxiliary patrol paid a heavy
price and rendered to the country service of incalculable value.
THE DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN
Early in 1915 political complications in the Balkans and the
Russian wish for an open Dardanelles to ensure munitions supply,
made imperative some demonstration of the Allied power in
the Eastern Mediterranean. It was decided to attack the Darda-
nelles, where, since September, Admiral Garden had been keep-
ing a close watch. In the redistribution of the British fleet, after
the Falkland Islands battle, Garden was strengthened with a num-
ber of the older battleships and cruisers. The French Govern-
ment offered a squadron and both naval and military aid was
promised by Russia in the Black Sea. By the end of February,
Garden's force consisted of the battlecruiser "Inflexible," the
new battleship "Queen Elizabeth, " 16 old battleships (4 French),
20 destroyers (6 French), a flotilla of 35 minesweeping trawlers
and a seaplane carrier were on their way, and a varying number
of cruisers and submarines were under his orders. Admiral
de Robeck was appointed second in command. The Greek Govern-
ment handed over the Island of Lemrios as an advanced base and
Admiral Wemyss was appointed to command it.
From the first the naval view was that any attack upon the
Straits by ships could be only a diversion unless it was backed
by a strong military expedition. Steps were accordingly taken to
send troops to the Aegean, but the situation on the eastern and
western fronts caused delay and it was not until Feb. 20, after
the first bombardment, that the decision was made to send-out
five divisions (4 British and i French).
The First Bombardment — Bad weather in January made
reconnaissance of the Straits difficult, but enough was done to
enable Garden to recommend, on Feb. 15, that a naval bombard-
ment was not a sound operation without a strong military force
to consolidate the work of the fleet. But the political situation
was critical and Garden was pressed by the War Council to
DARDANELLES DEFENCES
Minefie/Ja •••
APPROXIMATE ARMAMENTS
A.Htll«s,r.fo$4
B.3««kl«IB«hr. (»ot/m.lm>0-2ir> t*o$-4.
9'4in
l*c9 4m,
I . M«»'udia«, thrttS-9
J. Mtjfdiu*. two II in. fwr9-4
.
., t«o 14 i.
T. Nifwtiuc, w '4 in. wtfO-Zin thvtnS'4-m
thntt '2 in thrtt 5 '9 in.
U. H«midtu«,{ i )t*o/4ir>. om9-4m aneg-2m.
four 5- 9 in.
FIG. 3. — MAP OF DARDANELLES DEFENCES. SHOWING APPROXIMATE
ARMAMENTS AND POSITION OF MINEFIELDS
commence operations. Pointing out that no progress could be
expected until the minesweepers and seaplanes arrived, Garden
decided to bombard the outer forts on the first opportunity.
Owing to bad weather this did not occur until the igth and iat
10 A.M. on that day the battleship "Cornwallis" fired the
first shot of the campaign at Fort Orkaniye. The forts were hit
repeatedly and made no reply, but when the "Vengeance" (flying
de Robeck's Hag), closed to moderate range she received a hot
fire from all guns. Thus early it was proved that long range
bombardment of modern earthworks was ineffective unless the
DARDANELLES]
WORLD WAR
783
ships can close to decisive range and knock out each gun by
direct hits. (See NAVAL STRATEGY AND TACTICS.)
Garden was now informed that he was expected to force the
Straits without military assistance. On February 25, after a four
days gale, a bombardment, commencing at moderate range, was
intensified by British and French ships closing in towards the
shore. The four outer forts were silenced and the minesweepers
began clearing the Straits. Next day, demolition parties, sup-
ported by marines landed to complete the destruction of the forts,
and the fleet, going as far up the Straits as had been swept,
bombarded the inner forts at long range. As before the forts
made no reply when hit, but the ships were badly worried by
mobile howitzers on each shore, which could not be located.
Gales delayed operations for two days and on March i and 2
the Narrows were again attacked, with similar results, the ships
being constantly hit by an increasing number of hidden howitzers.
Each night the minesweepers were driven off by gunfire as they
attempted to sweep the minefields off Kephez. On March 3
de Robeck reported that the Straits cq^ld not be forced unless
one shore or the other were occupied and that no progress was
possible without military assistance. This was emphasized on
March 4 by the repulse of the demolition parties, showing that
the time was past for employing small forces onshore.
As yet, no definite decision had been made as to the scope of any
military operations. In spite of the Admiralty's reiterated de-
mands for troops and the doubts of General Birdwood on the spot,
that the fleet could force a passage unaided, Lord Kitchener, at
the War Office, in his instructions to General Sir Ian Hamilton,
on the latter's appointment as commander-in-chief, only contem-
plated "the employment of military force on any large scale
... at this juncture. ... in the event of the fleet failing to get
through after every effort has been exhausted." (See W. S.
Churchill, The World Crisis.) Mr. Winston Churchill, as First
Lord, continued to urge the fleet to new efforts and on March n,
Admiral Carden was told "the results to be gained are ... great
enough to justify loss of ships and men if success cannot be
obtained without it."
A naval attack was, therefore, planned for March 18, by which
time General Sir Ian Hamilton would have arrived. Meanwhile
daily bombardments of the forts produced indefinite results and
desperate attempts were made nightly without success to sweep
up the Kephez minefields. All experience proved that until the
mobile guns were suppressed they could prevent minesweeping
operations, and until the minefields were cleared ships could not
approach to decisive range at which alone they could destroy
modern earthworks. On March 16 Admiral Garden's health broke
down and he was forced to hand over his command to Admiral de
Robeck, who at once proceeded to carry out the attack planned.
The Naval Attack of March 18.— The plan of attack ar-
ranged for the four modern ships ("Inflexible," "Queen Elizabeth,"
"Lord Nelson" and "Agamemnon") to engage the inner forts at
14,000 yards, whilst a British and French division, of four old
ships each, alternately pressed home the attack to 10,000 yards,
whiqh was the limit of the swept area. Two old battleships on
each side were to attempt to keep down the fire of the small guns
onshore. The action commenced at 11.30 A.M. on the i8th. Little
reply came from the forts, but unseen guns opened a heavy fire.
The "Agamemnon" was frequently hit and the "Inflexible" forced
out of the line with her forebridge burning. At noon the French
division passed through the British line, closed to 10,000 yards
and received a hot fire from the forts. The "Gaulois" was forced
out of action and the "Bouvet" was heavily hit, but the squadron
gallantly held its place and by 1.45 the fire of the forts was slack-
ening. De Robeck then sent the British division in to relieve the
French and ordered the minesweepers up to clear, the channel. At
2.0 P.M. as the French squadron was steaming out the "Bouvet,"
struck a mine, blew up and sank in a few minutes, with nearly all
handi. The British division engaged the forts with apparent suc-
cess until 3.0 P.M. when the "Irresistible" struck a mine and sank,
her crew being saved. The fire from the forts now became inter-
mittent, but at 4.5 P.M. the "Inflexible" was mined and ten minutes
later a similar fate befell the "Ocean." The "Inflexible" reached
Tenedos and was beached, but the "Ocean" was abandoned and
sank. The ships withdrew just after 6 P.M. and as they did so
the forts opened a l\eavy but inaccurate fire ; the attempt to force
the Straits thus ended in failure. The forts had been damaged but
were not put out of action and the minefields were still intact.
The loss to the Allies had been severe: three battleships sunk,
three heavy ships badly damaged and others severely handled.
The First Landings. — For political reasons the campaign had
to be continued and the failure of the fleet to force the Straits
necessitate^! the landing of an army upon the Peninsula. For this
operation the transports were unprepared and the army was con-
centrated in Egypt to reorganise, a valuable month thus being
lost. (See DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN.) Meanwhile the fleet recon-
noitred and prepared for the landing and, when the weather per-
mitted, harassed the Turkish reinforcements now crowding on to
Gallipoli. Smyrna was strictly blockaded and the Russian fleet was
active off the Bosphorus.
By April 23, the transports had reassembled at Mudros and the
work of getting into position for the landings commenced. The
weather favoured the operation and early on the morning of the
25th, landings were effected on five beaches around Cape Helles
and Gaba Tepe (Anzac). At the same time, French troops gained
a footing on the Asiatic side and a demonstration was made in
the Gulf of Xeros; 18 battleships, 12 cruisers, 29 destroyers, 8
submarines and a host of small craft supported the landing. At
each beach, the covering ships went close inshore in support,
whilst the attendant ships carried the troops and aided by small
craft and boats suited to the particular beach, landed them. Oppo-
sition was severe and losses very heavy but by sunset the army was
established ashore and the naval parties had the work of organising
the beaches well in hand. Thenceforward the campaign became
mainly a military one in which the role of the Navy was to sup-
port the troops by gunfire, to evacuate wounded and to ensure the
supply of food, water, stores, munitions and reinforcements to the
beaches. This task was an arduous and dangerous one and casual-
ties on the beaches were heavy. The old battleships "Albion"
(April 28) and "Prince George" (May 5) were so damaged by
gunfire that they had to be docked and on May 13, the "Goliath''
was torpedoed by a Turkish destroyer and sank with great loss
of life. The appearance of German submarines in the Mediter-
ranean now rendered the position of heavy ships employed off
the Peninsula precarious. The "Queen Elizabeth" was ordered
home to join the Grand Fleet and the replacement of battleships
by monitors and old "bulged'' cruisers commenced, but two more
battleships were lost: the "Triumph" on May 25 and the "Ma-
jestic" on May 27, both torpedoed at night by "U. 21."
Lord Fisher Resigns. — The War Council decision on May 14
to continue the campaign led to the resignation of Lord Fisher
(q.v.). This was followed by the reconstruction of the Govern-
ment and the removal of Mr. Winston Churchill from the office of
First Lord of the Admiralty. Throughout the summer months
the navy supported and supplied the army on the peninsula, and
more troops being sent out, a successful landing was made at
Suvla Bay on the night of Aug. 6-7. But neither here nor at the
other positions was any appreciable progress made onshore and
all idea of forcing the Straits with the fleet was consequently
abandoned. Submarines alone could pass the Narrows and of
the 12 boats (9 British and 3 French) which made the adventure,
7 were lost. The presence of these vessels in the Marmora, how-
ever, produced such alarm as greatly to interfere with the
Turkish supplies to the Peninsula.
The Evacuation.— By the end of October the defeat of the
Serbian Army and the opening of the Salonika Campaign hastened
the decision to withdraw from Gallipoli, and preparations for
this difficult operation commenced. Night by night, the vast
accumulation of stores were removed and on the night of Dec.
18-19 the troops were withdrawn from Suvla Bay and Anzac
under cover of the fleet. So successful was the operation that the
Turks knew nothing about it and awoke to find that their enemy
had vanished. The more difficult evacuation of the Helles
Beaches was accomplished on Jan. 8-9, 1916, without the loss of
a man. Little of value was left in the hands of the enemy and
784
WORLD WAR
[MEDITERRANEAN
with these two wonderful examples of naval and military co-
operation the ill-fated campaign was brought to a close.
HOME WATERS 1916
Heavy weather in January hampered the work of the loth
Cruiser squadron on the northern patrol and caused damage to
the submarine defences of Scapa Flow and on the 6th the battle-
ship "King Edward VII.," struck a mine off Cape Wrath and
was lost. Scheer succeeded von Pohl in command of the High
Sea Fleet in January and he at once adopted morp energetic
tactics. On Feb. 10 German destroyers appeared on the Dogger
Bank and sank the sloop "Arabis," whilst minesweeping. A sweep
by the Grand Fleet followed with the usual barren result. During
the dark February nights the raider "Mocwe" slipped homeward
through the blockade after her successful cruise and the "Greif,"
another raider, in attempting to break out was brought to
action by the armed merchant cruiser "Alcantara" on Feb. 29
and both ships were sunk. Cruising constantly during March the
Grand Fleet saw nothing of the enemy until March 24-25 when
the Harwich Force met a Division of enemy destroyers at night.
The German "G. 194" was rammed and sunk by the light cruiser
"Cleopatra" and a British destroyer was lost by collision. On
April 23 the German fleet put to sea, the battlecruiser "Seydlitz"
being forced to return after striking a British mine. Zeppelins
raided the East Coast on the night of April 23-4 and at daybreak
Yarmouth and Lowestoft were bombarded by the German battle-
cruisers. The Harwich Force engaged them and the light cruiser
"Conquest" received heavy damage from their fire as they
hurriedly retired eastward, reaching their minefields just in time
to escape Beatty's battlecruisers. The 3rd Battle squadron (7
King Edward's) was stationed in the mouth of the Thames at
the end of April to deal with the coastal raids and on April 26
a heavy mine and net barrage was laid in the Straits by the Dover
Patrol. On May 4-5 an aerial attack, supported by the Grand
Fleet, was made upon the Zeppelin sheds at Tondern. One Zeppe-
lin WES destroyed at sea. Mines were laid off the Horns Reef and
Borkum before the fleet returned north.
The Battle of Jutland. — At the end of April, in deference to
protests from the United States and other neutrals, the German
submarines received orders to cease sinking merchant ships with-
out warning. Scheer thereupon determined to use the sub-
marines thus released in an attempt to trap the British fleet. By
May 23, 22 submarines were stationed off the British bases, and
the High Sea Fleet was to put to sea on that day in the hope of
enticing the Grand Fleet over them. The plan had to be modified
as the weather delayed the German fleet until May 30. On that
day, following upon reports of unusual activity by the enemy,
the Grand Fleet sailed on one of its periodical southerly sweeps.
On May 31, after a preliminary action between the rival battle-
cruiser forces in which the British suffered heavy losses, the two
main fleets met and the battle of Jutland (q.v.} was fought. The
German fleet after sustaining severe damage and being skilfully
extricated from a very dangerous situation, eluded the British
fleet at night and retired behind its minefields at daylight on June
i. The Grand Fleet returned to its bases on the 2nd and 3rd of
that month.
June 5 was marked by the tragic loss of the "Hampshire," with
Lord Kitchener on board, after striking a mine on the Orkney
coast.
There were no large fleet movements during June as the High
Sea Fleet was repairing its damage after Jutland. All the
damaged British ships rejoined the Grand Fleet by the middle
of July when a number of exercise cruises took place. In the
second week in August, just as before Jutland, an unusual num-
ber of submarines were reported in the North Sea. Expecting
another move on the part of the High Sea Fleet, Jellicoe swept
south in force on August 18. Next morning ten Zeppelins were
located stretched across the North Sea, By noon a fleet action
appeared imminent, the battle fleets being only 42 miles apart,
but warned by the Zeppelins, Scheer turned and jnade for home,
and was soon beyond pursuit. The German battleship "Nassau"
was twice torpedoed by a British submarine as the fleet put to
sea; the cruisers "Nottingham" and "Falmouth" were torpedoed
and sunk; and two submarines were accounted for by the British
flotillas during the operation.
During the autumn British squadrons were constantly at sea
on observation cruises, while regular British cruiser patrols were
established in the North Sea and a submarine patrol was main-
tained off the German ports. But the German fleet made no move
until the night of Oct. 26, when two German destroyer flotillas,
working from Zeebrugge, made their first raid on the Dover
Straits, sinking two British destroyers and seven drifters and
escaping unscathed. On Nov. $ a division of the German fleet
put to sea to help a stranded submarine. The British submarine
"J. i" was waiting and succeeded in torpedoing and damaging the
battleships "Kronprinz" and "Grosser Kurfiirst."
Jellicoe, First Sea Lord. — The long winter nights at the end
of November enabled the raiders "Moewe" and "Wolf" to
break through the blockade. This was annoying but not serious,
for it was the submarine which had now become the menace to
shipping and exceptional measures were called for to deal with it.
At the end of November, therefore, Admiral Jellicoe was ap-
pointed First Sea Lord to take over this great task. Admiral
Beatty succeeded him in command of the Grand Fleet.
In September war against merchant ships was renewed with ever
increasing vigour. During 1916, 436 British merchant ships were
lost, totalling 1,250,000 tons. Of these 322 were sunk by sub-
marines, 88 by mines and 26 by raiders, etc. During the year a
further 218 merchant ships had been attacked by submarines and
had escaped.
THE MEDITERRANEAN 1915-16
The French fleet based upon Malta blockaded the Straits of
Otranto watching for the Austrian "Dreadnought" squadron. The
latter made no move but the Austrian submarines were active and
the battleship "Jean Bart" (Dec. 1914) and the cruiser "Leon
Gambetta" were torpedoed and sank. The French admiral with-
drew his heavy ships to Malta and kept watch upon the narrow
waters of the Adriatic with cruisers and destroyers. In May 1915,
after prolonged negotiations as to the distribution and command
of the Allied fleets in the Mediterranean, Italy declared war against
Austria. The Italian fleet, reinforced by 4 British battleships and
4 light cruisers and by 12 French destroyers and 7 submarines be-
came responsible for the Adriatic blockade. The French Admiral
remained nominally in command of the Mediterranean, controlling
the western basin, whilst naval operations in the Levant were
under British control. The Italian battle squadron was based upon
Taranto, but it was upon the' cruisers, working from Brindisi, that
the principal burden devolved. The cruisers "Dublin" (June 9)
and "Giuseppe Garibaldi" (July 18) were torpedoed by Austrian
submarines and the latter sank. In September a barrage of British
net drifters was placed across the Straits of Otranto, but owing to
the depth of water it was not very effective.
The Dardanelles campaign dominated other events in the Medi-
terranean during 1915 and, with the appearance of German sub-
marines in that sea during the summer, the task of protecting the
stream of transports and supply ships became very difficult. In the
autumn the almost simultaneous decision to evacuate Gallipoli
and to commence the Salonika Campaign (q.v.) made demands
upon the British transport service which all but stressed its powers
to breaking point, and the losses caused by submarines became
very serious.
Dedeagatch was bombarded on Oct. 21 and a British squadron
was constantly operating at Salonika and on the Bulgarian coast
until the end of the war. The collapse of Serbia in November 1915
was followed by an Austrian naval raid upon Durazzo. The raiding
force was engaged by the "Dartmouth," "Weymouth" and "Nino
Bixio" (Italian), the Austrians escaping with the cruiser "Helgo-
land" badly damaged and a destroyer sunk. Corfu was occupied
as a base for the Serbian army in Jan. 1916 but the subsequent
vacillating conduct of Greece did much to hamper the Allies
during the Salonika campaign (q.v .).
The year 1916 in the Mediterranean was a continual struggle
with the German and Austrian submarines, whose use of the
OPERATIONS IN 1917]
WORLD WAR
785
Greek ports and islands called for constant British and French
activity around that coast. In December after an Allied force,
landed from the fleet, was treacherously fired upon at Athens, a
strict blockade of Greece was declared and enforced by the
Allies. The British Aegean squadron, which was reinforced at
the end of the year by four battleships, kept a close watch upon
the Dardanelles and the Syrian coast during 1916.
Overseas Campaigns. — On Feb. 28, 1916, the final surrender
• of the colony brought the Cameroon Campaign to an end. In East
Africa, although the coast was blockaded by the Cape squadron,
the coast towns remained in German hands until September 1916.
By this time all were occupied and the colony was cut off from
the sea. The command of Lake Tanganyika was established by
two British motor boats, carried 2,000 miles overland from Cape-
town, but fighting in the interior continued until after the Armis-
tice. In Mesopotamia, 1916 was a year of pause and preparation
for the next campaign. Kut surrendered on April 29 after a
gallant naval attempt to relieve the town had failed five days
previously. •
UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE 1917
After the refusal of the Allies to consider her proffered peace
terms at the end of 1916, Germany saw that her fate was sealed
unless she could by some means, break the Allies' sea power
(g.v.). The German High Naval Command was granted its wish
and it was proclaimed that, after Feb. i submarines would sink
all merchant ships on sight and without warning. The commence-
ment of this ruthless campaign (see SUBMARINE CAMPAIGN) was
followed by the severance of diplomatic relations between the
United States and Germany and on April 6 the United States
entered the war against the Central Powers. The German aim
was to strike a fatal blow by bringing the Allied, and more
especially the British, seaborne trade to a standstill by sinking
so many ships as to reduce seriously available tonnage and to
make the merchantmen refuse to face the risk of sailing. To
some extent this latter was successful at first, in the case of
neutral shipping, but British merchantmen continued to put to
sea in spite of the heavy toll taken by the submarines. During
February and March a weekly average of 23 British ships were
lost and in April, the darkest month for British shipping, 196
vessels of nearly 600,000 tons were sunk. These losses were so
serious, that, had they continued, success must have ultimately
rewarded the German effort.
The Convoy System. — Every known method of protecting
shipping at sea was adopted: camouflage (q.v.), defensive gun
armaments, zig-zag courses in submarine waters and directing
traffic along routes patrolled by craft armed with every anti-sub-
marine device were all tried; but still the toll of losses grew.
In spite of constant changing of the patrolled routes, by the end
of March this system had definitely broken down and the Con-
voy System (q.v.) was adopted. To this there was, at first,
much opposition, both from the fleet and from merchant owners
and ship masters, and the difficulties appeared insuperable.
Chief amongst these was the finding of sufficient escort ships,
mainly destroyers, for the convoys. The destroyers from the
Grand Fleet and Harwich could not be spared, as the High Sea
Fleet was still in being and a menace, and there were but few
others. The arrival of an American flotilla at Queenstown and
of a Japanese one in the Mediterranean eased the situation: the
Admiralty under Jellicoe persevered and by the end of May the
Convoy System was in full swing. Its effects were immediate.
In the second quarter of 1917 the weekly average losses amounted
to over 30 merchant ships: in the third quarter this was reduced
to just over 20 and in the last quarter to well below that figure,
whilst in 1918 the average weekly loss was under 15. In all,
88,000 ships sailed under convoy during the war with a loss of
only one half of i%. During 1917, 1,134 British ships were sunk
by submarines, whilst 841 others were attacked and escaped:
137 were sunk by mines, mostly laid by submarines and 38 by
surface craft. The total tonnage loss for the year was over
3,500,000 tons and as a counter to this great loss 75 German
submarines were sunk.
VARIOUS OPERATIONS 1917
The Dover Raids.— The German submarine and destroyer
bases at Zeebrugge and Ostend were frequently bombarded by
the monitors of the Dover Patrol but, although much damage was
done, the lock gates and basins were not hit. The mine and net
barrage in the Straits was constantly patrolled by destroyers and
drifters and German destroyers made several attempts, by night
raids on the patrols, to open a way for their submarines into the
Channel. On the night of March 17 a German flotilla attacked
the patrol, sank the destroyer "Paragon" and damaged the
"Llewellyn." On April 20, they were not so successful, for the
raiding flotilla was met by the "Swift" and "Broke" and, in the
spirited hand-to-hand fight that ensued the German destroyers
"G. 42" and <CG. 45" were sunk. Thereafter, except for ineffectual
sorties on April 26 and May 2, no raid was made upon the Dover
Straits for nearly a year. Further north the Harwich Flotilla was
constantly on the alert and on Jan. 23, in a night melee with a
flotilla off the Dutch coast, the German leader was forced into
Ijmuiden badly crippled, another boat was driven back to Zee-
brugge and the British destroyer "Simoon" was sunk.
The Scandinavian Convoy.— Although to a great extent
covered by the Grand Fleet cruisers and escorted by destroyers,
the Scandinavian convoy was open to bold attack by the German
surface craft and two such attacks were successful. On Oct. 17
two German light cruisers met this convoy of nine vessels, sank
the escorting destroyers "Strongbow" and "Mary Rose" and the
ships of the convoy without warning and escaped unscathed.
Again on Dec. 12 a German flotilla attacked the convoy and sank
the destroyer "Pcllew" and four armed trawlers, most of the
merchant ships escaping. These two mishaps led to a reorganiza-
tion of this convoy route and to the strengthening of the escorts.
The Action of November 17. — Owing to delays in the pro-
duction of mines, the British policy of intensive mining off the
entrances to the German ports was not put in force until October.
This was followed by a great increase in the German minesweep-
ing service, some of the flotillas having to work as far as 150 miles
from Heligoland. In November the Grand Fleet cruisers con-
stantly raided the Bight and the Cattegat and on Nov. 2 the
decoy ship "Kronprinz Wilhelm" was sunk in the latter area.
On Nov. 17, two British light cruiser squadrons, supported by
battlecruisers, attacked the German minesweepers and their
covering force in the Bight. A long range action followed, the
Germans retiring under smoke-screens to the minefields, when
two battleships appeared in support and the British force with-
drew. In this indecisive affair the light cruiser "Konigsberg" was
heavily hit and one German outpost vessel was sunk and on the
British side the light cruiser "Calypso" was hit and her captain
killed. On Dec. 23 three destroyers escorting the Dutch convoy
steamed into a German minefield off the Maas Lightship and were
sunk in quick succession. The Grand Fleet suffered a heavy loss
when the battleship "Vanguard," on July 9, was lost at Scapa
Flow with nearly all hands, owing to an internal explosion.
At the end of the year Admiral Wemyss relieved Admiral
Jellicoe as First Sea Lord and Vice-Admiral Keyes took over the
command of the Dover Patrol, in succession to Vice-Admiral Sir
Reginald Bacon.
The Baltic in 1917. — A few British submarines operated in the
Baltic throughout the year, being employed mainly on reconnais-
sance work by the Russian Admiral. In October, after Riga was
captured by the German Army, an attempt to open up the Gulf
of Riga was made by the High* Sea Fleet, and a military force was
successfully landed on Osel Island. The Straits of Irben were
swept but the battleships "Bayern," "Grosser Kurfurst" and
"Markgraf" all struck mines. The Russian battleship "Slava"
was sunk but after three German battleships had been attacked
by British submarines the naval force was withdrawn, leaving
Osel Island in military occupation.
Mesopotamia, 1917. — After many months of preparation,
General Maude commenced his advance up the Tigris in Feb.
1917. The army was supported by a flotilla of eight new river
gunboats and a number of armed river steamers. Kut was
retaken on Feb. 24 and in the heavy fighting that followed the
786
WORLD WAR
[HOME WATERS) 1918
naval flotilla played a prominent part. The 6-inch and 4-inch
guns of the gunboats did much to convert the Turkish retreat
into a rout and the British flag was hoisted over Baghdad on
March n. (See MESOPOTAMIA OPERATIONS.)
The Mediterranean, 1917. — Allied naval strategy was centred
in the Adriatic during the year, for the French and Italian
battle squadrons had to keep a watchful eye upon the Austrian
dreadnoughts. But the enemy submarines and not the battleships
became the dominating factor and, using the Austrian bases, they
operated all over the Mediterranean. Their target was a vast one
consisting of the great volume of trade to the East, swelled by
troop and supply ships feeding the armies at Salonika (q.v.), in
Egypt, in Syria (q.v.) and in Mesopotamia. The 40-mile Otranto
Straits were too deep for mining and were patrolled by 50 British
North Sea drifters, supported by British and Italian cruisers and
destroyers. Stopping the passage of enemy submarine was a diffi-
cult task and the patrols were always open to sudden raids. On
May 15 Austrian cruisers and destroyers descended upon the
patrols and sank 14 drifters before they were chased back to
Cattaro by the cruisers "Weymouth" and "Dartmouth." The
latter ship was torpedoed during the action but did not sink.
Owing to separate commands in the different areas, difficulties
arose in the co-ordination of the methods of protecting mer-
chant ships from submarines and by the middle of the year
the losses in the Mediterranean became very serious. In August
a British commander-in-chief was appointed to Malta as the
single authority responsible for trade protection in that sea. A
convoy system was started, under the escort of British and Japa-
nese destroyers and the toll of losses was gradually reduced. A
further co-ordination of naval effort followed the meeting of the
Allied Naval Council at Malta in November. During the year a
British squadron of two battleships and a number of cruisers
cruised in the Levant, watching the Dardanelles and co-operating
with the Salonika force. On the Palestine coast, a flotilla of
monitors, destroyers and gunboats took an active part in the
battles of Gaza (Q.V.), which led to the fail of Jerusalem (Nov.
ii).
THE NORTH SEA AND CHANNEL 1918
During 1918 the mine became predominant as a counter to the
submarine and a duel developed between the two weapons. The
mine barrage in the Dover Straits was strengthened and with
the patrol craft armed with every known anti-submarine device
nine submarines were accounted for in that area during the early
weeks of the year and it became evident to the German naval
command that the passage of the Straits was virtually closed to
them. They made two attempts to reopen the Straits. On Feb.
15 a destroyer flotilla raided the patrols at night, sank seven
drifters and a trawler and escaped without being brought to action.
On March 21 a similar raid was not so fortunate, the German
flotilla being met by British destroyers. One German destroyer
was rammed and cut in half by the "Botha," another was sunk
by gunfire and the Germans were chased into Ostend. The
"Botha" was torpedoed but reached Dover safely.
Zeebrugge and Ostend^—This proved to be the last German
attempt upon the Straits, but as long as their bases at Zeebrugge
and Ostend remained in being, raids were to be exacted. As
early as 1914, Jellicoe had proposed an attempt to block these
places, but it was not until the last months of his time at the Ad-
miralty that active steps were taken to put the plan into execution.
Admiral Keyes was appointed to Dover to carry it out. After
weeks of secret preparation, the mixed force selected sailed on the
afternoon of April 22 to attempt to block the entrances at Zee-
brugge and Ostend. (See BELGIAN COAST OPERATIONS.) The flo-
tilla returned to Dover next morning, its mission at Zeebrugge ac-
complished. At Ostend the blockships failed to find the entrance,
but this was remedied a fortnight later, when a volunteer crew took
the "Vindictive," of Zeebrugge fame, into Ostend and sank her
in the entrance. These two brilliant actions did not entirely block
the Flanders Coast bases, but their moral influence was great and
they acted as an added inducement to the German submarines
to shun the waters of the Dover command and to confine their
efforts to gain the open sea to surmounting the lesser perils of
the nortbabout route.
Last Sortie of the German Fleet. — The Scandinavian con-
voy remained a bait for the High Sea Fleet and on April 23 it
put to sea, for the last time in full strength, to try to intercept
it. The date was an unfortunate one for the German enterprise
for on that day both outward and homeward bound convoys were
in the vicinity of the Forth. The British intelligence system, usu-
ally efficient, failed this time to warn Beatty that enemy were-
at sea and the German battlecruisers reached the Norwegian
coast at Lat. 60 N. before they were reported. Here the "Moltke"
broke down and had to be taken in tow. The German fleet made
for home at its best speed; the "Moltke" was torpedoed by
Submarine "E. 42" on her way south, but managed to reach
her base.
The Northern Barrage. — Frequent raids were made by the
British cruisers and destroyers upon the flotillas engaged in clear-
ing ways for the German submarines through the minefields and
on April 15, during a raid into the Cattegat, 14 German trawlers
were sunk. From the commencement of the British intensive min-
ing policy in the autumn of 1917 until Feb. 1918 over 16,000 mines
had been laid in the Heligoland Bight. On Feb. 15 a deep mine-
field was laid in the Cattegat and the following month saw the
beginning of the greatest minelaying operation of the war, the
laying of the Northern Barrage. (See article SUBMARINE MINES.)
This vast undertaking, the closing by mines of the northern en-
trance to the North Sea from the Orkneys to the Norwegian
coast, involved the laying of over 70,000 mines. The mines were
made in the United States and were laid by British and American
vessels, escorted by the squadrons of the Grand Fleet, with which
for some time an American battle squadron had been working.
The Northern Barrage was successful both as a moral deterrent
and by the number of submarines destroyed in it.
The End of the Submarine Campaign. — By the middle of
1918 the mastery of the Allies over the submarine was in sight,
both from the number destroyed and from the lessening toll they
took of merchant ships. In the first nine months of the year over
60 submarines were sunk by the Allied naval forces: the average
weekly loss of British merchant ships was over 17 in the first
quarter of the year and by the third quarter this figure was re-
duced to under n. During 1918, 1,108 submarine attacks were
made upon British merchant ships; of these 581 were sunk and 527
escaped, a far higher percentage than hitherto. During 1918 only
8 British ships were lost by mines, a figure that attests the effi-
ciency of the Auxiliary Patrol and Minesweeping services.
On July 19 a naval air raid, supported by the Grand Fleet, was
made upon Tondern and a Zeppelin shed was destroyed. In an-
other raid on August n made into the Heligoland Bight by
cruisers and coastal motor boats, a Zeppelin was brought down
and destroyed, but the motor boats suffered heavily from the
enemy air craft. These proved to be the last two important
operations of the Grand Fleet during the war.
The White Sea, 1918-19.— The closing of the Black Sea and
the Baltic brought the northern route to Russia into promi-
nence and vast quantities of munitions and fuel were, in 1917,
sent to the ice free port of Murmansk (connected by rail to
Petrograd in 1917) and to Archangel, which was open from July
to October. When Russia collapsed in 1917 the old battleship
"Glory" and the cruisers "Cochrane" and "Amiral Aube"
(Fr.) were sent to Murmansk and were followed in May 1918
by the cruiser "Attentive," the seaplane carrier "Narana" and
a force of 9,000 troops (2,100 British). The object of the ex-
pedition was to prevent Germany using these ports as submarine
bases, to keep open supplies and give support to the anti-
Bolshevik forces under Kolchak (q.v.). Archangel was occupied
in August after a spirited duel between the "Attentive" aided by
the Narana's seaplanes and the forts, and an advance was made
along the railway towards Vologda and up the Dwina river
towards Kotlas, the latter being supported by a flotilla, which
included a British monitor and a number of local river steamers
fitted out as gunboats and motor launches, mostly manned by
British crews. Troitsa, 250 miles from Archangel, was occupied
FINAL PHASE, 1918]
WORLD WAR
787
in September, when the flotilla had to retire before the river
began to freeze. In April 1919 a British flotilla, which eventually
included 6 monitors, 6 river gunboats, minesweepers, and coastal
motor boats, 18 seaplanes and a kite balloon, assisted in the
attempt to advance to Kotlas, but Kolchak's effort failed and
political influences caused the Allied Governments to order a
withdrawal from North Russia. The flotilla successfully covered
WHITE
CAMPAIGN
1917- 1919
the re-embarkation with the loss of two small monitors. By the
end of Sept. 1919 the evacuation was complete.
The Baltic, 1918.— The British submarine flotilla, working
under the orders of the Russian commander-in-chief , was stationed
at Helsingfors during the winter of 1917-18. After the break-up
of Russia, the Germans advanced upon Helsingfors, and on April
3, 1918, the flotilla of seven boats was taken to sea through the ice
and sunk to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy.
The Mediterranean and Black Sea, 1918. — Early on the
morning of Jan. 20, the "Goeben" and "Breslau" suddenly re-
appeared in the Mediterranean. Shadowed down the Dardanelles
by two British destroyers, they made for Imbros Island, where
they found the monitors "Raglan" and "M. 28" at anchor. The
two British ships were soon set on fire and sunk but in rounding
the south of the island the Germans met disaster. The "Breslau"
struck a mine and sank and the "Goeben" shortly afterwards
struck two mines in quick succession. In a sinking condition she
crept back into the Straits and was beached in the Narrows. Con-
tinuous attacks upon her from the air failed to do material dam-
age and a desperate attempt to torpedo her, made by "E. 14,"
resulted in the loss of the submarine. Eventually the "Goeben"
was towed off and once more made her escape to Constantinople.
The loss of merchant tonnage on the congested traffic lanes of
the Mediterranean remained severe and although the unified
control of Trade Protection gradually reduced this loss the Medi-
terranean was one of the chief danger areas on the trade routes
until the end of the war. The Otranto barrage, though a de-
terrent, was unable to close the passage to the German and
Austrian submarines and its patrols were always oj>en to sudden
raids. On April 22 Austrian destroyers made a descent upon the
patrols but were driven off and in June the Austrian dreadnought
squadron at last moved out of Pola and sailed for Cattaro with
the intention of attacking the barrage. The squadron was attacked
by Italian torpedo boats, the dreadnought "Svent Istvan" was
sunk, the attack was abandoned and the Austrians returned to
Pola. On Oct. 31 the defences of that port were pierced by the
Italian mosquito craft and the battleship "Viribus Unitis" was
torpedoed and sunk. During the closing months of the war a
flotilla of British monitors and small craft were employed on the
northern shores of the Adriatic in co-operating with the flanks
of the Italian Army in their final struggle with the Austrians.
The Black Sea. — Until the break up of Russia, sporadic fight-
ing took place between the Turko-German naval forces and the
Russian Black Sea fleet, in which the Russian dreadnoughts domi-
nated the situation. After the mutiny of the Black Sea fleet, a
danger arose that one or more of the battleships might fall into
the hands of the Germans as potential fighting units. The Allied
Aegean squadron was therefore strengthened in 1918 by 4 French
battleships and 2 British dreadnoughts. It was one of the latter
("Superb") that on Nov. 12, 1918 led the Allied fleets up the
Dardanelles and subsequently to Constantinople.
THE FINAL PHASE
As the months of 1918 drew on the menace of the submarine*
waxed less and less and during May, June and July over 600,000
American troops were safely carried across the Atlantic and
landed in France. It was the beginning of the end. In August
the German Western Front began to crack under the blows of
the French and British armies: Austria was breaking up: Sep-
tember saw the Bulgarian front give way and, in October, Ger-
many, racked by internal troubles, was forced to her knees.
Scheer, who had relinquished the command of the High Sea
Fleet to von Hipper on being called to Headquarters in August
as Chief of the Naval Staff, received orders late in September to
be prepared to leave the Flanders Coast. In October the retire-
ment began, hastened from the sea by the ships of the Dover
Patrol. Ostend was clear of German troops on Oct. 17 and two
days later they were in full retreat from Zeebrugge. Eighteen
destroyers and torpedo boats escaped to the Bight but a number
of submarines were left behind and blown up.
Mutiny in the German Fleet.— After its futile sortie in
April the High Sea Fleet made no move and signs were not want-
ing that its fighting spirit had departed. As early as May 1917
there had been unrest amongst the personnel and outbreaks of
mutiny occurred in the battleships "Westfalen," "Kaiser," "Kai-
scrin" and "Konig Albert." In the spring and early summer of
1918 further outbreaks called for stern repressive measures. The
continued inactivity of the fleet and the withdrawal of the best
of its personnel for service in the submarines and in the flotillas,
so undermined its morale that when called upon to make a final
effort it failed.
Scheer had planned a last raid into the Channel by the whole
High Sea Fleet, whilst a concentration of submarines in the North
Sea attacked the Grand Fleet on its way south. The submarines
were recalled from their war upon commerce at the end of October
and were stationed off the Scottish coast, but, when, on Oct. 29,
the signal was made to prepare for sea, open mutiny broke out
and the fleet refused to sail. From that moment the High Sea
Fleet ceased to exist as a fighting machine and the war at sea was
over. Most of the crews of the destroyer and submarine flotillas
remained loyal until the end and one of the latter inflicted the
last casualty of the war upon the British navy when, on Nov. 10,
the old battleship "Britannia" was torpedoed off Cape Trafalgar.
The Armistice-— Under the terms of the Armistice, Germany
agreed to surrender 10 battleships, 6 battlecruisers, 8 light cruisers,
50 destroyers and all submarines. These terms were enforced
without delay and two scenes followed that will be forever
memorable in the long sea history of Britain. On Nov. 20, Rear-
Admiral Tyrwhitt, with the Harwich flotillas, met the surrender-
ing submarines off the Essex coast and escorted them into Har-
788
WORLD WAR
[MEDITERRANEAN, 1918
wich. Slowly, the long line of 129 submarines passed into the
harbour, watched, in dead silence, by great crowds on either
shore. Thus was the greatest menace to Britain's sea power laid
to rest. The next day, Nov. 21, Admiral Beatty with the Grand
Fleet, met the German Fleet off the Firth of Forth. Between two
long lines of British ships the High Sea Fleet steamed to its
anchorage below the Forth Bridge and there, at sunset, the Ger-
man flag was hauled down and was not hoisted again. Thus the
proud fleet of Germany surrendered to its enemy, who for over
four years had watched and thwarted its every move.
The Peace Terms. — In June 1919 the naval conditions of the
Peace terms were signed. They were drastic and reduced Germany
at a blow from the position of a great sea power to that of a minor
one. The maximum strength of the German navy was fixed at 6
small battleships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and
no submarines, with a personnel not to exceed 15,000 officers and
men.
Within two months of the signature, the remaining 8 dread-
noughts with 8 light cruisers and 92 of the latest destroyers and
torpedo boats were surrendered, disarmed but with their guns
on board, and, within one month, all submarines, either built or
building, were either surrendered or broken up.
The disposal of this great array of ships became the subject
of delicate discussion between the Allies. Great Britain wanted to
destroy them all but France and others wished to add their share
to their fleets. The question was partially settled by the Germans
themselves, when on June 21, the fleet interned at Scapa Flow,
was scuttled. There were at anchor in the war base of the Grand
Fleet, ii battleships, 5 battlecruisers, 8 light cruisers and a number
of destroyers. At 10 A.M., by preconcerted signal, the crews
opened the valves and the ships began to sink. Only four, the
"Baden" (the latest battleship) and three light cruisers remained
afloat. This act cost Germany dear, for she had to surrender in
place of the battleships, 300,000 tons of floating docks, her re-
maining five light cruisers and 42,000 tons of floating cranes, etc.,
in lieu of the destroyers.
Comparative Naval Losses. — The warship losses of the
powers engaged are shown in the following table.
with his Continental System (q.v.), to strike a vital blow at
Britain's seaborne trade. Like the Continental System, the Sub-
merged Blockade came near to success, but, in the end, under
the steady pressure of the Allied navies, it failed. With supplies
unlimited the wasteful struggles between the great armies might
have been prolonged indefinitely, but with the Central Powers
denied their wants by the Allied blockade at sea, whilst the
Allied armies received their every need from overseas, there could
be but one end.
Upon the British Merchant Navy fell by far the greatest burden
of carrying the seaborne trade that kept the Allied armies in the
field and fed the civilian populations; heavy indeed was the price
it paid in the faithful performance of this duty. To the Royal
Navy fell the lion's share of the fighting upon the sea: its great
traditions were maintained and glorified and when the Armistice
called a halt the two navies of Britain had once again carried
the country in triumph to the end of a great war.
(S. T. H. W.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — British Authorities: A. T. Stewart and C. J. E.
Peshall, The Immortal Gamble (1917) ; Dardanelles Commission, First
Report (1917), and Final Report (1919); Sir R. H. S. Bacon, The
Dover Patrol (1919) ; Lord Fisher, Memories (1919) and Records
(1919) ; Viscount Jcllicoe, The Grand Fleet 1914-6 (1919) and The
Crisis of the Naval War (1920) ; Sir C. Callwell, Experiences of a Dug-
out (1920) ; A History of the Great War Based on Official Documents;
Sir J. S. Corbett, Naval Operations (1920, etc.) ; C. E. Fayle, Seaborne
Trade (1020) ; also A. S. Hurd, The Merchant Navy (1921) ; Gen. Sir
I. S. M. Hamilton, Gallipoli Diary (1920) ; British Admiralty, Battle
of Jutland, Official Despatches (1920) and Narrative of the Battle of
Jutland (1924) ; A. B. Filson Young, With the Battle Cruisers (1921) ;
W. L. S. Churchill, The World Crisis (1923-27) ; Baron Wester
Wemyss, The Navy in the Dardanelles Campaign (1924) ; G. R.
Callender, The Naval Side of British History (1924) ; H. W. Wilson,
Battleships in Action (1926) ; M. E. F. Kerr, Land, Sea and Air (1927).
American and Foreign Authorities: Capt. E. Ludecke, Kreuzer-
fahrten und Kriegserlebnisse, S.M.S. Dresden (1915) ; Adml. C. Dick,
Das Kreuzergeschwader (1917); K. Nerger, S.M.S. Wolf (1918); E.
Vedel, Quatre Annies de Guerre Sous-marine (1919) ; W. S. Sims, The
Victory at Sea (1920); Dartige du Fournet, Souvenirs de guerre
(1920) ; R. Schcer, Deutschlands Hochseeftotte im Welt-Krieg (1920) ;
E. von Mantey, Dcr Krieg zur See (1920, etc.) ; Lt.-Comm. O. Groos,
Der Krieg in 'der Nordsee (1920) ; Lt.-Comm. R. Firle, Der Krieg in
Germany
Great
Britain
France
Italy
Japan
United
States
Russia
Turkey
Austria
Losses
Surren-
dered
Dreadnoughts
2*
i*
i*
2*
2
18
Pre-dread noughts
II*
4
3
2
i
1
i
Battlecruisera
3
i*
i
6
Cruisers.
13*
5
i
T
2
6
Light cruisers
12
2
2
i
3
17*
23
Destroyers .
67
12
8
I
2
20
3
6
66
9*t
Submarines .
54
14
8
20
H**
IQQ
All
*One lost by accidental internal explosion. tAlso 50 of the newest torpedo boats.
**By the peace terms Austria was left without coast line and her navy ceased to exist.
In addition to those shown in the table, Great Britain lost 60
minor war vessels (torpedo boats, sloops, gunboats, monitors,
coastal motor boats, etc.), her losses in this type being heavier
in proportion than that of the other Allies. British losses of
auxiliary vessels totalled 17 armed merchant cruisers and 828
other vessels. This latter figure included 288 colliers and oilers,
246 trawlers and 130 drifters. Submarines accounted for 35%
of the loss amongst auxiliary vessels, 28% were sunk by mines
and 9% were lost by wreck or fire.
Under the urgent stress of war, science brought about the rapid
development of certain new weapons and new methods; the sub-
marine and the mine and their countermeasures; the increased
range of the great gun and in the power of explosives; the use
of poison gas and the birth of aircraft as fighting machines.
Reference to all these matters will be found elsewhere; they
were common to all belligerents and did not alter the course of
the war at sea. For, upon the sea, history was repeated. Like
France and Spain in the wars of the i8th century, Germany
found herself, at the outset, in the grip of the blockade of the
British Fleet. Isolated from the world and cut of! from oversea
supplies, she attempted by her submerged blockade, like Napoleon
der Ostsee (1921) ; Capt. E. Raeder, Kreuzerkrieg (1922) ; G. von
Hasc, Kiel and Jutland (1921) ; L. von Reuter, Scapa Flow: Das Grab
der Deutschen Flotte (1921) ; C. Manfroni, Storia delta Marina Italiajia
durante la guerra Mondiale (1923) ; Capt. T. G. Fothcringham, Naval
History of the World War, 3 vols. (Cambridge, Mass!, 1924-26) ;
Etat-Major-General Turc, Campagne de Dardanelles (1924) ; A.
Laurens, Le blocus et la guerre sous-marine (1924); Capt. A. A.
Thomazi, La guerre navale dans VAdriatique (1925) ; Commodore G.
von Schoultz, With the British Battle Fleet (1925).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following list of books, carefully selected from several
thousands on the subject, is designed to give the general reader the
best information available in book form concerning the World
War as regards both its main aspects and the events which were of
most importance therein. An effort has also been made to give
the names of at least one or two books relating to events in each
of the minor theatres or sub-theatres of the War, and where
controversial matter still exists references to books on both sides
are given.
Books in foreign tongues have been confined to those in French,
German and Italian. Where books in several volumes have been
published at intervals, the date given is usually that of the last
BIBLIOGRAPHY]
volume to appear.
ORIGINS AND RESPONSIBILITY (see also under Political)
Rt. Hon. H. H. Asquith, The Genesis of the War; etc. (1923) ;
M. Edith Durham, The Serajevo Crime. (1925) ;
Hermann von Eckhardstein, Ten years at the Court of St. James
1895-1905. (1921);
German Foreign Office, Deutschland schuldig? (1919) ;
By a German (R. Grelling), J' accuse I Translation by A, Gray.
J. W. Headlam, The History of Twelve Days. (1915) ;
J. W. Headlam, The Outbreak of War. Foreign Office Documents.
(1926);
K. Kautsky, Outbreak of the World War (1924). Translation. Full
collection of German official documents — Die deutschen Doku-
mente zum Kriegsausbruch. 6 vol. (1919) ;
Prince K. Lichnowsky, My Mission to London 1912-14. (1918);
Count Max Montgelas, The Case for the Central Powers. (1925) ;
Dr. W. Muhlon, Dr. Miihlon's Diary, 1014. (1918) ;
C. Oman, The Outbreak of the War of 1914-18. Based on official
documents. (1919) ;
R. Poincare, The Origins of the War. (^921) ;
Das Russische Orange-Buch von 1914. (1925) ;
R. W. Seton- Watson, Serajevo. (1926) ;
German Foreign Office, Die. Grosse Politik dcr Europdischen
Kabinette 1871-1914 (1926) ;
British Foreign Office, British Documents on the Origin!: of the War
1898-1914. s vol. published (1926, etc.) ;
J. S. Ewart, Roots and Cattses of the War (1914-1$). (1926) ;
S. Sazonov, Fateful Years igoy-i6. (1927) ;
E. W. Dickes, Lord Grey and the World War. (translated) (1927) ;
H. W. Wilson, War Guilt. (1928) ;
F. von Musulin, Das Haus am Ballplatz. (1925).
GENERAL HISTORIES (Chronological)
Annual Register, Great Britain, The Annual Register. (1914-19) ;
Brassey's Naval Annual. Portsmouth. (1914-19);
Whitaker's Almanac. (1914-19), short chronologies;
Chronology of the War, 1014-19. Edited by Lord Edward Gleichcn.
3 vol. (each of 2 years) and atlas. (1918-20) ;
Committee of Imperial Defence (Historical Section), Principal
Events 1014-1018 (1922) ;
S. R., Chronologic de la Guerre. 10 small vol. (1919) ;
"Times, The," The Times Diary and Index of the War, 1914-18.
(1921).
HISTORIES (see also under Military Operations)
Gen. Oberst A. Arz, Zur Geschichte des grossen Krieges 1914-18.
(Eastern Front) . (1924);
J. Buchan. A History of the Great War. 4 vol. (1921);
Bulletin Beige des Sciences Afilitaires, Belgian official account of the
War coming out in this periodical;
Gen. Cherfils, La Guerre de la Delivrance. 3 vol. (1920-22) ;
Lt.-Col. M. L. V. H. Corda, La Guerre Mondiale 1014-18. (1922) ;
L. Cornet, 1914-1915 Histoire de la Guerre. Political and general.
(1915-22) ;
Brig.-Gen. Sir J. E. Edmonds, Official History of the Great War.
With maps and plans. 4 vol. (1928, etc.) ;
Diario Delia Guerra d' Italia. Official; 65 parts, (1923);
The Military and Financial Effort of Italy during the War. Official
figures. (1919) J
Lcs Armies Francoises dans la Grande Guerre. French Official
History of War. 2 vol. of chronological dictionary of formations
during whole War. 5 vol. with numerous appendix vol. of docu-
ments and maps. Difficult to obtain;
Sir Charles P. Lucas, The Empire at War. Dominions and colonies
in particular. 3 vol. (1921, etc.);
Nations of To-day Series. Ed. J. Buchan. 12 separate vol. Great
Britain (2), Bulgaria and Rumania, France, Belgium, Italy, Ire-
land, India, Yugoslavia, Baltic and Caucasian States, British
America, Japan. Description of War, etc., in each. (1923, etc.) ;
Gen. B. E. Palat, La Grande Guerre sur le Front Occidental. 12
vol. (i9j7» etc.) ;
Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg 1014-18. German official History of
the War. 5 vol. out of probably 12. (1922, etc.) ;
Gen. Lt. M. Schwarte (Ed.), Der Grosse. KrieR 1014-*$- u vol.
to date includes Austro-Hungarian and Turkish campaigns.
(1921-24) ;
"Times, The," Documentary History of the War. n vol. (1917) ;
Capt. A. Tosti, La Guerra ItoJo-Austriaca igi$~i8. Good official
resume. (1925);
G. M. Trevelyan, The War and the European Revolution in rela-
tion to History. (1920).
Major R. Van Overstraeten, Des Prmdpes de la Guerre (vol. ii.
covering the World War). (1926) ;
Sir A. Conan Doyle, British Campaigns in Europe. (1928) ;
Commnt. M. Larcher, La Guerre turque dans la Guerre Mondiale.
(Summary). (1926);
WORLD WAR
789
German Great General Staff, continued by the Reichsarchiv, Der
grosse Krieg in Einzeldarstellungen. Detailed narratives of battle.
32 issues. (1918,- etc.) ;
Rt. Hon. W. S. Churchill, The World Crisis. 4 vols. (1923-29).
HISTORIES OF ARMIES AND CONTINGENTS
Australia
Official History of Australia in the War. 4 vol. dealing with
Egypt and Palestine, Gallipoli and Pacific islands. (1925, etc.) ;
Lt.-Gcn. Sir J. Monash, The Australian Victories in France in
1018. (1920);
Canada
Report. Canada, Ministry of Overseas Military Forces. Report
1918. (1919);
Lt.-Gen. Sir A. W. Currie, Canadian Corps Operations during
ip/tf. (1920) ;
Maj. C. G. Roberts and M. Aitken (Lord Beavcrbrook) . Canada
in Flanders. 3 vol. (1918);
Capt. H. Stecle, The Canadians in France 1 015-18. (1920) ;
India
Gen. Sir J. Willcocks, With the Indians in France. (1920) ;
New Zealand
H. T. B. Drew, The War Effort of New Zealand. 4 vol. (1924) ;
Col. H. Stewart, The New Zealand Division 1016-1919 (1921) ;
South Africa
John Buchan, History of the South African Forces in France.
(1920) ;
South Africa, Department of Defence, The Union of 5. Africa
and the Great War. Official history. (1924) ;
United States
Maj. -Gen. R. L. Bullard, Personalities and Reminiscences of the
War. (1925);
Lt.-Col. de Chambrun and Capt. de Marenches, L'armee ameri-
caine dans le eon flit europeen. (1921) ;
Final Report of Gen. /. /. Pershing. (1919). Covers history of
U.S.A. forces;
Capt. Shipley Thomas, History of the American Expeditionary
Force. (1920) ;
United States, G.S., Historical Branch, Monographs (3) on
Mobilisation, Economic Agencies, etc. (1921);
E. N. Hurley, The Bridge to France. (1926);
Maj. -Gen. J. G. Harbord, Leaves from a War Diary. (1926) ;
Capt. J. W. Thomason, Fly, Bayonets. (1927) ;
Maj.-Gen. Hunter Liggett, A.E.F. Ten Years Ago. (1928) ;
T. M. Johnson, Without Censor (1928).
ARMS OF THE SERVICE
Maj.-Gen. Sir L. J. Blenkinsop and Lt.-Col. J. W. Rainey, Official
Hist or v of the Veterinary Services. (1925);
Lt.-Col. F. S. Brereton, The Great War and the R.A.M.C. (1919)
(see also Macpherson, under Medical and Casualties) ;
Lt.-Col. J. F. C. Fuller, Tanks in the Great War, 1014-18. (1920) ;
Royal Engineers' Institute, The Work of the R.E. in the European
War 1914-19 (1921, etc.).
MILITARY OPERATIONS
The Western Front
Terms of Armistices concluded with Germany, Austro-Hungary
and Turkey. Cmd. 53. (1919);
Belgian Army, La campagne de I'Armee beige, July j/, 1014-
Jan. i, 1915. (1915) ; '
Commandant Willy Breton, Pages d' Histoire. (1915, etc.). On
Belgian operations. Various volumes. Official basis;
P. H. Courriere, Comment fut xauvt Paris. (1918) ;
H. Dugard, La victoirc de Verdun, Feb. 21, ioi6-Nov. ir, 1017.
,(1918);
General Dupont, Le haut commandement allemand en 1014.
(1922) ;
Gen. E. v, Falkenhayn, General Headquarters, 1914-16, and its
critical decisions. (1919) ;
Field-Marshal Visct. French, 1014. (1919) ;
Field- Marshal Visct. French, The. Despatches of Lord French,
1914-1$. (1917);
German Great General Staff, continued by the Reichsarchiv, Ein-
zeldarstellungen Mons, St. Quentin, Marnc 1914, Ypres 1914,
Somme, Verdun, etc., etc. (1918, etc.) ; Ypres 1914.
Germany, Reichskanzlei, History of events immediately preceding
the Armistice. Official German. (1920) ;
Les origines de V Armistice. Translated by Koeltz (German Offi-
cial). (1919) ;
Sir D. Haig's despatches, 1915-19. Ed. by Lt.-Col. J. H. Bor-
aston. (1919) ;
G. Hanotaux, Histoire Ulustrie de la guerre de 1914. 13 vols.
(1914* etc.);
Gen. Oberst A. v. Kluck, Der Marsch auf Paris und die Marne-
Schlacht, tor 4. Also In English (1920) ;
J. Maercker, Vom Kaiserheer zur Reichswehr. (1921). German
Revolution ;
790
WORLD WAR
[BIBLIOGRAPHY
Oberstlt. A. Niemann, Kaiser und Revolution. (1922) ;
Gen. Sir H. L. Smith-Dorrien, Memories of Forty-eight Years
Service (incl. 1914). (1925) ;
German Ex-Crown Prince, Der Marne-Feldzu%, 1014. (1927);
Commt. L. Kocltz, La Bataille de France 21 Mars-$ Avril, K)i8.
(1928) ;
Gen. v. Kuhl, Entstchung, Durchfiihrung und Zusammcnbruch
der Offensive von 1918. (1928);
Gen. Krafft v. Delmensingen, Fiihrung des Kronprinzen Rupprecht,
Aug. 1914. (19*5) ;
G. Gromaire, ^occupation Allemande en France 1914-1018 (1026) ;
Die. Ursachen des Deutschen Zntammenbruch im Jahre 1018,
Report of German Parliamentary Enquiry. (1919-28) ;
Gen. Hirschauer and Klein, Paris en ttal de defense 1914. (1928) ;
General Feldmarschall von Bulow, Mein Bericht zur Marne-
schlacht. (1919) ;
Generaloberst Frcihcrr von Hauscn, Erinncrungen au den Marne-
feldzng. (1920);
Maj.-Gen. Sir A. A. Montgomery, The Story of the Fourth Army.
(1920);
Gen. Clcrgerie and Captain Delahaye d'Anglemont, Le Role, du
Gouvernement Afititaire de Parts du Ier an 12 Septentbre
1914. (1920) ;
Commandant Laure, Au ^tnc Bureau du trvisiime G.Q.G. (1017-
19). (1922);
Aftmoires du Mar&chal Gallieni, Defense de Paris (25 Aout-
ii Sept. 1014). (1926) ;
Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, Mein Kriegstagebuch,
(1928)-
A ustro- Italian
Gen. L. Cadorna, La guerra alia fronte italiana, etc. (iQij-Nov.
1917) . 2 vol. (1921) ;
Gen.-Lt. A. von Cramon, Quatre ans au G.Q.G. austro-hongrvis.
(1922). As German representatives. French translation.
Italy, Comando Supremo, Report on battle of Vittorio Veneto.
(1919) ;.
Gen. Maj. H. Kerchnawe, Der Zusammenhruch der oester-
reichischungarischen Wehrmacht in lyiS. (1921);
Gen. Baron Arz, Zur Gcschichte des Grossen Krieg. (1924) ;
Capt. A. Tosti, La Guerra Italo-Austriaca 1015-1018. (official sum-
^mary). (1925);
L'JKsercito italiano netta grande guerra lyif—iozb'. Official, i vol.
(introductory). (1927);
Gen. Capello, Note di Guerra. (1920) ;
Reichsarchiv, Einzeldarstellungen, Durchbruch am Isonzo. (1927).
Russian
Gen. B. Gourko, Russia in 1014-17. (1918) ;
Gen. M. Hoffmann, The War of Lost Opportunities. (1924).
Eastern Front. Translation;
Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Knox, With the Russian Army, 1014-17. (1921) ;
Capt. R. S. G. Watkin-Williams, Under the Black Ensign. (1922).
Operations on the Murman Coast;
S. R. (Serge Raffalovitch), Pages d'histoire. L'Histoirc de la
revolution russe, 190^-17. (1917) ;
"Chronicler," Archangel. The American War with Russia. (1927) ;
Maj.-Gen. Sir C. Maynard, The Murmansk Venture. (1928) ;
Gen. M. Hoffmann, tannenberg wle es ivirklich war. (1927) ;
Gen. v. Francois, Tannenberg. (1926) ;
La Grande Guerre, Relation de I'fitat Major Russe (i Aout-
24 Nov. 1914). Official. Translation. (1927);
Reichsarchiv, Einzeldarstellu ripen on battles of 1914-17. (1918,
etc.)
Balkans
G. Gordon-Smith, Through the Serbian Campaign (and retreat).
G. Gordon-Smith, From Serbia to Jugoslavia, 1014-1$. (Published
in 1920) ;
Lt.-CoI. Hon. H. D. Napier, Experiences of n Military Attache in
the Balkans. (1924) ;
H. C. Owen, Salonica and after. (1919);
C. Price, Serbia's Part in the War. Vol. I. (1918) ;
G. W. Price, The Story of the Salonica Army. (1917) ;
Reichsarchiv Einzcldarstellungen, Der Endknmpf in Macedonian.
(1921). Macedonian. (1925);
Gen. Sarrail, Mon Commandement en Orient (Salonica), 1916-18.
(1920) ;
Lt. M. Sturdza, Avec Varmte roumaine, i 016-18 (1918) ;
L. Villari, The Macedonian Campaign. (1922).
Dardanelles and Gallipoli
The Final Report of the Dardanelles Commission. (1919) ;
Gen. Sir I. Hamilton, A Gallipoli Diary. 2 vol. (1920) ;
Gen. O. Liman v. Sanders, Five Years hi Turkey. (Translated).
(1928); incl. Dardanelles;
J. Masefield, Gallipoli. (1923);
P. F. Schuler, Australia in Arms (Anzac). (1916);
Dr. H. Stuermer, Two War Years in Constantinople. (1917).
Translation ;
Turkey, Historical Section of Staff, Campagne des Dardanelles.
(1924);
Gen. Kannengiesser, Gallipoli, translated. (1928) ;
E. Ashmead-Bartlett, The Uncensored Dardanelles. (1927) ;
Reichsarchiv, Einzeldarstellungen, Dardanelles 1915. (1927).
Egypt and Palestine
A. Aaronsohn, With the Turks in Palestine. (1917). Translation;
Lt.-Col. G. E. Badcock, History of the Transport, Services,
Egyptian Expeditionary Force. (1925) ;
Maj.-Gen. Sir M. Bowman-Mainfold, An outline of the Egyptian
and Palestine campaigns, 1014-18. (1922) ;
E. Dane, British Campaigns in the Nearer East, 1014-18. (1919) ;
Egyptian Expeditionary Force, Record of the advance of the
Egyptian Expeditionary Force, July iciy-Oct. 1918. (igto.).
From official sources;
Lt.-Col. P. G. Elgood, Egypt and the Army (Egypt during the
War). (1924);
W. T. Massey, The Desert Campaigns (1918) ;
Lt.-Col. Hon. R. N. O. Preston, The Desert Mounted Corps
(Palestine and Syria), 1917-18. (1921) ;
Capt. R. S. G. Watkin-Williams, In the Hands of the Senotissi.
(1916) ;
Col. A. P. Wavell, The Palestine Campaigns (1928) ;
Licut.-Gen. Sir (i. McMunn and Captain C. Fells, Military Opera-
tions vol. i. (to June 1917). Official. (1928) ;
Reichsarchiv, Einzeldarstellungen, "Yilderim" (1925) ;
Bund der Asien Kampfer, Zwischen Kankasus und Sinai, 1921, etc.
Mesopotamia and Persia
Maj.-Gen. L. C. Dunsterville, The adventures of Dunsterforce
(Persia and Baku). (1921) ;
Report of the Commission on Mesopotamia. (1917) ;
Brig.-Gen. F. J. Moberly, Mesopotamia Campaign, 1914-18 (10,23.
etc.). 4 vol. Official.
Maj.-Gen. Sir C. V. F. Townshend, My Campaign in Mesopo-
tamia. (1920) ;
Lt.-Col. H. von Kieslinn, Mil Feldmarschall von der Goltz Pascha
in Mesopotamicn und Persien. (1922) ;
Maj.-Gen. von Gleich, Vom Balkan nach Bagdad. (1922).
Africa
Brig.-Gen. J. H. Crowe, General Smuts' Campaign in East Africa.
(1918);
E. Dane, British Campaigns in Africa, etc. (1919) ;
Brig.-Gen. C. P. Fendall, The East African Force, igi4-iQ. (1921) ;
Gen. O. von Lcttow-Vorbeck, Heia Safari! (1921). German cam-
paign in East Africa ;
Gen. O. von Lettow-Vorbcck, My Reminiscences of East Africa.
(1920). Translation;
H. C. O'Neill, The War in Africa, etc. (1918). Includes Kiao
Chau ;
W. S. Rayner and W. W. O'Shaughnessy, How Botha and Smuts
Conquered German South West Africa. (1916) ;
P. J. Sampson, The Capture of De Wet: The South African Rebel-
lion. (1915) J
Dr. H. Schnee, Deutsch Ost-Afrika im Weltkrieg. (1921) ;
Correspondence re Operations in Togoland. (1915) ;
Lt.-Commdt. W. Whittal, With Botha and Smuts in Africa (South
West African campaign). (1917) ;
Les Campagnes Coloniales Beiges 1914-18. Official. 2 vol. (1927,
etc.) ;
H. Ruckteschell, Von Lcttow-Vorbeck. (1919) ;
Dr. H. Dcppe, Mit Lettow Vorbeck durch Afrika. (1917) ;
Rittmeister R. Hennig, Deutsch-Siidwest im Weltkriege. (1920) ;
Dr. H. von Oelhafen, Der Feldzug in Siidwest. (1924) .
England
Capt. J. Morris, The German Air-raids on Great Britain ig 14-18.
(1925);
Lt.-Col. A. Rawlinson, The. Defence of London) 1915-18. (1923).
Miscellaneous
Correspondence re Taking of Samoa. (1915) ;
W. Vollerthun, Der Kantpf nm Tsingtau. (1020). Sec also
O'Neill under Africa.
Official History of Australia in the War, Rabaul (1928).
MEMOIRS OF COMMANDERS, STATESMEN, ETC.
Sir G. Arthur, Life, of Lord Kitchener. 3 vol. ( 1920) ;
A. H. Atteridgc, Marshal Ferdinand Foch. (1918) ;
Lord Bertie, Diary, igi 4-1918, 2 vol. (1924) ;
Princess E. Blucher, An English Wife m Berlin. (1920) ;
Sir G. Buchanan, My Mission to Russia, etc. 2 vol. (1923) ;
Rt. Hon. W. S. Churchill, The World Crisis. S vol. (1923-29) ;
Feldmarschall Frhr. Conrad von Hotzendorf, Ans nutiner Dienstzeit
(1906-1918). (1924);
J. W. Gerard (U.S.A. Ambassador), My Four Years in Germany.
German Ex-Crown Prince, Memoirs. (1922) ;
Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Twenty-five Yearsf 1892-1916. 2 vol.
(1925);
B. J. Hendrick, Life and Letters of W. H. Page (U.S.A. Ambassador
in London). 3 vol. (1922-25);
General Feldmarschall P. v. Hindenburg, AVS meinem Leben. (1919).
Translation, Out of My Life (1920) ;
BIBLIOGRAPHY]
WORLD WAR
791
The Intimate Papers of Col. House, 4 vol. arranged by C. Seymour.
(1926, etc.);
G6n. H. de Lacroix, Le Mareckal Foch. (1921) ;
Gen. E. Ludendorff, Kriegfuhrung und Politik. (1921) ;
Gen. E. Ludendorff, My War Memories. Translation (1919) ;
H. Morgenthau (U.S.A. Ambassador), Secre ts *>f the Bospkorous.
(1918) ;
M. Pateologue, An Ambassador's Memoirs. (1923-25)- Translation;
Col. a C. Repington, The First World War. i vol. (1920) ;
Field-Marshal Sir W. Robertson, From Private to Field-Marshal.
(1921) ;
Gen. v. Stein (War Minister) , Erlebnisse und Betrachtungen. (1919) ;
Adml. A. v. Tirpitz, My Memories. 2 vol. (1919) J
B. H. Liddell Hart, Reputations (Joffre, Falkenhayn, Haig, Gallieni,
Foch, Ludendorff, Petain, Allenby, Liggett, Pershing) (1928) ;
General Sir N. Macready, Annals of an Active Life. (1926) ;
D. Chapman-Huston and O. Rutter, General Sir John Cowans.
(1926);
R. Poincare, Neuf Annies de Souvenirs, $ vol. (1924, etc.) ;
R. S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson. Life and Letters. 2 vol. (1926) ;
O. Ernst, Franz Joseph as revealed by his letters (translated).
(1927);
A. F. Kcrensky, The Catastrophe (1926} ;
E. Facch, Kiderlen-Waechler der Staatsmann und Mensch (1927) ;
F. Payer, Von Bethmann Holhveg bis Ebert (1927) ;
E. Sherston, Townshend of Kut (1928) ;
General Huguct, Britain and the War, translated (1928) ;
Prince Lichnowsky, Heading for the Abyss, translated (1928) ;
Graf Kessler, Walther Rathenau (1928) ;
Lord Oxford and Asquith, Memories and Reflections 1852-1927.
(1928) ;
Ma j. -Gen. Sir F. Maurice, Life of General Lord Raivlinson of Trent
(1928);
Maj.-Gen. Sir C. E. Callwell, F. M. Sir Henry Wilson Bart. (1927) ;
Gen. Sukhomlinov (Russian War Minister), Erinnerungen (in Ger-
man). (1924);
Gen. Danilov (Russian Deputy Chief of Staff), Russland im Welt-
krieg (in German). (1925);
Gen. v. Zwehl, Erich von Falkenhayn, (1926) ;
Prince Max of Baden, Memoirs (translated). (1928) .
NAVAL AND MERCANTILE MARINE
Admiralty, The Battle of Jutland. Official, with maps, etc. (1920) ;
Narrative of the Battle of Jutland (1924) ;
Return showing loss of ships of R.N. Return showing loss and
damage of Merchant- and Fishing-vessels, (1919) ;
Board of Trade, Merchant Shipping. Return of casualties and loss
of life. July i, ioi4-Dec. 31, 1918;
Sir J. S. Corbett, History of the Great War. (Naval Operations).
Official, 3 vol. (1920-21) ;
Sir H. Newbolt, History of the Great War. (Naval Operations) .
Official vol. iv. (1928) ;
C. E. Fayle, Seaborne Trade. Official, 3 vol. (1920, etc.) ;
Germany, Marine Archiv., Der Krieg zur See, 1914-18. 5 vol. to
1916. (1924);
Maj. P. Gibbon, The Triumph of the Royal Navy. Official record of
surrender of German Fleet. (1919) ;
Adm. Visct. Jellicoe, The Grand Fleet, 1914-16. (1919) ; The Crisis
of the Naval War. (1920) ;
M. Parmelee, Blockade and Sea Power, 1914-19. (1925) ;
A. H. Pollen, The Navy in Battle. (1918) ;
Admiral Scheer, Germany's High Sea Fleet in the World Wcr.
(1920):
J. R. Smith, Influence of the Great War upon Shipping. (1919) ;
C. S. Terry, Ostend and Zeebrugge. Despatches, etc. (1919);
Adm. Lord Wester Wemyss, The Navy in the Dardanelles Campaign .
(1924) i
Archibald Kurd, History of the Great War. The Merchant Navy.
Official. 2 vol. (1923-26) ;
G. von Schoultz, With the British Battle Fleet (by a Russian officer) .
G. von Hase, Kiel and Jutland (translated). (1926) ;
Admiral J. E. T. Harper, The Truth about Jutland. (1927) ;
Franz Joseph, Prince of Hohenzollern, Emden. (1928) :
L. Thomas, The Sea Devil (The Story of the "Seeadler") . (1928) ;
Admiral Gordon Campbell, My Mystery Ships. (1928) ;
The Official History of Australia during the War. The Royal Austra-
lian Navy. (1928).
AVIATION
Maj. W. A. Bishop, Winged Warfare. (1918);
Capt. A. Bott, "Contact," An Airman?* Outings. (1917) ;
E. Middleton, The Great War in the Air. * vol. (1920) ;
Sir W. A. Raleigh, The War m the Air. vol. i. Official. (1922) ;
H. A. Jones, The War in the Air. vol. ii. Official. (1928) ;
C. F. Snowden Gamble, The Story of a North Sea Air Station.
(1928) ;
Captain E. A. Lchmann, The Zeppelins, translated. (1928).
MEDICAL AND CASUALTIES
S. Dumas and K. O. V. Petersen, Losses of life caused by War.
(1923) J
Maj.-Gen. Sir W. G. Macpherson, History of the Great War. Medi-
cal Servkes and Diseases in the Great War. 4 vol. Official. (1924) ;
Red Cross, Reports by the Red Cross and Order of St. John on work
during the War. (1921).
War Office, Memo, on treatment of injuries. H.M.S.O. (1916) ;
Injuries and Diseases of War. (1918) ;
Return of Officers (2 parts) and Men (80 parts) died in the Great
War, 1914-1919. (1919-20) ;
Sir A. Macphail, Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great
War. The Medical Services. (1926).
POLITICAL
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of Peace between Central Powers and Ukrain-
ian Government. Cd. 9105. (1918) ;
Maximilian Harden, Krieg und Frieden. 2 vol. (1918) ;
G. de Manteycr (Ed.), Austria's Peace Offer, 1916-17. (1921) ;
Maj.-Gen. Sir F. Maurice, Intrigues of the War. (1922) ;
Mermcix, Fragments d'Hisloire, 1014-10. 6 vol. (1919, etc.) ;
C. F. Nowak, The Collapse of Central Europe. Translation. (1924) ;
Official German documents relating to the World War, Reports of
German ist and 2nd Sub-Committees. Commencement of the
War. (1923) ;
Dr. A. F. Pribram, The Secret Treaties of Austro-Hungary, 1870-
1014 (1920) ;
L. v. Puyvelde, Le mouvement flamand et la guerre. (1918) ;
L. Rogers, America's case against Germany. (1917);
J. B. Scott (Ed.), Diplomatic correspondence between the U.S.A.
and Germany, 1914-17. (1918) ;
J. B. Scott (Ed.), A Survey of International Relations between
U.S.A. and Germany. (1918);
J. B. Scott (Ed.), Official Statements of War Aims and Peace Pro-
posals. (1921) ;
G. V. Seldcs, The United States and the War. (1917) ;
R. Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson and World Settlement. 3 vol.
(1922);
H. W. V. Temperley, A History of the Peace Conference of Paris.
6 vol. (1923) ;
Stationery Office, Treaties of Peace: Between Allies and Germany
(Versailles, 1010) ; Austria (St. Germain, IQIQ), Hungary (Tria-
non, 10.20), Bulgaria (Neuilty, 1920) and Turkey (Slwes, 1920 —
not ratified) ;
President Wilson's Great Speeches and Other History-making Docu-
ments. (1919) ;
S. Coamin, U Entente et la Grece pendant la grande guerre. (1926) ;
C. Bergmann, The History of Reparations. (1927) ;
J. Mavor, The Russian Revolution. (1928) ;
Lord Beaverbrook, Politicians and the War. (1927) ;
Prince Nicholas of Greece, Political Memoirs 1914-17. (1928) ;
G. P. Gooch, Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy (1927), an
excellent summary of the documents and memoirs published during
and since the War.
ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL
N. Angell, The Fruits of Victory. (1921) ;
J. E. Barker, Economic Statesmanship (1918). Problems arising
from the War;
A. L. Bowley, Prices and Wages in the United Kingdom, 2014-1020.
(1921) ;
Carnegie Endowment, Economic and Social History of the War.
British Series. 3 vol. (1922, etc.) ;
Rear- Adm. M. Consett, The Triumph of Unarmed Forces, 1014-18.
German supplies. (1923);
G. A. B. Dewar, The Great Munition Feat, 1914-18. (1921) ;
Disconto-Gesellschaft, Berlin, Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft im
Kriege. (1915* etc.) ;
A. Dix, Wirtschaftskrieg und Kriegswirtschaft. (1921) ;
Foreign Office, Reports on the Economic Situation in Germany Dur-
ing the War. (1914-18) ;
E. Goldschmid, Die wirtschaftlichen Kriegsorganisationen Oester-
reichs. (1919) ;
F. H. Hatch, The Iron and Steel Industry of the United Kingdom
under War Conditions. (1919) ;
B. J. Hibbard, Effects of the Great War upon Agriculture in the
U.S.A. and Great Britain. (1920) ;
J. M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace. (1920) ;
A Revision of the Treaty. (1921) ;
Ministry of Reconstruction, Reconstruction Problems. Prices During
War and After. No. 16. (1919);
National Expenditure, Reports (1-10) from the Select Committee on
Natio nal Expendit ure (1918) ;
J. S. Nicholson, War Finance. (1918) ;
W. A. Paton, The Economic Position of the United Kingdom.
(1919) ;
L. Paul-Dubois, L'cffort tconomique et financier de I'Angleterre.
(1918);
792
WORM
R. Pommereuil, La guerre tconomique, 19/4-17. (1917) ;
A. Pulling, Food Supply Manual and Orders; War Material Sup-
plies, etc. Numerous publications. (1916 onwards) ;
Sir J. A. Salter (Carnegie Endowment), Allied Shipping Control:
An Experiment in International Administration. (1921) ;
E. H. Starling, Report on Food and Agricultural Conditions in
Germany. (1919) ;
Tariff Commission, The War and British Economic Policy. (1915) ;
H. Withers, War and Lombard Street. (1916) ;
G. P. Auld, The Dawes Plan and the New Economics, with a fore-
word by R. P. Dawes. (1928) ;
Sir W. H. Beveridge, British Food Control. (1928).
INTERNATIONAL LAW, VIOLATIONS, ETC.
Correspondence between H.M. and U.S. Governments re alleged
interference with American Shipping. (1916) ;
"Baralong," Der Baralong-Fall. (1916) ;
"Baralong," Correspondence re the Alleged Incident Cd. 8144, Cd.
8176. (1916);
Belgium, Commission d'enquete sur les violations des regies du droit
des gens, etc. 3 vol. (1915-16-21) ;
Belgium, Die belgischen Greuelthaten gegen die Deutschen. (1914) ;
Die volkerrechtswidrige Fuhrung des belgischen Volkskriegs. German
Whitebook (May 10, 1915) ;
Belgian Ministries of Justice and Foreign Affairs: Reply to German
Whitebook, May 10, 1015. English Translation. (1918) ;
Correspondence with the U.S. Ambassador Respecting the Execution
of Miss Cavell at Brussels. Cd. 8013. (1915) ;
Visrt. Bryce, Report and Evidence of Committee on Alleged German
Outrages. 1914-16, Cd. 7894. (1915) ;
C. L. Droste, The Lusitania Case. Pro-German. (1915) ;
France (Official), Receuil de Documents relatifs a la Guerre. 3 vol.
Enemy violation of International Law. (1915, etc.) ;
J. W. Garner, International Law and the World War. (1920) ;
A. Got, The Case of Miss Cavell. (1920) ;
A. Hurd, Ordeal by Sea. German atrocities at sea. (1918) ;
Kommission Schiicking, German Commission on Complaints of Mal-
treatment of Prisoners in Germany. (1920) ;
Report of Formal Investigation of Loss of S.S. "Lusitania" Cd.
8022 (1915) I
Proceedings in Camera. Cd. 381 (1919) ;
Prof. J. H. Morgan, The German War Book. (1915) ;
German Atrocities: An Official Investigation. (1916) ;
C. Mullins, The Leipzig Trials. German mentality. (1921) ;
Das Schwarzbuch der Schandtaten unserer Feinde. (1915) ;
Exchange of Correspondence between US.A. and German Govern-
ments re action of Submarines. (1917) ;
A. J. Toynbee, The German Terror in Belgium. Semi-official.
(1917) ;
A. J. Toynbee, The German Terror in France. Semi-official. (1917) ;
J. M. Spaight, Air Power and War Rights. (1927) •
MISCELLANEOUS
Maj.-Gen. Sir G. Aston, War Lessons, New and Old. (1919) ;
Official Names of Battks, etc., 1914-19. (1921) ;
E. Bevan, German Social Democracy during the War. (1918) ;
Reports by U.S. officials on treatment of British Prisoners of War.
Government Committee on treatment of British Prisoners of War.
(1915). 2nd ed. (1916) ;
Report on treatment of British Prisoners of War in Turkey. Cd.
9208. (1918) ;
Report on treatment by the Germans of British Prisoners and
Natives in German East Africa. Cd. 8689. (1917);
Sir C. Cook, Defence of the Realm Manual. (1918) ;
Sir E. T. Cook, The Press in War-Time. (1920) ;
N. Everitt, British Secret Service during the Great War. (1920);
S. T. Felstcad, German Spies at Bay, 1914-1918. From Official
sources. (1920) ;
E. Fraser and J. Gibbons, Ed., Soldiers' and Sailors' Words and
Phrases. (1925);
Germany, Reichsgcsundheitsamt, Damage to German stamina
through hostile blockade. (1918) ;
M. B. Hammond, British Labour Conditions and Legislation during
the War. (1920);
Capt. V. W. Holohan, Divisional and other Signs. (1920) ;
E. M. H. Lloyd, Experiments in State Control at the War Office and
the Food Ministry. (1924) ;
A. Marchand, Les chemins de fer de FEst, 1014-1$. (1924) ;
Oberst, W. Nicolai, The German Secret Service. Translation. (1924) ;
E. B. Osborn (Ed.), The Must in Arms. Anthology. (1917) ;
E. A. Pratt, British Railways and the Great War. 2 vol. (1921) ;
A. Pulling, Defence of the Realm, regulations and orders. (1915
onwards) ;
Sir C. Stuart, Secrets of Crewe House. (1920) ;
Sir Basil Thomson, Queer People. (1922) ;
Sir A. K. Yapp, The Romance of the Red Triangle. Y.M.CA.
(1918) ;
Lt.-Gen. Sir W. Pulteney, The Immortal Salient (1927) ;
H. D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the World War. (1926) ;
R. Hanslian and F. Bergendorff, Der chemise he Krieg. (1924) ;
Gen. H. v. Staabs, Aufmarsch nach zwei Fronten (railway problem).
(1925) ;
A. Henry, Le ravitaillement de la Belgique pendant I' occupation alle-
mand. (1926) ;
F. Seeselberg, Stellungskrieg. (1926) ;
Carnegie Endowment, various publications;
Pierre Gilliard, Le tragique destin de Nicolas 77. et de sa famille.
(1921);
G. P. Gooch, History of Modern Europe 1878-1010. (1923) ;
Anonymous, The Pomp of Power. (1922) ;
N. Sokolov, The Murder of the Imperial Family. (1921) ;
War Office, Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire
1914-1920. (1922);
H. Wickham Steed, Through jo years (1802-1022). (1924) ;
Divisional and regimental histories, British, French, Italian, Belgian
and German (very numerous).
MAPS, ETC.
I. Bowman, The New World: Problems in Political Geography.
U.S.A. (1922);
H. J. Fleure, The Treaty^ Settlement of Europe. Geographic and
ethnographic. (1921) ;
General Staff, Catalogue of Maps of the Theatres of War, etc.
(1918);
Nelson's Map-book of the World-Wide War. (1917) ;
G. Philip and San, The World's Battlefronts at a glance. (1918) ;
The Western Front at a glance. Useful. (1917) ;
'The Times," War Atlas. (1917) ;
War Atlas, Atlas of "Chronology of the War." Small. (1920).
\
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliothcque et Musce de la Guerre, Catalogue- du fonds allemana
de la bibliotheque. 4 vol. (1921-23) ;
Camille Bloch (Carnegie Foundation), Bibliographic generate
methodique de I'histoire economique et sociale de la France pendant
la Guerre. (1926) ;
British Museum, Subject Index of Books on the War. (1922) ;
M. E. Bulkley, Bibliographical Survey of Contemporary Sources for
the Economic and Social History of the War. (1922) ;
Dr. J. L. Kunz (Austrian), bibliographic der Kriegsliteratur. (1920) ;
Henri Leblanc, Collection, La Grande Guerre. Iconographie Bibli-
ographic, Documents Divers, n vol. (1916) ;
Sir G. W. Prothero, A Select Analytical List of Books Concerning the
Great War. (1923) ;
H.M. Stationery Office, List of Publications Issued by H.M. Sta-
tionery Office. The European War. (1914-16);
United States, Library of Congress. A Check List of the Literature ,
etc., on the European War. (1919) ;
List of References on Europe, etc. (1914) ;
Select List of References on Economic Reconstruction. (1919) ;
War Office Library, Catalogue: Subject Index. (1915-25). Very full
work of reference. (J. E. E.)
WORM, a term used popularly to denote almost any kind of
elongated, apparently limbless creature, from a lizard, like the
blindworm, to the grub of an insect or an earthworm. In old usage
it sometimes denoted a mythical dragon. The word "worm" is
applied to many objects resembling the animals in having a spiral
shape or motion, as the spiral thread of a screw, or the spiral pipe
through which vapour is passed in distillation (q.v.). As a term
of disparagement and contempt the word is also used of persons,
from the idea of wriggling or creeping on the ground, partly, too,
perhaps, with a reminiscence of Genesis iii. 14. Linnaeus applied
the Latin term Vermes to the modern zoological divisions, Mol-
lusca, Coelentera, Protozoa, Tunicata, Echinoderma (qq.v.), as
well as to those forms which modern zoologists recognize as worms^
As a matter of convenience the term Vermes is still employed, for
instance, in the International Catalogue of Zoological Literature
and the Zoological Record, to cover a number of worm-like ani-
mals. In systematic zoology, however, the use of a division Vermes
has been abandoned, as it is now recognized that many of the
animals that even a zoologist would describe as worms belong to
different divisions of the animal kingdom. The so-called flatworm
(Platyhelminthes, q.v.), including the Planarians, the Flukes (see
TREMATODES), and Cestodes (see TAPEWORM) are no doubt re-
lated. The marine Nemertine worms (see NEMERTINA) are iso-
lated. The thick-skinned round worms, such as the common horse-
worm and the threadworms (see NEMATODA), together with the
Nematomprpha (q.v.), the Chaetosomatida, the Desmoscolecida
and the Acanthocephala (q.v.), form a fairly natural group.
The Rotifera (q.v.), with possibly the Kinorhyncha (q.v.) and
WORM— WORMWOOD
793
Gastrotricha (q.v.), are again isolated. The remaining worms are
probably all coelomate animals. There is a definite Annelid group
(see ANNELIDA), including the Archiannelida, the bristleworms of
which the earthworm (q.v.) is the most familiar type, the My-
zostomida (q.v.) Hirudinea (see LEECH) and the armed Gephy-
reans (see ECHIUROIDEA). The unarmed Gephyreans (see GEPHY-
REA) are now separated from their former associates and divided
into two groups of little affinity, the Sipunculoidea (q.v.) and the
Priapuloidea (q.v.). The Phoronidea and the Chaetognatha
(q.v.) are also isolated.
Mention is made under TAPEWORM of the worms of that species
inhabiting the human body as parasites. Another common human
parasite is A^scaris lumbricoides or round worm, found chiefly in
children and occupying the upper portion of the intestine. (See
NEMATODA.)
The threadworm or Oxyuris vermicularis, also a Nematode, is
a common parasite infecting the rectum.
WORM, a screw which touches tangentially and which rotates
a toothed wheel (the worm-wheel), ftnd gives a very smooth
drive. Among many other uses it is largely applied to the trans-
mission of power from electric motors, and to the axles of road
vehicles. Ball or roller bearings are fitted to the shafts, to take
the journal running, and the end thrust, and, in good practice, the
worm and wheel are submerged in an enclosed oil-bath. The worm
is best made of steel, hardened and ground accurately on the
threads, and the wheel of phosphor-bronze. In order to save ex-
pense, it is usual to make the wheel in the shape of an annular
ring, and bolt it to an iron hub or rim. If increase in speed of
rotation of the wheel is required for a given speed of worm, the
latter is made with double or triple threads instead of a single
helix. What is termed a drop-worm is extensively employed in
machine-tools and other machines. Its bearings are hinged so that
when the limit of desired travel has been reached, an automatic
knock-off device allows the worm to fall out of mesh with the
wheel.
A conveyor worm is a helix surrounding a shaft (see CONVEY-
ORS). A worm condenser consists of a coil of piping (see CON-
DENSER).
WORMS, a city of Germany, in the republic of Hesse-
Darmstadt, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 25 m. S. of
Mainz, 20 m. N.W. of Heidelberg and 9 m. by rail N.W. of Mann-
heim. Pop. (1925) 47,015.
History. — Worms was known in Roman times as Borbeto-
magus, which in the Merovingian age became Wormatia. The
town had before Caesar's time become the capital of a German
tribe, the Vangiones. Drusus is said to have erected a fort here
in 14 B.C. In 413 the emperor Jovinus permitted the Burgundians
under their king Guntar or Guntiar to settle on the left bank of
the Rhine between the Lauter and the Nahe. Here they founded
a kingdom with Worms as its capital. Adopting Arianism they
came into conflict with the Romans, and under their king Gunda-
har or Gundicar (the Gunther of the Nibelungenlied) rose in
435 against the Roman governor Aetius, who called in the Huns
against them. The destruction of Worms and the Burgundian
kingdom by the Huns in 436 was the subject of heroic legends
afterwards incorporated in the Nibelungenlied (q.v.) and the
Rosengarten (an epic probably of the late i3th century). Worms
was rebuilt by the Merovingians, and became an episcopal see,
first mentioned in 614, although a bishop of the Vangiones had
attended a council at Cologne as early as 347. There was a royal
palace from the 8th century, and in it the Prankish kings, in-
cluding Charlemagne, occasionally resided.
Under the German kings the power of the bishops of Worms
gradually increased. Otto I. granted extensive lands to the bishop,
and in 979 Bishop Hildbold acquired comital rights in his city.
Burchard I. (bishop, 1000-25) destroyed the castle of the Fran-
conian house at Worms, built the cathedral and laid the founda-
tions of the subsequent territorial power of the see. There were
frequent struggles between the bishops and the citizens, who
espoused the cause of the emperors against the church, and
were rewarded by privileges which fostered trade. The city re-
tained its freedom until 1801, in spite of the bishops, who ruled a
small territory south of the city, on both sides of the Rhine, and
resided at Ladenburg near Mannheim till 1622.
The city of Worms was frequently visited by the imperial
court. The concordat of Worms closed the investiture contro-
versy in 1 1 22. The "perpetual peace" (ewiger Landfriede) was
proclaimed by the emperor Maximilian I. at the diet of 1495, and
Luther appeared before the famous diet of 1521 to defend his
doctrines in the presence of Charles V. Four years later, Worms
formally embraced Protestantism, and religious conferences were
held there in 1540 and 1557. It suffered severely during the
Thirty Years' War. The French under Melac burnt the city al-
most entirely in 1689, and it has only fully recovered from this
blow in recent years. Thus the population, which in its prosper-
ous days is said to have exceeded 50,000, had sunk in 1815 to
6,250.
By the treaty of Worms in 1743 an offensive alliance was
formed between Great Britain, Austria and Sardinia. The city
was annexed to France at the peace of Luneville in 1801, to-
gether with the bishop's territories on the left bank of the Rhine.
The remaining episcopal dominions were secularized in 1803 and
given to Hesse-Darmstadt, which acquired the whole by the
Vienna Congress in 1815.
Antiquities. — Some parts of the ancient walls and towers
still remain. The cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul ranks besides
those of Spires and Mainz among the noblest Romanesque
churches of the Rhine. This basilica, built of red sandstone, with a
choir at each end, has an imposing exterior. Only the ground plan
and the lower part of the western towers belong to the original
building consecrated in mo; the remainder was mostly finished
by 1181, but the west choir and the vaulting were built in the
1 3th century, the elaborate south portal was added in the I4th
century, and the central dome has been rebuilt. The baptistery
contains five remarkable stone reliefs of the late I5th century.
The church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenkirche) is a handsome Gothic
edifice outside the town, finished in 1467. The principal Protestant
place of worship is the Trinity church, built in 1726. Second
in interest to the cathedral is the church of St. Paul, also in the
Romanesque style, and dating from 1102-16, with a choir of the
early i3th century, cloisters and other monastic buildings. This
church has been converted into a museum. The late Romanesque
church of St. Andrews is not used. The old synagogue, an un-
assuming building erected in the nth century and restored in
the i3th, is completely modernized. The Jewish community of
Worms claims to be the most ancient in Germany and to have
existed continuously since the very early Christian era, though
the earliest authentic mention of it occurs in 588.
The old Bischofshof, in which the most famous Diet of Worms
(1521) was held, has been replaced. The Luginsland is an old
watch-tower of the i3th century. The Lutherplatz contains a
group of statuary commemorating the Protestant reformers and
their forerunners. Extensive burial-grounds, ranging in date from
neolithic to Merovingian times, have been discovered near the
city.
Worms is the centre of a vine-growing country. The manufac-
tures include patent leather, machinery, cloth, chemicals, paints,
cork, furniture, slates, etc. Worms possesses a good river harbour,
and carries on a considerable trade by water.
WORMSEED, the name given to various plants whose seeds
are used as vermifuges. Among the best known is the Levant
wormseed (Artemisia santonica), from whose dried flower-heads
is extracted the drug santonin, very efficacious in expelling round
worms. The American wormseed (Chenopodium anthelminticum) ,
called also Mexican tea. yields wormseed oil, an officinal vermifuge.
(500 ARTEMISIA; CHENOPODIUM.)
WORMWOOD, the popular name for an aromatic herb
known botanically as Artemisia Absinthium, a member of the
family Compositae. It grows from i to 3 ft. high and is silkily
hairy; the leaves are small and much cut, and the flowers are
small yellow hemispherical heads among the leaves at the end
of the branches. It is a native of Europe, grows in waste
places in the British Isles, is widely naturalized in eastern North
America, and is cultivated for use in domestic medicine. It is a
794
WORSHIP— WORSTED MANUFACTURE
tonic and vermifuge and used to flavour drinks, such as absinthe.
Various other species of Artemisia are called wormwood: A. pon~
tica is Roman wormwood; A. Stelleriana, beach wormwood, etc.
(See MUGWORT.)
WORSHIP (i.e., "worth-ship"), honour, dignity, reverence,
respect. The word is used in a special sense of the service, rever-
ence and honour paid, by means of devotional words or acts, to
God, to the gods, or to hallowed persons, such as the Virgin Mary
or the saints, and hallowed objects, such as holy images or relics.
It must, however, be borne in mind that the Roman Catholic
Church distinguishes three kinds of worship: (i) latria, the wor-
ship due to God alone (from Gr. Aarpela, service, esp. the service
of the gods, worship), and (2) hyperdtdia, the worship or adora-
tion due to the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God (from Gr.
irTrcp, above, and bovkda, service), and (3) dulia, that due to
the saints. The public service of God in church is known as
"divine worship" or "divine service."
WORSTED MANUFACTURE. The essential feature of
a worsted yarn is straightness of fibre. Prior to the introduction
of automatic machinery there was little difficulty in attaining
this characteristic, as long wool was invariably employed and
the sliver was made up by hand and then twisted. With the
introduction of Arkwright's "water frame" or "throstle" the
necessity for prepared slivers became apparent, and with the
later introduction of cap and mule spinning the necessity for
perfectly prepared slivers has been so accentuated that the
preparatory machinery has quite exceeded the actual spinning
machine in extent and complexity. To-day there are three distinct
methods of producing worsted yarn. First, there is the preparing
of the sliver and spinning of the true worsted thread, this being
TRAIN OF WHEELS
BEVELS .
AND
SCREWS
REDUCING TRAIN
OF WHEELS
FRONT-ROLLERS
LAP
FlQ. 1. — PLAN AND SECTION OF A PREPARINO BOX
made from long English or colonial wool. In this class should
also be included mohair and alpaca. Secondly, there is the pre-
paring and spinning of what are known as cross-bred and
botany yarns, these being made from cross-bred and botany
wools. Thirdly, there is the preparing arid spinning of short
botany wools on the French system. There is a fourth class of
worsted yarns, principally carpet and knitting yarns, which are
treated in a much readier manner than any of the foregoing, but
as the treatment is analogous — with the elimination of certain
processes — to the second of the foregoing, it is not necessary
to refer specially to it.
To obtain a sliver or "roving" which can be satisfactorily spun
into a typical worsted thread the following operations are neces-
sary:— preparing (five or six operations), back-washing, straight-
ening, combing, straightening and drawing (say six operations),
and finally spinning on the flyer frame.
Preparing. — After long wool has been scoured and dried it is
necessarily considerably entangled, and if it were to be combed
TAKIWHN
ROLLERS ROLLERS
ROLLERS
FIG. 2. — SECTIONAL VIEW OF BACK-WASHER
straight away a large proportion of the long fibres would be
broken and combed out c.s "noil" or short fibre. To obviate this
the wool is fed as straight as possible into a sheeter gill-box;
after this it passes through other two sheeter gill-boxes, then
through say three can gill-boxes. As shown in fig, i the main
features of a preparing or gill-box are the following: the feed
sheet upon which the wool is "made up," the back rollers B which
take hold of the wool and deliver it to the fallers F which, working
away from the back rollers more quickly than the wool is deliv-
ered, comb it out. The fallers in turn deliver the wool to the
front rollers D, which, taking in the wool more quickly than the
fallers delivering it, again draft and comb it, but with a reversing
of the former combing operation. The wool emerges from the front
rollers as a thin attenuated continuous film about 12 in. wide,
which is wound upon an endless leather sheet H from which the
box takes its name. When a sliver of sufficient thickness has been
wound upon the sheet, it is broken across and fed up at the next
gill-box. The fourth gill-box delivers into cans instead of on to a
sheet. A number of cans are then placed behind the fifth box
and the slivers from these fed up into the back rollers, and simi-
larly with the sixth. The primary object of "preparing'' or gilling
is to straighten and parallelize the fibres in the sliver. This is
effected by means of the combining or doubling and drafting to
which the slivers are subjected.
Back-washing. — Oil will have been added to the wool at the
first preparing-box to cause the fibres to work well. Were this all,
there would perhaps not be the necessity for back-washing. But
the slivers during their passage through the preparing-boxes be-
come sullied naturally, and in addition, owing to the opening out
of the locks of wool, dirt which was not "got at" in the scouring
now works out and further sullies the slivers. It is consequently
necessary to scour the slivers again, this being effected in what is
termed a back-washing machine. This machine as shown in fig. 2
usually consists of two scouring tanks with immersing rollers,
drying cylinders, a gill-box and oiling motion. The slivers on
emerging from this machine should be clean, fairly straight and
in good condition for combing. Their condition may be further
improved by passing them through one or two more gill-boxes,
prior to combing, to ensure straightness of fibre and even distribu-
tion of the lubricant.
Combing. — Prior to the mechanical era wool was combed im-
mediately after scouring; there was no preparatory process. As a
matter of fact the first combing process took the place of the
processes just described and was termed * 'straightening," the
"combing proper" following. Prior to the invention of a really
satisfactory mechanical comb, between 1850 and 1860, the comb-
ing operation was the limitation of the worsted trade. English
wools could be satisfactorily combed by hand, and perhaps the
results of combing botany or fine wools by hand were satisfactory
so far as quality of result was concerned, but the cost was largely
prohibitive. The history of the colonial wool trade is inextricably
bound up with the combing industry. How eventually botany
wools were combed by machinery and how the wool industry was
thereby revolutionized can only be briefly referred to here. About
1779 Dr. Edmund Cartwright invented two distinct types of
WORSTED MANUFACTURE
795
combs, the vertical and the horizontal circular. The former type
was developed on the Continent by Heilmann and others, and has
only within the last twenty years taken its rightful place as a suc-
cessful short wool comb in this country, The latter type was
worked upon by Donisthorpe, Noble, Lister, the Holdens and
others, and largely through the "driving" force of Lister (later
Lord Masham) was made a truly practical success about the year
1850. Latter-day combs of this type may be readily grouped under
three heads. The Lister or "nip"
comb is specially suitable for
long wools and mohair and al-
paca. The Holden or square-mo-
tion comb is specially suited for
short and very good quality wools.
The last type, the Noble, is the
most popular of all and, by a
change of large and small circles,
may be§ adapted to the combing
of long* medium or short wools.
As the great bulk of cross-bred
and a considerable proportion of
botany wool is combed upon the
Noble comb a brief description
is here called for. The object of
AND SECTION OF all wool combing is to straighten
the long fibres and to comb out
FIG. 3. — PLAN
NOBLE COMB
from the slivers treated all the fibres under a certain length, leav-
ing the long fibres or "top" to form the sliver which is eventually
spun into the worsted yarn. The Noble comb, which so effectually
accomplishes this, consists in the main of a large revolving pinned
circle A inside which revolve two smaller pinned circles B, B' as
shown in fig. 3, each of which touches the larger comb circle at one
point only. At this point the slivers of wool to be combed are
firmly dabbed into the pins of both the large and small circles. As
the circles continue to revolve they naturally begin to separate,
combing the wool fibres between them, the short fibres or "noil"
being retained in the teeth of both small and large circles, the long
fibres hanging on the inside of the large circle and on the outside
of the small circle. A stroker or air blast at F now directs these
long fibres towards the vertical rollers, G and G', shown here in
plan, which separate them from the short, fibres.
There are at least four pairs of drawing-off rollers in a comb,
and the fibres drawn off by each — be it noted continuously — are
united to form a sliver which is passed through a revolving funnel
into a can. The short fibres, or "noil," are lifted out of the pins
of the small circle by "noil knives." The continuous slivers, the
ends of which remain in the pins of the large circle after the
drawing-off rollers have been passed, are now lifted up until these
ends are above the pins, at the same time an additional length of
sliver being drawn into the comb, so that, as the slivers reach the
second small circle, they are ready to be again dabbed into the
pins of both circles and the combing operation is repeated. Thus
the combing on a Noble comb is absolutely continuous. All the
movements of this machine — with the exception of the dabbing-
brush motion — are circular, so that mechanically it is an almost
perfect machine.
After combing it is usual to pass the "top" through two gill-
boxes termed "finishers." The last of these boxes, and often the
first, delivers the "top" in the form of a ball, thus it is often
spoken of as a "balling gill-box," This stage marks one of the
great divisions of the worsted trade, the comber taking the wool
up to this point, but now handing it 'forward in the shape of top
to the "worsted spinner," who draws and spins the slivers into the
most desirable worsted yarns.
Drawing. — English tops are usually prepared for spinning by
seven or eight operations. Three of these operations are effected
in gill-boxes of a somewhat similar type to the preparing-box, only
lighter in build. The remaining four are drawing-boxes, i.e., as
shown in fig. 4, they consist of back and front rollers with
small carrying-rollers — not gills — to support the wool in between.
Thus an English set of drawing usually consists of a single-can gill-
box, a double-can gill-box, a two-spindle gill-box, a four-spindle-
drawing-box, a four-spindle weigh-box, a six-spindle drawing-box,
two six-spindle finishers and three thirty-spindle rovers. About
fifteen flyer frames of 160 spindles each will be required to
FlG. 4. — SECTION OF WOOL DRAWING ROLLERS
follow this set, although the balance varies partly in accordance
with the counts spun to, 1/32*5 English being the standard.
The object of drawing is to obtain firstly a level sliver from
which an even thread may be spun, and secondly to reduce the
comparatively thick top down to a rela-
tively thin roving from which the required
count of yarn may be spun. Of course par-
allelism of fibres must be retained through-
out, so far as possible. To accomplish these
objects doubling and drafting is resorted
to. Thus the ends put up at the back of the
above boxes will be 6, 6, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2 re-
spectively, while the drafts may be 5, 6, 8,
8, 6, 9, 9 approximately. As the drafts
markedly preponderate over the doublings
so will the sliver be reduced in thickness.
Spinning. — The flyer spinning frame is
very similar to the drawing frame, consist-
ing of back rollers, carriers and front rollers,
with the necessary spindle and flyer to put
twist into the yarn and to wind it upon the
bobbin. From the two-spindle gill-box to
the spinning frame the spindle, bobbin, and
flyer combination is employed with the ob-
ject just mentioned. From fig. 5 the action
of tliis combination will be clearly under-
stood. Drafting takes place as usual be-
tween the back and front rollers, the car-
riers controlling the sliver between the two.
On emerging from the front rollers the
yarn usually passes through an eyelet to
centre it over the centre of the spindle; it
then takes a turn or two round the flyer
leg, through the twizzle or eyelet on the
flyer and on to the bobbin F. The flyer may
be freery rotated by means of the wharl
J and through the spindle G upon the
Fio. 5. — IECTION OF top of whfch it is screwed. The bobbin fits
FLYit ffiNDLe loosely over the spincfle and rests lightly
upon the lifter; this latter, being controlled by the lifter
mechanism, slowly raises and Towers the bobbin during the "spin"
796
WORSTED MANUFACTURE
past the fixed plane of delivery of the yarn, i.e., the eyelet of the
revolving flyer. Now, if for one moment it be considered that
the bobbin may not revolve on the spindle but -may be slid up and
down by the lifter motion, then, if the front rollers deliver the
necessary yarn, the flyer will wrap it in successive layers upon the
bobbin — but no twist will be inserted,
On the other hand, if the bobbin is perfectly free upon the
spindle and the front rollers cease delivering yarn, then the flyer,
by means of the yarn, will pull
the bobbin round at the same
speed as it goes itself, and the
yarn will be twisted but not
wound upon the bobbin. By ob-
taining an action in between these
two extremes both twisting and
winding on to the bobbin is
effected. The speed of the bobbin
is suitably retarded by washers
placed between it .and the lifter
plate, so that it just drags suffi-
ciently to wind up the yarn "paid
out" by the front rollers. The
turns per inch are in proportion
to the yarn delivered and the rev-
olutions of the flyer. Thus if,
while i in. of yarn is delivered,
the flyer revolves twelve times
the turns per inch will be ap-
proximately twelve. This is the
theory of the spindle, flyer and
bobbin action.
Preparing Short Wools. —
Wools not more than 7 in. long
are usually prepared for combing
by the operation of carding. On
first thought it might be imagined
that carding would result in
broken fibres and a poor yield of
top. That this is not so is evident
from the fact that there is a ten-
dency to card wools from 7 to 10
in. long, this tendency being due
to the relative cheapness of
carding as compared with pre-
paring. If long wools were fed
directly on to a swift, no doubt
serious breakage of fibre would
occur, but it is customary to place before the first swift of a
worsted card a series of four opening rollers and dividers — with
their accompanying "burring rollers'1 — to open out the wool grad-
ually, so that when it eventually reaches the first swift it is so
FIG. 6. — SECTION OF CAP SPINDLE
CONDENSED SUVIR
FRONT DKAFTINO
ROLLER*
CONSOLIDATING RURKRS
PORCUPINE
FfO. 7. — SECTION OF FRENCH DRAWING-BOX
opened out that further opening out instead of breakage occurs.
Some carders use a breast of small swift in place of these open-
ing rollers — mostly on account of economy. The swift is usually
surmounted with four workers and strippers and is very similar
to the woollen carder, save that the workers and doffer are larger,
thereby effecting more of a combing action and working econom-
ically by reason of the greater wearing surface brought into play.
As botany wool is usually brought directly from the wash bowl to
the feed sheet of the card, it is usual to clothe the first cylinders
SPINDLE
RECEPTACLE
with galvanized wire clothing.
After the carding the wool is back-washed and gilled — on simi-
lar lines to English wool — and then is ready for combing. After
combing, the tops are "finished" by being passed through two
finisher-boxes, the last of which "balls" the tops for market.
Short wools are drawn and spun on very similar lines to the
longer wools, save that the boxes are more in number and are in
some cases lighter in build. The boxes usually employed in a
botany set are as follows: two double-head can gill-boxes, two
two-spindle gill-boxes, a four-spindle drawing-box, a six-spindle
weigh-box, an eight-spindle drawing-box, two eight-spindle finish-
ing-boxes, two twenty-four-spin-
dle second finishers, three thirty-
two-spindle dandy reducers, ten
thirty-two-spindle dandy rovers,
with ten two-hundred-spindle cap
spinners to follow.
The doublings as a rule are
about 7, 6, 6, 6, 5, 5, 5, '4, 4, 2
and the drafts 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7,
8, 8, 8 at the respective boxes,
an endeavour as a rule being
made to obtain a roving of
which 40 yds. — 2 drams, as this
is the most convenient size for
being spun into fine botany count
of yarn.
Following the lead" of the cot-
ton trade endeavours have been
made to control the driving and _
speed of both flyer and bobbin Fl<s' 8-SECT10N °F """= SPIN01-E
in all the drawing frames of such sets as that described above.
Such control is usually effected by a pair of cones, from which
this system has taken its name, viz., "cone" drawing. The chief
advantages of this system seem to be the possibilities of employ-
ing larger bobbins, and thus obtaining greater production, the con-
sumption of relatively less power, and more particularly the pro-
duction of a softer sliver with less twist, partaking more of the
character of a French roving.
Spinning is usually effected upon the cap frame (see fig. 6) — a
frame in which the bobbin, resting upon a fixed spindle, is itself
driven at say 5,000 revolutions per minute to put in the twist,
while the friction of the yarn on the cap which covers the bobbin,
or air-friction, enables the bobbin to wind up upon itself the yarn
as delivered by the front rollers. The weakness and the strength
of the cap frame is that to make reasonably hard bobbins the
bobbins must be driven at a high speed.
French Drawing and Spinning.— The French are noted for
a special system of worsted spinning, which, producing soft bot-
any yarns of a marked type, is worthy of more than passing com-
ment. The preparation is very similar to the preparation of botany
yarns for the English system save that as a rule the order of the
operations are carding, gilling, combing, back-washing and finish-
ing. The characteristic features of the method lie in the subse-
quent drawing and spinning. The drawing-box as shown in fig. 7
consists of back rollers, porcupine or revolving gill, front rollers,
rubbers and winding-up arrangement. Thus there is no twist
inserted, the slivers being treated softly and openly right away
through the processes. A set of this type usually consists of two
gill-boxes, preparing for combing, comb, back-washing machine
and two finishing gill-boxes, first drawing frame, second and third
drawing frame, the slubbing frame, the roving frame and the self-
acting mule. After leaving the last box as a fine soft 'pith-like
sliver, spinning is effected upon the worsted mule. The main dif-
ferences between the worsted and the woollen mule are firstly,
the worsted mule is fitted with preliminary drafting rollers, and
secondly, there is little or no spindle draft, the worsted spindle
being tapered as against thick-ended in the woollen mule. As the
mule is an intermittent worker it is natural to contrast it with
the cap frame, which runs continuously. What the real advantage
is it is difficult to say, but the mule-spun worsted yarn trade is
becoming yearly of more importance. The French-treated slivers
WORTH— WORTH
797
are "dry-combed," no oil being employed. Normal English slivers
contain from 3% to 5% of oil.
Doubling, Twisting, etc. — Upon whichever system the yarns
have been spun it will frequently be necessary to twofold them
and sometimes to three- and fourfold them. Again the fashion
sometimes runs upon fancy twists, and then it is necessary to be
able to produce the various styles of cloud, loop, curl, knop, etc.,
yarns. Twofolding is done upon the flyer, cap and ring frames.
The main difference between the cap and the ring frame is that
in the latter a small bent piece of wire, termed a traveller, revolved
round a ring by the pull of the spindle through the yarn, serves as
the retarder to enable the bobbin to wind the yarn, delivered by
the front rollers. (See fig. 8.) Fancy twisters are almost univer-
sally on the ring system.
Yarns are placed on the market in eight forms, viz., in hank,
on spools, on paper tubes, on bobbins, on cops, in cheeses, in the
warp ball form and dressed upon the loom beam. Thus the manu-
facturer can order the yarn which he requires in the form best
suited to his purpose.
Finishing Processes. — Although in some few cases special
means must be employed for the weaving of woollens, worsteds
and stuff goods, still the main principles are the same for all classes
of goods. (See WEAVING.)
Worsted cloth finishing is very similar to woollen cloth finish-
ing save that some of the operations are less severe. Mending,
scouring, milling and tentering are similar. The raising as a
rule is effected by brushing, although it is by no means un-
common to raise worsteds on the gig. Cropping, crabbing, press-
ing and steaming are the same as for woolten fabrics. Of course
the real difference between the woollen and the worsted cloth is
due to the selection of the right material, to correct roving, spin-
ning and fabric structure : finishing simply comes as a "developer"
in the case of the woollen fabric, while in the case of the typical
worsted fabric it simply serves as a "clearer," the cloth really
being made in the loom. A woollen cloth as it leaves the loom is
unsightly and in a sense may be said to be made in the finishing,
although it is truer to say "developed" in the finishing: in the case
of the worsted cloth it is altogether otherwise.
The principal styles of worsted cloths are coatings and trouser-
ings, delaines, voiles, merinos, cashmeres, lastings, crcpe-de-chines,
amazons, Orleans, lustres of various types (plain and figured),
alpacas, Italians and moreens. Many are made entirely of worsted
yarns, but others are compound so far as material or yarn is
concerned. Thus amazons are made from mule-spun worsted warp
and a woollen weft. (See also WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.)
WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895), the
famous dressmaker, was born at Bourne, Lincolnshire, in 1825
and was sent to London as an apprentice to Swan & Edgar,
drapers. In 1846, he went to Paris, without, capital or friends,
and after 12 years in a wholesale silk house he began business
as a dressmaker in partnership with a Swede named Dobergh.
He won the patronage of the empress Eugenie, and, through her,
of fashionable Paris. After the Franco-German War Worth con-
tinued the business with his two sons John and Gaston —
both naturalized Frenchmen. For more than 30 years he set
the taste and ordained the fashions of Paris. He died on March
10, 1895.
WORTH, a village of Alsace, on the Sauer, 6 m. N. of Hage-
nau, which gives its name to the battle of Aug. 6, 1870, fought
between the Germans under the crown prince of Prussia and the
French under Marshal MacMahon. The battle is also called
Reichshoffen and Froschweiler.
The events which led up to the engagement, and the general
situation on the 6th are dealt with under FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.
During Aug. 5 the French concentrated in a selected position
running nearly north and south along the Sauer Bach on the left
front of the German III. Army, which was moving south to seek
them. The position is marked from right to left by Morsbronn,
the Niederwald, the heights west of Worth and the woods north-
east of Froschweiler. East of the Sauer the German III. Army
was moving south, when their cavalry found the French position
th*» Oermftn verWttft ft*1ri th* Fri»nrh
under close observation, while the latter moved about within their
lines and as far as the village of Worth as if in peace quarters.
About 5 P.M. some horses were being watered at the Sauer,
when a sudden swoop of the enemy's hussars drove the party
back to camp. The alarm was sounded, tents were struck and the
troops fell in and remained under arms until the confusion died
down, when orders were sent to fall out, but not to pitch the
MAP OF W0RTH, SCENE OF BATTLE BETWEEN THE FRENCH AND GERMANS
AUGUST 6, 1870
tents. The army there bivouacked, and but for this incident the
battle of the next day might not have been fought. A sudden
storm broke over the bivouacs, and when it was over, many of
the men, wet and restless, broke out of camp and went into Worth,
which was unoccupied, though Prussians were only 300 yds. from
the sentries. These fired, and the officer commanding the Prus-
sian outposts, hearing the confused murmur of voices, ordered up
a battery, and as soon as there was light enough dropped a few
shells into Worth. The stragglers rushed back, the French lines
were again alarmed, and several batteries on their side took up
the challenge.
The Prussian guns, as strict orders had been given to avoid all
engagement that day, soon withdrew and were about to return to
camp, when renewed artillery fire was heard from the south and
presently also from the north. In the latter direction, the II.
Bavarian Corps had bivouacked along the Mattstall-Langensulz-
bach road with orders to continue the march if artillery were
heard to the south. This order was contrary to the spirit of the
III. Army orders, and, moreover, the V. Prussian Corps to the
south was in ignorance of its having been given.
The outpost battery near Worth was heard, and the Bavarians
at once moved forward. The loading divisional commander,
anxious to prove his loyalty to his new allies — his enemies in
1866 — ordered his troops to attack, giving the spire of Frosch-
weiler, which was visible over the woods, as the point of direction.
The French, however, were quite ready and a furious fusillade
broke out, which was multiplied by the echoes of the forest-clad
hills out of all proportion to the numbers engaged. The Prussian
officers of the V. Corps near Diefenbach, knowing nothing of the
orders the Bavarians had received, were amazed; but when about
10.30 A.M. their comrades were seen retiring, part in disorder, the
corps commander, Kirchbach, decided that an effort must be made
to relieve the Bavarians. He communicated his intention of
attacking to the XI. Corps (Bose) on his left and asked for all
available assistance. A report was also despatched to the crown
nrince at Sulz. < m. awav.
WORTH
Meanwhile the XI. Corps had become involved in an engage-
ment. The left of the V. Corps' outposts had over night occupied
Gunstett and the bank of the Sauer, and the French shortly after
daylight on the 6th sent down an unarmed party to fetch water.
As this appeared through the mist, the Prussians naturally fired
upon it, and the French General Lartigue (to whose division the
party belonged), puzzled to account for the firing, brought up
some batteries in readiness to repel an attack. These fired a few
rounds only, but remained in position as a precaution.
Hearing the firing, the XI. Corps' advanced guard, which had
marched up behind in accordance with the general movement of
the corps in changing front to the west, promptly came up to
Spachbach and Gunstett. In this movement across country to
Spachbach some bodies appear to have exposed themselves, for
French artillery at Elsasshausen suddenly opened fire, and the
shrapnel bursting high, sent showers of bullets on to the house
roofs of Spachbach, in which village a battalion had just halted.
The major in command thereupon ordered the march to be re-
sumed, and as he gave the order, his horse ran away with him
towards the Sauer. The leading company, seeing the battalion
commander gallop, moved off at the double, and the others of
course followed. Under the impression that they were intended
to attack, they deployed and crossed the river. By this time the
French outposts lining the edge of the Nicderwald, were firing
heavily. The line of smoke was naturally accepted by all as the
objective, and the German companies with a wild rush reached
the edge of the wood.
A similarly unpremeditated encounter had happened at Gun-
stett and both sides brought up reinforcements. The Prussians,
with ail their attention concentrated on the wood in their front,
and having as yet no superior commanders, soon exhibited signs of
confusion, and thereupon Gen. Lartigue ordered a counter attack
towards the heights of Gunstett, when all the Prussians between
the Niederwald and the Sauer gave way. The French followed
with a rush, and, fording the Sauer opposite Gunstett, for a
moment placed the long line of German guns upon the heights in
considerable danger. At this crisis a fresh battalion arrived and
attacked the French on one flank whilst the guns swept the other.
The momentum of the charge died out, and the French retired.
In the centre the fight had been going badly for the V. Corps.
As soon as Kirchbach's 84 guns between. Dieffenbach and Spach-
bach opened fire the French disappeared from sight. There was
no longer a target, and, perhaps to compel his adversary to show
himself, Kirchbach ordered four battalions to cross the river.
These, however, were overpowered and driven back by infantry
fire. But, once more, the dashing counter-attack of the French
was thrown into confusion by the Prussian shell fire, and as the
French fell back the Prussian infantry, now reinforced, followed
them up (about I P.M.). The commander-in-chief of the German
III. Army (the crown prince Frederick) now appeared on the field
and ordered Kirchbach to stand fast until the pressure of the XI.
Corps and Wurttemberg Division could Lake effect against the
French right wing. The majority of these troops had not yet
reached the field. Bosc, however, seeing the retreat of the troops
of the V. Corps, had independently determined to renew the at-
tack against the Niederwald, and had ordered Schkopp '3 brigade,
which was then approaching, to join the troops collecting to the
east of Gunstett. Schkopp, however, seeing that his present line of
advance led him direct ou to the French right about Morsbronn
and kept him clear of the confusion to be seen around Gunstett,
disregarded the order and continued to advance on Morsbronn.
This deliberate acceptance of responsibility really decided the
battle, for his brigade quietly deployed as a unit and compelled
the French right wing to fall back.
To cover the French retreat Michel's brigade of cavalry was
ordered to charge. Without reconnoitring or manoeuvring for
position, the French cavalry rode straight at the first objective
which offered itself. Hence the charge was costly and only partly
successful. However, the Prussians' attention was sufficiently
absorbed while the French infantry rallied for a fresh counter-
stroke. This was made, about 1.20 P.M., with the utmost gallantry,
and the Prussians were driven back. But the counter-attack
soon came under the fire of the great artillery mass above Gun-
stett, and Bose having at length concentrated the main body of the
XI. Corps in the meadows between the Niederwald and the
Sauer, the French had to withdraw. Their withdrawal involved the
retreat of the troops who had defended Niederwald all day.
By 3 P.M. the Prussians were masters of the Niederwald and
the ground south of it on which the French right wing had
originally stood, but they were in indescribable confusion after
the prolonged fighting in the dense undergrowth. Before order
could be restored came another fierce counterstroke. As the
Prussians emerged from the northern edge of the wood, the French
reserves suddenly came out from behind the Elsasshausen heights,
and striking due south drove the Prussians back. It was a grave
crisis, but at this moment Schkopp, who throughout all this had
kept two of his battalions intact, came round the north-west corner
of the Wald, and these fresh battalions again brought the French
to a standstill. Meanwhile Kirchbach, seeing the progress of the
XI. Corps, had ordered the whole of his command forward to
assault the French centre, and away to the right the two Bavarian
corps moved against the French left, which still maintained its
original position in the woods north-east of Froschweiler.
MacMahon, however, was not beaten yet. Ordering Bonne-
mains' cavalry division to charge by squadrons to gain time, he
brought up his reserve artillery, and sent it forward to case-shot
range to cover a final counter-stroke by his last intact battalions.
But from his position near Froschweiler he could not see into\hc
hollow between Elsasshausen and the Niederwald. The order was
too late, and the artillery unlimbercd just as the counter attack
on the Niederwald alluded to above gave way before Schkopp's
reserve. The guns were submerged in a flood of fugitives and
pursuers. Elsasshausen passed into the hands of the Germans.
To rescue the guns the nearest French infantry attacked in a suc-
cession of groups, charging home the bayonet with the utmost
determination. Before each attack the Prussians immediately in
front gave way, but those on the flanks swung inwards, and under
this converging fire each French attempt died out, the Prussians
following up their retreat. In this manner, step by step, in con-
fusion which almost defies analysis, the Prussians conquered the
whole of the ground to the south of the Froschweiler-Worth road,
but the French still held on in the village of Froschweiler itself
and in the woods to the north of the road, where throughout the
day they had held the two Bavarian corps in check with little
difficulty. To break down this last stronghold, the guns of the
V. and XL Corps, which had now come forward to the captured
ridge of Elsasshausen, took the village as their target; and the
great crowd of infantry, now flushed with victory but in the
direst confusion, encouraged by the example of two horse artillery
batteries, which galloped boldly forward to case-shot range, de-
livered one final rush which swept all resistance before it.
The battle was won and cavalry only were needed to reap its
consequences, but the Prussian cavalry division had been left
behind without otders and did not reach the battlefield till late at
night. Under cover of darkness the French escaped, and on the
following day the cavalry division was quite unable to discover
the direction of the retreat.
MacMahon received no support from the neighbouring French
troops (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The battle was won by over-
powering weight of numbers. The Prussian general staff were
able to direct upon the field no fewer than 75,000 infantry, 6,000
cavalry and 300 guns, of which 71,000 rifles, 4,250 sabres and 234
guns came into action against 32,000 rifles, 4,850 sabres and 101
guns on the French side. The superiority of the French chassepot
to the needle guns may reasonably be set against the superior
number of rifles on the German side, for though the Germans
were generally, thanks to their numbers, able to bring a converging
fire upon the French, the latter made nearly double the number of
hits for about the same weight of ammunition fired, but the French
had nothing to oppose to the superior German artillery, and in
almost every instance it was the terrible shell fire which broke
up the French counter attack. All of these attacks were in the
highest degree honourable to the French army, and many came
nearer to imperilling the ultimate success of the Germans than
WORTHING— WOUND
799
is generally supposed even by students of military affairs.
The losses of the Germans were 9,270 killed and wounded and
1,370 missing, or 13%; those of the French were about 8,000
killed and wounded, and perhaps 12,000 missing and prisoners,
representing a total loss of about 41%.
See the French and German official histories of the war; H. Bonnal,
Froschwiller (1899) ; H. Kunz, Scklacht von Worth (1891) and Kriegs-
Kesch, Beispiele, Nos. 13-18; R. Tournes, De Gunstett au Niedenvald
and Le Calvaire; and Commandant Grange, "Les R6alit6s du champ dc
bataille," Revue d'infanterit (1908-10). (F. N. M.)
WORTHING, a municipal borough and seaside resort in the
Horsham and Worthing parliamentary division of Sussex, England,
6 1 m. S. by W. from London on the Brighton and Portsmouth
section of the S. railway. Pop. (1921) 35,215. It has a fine marine
parade, and a promenade pier, and there is a long range of firm
sands. The town is sheltered from the north by the Chalk Downs.
The mother parish of Worthing is Broadwater, the church of
which, i m. N. of Worthing, is a cruciform building, and a fine
example of transitional Norman work. A Roman villa, evidence
of the existence of pottery works, and a '.so-called mile-stone, have
been discovered at Worthing. The town was incorporated in 1890.
A modern and important industry of Worthing is the raising of
flowers and fruit, especially tomatoes, in glass houses.
WORTHINGTON-EVANS, SIR LAMING (1868-
), British statesman, was born on Aug. 23, 1868 and became
a solicitor in 1890. In 1910, after one unsuccessful attempt, he
was elected Conservative M.P. for Colchester, and in 1918 for
the Colchester division of Essex, which he represented in succeed-
ing parliaments. In 1916 he entered the Coalition Government as
parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Munitions. He left the
Ministry of Munitions in 1918 to become minister of blockade,
and afterwards filled the following offices under Lloyd George and
Baldwin: minister of pensions, 1918-20; minister without port-
folio, 1920-21; secretary for war, 1921-22; postmaster-general,
1923-24; and again secretary for war, 1924. He has written
books on company law.
WOTTON, SIR HENRY (1568-1639), English author and
diplomatist, son of Thomas Wotton (1521-1587) and grand-
nephew of the diplomatist Nicholas Wotton (q.v.), was born at
Bocton Hall in the parish of Bocton or Boughton Malherbe,
Kent. He was educated at Winchester school and at New col-
lege and Queen's college, Oxford. At Oxford he was the friend
of Albericus Gentilis, then professor of civil law, and of John
Donne. During his residence at Queen's he wrote a play, Tan-
credo, which has not survived, but his chief interests appear to
have been scientific. About 1589 Wotton went abroad, with a
view probably to preparation for a diplomatic career, and his
travels appear to have lasted for about six years. At Altdorf he
met Edward, Lord Zouch, to whom he later addressed a series
of letters (1590-93) which contain much political and, other news.
These (Reliquiae Wottonianae, pp. 585 et seq. 1685) provide a
record of the journey. He travelled by way of Vienna and Venice
to Rome, and in 1593 spent some time at Geneva in the house of
Isaac Casaubon. Wotton returned to England in 1594, and in
1595 was admitted to the Middle Temple. While abroad he had
from time to time provided Robert Devereux, second earl of
Essex, with information, and he now definitely entered his service
as one of his agents or secretaries to supply intelligence of affairs
in Transylvania, Poland, Italy and Germany. Wotton was not
actually involved in Essex's downfall, but he left England, and
within 1 6 hours of his patron's apprehension he was safe in France,
whence he travelled to Venice and Rome. In 1602 he was resident
at Florence, and a plot to murder James VI. of Scotland having
come to the ears of the grand-duke of Tuscany, Wotton was
entrusted with letters to warn him of the danger, and with Italian
antidotes against poison. As "Ottavio Baldi" he travelled to Scot-
land by way of Norway. He was well received by James, and
remained three months at the Scottish court, retaining his Italian
incogflito. He then returned to Florence, but on receiving the
news of James's accession hurried to England. James knighted
him, and offered him the embassy at Madrid or Paris; but Wotton,
knowing that both these offices involved ruinous expense, desired
rather to represent James at Venice. He left London in 1604
accompanied by Sir Albertus Morton, his half-nephew, as secre-
tary, and William Bedell, the author of an Irish translation of
the Bible, as chaplain.
Wotton spent most of the next twenty years, with two breaks
(1612-16 and 1619-21), at Venice. He helped the Doge in his
resistance to ecclesiastical aggression, and was associated with
Paolo Sarpi, whose history of the Council of Trent was sent to
King James as fast as it was written. In 1611 Caspar Schoppe,
whom Wotton had offended, wrote a scurrilous book against James
entitled Ecclesiasticus, in which he fastened on Wotton a saying
which he had incautiously written in a friend's album years
before. It was the famous definition of an ambassador as an
"honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country."
Wotton was at the time on leave in England, and made two formal
defences of himself, one a personal attack on his accuser addressed
to Marcus Welser of Strasbourg, and the other privately to the
king. He seems to have won back James's favour by obsequious
support in parliament of his claim to impose arbitrary taxes on
merchandise. In 1614 he was sent to the Hague and in 1616 he
returned to Venice.
In 1620 he was sent on a special embassy to Ferdinand II. at
Vienna, to do what he could on behalf of James's daughter
Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia. Wotton's devotion to this princess,
expressed in his exquisite verses beginning "You meaner beauties
of the night," was sincere and unchanging. At his departure the
emperor presented him with a jewel of great value, which Wotton
received with due respect, but before leaving the city he gave it
to his hostess, because, he said, he would accept no gifts from the
enemy of the Bohemian queen. After a third term of service in
Venice he returned to London early in 1624 and in July he was
installed as provost of Eton College. This office did not relieve
him from his pecuniary embarrassments, and he was even on one
occasion arrested for debt, but he received in 1627 a pension
of £200, and in 1630 this was raised to £500 on the understanding
that he should write a history of England. He did not neglect
the duties of his provostship, and was happy in being able to
entertain his friends lavishly. His most constant associates were
Izaak Walton and John Hales. A bend in the Thames below the
Playing Fields, known as ''Black Potts," is still pointed out as the
spot where Wotton and Izaak Walton fished in company. He died
at the beginning of December 1639 and was buried in the chapel
of Eton College.
Sir Henry Wotton was not an industrious author, and his
writings are very small in bulk. Of the twenty-five poems
printed in Reliquiae W ottonianae only 15 are Wotton's. But of
those 15 two have obtained a place among the best known poems
in the language, the lines already mentioned "On his Mistris, the
Queen of Bohemia," and "The Character of a Happy Life."
During his lifetime he published only The Elements of Architecture
(1624), which is a paraphrase from Marcus Vitruvius PolUo, and a
Latin prose address to the king on his return from Scotland (1633).
In 1651 appeared the Reliquiae Wottonianae, with Izaak Walton's
Life. An admirable Life and Letters, representing much new material,
by Logan Pearsall Smith, was published in 1907. See also A. W.
Ward, Sir Henry Wotton, a Biographical Sketch (1898).
WOUND, a solution in the continuity of the soft parts of
the body. Contused wounds, or bruises, are injuries to the cellular
tissues in which the skin is not broken. In parts where the tissues
are lax the signs of swelling and discoloration are more noticeable
than in the tenser tissues. The discoloration is caused by haemor-
rhage into the tissues (ecchymosis), and passes from dark purple
through green to yellow before it disappears. If a considerable
amount of blood is poured forth into the injured tissues it is
termed a haematoma. The treatment of a bruise consists in the
application of cold lotion, preferably an evaporating spirit-lotion,
to limit the subcutaneous bleeding. The haemorrhage usually be-
comes absorbed of its own accord even in haematomata, but
should suppuration threaten an incision must be made and the
cavity aseptically evacuated.
Open wounds are divided into incised, lacerated, punctured and
gunshot wounds. Incised wounds are made by any sharp instru-
ment and have their edges evenly cut. In these wounds there is
usually free haemorrhage, as the vessels are cleanly divided.
8oo
WOUWERMAN— WRANGEL
Lacerated wounds are those in which the edges of the wound are
torn irregularly. Such injuries occur frequently, from accidents
with machinery or blunt instruments, or from bites by animals.
The haemorrhage is less than from incised wounds, and the edges
may be bruised. Punctured wounds are those in which the depth
is greater than the external opening. They are generally produced
by sharp-pointed instruments. The chief danger arises from
puncture of large blood-vessels, or injury to important structures
such as those in the thorax and abdomen. The great danger of all
open wounds is that pathogenic micro-organisms will be intro-
duced at the time of injury.
The treatment of incised wounds is to arrest the bleeding (see
HAEMORRHAGE), cleanse the wound and its surroundings, removing
ail foreign bodies (splinters, glass, etc.), and obtain apposition
of the cut surfaces. This is usually done by means of sutures or
stitches of silk, catgut, silkwormgut or silver wire. If the wound
can be rendered aseptic, incised wounds usually heal by first in-
tention. In lacerated wounds there is danger of suppuration,
sloughing, erysipelas, while if soil, particularly cultivated and
heavily manured soil, be carried into the tissues during the in-
jury there is risk of gas-gangrene, malignant oedema or tetanus.
These wounds do not heal by first intention, and there is conse-
quently considerable scarring. The exact amount of time occu-
pied in the repair depends upon the presence or not of septic
material, as lacerated wounds are very difficult to cleanse properly.
Carbolic acid lotion should be used for cleansing, while torn or
ragged portions should be cut away and provision made for
free drainage. It is not always possible to apply sutures at first,
but the wound may be packed with antiseptic gauze, and later,
when a clean granulating surface has been obtained, skin-graft-
ing may be required. In extensive lacerated wounds, especially
in conjunction with comminuted fractures, amputation of a limb
may be called for. Punctured wounds should be syringed with
carbolic lotion, and all splinters and foreign bodies removed. The
location of needles and other bodies opaque to the rays is facili-
tated by the use of the Rontgen rays; the wound can then be
packed with gauze and drained. If a large vessel should have been
injured, the wound may have to be laid open and the bleeding
vessel secured. Should paralysis indicate that a large nerve has
been divided, the wound must also be laid open in order to suture
the injured structure.
It is only possible here to mention some of the special character-
istics of gunshot wounds. A remarkable collection, largely added
to during the World War, is contained in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons of England and smaller collections are to be
found in some other great centres. With the modern small-bore
rifle of high velocity, machine guns and Lewis guns the aperture
of entry is small and the aperture of exit larger and more slit-
like. There is usually but little haemorrhage. Should no large
vessel be torn, and should no portion of septic clothing be carried
in, the wound may heal by first intention. Such bullets may be
said to disable without killing. They may drill a clean hole in a
bone without a fracture, but sometimes there is much splintering.
Abdominal wounds may be so small that the intestine may be
penetrated and adhesions of neighbouring coils of intestine cover
the aperture. Martini-Henry bullets make larger apertures, while
soft-nosed or "dum-dum" bullets spread out as soon as the
bullet strikes, causing great mutilation and destruction of the
tissues. Shell wounds cause extensive lacerations. Small shot may
inflict serious injury should one of the pellets enter the eye. In
gunshot wounds at short distance the skin may be blackened owing
to the particles of carbon lodging in it. The chief dangers of gun-
shot wounds are haemorrhage, shock and the carrying in of septic
material or clothing into the wound.
WOUWERMAN, PHILIP (1619-1668), Dutch painter of
battle and hunting scenes, was born at Haarlem, where he was
baptised on May 24, 1619. He learned the elements of his art
from his father, Paul Joosten Wouwerman, a painter from Alk-
maar. He then became a pupil of Frans Hals and probably of
J. Wynants and of Pieter Verbeek, a painter of horses. He be-
came a member of the guild of painters at Haarlem in 1642, and
there he died on Mav 10. 1668. About ftoo nirtures, were enu-
merated in John Smith's Catalogue raisonnt (1840) as the work
of Philip Wouwerman, and in C. Hofstede de Groot's enlarged
Catalogue, vol. ii. (1909), the number exceeds 1,200; but prob-
ably many of these are the productions of his' brothers Pieter
(1623-1682) and Jan (1629-1666), and of his many other imita-
tors. His authentic works are distinguished by great spirit and
are infinitely varied, though dealing recurrently with cavalry
battle-pieces, military encampments, cavalcades, and hunting or
hawking parties. He is equally excellent in his vivacious treat-
ment of figures, in his skilful animal painting, and in his ad-
mirable and appropriate landscape backgrounds. Horses were
his favourite study, and a white horse is generally introduced.
Three different styles have been observed as characteristic of the
various periods of his art. His earlier works are marked by the
prevalence of a foxy-brown colouring, and by a tendency to
angularity in draughtsmanship; the productions of his middle
period have greater purity and brilliancy; and his latest and
greatest pictures possess more of force and breadth, and are full
of a delicate silvery-grey tone.
See H. dc Groot, Catalogue of Dutch Painters (1909).
WRAITH, a general term in popular parlance for the appear-
ance of the spirit of a living person. (See "Phantasms of the
Living," under PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.)
WRANGEL, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ERNST, COUNT
VON (1784-1877), Prussian general field marshal, was born at
Stettin, on April 13, 1784. He entered the Prussian army* in 1596
and distinguished himself in the campaigns against Napoleon. He
was in command of the I3th Division, with headquarters at
Munster, in Westphalia, in 1834, when riots occurred owing to
differences between the archbishop of Cologne and the crown, and
the determination and resolution with which he treated the clerical
party prevented serious trouble. He was promoted lieutenant-
general, received many honours from the court, enjoyed the con-
fidence of the Junker party, and commanded successively at
Konigsberg and Stettin. In 1848 he commanded the II. Corps of
the German Federal army in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign,
was promoted general of cavalry, and won several actions. In the
autumn he was summoned to Berlin to suppress the riots there.
As governor of Berlin and commander-in-chief of the Mark of
Brandenburg (appointments which he held till his death) he pro-
claimed a state of siege, and ejected the Liberal president and
members of the Chamber. Thus on two occasions in the troubled
history of Prussian revival Wrangel's uncompromising sternness
achieved its object without bloodshed. In 1856 he was made a
field marshal. At the age of eighty he commanded the Austro-
Prussian army in the war with Denmark in 1864. The prestige
of his name, and the good work of his subordinates, made the
campaign a brilliant success. After the capture of Diippel he
resigned the command, was created a count, and received other
honours. In 1866 "Papa" Wrangel assisted in the Bohemian cam-
paign, but without a command on account of his great age. He
took a keen interest in the second reorganization of the cavalry
arm 1866-1870, and in the war with France in 1870-71. He died
at Berlin on Nov. 2, 1877.
See supplement to Militar. Wochenblatt (1877), and lives by von
Koppen and von Maltitz (Berlin, 1884).
WRANGEL, KARL GUSTAV VON (1613-1676),
Swedish soldier, was descended from a family of Estonian origin,
branches of which settled in Sweden, Russia and Germany. His
father, Hermann von Wrangel (1587-1643), was a Swedish field
marshal in Gustavus Adolphus's wars. Karl Gustav was born near
Uppsala on Dec. 23, 1613, and at the age of twenty distinguished
himself as a cavalry captain in the war against the Army of the
League. Three years later he was colonel, and in 1638 major-
general, still serving in Germany. In 1644 he commanded a fleet
at sea, which defeated the Danes at Fehmarn on the 23rd of
October. In 1646 he returned to Germany as a field marshal and
succeeded Torstensson as commander-in-chief of the Swedish
army in Germany, which post he held during the last three cam-
paigns of the Thirty Years' War. Under Wrangel and Turenne
the allied Swedish and French armies marched and fought in
Bavaria and Wurttembercr. At the outbreak of a fresh Polish
WRANGEL— WRECK
801
war in 1655 Wrangel commanded a fleet, but in 1656 he was
serving on land again and commanding, along with the Great
Elector of Brandenburg, in the three days' battte of Warsaw. In
1657 he invaded Jutland and in 1658 passed over the ice into the
islands and took Kronborg. In 1657 he was appointed admiral and
in 1664 general of the realm, and as such he was a member of the
regency during the minority of Charles XI. But his last campaign
was unfortunate. Commanding, ineffectively owing to his broken
health, in the war against Brandenburg, he was recalled after his
stepbrother Waldemar, Freiherr von Wrangel (1647-1676), had
been defeated at Fehrbellin. He died at Riigen on July 5, 1676.
WRANGEL, PETER NICHOLAIEVICH, BARON
(1878-1928), Russian general, was born at St. Petersburg (Lenin-
grad) on Aug. 15, 1878, of a noble family of Swedish descent.
After experience in the ranks of the horse guards and as a mining
engineer in Siberia, he served as an officer in a Cossack regiment,
transferring after the Russo-Japanese War to the horse guards as
a captain. During the World War he commanded successively a
squadron, a regiment and a division of Cossacks. He was one of
the first officers to join Kalcdin against the Bolsheviks. After
Kaledin's suicide Wrangel allied himself to Alexeyev and Denikin,
distinguishing himself particularly by his defence of Tsaritsyn in
the summer of 1919. On April 4, 1920, after Denikin's retreat,
Wrangel was appointed commander-in-chief of the volunteer army.
He was in Constantinople when the summons came. He arrived
in the Crimea to find a force completely disorganized. In a very
short space of time he had turned it into an effective force with
which he held the Bolsheviks in check, and indeed made some
advance. But after the signing of a peace treaty between Poland
and the Bolsheviks the tide turned. On Nov. 15 Sebastopol was
lost and the evacuation of the army carried out. Wrangel em-
barked with about 130,000 refugees, who were dispersed in the
Balkans and other parts of Europe. He kept a staff for some time
in Belgrade, from which centre he tried to organize the settlement
of his soldiers. After a time he took a post as mining engineer in
Brussels, where he died on April 25, 1928.
WRANGEL ISLAND, in the Arctic sea, 85 m. N.E. of Cape
Billings, eastern Siberia, extends between 176° W. and 179° E.
in about 71° N. It is 80 m. long and 18-30 m. wide and has an
area of about 2,000 sq.miles. The mountainous interior rises to
2,500 ft. in Berry Peak, but there is much »low land on the south
and north. Shoals and sandspits project to sea on the north and
south-west. The west and east coasts are steep and lofty. The
small Rodgers harbour is on the south-east. There are no true
glaciers. Tundra covers many parts. Polar bears and foxes are
numerous. Walrus and seals frequent the shores. In summer
there are duck, gecsc, gulls and other birds. Driftwood is abun-
dant. Mammoth tusks have been found. No minerals of value
occur. Herald island lies 40 m. E. of Wrangel island. It is 5 m.
long and 900 ft. high. The shores are mostly steep. There are no
resources. Both islands are generally surrounded by pack-ice.
Hunters do not visit them and there has never been a native popu-
lation. Reports of land seen to the north by natives of eastern
Siberia were investigated by F. von Wrangel in 1824, but he
failed to reach the island. In 1849 Captain H. Kellett, R.N., dis-
covered and landed on Herald island, from which he reported
lands to the west, Plover and Kellett's Lands, thought to be parts
of an Arctic continent. Commander J. Rodgers, U.S.N., landed
on Herald island in 1855, and the American whaler T. Long
sailed along the south of Wrangel island and gave it its
name in 1867. The first certain record of landing is by Capt. C. L.
Hooper, U.S.N., in 1881. The same year Captain R. M. Berry,
U.S.N., explored the island and dispelled the idea of extensive
land in that region. Russians first landed in 1911 when the
"Taimir" and "Vaigach" erected a beacon. The survivors of
V. Stefansson's "Karluk" lived on the island from March to
Sept. 1914 (see ARCTIC REGIONS); in 192,1 Stefansson sent an-
other party of five under A. Crawford to establish a Canadian
claim by occupation in view of the use of the island as a base in
transpolar aerial trade routes. The party perished through acci-
dent with the exception of the Eskimo seamstress. In 1923 a
party of Eskimos under an Alaskan trapper was established with
the same end in view, but Russia, laying stress on a claim made
in 1916, removed the colony in Aug. 1924 and shortly afterwards
brought 50 Chuckhee to form a settlement under Soviet officials.
The Soviet flag was* also hoisted on Herald island in 1926.
The colony was visited by Russian aeroplanes in 1927. These
claims were not officially disputed by Britain, Canada or the
United States.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— R. A. Bartlett, The Last Voyage of the "Karluk"
(1916) ; Geographical Journal (Dec. 1923) ; and V. Stefansson, The
Adventure of Wrangel Island (1926). The possibility of the existence
of Plover Land is discussed in Geographical Review (April 1921).
(R. N. R. B.)
WRASSE, a name given to the fishes of the family Labridae.
They are abundant in the tropical zone, less so in the temperate,
and disappear altogether in the Arctic and Antarctic. Their body
is compressed, like that of a carp, and covered with smooth
scales; they possess one dorsal fin only, the anterior portion of
which consists of numerous spines. Many wrasses are recognized
by their thick lips, the inside of which is sometimes curiously
folded. The dentition consists of strong conical teeth, of which
some are larger than others. But the principal organs with which
they crush shell-fish, and other hard substances are the solid and
strongly-toothed pharyngeal bones, of which the lower are
coalesced into a single flat triangular plate. All wrasses are
surface fishes. Rocky parts of the coast overgrown with seaweed
are their favourite haunts in the temperate, and coral-reefs in the
tropical seas. Some 450 species of wrasses (including parrot-fish,
q.v.) are known, chiefly from the tropics.
Of the British wrasses the ballan wrasse (Labrus maculatus)
and the striped or red or cook wrasse (L. mixtus) are the most
common. The goldsinny or corkwing (Crenilabrus melops) is
much more frequent on the southern coasts of England and
Ireland than farther north. It rarely exceeds loin, in length. The
commonest American species is the tautog.
WRECK, a term which in its widest sense means anything
without an apparent owner that is afloat upon, sunk in, or cast
ashore by the sea; in legal phraseology, it has a narrower meaning.
Formerly an appreciable source of revenue to the Crown, after-
wards a valuable addition to the income of a landowner on the
sea-coast, wreck has almost within modern times ceased to be a
perquisite of either, or to enrich the casual finder at the expense
of its rightful owner.
History. — The general rule in the civilized maritime countries
of Europe was that the right to wreck belonged to the sovereign,
and formed part of the royal revenue. This was so under the
Roman, French and feudal law; and in England the common law
set out in the statute De praerogativa regis (17 Edw. II., 1324)
provided that the king has wreck of the sea, whales and sturgeons
taken in the sea and elsewhere within the kingdom, except in cer-
tain places privileged by the king. This right, which it is said
had for its object the prevention of the practice of destroying
the property of the shipwrecked, was, however, gradually relaxed;
and the owner of wreck was allowed to recover it if he made
claim to it, and gave proof of his ownership within a certain time
— fixed at a year or a year and a day alike by a decree of Antonine
the Great, the feudal law, the general maritime law, the law of
France and English law. Early in the i5th or at the close
of the i4th century, it became usual for the Crown to grant to
the lord-admiral by his patent of appointment, amongst other
proficua et commoditates appertaining to his office, wreck of the
sea; and when, early in the reign of Henry VIII., vice-admirals
of the coast were created, the lord-admiral by patent under his
own hand delegated to them his rights and duties in the several
counties, including those in connection with wreck. He did not,
however, part with the whole of his emoluments; his vice-admirals
were required to render an account of the proceeds of wreck, and
to hand over to him a part, usually one-half, of their gains. This
system lasted until 1846 when an act (9 & 10 Viet. c. 99) was
passed forbidding the vice-admirals to intermeddle with
wreck, and it required the receivers of droits of admiralty to
receive all wreck from the finders and to detain it for 12 calendar
months; at the end of that period it was to be sold and the
proceeds carried to the credit of the consolidated fund. The
802
WRECK
ancient law by which the unfortunate owner was deprived of his
property, if no living thing escaped from the wreck, had during
the i6th and i?th centuries been gradually but tacitly relaxed;
it required, however, a decision of Lord Mansfield and the king's
bench in 1771 to settle the law definitely that, whether or no any
living creature escaped, the property in a wreck remains in the
owner. In Scotland it seems that the same law had been laid down
in 1725, and there are indications that upon the continent of
Europe there had before this date been a relaxation of the old
law in the same direction. In the i/th century working salvors
established the right to a lien upon property saved as a security
for adequate remuneration of their exertions in saving it; and if
the vice-admirals restored to its owners wreck that had come to
their hands, they did so only upon payment of extravagant de-
mands for salvage, storage, and often legal expenses. Stories of
wilful wrecking of ships and of even more evil deeds are probably
exaggerations, but modern research has authenticated sufficient
abuses to show that further legislation was necessary to regulate
the taking possession of wreck and ships in distress by "sea-
coasters." Previously to the passing of the Act of 1846 the only
substantial protection against plunder which owners of a wrecked
ship could get was to apply to the admiralty judge for a commis-
sion enabling them or their agents to take possession of what came
ashore, but to obtain such a commission took time and cost money,
and before the commissioners arrived at the scene of the wreck a
valuable cargo would have disappeared and been dispersed through
the country. Plunder of wrecks was common, and the crowds that
collected for the purpose set law at defiance. The vice-admirals,
even if they had been able, did little to protect the ship wrecked.
Many of the vice-admirals' accounts of the i7th and following
centuries are extant. Most of them arc for trifling sums, but oc-
casionally the amounts are considerable. At the close of the I7th
century the vice-admirals were required to make affidavits as to
the amount of their gains; in 1709 20 of them swore that their
office was worth less than £50 in the year.
The right of the warden of the Cinque Ports to wreck was de-
rived from charters granted to the ports by Edward I. and his
successors; many other seaports enjoyed a similar right under
early charters. It would seem that these rights were of some
value, for in 1829 the little towns of Dunwich and Southwold
litigated at a cost of £1,000 the question whether a tub of whisky
picked up at sea belonged to the admiralty jurisdiction of the one
town or the other; and the town of Yarmouth is said to have
spent no less than £7,000 upon a similar question. The Municipal
Corporations Act of 1835 put an end to all dealings with wreck
by local admiralty courts, except those of the Cinque Ports.
Grants of wreck to individuals are earlier than those to towns.
Even before the Conquest it seems to have been not unusual for
grantees from the Crown of lands adjoining the sea to get the
franchise of wreck included in their grants. The lords of counties
palatine had wreccuin marts within their areas as part of their
jura regalia, but yet inferior lords might prescribe for wreck be-
longing to their several manors within a county palatine.
From early times a distinction was made in English law be-
tween wreck cast ashore and wreck that is floating or sunken below
low-water mark. Wreck proper, or common Jaw wreck, ejectum
marts , is what is cast by the sea upon the shore; for "nothing shall
be said to be wreccum marts, but such goods as are cast or left
upon the land" (Sir H. Constable's Case, 1599, 5 Rep. 106), and
this belonged to the king jure coronae, and was dealt with by the
common law. Floating and sunken wreck belonged to the Crown
as inter regalia, but was granted to the lord-admiral jure regis.
Even when the office of lord high admiral is in abeyance, and the
duties are performed by commissioners, as now, these rights are
distinguished from the other royal revenues as belonging to the
Crown in its office of admiralty, or, as they are commonly known,
droits (q.v.) of the Admiralty. From early times the lord-admiral
tried to usurp, and there are several instances of his actually
usurping jurisdiction over wreck proper; and in the reign of
Richard II. special statutes (which were only declaratory of the
common law) were passed for the purpose of* confining his
jurisdiction to its proper limits. Droits are flotsam, jetsam, lagan,
derelict. In Lord Coke's words, flotsam is "when a ship sinks or
otherwise perishes, and the goods float on the sea"; jetsam is
"when goods are cast out of a ship to lighten her when in danger
of sinking, and afterwards the ship perishes"; and ligan, or lagan,
is "when heavy goods are, to lighten the ship, cast out and sunk in
the sea tied to a buoy or cork, or something that will not sink, in
order that they may be found again and recovered." Derelict is
a ship or cargo, or part of it, abandoned by its master and crew
sine spe recuperandi et sine animo revertendi. "None of these
goods," adds Coke, "which are so called, are called wreck so long
as they remain in or upon the sea ; but if any of them by the sea
be put upon the land then they shall be said to be wreck" (Sir H.
Constable's Case, 1599, 5 Rep. 106; and 2 Inst. 167). Contrary
to the opinion of Hale, Lord Stowell held that what is found any-
where derelict on the seas is acquired beneficially for the sovereign,
if no owner shall appear. It seems that this was also Coke's view
(2 Inst. 1 68).
The provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, mentioned
below, upon the subject of droits of admiralty are not clear. In
practice the only droits of the admiralty that are commonly
dealt with are anchors that have been slipped or parted from in
heavy weather. In the Downs and other roadsteads these are
"swept" for by creepers towed over the sea bottom, and in
former days sweeping for anchors was a common industry. In
the Downs large sums have been made after gales in this way. In
the 1 7th century it became customary to obtain from the Qrown
grants of the right to fish for sunken wreck and treasure not only
upon English coasts but all over the world.
The method of dealing with wreck outside territorial waters
(which does not come within the scope of the act) is governed by
the previous general law relating to droits of admiralty. The Board
of Trade, and receiver-general, in its instructions to receivers, di-
rects that wreck picked up at sea out of the limits of Great
Britain, or brought to it by British ships, is to be taken possession
of by the receiver and held by him on behalf of the owners, or,
if the owners do not claim it, on behalf of the Crown. Derelict
ships picked up at sea outside territorial limits and brought into
British ports must be delivered to the receiver and kept by him
until the owner can be found (but not longer than a year and a
day). Wreck picked up out of territorial limits by a foreign ship
need not be interfered with by the receiver, unless upon appli-
cation by a party interested.
Although a ship on board which, or by means of which a man
was killed, might be a deodand (q.v.), yet qua wreck she was not
subject to forcfeiture as deodand.
Present British La w^— The Merchant Shipping Act, 1894,
contains the whole of the existing statute law upon the subject
of wreck within the territorial waters of Great Britain, and under
the Sea Fisheries Act, 1883, it applies to fishing boats. For its
purposes wreck includes jetsam, flotsam, lagan and derelict, found
in or on the shores of the sea or any tidal water. The term does
not extend to a barge adrift in the Thames, nor a raft of timber
adrift; it must be the hull, cargo or appurtenances of a vessel.
The provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act dealing with
wreck are of a detailed and administrative character and are
concerned with the duties of the Board of Trade, receivers of
wreck, finders of wreck and other matters. They will be found
in part IX. of the act and are included in ss. 510-537.
The owner of a wrecked ship, sunk by his negligence in a navi«
gable highway, so as to be an obstruction to navigation, if he re-
tains the ownership of her, is liable in damages to the owner of any
other ship which without negligence runs into her, unless he has
taken steps to indicate her position, or the harbour authority at
his request has undertaken to do so. He may, however (whether
the sinking was due to his negligence or not), abandon the ship,
and can thus free himself from any further liability in respect of
her. If he abandons her to any other person — e.g., an under-
writer— who pays for her as for a total loss, that person does not
become liable for her unless he takes possession or control in any
way. Harbour authorities generally have under the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1894, or by local statute, as they have by the
general Harbours, Docks and Piers Clauses Act, 1847 (if incor-
WREN
803
porated in their own act), the power of removing the wreck in
such a case, and recouping themselves for their expenses from its
proceeds. The general act also gives a personal right of action
against the owner for any balance of expense over the value of the
wreck; but if the owner has abandoned it, and no one else has
taken it, neither he nor anyone else is liable. A particular or
local act (as e.g., one of the State of Victoria) may, however,
fasten this liability on the person who is owner at the time when
the ship is wrecked, and then he cannot free himself of it. A
harbour authority is not obliged to remove a wreck because it has
power to do so, unless it takes dues from vessels using the harbour
where the wreck lies, or in some way warrants that the harbour is
safe for navigation, in which case it is under an obligation to do
so. Further statutory provision is now made in this respect by the
Merchant Shipping Act, which empowers harbour authorities to
raise, remove or destroy (and meantime buoy or light), or to
sell and reimburse themselves out of the proceeds of any vessel
or part of a vessel, her tackle, cargo, equipment and stores, sunk,
stranded or abandoned in any water undeV their control, or any
approach thereto, which is an obstruction or danger to navigation
or lifeboat service. They must first give due notice of such in-
tention, and must allow the owner to have the wreck on his pay-
ing the fair market value. The act gives similar powers to light-
house authorities, with a provision that any dispute between a
harbour and lighthouse authority in this respect is to be deter-
mined finally by the Board of Trade.
By an Act of 1896 it is now the duty of the master of a British
ship to report to Lloyd's agent, or to the secretary of Lloyd's,
any floating derelict ship which he may fall in with at sea. By
the Merchant Shipping Convention Act, 1914, a master must on
finding a wreck communicate with the shore. But the operation
of the act was suspended by order in council till Jan. i, 1929. It
will supersede previous acts when it comes into force. Under the
Merchant Shipping Act it is a felony to take wreck found in ter-
ritorial limits to a foreign port, and it is punishable by fine to
interfere with a wreck. The receiver has power, by means of a
search warrant from a justice, to search for wreck which he has
reason to believe is concealed. By the law of Scotland plundering
wreck is punishable at common law; and in England and Ireland
it is a felony to plunder or steal any wreck or part thereof, to de-
stroy any wreck or part thereof, to prevent or impede any person
on board a wreck from saving himself, and to exhibit any false
signal with the intent of endangering any ship, or to do anything
tending to the immediate loss or destruction of a ship for which
no other punishment is provided.
BIBUWJRAPHY. — Du Cange, Glossarium, tit. "Wreckum"; F. Mar-
grave, A Collection of Tracts relative to the Law of England (1787),
which contains "De jure maris," taken from a treatise in manuscript
by Lord Chief Justice Hale; W. Palmer, Law of Wreck (1843);
R, G. Marsdcn, Select Pleas of Admiralty (Seldcn Society, 1892 and
1897) ; Records of the Admiralty and of the High Court of Admiralty
(Public Record Office, London) ; R. Tcmperley, Merchant Shipping
Acts (v}rd ed., 1922) ; Victoria County History, Cornwall, and other
seaboard counties, Board of Trade Instructions as to Wreck and
Salvage. (X.; E. S. R.)
WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1632-17*3), ^glish archi-
tect, the son of a clergyman, was horn at East Knoyle, Wiltshire,
on Oct. 20, 1632; he entered at Wadham College, Oxford, in
1646, took his degree in 1650, and in 1653 was made a fellow
of All Souls. While at Oxford Wren distinguished himself in
geometry and applied mathematics, and Newton, in his Pnndp\ay
p. 19 (ed. of 1713), speaks very highly of his work as a geome-
trician. In 1657 he became professor of astronomy at Gresham
College, and in 1660 was elected Savilian professor of astronomy
at Oxford. It is, however, as an architect that Wren is best known,
and the great fire of London, by its destruction of the cathedral
and nearly all the city churches, gave Wren a unique opportunity.
Just before the fire Wren was asked by Charles II. to prepare
a scheme for the restoration of the old St. Paul's. In May
1666 Wren submitted his report and designs (in the All Souls
collection), for this work; the old cathedral was in a very ruinous
state, and Wren proposed to remodel the greater part, as he said,
"after a good Roman manner,'* and not, "to follow the Gothick
Rudeness of the old Design." According to this scheme only
the old choir was left; the nave and transepts were to be rebuilt
after the classical style, with a lofty dome at the crossing — not
unlike the plan eventually carried out.
In September of the same year (1666) the fire occurred, and
the old St. Paul's was completely gutted. From 1668 to 1670
attempts were being made by the chapter to restore the ruined
building; but Dean Sancroft was anxious to have it wholly
rebuilt, and in 1668 he had asked Wren to prepare a design for a
wholly new church. This first design, the model for which is
preserved in the South Kensington Museum, is very inferior to
what Wren afterwards devised. In plan it is an immense rotunda
surrounded by a wide aisle, and approached by a double portico;
the rotunda is covered with a dome taken from that of the
Pantheon in Rome; on this a second dome stands, set on a lofty
drum, and this second dome is crowned by a tall spire. But the
dean and chapter objected to the absence of a structural choir,
nave and aisles, and wished to follow the mediaeval cathedral
arrangement. Thus, in spite of its having been approved by the
king, this design was happily abandoned — much to Wren's disgust ;
and he prepared another scheme with a similar treatment of a
dome crowned by a spire, which in 1675 was ordered to be carried
out. Wren apparently did not himself approve of this second
design, for he obtained the king's permission to alter it as he
liked, without showing models or drawings to any one, and the
actual building bears little resemblance to the approved design,
to which it is superior in almost every point.
Wren's earlier designs have the exterior of the church arranged
with one order of columns ; the division of the whole height into
two orders was an immense gain in increasing the apparent
scale of the whole, and makes the exterior of St. Paul's very
superior to that of St. Peter's in Rome, which is utterly dwarfed
by the colossal size of the columns and pilasters of its single order.
The present dome and the drum on which it stands, masterpieces
of graceful line and harmonious proportion, were very im-
portant alterations from the earlier scheme. As a scientific
engineer and practical architect Wren was perhaps more remark-
able than as an artistic designer: The construction of the wooden
external dome, and the support of the stone lantern by an inner
cone of brickwork, quite independent of either the external or in-
ternal dome, are wonderful examples of his constructive ingenuity.
The first stone of the new St. Paul's was laid on June 21, 1675;
the choir was opened for use on Dec. 2, 1697; and the last stone
of the cathedral was set in 1710.
Wren also designed a colonnade to enclose a large piazza
forming a clear space round the church, somewhat after the
fashion of Bernini's colonnade in front of St. Peter's, but space
in the city was too valuable to admit of this. Wren was an en-
thusiastic admirer of Bernini's designs, and visited Paris in 1665
in order to see him and his proposed scheme for the rebuilding
of the Louvre. Bernini showed his design to Wren, but would
not let him copy it, though, as he said, he "would have given his
skin" to be allowed to do so.
After the destruction of the city of London Wren was employed
to make designs for rebuilding its fifty burnt churches, and he
also prepared a scheme for laying out the whole city on a new
plan, with a series of wide streets radiating from a central space.
Difficulties arising from the various ownerships of the ground
prevented the accomplishment of this scheme.
Among Wren's city churches the most noteworthy are St.
Michael's, Cornhill; St. Bride's, Fleet Street, and St. Mary-le-
Bow, Cheapside, the latter remarkable for its graceful spire; and
St. Stephen's, Walbrook, with a plain exterior, but very elaborate
and graceful interior. In the design of spires Wren showed much
taste and wonderful power of invention. He was also very
judicious in his expenditure; he did not fritter away his limited
resources in an attempt to make the whole of a building remark-
able, but devoted it chiefly to one part or feature, such as a
spire or a rich scheme of internal decoration. Thus he was in
some cases, as in that of St. James's, Piccadilly, content to make
the exterior of an almost barnlike plainness.
Wren's buildings were very numerous. Among the principal
804
WREN—WRESTLING
ones are:— the Custom House, the Royal Exchange, Marlborough
House, Buckingham House, and the Hall of the College erf
Physicians — now destroyed; others which exist are — at Oxford,
the Sheldonian theatre, the Ashmolean museum, the Tom Tower
of Christ Church, and Queen's College chapel; at Cambridge,
the library of Trinity College and the chapel of Pembroke, the
latter at the cost of Bishop Matthew Wren, his uncle.- The
western towers of Westminster Abbey are usually attributed
to Wren, but they were not carried out till 1735-1 745, many years
after Wren's death, and there is no reason to think that his
design was used. Wren (D.C.L. from 1660) was knighted in
1673, and was elected president of the Royal Society in 1681. He
was in parliament for many years, representing Plympton from
1685, Windsor from 1689, and Weymouth from 1700, He
occupied the post of surveyor of the royal works for fifty years,
but by a shameful cabal was dismissed from this office a few years
before his death. He died on Feb. 26, 1723, and is buried under
the choir of St. Paul's; on a tablet over the inner north doorway
is the well-known epitaph — Si monumentum- reqwris, circum-
spice. At the bi-centenary of his death on Feb. 26, 1923, a memo-
rial service was held in St. Paul's Cathedral.
For further information the reader should consult the Parentalia,
published by Wren's grandson in 1750, an account of the Wren family
and especially of Sir Christopher and his works ; also the two biogra-
phies of Wren by Elmes and Miss Phillimore; Milman, Annals of St.
Paul's (1868) ; and Longman, Three Cathedrals dedicated to St. Paul
in London (1873), pp. 77 seq. See also Clayton, Churches of Sir C.
Wren (1848-1849) ; Taylor, Towers and Steeples of Wren (London,
1881); Nivcn, City Churches (London, 1887), illustrated with fine
etchings; A. H. Mackmurdo, Wren's City Churches (1883) ; A. Strat-
ton, The Life, Work and Influence of Sir Christopher Wren (1897) ;
Lena Milman, Sir Christopher Wren (1908). The proceedings and
publications of the Wren Society, incl. the vol. of drawings (1923) ;
Sir Laurence Weaver K.B.E., Sir Christopher Wren (1923) ^Letters
(Tom Tower) to Fell, Bishop of Oxford (Oxford, 1923) ; and the
bi-centcnnial memorial volume published by the Royal Institute of
British Architects (1923). In the library of All Souls at Oxford are
preserved a large number of drawings by Wren, including the designs
for almost all his chief works, and a fine series showing his various
schemes for St. Paul's Cathedral. (J. H. Mi.)
WREN, the popular name for birds of the Passerine family
Troglodytidae, of which the best known is Troglodytes trogh-
dyteSr the little brown bird with its vigorous song and its short
tail cocked on high, that braves the winter of the British islands,
and even of the European continent, and figures largely in folk-
lore. In St. Kilda, isolation has brought about the evolution of
a distinct sub-species.
The better known forms in the United States are the house-
wren, common in the eastern states but in bad odour for its egg-
eating proclivities ; the winter-wren, remarkable for its resonant
and brilliant song; the Carolina wren, also a fine singer; and the
marsh-wren, besides the cactus-wrens and the canon-wrens of the
western States.
Wrens have the bill slender and arched : their food consists of
insects, larvae and spiders, but they will also take any small crea-
tures, such as worms and snails, and occasionally eat seeds. The
note is shrill. The nest is usually a domed structure of ferns, grass,
moss and leaves, lined with hair or feathers, and from three to nine
eggs are produced, in most of the species white.
The headquarters of the wrens are in tropical America, but they
reach Greenland in the north and the Falkland Islands in the south.
Some genera are confined to the hills of tropical Asia, but Troglo-
dytes, the best known, ranges over North and South America,
Asia and Europe.
The Troglodytidae by no means contain all the birds to which
the name **wren" is applied. Several of the Sylviidae bear it,
especially the beautiful little golden-crested wren (see GOLD-
CREST), and the group forming the genus Phylloscopus (see
WARBLER), habitual summer visitants. The largest P. sibilatrix,
is usually called the wood-wren. The willow-wren P. trochttus, is
in many parts of Great Britain the commonest summer bird, and
is the most generally dispersed. The third species, P. collybitaf
is the chiffchaff.
WRESTLING, a sport in which two persons strive to throw
each other to the ground. It is- one of the most primitive and
universal of sports. Upon the walls of the temple-tombs of Beni
Hasan, near the Nile, are sculptured many hundreds of scenes
from wrestling matches, depicting practically all the "holds" and
"falls" known at the present day, thus proving that wrestling
was a highly developed sport at least 3,000 years before the
Christian era. The description of the bout between Odysseus and
Ajax in the 23rd book of the Iliad, and the evolutions of the
classic Greek wrestlers, tally with the sculptures of Beni Hasan
and Nineveh. The sport, in an organised and scientific form, may
have been introduced into Greece from Egypt or Asia, though
Greek tradition ascribed its invention and original rules to the
legendary hero, Theseus. In Homer's celebrated description of
the match between Ajax and Odysseus the two champions wore
only a girdle, which was, however, not used in the classic GreeH
games. Neither Homer nor Eustathius, who also minutely de-
picted the battle between Ajax and Odysseus, mentions the use
of oil, which, however, was invariably used at the Olympic games,
where wrestling was introduced during the i8th Olympiad (about
704 B.C.). Wrestling contests for boys were added later. The
Greek wrestlers, after the application of the oil, were rubbed with
fine sand, to afford a better hold.
Wrestling was a very important branch of athletics in the Greek
games, since it formed the chief event of the pentathlon, or
quintuple games. (See GAMES, CLASSICAL.) All holds were al-
lowed, even strangling, butting, and kicking. Crushing ^of the
fingers was used, especially in the pancration, a combination of
boxing and wrestling. Wrestlers were taught to be graceful in all
their movements, in accordance with the Greek ideas of aesthetics.
There were two varieties of Greek wrestling, the TT&XTJ 6p0iJ, or
upright wrestling and the 6.\Lvoij0i$ (/c6Xi(m, lucta volutatoria)
which included ground wrestling after the contestants had fallen,
the struggle continuing until one acknowledged defeat. This was
the variety employed in the pancration, and was an "all in"
struggle, no "fouls" being recognised. The upright wrestling was
very similar to the catch-as-catch-can style, though leg holds were
infrequent. In this, three falls out of five decided a contest; a
variation of this style was that in which one of the contestants
stood within a small ring and resisted the efforts of his adversary
to pull or push him out of it. Other local varieties existed in the
different Greek states. The most celebrated wrestler of ancient
times was Milo of Croton (c. 520 B.C.), who scored thirty-two
victories in the different national games, six of them at Olympia.
Greek athletic sports were introduced into Rome in the last
quarter of the 2nd century B.C., but they never attained to the
popularity they had enjoyed in Greece.
Among the Teutonic peoples wrestling, as a method of fighting
as well as a form of athletic recreation, was always practised;
how popular it had become as a sport during the middle ages is
proved by the frequent references to the historic personages
notable for their skill in the art, and still more so by the volumi-
nous literature on the subject which appeared after the invention
of printing, the most celebrated work being the Ringer-Kunst of
Fabian von Auerswald (1539). Albrecht Dtirer made 119 draw-
ings illustrating the different holds and falls in vogue in the isth
and 1 6th centuries; while Romeyn de Hooge provided 71 similar
illustrations for Nicolas Fetter's Worstel-Kunst (1674). The
holds and throws shown singularly resemble those used in the
Greek games, even to certain brutal tricks, practically identical
with grips and locks included in modern Ju-jutsu.
In Switzerland and some of the Tirolese valleys a style of
wrestling flourishes under the name of schwingen (swinging).
The wrestlers wear schwinghosen or wrestling breeches, with
stout belts, on which the holds are taken. Lifting and tripping are
prevalent, and the first man down loses the bout. In Styria
wrestlers stand firmly on both feet with right hands clasped. When
the word is given, each tries to pull or push the other from his
stance, the slightest movement of a foot sufficing to lose. In
Russia, belt wrestling, and in Iceland, the glima, are popular
styles. Both require the wearing of a kind of harness about
the loins and thighs, and otherwise are similar to schwingen. In
the Balkan states, the favourite style is catch-as-catch-can.
The popularity of wrestling has survived in many Asiatic
WRESTLING
PLATK I
WRESTLERS AND WRESTLING HOLDS
1. Stechor starting a scissors hold
2. Stecher applying a figure-four scissors, using pressure with his legs and
pinning opponent's shoulders with his arms
3. Lewis getting out of a head-lock or arm-lock
4. Sonnenberg, winner of the heavyweight championship of the world in
Boston in 1928
5. Lewis using a jack-knife hold
6. Stecher applying a double wrist-lock in standing position
7. Lewis about to use an arm grip shoulder throw
S. A head chancery in standing position
9. Lewis applying his famous head-lock
XXIIT. 804
PLATE II
WRESTLING
•o °
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III
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i
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13 I
OC -£
WRESTLING
805
SOME OF THE HOLDS USED IN WRESTLING
A) Double leg hold, (B) Chancery back heel, (C) Side chancery, (D) Cross buttock and waist hold, (E) Near leg hold and arm lock, (F) Waist lock secured
rom rear and breaking the hold, (G) Ready to secure fall with waist hold secured from front, (H) Fall imminent from waist lock, (J) Leg hold and inside
•ack-heel, (K) Half Nelson and further leg hold, (L) Referee's hold, (M) Full Nelson, (N) Three-quarter Nelson, (0) Quarter Nelson, (P) Half Nelson
8o6
WRESTLING
countries, particularly in Japan, where the first match recorded
took place in 23 B.C., the victor being Sukune, who has ever since
been regarded as the tutelary deity of wrestlers. In the 8th
century the emperor Shomu made wrestling one of the features
of the annual harvest "Festival of the Five Grains/' the victor
being appointed official referee and presented with a fan bearing
the legend, "Prince of Lions." In 858 the throne of Japan was
wrestled for by the two sons of the emperor Buntoku, and the
victor, Koreshito, succeeded his father under the name of Seiwa.
Imperial patronage of wrestling ceased in 1175, after the war
which resulted in the establishment of the shogunate, but con-
tinued to be a part of the training of the samurai or military
caste. About 1600, professional wrestling again rose to impor-
tance, the best men being in the employ of the great dainties or
feudal nobles. It was, nevertheless, still kept up by the samurai,
and eventually developed into two separate systems, the national
style called Sumo, and that peculiar and scientific combination of
wrestling and sell -defence known as ju jutsu (q.v.), the purpose
of which is to disable an adversary. The national championships
were re-established in 1624, when the celebrated Shiganosuke
won the honour, and have continued to the present day. The Jap-
anese (Sumo) wrestlers place great reliance upon weight, some of
the champions scaling 300 Ib. and upwards; and as a result of
highly specialised methods of physical training, they are generally
of huge bulk and great strength, although surprisingly light on
their feet. They form a guild which is divided into several ranks,
the highest being composed of the joshiyori, or elders, in whose
hands the superintendence of the wrestling schools and tourna-
ments lies. The badges of the three highest ranks are damask
aprons richly embroidered. The wrestling takes place within a
ring 1 2 ft. in diameter, the wrestlers being naked but for a loin
cloth; and each contest is preceded by certain preliminaries of a
quasi-religious significance. At the command of the referee the
wrestlers crouch with their hands on the ground and watch for an
opening. The contests are usually of brief duration. The method
is very similar to that of the modern catch-as-catch-can style,
except that touching the ground with any part of the person, the
feet excepted, after the first hold has been taken, loses the bout.
To step or be forced outside the actual wrestling circle is equiva-
lent to losing a fall.
Indian wrestling resembles that of Japan in the great size of
its champions and the number and subtlety of its attacks, called
penches. It is of the "loose" order, the men facing each other
nude, except for a loin-cloth, called chaddi, and manoeuvring
warily for a hold. Both shoulders placed on the ground simul-
taneously constitute a fall, which is seldom gained without much
ground wrestling. It is highly scientific, though including many
tricks that Western rules exclude as "fouls."
In Great Britain wrestling was cultivated at a very early age,
both Saxons and Celts having always been addicted to it, with the
men of Cornwall always holding a special eminence ; and English
literature is full of references to the sport. On St. James's and
St. Bartholomew's days special matches took place throughout
England, those in London being held in St. Giles's field, whence
they were afterwards transferred to Clerkenwell. The Lord
Mayor and his sheriffs were often present on these occasions, but
the frequent brawls amongst the spectators eventually brought
these public matches into disrepute. English monarchs have not
disdained to patronise the sport, and Henry VIII. is known to
have been a powerful wrestler.
Cumberland Style.— This style prevails chiefly in the
north of England (except south Lancashire) and in the south of
Scotland. In this the wrestlers stand chest to chest, each grasping
the other with locked hands round the body, his chin on the
other's right shoulder. The right arm is below and the left above
the adversary's. When the hold has been firmly taken the umpire
gives the word and the bout proceeds until one man touches the
ground with any part of his person except his feet, or he fails
to retain his hold, in either of which cases he loses. If both fall
together, the one who is underneath, or first touches the ground,
loses. If both fall simultaneously side by side, it is a "dog-fall,"
and the bout begins anew. The different manoeuvres used to
throw the adversary are called "chips," the most important
being the "back-heel," in which a wrestler gets a heel behind his
opponent's opposite heel, from the outside, and forces him over
backwards; the "outside stroke," in which, after a sudden twist
of his body to one side, the opponent is struck with the edge of
the opposite foot on the outside of the ankle; the "hank," or
locking a leg and lifting the opponent with a sudden turn to the
right, so that both fall together, but with the opponent
underneath; the "inside click," the locking of an opposite leg
applied after jerking the opponent forward, the pressure then
being straight back; the "outside click," a back-heel applied by the
defender as he is on the point of being lifted from the ground — it
prevents this and often results in oversetting the opponent; the
"cross-buttock," executed by turning the left hip under the
opponent's body, throwing the leg across both his and striking
backwards,, while partially lifting and throwing him forward; the
"buttock," in which the hip is thrust still further under the
opponent, who by the action of the arms is thrown right over
one's back; the "hipe" or "hype," executed by lifting the opponent
off his feet, and while Carrying him to the right or left, placing the
opposite knee under one of his legs and raising it as high as possi-
ble before throwing him sideways to the ground; the "swinging
hype," in which the opponent is lifted and swung nearly or quite
round before the knee stroke is made; and the "breast stroke,"
which is a sudden powerful twist, first to one side, then the other,
followed by a throw. There is but a single "foul" — direct kicking.
West Country Style.— In the Cornwall and Devon or <7West
Country" style the wrestlers wear stout, loose canvas jackets, the
hold being anywhere above the waist or by any part of the jacket,
though any manipulation of the jacket collar to strangle an oppo-
nent is forbidden. A fall is gained when both hips and a shoulder,
or both shoulders and a hip (three points), touch the ground
simultaneously. A throw that does not secure a fall is a "hitch."
Ground wrestling is forbidden, and a man, when he feels himself
falling, will try to turn and land on his side or chest. Many of
the "chips" used by Cumberland and Westmorland wrestlers are
possible in this style, with slight differences of execution required
by the different method of taking hold and under other names —
"forehip" (cross-buttock); "inside lock" (hank), etc. More dis-
tinctive throws are the "heave," and the "flying mare," a chip of
universal use in which the opponent's wrist is grasped with the
opposite hand, the upper part of the same arm by the other hand,
the back turned and the captured limb drawn across a shoulder,
over which the opponent is vigorously shot forward. Until com-
paratively recently there was a difference between the styles of
Cornwall and Devon, the wrestlers of the latter county having
worn heavily soled shoes, with which it was legitimate to kick
the adversary's shins.
Catch-as-catch-can.— The Lancashire style, generally known
as "catch-as-catch-can," is practised in Lancashire, throughout
Great Britain generally, and is the most popular style in the United
States, Canada, Australia, Switzerland and some other countries.
It is the legitimate descendant of the ancient Greek upright
wrestling combined with ground struggling, but minus the "all-in"
freedom the Greeks permitted, and undoubtedly is representative
of the wrestling of the middle ages. A fall is gained when both
shoulders of one wrestler touch the ground together, and
very seldom are falls registered from standing throws. This neces-
sitates most contests being completed while struggling on the
ground or mat. Much of this ground work is admittedly very
skilful. No kicking, striking, or other foul practices are permitted,
but theoretically every hold is legitimate. Exceptions are made of
strangle holds or others designed to cut off an opponent's breath-
ing, also grips or forms of attack causing acute pain or intended
to iforce the defender to roll on his shoulders to avoid injury by
dislocation or fracture. The style contains practically all the
manoeuvres known to other methods with many peculiar to itself ;
and because of its freedom and opportunity for the display of
strategy, skill, and strength, is, when upstanding wrestling and
tripping — the very essence of wrestling — are not neglected, the
most preferable.
In Scotland a combination of the Cumberland and Westmor-
WREXHAM— WRIGHT
807
land and catch-as-catch-can styles is sometimes practised, the
contest commencing in the first named style and continued on
the ground if a direct fall on both shoulders does not result from a
throw.
In Ireland, the national style is called "collar and elbow" (prac-
tised in America also), from the holds taken by the two hands,
and first down, any part (in America, any three points) is loser.
Graeco-Roman Style.— -The style chiefly affected by the conti-
nental European wrestlers is the Graeco-Roman (so-called, though
it bears almost no resemblance to classic wrestling), which arose
about 1860, and is a product of the French wrestling schools. It is
a very restricted style, neither tripping nor any hold below the hips
being allowed, the result being that the bouts consist chiefly of
ground struggling. When no time limit is enforced, contests are
usually tediously long. British and American wrestlers, accus-
tomed to their own freer styles, seldom compete under Graeco-
Roman rules. These, however, of late years have been revised
by the governing body of international wrestling, the International
Amateur Wrestling Federation (inaugurated 1921), with the re-
sult that the character and quality of this style of wrestling have
greatly altered and improved. The pre-eminence that French
wrestlers formerly held has been transferred to the Scandi-
navian countries. The Finnish wrestlers show a marked advance.
Finland shared with Sweden the wrestling championships at the
Olympic games of 1912, held at Stockholm, repeated the success
at Antwerp in 1920, and won four of the six weights at Paris,
in 1924. The Swedes, Hungarians and Germans are also formi-
dable exponents of this style, the last named taking the chief
honours at Amsterdam in 1928.
Wrestling in the Olympic Games. — The popularity of
wrestling as an amateur sport has received a considerable develop-
ment through the institution, of the modern Olympic games, as is
proved by the increase in the number of nations entering com-
petitors at this quadrennial athletic festival. In 1908, when the
games were held in London, 15 nations were represented (Grae-
co-Roman and catch-as-catch-can styles) ; at the games of 1924,
25 countries sent competitors. In 1914, the permanent inclusion
of catch-as-catch-can (free style) wrestling in the standard pro-
gramme was secured by Great Britain, and since then this style
has made great progress, the nations entering for these compe-
titions in 1924 numbering n as compared with the five at the
games of 1908; with an increase to 15 for the games of 1928 at
Amsterdam. In 1924, Japan, Turkey, and Egypt were represented
for the first time, with results indicating that the Western styles
of wrestling are being well studied throughout the East. The
International Amateur Wrestling Federation has fixed the number
of championship weights at seven for the catch-as-catch-can style
and six for the Graeco-Roman. Under authority of the I.A.W.F.,
European (amateur) championships in both styles have been
instituted and are decided annually (except in the year when an
Olympiad takes place); and numerous international matches are
disputed every year, leading to a higher development of the sport
and a marked increase in public interest, which will be yet
further extended if the proposal to bring the two styles within
one code of rules is carried into effect.
In Great Britain, apart from the professional tournaments or-
ganised by local associations in, the northern and western counties,
it seems probable the sport would have disappeared altogether
.but for the exertions of the National Amateur Wrestling Associa-
tion. This organisation has kept the sport alive by the promotion
(the years of the World War excepted) of annual championships
at various weights in the Cumberland and Westmorland and
catch-as-catch-can styles.
BiBLiocRAPiiY. — H. Leonard, Handbook of Wrestling (1897); W.
Armstrong, Wrestling (1904) ; G. Bothner, Scientific Wrestling (1912) ;
Cann & Hastings, Manual a] Wrestling (1912) ; P. Longhursti,
Wrestling (1917) ; Gangadharrao Ganesh Patwardhan, Science of
Wrestling (1927). (X.; P. L.)
THE UNITED STATES
Wrestling in America is considered second in importance to
boxing in the category of sports of a bodily combat nature.
Although professional wrestlers attract greater audiences than
amateurs, the participation of college and athletic club per-
formers has perhaps brought the sport into more popular favour.
In professional contests, as with amateurs, the catch-as-catch-can
style of wrestling is preferred to the Graeco-Roman style.
Among the heavyweight stars, Frank Gotch is considered the
peer of all time because of the science he imparted to the
game. As undisputed world's champion he successfully defended
his tjtle before the onslaught of Hackenschmidt in 1908; Mah-
mont, the Turk, in 1911; Hackenschmidt again in 1912; and
numerous other contests, after which he retired undefeated. In
the following years -there were many so-called championship
matches, but none of the contestants won a clear title to a world's
championship. Ben. F. Roller of Seattle won the American Cham-
pionship in 1912 by defeating C. Cutler of Chicago, after the
latter had beaten Ordeman in Minneapolis. After Americus had
defeated Beel, Roller won from Americus at Springfield in 1913.
Ed. ("Strangler") Lewis defeated Roller in New York in 1915 and
Earl Caddock in 1921. Munn beat Lewis in Kansas City in 1923;
Stanislaus Zbyszko defeated Munn in Philadelphia in 1924; Joe
Stecher beat Zbyszko in 1925; Lewis defeated Stecher in 1928;
Gus Sonnenberg defeated Lewis in Boston in 1929, winning the
world's championship.
Some of the most remarkable performances on the wrestling
mat were exhibited by Roller when he and Frank Gotch met all
comers during a four months' tour from New York to Los Angejes
and return in 1910. Roller, though 50 years old, wrestled 191 men
in all, defeating each in less than 15 min., winning the stake of $250
offered for each contest.
Among the lightweights, George Bothner has often been ac-
claimed the greatest in the world. He performed during 1899-
1918, defeating such top-notchcrs as Tom Riley, of England,
holder of the Lonsdale belt, in 1899; Jack Harvey in 1901; Ed.
O'Connell in 1903; Higashi, the Japanese, in 1905; Will Bingham,
champion of England, in 1907; Pierre Colosse, the 39O-lb. cham-
pion of France, in 1915; and others.
The National Collegiate Association controls amateur wrestling
in the colleges, a set of rules being formulated by H. R. Reiter,
Lehigh university, chairman of the rules committee. Amateur
wrestling is under the jurisdiction of the Amateur Athletic Union
of the United States and all bouts are contested under its rules.
Besides various sectional, State and city championships, held
annually, wrestling meets are staged by the New York A.C.;
Penn. A.C.; Illinois A.C.; and others, as well as by Y.M.C.A.'s,
turnvereins and numerous athletic and civic organizations in all
parts of the United States. (J. B. P.)
WREXHAM (Welsh Gwrecsam, in the Anglo-Saxon Chron-
icle Wrightesham) , a market town and municipal borough of
Denbighshire, North Wales, 12 m. S.W. of Chester, with stations
on the G.W.R. & L.N.E.R. Pop. (1921) 18,703. Wrightesham was
of Saxon origin, and lying east of Offa's Dyke, was yet reckoned in
Mercia. It was given (with Bromfield and Yale, or Idl) by
Edward I. to Earl Warenne. St. Giles's church is of the I4th,
1 5th and i6th centuries, with a panelled tower; the interior is
Decorated. Wrexham is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop
of Menevia, whose diocese includes all Wales except Glamorgan-
shire. With the development of the North Wales coalfield in the
1 9th century Wrexham grew in importance and has interests in
the by-product industries.
WRIGHT, SIR ALMROTH EDWARD (1861- ),
British bacteriologist, was born at Middleton Tyas, Yorks., on
Aug. 10, 1 86 1. He was educated at Dublin university, subse-
quently obtaining his scientific and medical training at the Uni-
versities of Leipzig, Strasbourg and Marburg. In 1887 he became
a demonstrator of pathology at Cambridge, in 1889 a lecturer in
physiology at Sydney, and from 1892 to 1902 professor at the
army medical school at Netley, being then appointed professor of
experimental pathology in the University of London. He was in
addition principal of the institute of pathology and research at
St. Mary's hospital. He was knighted and elected F.R.S. in 1906.
Sir Alraroth Wright became prominent by his researches in
parasitic diseases. He introduced anti-typhoid inoculation and did
much valuable work on the preparation of other vaccines and
8o8
WRIGHT
toxins. He carried out many important experiments in bacterial
infection and in measuring the protective matter of human blood.
He acted as consulting physician to the army in France from
1914-1919 and was in 1919 created K.B.E. He was a member
of many learned societies and received numerous British and
foreign awards and honours including the gold medal of the Royal
Society of Medicine in 1920. He published a short treatise on
Anti-Typhoid Inoculation (1904), Principles of Microscopy
(1906) and Studies in Immunisation (1909) besides many papers.
In 1913 appeared The Vnexpur gated Case against Woman Suffrage
which provoked much discussion. (See HUMANITY.)
WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON (1840-1909), Amer-
ican statistician, was born at Dunbarton, N.H., on July 25, 1840.
Paying his way by teaching, he became a lawyer although his
studies were interrupted by service in the Civil War, in which he
advanced from private to colonel and assistant adjutant-general
in the Shenandoah valley campaign. In 1872-73 he served in the
senate of Massachusetts, and from 1873 to 1888 he was chief of
the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labour. He was U.S.
commissioner of labour from 1885 to 1905. Avoiding polemics,
he directed the energies of the national bureau into investigation
of the economic conditions surrounding labour and study of the
methods for promoting the welfare and uplift of the working
classes. He was a persistent advocate of the principle of collec-
tive bargaining and of the sliding-scale method of wage adjust-
ment. In 1902 he was chosen president of Clark college,
Worcester, Mass., where he was also professor of statistics and
social economics from 1904 until his death on Feb. 20, 1909.
Among his works of general interest are The Industrial Evolution
of the United States (1895), Outline of Practical Sociology
(1899), Some Ethical Phases of the Labor Question (1902) and
The Battles of Labor (1906).
See the article on him by S. N. D. North (Amer. Statist. Assoc.,
Pub.t new ser. 86, 1909) and the bibliography {ibid., 87, Sept., 1909).
WRIGHT, ORVILLE (1871- ), American inventor, was
born at Dayton, Ohio, on Aug. 19, 1871. He early became asso-
ciated with his brother, Wilbur (q.v.). in the bicycle repair busi-
ness, and from the first shared his interest in mechanical flight.
Shop experiments led to the development of a power driven
heavicr-than-air machine which was piloted by Orville Wright on
its first successful flight made on Dec. 17, 1903 at Kitty Hawk,
N.C. Further experiments led to the development of an aeroplane
which established a new record on Sept. 12, 1908 by remaining
in the air one hour and 15 minutes. An accident on Sept. 17
terminated his experiments for that year but on July 27 and 30,
1909, his demonstrations at Ft. Meyer, Va., satisfied the tests, and
secured the acceptance of his machine by the U.S. Government.
Numerous demonstrations made in Europe during 1908 and 1909
caused many honours to be bestowed on the two brothers. In
Dec. 1928, the 25th anniversary of the first successful flight was
celebrated at Kitty Hawk.
WRIGHT, SILAS (i7Q5-i 847), American political leader,
was born at Amherst, Mass., on May 24, 1795. He graduated at
Middlebury college, Vermont, in 1815, was admitted to the bar in
1819, and began practice at Canton, in northern New York. He
was appointed surrogate of St. Lawrence county in 1820, and was
successively a member of the state Senate in 1824-26, a member
of the national House of Representatives in 1827-29, comptroller
of the state in 1829-33, U.S. senator in 1833-44, ami governor of
New York in 1844-46. During his public life he had become a
leader of the Democratic party in New York, Martin Van Buren
being his closest associate. He was an influential member of the
so-called "Albany regency,'* a group of Democrats in New York,
including such men as J. A. Dix and W. L. Marcy, who for many
years virtually controlled their party within the state. He died
at Canton on Aug. 27, 1847.
The best biography is that by J. D. Hammond, Life and Times of
Silas Wright (Syracuse, N.Y., 1848), which was republishecl as vol.
iii. of that author's Political History of New York.
WRIGHT, WILBUR (1867-1912), American inventor, son
of Milton and Susan Catharine (Koerner) Wright, was born near
Millville, Ind., on April 16, 1867. When Wilbur Wright was one
month old his father was elected editor of the official organ of
the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, necessitating moving
his family to Dayton, 0.; and eight years later he was elected a
bishop of that denomination requiring other changes of residence.
As a result Wilbur Wright received his education in the public
schools of Dayton, Ohio, Richmond, Indiana, and Cedar Rapids,
Iowa. Just when he was expecting to enter college, an accident,
while playing in a game of ice hockey, disabled him for some
sij| or eight years for active work. These years of poor health he
devoted to the care of his invalid mother and to assisting his
father in legal matters connected with the church. In 1890 he
joined his brother, Orville, who was publishing a small weekly
newspaper.
Experiments in Gliding. — Reading of the experiments of
Otto Lilienthal in Germany, Wilbur and his brother became
intensely interested in gliding as a sport. Lilienthal's experiments
were suddenly ended in 1896 by his death, resulting from an
accident due to insufficient control of the equilibrium of his
glider. Lilienthal had balanced his machine by shifting the weight
of his body. The brothers, believing this method incapable of
expansion to meet the requirements of flight, set about to develop
a more effective system. They developed a system in which the
centre of gravity remained constant and the equilibrium was
maintained by varying the air pressures on different parts of the
machine through adjustments of the angles of the wings and
auxiliary surfaces. This system, patented by them, is now^gen-
erally known as aileron control.
Although Wilbur and his brother had taken up aeronautics
merely as a sport, their chief interest soon turned to its more
scientific aspects. Having found in their experiments that the
existing scientific data was almost altogether untrustworthy, they
cast it all aside and began investigations of their own, using
methods which avoided many of the errors in the work of their
predecessors. In 1901 they set up a small wind tunnel in their
work-shop at Dayton in which they made measurements of the
lift and drag of a great number of different-shaped aerofoils at
angles from zero to 45 degrees. The results derived from this
tunnel so stimulated their interest that often they worked into
the early hours of the morning. Measurements also were made to
determine the position of the centre of pressure on cambered
surfaces and to determine the effect on the lift and drag when
one surface was placed above another or when one surface fol-
lowed another.
The First Motor-driven Aeroplane. — With this mass of
data in their possession they thought it now possible to predict
from calculation the performance of a flying machine; they
thought they could design a machine which would require not
over one-half to one-fourth of the power that would have been
necessary for any of the earlier proposed machines. Accordingly
in Oct. 1902, they began the design of a motor-driven aeroplane.
When completed the machine including the pilot weighed 750 Ib.
and was propelled by a four cylinder petrol motor of 12 horse
power. Tested at Kitty Hawk, N.C., on Dec. 17, 1903, the ma-
chine carrying a man made four sustained free flights. The longest
of these, had a duration of 59 seconds and a speed of 30 m. an
hour. This machine is now exhibited in the Science museum at
South Kensington, London.
Experiments were continued in 1904, but it was not until Sept.
1905, that they learned "to avoid the "tail-spin" in making short
turns. The flights then rapidly increased in length, and on Oct.
5 Wilbur Wright flew for 38 min. over a small circular course
covering a distance of 24 miles. Believing the machine now to be
developed to a stage of practical usefulness, the Wrights spent
several years in finding a market for the invention. Wilbur
Wright went to Europe in 1908 to make the tests required in the
sale of the French rights to a syndicate. While there, his flights
at Le Mans and Pau, France and at Rome, attracted world-wide
attention and the kings of England, Spain and Italy went to see
them. In recognition of his pioneer work he received many
honours and medals in European countries and in America.
During the last three years of his life he served as president of
the Wright Company, which had taken over the patent rights for
WRIST— WRIT
809
America. Much of this time he devoted to upholding the Wright
aeroplane patents in law courts of America and Europe. He died
of typhoid fever at Dayton, 0., on May 30, 1912. (0, W.)
WRIST, in anatomy, the carpus or carpal articulation in
man, the joint by which the hand is articulated with the fore-
arm (see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic; and SKELETON:
Appendicular).
WRIT, in law, is a species of formal order from the Crown or
a delegated officer to an inferior officer or to a private person, en-
joining some act or omission. The word represents the Latin
brevis or breve (sometimes Englished into "brief" in the older
authorities), so called from its "shortly" expressing the intention
of the framer (quia breviter et panels verbis intentionem pro-
jerentis cxponit}.
History. — The writ in English law still occupies a very im-
portant position, which can scarcely be understood without a
sketch of its history. The whole theory of pleading depended in
the last resort upon the writ, the plaintiff's claim simply expanding
its terms. f
The breve can be traced back as far as Paulus (about A.D. 220),
who wrote a work Ad edictum de brevibtis, cited in the Vatican
Fragments, § 310. In the Corpus iuris the word generally means
a note-book or list. The interdict um of Roman law sometimes
represents the writ of English law; e.g., there is considerable like-
ness between the Roman interdictum de libero homine exhibendo
and the English writs, of habeas corpus and de homine replegiando.
From Roman law the breve passed into the Liber feudorum and
the canon law, in both in a sense differing from that at present
borne by the writ of English law. The breve testatum of the
Liber feudorum was an instrument in writing evidencing the
transfer of land.
The breve testatum in England developed into the deed of
grant; in Scotland into the charter, and later into the disposition.
In canon law breve or brevilegium denoted a letter from the pope,
sealed with the seal of the fisherman and less formal than a hull.
In old English ecclesiastical law a. brief — still named in one of
the rubrics of the Book of Common Prayer — meant letters patent
to church-wardens or other officers for the collection of alms.
(For counsel's brief see BRIEF.)
The origin of the writ is disputed, but its development was
clearly influenced by both Anglo-Saxon and Norman law before
the Conquest. The Anglo-Saxon contribution appears in the shape
of diffuse royal charters, which were used to express the king's
commands or wishes. Next, the form of these charters was infected
by royal letters employed primarily for the publication of new
laws, which were communicated by such letters to the shire-moots
and, presumably, to the hundred-moots and important persons.
These documents, cross-bred between charter and writ, show
progress, but fall far short of the pure writ, which was concise,
secular, practical and implicit with power. Writ-charters similar
to those in England existed in Normandy before the Conquest.
After that event, the chancery, or royal office which in England
framed the king's orders, had some counterpart in Normandy,
which did the like. The exact stages by which the writ disembar-
rassed itself of the charter clement are not certain, but at any rate
the process was a rapid one. The distinction between the two is
known to have existed as early as 1071. The growth of a more
robust Central Government hastened the separation, and in
Glanvill's book (1187-89) not only are many writs included, but
the idea has become so common that the author does not take
the trouble to explain it. The writ, as thus developed, was of
supreme importance in the growth of law and government. From
the latter part of the i^th century to the early i8th century, if
a man had no legal remedy he had no legal right. Without a writ
he could not, in general, begin an action, and if there were no
writ that covered his complaint he had no remedy. Nor was the
writ confined to the initiation of litigation. It was also a machine
for hosts of executive acts which never passed to the law courts
at all. The chancery from which writs were issued was styled
officina brevium, or "writ-shop." Writs had to be paid for, though
occasionally poor men might get them free. Nor did Magna
Carta c. 40, make any difference in this respect, except to forbid
prohibitive charges for writs in common form ("de cursu," or "of
course").
Collections of writs were made at an early period. They were
entitled Registra Brtvium, and the oldest one extant is dated
1227. These collections were unofficial, though of course the
writs embodied in them originated in the chancery. For three
centuries Registrum Brevium continuously multiplied in copies
and swelled in bulk. The mss. of it are at present beyond computa-
tion. Their number and increasing length testify to the industry
of the chancery and to the striking import of the writ as one of
the modes of keeping law and government reasonably abreast
of the needs of the community. Re gist-rum Brevium was first
printed in 1531. After that it practically ceased to grow, for it
was being outgrown by the law itself, which needed something
more elastic.
The chief reason why the writ fell into the background as an
agency in the growth of our law is that the centre of gravity in
legal procedure shifted from the writ to the plaintiff's written
"declaration," which specified the details of his claim. It was
this rather than the writ which came to determine the form of
action. The correct form of action was vital to success in litiga-
tion. If the plaintiff chose the wrong one, he was, in general,
without a remedy. True, a selection of the wrong writ was, even
till the i gth century, equally disastrous, but then, in most cases,
it had ceased to be compulsory on a plaintiff to begin his action
by an original writ, though its existence was always assumed.
There were many other ways in which litigation could be begun,
and there is reason to think that they were usually preferred to
the original writ, which was neither cheap nor convenient. The
transference of energy from the writ to the declaration was a
gradual process. So long as the pleadings in an action were oral,
the writ must of necessity have attracted to itself all the weight
which the written word carries as against the spoken word. But
by degrees litigants adopted the practice of exchanging written
pleadings. This was well recognized in the i6th and 1 7th centuries,
though the seeds of it are traceable some time before. The multi-
plicity of writs and of other devices for commencing a common
law action was remedied with respect to personal actions by the
Uniformity of Process in Personal Actions Act, 1832 (2 Will. IV.
c. 39), which substituted for these methods a simple, uniform,
writ of summons. Further amendments were made in 1833, by 3
and 4 Will. IV. c. 27, s. 36, which abolished writs in real actions
with the exception of those relating to dower, quare impedit, and
ejectment, and by 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42, in connection with the
writs of debt and of detinue. The Common Law Procedure Act,
1852, s. 3, dispensed with the need of mentioning any form of
action in the writ on a personal action, and the Judicature Acts,
1873-75, contain the complete remodelling of procedure under
which English civil law is administered in the Supreme Court
of Judicature. The Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, made in
pursuance of this legislation, now require every action in the
High Court to be commenced by a writ of summons, indorsed
with a statement of the nature of the claim made, or of the relief
or remedy required in the action. The writ, therefore, nowadays
differs considerably in form from its ancient predecessor. And
an equally striking distinction is to be found in its much narrower
scope as compared with the writs Of Registrum Brevium. They
dealt with almost every conceivable matter of executive govern-
ment as well as with legal procedure. But now the province of
writs has shrunk to the institution of litigation except in the
realm of constitutional law, where writs still issue for the election
of members to the House of Commons and for the attendance
of individual members in the House of Lords. Elsewhere, more
convenient methods of expressing the will of the executive have
ousted the writ ; such are Orders in Council, Royal Proclamations,
Letters Patent, and regulations made by Government departments.
The writ, though issuing from the king's chancery, did not,
where it was concerned with litigation, necessarily direct the trial
of the question in the king's court. In whatever court it was
returnable, it frequently called in the aid of the sheriff as executive
officer. In such cases, it was either addressed to him or, if
addressed to the party alleged to be in default, it concluded with
8io
WRIT
a threat of constraint by the sheriff in the event of disobedience,
generally in these terms, et, nisi feceris, vicecomes de N, faciat
nc amplius damorem audiamus pro dejectu iustitiae. If the writ
was returnable in the county court or the lord's court, the
sheriff or the lord sat as the deputy of the king, not by virtue
of his inherent jurisdiction. The writ was not necessary for the
initiation of proceedings there or before the justices in eyre.
There are several divisions of writs (excluding those purely
financial and political), the most important being that into original
and judicial, the former (tested in the name of the king) issued
to bring a suit before the proper court, the latter (tested in the
name of a judge) issued during the progress of a suit or to enforce
judgment. The nature of a third class, magistralia, is an unsolved
puzzle. Bracton regarded them as writs which were capable of
variation in order to meet the plaintiff's grievance; Coke con-
sidered them to be a variety of original writs which generated
actions upon the case. Possibly the later writers attached more
technicality to Bracton's expressions than they were meant to
bear, and in any event the use of magistralia for purposes of
classification was of little import by the time that Registrum
Brevium was printed, for the primary division there is only
twofold, original and judicial.
No ms. register known to the author of this article contains
even this twofold division. Coke and other authorities mention
numerous other divisions, but those which have been named appear
to be the principal, of writs.
Writi of Historical Interest. — A great number of the older
writs are now obsolete. The details relating to them can be found
in the printed Registrum Brevium and in Sir Anthony Fitz-
herbert's "New Natura Brevium," a work of the highest authority
which ran into 18 editions, or reprints, between 1534 and 1794.
Some of these ancient writs had such a great influence on the
history of English law that they need brief descriptions here. The
prerogative writs are treated in the paragraph on "Writs at the
present day"; historically they had a large share in securing the
administration of justice, and the personal freedom of the subject.
In the domain of private law, the writ of right (breve de recto)
was styled by Fitzherbert "the highest writ in law," and Registra
Brevium invariably commence with it. It was employed for the
recovery of real estate. The principle that no man need answer
for his freehold without a royal writ was laid down in Henry II. 's
reign. This compelled everyone who demanded freehold land
from another person to obtain a writ, in effect the writ of right,
if he were asserting title to the land. The insistence on the
writ of right had political significance, for it furthered the
centralization of justice. The procedure upon it became intolerably
clumsy and tedious, and the possessory assizes, or actions which
determined the question of possession (a matter which, for
practical purposes, generally settled the dispute between the
parties) became much more popular. They are also attributable
to Henry II. and were speedy and deft in operation. The writ
of right was "much out of use," even in Sir Matthew Kale's time
(1609-1676) and, except in connection with dower, was abolished
in 1833. The Writ de nativo habcndo is of interest in English social
and economic history. If a nativus or serf ran away from his
master, he could be reclaimed by this writ, which bade the
sheriff deliver to the claimant his nativus, unless he had taken
refuge on the royal demesne. An assertion of freedom by the
person thus claimed excluded the sheriff's power, and the question
of liberty was settled by a writ de libertate probanda triable by
the king's justices. The writ qnare eiecit infra terminum, intro-
duced about 1237, was 'for the benefit of the termor, or tenant
of land for years, to whom the writ of right and other real actions
were not available because his holding was not a freehold. In-
deed, his holding was regarded as no more than a matter of
contract between him and the lessor, and he was not protected
against third parties at all. This writ enabled him to recover the
land from any person who ejected him, at least if that person
claimed under the lessor. No writ had wider effect than the writ
of trespass. In origin, the word "trespass" covered nearly every
wrongful act or default, whether it be what we should now call a
crime or a tort. In that sense, it is traceable as early as John's
reign, but the writ of trespass did not become a writ "of course"
until the latter part of Henry III.'s reign, just after the conclusion
of the Barons' war. Very likely it was one of the agencies in clear-
ing up the litter of disorder left by civil strife. The action which
the writ of trespass vi et armis originated was quasi-criminal. It
was aimed at serious and forcible breaches of the king's peace.
Though it was begun by the injured individual, it ended in the pun-
ishment of the defendant as well as in compensation to the
plaintiff. It was more popular than the "appeal of felony" because
the same precision in pleading was not required and the trial was
not by the detested method of battle. Its scope was also wider,
and damages were obtainable. Later, trespass developed on one
side into misdemeanours (now one branch of criminal Jaw) and on
the other into the law of torts, or civil injuries. In the i4th and
1 5th centuries, statutes often fixed the action of trespass as an
appropriate remedy for the offences created by them, because
criminal "appeals" were falling into disuse, there was no organized
police, the judges were often corrupt, except in the central courts,
and were not always pure even there. The three chief kinds of
the writ of trespass vi et armis, were for assault and battery, for
injury to land (qnare clausum fregit), and for taking away goods
(de bonis asportatis). The writ could therefore be employed by
any landholder for the recovery of damages clone to his possession,
but not, at first, for the recovery of possession itself. This ex-
tension was not recognized till the middle of the isth century,
and it resulted in the writ of trespass, de cjectione firmae, wjiich
appears first as a remedy enabling the termor, or lessee for years,
to sue anyone who had ejected him, whether his lessor or another
person, and then becomes the best remedy of the ejected free-
holder. He borrowed this "action of ejectment" from the termor,
because his own proprietary and possessory remedies had become
so inadequate. A cloud of legal fictions veiled the borrowing,
but in spite of the duration of some of these till the Common
Law Procedure Act, 1852, the action of ejectment was greatly
superior to the dilatory remedies which it thrust in the background.
The law of torts, as it is now called, also owes a heavy debt
historically to writs of trespass upon the case, which were adapta-
tions of the writ of trespass made to meet special cases.
Writs of interest to the clergy were de apostata capiendo, for
the re-capture of a runaway monk, de excommumcato capiendo , de
excommunicate deliberando (which explain themselves), de haere-
tico comburendOf issued for the burning of an heretic on a certifi-
cate of conviction for heresy by an ecclesiastical court, darrein
presentment and quare impedit, connected with disputes as to the
right of presentation to a living, utrumt for determining whether
land be lay or ecclesiastical, and de vi laica removenda, for re-
instating a parson violently ejected by a rival with the assistance
of laymen ; all these have become obsolete, or have been expressly
abolished, or replaced by improved remedies.
Freedom from unwarrantable arrest or imprisonment of the
person was secured by the writs de odio et atia, de homine reple-
giando, de manucaptione and mainprise. These have long been
superseded by the more efficient writs of habeas corpus, though
these latter are themselves of very ancient origin.
Writs at the Present Day T— The vast majority of writs at
the present day deal with the initiation, progress, or results of
litigation; but purely administrative writs still exist, such as
those for summoning representatives to parliament, or for as-
sembling an ecclesiastical convocation. Writs are now issued
from the central office of the Supreme Court, which was created
by the Supreme Court of Judicature (Officers) Act, 1879, and
thereby absorbed the Crown office of the Queen's $ench Division.
The Crown office is an institution of the greatest antiquity, and
the clerk of the Crown in Chancery has important duties relating
to parliamentary writs, which are noticed below. Some writs
require the Great Seal, e.g.,, those for summoning new parliaments ;
writs of summons in actions are under the seal of the court,
and are tested in the name of the lord chancellor, but writs
issuing from the Crown office side are tested in the name of the
lord chief justice of England. Instead of the Great Seal, the
Crown Office Act, 1877, allows wafer great seals made on em-
bossed paper, wax, wafer, or any other material in accordance
WRIT
811
with rules drawn Up by a committee of the Privy Council, to be
attached to documents authorized by such rules to be thus vali-
dated. As to writs connected with litigation, the commonest type
is the writ of summons which originates a civil action in the
High Court of Justice. Indeed, it is now the only way in which
such an action can be commenced. It is a formal document by
which the king commands the defendant to "enter an appearance"
within eight days, if he wishes to dispute the plaintiff's claim,
and notifying him that, in default, judgment will be signed against
him. It must be indorsed with a statement of the nature of the
claim made. It may be issued either from the central office of
the Supreme Court in London, or from one of the district registries
which exist in many of the large provincial towns. Issue consists
in taking two copies of the proposed writ to the writ department
of the central office or to a district registry, signing one copy
and paying 305,, whereupon the official impresses a 305. stamp
on the signed copy, files it, stamps the other with a "seal," and
hands it back to the applicant. This then becomes the writ in
the action. Technical defects in the writ are no longer fatal, for
the plaintiff can amend them with the leave of the practice master
in the King's Bench Division or of the chief clerk of the writ in
the Chancery Division. Bracton's statement nearly 700 years
ago, non potest quis sine brevi agere, is true of procedure in
the High Court even now, but the great difference between the
writs of his day and those of our own is the elasticity of claim
which the latter allow. We are not limited to a certain number
of actions, each with its appropriate writ, to be chosen rightly
at the plaintiff's peril; the writ is always the same except for
its indorsement, and, in effect, any claim which it is probable
that the courts will enforce can be indorsed on it. If the plaintiff
lose his case, it will be either because he has not evidence to
support it, or because he fails to satisfy the requirements of the
substantive law, and not because he has selected the wrong form
df writ. After issue of the writ, it must be served on the defendant.
This is done by showing him, or his solicitor, the original, and
then leaving with either of them a correct copy of it. As a rule,
the writ cannot be served on a Sunday. The entry of appearance
by the defendant does not involve his personal presence. This,
and all other proceedings on the writ, prior to the trial of the
action, can be, and usually are, conducted on behalf of the parties
by their respective solicitors. The officials who deal with these
preliminary proceedings are the masters of the Supreme Court.
No leave for the issue of the writ is necessary, unless the de-
fendant be out of England, or the plaintiff seek to join on his
writ causes of action for the joinder of which leave is required.
Proceedings in the county court, in which most civil actions for
claims of small amount are tried, are begun by the entry of a
plaint, followed by a summons to the defendant.
Besides the writ commencing an action, there are others which
facilitate it, or give effect to its result. Attendance of witnesses is
secured by the writ of subpoena. Redress for contempt of court
may be effected by writ of attachment. The writs employed for
the execution of judgment against an unsuccessful defendant
are fieri facias against his goods, elegit against his lands, possession
for the recovery of land adjudged to be the plaintiff's, and de-
livery or attachment, or sequestration for the recovery of any
property other than land or money. The writ of attachment also
applies where a judgment directs the performance of any specific
act other than the payment of money, e.g., the removal of a
nuisance, or requires anyone to abstain from doing a thing; and
the writ of sequestration also extends to cases in which a person
wilfully disobeys an order or judgment which directs him to pay
money into court or to do any other act within a limited time;
the writ enables his property to be seized.
The prerogative writs deserve special notice both for their his-
torical interest and their practical utility. They are extraordinary
remedies issued upon cause shown in circumstances where the
ordinary legal remedies are inapplicable or inadequate. The most
important e'f those now In use are certiorari, habeas corpus,
mandamus,' procedendo, and prohibition. They usually issue
from the Crown office side of the central office of the Supreme
Court, and, in general, they are not obtainable as a matter of
course. Some probable cause must be shown why such extraor-
dinary remedies should be invoked. A rule nisi is issued in the
first instance by the court calling upon the party to whom the
writ is addressed to show cause why he should not comply with
the writ. If he shows sufficient cause, the rule is discharged,
otherwise it is made absolute and the party must obey the writ.
But in urgent cases, the rule may be made absolute from the
first in some of the writs, e.g., habeas corpus. The writ of
certiorari proceeds from a superior court and directs an inferior
court, whether civil or criminal, to transmit to the superior court
the record of proceedings pending before the inferior court, in
order to ensure speedier and better justice to the applicant for
the writ. Its object is to give relief against inconvenience arising
from the likelihood that the lower court will not dispose of the
case as effectually as will the superior. The procedure by this
writ must be distinguished from appeals by dissatisfied litigants.
These come after judgment, whereas certiorari generally deals with
cases still pending and, even where it is used for the purpose of
getting a conviction quashed, it does not enable the superior court
to review the case on its merits, but to deal with some matter
like lack of jurisdiction. There are several writs of habeas corpus,
but the best known variety is the habeas corpus ad subikiendum,
which provides for the personal freedom of the subject. (See
HABEAS CORPUS.) Mandamus directs a person, a corporation, or
an inferior court of judicature, within the king's dominions, to do
some particular thing which appertains to the office or duty of
any of them. (See MANDAMUS.) The writ of procedendo is a
possible sequel to certiorari, for it applies where the superior
court considers it expedient or necessary to restore the record to
the inferior court whose proceedings are in question. The writ
commands the lower court to proceed with the case. The writ
of prohibition forbids an ecclesiastical or inferior temporal court
to continue proceedings therein in excess of its jurisdiction or in
contravention of the laws of the land. (See PROHIBITION.) An-
other prerogative writ has taken the place of the writ de excom-
municato capiendo; this is de contumace capiendo for compelling
persons duly cited to appear in the ecclesiastical courts and for
enforcing compliance with their orders and punishing contempts
in the face of such courts. As to writs relating to the assembly of
parliament, the king, on the advice of the Privy Council, .issues
a proclamation expressing the royal pleasure to call a new parlia-
ment and announcing an Order in Council to the lord chancellor
to issue the necessary writs on the authority of the proclamation.
In practice, the clerk of the Crown in Chancery does not receive
direct authority from the chancellor for the issue of the writs,
but regards the proclamation itself as sufficient for that purpose.
Parliament must meet at any time not less than 20 clear days
after the proclamation. Individual writs of summons are sent
to those who are entitled to sit in the House of Lords; but 'for
the election of members to the House of Commons the writs are
sent to the returning officers of the various constituencies. The
writs of summons issued to peers of the United Kingdom are
of historical note, for adjudication of disputed peerage claims
has often centred in the validity or scope of the writ. Even
now, though such a peerage is invariably created by letters patent,
these are accompanied by a writ of summons, and it rests with
the committee for privileges of the House of Lords to decide
whether the writ is valid, or indeed whether it can be issued at
all; a familiar recent instance was their refusal to issue the writ
to a peeress in her own right (Viscountess Rhondda's Claim, Law
Reports [1922] 2 Appeal Cases, 339).
Scotland. — "Writ" is a more extensive term than in England.
Writs are either judicial or extrajudicial, the latter including
deeds and other instruments — as, for instance, in the Lord Clerk
Register (Scotland) Act, 1879, and in the common use of the
phrase "oath or writ" as a means of proof. In the narrower Eng-
lish sense both "writ" and "brieve" are used. The brieve was
as indispensable a part of the old procedure as it was in England,
and many forms are given in Regiam Maiestatem and Quoniam
Attachiamenta. It was a command issued in the king's name,
addressed to a judge, and ordering trial of a question stated
therein. It was drawn by the writers to the signet, originally
8l2
WRITERS TO THE SIGNET— WRITING
clerks in the office of the secretary of State. Its conclusion was the
will of the summons. In some cases, proceedings which were by
writ in England took another form in Scotland. For instance,
the writ of attaint was not known in Scotland, but a similar end
was reached by trial of the jury for wilful error. Most proceed-
ings by brieve, being addressed to the sheriff, became obsolete
after the institution of the court of session, when the sheriffs lost
much of that judicial power which they had enjoyed to a greater
extent than the English sheriff. (See SHERIFF.) An English writ
of execution is represented in Scotland by diligence, chiefly by
means of warrants to messengers-at-arms under the authority of
signet letters in the name of the king. The only brievcs in practical
use are those for serving a tutor-at-law, for kenning to the terce,
and for cognition of insane persons. The two former are rare;
the third was substituted by the Court of Session (Scotland) Act,
1868, for the old brieves of furiosity and idiotry. Other kinds of
brieve have been superseded by simpler procedure, e.g., the brieve
of service of heirs, representing the older breve de morte anteces-
soris, by a petition to the sheriff under the Titles to Land Con-
solidation (Scotland) Act, 1868, and the brieve of perambulation
by action of declarator. Writs eo nomine have been the subject
of much modern legislation. The writs of capias, habeas,
certiorari and extent were replaced by other proceedings by the
Exchequer Court Act, 1856. The writs of dare constat, resigna-
tion and confirmation (whether granted by the Crown or a subject
superior) were regulated by the Titles to Land Act (supra). By
the same act Crown writs are to be in the English language and
registered in the register of Crown writs. Writs need not be sealed
unless at the instance of the party against whom they are issued.
Writs of progress (except Crown writs, writs of dare constat
and writs of acknowledgment) were abolished by the Conveyanc-
ing (Scotland) Act, 1874. The dare constat writ is one granted
by the Crown or a subject superior for the purpose of completing
title of a vassal's heirs to lands held by the deceased vassal.
(P. H. W.)
United States. — The system of original writs seems never to
have obtained in the United States. From the earliest colonial
times, actions were begun by the issuance of a writ of summons
directed to a sheriff or constable, briefly setting forth the char-
acter of the claim, and directing that official to summon the de-
fendant. This writ of summons as distinguished from the early
English chancery writs was a judicial and not an executive writ.
Its issuance was simply a means for securing the presence of the
defendant before the court, not as in England giving the court
jurisdiction to hear the particular claim. The form of the writ of
summons followed in the main the old English writ, briefly stat-
ing the cause of action. Probably because of this similarity, despite
the absence of original writs, the common law forms of action con-
tinued to survive in the United States. Until the adoption of pro-
cedural reforms by the codes during the middle of the igth cen-
tury, they persisted with all their common law vigour. Under the
codes there is usually but one form of action, which is begun by
the issuance of a summons prepared by the plaintiff's attorney
and served by any one not a party to the suit. The summons is
brief, does not disclose the nature of the action, though a copy is
commonly attached to and served with the summons.
Writs in the Federal courts arc by Act of Congress to be tested
in the name of the chief justice of the United States. By State law
writs in the State courts are generally bound to be in the name of
the people of the State, in the English language, and tested in the
name of the chief justice of the State. The common law prerog-
ative writs such as mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, quo war-
ranto and habeas corpus are well known in the United States. The
Constitutions or statutes of the several States confer upon their
courts power to issue these writs. The cases in which they may
issue are generally governed by statute, and the courts issue them
as a matter of sound discretion and not as a matter of right. In
trying questions of title to real property, writs of entry and other
real actions, which before the settlement of the colonies had be-
come nearly obsolete in England, were until the middle of the
1 9th century the common remedies in the U.S. courts. They were,
however, stripped of the cumbrous feudal appendages which made
them intolerable in England. The action of ejectment begun by
summons in the manner of any personal action has now supplanted
them. Two prerogative writs have much importance in the Fed-
eral courts. These are the writ of error (now abolished in Eng-
land) and the writ of certiorari. From 1879 untu* *9i4> writ of
error was the only means by which a decision of a State court could
be reviewed in the Supreme Court of the United States. In that
year certiorari was added as another method for review, having
been available since 1891 as a method for reviewing decisions of
the inferior Federal courts in the Supreme Court. In 1928 the writ
of error was abolished and appeal substituted in its place. The
writ of assistance has its interest in constitutional history. Before
the War of Independence it was issued to revenue officers to search
premises for smuggled goods. It was on this writ that it was first
contended in 1761 that a colonial court had jurisdiction to ex-
amine the constitutionality of a legislative Act authorizing the
issue of the writ. (See Quincy's Massachusetts Rep., app., I.
520.) (j. M. LA.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the history of the writ see Registrum Brevium
and Sir Anthony Fitzhe^bert, La nowelle Natura Brevium (1534 or
1537; Eng. trans., 1652, 9th ed., 1794), both noticed above; Natura
Brevium, which changed its name to Old Natura Brevium after Fits-'
herbert's book was published; it exists in a great number of editions,
the earliest of which is about 1516, the last 1584; Novae narrationes;
Articuli ad novas narrationes; Returna Brevium; Simon Theloall, Le
digest des briefs originals (1579); Thesaurus brevium (c. 1661) ; R.
Brownlow, Brevia judicialia (1662); Ojfrcina brevium (1679); Sir E.
Coke, Institutes (1628, many later editions) ; C. Dufrcsne du Cange,
"Brcvis" in Ghssarium (Leyden, 1688; best ed. Henschel 1840-1850) ;
0. Booth, Real Actions (1701) ; W. Tidd, Practice (1790-97) ; H. J
Stephen, Pleadings (1824; 7th ed., 1868) ; R. J. and A. B. Corner,
Practice of the Crown Side (1844) 5 M. M. Bigelow, History of Pro-
cedure in England (1880) ; F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History
of English Law before the time of Edward I. (1895) ; W. S. Holds-
worth, History of English Law (1903, etc., especially vols. ii. and iii.) ;
W. S. McKechnie, Magrui Carta (1905; 2nd ed., 1914) ; T. A. Street,
Foundations of Legal Liability, vol. iii. (1907) ; F. W. Maitland, Equity,
also the Forms of Action at Common Law (edit. A. H. Chaytor and
W. J. Whittaker, igoq) ; also Collected Papers, vol. ii. (edit. H. A. L.
Fisher, 1911) ; W. Stubbs, Select Charters (9th ed., 1913) ; P. H. Win-
fickl, Chief Sources of English Legal History (1925) ; and E. Jcnks on
"Prerogative Writs" in The Yale Law Journal (April 1923).
For current law, there is no book which deals with writs both
exclusively and completely. Taken in the aggregate, the following
books cover the topic: The Annual Practice; W. G. Clay, The Law
and Practice relating to Writs of Summons (1894) ; F. H. Short and
F. H. Mellor, Practice on the Crown Side of the King's Bench
Division (2nd ed., 1908) ; E. R. Daniell, Chancery Practice (8th ed.,
S. E. Williams and F. Guthrie Smith, 1914), and Chancery Forms
(6th ed., R. White, F. E. W. Nicholls and H. G. Garrett, 1914) ; T. E.
May, Baron Farnborough, Parliamentary Practice (i3th ed., T. L.
Webster, 1921) ; W. B. Odgers, Pleading and Practice (ioth ed., 1926) ;
Alduson, Judicial Writs and Process (1895) ; and see "Writ" in index
to the Earl of Halsbury, The Laws of England (31 vols., 1907-17, with
supplement, 1910, etc.).
WRITERS TO THE SIGNET, in Scotland, a society of
law agents who, along with others, correspond to solicitors in Eng-
land. They were originally clerks in the secretary of State's office
and prepared the different writings passing the signet. They have
no charter but are usually considered a corporation by long cus-
tom; they have office-bearers and are members of the College
of Justice.
WRITING. The earlier history of writing is dealt with
in the articles ALPHABET, PALAEOGRAPHY, PICTOGRAPHY. The
subject of the present article is handwriting in its common uses
in Europe since the period when the invention of printing super-
seded its employment for the making of books.
Speaking broadly, the ordinary handwritings of modern Europe
result from the competition and interaction of two contrasted
forms of script which existed side by side in most countries for
many generations, and which still maintain an independent exist-
ence in Germany. These are the Italian, or Roman, and the na-
tional, not very accurately called Gothic, current hands. In Eng-
land the most important type of native current hand was known
in the i6th century as Secretary. The acute stage of the rivalry
here may be said to last from about 1480 till the reign of Charles
L, whose own hand is not a bad example of the compromise which
shows the resultant of the two forces. In the Plate Endymion
WRITING
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FIG. 1.— DEVELOPMENT OF LOWER-CASE LETTERS
Porter's hand gives an even better specimen.
The Italian Hand. — The great and singular achievement of
the Italian renaissance in the matter of hand writing, the creation
or revival of what is known as humanistic script (see art. PALAE-
OGRAPHY) might seem, since that hand was properly a book-hand,
to lie outside our present subject. This, however, would not be
altogether true. If the type used in this Encyclopaedia follows
so closely the forms of letters evolved n centuries ago that a
Latin book printed in it would have been easily read by a scholar
of Charlemagne's court, it is because the Caroline hand set up a
standard of legibility and simplicity from which other beautiful
scripts were felt to fall away. As cheapened and, as it were,
stereotyped by its adoption for printing, it has retained the same
compelling power in a higher degree. To make one's hand "as plain
as print" has been and is an aim the effects of which recur again
and again in the history of writing. Before, however, it could have
any direct influence on ordinary handwriting the humanistic
script had to submit to certain changes, the general tendency of
which can be gathered by comparing the printers' Roman with
the printers' Italic type. This more cursive type of Italian script
is seen in the hand of Petrus Carmelianus, tutor to the children
of Edward IV., which serves also to show that the script had made
its way into England before 1483.
Its rapid spread in England, perhaps, owed something to Royal
patronage, for although Henry VIII. did not write it himself, he
had it taught to his children, but through the i5th and first half
of the 1 6th centuries a very large proportion of educated Eng-
lishmen both could and did write both in Italian and Secretary
hand.
The different uses to which men put the two hands indicate
that the superior legibility of the Italian was recognized, for in
a letter or tract written mainly in Secretary it is common practice
to write sub-headings, proper names, foreign words and the like
in Italian script, in fact to use it much as we do italic print or
leaded type.
Before we compare the merits and defects of the Italian current
script with the fully-developed Secretary hand it is necessary to
say something further concerning the scripts from which the latter
had evolved.
Sources of Secretary Hand. — A critical study of the develop-
ment of popular current script in England in the i4th-isth cen-
tury is still a desideratum. Insufficient attention seems to have
been paid to the needs which it rose to meet. Collections of
specimens of writing from the beautiful book-hands of monastic
scriptoria, or the workshops of artist-illuminators fail to illustrate
it, and so, to a great degree, do collections of official writings from
the administrative offices of State, written by clerks trained in
their particular departments, a conservative class given to a pro-
fessional pride in writing unlike the general public. Secretary
hand, it is true, is considerably influenced by a type of script used
in the chancery for documents intended to be read by laymen, an
example of which may be taken from a formulary of Henry IV.
It was influenced likewise by a type of vernacular book-hand, of
which a specimen may be taken from a mid- 1 5th century ms. of
Occleve's poems. And it was influenced also by a form of script
the origin of which seems to be French or Flemish, though it was
popular in England. Our illustrative example is from a book which
was written in France for presentation by the carl of Salisbury to
Queen Margaret at or immediately after her marriage to Henry
VI. in 1445.
This is apparently the script known to French writers of the
time as "lettres bastardes," to indicate its intermediate position
between the stiff precision of the "lettrcs dc forme" of the most
expensive mss. and informal current or court hand called "lettre
de cour." In the main, however, "Secretary" derives from none of
these styles so much as from the styleless writing of the ordinary
man of the i4th century, and its first beginnings are to be seen
as soon as the need for any large amount of writing by the or-
dinary man began to be felt. Many circumstances combine to
fix this at about the 50 years 1260-1310. Great monasteries began
late in Henry HI.'s reign to keep elaborate court-rolls and account-
rolls of their manors. Changes in land tenure under Edward I.
led to a vast output of deeds dealing with little bits of land. A
little later allusions to the "paper of the market" show a new and
cheap writing material fostering the growth of ephemeral business
records. And lastly, legal documents were coming to be written
in French and English, and by persons unskilled in the elaborate
system of abbreviations which learned Latinists had devised to
814
WRITING
shorten their labour. In these conditions, the requirements for
a popular hand were speed and simplicity rather than beauty, and
even at the cost of a high degree of legibility.
Analysis of Letters. — The subjoined table of lower case
alphabets (fig. i) is meant to illustrate, by reference to the
numerals at the top, the forms of letters mentioned in the remarks
which follow. Forms in brackets do not belong to our period,
but are alluded to historically. The alphabets are far from ex-
haustive as a list of forms admissible or usual in 1 5th— 1 8th cen-
tury hands, and the facsimiles should be studied to supplement
them and illustrate the mode of use of the letters. In what fol-
lows Secretary and Italian hands will be referred to as Sec. and It.
a. The normal form in both Sec. and //. is a5. Formed in one
stroke, its greater rapidity caused it to displace the Carolingian
(or printer's) a (<z3) though the latter with its variant, a4 survived
in some legal as well as book hands; ar> may be regarded either
as a simplification of a3, by neglect of the top hook, or as a revival
of the precaroline a2 (the earlier type of which was a1), which
had never been completely driven out by a3. o5-a9 are character-
istic i6th-i7th century forms developed from an overhead fore-
link, but often used initially and where no link was needed; a7
indeed, has ceased to function as a link altogether and become a
senseless flourish like the long up-stroke often prefixed to initial
m; a8, a not very common form, has received a good deal of atten-
tion from its occurrence in one of the Shakespeare signatures.
b. bl is the normal //., with b2 and b3 as variations, b4 the usual
Sec. form, developing at an early date into the modern b'\
c. c2 made in one stroke, had replaced in Sec. the mediaeval c1,
in which the downward curve was written first and the horizontal
top added afterwards. It thus avoided the disastrous similarity
of c1 and tl9 which makes the two letters as often as not indis-
tinguishable in mediaeval documents. But it became too like an
ill-formed c (e* or e1). It. did good service in restoring the simple
curve (c4), the ultimate victory of which was assured.
d. Of the two forms dl and <?, about equally frequent in
1 2th century use, d2 had gradually driven out dl in rsth century
England, and, with the addition of a loop for after-link, estab-
lished itself in Sec. It. partially reintroduced rf1, and the two
forms have been alternatives ever since. In the i6th century the
ambiguity of d4 with the e4 of Sec. more than counterbalanced the
ambiguity of d6 with cl. d3 is an abnormal, but not rare, form of
d1 fore-linked and written the wrong way round.
e. the letter of most frequent occurrence, whether in Latin or
the vernacular, has perhaps undergone more changes than any
other. The early mediaeval e1 is formed in three pieces, beginning
with the downward curve; e1 is a modification written in two
motions. The gradual development of the characteristic Sec.
form c6 through the stages e4 and c5 was the work of the I4th
century. Its ambiguity with d4 was perhaps the cause of a marked
tendency in the i6th century to lift the pen before forming the
final loop (as in e8), or to reduce the loop to its smallest size as
in e1. In well-formed It. it had practically the modern shape £10,
but English writers show a strong inclination to revert to other
forms. (See, for example Plate Ib line e in the same plate, i,
quietness, where the second c exactly resembles cs, and d, where
Elizabeth prefers the Sec. efl, whereas Burleigh uses something
resembling e2.) The eventual victory of e™ was assured in the
1 7th century, though e* lingered on well into the iSth, and not
only in legal hands. Final e, like final sf is always specially liable
to slurring. The epsilon form e9 occurs fairly often from Eliza-
bethan It. onwards, but is somewhat indicative of academic educa-
tion.
/ in Sec. is analogous in formation to e, starting with the middle
of the shaft downwards and completing the top in one or two
motions, /l and /2. The //. /* is a simple two-piece letter, but
needs adaptation to make it current. If the fore-link was added
on the r, and the after-link on the /, as in /4, it is too like W and
58. The difficulty is eventually solved by the form /*.
g, rather a complicated letter throughout the middle ages, tend-
ing continually to diverge from, and return to the figure-of-8
form of the minuscule, never attained in Sec. a form of satis-
factory simplicity. In g1 and ga after writing the y part of the
letter the pen was carried far to the left below the line, and must
be lifted to make the horizontal top-stroke. The It. g3 links well
but the bottom loop, made large and far to the right, was rather
cumbrous. An alternative #5 was liable to confusion with h1 and
other letters, and many i6th-i7th century writers used the com-
plicated g*. Eventually the modern £6 begins to take shape about
Charles I.'s reign.
//. The mediaeval form hl as a letter ending to the left below
the line early acquired a curved link to carry it back to the line
in the form of the Sec. h2, often extended in Elizabethan use into
an overhead link as in //4. Even without this, it was a long letter,
in which the angles tended to become slurred into the shapes A5,
//" and h1 y the last being too close to /4 and SG. The It. /*3 easily
changed into the modern 7/R.
i and / need little comment, except that their distinctive use for
the vowel and consonant (though a few mediaeval instances may
be found) is an innovation belonging rather to the history of
printing than of writing, and was little observed even by printers
till the 1 7th century. Previous to this, lower case j occurs as the
last rather than the first of two or more fs coming together,
especially in numerals, as xiij., and in Latin words like conijcio.
Dotting of these letters, though well known to mediaeval scribes
and obviously useful to distinguish i from a part of m, n, or w,
was also not an obligatory process in good writing till the printer
set the example.
k, if not much wanted in Latin or Italian is common in Ger-
manic tongues and the continental form kl competed with* the
more complicated Sec. k2 and k*. More current shapes k4 and k*
were liable to confusion with // and b, and k6 is a natural devel-
opment.
/, mf n, nearly identical in ordinary Sec. and It. forms, need
no comment, and of
o we need only remark the ambiguity of the negligently formed
o3, with open loop, and e* and e7.
p has the characteristic form pl in Elizabethan Sec.f later slurred
into />°, resembling xl. The It. p2, in the effort to write it cur-
rently sometimes took the form />3, but a simpler change, by slight
opening of the loop, led through p4 to {P.
q needs no comment, but
r is another letter of complicated history, and an illustration
of the way in which alternative forms have arisen and maintained
themselves for centuries. The modern alternatives r1 and r8 have
a story reaching back more than a thousand years, the latter
originating in the ligature of the uncial letters OR in the shape (X
and thence introduced into minuscule writing, particularly in the
common Latin genitive termination orum, written as (O^t), but
admissible anywhere where r follows o. From about the 1 2th
FlG. 2. — SOME FORMS OF CAPITAL LETTERS
century the use of this 2-shaped r was extended to cases where it
followed the letters p and b, the last curve of which is similar
to that of o. In the course of the i3th century the analogy of
the masculine orum seems to have brought the 2-shaped r into
the feminine arum, and in the i4th and i$th century it slowly
creeps in after *, e, u and other letters, and last of all as an initial.
Normally however, when not following o the form r1 (with longer
or shorter shaft) is retained in English as well as It. hands until
early in the i6th century, when a short horizontal stroke on the
line is introduced, making the typical Sec. form r1. From the
WROUGHT IRON— WULFHERE
815
short-shafted variety of r2 is developed r9, and from the 2-shape
r3 come r4, and r5, all characteristic of i6th-i7th century hands.
Several other varieties could be noted if space allowed.
s is another letter of two forms (s and /) the use of which in
writing as in print (until about 1800) depended on the position
of the letter in a word. From aesthetic motives apparently scribes
of the ioth-i2th century gradually discarded the use of the
minuscule or long s in a final position and substituted the short
or uncial s, which was slowly modified first into a shape like a
Greek final sigma s then into something like a medial sigma <r,
viz., s4 or s5. The use of s4 in an initial position is one of the
earliest signs of the popular current hand of about 1300. In Italy
the current hand, abandoning the minuscule long s of the formal
humanistic script, reverted to the old Roman cursive j3, which it
used along with the uncial short j*. We have therefore in Eliza-
bethan hands the four forms s1-** in regular use medially or
initially together with the final forms s5 or s2. The addition of
fore- and after-links convert s2 and s3 into s7 and s6 respectively,
but in iyth century hands the one is oftcin shortened or the other
lengthened so as to become hardly distinguishable. Slurring of
the upper loop converts s2 into j8, but the further development
into the modern s* is scarcely recognized as a copybook form
till the 1 8th century.
t in the regular mediaeval shape tl had been barely distinguished
from cl. The writers of Sec. therefore, influenced, perhaps, by
the form in Bastard hand, preferred £3, while t2 is the normal It.
In cursive writing and especially in a final position, where slur-
ring is most prevalent, it took the shapes 44, *5, and tG. t1 is the
later development of its medial use.
u needs little comment, except that a practice of distinguishing
it from n by adding a curved mark over it, w3, is a fairly sure
sign, if not of German or Netherlands, then of Scottish influence.
With regard to the use of u and v the case is similar to that
of i and ;. Until about 1600, v is merely the initial form of the
letter written medially as v. v, w. vl v2, wl w2 are the Sec. forms.
x. The Sec. form x1 closely resembles pB; x2 is the usual It., but
xa occurs before 1600.
y, 2. y is the Sec. form, z nearly always has a tail.
Of the two surviving extra letters of the Anglo-Saxon (runic)
alphabet, the thorn t> disappears about the beginning of our
period (circ. 1460), being replaced by y in the abbreviations ye
and yt for the and that, yok survives a little longer but is often
written like z.
The last line of our table shows a few forms of the ampersand,
or abbreviation for and (or et). Of other abbreviations common
in Elizabethan English few will give much trouble to the reader.
The stroke above the line for m or n, r above the line in such
words as your (yor) and after aftr, p for per or par, and the
stroke above for i in the termination cion (our tion), e.g., devocon,
deserve notice, as also the sweeping curve for es or $, as in the
words lands and ends in the example of Burleigh's hand.
Capital letters have so many forms depending on individual
taste, that a detailed analysis in the space at command would be
impossible. The very small selection given includes some of the
Elizabethan forms which are most different from modern usage.
For bibliography see CALLIGRAPHY.
WROUGHT IRON: see IRON AND STEEL.
WRYNECK, a bird, Jynx torquUta, so called from its way of
writhing its head and neck. It is a summer visitant to most parts
of Europe, generally arriving a few days before the cuckoo, and
is often known as "cuckoo's leader" and "cuckoo's mate."
The unmistakable note of the wryneck is merely a repetition of
what may be syllabled que, que, que, many times in succession,
rapidly uttered at first, but gradually slowing and in a continually
falling key. This is only heard during a few weeks, and for the
rest of the bird's stay in Europe it seems to be mute. It feeds
mainly on insects, especially on ants. It is larger than a sparrow
with beautifully variegated plumage of black, brown, buff and
grey. The wryneck lays its translucent white eggs on the bare wood
of a hole in a tree, and it is one of the few wild birds that can be
induced to go on laying by abstracting its eggs day after day, and
thus upwards of forty have been taken from a single hole — but the
proper complement is from six to ten. When disturbed on the
nest, the female writhes and hisses like a snake. As regards Britain,
the bird is most common in the south-east, its numbers decreasing
rapidly towards the west and north.
Other species of the genus are found in various parts of Africa.
The wrynecks (see WOODPECKER) form a subfamily Jynginae of
the Picidae, from the more normal groups of which they differ in
coloration and in having the tail-quills not stiffened to serve as
props as in the climbing Picinae.
WRY-NECK (Lat. Torticollis), a congenital or acquired
deformity, characterized by the affected side of the head being
drawn downwards towards the shoulder together with deviation of
the face towards the sound side. There are various forms, (i)
The congenital, due to a lesion of the sterno-mastoid muscle. (2)
The rheumatic, due to exposure to a draught or cold. This is
commonly known as "stiff -neck." (3) The nervous or spasmodic,
the result of (a) direct irritation of the spinal accessory nerve or
its roots, or (b) the result of cerebral irritation. Many cases are
also due to hysteria and some to spinal caries. When wry-neck is
congenital, massage and manipulation may be tried and some form
of apparatus. Failing this, division of the muscle surgically may
be practised. In the spasmodic forms, anti-neurotic treatment is
recommended. In rheumatic torticollis the spasm is usually over-
come by the application of hot compresses and appropriate anti-
rheumatic treatment.
WUCHANG: see HANKOW.
WUCHOW, a treaty port in the province of Kwang-si,
China, situated on the left bank of the Sikiang at its junction
with the Fu or Kwei-kiang (Cassia) river. It is 220 m. above
Canton and the river is navigable the whole distance for vessels
drawing up to 8 ft. of water. The situation of Wuchow makes it
the natural distributing centre between Kwcichow, Kwang-si
and Canton. The imports from Canton consist chiefly of cotton
and cotton goods, kerosene oil, woollens, etc., while sugar, various
oils, hides and aniseed are the chief exports. During summer
floods the water pent up by the gorges rises 50 or 60 ft. at
Wuchow. In consequence of the variation of river level the prin-
cipal offices and shops are built upon pontoons which are moored
alongside the river bank. The native population is estimated at
65,000. It was opened to foreign trade in 1897 and has telegraphic
communication with Hong Kong and Shanghai.
WUHU, a city in the province of An-hwei, China, about i m.
from the south bank of the Yangtsze-Kiang, with which it is con-
nected by a straggling suburb. It is about 50 m. above Nanking.
It is connected by canals with Ning-kwo Fu, T'ai-p'ing Hien, Nan-
ling Hien and Ching Hien, the silk districts in the neighbourhood
of the two last cities being within 50 m. of Wuhu. There is much
coal in the country around. The principal exports are rice, cotton,
wheat, tea, furs and feathers. The population is estimated at
between 120,000 and 175,000. It was marked out as a treaty port
as early as 1858, but was not opened to trade until 1877. A gen-
eral foreign settlement was opened in 1905, and there has been a
great increase in its prosperity during the 2oth century.
WULFENITE, a mineral consisting of lead molybdate,
PbMoO4, crystallizing in the hemimorphic-tetartohedral class of
the tetragonal system. Crystals usually have the form of thin
square plates bevelled at the edges by pyramidal planes. They have
a brilliant resinous to adamantine lustre, and vary in colour from
greyish to bright yellow or red: the hardness is 3, and the specific
gravity 6.7. Small amounts of calcium are sometimes present
isomorphously replacing lead. The mineral occurs in the oxidation
zone of veins containing lead and molybdenum. Good yellow crys-
tals come from Bleiberg in Carinthia and bright red ones from
Arizona. The mineral has been produced on a commercial scale,
as an ore of molybdenum, at the Mammoth mine, Arizona.
WULFHERE (d. 675), king of the Mercians, a younger
son of King Penda, was concealed for some time after his father's
death in 655, but in 658 or 659, when the Mercians threw off the
supremacy of Oswio, king of Northumbria, Wulf here became king.
He did much to spread Christianity inside and outside his king-
dom. In 657 he gained Lindsey from Northumbria, and he was
successful against Wessex, extending his borders in all directions.
8i6
WULFSTAN— WtfRTTEMBERG
Wulfhere married Eormenhild, a daughter of Erconberht, king
of Kent, and was succeeded by his brother Aethelred. His only
son, Coenred, became king in 704, in succession to Aethelred, and
his daughter, St. Werburga or Werburh, was abbess of Ely.
See Bede, Historia ecclesiastiea, edit. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896) ;
and J. R. Green, The Making of England (1897-99).
WULFSTAN, archbishop of York from 1003 until his death
in May 1023, and also bishop of Worcester (1003-16), is gen-
erally held to be the author of a remarkable homily in alliterative
English prose. Its title, taken from a ms., is Lupi sermo ad
Anglos, quando Dam maxime prosecuti sunt eos, quod juit anno
1014. It is an appeal to all classes to repent in the prospect of
the imminent day of judgment, and gives a vivid picture of the
desperate condition of England in the year of King Aethelred
II.'s flight (1014). Of the many other homilies ascribed to
Wulfstan very few are authentic. Subsequent legislation, espe-
cially that of Canute, bears clear traces of his influence.
See the edition of his homilies by A. Napier (Berlin, 1883) ; the
same writer's Vber die Werke des altenglisehen Erzbischofs Wulfstan
(Gdttingen dissertation, 1882), and his paper in An English Miscellany
(Oxford, 1901, pp. 355 f.) ; also A. Brandl in H. Paul's Grundriss der
germanischen Philohgie (2nd ed., 1901-09), ii., pp. mo-ma.
WULFSTAN, ST. (c. 1012-1095), bishop of Worcester, born
at Little Itchington near Warwick and educated in the monastic
schools of Evesham and Peterborough, became a monk at Wor-
cester, and schoolmaster and prior in the cathedral monastery
there. Chosen bishop of Worcester in 1062, he accepted with some
reluctance, and was consecrated at York in September. Wulfstan
submitted to William the Conqueror, and helped to check the
rebellious barons during the revolt of 1075. He was equally
loyal to William II. in his struggle with the Welsh. Wulfstan's
relations with his ecclesiastical superiors were not so harmonious,
and at one time both Lanfranc of Canterbury and Thomas of
York unsuccessfully demanded his removal. He died on Jan. 18,
1095. Iri I2°3 he was canonized by Pope Innocent III. By his
preaching at Bristol Wulfstan is said to have put an end to the
kidnapping of English men and women and selling them as slaves.
He rebuilt the cathedral church of Worcester, and some parts of
his building still remain.
Lives of St. Wulfstan by Hemming and Florence of Worcester are
in H. Wharton's Anglia sacra (1691). See also E. A. Freeman, Norman
Conquest (1867-79).
WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832-1920), German physi-
ologist and philosopher, was born on Aug. 16, 1832 at Neckarau,
in Baden. He studied medicine at Tubingen, Heidelberg and
Berlin, and in 1857 began to lecture at Heidelberg. In 1864 he
became assistant professor there, and in 1866 was chosen to
represent Heidelberg in the Baden Chamber, but soon resigned.
In 1875 he became professor of philosophy at Leipzig, where he
founded an institute for experimental psychology, the precursor
of many similar institutes. The list of Wundt's works is long and
comprehensive, including physiology, psychology, logic and ethics.
He died near Leipzig on Aug. 31, 1920.
WUNTHO, a native state of Upper Burma annexed by the
British and incorporated in the district of Katha in 1892. When
the British annexed Upper Burma in 1885 the state became a
refuge for rebels. Finally in 1891 it broke into open rebellion,
the sawbwa was deposed, and a force of 1,800 troops under Gen-
eral Sir George Wolseley occupied the town of Wuntho and
reduced the state to order.
WU PEI-FU (1873- ), Chinese general, was born in
Shantung. He joined the Third Army Division, commanded by
Tsao Kiin, distinguished himself in several minor campaigns, and
was rewarded by Tsao Kun in 1916 with the command of a
division. By 1917 he was the Peking Government's chief bul-
wark against the Monarchists, Sun Yat-sen's independent repub-
lic at Canton and the ambitions of Marshal Chang Tso-lin, the
governor general of Manchuria. Sun Yat-sen was not in a posi-
tion to take the offensive, but Chang Tso-lin invaded Chihli in
the spring of 1922 and, being defeated by the forces of Wu Pei-fu
launched another attack in 1924. Wu Pei-fu was defeated in a
great battle near Tientsin in Oct. and fled, after which he re-
mained in retirement at Yochow.
WURTTEMBERG, a republic, and a component State of
the German Reich, forming a tolerably compact mass in the south-
west angle of Germany. In the south it is cleft by the long
narrow territory of Hohenzollern, belonging to Prussia; and it
encloses several small enclaves of Baden and Hohenzollern, while
it owns some small exclaves within the limits of these two states.
It lies between 47° 34' 48" and 49° 35' if N., and between 8°
15' and 10° 30' E. Its greatest length from north to south is 140
m.; its greatest breadth is 100 m.; its boundaries, almost entirely
arbitrary, have a circuit of i,n6m.; and its total area is 7, 530 sq.m.
It is bounded on the east by Bavaria, and on the other three sides
by Baden, with the exception of short distances on the south,
where it touches Hohenzollern and the lake of Constance.
Physical Features. — The undulating fertile terraces of Upper
and Lower Swabia may be taken as the characteristic parts of
this agricultural country. The usual estimates return one-fourth
of the entire surface as "plain," less than one-third as "mountain-
ous," and nearly one-half as "hilly." The average elevation above
the sea-level is 1,640 ft.; the lowest point is at Bottingen (410 ft.),
where the Neckar quits the country ; the highest is the Katzenkopf
(3,775 ft.)> on the Hornisgrinde, on the western border.
The chief mountains are the Black Forest (q.v.) on the west,
the Swabian Jura or Rauhe Alb stretching across the middle of the
country from south-west to north-east, and the Adelcgg Moun-
tains in the extreme south-east, adjoining the Algau Alps in
Bavaria. The Rauhe Alb or Alp slopes gradually down intoM:he
plateau on its south side, but on the north it is sometimes rugged
and steep, and has its line broken by isolated projecting hills.
The highest summits are in the south-west, viz., the Lemberg
(3,326 ft.), Ober-Hohenberg (3,312 ft.) and Plettenberg (3,293
ft.). To the south of the Rauhe Alb the plateau of Upper Swabia
stretches to the lake of Constance and eastwards across the Iller
into Bavaria. Between the Alb and the Black Forest in the north-
west are the fertile terraces of Lower Swabia, continued on the
north-east by those of Franconia.
About 70% of Wurttemberg belongs to the basin of the Rhine,
and about 30% to that of the Danube. The principal river is the
Neckar, which flows northward for 186 m. through Wurttemberg
to join the Rhine, and with its tributaries the Rems, Kocher,
Jagst, Ens, etc., drains 57% of the country. The Danube flows
from east to west across the south half of Wurttemberg, a dis-
tance of 65 m., a small section of which is in Hohenzollern. Just
above Ulm it is joined by the Iller, which forms the boundary
between Bavaria and Wurdemberg for about 35 m. The Tauber
in the north-east joins the Main; the Argen and Schussen in the
south enter the lake of Constance. The lakes of Wurttemberg,
with the exception of those in the Black Forest, all lie south of
the Danube. The largest is the Federsee (i sq.m.), near Buchau.
About one-fifth of the lake of Constance is reckoned to belong to
Wurttemberg. Mineral springs are abundant; the most famous
spa is Wildbad, in the Black Forest.
The climate is temperate, and colder among the mountains in
the south than in the north. The mean temperature varies at
different points from 43° to 50° F. The abundant forests induce
much rain, most of which falls in the summer.
Population. — The population of the four divisions (Kreise)
into which the kingdom is divided is shown below: —
Division (Kreis)
Area in
sq.m.
Pop.
1900
Pop.
1925
Density
1925
Neckar ....
1,285
745,669
966,071
75i*8
Black Forest (Schwarz-
wald)
1,844
509,258
604,868
^28
Jagst . . .
Danube (Donau)
1,984
2,417
400,126
420,947
599,454
212
248
Total ....
7,530
2,169,480
2,591,340
344
The population is particularly dense in the Neckar valley from
Esslingen northward. The people of the north-west belong to the
Alamannic stock, those of the north-east to the Franconian, and
those of the centre and south to the Swabian.
The largest towns in the kingdom are Stuttgart (with Cann-
stadt), Ulm, Heilbronn, Esslingen, Reutlingen, Ludwigsburg,
WORTTEMBERG
817
Goppingen, Gmtind, Tubingen, Tuttlingen and Ravensburg.
Agriculture. — Wurttemberg is essentially an agricultural
State; 64% of its total area is under cultivation, while 31% is
under forest. It possesses rich meadowlands, cornfields, orchards,
gardens, and hills covered with vines. The chief agricultural prod-
ucts are oats, spelt, rye, wheat, barley, hops. To these must be
added wine (mostly of excellent quality), peas and beans, maize,
fruit, chiefly cherries and apples, beets and tobacco, and garden
and dairy produce. Of live stock, cattle, sheep and pigs are reared
in considerable numbers, and attention is paid to horse-breeding.
Mining. — The salt industry was developed at the beginning
of the 1 9th century. The iron industry is of great antiquity, but
it is hampered by the absence of coal. Other products are
granite, limestone, ironstone and fireclay.
Manufactures.— -Linen, woollen and cotton fabrics are made
at Esslingen and Goppingen, and paper at Ravensburg, Heil-
bronn and other places in Lower Swabia. The manufacturing in-
dustries assisted by the government developed rapidly during the
later years of the igth century, notably raetal-working, especially
such branches of it as require exact and delicate workmanship. Of
particular importance are iron and steel goods, locomotives (Ess-
lingen), machinery, motor-cars, bicycles, small arms (in the Mauser
factory at Oberndorf), all kinds of scientific and artistic appliances,
pianos (at Stuttgart), organs and other musical instruments,
photographic apparatus, clocks (in the Black Forest), electrical
apparatus, and gold and silver goods. There are also extensive
chemical works, potteries, cabinet-making workshops, sugar fac-
tories, breweries and distilleries. Water-power and petrol largely
compensate for the lack of coal.
Commerce. — The principal exports are cattle, cereals, wood,
pianos, salt, oil, leather, cotton and linen fabrics, beer, wine and
spirits. The chief commercial cities are Stuttgart, Ulm, Heil-
bronn and Friedrichshafen. The book trade of Stuttgart, called
the Leipzig of South Germany, is very extensive.
Communications. — In 1924 Wurttemberg had 1,292 m. of
full gauge railways. The Neckar, the Schussen and the lake of
Constance are all navigable for boats; the Danube begins to be
navigable at Ulm. The roads of Wurttemberg are fairly good;
the oldest, of them are Roman.
Constitution. — The Constitution of the Republic of Wurttem-
berg bears date Sept, 25, 1919. The supreme power in the State
is vested in the Landtag, composed of 80 members elected by
universal suffrage for 4 years, in accordance with the electoral law
of April, 1924. The Landtag appoints the State Ministry, the
President of which is styled "State President."
For administrative purposes the country is divided into the
City of Stuttgart, 62 districts (Oberamtcr), and 1,887 communes
(Gemeinden).
Religion. — At the census of 1925 the various creeds numbered
as follows: — Protestants, 1-72 million; Roman Catholics, 796,196;
Jews, 10,752; and others 50,216. At the head of the Evangelical
(Protestant) Church stands a President, who with a Church Coun-
cil is responsible for its administration. The Roman Catholic
Church is subject to the bishop of Rottenburg, in the archdiocese
of Freiburg.
Education. — The higher branches of learning are provided in
the university of Tubingen, in the technical high school (with
academic rank) of Stuttgart, the veterinary high school at Stutt-
gart, the commercial college at Stuttgart, and the agricultural
college of Hohenheim. There are gymnasia and other schools in
all the larger towns, while every commune has a school. There
are numerous schools and colleges for women. There is also a
school of viticulture at Weinsberg.
HISTORY
Origins. — The origin of the name Wurttemberg is uncertain.
Early forms of it are Wirtenberg, Wirtembenc, Wirtenberc, Wir-
temberg and Wurtemberg. In 1806 Wurttemberg was adopted
as the official spelling.
As far as we know, the first inhabitants of the country were the
Celts, and then the Suebi. In the ist century A.D. the Romans
included it in the area defended by the limes Germomcus (q.v.).
Early in the 3rd century the Alamanni drove the Romans beyond
the Rhine and the Danube, but in their turn they were conquered
by the Franks under Clovis, the decisive battle being fought in
496. In the 9th century it was incorporated with the German
duchy of Swabia.
The duchy of Swabia was ruled by the Hohenstaufen family
until the death of Conradin in 1268, when a considerable part of
it fell to the count of Wiirttcmberg, the representative of a family
first mentioned about 1080, a certain Conrad von Beutelsbach,
having called himself after his ancestral castle of Wurttemberg.
The earliest count about whom anything is known is Ulrich, who
ruled from 1241 to 1265. Under his sons, Ulrich II. and Eberhard
I., and their successors the power of the family grew steadily.
Eberhard (d. 1325) doubled the area of his county and transferred
his residence from Wurttemberg to Stuttgart. His successors all
added something to the area of Wurttemberg. The lands of the
family were several times divided, but in 1482 they were declared
indivisible and were united under Count Eberhard V. In 1495
the county was raised to the rank of duchy.
Religion.— The long reign (1498-1550) of Duke Ulrich I.,
who succeeded to the duchy while still a-child, was a most event-
ful period for the country. His extortions excited a rising known
as that of the arme Konrad (poor Conrad) and in 1514 by tJie
treaty of Tubingen the people undertook to pay the duke's debts
in return for various political privileges, which in effect laid the
foundation of the constitutional liberties of the country. A few
years later Ulrich quarrelled with the Swabian league, and its
forces expelled him and sold his duchy to the Emperor Charles V.
Charles handed over Wurttemberg to his brother, the German
king, Ferdinand I., but discontent caused by the oppressive Aus-
trian rule, disturbances in Germany leading to the Peasants' War
and commotions aroused by the Reformation gave Ulrich an
opportunity to recover it. Aided by Philip, landgrave of Hesse,
and other Protestant princes, he fought a victorious battle against
Ferdinand's troops at Lauffen in May 1534, and then by the treaty
of Cadan he was again recognized as duke, but was forced to accept
his duchy as an Austrian fief. He now introduced the reformed
doctrines and proceeded to endow Protestant churches and schools
throughout his land. Ulrich's connection with the league of
Schmalkalden led to another expulsion, but in 1547 he was rein-
stated by Charles V., although on somewhat onerous terms.
Ulrich's son and successor, Christopher (1515-68), completed
the work of converting his subjects to the reformed faith. He
introduced the system of church government known as the Grossc
Kirchenordnung. Frederick I. (1557-1608) by paying a large
sum of money, induced the emperor Rudolph II. in 1599 to free
the duchy from the suzerainty of Austria. Thus once again \Viirt-
temberg became a direct fief of the empire. Under the reign of
the next duke, John Frederick (1582-1628), Wurttemberg suf-
fered severely from the Thirty Years' War. His son and suc-
cessor Eberhard III. (1614-74) plunged into the war as an ally
of France and Sweden in 1633, but after the battle of Nordlingen
in 1634 the duchy was occupied by the imperialists and he himself
was for some years an exile. He was restored by the peace of
Westphalia to a depopulated and impoverished country. During
the reign of Eberhard IV. (1676-1733), Wurttemberg suffered
from French invasions.
Alexander, who became duke in 1733, embraced the Roman
Catholic faith. His favourite adviser was the Jew Suss Oppcn-
heimer, and it was thought that master and servant were aiming
at the suppression of the diet and the introduction of the Roman
Catholic religion. The sudden death of Charles Alexander in
March 1737 put an abrupt end to these plans, and the regent,
Charles Rudolph, had Oppenheimer hanged.
Frederick Eugene (d. 1797) educated his children in the Prot-
estant faith. Thus when his son Frederick II. became duke in
1797, the ruler of Wurttemberg was again a Protestant and the
royal house adhered to this faith since that date. During Fred-
erick Eugene's short reign the French invaded Wurttemberg, com-
pelled the duke to withdraw his troops from the imperial army
and to pay a sum of money.
French Wars.— Frederick II. (1754-1816) took part in the
8i8
WURTZ— WCRZBURG
war against France against the wishes of his people, and when
the French again invaded and devastated the country he retired
to Erlangen, where he remained until after the conclusion of the
peace of Luneville in 1801. By a private treaty with France
(March 1802) he ceded his possessions on the left bank of the
Rhine, receiving in return nine imperial towns, among them Reut-
lingen and Heilbronn, and some other territories, amounting alto-
gether to about 850 sq.m. and containing about 124,0x^0 inhabi-
tants. He also accepted from Napoleon the title of elector. In
1805 Wiirttemberg took up arms on the side of France, and by
the peace of Pressburg in Dec. 11*05 the elector was rewarded with
various Austrian possessions in Swabia and with other lands in the
neighbourhood. On Jan. i, 1806, Frederick assumed the title of
king and abrogated the constitution.
In 1806 he joined the Confederation of the Rhine and received
further additions of territory containing 160,000 inhabitants; a
little later, by the peace of Vienna in Oct. 1809, about 110,000
more persons were placed under his rule. In return for these
favours Frederick joined Napoleon in his campaigns against
Prussia, Austria and Russia. After the battle of Leipzig he de-
serted the French emperor, and by a treaty made with Metternich
at Fulda in Nov. 1813 secured the confirmation of his royal title
and of his recent acquisitions of territory, while his troops marched
with those of the allies into France. In 1815 the king joined the
Germanic Confederation. He died on Oct. 30, 1816.
The new king, William I., granted a new constitution in Sept.
1819. A democratic constitution, proclaimed during the revolu-
tion of 1848, was abrogated as soon as the movement had spent
its force and the constitution of 1819 was restored.
Charles I. (1823-1891) succeeded his father William as king
in July 1864. In 1866 Wiirttemberg took up arms on behalf of
Austria, but three weeks after the battle of Koniggratz her troops
were decisively beaten at Tauberbischofsheim, and the country
was at the mercy of Prussia. The Prussians occupied the northern
part of Wurttemberg and peace was made in August 1866; Wiirt-
temberg paid an indemnity of 8,000,000 gulden and concluded a
secret offensive and defensive treaty with her conqueror.
On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 its troops
took a creditable part in the battle of Worth and in other opera-
tions of the war. In 1871 Wiirttemberg became a member of
the new German empire, but retained control of her own post
office, telegraphs and railways. She had also certain special
privileges with regard to taxation and the army. On Oct. 6, 1891,
King Charles died suddenly, and was succeeded by his cousin
William II. (b. 1848), who continued the policy of his prede-
cessor. The reform of the constitution continued to be discussed,
and the election of 1895 was memorable because of the return of
a powerful party of democrats.
Later Politics. — Between 1900 and 1910 the political history
of Wurttemberg centred round the settlement of the constitutional
question. The constitution was revised in 1906. No further
changes were made until Oct. 1918, when the Weizsacker ministry,
which held office during the War, resigned, and revolution broke
out on Nov. 9. For two days the direction of affairs was exclusively
in Socialist hands, but on Nov. n a coalition was formed, from
which the Spartacists were excluded, and representatives of the
bourgeois parties admitted. The king abdicated on Nov 30. The
Spartacist rising of Jan. 1919, had its echo in Wurttemberg chiefly
in the form of industrial disturbances, after which the Independent
Social Democrats left the ministry. A new republican constitu-
tion was adopted on Sept. 25, 1919. A peculiarity of the Wurt-
temberg constitution is that councils (Beirdte), formed from the
different classes according to occupations (Berufsstande), are
attached to the Ministries. Since then Wurttemberg history has
followed the general course of German history : the political influ-
ence of the Social Democrats has slowly declined and in 1924, for
the first time, a purely Bourgeois coalition took power.
BIBLIOGRAPHY .—K. V. Frlckcr and Th. von Gessler, Geschichte der
Verfassung Wurttembergs (Stuttgart, 1869) ; D. Schafer, Wiirttem-
bergische Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart, 1894 fol.) ; Bartens, Die wirt-
schaftliche Entwickelung des Kbnigreichs Wiirttemberg (Frankfort,
1901); R. Schmid, Reformationsgeschichte Wurttembergs (Heilbronn,
1904) ; W. von Heyd, Bibliographic far wurttembermchen Geschichte
(1895-96, Band iii by Th. Schon, 1907); E. Schneider, Ausgewahlu
Vrkunden tur wurttembergischen Geschichte (1911); A. Rapp, Die
WtirtUmberger und die national* Frage, 1863-1871 (1912) ; V. Bruns,
Wurttemberg unter der Rfgierung Konig Wilhelms II. (1916) ; O.
Parct, Urgeschichte Wurttembergs (1921); G. Egelhaaf, Wiirttember-
ghche Geschichte (1922) ; P. Hahn, Erinnerungen aus der Revolution
(1923).
WURTZ, CHARLES ADOLPHE (1817-1884), French
chemist, was born at Wolfisheim, near Strasbourg. When he left
the Protestant Gymnasium at Strasbourg in 1834 he studied medi-
cine, and in 1839 wa$ appointed "Chef des travaux chimiques"
at the Strasbourg faculty of medicine. In 1845 he became assist-
ant to J. B. A. Dumas at the £cole de Medecine, and in 1849
lectured on organic chemistry in his place. In 1852 Wurtz was
appointed to the combined chairs of organic chemistry and of
mineral chemistry and toxicology at the faculty of medicine. In
1875 he became the first occupant of the chair of organic chem-
istry which he had induced the government to establish at the
Sorbonne. He died in Paris on May 10, 1884.
Wurtz's first published paper was on hypophosphorous acid
(1842), and the continuation of his work on the acids of phos-
phorus (1845) resulted in the discovery of phosphorus oxychlo-
ride, as well as of copper hydride. But his original work was
mainly in the domain of organic chemistry. Investigation of the
alkyl isocyanates (1848) led him to the discovery of the amines
(1849), and later (1851) the compound ureas. In 1855 he showed
that the combination between two hydrocarbon radicles could be
brought about by the action of sodium on the alkyl iodides;
this important reaction is known by his name. About the same
time he reached the conclusion that glycerin is a body of alcoholic
nature formed on the type of three molecules of water, as com-
mon alcohol is on that of one, and was thus led (1856) to the
study of the glycols, bodies similarly related to the double water
type. The oxidation of the glycols led him to homologues of
lactic acid, and a controversy about the constitution of the latter
with H. Kolbe resulted in a better understanding of the relations
between the hydroxy- and the ammo-acids. In 1867 Wurtz pre-
pared neurine synthetically by the action of trimethylamine on
glycol-chlorhydrin, and in 1872 he discovered aldol, pointing out
its double character as at once an alcohol and an aldehyde. In
addition reference may be made to his work published from 1865
onwards, on abnormal vapour densities. While on the olefines he
noticed that a change takes place in the density of the vapour of
amylene hydrochloride, hydrobromide, etc., as the temperature is
increased, and in this he saw a powerful argument in favour of
the view that abnormal vapour densities, such as are exhibited by
ammonium chloride or phosphorus pentachloride, are to be ex-
plained by dissociation.
From 1852-72 Wurtz published in the Annales de chimie el de
physique abstracts of chemical work done out of France. The publica-
tion of his great Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appUqute, in which
he was assisted by many other French chemists, was begun in 1869
and finished in 1878; two supplementary volumes were issued 1880-86,
and a second supplement was completed in 1908. Among his books
are Chimie medicale (1864), Lemons elimentaires de chimie moderne
(1867), Theorie des atomes dans la conception du monde (1874),
La Thtorie atomique (1878), Progres de Vindustrie des matieres
colorant es arti fiddles (1876) and Traitt de chimie biologique
(1880-85).
For his life and work, with a list of his publications, see Charles
Friedel's memoir in the Bulletin de la Sv title Chimique (1885) ; also
A. W. yon Hofmann in the Ber. deut. chem. Ges. (1887), reprinted
in vol. iii. of his Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde (1888).
WURZBURG, a university town and episcopal see of Bavaria,
Germany, capital of the province of Lower Franconia, situated on
the Main, 60 m. by rail S.E. from Frankfort and at the junction of
main lines to Bamberg and Ntirnberg. Pop. (1925) 89,910. The
site of the Leistenberg was occupied by a Roman fort, and was
probably fortified early in the i3th century. Wircebirgum is the
old Latin form of the name of the town ; Herbipolis (herb town)
first appears in the I2th century. The bishopric was probably
founded in 741, but the town appears to have existed in the
previous century. About the i2th century the bishops had ducal
authority in Eastern Franconia. Quarrels broke out between the
bishops and the citizens, and, after long struggles, the citizens
submitted in 1400. Several imperial diets were held in Wurzbura,
WURZEN— WYAT
819
chief among these being the one of 1180 when Henry the Lion
was placed under the ban. By the peace of Lunevilie the bishop-
ric was secularized, and in 1803 Wurzburg passed to Bavaria,
The peace of Pressburg in 1805 transferred it to Ferdinand,
formerly grand-duke of Tuscany, who joined the confederation
of the Rhine and took the title of grand-duke of Wiiraburg. In
1815 the congress of Vienna restored Wiirzburg to Bavaria. The
bishopric of Wiirzburg at one time embraced an area of about
I, goo sq.m. and had about 250,000 inhabitants. A new bishopric
of Wiirzburg was created in 1817.
An ancient stone bridge (1474-1607), 650 ft. long and adorned
with statues of saints, and two modern bridges connect the two
parts of the town on each side of the river. On the Leistenberg
stands the fortress of Marienberg, which from 1261 to 1720 was
the residence of the bishops. Many of the houses are interesting
specimens of mediaeval architecture; and the numerous old
churches recall the fact that it was long the capital of an eccle-
siastical principality. The principal church is the imposing Ro-
manesque cathedral, a basilica with transepts, begun in 1042 and
consecrated in 1189. The four towers, however, date from 1240,
the (rococo) faqade from 1711-19, and the dome from 1731.
The transepts terminate in apses. The exterior was restored in
1882-83. Other interesting buildings are the Marienkapelle, the
Haugerstifts church, the Neumunster church, the church of St.
Burkhard, the palace, formerly the residence of the bishops and
grand-dukes of Wiirzburg, and the Julius hospital, and the town
hall dates in part from 1456. Walter von dcr Vogelwcide is
buried in the cloisters adjoining the Neumunster church.
A university was founded at Wiirzburg in 1403, but it only
existed for a few years. The present university was founded
by Bishop Julius in 1582. Here W. K. Rontgen discovered the
"Rontgen rays" in 1896. Wiirzburg was long the Jesuit strong-
hold in Germany, and the Roman Catholic theological faculty
still attracts large numbers. The university has 125 on its teach-
ing staff and is attended by (1925) 2,124 students.
Wiirzburg is surrounded by vineyards, which yield some of
the best wine in Germany. Its principal industries are the manu-
facture of tobacco, furniture, machinery, scientific instruments
and railway carriages. It has also breweries, and produces bricks,
marmalade, pianos, sugar, malt and chocolate.
See S. Gobi, Wurzburg, Ein Kulturhistorisckes Stddtebild (Wiirzburg,
1896) ; F. X. von Wcgele, Gcsehichtt dcr Vnivcrsitdt Wurzburg,
(Wiirzburg, 1882) ; Geschichte des Bischojstums Wiirzburg {Wiirzburg,
1899-1901).
WURZEN, a town of Germany in the republic of Saxony, on
the Mulde, 154 m. by rail E. of Leipzig on the main line (via
Riesa) to Dresden. Pop. (1925) 18,286. Wurzen was founded
by the Sorbs, and was a town early in the i2th century, when
the bishop of Meissen founded a monastery here. In 1581 it
passed to the elector of Saxony. It has a cathedral dating from
the 1 2th century and a castle, at one time a residence of the
bishops of Meissen and now utilized as law courts.
WYANDOTTE, a city of Wayne county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on the Detroit river and the Dixie highway, 8 m. S. by W. of
Detroit. It is served by the Detroit and Toledo Shore line, the
Detroit, Toledo and Ironton, the Michigan Central and the New
York Central railways. The population was 13,851 in 1920 (29%
foreign-born white) and was estimated locally at 36,000 in 1928.
Beneath the city, at depths of from 790 to 1,200 ft., lie four vast
salt beds (from 25 to 90 ft. thick) containing originally more
than 400,000,000 tons. Limestone also is abundant. Chemical
plants which convert the salt into soda ash, caustic soda, bicar-
bonate of soda, and other products, and make bleaching powders
out of the limestone, are the city's principal manufacturing
industries. The total factory output for 1925 was valued at
$27,677,716. Wyandotte was settled in 1820, was incorporated as
a village in 1854 and as a city in 1866.
WYANDOTTE CAVE, a cave in Crawford county, south-
em Indiana, U.S.A., 38° 14' N, lat. and 86° iS' W. longitude.
It is but one of the many caves of southern Indiana dissolved
and eroded in the relatively pure, massive, horizontally bedded
Mississippian limestones that extend southward into the cave-
bearing regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. Like Mammoth
cave of Kentucky, Wyandotte cave owes its early history to
the demand for nitre for gunpowder in the War of 1812, the
nitrate industry beginning in that year and terminating in
1817. The environs of the mouth of the cave afford a scene of
sedate quiet, the narrow valley of the Blue river stretching across
from the entrance to Greenbrier mountain, with its sharp conical
crest and steep slopes, belted with massive cliffs of rock and set
with tapering cedars. The entrance is about 200 ft. above Blue
river. The cave has been as accurately mapped as cave condi-
tions permit, but the aggregate length of its passages can only be
estimated, for some have not been explored; the total probably
exceeds 25 miles. The "old cave" constitutes that portion of
the cave discovered before 1850. In that year the new cave was
discovered, a long extension with many passages and chambers
that add materially to the beauty and interest of the cave. The
mouth of the old cave is 20 ft. wide and 6 ft. high. One hundred
feet within the entrance the gallery widens into a spacious cor-
ridor known as Faneuil Hall, whence issues the Columbian Arch,
a semi -cylindrical tunnel 75 ft. long, which in turn opens into
Washington Avenue, a grand passageway, 275 ft. long, 30 ft. wide,
and 40 ft. high. This passage terminates in a low gallery which ex-
pands into Banditti Hall, the common entry into both the old and
new caves. The old cave ends in the Senate Chamber, an impos-
ing rotunda like, but not quite so large as, Rothrock's cathedral
with its magnificent Wallace's Grand Dome rising above Monu-
ment mountain, beyond Rothrock's Straits in the new cave.
The Senate Chamber, one of the most picturesque features of
Wyandotte cave, is a vast elliptical amphitheatre, 145 ft. long
and 56 ft. wide, converging upward to a gigantic dome. In the
centre of • the chamber a mass of fallen rock constitutes Capitol
Hill, 32 ft. high, out of the centre of which rises the grandest
spectacle of the cave — the massive, fluted column of satin-spar,
or caldte, known as the "Pillar of the Constitution." Quite
cylindrical, 25 ft. in diameter, this majestic column of spectral
white calcite extends from the peak of Capitol Hill to the centre
of the dome far above. Tiny streamlets of water trickle down its
fluted sides, evaporating and leaving their burdens of calcium
carbonate crystallized upon the ever-growing column. A relatively
sparse cave fauna and a few evidences of Indian activity are found
in the cave. The temperature of the cave is uniformly 53° F and
the air is sweet and pure.
See list of 22 titles referring to Wyandotte and other Indiana caves
given on pp. 210-212, of the 2ist Annual Report of the Department
of Geology and Natural Resources of Indiana (1896). (W. £. E.)
WYANT, ALEXANDER H. (1836-1892), American artist,
was born at Port Washington (O.), on Jan. n, 1836. He was a
pupil of Hans Gude in Carlsruhe, Germany. A trip with a govern-
ment exploring expedition in the west of America undermined his
health and he painted mainly in the high altitudes of the Adiron-
dack mountains. He was elected a full member of the National
Academy of Design, New York, in 1869 and died in New York
city on Nov. 29, 1892. His fame was deferred until after his
death.
WYAT, SIR THOMAS (1503-1542), English poet and
statesman, elder son of Henry Wyat, or Wiat, afterwards knighted,
and his wife Anne, daughter of John Skinner of Reigate, Surrey,
was born at Allington Castle, near Maidstone, Kent, in 1503.
His father (1460-1537) belonged to a Yorkshire family, but
bought Allington about 1493. He was an adherent of the
Lancastrian party, and was imprisoned and put to the torture
by Richard III. The family records (in the possession of the earl
of Romney) relate that during his imprisonment he was saved
from starvation by a cat that brought him pigeons. At the
accession of Henry VII. he became knight of the Bath (1509),
knight banneret (1513) and held various offices at court. His
son, Thomas Wyat, was admitted at St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, when about twelve years of age,, took his B.A. degree in
1518, and proceeded M.A. in 1522. An early marriage with
Elizabeth Brooke, daughter of Lord Cobham, proved unhappy,
for a letter from the Spanish ambassador Chapuys to Charles V.
(Feb. 9, 1542) speaks of her having been repudiated by her
820
WYAT— WYCHERLEY
husband. As early as 1516 Wyat was server extraordinary to the
king, and in 1524 he was at court as keeper of the king's jewels.
He was one of the champions in the Christmas tournament of
1525. His father had been associated with Sir Thomas Boleyn as
constable of Norwich Castle, and he had thus been early ac-
quainted with Anne Boleyn. He appears to have been generally
regarded as her lover. He was employed on missions to Francis I.
(1526), to the papal court (1527), and from Rome was sent to
Venice. From 1528 to 1530 he was acting as high marshal at
Calais.
During the following years he was constantly employed in
Henry's service, and was apparently high in his favour. He was,
however, sent to the Tower in 1536, perhaps because it was
desired that he should incriminate the queen. His father's corre-
spondence with Cromwell does not suggest Jhat his arrest had
anything to do with the proceedings against Anne Boleyn, but
the connection is assumed (Letters and Papers of Henry VllL
vol. x. No. 919) in the letters of John Hussey to Lord Lisle,
deputy of Calais. Nicholas Harpsfield makes a circumstantial
statement (Pretended Divorce . . . Camden Soc. p. 253) that
Wyat had confessed his intimacy with Anne to Henry VIII.
and warned him against marrying her; but this, in view of his
continued favour, seems highly improbable. He was released after
a month's imprisonment, and in the autumn of that year took
part in the suppression of the Lincolnshire rising. In March 1537
he was knighted, and a month later was sent abroad as ambassador
to Charles V. In 1538 he was joined by Edmund Bonner, then
a simple priest, who wrote to Cromwell (2nd Sept. 1538) a
long letter (Petyt MS. 47, Middle Temple; first printed in the
Gentleman's Magazine, June 1850) in which he accused Wyat
of disloyalty to the king's interests, and of many personal slights
to himself. So long as Cromwell ruled no notice was taken of
Bonner's allegations. He was recalled in April 1539, but later
in the same year he was employed on another embassy to the
emperor. After Cromwell's death Wyat's enemies renewed their
attacks, and he was imprisoned (Jan. 17, 1541) in the Tower
on the old charges, with the additional accusation of treasonable
correspondence with Cardinal Reginald Pole. lie was released at
the intercession of the queen, Catherine Howard, on condition
that he confessed his guilt and took back his wife, from whom
he had been separated for fifteen years, on pain of death if he
were thenceforth untrue to her (see Chapuys to Charles V.,
March 1541). He received a formal pardon on March 21, and
received during the year substantial marks of the king's favour.
In the summer of the next year he was sent to Falmouth to meet
the ambassadors of the emperor. The heat brought on a fever
to which he succumbed at Sherborne, Dorset, on Oct. u. A
Latin elegy on his death was written by his friend John Leland,
"Naenia in mortem Thomae Viati equitis incomparabilis" ; and
Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, celebrated his memory in some
well-known lines beginning "Wyat resteth here, that quick could
never rest," and in two sonnets.
Wyat's work falls readily into two divisions: the sonnets,
rondeaus, and lyric poems dealing with love; and the satires and
the version of the penitential psalms. The love poems probably
date from before his first imprisonment. A large number were
published in 1557 in Songes and Sonettes (Tottel's Miscellany).
Wyat's contributions number 96 out of a total of 310. These
have been supplemented from mss. He was the pioneer of the
sonnet in England. Wyat wrote in all thirty-one sonnets, ten
of which are direct translations of Petrarch. The sentiment is
strained and artificial. Wyat shows to greater advantage in his
lyrical metres, in his epigrams and songs, especially in those
written for music1, where he is less hampered by the conventions
of the Petrarchan tradition, to which his singularly robust and I
frank nature was ill-fitted. Wyat wrote three excellent satires — j
"On the mean and sure estate," dedicated to John Poins, "Of |
the Courtier's Life/' to the same, and "How to use the court \
JOnc of the most musical of the pieces printed in his works, how- i
ever, "The Lover complayneth the unkindncs of his Love," beginning
"My lute, awake," is sometimes attributed to George Boleyn, Lord
Rochford (see E. Bapst, Deux Gentilshommes poetes de la cour de
HennVlll.,?. 142),
and himself." They are written in terza rima and in form and
matter owe much to Luigi Alamanni. In the "Penitential Psalms"
each is preceded by a prologue describing the circumstances under
which the psalmist wrote, and the psalms themselves are very
freely paraphrased, with much original matter from the author.
They were published in 1549 by Thomas Raynald and John
Harrington as Certayne Psalmes . . . drawen into English meter
by Sir Thomas Wyat Knyght.
None of Wynt's other poems were printed until fifteen years after
his death, in Songes and Sonettes. There are editions of his Works
by G. F. Nott (1816) ; of the Son^es and Sonnettes by E. Arber
(1870); and of the Poems (2 vols.) by A, K. Foxwell (1913). See
A. K. Foxwell, Study of Wyat's Poems (1911). See also Brewer and
Gardiner, Letters and Papers of Henry Vlll. (especially from 1534
to 1542).
WYAT, SIR THOMAS (THE YOUNGER) (d. 1554), English
conspirator, son of the preceding, was over 21 in 1543, but the
date of his birth is uncertain. He is said to have accompanied
his father on his mission to Spain, and to have been turned into
an enemy of the Spaniards by the menaces of the Inquisition. In
1542 he inherited the family property of Allington castle and
Boxley abbey on the death of his father.
In 1554 he joined with the conspirators who combined to pre-
vent the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip, the prince of
Spain. On January 22, 1554, he summoned a meeting of his friends
at his castle of Allington, and the 25th was fixed for the rising.
On the 26th Wyat occupied Rochester, and issued a proclamation
to the county. Lord Abergavenny and Sir Robert Southwell,
the sheriff of Kent, were deserted by their men, who either dis-
banded or went over to Wyat. A detachment of the London
train-bands .sent against him by Queen Mary, under the command
of the duke of Norfolk, followed their example. The rising now
seemed so formidable that a deputation was sent to Wyat by the
queen and council to ask his terms. He insisted that the Tower
should be surrendered to him, and the queen put under his charge.
The insolence of these demands caused a reaction in London,
where the reformers were strong and were at first in sympathy
with him. When he reached Southwark on Feb. 3, he found Lon-
don Bridge occupied in force, and was unable to penetrate into the
city. He was driven from Southwark by the threats of Sir John
Brydges (or Bruges), afterwards Lord Chandos, who was prepared
to fire on the suburb with the guns of the Tower. Wyat now
marched up the river to Kingston, where he crossed the Thames,
and made his way to Ludgate with a part of his following. Some
of his men were cut off. Others lost heart and deserted. His only
hope was that a rising would take place, but the loyal forces kept
order, and after attempting to force the gate Wyat surrendered.
He was brought to trial on March 15, and could make no
defence. Execution was delayed, in the hope that in order to save
his life he would compromise the queen's sister, the Princess
Elizabeth. He was executed on April u, and on the scaffold
expressly cleared the princess of all complicity in the rising. His
estates were afterwards partly restored to his son George, the
father of the Sir Francis Wyat (d. 1644) who was governor of
Virginia in 1621-26 and 1639-42.
See G. F. Nott, Works of Surrey and of Sir Thomas Wyat (1815) ;
and Froude, History of England.
WYCHERLEY, WILLIAM (c. 1640-1716), English
dramatist, was born about 1640 at Clive, near Shrewsbury, where
for several generations his family had been settled on a moderate
estate of about £600 a year. Like Vanbrugh, Wycherley spent
his early years in France, whither, at the age of fifteen, he was
sent to be educated in the very heart of the "precious" circle
of Mme. de Montausier, on the banks of the Charente. This lady
effected the first of his successive conversions from Protestantism
to Catholicism. Later at Oxford, Bishop Barlow reclaimed him,
and under James II. he returned to Catholicism once more. In
fact, the deity he worshipped was the deity of the "polite world" of
his time— gentility. Moreover, as a professional fine gentleman,
at a period when, as the genial Major Pack says, "the amours of
Britain would furnish as diverting memoirs, if well related, as
those of France published by Rabutin, or those of Nero's court
writ by Petronius," Wycherley was obliged to be a loose liver.
WYCLIFFE
821
As a fellow-commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, Wycherley
lived (according to Wood) in the provost's lodgings, being entered
as "Philosophiae Studiosus" in July 1660. And he do^s not seem
to have matriculated or to have taken a degree. He left Oxford
and settled in the Inner Temple; but not, naturally, to engage
seriously in the study of the law. Pleasure and the stage were
alone open to him, and probably early in 1671 was produced,
at the Theatre Royal, Love in a Wood. It was published the
next year. With regard to this comedy Wycherley told Pope
that he wrote it the year before he went to Oxford. But we
need not believe him: the worst witness against a man is mostly
himself. To pose as the wicked boy of genius has been the
foolish ambition of many writers, but on inquiry it will gen-
erally be found that these inkhorn Lotharios are not nearly so
wicked as they would have us believe. It is not so much that, as
Macaulay insists, "the whole air and spirit of the piece belong to a
period subsequent to that mentioned by Wycherley," but that
"the whole air and spirit of the piece" belong to a man — an experi-
enced and hardened young man of the #orlcl — and not to a boy
who would fain pose as an experienced and hardened young man
of the world. The real defence of Wycherley against his foolish
impeachment of himself is this, that Love in a Wood, howsoever
inferior in structure and in all the artistic economies to The{
Country Wife and The Plain Dealer, contains scenes which, not
for moral hardness merely, but often for real dramatic ripeness,
are almost the strongest to be found amongst his four plays.
The play was dedicated to Charles II. 's mistress, the duchess of
Cleveland, whose favours Wycherley forthwith enjoyed. His for-
tune as a dramatist was made. Voltaire (in his Letters on the
English Nation) has a picturesque description of the duchess's
visits to Wycherley's chambers in the Temple.
Whether Wycherley's experiences as a naval officer, which he
alludes to in his lines "On a Sea Fight which the Author was in
betwixt the English and the Dutch," occurred before or after the
production of Love in a Wood is a point upon which opinions
differ, but on the whole we are inclined to agree with Macaulay,
against Leigh Hunt, that these experiences took place not only
after the production of Love in a Wood but after the production
of The Gentleman Dancing Master, in 1673. We also think, with
Macaulay, that he went to sea simply because it. was the "polite"
thing to do so — simply because, as he says in the epilogue to The
Gentleman Dancing Master "all gentlemen must pack to sea."
This second comedy was published in 1673, but was probably
acted late in 1671. It is inferior to Love in a Wood. In The
Relapse the artistic mistake of blending comedy and farce damages
a splendid play, but leaves it a splendid play still. In The Gentle-
man Dancing Master this mingling of discordant elements destroys
a play that would never in any circumstances have been strong—
a play nevertheless which abounds in animal spirits, and is lum-
inous here and there with true dramatic points.
It is, however, on his two last comedies — The Country Wife and
The Plain Dealer — that must rest Wycherley's fame as a master
of that comedy of repartee which, inaugurated by Etheredge, and
afterwards brought to perfection by Congreve and Vanbrugh,
supplanted the humoristic comedy of the Elizabethans. The
Country Wife, produced in 1672 or 1673 and published in 1675,
is so full of wit, ingenuity, animal spirits and conventional humour
that, had it not been for its motive, it would probably have sur-
vived as long as the acted drama remained a literary form in
England. So strong, indeed, is the hand that could draw such a
character as Marjory Pinchwife (the undoubted original not only
of Congreve 's Miss Prue but of Vanbrugh's Hoyden), such a
character as Sparkish (the undoubted original of Congreve's
Tattle), such a character as Horner (the undoubted original of all
those cool impudent rakes with whom our stage has since been
familiar) , that Wycherley is certainly entitled to a place alongside
Congreve and Vanbrugh.
Scarcely inferior to The Country Wife is The Plain, Dealer,
produced probably early in 1674 and published three years later,-—
a play of which Voltaire, said, "Je ne connais point de comedie
chez les anciens ni chess les moderns oil il y ait autant d'esprit."
This comedy had an immense influence, as regards manipulation
of dialogue, upon all subsequent English comedies of repartee,
and he who wants .to trace the ancestry of Tony Lumpkin and
Mrs. Hardcastle has only to turn to Jerry Blackacre and his
mother, while Manly (for whom Wycherley's early patron, the
duke of Montausier, sat), though he is perhaps overdone, has
dominated this kind of stage character ever since.
It was after the success of The Plain Dealer that the turning-
point came in Wycherley's career. The great dream of all the men
about town in Charles's t'me, as Wycherley's plays all show, was
to marry a widow, young and handsome, a peer's daughter if
possible — but in any event rich, and spend her money upon wine
and women. While talking to a friend in a bookseller's shop at
Tunbridge, Wycherley heard The Plain Dealer asked for by a lady
who, in the person of the countess of Droghcda, answered all the
requirements. An introduction ensued, then love-making, then
marriage — a secret marriage, probably in 1680, for, fearing to lose
the king's patronage and the income therefrom, Wycherley still
thought it politic to pass as a bachelor. Rut the news reached
the royal ear, and Wycherley lost the royal favour for ever. He
never had an opportunity of regaining it, for the countess seems
to have really loved him, and Love in a Wood had proclaimed the
writer to be the kind of husband whose virtue prospers l>est when
closely guarded at the domestic hearth. Wherever he went the
countess followed him, and when she did allow him to meet his
boon companions it was in a tavern in Bow Street opposite to
I his own house, and even there under certain protective conditions.
In summer or in winter he was obliged to sit with the window
open and the blinds up, so that his wife might see that the party
included no member of a sex for which her husband's plays had
advertised his partiality. She died, however, in the year after her
marriage and left him the whole of her fortune. But the title
to the property was disputed; the costs of the litigation were
heavy — so heavy that his father was unable (or else he was un-
willing) to come to his aid; and the result of his marrying the
rich, beautiful and titled widow was that the poet was thrown into
the Fleet prison. There he remained for seven years, being finally
released by the liberality of James II. — a liberality which, in-
credible as it seems, is too well authenticated to be challenged.
James had been so much gratified by seeing The Plain Dealer
acted that, finding a parallel between Manly's "manliness" and his
own, such as no spectator had before discovered, he paid off
W'ycherley's execution creditor and settled on him a pension of
£200 a year. Other debts still troubled Wycherley, however, and
he never was released from his embarrassments, not even after suc-
ceeding to a life estate in the family property. In coming to Wych-
erley's death, we come to the worst allegation that has ever been
made against him as a man and as a gentleman. At the age of
seventy-five he married a young girl, and is said to have done so in
order to spite his nephew, the next in succession.
Wycherley wrote verses, and, when quite an old man, prepared
them for the press by the aid of Alexander Pope, then not much
more than a boy. But, notwithstanding all Pope's tinkering, they
remain contemptible. Pope's published correspondence with the
dramatist was probably edited by him with a view to giving an
impression of his own precocity. The friendship between the
two cooled, according to Pope's account, because Wycherley took
offence at the numerous corrections on his verses. It seems more
likely that Wycherley discovered that Pope, while still professing
friendship and admiration, satirized his friend in the Essay on
Criticism. Wycherley died on Jan. i, 1716, and was buried in the
vault of the church in Co vent Garden.
Wycherley's complete works were edited by M. Summers in 4 vols.
(Nonesuch Press, 1924). See C. Perromat, William Wycherley, sa vie,
son oeuvre (1921). (T. W.-D,; X.)
WYCLIFFE (or WYCLIF), JOHN (c. 1320-1384), English
reformer, was born, according to John Leland, at Iprcswel (evi-
dently Hipswell), in Yorkshire1. The Wycliffes were connected
lThc form of spelling of the name Wycliffe adopted in this article
is that of the village Wycliffe-on-Tees, from which Leland says
that he "drew his origin" (Collectanea ii. 329) ; it is also preferred by
the editors of the Wycliffc Bible, by Milman and by Stubbs. "Wyclif"
has the support of Shirley, of T. Arnold and of the Wyclif Society ;
i while "Wiclif" is the popular form in Germany.
822
WYCLIFFE
with Balliol College, Oxford, which had been founded by their
neighbours, the Balliols of Barnard Castle; John Wycliffe went
there, and some time after 1356 was elected master. Confusion
with contemporaries makes it not easy to trace his Oxford life;
it has been said that he was a fellow of Mertoji College in 1356.
In 1361 he accepted the living of Fillingham in Lincolnshire. In
the same year a "John de Wyclif of the diocese of York, M.A."
was a suppliant to the Roman Curia for a provision to a prebend,
canonry and dignity at York (Cal. of Entries in the Papal Regis-
tries, ed. Bliss, Petitions, i. 390). This was not granted, but
Wycliffe received instead the prebend of Aust in the collegiate
church of Westbury-on-Trym. In 1365 one "John de Wyclif"
was appointed by Simon Islip, archbishop of Canterbury, to the
wardeoship of Canterbury Hall, which the archbishop founded
for a mixed body of monks and secular clergy, and then filled
exclusively with the latter. In 1367, his successor, Simon Lang-
ham, replaced the intruded seculars by monks. The displaced
warden and fellows appealed to Rome, and in 1371 judgment was
given against them. The question of the identity of the warden
of Canterbury Hall with the reformer is still a matter of dispute,
It may have been referred to by Wycliffe himself (De ecclesia,
cap. xvi. pp. 370 sq.), and was assumed by the contemporary
monk of St. Albans (Chron. Antf. "Rolls" scr. p. 115) and by
Wycliffe's opponent William Woodford (Fasc. Zizon. p. 517), who
found in W'ycliffe's resentment at this treatment the motive for
his attacks on the religious orders; it has likewise been assumed
by a series of modern scholars, including Loserth (Realencyklo-
padie, 1908 ed, vol. xxi. p. 228, § 35), who only denies the deduc-
tions that Woodford drew from it. Dr. Rashdall, following Shir-
ley, brings evidence to show that the Wycliffe of Canterbury Hall
was the same person as the fellow of Merton, this being the
strongest argument against the identification of the latter with
the reformer.
Long before Wycliffe had become a power outside Oxford his
fame was established in the university. He was acknowledged
supreme in the philosophical disputations of the schools, and his
lectures were crowded, but it was not until he was drawn into
the arena of the politico-ecclesiastical conflicts of the day that
Wycliffe became of world-importance. It has been assumed that
this happened first in 1366, and that Wycliffe published his
Determinatio quaedam de dominio supporting parliament in refus-
ing the tribute demanded by Pope Urban V.; but Loserth has
shown that this work must be assigned to a date some eight years
later. Wycliffe, in fact, for some years to come had the reputation
of a good "curialist." Had it been otherwise, the pope would
scarcely have granted him (January 1373) a license to keep his
Westbury prebend even after he should have obtained one at
Lincoln (Cal. Papal Letters, ed. Bliss and Twemlow, iv. 193).
Moreover, it is uniformly asserted that Wycliffe fell into heresy
after his admission to the degree of doctor (Fasc. Ziz. p. 2), and
the papal document above quoted shows that he had only just
become a doctor of theology, that it in 1372.
But Wycliffe's. tendencies may already have called attention
to him in high places as a possibly useful instrument for the anti-
papal policy of John of Gaunt and his party. On the 7th of April
^374' be was presented by the crown to the rectory of Lutter-
wortb in Leicestershire, 'which h* h*ld until his death; and on the
a6th of July he was nominated QUA of the royal envoys to Bruges
to confer with the papal representatives on the long vexed ques-
tion of ''provisions" (ff.v.). He may have been attached to this
mission as theologian — a proof that he was not yet considered a
persona mgrata at the Curia. His name stands second, next after
that of the bishop of Bangor, and he was paid at the princely rate
of twenty shillings a day. The commission was appointed because
of repeated complaints from the Commons; but the king was
interested in keeping up the papal system of provisions and reser-
vations, and the negotiations were practically fruitless.
After his return Wycliffe lived chiefly at Lutterworth and Ox-
ford, making prolonged visits to London, where his fame as a
popular preacher was established. It is from this period that dates
the development of his systematic attack on the established
order in the church. It was not at first the dogmatic, but the
political elements in the papal system that provoked his censure.
The negotiations at Bruges had strengthened his sympathy with
the anti-curial tendencies in English politics from Edward I.'s
time onwards, and a final impulse was given by the attitude of
the "Good Parliament" in 1376; in the autumn of that year he
was reading his treatise on civil lordship (De civili dominio) to
his students at Oxford. Of its propositions some, according to
Loserth, were taken bodily from the 140 titles of the bill dealing
with ecclesiastical abuses introduced in the parliament; but it
may perhaps be that Wycliffe inspired the bill rather than the bill
Wycliffe. For the first time he now publicly proclaimed the doc-
trine that righteousness is the sole indefeasible title to dominion
and to property, that an unrighteous clergy has no such title, and
that the decision as to whether or no the property of ecclesiastics
should be taken away rests with the civil power.
If the position at which Wycliffe had now arrived was originally
inspired, as Loserth asserts, by his sympathy with the legislation
of Edward I., i.e., by political rather than theological considera-
tions, the necessity for giving to it a philosophical and religious
basis led him to criticism of the doctrinal standpoint of the church.
As a philosopher Wycliffe was no more than the last of the con-
spicuous Oxford scholastics, and his philosophy is important in
so far as it determined his doctrine of dominium, and the direction
in which his political and religious views were to develop. In the
controversy between Realism and Nominalism he was on the side
of the former, though his doctrine of universals showed the influ-
ence of Ockham and the nominalists. To Wycliffe the doctrine
of arbitrary divine decrees was anathema. The will of God is
his essential and eternal nature, by which all his acts are deter-
mined; God created all things in their primordial causes, as genera
and species, or else in their material essences, secundum rationes
absconditas seminales (ibid. p. 66). The world is therefore not
merely one among an infinity of alternatives, but is the only
possible world; it is, moreover, not in the nature of an eternal
emanation from God, but was created at a given moment of time —
to think otherwise would be to admit its absolute necessity, which
would destroy free-will and merit. Since, however, all things came
into being in this way, it follows that the creature can produce
nothing save what God has already created. This leads to pre-
destination and free-will. Wycliffe takes a middle position. God
does not will sin, for He only wills that which has being, and sin
is the negation of being; He necessitates men to perform actions
which only become right or wrong through man's free agency.
All human lordship is derived from the supreme overlordship of
God and is inseparable from it, since whatever God gives is part
of himself. But, in giving, God does not part with the lordship
of the thing given ; whatever lordship the creature may possess is
held subject to due service to the supreme overlord. Thus, as in
feudalism, lordship is distinguished from possession. Property is
the result of sin ; Christ and his apostles had none. The service
by which lordship is held of God is righteousness and its works ;
it follows that the unrighteous forfeit their right to exercise it,
and may be deprived of their possessions by competent authority.
The question follows as to what this authority is, and this
Wycliffe sets out to answer in the Determinatio quaedam de
dominio and the De civili dominio. Briefly, his argument is that
the church has no concern with temporal matters at all, that for
the clergy to hold property is sinful, and that it is lawful for
statesmen (politici) — who are God's stewards in temporals — to
take away the goods of such of the clergy as no longer render the
service by which they hold them. That the church was actually
in a condition to deserve spoliation he refused to affirm ; but his
theories fitted in. too well with the notorious aims of the duke of
Lancaster not to rouse the bitter hostility of the endowed clergy.
Hitherto Wycliffe had made no open attack on the doctrinal
system of the church. Early in 1377, however, Archbishop Sud-
bury summoned him to appear before the bishop of London, and
on Feb. 19 Wycliffe made his appearance at St. Paul's, accom-
panied by the duke of Lancaster, by Lord Percy, marshal of
England, and by four doctors of the four mendicant orders.
Before Wycliffe could open hi* mouth, the court was broken up
by a rude brawl between his protectors and Bishop Courtenay,
WYCLIFFE
823
the affair developing into a general riot.
Wycliffe had escaped for the time, but probably before this his
enemies had set their case before the pope; and on the 22nd of
May five bulls were issued by Gregory XI., condemning eighteen
of Wydiffe's "conclusions." All the articles but one are taken
from his De civili dominio. The bulls truly stated WycKftVs in-
tellectual lineage; he was following in the error of MarsiKus of
Padua; and the articles laid against him are concerned entirely
with questions as to how far ecclesiastical censures could lawfully
affect a man's civil position, and whether the church had a right
to hold temporal endowments. The bulls were addressed to the
archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, the uni-
versity of Oxford, and the king. The university was to send
Wycliffe to the prelates, who were to examine the truth of the
charges and to report to the pope, Wycliffe being meanwhile kept
in confinement. The execution of the papal bulls was impeded by
three separate causes — the king's death on the 2ist of June; the
tardy action of the bishops, who enjoined the university to make
a report; and the unwillingness of the ^university to admit the
pope's right to order the imprisonment of any man in England.
The convocation of the university merely directed Wycliffe to
keep within his lodgings at Black Hall for a time.
As soon as parliament met in the autumn of 1377, Wycliffe was
consulted by it as to the lawfulness of prohibiting that treasure
should pass out of the country in obedience to the pope's demand.
Wycliffc's affirmative judgment is contained in a state paper still
extant; and its tone is plain proof that his views on the main ques-
tion of church and state had the support of the nation. He had
laid before this same parliament his answer to the pope's bulls,
with a defence of the soundness of his opinions. His university,
moreover, confirmed his argument; his tenets, it said, were ortho-
dox though their expression might admit of a wrong interpreta-
tion. Early in 1378 Wycliffe appeared at Lambeth Palace to clear
himself before the prelates who had summoned him. A more
cautiously worded defence was laid before the council; but its
session was rudely interrupted, not only by a crowd of citizens,
but also by a messenger from the princess of Wales enjoining
them not to pass judgment against Wycliffe; and thus a second
time he escaped. Meanwhile his "protestatio" was sent on to
Rome, but before any further step could be taken Gregory XI.
died.
In the autumn of this year Wycliffe was once more called upon
to prove his loyalty to John of Gaunt, who had violated the
sanctuary of Westminster by sending armed men to seize two
squires who had taken refuge there. One of them was murdered,
together with a servant of the church. The bishop of London
excommunicated all concerned in the crime (except only the king,
his mother and his uncle), and preached against the culprits at
Paul's Cross. At the parliament held at Gloucester in October, in
the presence of the legates of Pope Urban VI., Wycliffe read an
apology for the duke's action, pleading that the men were killed
in resisting legal arrest. The paper, which forms part of the De
ecclesia, maintains the right of the civil power to invade the
sanctuary to bring escaped prisoners to justice.
The schism in the papacy, owing to the election of Clement
VII. in opposition to Urban VI., accentuated Wycliffe's hostility
to the Holy See and its claims. He did not object to a visible head
of the church so long as this head possessed the essential quali-
fication of righteousness. It was later that Wycliffe definitely
branded the pope, qua pope, as Antichrist. (See vol. ii. of the
Sermones. Book iii. of his Opus evangelicum is entitled De
Antichrist o.\ Wy cliff e's criticism of the established order and of
the accepted doctrines he now determined to carry into the streets.
For this purpose he instituted "simple" priests to preach his doc-
trines throughout the country; and, secondly, he translated the
Vulgate into English, with the aid of his friends Nicholas Hereford
and John Purvey. (See BIBLE, ENGLISH.) This version of the
Bible, and still more his numerous sermons and tracts, established
Wycliffe's position as the founder of English prose writing.
Wycliffe had been on good terms with the friars, whose ideal
of poverty appealed to him but he had come to recognize that all
organized societies within the church were 'liable to the same
corruption, while he objected fundamentally to a special standard
of morality for the "religious." His itinerant preachers were
meant to supplement the sendees of the church by religious
instruction in the vernacular,, and among them were men who held
or had held respectable positions at Oxford The common people
were rejoiced by their plain and homely doctrine which dwelt
chiefly on the simple "law" of the gospel, while they DO doubt
relished the denunciation of existing evils in the church. The
feeling of disaffection against the rkh and careless clergy, monks
and friars was widespread but undefined Wycfiffe turned it into
a definite channel.
In addition, Wycliifc was appealing to the world of learning in
a series of Latin treatises, which followed each other in rapid
succession, and collectively form his summa tkeologiae. J. Loserth,
in his paper "Die Genesis von Wklrfs Siunrna Theologiae" (Sit-
zungsber. der k. Akad. der Wissemck., Vienna, 1908, voh 156)
gives proofs that the Swnma was written to provide weapons in
the controversies of the time. During the years 13,78 and 1379
Wycliffe produced his works on the truth of Holy Scripture, on
the church, on the office of king, on the papal power. Tbr De
officio regis is practically a declaration of war against the papal
monarchy, an anticipation of the theocratic conception oi national
kingship as established later by the Reformation. (See Do officio
regis ed A. W. Pollard and Charles Sayle, from Vienna ras&
4514, 3933, WycKf Soc. 1887 — cap. vi p. 119.) Wyctiffe now
passed from an assailant of the papal to an assailant oi the
sacerdotal power. In 1379 or 1380 Wycliffe began a foimal public
attack on what he calls the "new" doctrine in a set of theses on
the Eucharist propounded at Oxford. (1381 is the date given in
Shirley's edition of the Fasciculi Zizamortcm. F. IX Matthew, in
the Eng. Hist. Rev. for April 1890, v. 328, proves that the date
must have been 1379 or 1380-) There followed sermons, tracts,
and, in 1381, his great treatise De euc/taristia. Finally, at the close
of his life, he summed up his doctrine in the Trialogus.
The language in which he denounced transubstantiation antici-
pated that of the Protestant reformers; it is a "blasphemous
folly," philosophically it is nonsense, since it presupposes the
possibility of an accident existing without its substance; it over-
throws the very nature of a sacrament. Yet the consecrated bread
and wine are the body and blood of Christ, for Christ himself says
so (Fasc. Zizan. p. 115); we do not, however, corporeally touch
and break the Lord's body, which is present only sacramentaliter,
spiritualit er et virtualiter — as the soul is present in the body. The
real presence is not denied; what Wycliffe "dares not affirm" is
that the bread is after consecration "essentially, substantially,
corporeally and identically" the body of Christ. His doctrine
approximates to the Lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation, as
distinguished from the Zwinglian teaching accepted in the xxviii.
Article of Religion of the Church of England.
The theologians of the university were at once aroused. The
chancellor, William Barton, sat with twelve doctors (six of whom
were friars), and solemnly condemned the theses. Wycliffe ap-
pealed, not to the pope, but to the king. But the lay magnates,
who were perfectly ready to help the church to attain to the ideal
of apostolic poverty, shrank from the responsibility of supporting
obscure propositions, which involved undoubted heresy and the
pains of hell. John of Gaunt hastily sent a messenger enjoining
the reformer to keep silence. The rift thus created between
Wycliffe and his patrons in high places was widened by the
Peasants7 Revolt of 1381, the result of which was to draw the
conservative elements in church and state together.
With the Peasants' Revolt it has been supposed that Wycliffe
had something to do. One of its leaders, John Ball, when con-
demned, confessed that he learned his subversive doctrines from
Wycliffe. We have, however, not only the repeated testimony of
Knyghton that he was a "precursor" of Wycliffe, but also docu-
mentary evidence that he was excommunicated in 1366, long
before Wycliffe exposed himself to ecclesiastical censure. Wy-
cliffe's communistic views are theoretical and confined to his
Latin scholastic writings. They could not reach the people directly.
Possibly his followers translated them in their popular discourses,
and thus fed the flame that burst forth in the rebellion.
824.
WYCOMBE— WYE
In the spring after the Revolt his old enemy, William Cour-
tenay, who had succeeded the murdered archbishop Sudbury as
archbishop of Canterbury, resolved to stamp out Wycliffe's crown-
ing heresy. He called a court of bishops, theologians and canon-
ists at the Blackfriars' convent. This proceeding was met by a
manifestation of university feeling on Wycliffe's side. The chan-
cellor, Robert Rygge, though he had joined in the condemnation
of the theses, stood by him, as did also both the proctors. The
Council decided that out of 24 articles extracted from Wycliffe's
works, ten were heretical and fourteen erroneous. The reply of
the chancellor was to deny the archbishop's jurisdiction within
the university, and to allow Philip Repington, disciple of Wycliffe,
to preach before the university. The chancellor and proctors were
now summoned to appear before the Blackfriars' court on the
1 2th of June. Though they were, with the majority of regent
masters at Oxford, on the side of Wycliffe, the main question was
for them one of philosophy rather than faith, and they made
formal submission to the authority of the Church.
Wycliffe himself remained at large and unmolested. That his
Strength among the laity was undiminished is shown by the fact
that an ordinance passed by the House of Lords alone, in May
1382, against the itinerant preachers was annulled on the petition
of the Commons in the following autumn. The reformer, however,
was growing old and now occupied himself in writing numerous
tracts and two of his most important works. The Trialogns is a
summing up of his arguments and conclusions on philosophy and
doctrine. It was the most influential of all Wycliffe's works, and
was the first to be printed (1525). All the only four known com-
plete mss. of the work, preserved in the Imperial Library at
Vienna, are of Hussite origin. The note of both the Trialogus
and of the unfinished Opus emngelicwn, Wycliffe's last work, is
their insistence on the "sufficiency of Holy Scripture."
In 1382, or early in 1383, Wycliffe was seized with a paralytic
stroke. On the 28th of December 1384, he had a final stroke,
from the effects of which he died on the New Year's eve. He
was buried at Lutterworth; but by a decree of the council of
Constance, May 4, 1415, his remains were ordered to be dug
up and burned, an order which was carried out, at the command
of Pope Martin V., by Bishop Fleming in 1428.
A sober study of Wycliffe's life and works justifies a conviction
of his complete sincerity and earnest striving after what he be-
lieved to be right. When he conceives the Church as consisting
exclusively of the righteous, he may seem to have gone the whole
length of the most radical reformers of the i6th century. And
yet, powerful as was his influence in England, his doctrines in
his own country were doomed to become for a century and a
half the creed only of obscure sectaries. (See LOLLARDS.) It was
otherwise in Bohemia, whither his works had been carried by the
scholars who came to England in the train of Richard II. 's queen,
Anne of Bohemia. Here his writings were eagerly read and multi-
plied, and here his disciple, John Huss (q.v.) raised Wycliffe's
doctrine to the dignity of a national religion. Extracts from the
De ecclesia and the De potestate Papae of the English reformer
made up the greater part of the De ecclesia of Huss, a work for
centuries ascribed solely to the Bohemian divine, and for which
he was condemned and burnt. It was Wycliffe's De sufficientia
legis Christi that Huss carried with him to convert the council
of Constance; of the fiery discourses now included in the published
edition of Wycliffe's Scrmones many were likewise long attributed
to Huss. Finally, it was from the De eucharistia that the Taborites
derived their doctrine of the Lord's Supper, with the exception
of the granting of the chalice to the laity. To Huss, Luther and
other continental reformers owed much, and thus the spirit of
the English reformer had its influence on the reformed churches
of Europe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The documentary materials for Wycliffe's biography
arc to be found in John Lewis's Life and Sufferings of J. Wiclif (new
ed., Oxford, 1820), which contains a valuable appendix; Foxe's Acts
and Monuments, vol. iii., ed. 1855, with app.; Forshall and Madden's
preface to the Wycliffe Bible, p. vii. note, Oxford, 1851; W. W.
Shirley's edition of the Fasciculi Zisaniorum, a collection of contempo-
rary documents (1858); and H. T. Riley's notices in the appendices
to the Second and Fourth Reports of the Historical Manuscripts
Commission. The narrative of a monk of St. Albans published under
the title of Chronicon Angliae, by Sir E. Maunde Thompson (1874),
and in a modified version in Walsingham's Historic Anglicana (ed.
H. T. Riley, 1863, 1864). Knyghton's chronology in De eventibus
Angliae is faulty (ed. J. R. Lumby, 1889-95). There are valuable
notices in the Eulogium historiarum (vol. iii., ed. F. S. Haydon, 1863),
in the Chronicle of Adam of Usk (ed. E. M. Thompson, 1876), and in
the continuations of Higden. The controversial works of Wodeford and
Walden are important, but must be used with caution.
Of modern biographies that by G. V. Lechler (Johann von Wiclif
nnd die Vorgeschichte der Reformation, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1873; partial
Eng. trans., by P. Lorimer, 1878, 1881 and 1884) is by far the most
comprehensive. Shirley's introduction to the Fasciculi Zizaniorum,
and F. D. Matthew's to his edition of English Works of Wyclif hitherto
unprinted (1880), as well as Creighton's History of the Papacy, vol. i.,
1882, and Sir H. C. Maxwell Lyte's account in his History of the.
University of Oxford (1886), contain valuable criticism. See also
Mr. R. L. Poolc, (Illustrations of the History of Mediaeval Thought,
1884); J. Loserth (Hus und Wiclif, Prague, 1884; also Eng. trans.).
G. M. Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wycliffe (London, 1899) *>
Oman, History of England 1377-1485 (London, 1906) ; W. W. Capes,
"History of the English Church in the i4th and 15th Centuries," in
Hist, of the Eng. Church, ed. Stephen and Hunt (London, 1900) ;
J. Loserth's article "Wiclif," in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie
(3rd ed., 1908), xxi., pp. 225-227; H. B. Workman, John Wyclif
(1926),
Wycliffe's works are enumerated in a Catalogue by Shirley (Oxford,
1865). Of his Latin works only two had been published previous
to 1880, the De officio pastorali, cd. G. V. Lechler (Leipzig, 1863) and
the Trialogus, ed. Lechler (Oxford, 1869). Under the auspices of the
Wyclif Society the following have been published. — Polemical Tracts,
ed. R. Buddensieg (2 vols., 1883) ; De civill dominw, vol. i. cd.,R. L.
Poole, vols. ii.-iv., ed. J. Loserth (1885-1905) ; De composicione
hominis, ed. R. Beer (1884) ; De Ecclesia, ed. Loserth (1886) ; Dialogus
sivc speculum ecclfsiae militantis, ed. A. W. Pollard (1886) ; Sermones,
ed. Loserth, vols. i.-iv. (1887-90) ; De officio regis, ed. A. W. Pollard
and C. Sayle (1887); De apostasia, cd. M. Dzicwicki (1889); De
dominio divino, ed R. L. Poole (1890) ; Quaestiones, De. ente praedi-
camentali, ed. R. Beer (1891) ; De eucharistia tractatus major, ed,
Loserth (1893) ; De blasphemia, ed. Dziewicki (1894) ; Logica (3 vols.,
ed. Dziewicki, 1895-99) ; Opus evangelicum, ed. Loserth (4 vols., 1898),
parts iii. and iv. also bear the title De Antichristo; De Simonia, ed.
Herzberg-Frankel and Dziewicki (1898) ; DC veritatac sacrae scripturae,
ed. R. Buddensieg (3 vols., 1905) ; Miscellanea philosophica, ed.
Dziewicki (2 vols., 1905) (vol. i. has an introduction on Wycliffe's
philosophy) ; De potestate papae, cd. Loserth (1907).
For his works in English see Select English Works, cd. T. Arnold
(3 vols., 1869-71), and English Works hitherto imprinted, ed. F. D.
Matthew (1880). The Wicket (Nuremberg, 1546; reprinted at Oxford,
1828) is not included in either of these collections. (R. L. P.; X.)
WYCOMBE (officially CHEPPING WYCOMBE, also CHIPPING
or HIGH WYCOMBE), a town and municipal borough in Bucking-
hamshire, England, 26^ m. W. by N. of London by the G.W. rail-
way. Pop. (1921) 21,952.
The principal industry is the making of cane- and rush-seated
chairs and furniture.
There are various British remains including an encampment
in the neighbourhood of Chipping Wycombe, but the traces of
a Roman settlement are more important. There was evidently
an important Roman station here and traces of the fortifications
and many other remains have been found. In Domesday the
manor only is mentioned. The last charter, which replaced several
earlier ones from 1225 onward was granted by Charles II. in
1663.
See John Parker, History and Antiquities of Wycombe (1878).
WYE, a river of England, famous for beautiful scenery. It
rises on the eastern slope of Plynlimmon, close to the source of
the Severn, the estuary of which it joins after a widely divergent
course. Its length is 130 m. Running at first south-east it passes
Rhayader and receives the Elan, in the basin of which are the
Birmingham reservoirs. It then receives the Ithon (left) and
then passes Builth and Hay. The river, which rose at 2,000 ft.,
has now reached a level of 250 ft., 55 m. from its source. As it
enters Herefordshire it bends east to reach the city of Hereford.
It soon receives the Lugg, which, augmented by the Arrow and the
Frome, joins from the north. The course of the Wye now becomes
sinuous; and the valley narrows nearly to Chepstow. It passes
Monmouth, where it receives the Monnow on the right, and finally
Chepstow, 2 m. above its junction with the Severn estuary. The
river is navigable for small vessels for 15 m, up from the mouth
on high tides. The average spring tide is 38 ft. at Chepstow,
WYMAN— WYNDHAM
825
and the average neap tide is 28^ ft. The scenery is finest between
Rhayader and Hay in the upper part, and from Goodrich, below
Ross, to Chepstow in the lower, the second being the portion
which gives the Wye its fame.
The name of Wye belongs also to two smaller English rivers —
a tributary of the Derbyshire Derwent and a tributary of the
Thames, watering a valley of the Chilterns.
WYMAN, JEFFRIES (1814-1874), American scientist,
born in Chelmsford, Mass., Aug. n, 1814. He graduated at Har-
vard in 1833, and in 1837 also received his medical degree there.
He began medical practice in Boston and became a demonstrator
of anatomy at Harvard, but in 1843 he went to Europe for a
short period of study at London and Paris. Upon his return he
was for four years professor of anatomy and physiology at Hamp-
ton-Sidney College, Richmond, Va., and was then recalled to
Harvard as Hersey professor in anatomy. He began the task of
building a museum of comparative anatomy at Harvard, one of the
first in the United States, and travelled widely in search of speci-
mens, his trips ranging along the Atlantic coast from Labrador
to Florida, and including expeditions to Europe, to Guiana, and,
notably, up the La Plata, Uruguay and Parana rivers and across
the pampas and Andes to Santiago, Chile. In 1866 he was made
a trustee of the museum of archaeology and professor of archaeol-
ogy and ethnology on the George Peabody foundation. His
scientific papers embrace a wide range of studies, including hu-
man, comparative and microscopic anatomy, physiology, paleontol-
ogy and ethnology. Especially notable were his papers on "Ob-
servations on the Crania" (Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.,
1868), on the nervous system of the bullfrog and the changes
undergone during metamorphosis (Smithsonian Institution Con-
tributions, 1852), the first account of the osteology of the gorilla
(Memoirs, Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1847), and "Unusual
Methods of Gestation in Certain Fishes" (Silliman's Journal).
He died at Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 4, 1874.
There is a memoir and complete bibliography of his writings in the
Biographical Memoirs, Nat. Acad. of Science, vol. 2 (1886), His col-
league, Oliver Wendell Holmes, wrote a biographical sketch in the
Atlantic Monthly (Nov. 1874).
WYMONDHAM (pronounced Windham), town in Norfolk,
England, 10 m. S.W. of Norwich by L.N.E.R. Pop. (1921) 4,814.
The church of St. Mary the Virgin on the outskirts of the town
was attached to a Benedictine priory, founded in the 1 2th century
as a cell of St. Albans abbey by William de Albini. In 1448 this
foundation became an abbey. The nave is Norman with a massive
triforium, surmounted by a Perpendicular clerestory and a beau-
tiful wooden roof. The broad north aisle is Perpendicular, and
has also a fine rood screen. At the west end there is a Perpendicu-
lar tower. In the centre of the town is a half-timbered market
cross (1616), with an octagonal upper chamber.
WYNAAD, highland tract, south India, forming part of Mala-
bar district, Madras. It consists of a table-land amid the west
Ghats, 60 m. long by 30 m. broad, with an average elevation of
3,000 feet. A large amount of British capital was sunk during the
decade 1876-86 in gold mines in the district. It had still earlier
been a coffee-planting district, but more tea is now grown. Car-
damoms are also produced in large quantities.
WYNDHAM, SIR CHARLES (1837-1919), English actor,
was born in Liverpool on March 23, 1837, the son of a doctor.
He was educated abroad, at King's college, London, and at the
College of Surgeons and the Peter street anatomical school, Dub-
lin. Early in 1862 he made a first appearance in London as an
actor. In that year he went to America, volunteered during the
Civil War and became brigade surgeon in the Federal army,
resigning in 1864 to appear on the stage in New York with John
Wilkes Booth. Returning to England, he played at Manchester
and Dublin in various pieces. He reappeared in London in 1866
as Sir Arthur Lascelles in Morton's All that Glitters is not Gold,
but his great success at that time was in F. C. Burnand's burlesque
of Black-eyed Susan, as Hatchett, "with dance." This brought him
to the St. James's theatre, where he played with Henry Irving in
Idalia; then with Ellen Terry in Charles Reade's Double Marriage,
and Tom Taylor's Still Waters Run Deep. Re had a great success
as Charles Surface, his best part for many years. In 1876 he took
control of the Criterion theatre. Here he produced a long succes-
sion of plays, notably a number of old English comedies, and
among modern plays" The Liars, The Case of Rebellious Susan and
others by Henry Arthur Jones ; his most famous part was in David
Garrick. In 1899 he opened his new theatre, called Wyndham's. In
1902 he was knighted. From 1885 onwards his leading actress was
Miss Mary Moore (Mrs. Albery), who became his partner in the
proprietorship of the Criterion and Wyndham's theatres, and of
his New theatre, opened in 1903; and her delightful acting in
comedy made their long association memorable on the London
stage. Wyndham died in London on Jan. 12, 1919.
WYNDHAM, GEORGE (1863-1913), British politician
and man of letters, was born Aug. 29, 1863, the eldest son of
Percy Scawen Wyndham, and grandson of the first Lord Lecon-
field. His mother was Madeline Caroline Frances Eden, daughter
of Sir Guy Campbell, bart., and through her he was great-grandson
of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the Irish rebel. He was educated at
Eton and Sandhurst, obtained a commission in the Coldstream
Guards in 1883, and served through the Suakin campaign of
1885. He left the army in 1887, married Sibeli Mary, daughter
of the 9th Earl of Scarborough, widow of Earl Grosvenor. He
became private secretary to A. J. Balfour, at the time Irish
Secretary, and in 1889 entered Parliament as Conservative mem-
ber for Dover, a seat which he retained till his death.
After serving, from 1898-1900, as financial secretary to the
war office, he was appointed in 1900 chief secretary for Ireland.
His early work in Ireland met with general approval. He devel-
oped enormously the Conservative policy of land purchase; and
the act which he carried in 1903 for that end was the most com-
prehensive measure of the kind ever submitted to Parliament.
He hoped to arrange a form of local government which should
sufficiently meet Nationalist demands, and with this in view ap-
pointed in 1902 an eminent Anglo-Indian, Sir Antony (afterwards
Lord) MacDonnell to the undcr-secretaryship. The Unionist
party, both in Ireland and in England, became suspicious of the
tendencies of his administration, and he was driven in 1905 to
resignation. He never held office again, but was active in support
of tariff reform and woman suffrage; he was a keen critic of
Haldane's army reforms, and threw himself vigorously into the
"Diehard" campaign against the Parliament Bill in 1911.
He was also a man of letters. Here his genius was stimulated
by his friendship for W. E. Henley, who dedicated a book to
"George Wyndham, soldier, courtier, scholar." His principal pub-
lished work was an edition of Shakespeare's Poems (1898); but
he wrote also on North's Plutarch and Ronsard. The Admirable
Crichton of his day, handsome and debonair, he was keen alike
on field sports and the arts, a working railway director and an
efficient colonel of yeomanry, the pet of society and the recipient
of honorary distinctions from several universities. On June 8,
1913, at the comparatively early age of 50, he died in Paris.
See his Life and Letters, ed. J. W. Mackail and Guy Wyndham
(2 vols., 1925).
WYNDHAM, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1687-1740), Eng-
lish politician, was the only son of Sir Edward Wyndham, Bart.,
and a grandson of William Wyndham (d. 1683) of Orchard
Wyndham, Somerset, who was created a baronet in 1661.- Edu-
cated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, he entered parliament
in 1710 and became secretary-at-war in the Tory ministry in 1712
and chancellor of the exchequer in 1713. He was closely asso-
ciated with Lord Bolingbroke, and he was privy to the attempts
made to bring about a Jacobite restoration on the death of Queen
Anne; when these failed he was dismissed from office. In 1715
the failure of a Jacobite movement led to his imprisonment, but
he was soon set at liberty. Under George I. Wyndham was the
leader of the opposition in the House of Commons, fighting for
his High Church and Tory principles against Sir Robert Walpole.
He was in constant communication with the exiled Bolingbroke,
and after 1723 the two were actively associated in abortive plans
for the overthrow of Walpole. He died at Wells on June 17, 1740.
Wyndham's first wife was Catherine, daughter of Charles Sey-
mour, 6th duke of Somerset. By her he had two sons, Charles,
826
WYNTOUN— WYOMING
who became 2nd earl of Egremont in 1750, and Percy, who took
the name of O'Brien and was created earl of Tbomond in 1756.
The Wyndham Family.—- Sir John Wyndham, a Norfolk
man, was knighted after the battle of Stoke in 1487 and beheaded
for high treason on May 2, 1502. He married Margaret, daughter
of John Howard, duke of Norfolk, and his son Sir Thomas Wynd-
ham (d. 1521), of Felbrigg, Norfolk, was vice-admiral of England
under Henry VIII. By his first wife Sir Thomas was the father
of Sir John Wyndham, who married Elizabeth, daughter of John
Sydenham of Orchard, Somerset, and founded the Somerset
branch of the family, and also of Sir Edmund Wyndham of Fel-
brigg, who was sheriff of Norfolk at the time of Robert Ket's
rebellion. By his second wife Sir Thomas was the father of the
seaman Thomas Wyndham (c. 1510-53), an account of whose
voyage to Morocco in 1552 is printed in Hakluyt's Voyages.
The Wyndhams are also connected through a female line with
the family of Wyndham-Quin, which holds the earldom of Dun-
raven. Valentine Richard Quin (1752-1824), of Adare, county
Limerick, was created Baron Adare on the union with England
in 1800, and earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl in 1822. His son,
the 2nd carl (1782-1850), married Caroline (d. 1870), daughter
and heiress of Thomas Wyndham of Dunraven castle, Glamorgan-
shire, and took the name of Wyndham-Quin. Their son, the 3rd
earl (1812-71), who was created a peer of the United Kingdom
as Baron Konry in 1866, was a well-known man of science, espe-
cially interested in archaeology and in Celtic antiquities. His son,
Windham Thomas Wyndham-Quin (1841-1926), the 4th earl,
served in the Abyssinian campaign and the South African War.
He was under-secretary for the Colonies in 1885-87, and was
a great figure in Irish politics, as chairman of the Irish Land
Conference (1902) and president of the Irish Reform Associa-
tion; he was also prominent as a yachtsman, competing for the
America's cup (see YACHTING) in 1893 and 1895. He died on
June 14, 1926.
WYNTOUN, ANDREW OF (?i35o-?i42o), author of a
long metrical history of Scotland, called the Orygynale Cronykil
of Scotland, was a canon regular of St. Andrews, and prior of St.
Serf's in Lochleven. He wrote the Chronicle at the request of his
patron, Sir John of Wemyss, whose representative, Mr. Erskine
Wemyss of Wemyss Castle, Fifeshire, possesses the oldest extant
ms. of the work. The subject is the history of Scotland from the
mythical period (hence the epithet "original") down to the
accession of James I. in 1406. The earlier books are of no his-
torical value, but the later have in all outstanding matters stood
the test of comparison with contemporary records. The philo-
logical interest is great, for few works of this date, and no other
of like magnitude, are extant in the vernacular.
The text is preserved in eight mss., of which three are in the British
Museum, the Royal (17 I), xx.), the Cottonian (Nero D. xi.) and the
Lansdowne (197); two in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh (19,
2, 3 and 19, 2, 4), one at Wemyss castle (u.s.) ; one in the university
library at St Andrews, and one, formerly in the possession of the
Boswells uf AuchinlCck, now the properly of John Ferguson,
Duns, Berwickshire. The first edition of the Chronicle (based on the
Royal ms.) was published by David Macpherson in 1795; the second
by David Laing, in the series of ''Scottish Historians" (Edin., 1872).
Both are superseded by the elaborate edition by Amours for the
Scottish Text Society (1906).
WYOMING, popularly known as the "Equality" State be-
cause it was the pioneer in woman suffrage, is one of the central-
western States of the United States of America, and is situated
between 104° 3' and 111° 3' long. W. and 41° and 45° N. lat.
It is bounded north by Montana, east by South Dakota and
Nebraska, south by Colorado and Utah, and west by Utah, Idaho
and Montana. Including Yellowstone park (area 3,114 sq.m.),
Wyoming has an area of 97,548 sq.m. of which 366 sq.m. are water
surface. Over Yellowstone park, however, the United States has
exclusive jurisdiction and control. East and west the State has an
extreme length of 367 m., and north and south an extreme breadth
of 277 miles. In shape it is an exact rectangle. Its mean elevation
is 6,700 ft. above sea-level and in this respect it is exceeded only
by Colorado. The name "Wyoming," originally bestowed upon the
Wyoming valley in Pennsylvania, is a corruption of a word of
the Delaware Indians meaning "upon the great plain." It is not
known who first applied it to the State.
Physical Features.— The great plains in Wyoming have an ele-
vation of from 5,000 to 6,000 ft. over much of the State, and
consist of flat or gently rolling country, barren of tree growth, but
often covered with nutritious grasses, and possessing a soil rich
in the mineral elements necessary for plant life which it produces
abundantly when it receives sufficient moisture. Erosion buttes
MAP SHOWING THE MAIN ROADS IN WYOMING
and mesas occasionally rise as picturesque monuments above the
general level of the plains, and in the vicinity of the mountains the
plains strata, elsewhere nearly horizontal, are bent sharply upward
and carved by erosion into "hogback" ridges. These features are
well developed about the Big Horn mountains, an outlying range
of the Rockies which boldly interrupts the continuity of the plains
in north-central Wyoming.
Notwithstanding high elevations in both the northern and south-
ern portions of the State, the low central portion makes a distinct
break in the continuity of the northern and southern ranges of the
Rockies, giving a broad relatively low pass through which went
the Oregon and Overland trails in the early days and later the
Union Pacific railway. In this central region the plains are inter-
rupted by minor mountain groups, volcanic buttes and lava flows.
In the north-east are outlying spurs of the Black hills, the Little
Missouri buttes and the Devil's Tower, the latter a prominent
erosion remnant of volcanic intrusion. The higher levels of the
Big Horn range have been modified by local glaciation, giving
glacial cirques, alpine peaks and many mountain lakes and water-
falls. Several small glaciers still remain about the shoulders of
Cloud Peak (13,165 ft.), the highest summit in the range. The
various ranges in the north-western part of the State form some
of its most magnificent scenery. A vast portion of this has been
set aside as Yellowstone National park, but areas in the Absarokas
east of the park are also considered beautiful. Just south of the
park, the Teton mountains rise abruptly from Jackson's Hole to
elevations of 10,000 and 11,000 feet. They are an imposing land-
mark and were hailed by all emigrants of the Oregon Trail as a
welcome sign that they were approaching Pacific waters. In the
famous Wind River Range farther south-east are Gannett Peak
(13,785 ft.), the highest point in the State, and Fremont Peak
(13,720 ft.).
In addition to the hot springs of the Yellowstone region, men-
tion should be made of large hot springs (about 135° F) at
Thermopolis and Saratoga.
Drainage.— About two-thirds of the State is drained by
branches of the Missouri river, the most important being the
Yellowstone, Big Horn and Powder rivers flowing north and the
Cheyenne and North Platte flowing east. The Green river, a
branch of the Colorado drains the south-western part of the State.
The Shake river, flowing into the Columbia, heads in the southern
part of Yellowstone park and flows south-west through the beauti-
WYOMING
827
ful valley known as Jackson's Hole into Idaho. Along the western
border the Bear river takes its course a short distance, draining
ultimately into the Great basin. South-west of the centre of the
State is an area with no outward drainage, the streams emptying
into desert lakes.
Wild Life. — Wyoming still abounds in wild life and game
animals, the game animals increasing according to the State game
and fish commissioner, despite the fact that more non-resident
game and fishing licenses were sold in 1924-25 for Wyoming than
for any other State. The game census of 1926 estimates 4,900
moose, 44,720 wapiti ("elk"), 3,130 mountain sheep, 21,885 ante-
lopes, 28,050 deer, 2,145 bears. About 8,000,000 nngerlings and
fry were planted in 1926 in Wyoming waters by the fish hatcheries
of the State.
Climate. — It is difficult to generalize about Wyoming's climate,
since the varied and rugged topography makes corresponding local
variations. Precipitation for the State averages 13-89 in. annually,
but it varies from about 6 in. in the lower Big Horn basin, Sweet-
water county and lower Wind river valley, the driest portions, to
35 in. in the mountains bordering on Yellowstone park. In the
agricultural region of the south-eastern counties the average annual
rainfall is 15-20 in. East of the continental divide about 70% of
the precipitation occurs between April and September. The cool
summer months of the mountain regions lower the average tem-
perature of the State materially. The annual mean for the valleys
is 46° F and for the mountains 36°. The average of 85 stations,
well distributed over the State, gives a day average for July of
81° and a night average of 47°. Day temperature for January
average 32° and night 7°. The portion of the State west of the
divide has a lower average and longer winters than that east of the
divide. The cold spells are not severe for their chilling effect is
modified by the normally low humidity.
Government.— Wyoming is governed still by its first Consti-
tution, adopted by the people in 1889, and made effective when
the State entered the Union, July 10, 1890.
The legislature is composed of a senate and a house of repre-
sentatives. Each county elects one senator for each 9,000
inhabitants or major portion thereof, and one representative for
every 3,250 inhabitants or major portion thereof, though each
county has a right to one senator and representative, regardless of
its population. New apportionments are made after each Federal
and State census, the State census occurring in every year that
ends with a five. In 1926 there were 27 senators and 62 repre-
sentatives. The regular sessions of the legislature meet in Chey-
enne on the second Tuesday in January every odd-numbered
year and may continue 40 days. The governor has the power to
veto any bill, but if upon reconsideration it is repassed by a
two-thirds majority in each house it becomes a law without the
governor's signature. The governor may veto any item in the
appropriations bill. Special laws are not to be passed where a
general one may be made applicable.
The chief executive officer is the governor. There arc only four
other elective executive officers, the secretary of State, auditor,
treasurer and superintendent of public instruction. These men not
only direct their own departments but some, together with ap-
pointed officers, act on many executive boards, such as the State
board of charities and reform, State land commission, State fiscal
board, State board of pardons, State farm loan board, State board
of supplies, State historical board, etc. An unusually large number
of the executive officers are appointed by the governor and are
responsible to him. Among them are a State examiner, a State
engineer, two inspectors of coal mines, a State geologist, the
attorney-general, four water superintendents for the four irriga-
tion districts of the State, three live stock commissioners and
three sheep commissioners, five members of the State highway
commission, three members of the board of equalization, State
land commissioner, five members of the State board of health, the
members of the board of agriculture, the commissioner of law
enforcement, and the commissioner of labour and statistics, etc.
The supreme court of Wyoming has three justices who are
elected by the voters for a term of eight years. Two terms of
supreme court are held annually, one in April and the other in
WYOMING
2 PERSONS
PER SO. M.
UNITED STATES
36 PERSONS
PER So. M.
October. A special term can be held when two justices so vote.
There are eight district courts. A regular term is held yearly in
each, and special terms may be called in any district by the presid-
ing judge. Each of the eight district judges is elected by his district
for a six-year term. The counties are also divided by the county
commissioner into judicial districts for which the voters of the
district elect a justice of the peace. Incorporated towns and cities
have municipal courts and police justices.
Every citizen of the United States over 21 years of age who
has lived in Wyoming one year and in the county where he is to
vote 60 days and in the election district ten days, who can read
the Constitution of the State, and who is not insane, an idiot or a
person convicted of infamous crimes (unless restored to his civil
rights) has the right of suffrage.
Population. — The population of Wyoming in 1870 was 9,118;
in 1880, 20,789; in 1890, 60,705; in IQOO, 92,531; in 1910,
145,565; in 1920, 194,402 and in
1925, according to a State census,
206,381. The 1925 census figures,
taken by the assessors on their
ordinary round, were regarded by
State officials as low. Data based
on election returns and the school
census indicated about 225,000.
The estimate of the U.S. census
DENSITY OF POPULATION. 1920. bureau for July 1927 was 241,000.
COMPARED WITH AVERAGE FOR THE The Ig25 ccnsus showed an fo-
UNITED STATES ^^ Qf ^^ Q|. mQK ^
100%, in Natrona county, the increase being due to great activity
in the Salt Creek and Teapot Dome oil districts. Increases were
registered in but five other counties, the remainder showing a de-
crease. Natrona now leads all counties with a population almost
double that of Laramie county, the next in rank.
The density of population was 0-9 per square mile in 1900, 1-5
in 1910 and 2-0 in 1920. This was lower than that of any other
State except Nevada. Of the 1920 population 97-8% was white.
According to the 1925 census there were then 991 Japanese, 969
negroes and 169 Chinese in the State. In 1926 the Indians num-
bered 1,899 (1,182 of them full blood), 947 belonging to the
Arapahoe and 952 to the Shoshone tribes. Most of them were
settled in Fremont county upon the site of the former Shoshone
reservation (thrown open to settlement in 1906).
In 1920, 25,225 or 13-3% of the population was foreign born.
Of these 5,193 were from the United Kingdom and Ireland; 3,629
from Scandinavian countries; 2,292 from Germany; 1,482 from
Russia, while other countries were represented with less than
1.200 each. Of the 86-7% native born, 13-3% was born of foreign
parentage, 8-8% of mixed parentage and 64-6% of native par-
entage. According to the 1925 census 59,655 were born within the
State of Wyoming. In 1910 3-3% of the population was illiterate,
in 1920 but 2>i%. Among native whites illiteracy amounted to
0-3% only, but among the foreign born it rose to 9-0%.
There were 5 7,34 1 urban and 137,054 rural inhabitants in 1920,
The percentage of urban dwellers was 29-6 in 1910 and 29-5 in
1920. The population of the six leading cities for 1910, 1920 and
1925 was: Casper, 2,639, IM47> 23^88; Cheyenne, 11,320, 13,-
829, 13,202; Laramie, 8,237, 6,301, 9,629; Sheridan, 8,408, 9,175,
8,436; Rock Springs, 5.778, 6,456, 6.875; Rawlins, 4,256, 3,969,
5,587.
Finance. — The assessed valuation of taxable property in
Wyoming in 1919 was $375,239,158, and in 1926 $457,760,169, an
increase of 22%. A ^reat part of the increase was accounted for
by the rise in value of corporate property from $97,021,145 to
$154,246,212 in these years. The value of land and live stock, on
the other hand, declined. On the 1926 valuation a total of $18,*
997, 505 in taxes was levied, distributed as follows: general prop-
erty tax for State purposes, $3,289,387; for county purposes,
$5,181,166; for school purposes, $7,355,786; and, for municipal
purposes, $3,171,854. The increase in direct taxation in the
biennium 1925-26 over 1921-22 is $1,227,547. The State was
responsible for 9-4% of the increase, the counties for 44*3% and
the municipalities for 46-6%. A large increase in oil royalties, 50%
828
WYOMING
of which is distributed to the schools, made possible a decrease in
direct taxation for that purpose.
Direct taxation contributed but $3,090,507 of the State's total
income of $28,545,533 for the biennium 1925-26. The sales or
rentals of land furnished $4,956,056, the interest from land funds
$904,546, and royalties on the production of oil and other min-
erals $5,740,947. The remainder came from the receipts of various
State departments and institutions. Total disbursements of the
State for the same biennium amounted to $27,345,333. The State
highway fund received $5,782,650, while $104,500 more was used
for the highway bond tax fund. The State university received
$733,246 for its general fund and $615,349 *or its building fund.
The general fund, used for administration expenses, received
$2,637,410.
The bonded debt of Wyoming in Sept. 1926, was $1,919,000, all
except $19,000 being highway bonds. Bonds to the value of
$1,000,000 had been taken up and paid in the 1925-26 biennium.
The value of all tangible property in 1922 was $976,000,000 as
compared with $356,000,000 in 1912. The per caput ownership
amounted to $4,663. There were 96 banks (32 of them national
banks) on June 30, 1925, with capital and surplus of $7,808,000,
total resources and liabilities of $66,495,000 and savings deposits
of $20,879,000.
Education. — The department of education, which administers
the public school system of Wyoming, is composed of the superin-
tendent of public instruction and six members, appointed by him,
who serve for six years and without salary. To carry into effect
their plans and decisions the department appoints, with the gov-
ernor's approval, a commission of education upon which the actual
work of travelling, inspection and correspondence falls.
The total school attendance in 1925-26 was 50,138 out of a
school census population of 63,074. There were 13,310 pupils in
1,222 rural schools. A determined effort to improve these schools
is being made by encouraging them to conform to certain standards
set by the department of education. In 1926, 220 of the 1,200
were standardized as compared with 16 in 1920. Nearly half of
the rural enrolment was brought to school in buses in 1926.
There were 78 accredited high schools in 1926. High school
students numbered 9,664 as compared with 3,063 in 1916. Most
of this increase has been made possible by the establishment of
high schools in portions of the State hitherto unserved. Because of
sparse population many large sections cannot afford a four-year
course, so the junior high school movement is making much prog-
ress, and standards are being set by the department of education
to which they must conform.
Wyoming holds the enviable position of securing a larger pro-
portion of its school support from non-taxation sources than any
other State in the Union. In 1925 this proportion amounted to
46-6%. Like many other Western States it received, upon its
admission to the Union, a grant from the Federal Government
of one-sixteenth of the land within its borders for school purposes.
Income from the sale of this land is to be held in a permanent
school fund, only the interest of which can be used, with any
proceeds which may come from leasing the land. Royalties from
oil, coal and other minerals on these lands also go into this fund;
and in addition 5% of all receipts for Federal lands sold within
Wyoming's borders. This permanent fund increased from $3,153,-
516 in 1920 to $14,503,648 in 1926, and its income available for
use in the latter year was $836,746. When oil and other minerals
are obtained from Federal lands within the State, the U.S. Govern-
ment pays to Wyoming certain royalties on such minerals, 50%
of which is distributed to the schools. It is especially the increas-
ing royalty on oil which is making a decrease in the amount
secured by direct taxation possible. Government royalties
amounted to $1,479,488 in 1926. Of the amount secured for edu-
cation through direct taxation $2,295,873 was derived from local
district and poll taxes and $926,968 from county taxes.
School expenditures in 1925-26 totalled $8,397,353, of which
$3,691,289 was for the salaries of 1,412 rural teachers, 913 ele-
mentary teachers in town schools and 520 high school teachers.
The sum of $301,000 was spent for transportation of pupils on
about 300 bus routes.
The University of Wyoming is in Laramie. In 1925-26 there
were 1,185 students at the regular session and 1,500 at the several
summer sessions. The budget for 1925-26 totalled $1,026,563,
of which $524,929 was for operating expenses, and $309,703 for
the university improvement fund. There is a $ mill tax for the
regular State university fund, and a £ mill tax for the university
building improvement fund. Most of the buildjngs are compara-
tively new. In 1923 a new library was completed and in 1926 a
new engineering building. The library contains 58,000 volumes,
exclusive of pamphlets. The "Rocky Mountain Herbarium," the
largest and most representative collection of plants of the central
Rocky region, is also to be found at the university.
Penal and Charitable Institutions. — The Wyoming State
penitentiary is at Rawlins, and in 1926 had 256 inmates. A dairy
and poultry farm, an excellent garden, and a shirt factory which
earned $88,000 in the biennium 1924-26, furnish occupation for
the prisoners and pay the major share of the expenses. The State
hospital for the insane is at Evanston and, in the biennium
1924-26, it had an average of 360 patients in its wards constantly.
This was 33 more than the previous biennium, and 77 more than
in the biennium ending in 1922. A $100,000 building was erected
in 1926 for the 70 female patients. The Soldiers and Sailors'
Home with 28 inmates in 1926 is at Buffalo. There is a State
training school for feeble-minded children at Lander with an
enrolment of 187 in 1926. The Industrial Institute for delinquent
boys is at Worland (1926 enrolment, $i), and that for girls^is at
Sheridan (1926 enrolment, 24). At Rock Springs there is a
General State hospital providing medical care and surgical atten-
tion for the public, and in connection with which a nurses' train-
ing school is maintained. Big Horn hot springs and Saratoga hot
springs are owned by the State and are free for public use.
Appropriations were made and the contracts let in 1926 for the
first building of a State tuberculosis sanitarium at Basin. All
these institutions are under the supervision of the State board of
charities and reform, composed of the governor, secretary of
State, treasurer, auditor and State superintendent of public in-
struction. These officials also constitute the board of pardons.
Besides the State institutions there are the Cathedral home for
children at Laramie and the Wyoming children's home, private
institutions which operate under annual permits from the State
board to which they are responsible. The deaf and blind are cared
for at State expense in schools of the neighbouring States.
Agriculture.-— Of the 62,460,160 ac. land area of Wyoming
21,209,703 ac. were privately owned in 1926. Homesteads still
unperfected totalled 4,778,289 ac. more. National forests included
8,505,740 acres. Government withdrawals of oil, coal and phos-
phate lands amounted to 5,041,631 acres. There were 19,849,762
ac. still unappropriated for any purpose, and, in addition, 3,559,-
258 ac. of school or granted lands remained unsold. Live stock and
WOOL PRODUCED 1924 r~""~|
$7,303.056 I |
ALL CROPS 1924
$18.889,391
LIVESTOCK ON FARMS r
1925
$58.548,413 I
MlNERALOUTPUT 1926f
$78,988,000 I
MANUFACTURES 1925 f
$107,984.752 L
LZZ1
j
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS $83.911.353
k OTHER I
ANUMCTUHgtJ
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF IMPORTANT PRODUCTS
land values reached their peak in 1919; then agriculture suffered
severe depression from which it had not wholly recovered in
1926. In 1919 there were 1,066,838 head of cattle valued at
$42,376,220. By 1926 cattle had decreased 461,737 in number, or
45%, and $30,422,863 in value or 72%. Sheep in 1919 numbered
2,719,249 head and were valued at $22,406,925. In 1926 there
were 1,982,965 head valued at $15,480,488. The sheep industry
recovered somewhat in 1924 due to a sharp rise in wool prices,
and since has been profitable enough to encourage steady expan-
sion. In 1919 there were 12,321,421 ac. of taxable land valued at
WYOMING
829
$95,115,035. By 1926 the taxable land had increased 7,906,608 ac.,
but the value increased only $8,739,454. This meant that the
average value per acre had dropped from $7.71 to $5.13. The
State board of equalization gives the following average land values
for 1926: irrigated cultivated land, $46.47; irrigated uncultivated
land, $24.68; dry farmed, $9.31; grazing, $3.05. These values are
slightly lower than those for 1925. Despite the increased acreage
of taxable land the number of farms decreased from 15,748 in
1920 to 15,512 in 1925. What actually happened was that the
average size of farms increased from 750 to 1,203 acres. Between
1921 and 1926 irrigated lands under cultivation increased from
482,262 ac. to 485,468 ac., showing that they were holding their
own. Dry farm lands, however, decreased from 1,059,273 to
805,677, while grazing lands increased from 12,405,115 to 19,277,-
090 ac., showing that the extra acreage per farm was used for
grazing purposes. The valuation of all farm property in 1926 was
$240,396,373 and the average valuation per farm $15,497 as com-
pared with $21,235 in 1920. Farm population decreased from
67,306 in 1920 to 61,181 in 1925. •
Crop Production. — The total value of all crops in Wyoming,
was, in 1924, $31,398,000; in 1925, $26,876,000; in 1926, $30,-
444,000. Hay is the leading crop, both in acreage and value, i,-
054,000 ac. in 1926 yielding 1,698,000 tons valued at $14,433,000.
There were 408,000 ac. of alfalfa, the leading variety of hay culti-
vated, producing 2-2 tons per acre. Wheat is second in value,
180,000 ac. in 1926 yielding 3,378,000 bu. valued at $3,614,000.
Indian corn increased from 11,000 ac. in 1910 to 86,000 ac. in
1920 and 197,000 ac. in 1926. Its acreage in 1926 actually sur-
passed the wheat acreage but was below it in value, which was
$2,837,000. Goshen, Laramie, Platte, Campbell and Crook, in
order, were the leading corn-growing counties. Oats to the amount
of 4,690,000 bu., valued at $2,110,000, were produced in 134,000
ac. in 1926. Potatoes valued at $1,820,000 were raised on 13,000
ac., the yield being 140 bu. per acre. The production of sugar
beet increased from 250,000 tons in 1924 to 300,000 tons in 1925
and 382,000 tons in 1926. Their sugar content, 15-20% in 1926,
is unusually high, Barley, rye and beans were grown in 1926 to a
value of $500,000 to $800,000 each. About 50,000 bu. of apples
also were produced, valued at $69,000.
Live Stock. — In 1926, 7,786 carloads of cattle, 4,931 carloads
of sheep and 595 carloads of pigs were shipped from the State.
The tendency to ship live stock east to the corn bolts for fattening
is decreasing, and more of the feeding is done at home. Such
feeding is increasing with the development of western markets,
more and more of Wyoming's live stock each year being shipped
to the west. Wyoming has long ranked among the leading States
in wool production, her output reaching 38,400,000 Ib. in 1910.
In 1920 and 1921 she held first place among the States, third in
1922, 1923 and 1924, second in 1925 and third in 1926, according
to the preliminary estimate. The yield in 1925 was 21,362,000 Ib.,
in 1926 it was estimated at 22,338,000 Ib. Because of the cool
nights Wyoming sheep have heavy fleeces, those in 1926 averaging
8-5 Ib. as compared with 7-8 Ib. for the United States as a whole.
Dairying. — Dairying is steadily increasing, the total value of
dairy products marketed April, 1925, to April, 1926, being $4,645,-
431. Chickens in 1925 were valued at $602,737 and turkeys at
$780,480. The turkeys especially have seen a phenomenal in-
crease from 9,000 valued at $25,000 in 1925 to 181,474 valued at
$943,664 in 1926. Bee colonies increased from about 24,700 in
1925 to 29,700 colonies in 1926. Honey yields per colony in
Wyoming are very high, averaging 107 Ib. in 1923 and 95 Ib. in
1924 as compared with 39-1 Ib. and 46-2 Ib. for the United States
as a whole in these years.
Mioing^— Wyoming's most important mineral resources, coal,
petroleum and phosphate, are of the bulky sort and their develop-
ment was long retarded by inadequate transportation facilities.
The value of all mineral products in 1909 was $10,572.188; in
1919, $41,928,788; in 1924, $75494,166 and in 1925, $7».754<9i5-
During these latter years mining rose to the leading place among
Wyoming industries.
Foremost in value is petroleum. Capt. Bqnneville reported oil
springs near Lander as early as 1832. Oil from such springs was
used by the early trappers as liniment, and by the overland emi-
grants for wagon grease. In 1883 and 1884 the first three wells
were drilled near Lander, but lack of transportation facilities made
it impossible to market the product on a paying basis. Not until
production leaped from 187,000 bbl in 1911 to 1,572,000 bbl. in
1912 did Wyoming become an important oil-producing State. From
1912 to 1916 the rate of increase was about 1,000,000 bbl, an-
nually. By 1920 production amounted to 16,831,000 bbl.; by 1921
to 19,333,000 barrels. Due to intensive developments in the Salt
Creek district production leaped again from 26,715,000 bbl. in
1922 to 44,785,000 bbl. in 1923. The 1924 production was 39,-
498,000 bbl.; in 1925, 29,173,000 bbl., and in 1926 24,558,000 bar-
rels. The value of this output during the years 1923, 1924, 1925
and 1926 was respectively $48,900,000, $48,600,000, $51,467,000
and $49,300,000. Of the 1925 production 21,481,390 bbl. came
from the Salt Creek district 40 m. north of Casper. Lost Soldier,
Rock Creek, Grass Creek and Big Muddy, the next most impor-
tant districts, were producing between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000
bbl. each. The construction of a pipe-line in 1924 from the Salt
Creek and Teapot Dome fields across Nebraska and Kansas to
Freeman, Mo., a distance of 700 m., enabled the petroleum from
Wyoming to enter into competition with oil from the mid-conti-
nent fields. The development of its petroleum resources kept
Wyoming in a fairly prosperous condition during the years imme-
diately following the World War when depression was so general
in other industries. Royalties contributed millions of dollars to
the State treasury, thereby lessening the taxation burden through-
out the State. Oil fields and oil towns furnished a good market
for labour and for agricultural produce. In its petroleum output
WTyoming in 1926 ranked fifth among the States. The U.S.
geological survey estimates its petroleum resources to be 553,-
000,000 bbl. valued at $1,107,000,000. In addition, its oil shale
deposits are estimated to contain 20,000,000.000 bbl. worth $40,-
000,000,000. This last reserve is only beginning to be developed,
the first plant for the treatment of oil shale being erected in 1925.
In addition to petroleum proper, 45,539,000,000 cu.ft. of natural
gas valued at $4,149,000 was produced in 1925, and 32,777,000 gal.
of natural gas gasolene valued at. $3,227,000.
Next to petroleum, coal is the most important mineral in the
State. Coal-bearing formations underlie about 60% of its area.
The largest area known to contain workable coal lies east of the
Big Horn mountains and extends from Douglas northward to the
boundary, an area of 15,000 sq. miles. Coal mining, however, is
carried on in every county of the State, the largest production at
present being from the mines of the Union Pacific railway near
Rock Springs. The coal is all of the bituminous or sub-bituminous
variety. The U.S. geological survey estimates WVoming to con-
tain over 1,076,000,000,000 tons of coal valued at $107,000,000,-
ooo. This amounts to about one-seventh of the coal resources of
the nation. The output of the coal-mines rose from 5,971,000 short
tons in 1922 to 7,575,031 short tons in 1923. In 1924 production
was 6,757,468 short tons; in 1926 it was 6,968,000 short tons. The
value of the 1924 output was $18,327,000 and of the 1925 output
$18,275,000.
The copper output, valued at $642,213 in 1916 and $553,605 in
1917, mostly from the Encampment district, was worth only $16,-
358 in 1923. Gold production also had then become almost negli-
gible though there were signs of renewed activity in the Sweetwater
district in 1925. In 1926 the Colorado Iron and Fuel company
produced 548,376 tons of iron ore valued at $1,392,877, a revival
of the mining of a mineral in which Wyoming is comparatively
rich. In 1924 gypsum to the value of $190,344, building stone to
the value of $354,000, sand and gravel worth $173,886, and clay
products valued at $126,606 were also produced.
Forests and Lumber.— There are n national forests in
Wyoming with a total area of 8,500,101 ac. and a timber stand esti-
mated at 14,596,058 thousand board feet. These forests are all
high up in the back country, rugged and remote. About 60% of
the timber stand is lodge-pole pine, used mostly for railroad ties.
The next most abundant varieties are the Englemann spruce and
Alpine fir, which displace the lodge-pole pine at between 8,000
and 9,000 ft. above sea-level. In addition to these main types,
830
WYOMING
[HISTORY
there are the Douglas fir and limber pine, both restricted in their
distribution to favoured localities, the Douglas fir between the
lodge-pole-spruce line, especially on moist north slopes, and the
limber pine on exposed rocky sites rising toward the timber line,
where it usually takes the frontier stand. The timber cut in 1919
was 25,876,000 board feet, in 1921, 40,494,00x3 board feet, in 1926,
41,049,000 board feet. There is very little cut except on the
national forests where it is supervised by the forest rangers. The
forests also pastured 125,000 head of cattle and horses, and
575,000 head of sheep for the farmers and ranchers living in the
valleys below.
Manxifactures.— Except for petroleum refining, manufactures
are of little importance in Wyoming, most of them being local in
character and dependent on local products for their raw material.
In 1925 there were 224 establishments, employing 6,333 workers,
paying $10,526,253 in wages, and producing products valued at
$107,984,752, of which $31,911403 was added by manufacture.
Of the total value of products $83,911,353 was the output of 15
oil refineries employing 2,214 men. Railroad repair shops em-
ployed a slightly greater number of men, though the value of their
products was but $7,312,069 because the value of their raw ma-
terial was much less. There were three sugar beet factories
producing products valued at $3,679,778. Lumber and timber
products of 14 mills were worth $1,573,020, meat products of four
packing plants, $1,284,226.
Transportation.— YVyomiriff \vas fortunate in being in the
path of the Union Pacific, the first transcontinental railway, which
crossed it in 1869. Branches, however, were slow in building, and
they are still few, the aim of most railways being to reach Pacific
coast connections rather than local development. This handicap
has been offset somewhat by good roads and the use of motor
vehicles. There were 1,992 m. of railway in the State in 1926,
the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy system leading with 686 m.,
the Union Pacific following with 537 miles. The total valuation
of the railroad mileage within the State was $86,672,691 in 1926.
The 1925 payroll for railway employees amounted to $14,798,799.
Highways,— In 1926 there were 46,319 nt of highway in
Wyoming, of which 7% or 3,136 m. belonged to the State highway
system which touched 59 of the 73 incorporated towns in the
State. Construction work on the State system was begun in 1917,
and by 1927 48-5% of the State highway mileage had been com-
pleted to a gravel surface standard. The 1927 legislature made
available sufficient revenue to complete the remaining 51-5%
within the ensuing ten years. One-half of the highway fund comes
from the Federal Government, the State matching the Federal
appropriation with its own. The State highway income consists of
38% of the oil and mineral royalties, the fees for licences, and a
tax of 3^ a gallon on gasolene. There were 45,547 passenger
automobiles and 5,733 motor trucks in 1926,
HISTORY
Wyoming contains land from all four of the principal
annexations which made up the territory of the United States
west of the Mississippi river. Except for a small portion in
Carbon and Albany counties, the land east of the continental
divide was acquired from France by the Louisiana Purchase of
1803. The remaining portion formed the northern tip of the
Texas annexation in 1854. The north -western corner of the State,
drained by the Snalce river into the Columbia, formed a part of
the old "Oregon Country," held jointly by the United States and
Great Britain until the British relinquished their claims in the
treaty of 1846. The portion of the State drained south-west into
the Colorado river or into the Great Basin was secured by the
Mexican cession of 1848.
Exploration.— There arc legends t>f Spanish exploration of
Wyoming, but so far they are unconfirmed by documentary evi-
dence. Verendrye, i French explorer, coming overland from the
Saskatchewan river, may ftfso have reached the State's borders in
1743, but the vagueness of his journals makes it impossible to
determine the fact with certainty. John Colter, a member of the
Lewis and Clark expedition who left that body on their homeward
trip and plunged back into the wilderness as a free trapper, is the
first white man known definitely to have entered the State. Doubt-
less there were similar wanderers before him whose tales are for-
ever lost. Colter trapped to the east and south of Yellowstone
park, and finally, in 1807, crossed that wonderland itself and
brought to the world the first news of its strange phenomena. Four
years later an expedition of more than 50 men, commanded by
Wilson Price Hunt and bound overland to the mouth of the
Columbia to begin the American fur trade in that region, entered
north-eastern Wyoming, proceeded south and west around the
Big Horn mountains, up the Big Horn and Wind rivers, across
the divide by Sherman pass, and on by the Snake river valley into
Idaho. In 1812 several of the same party, led by Robert Stuart,
returned over a more southern route, discovering, it seems almost
certain, the famous South pass, through which the Oregon and
California trails were later to pass, and exploring for the first time
the valleys of the Sweetwater and Platte rivers.
Period of Trappers and Traders, — In the following years a
number of free trappers and employees of the various St. Louis
fur companies trapped in eastern Wyoming but not until the spring
of 1824 was the continental divide again crossed, this time by
Thomas Fitzpatrick, leading a detachment of William Henry
Ashley's fur traders across to new grounds. Fitzpatrick is usually
given the credit for the discovery of South pass, and was the first
to make it known. After 1824 several hundred traders crossed it
each year, the annual rendezvous of the Americans being held on
the other side of the divide, either in the valley of the Greer^ river
or in Jackson's Hole. The rendezvous was a colourful frontier
gathering of Indians, fur traders and company employees for the
purpose of meeting the pack trains of the company and exchang-
ing the furs for next year's supplies. Hundreds of tents and tepees
would dot the river bottoms during the frontier's one great social
event. In 1834 Ft. Laramie was built by the traders at the con-
fluence of the Laramie and North Platte rivers in eastern Wyo-
ming, and it served as a centre for the fur trade until 1849 when
the U.S. Government purchased it to use as a military post for
the protection of emigrants.
Overland Emigration through Wyoming began in 1842 when
Fitzpatrick piloted the first train over the Oregon trail. Movements
increased steadily during the next few years, and in 1847 they were
swelled by the ^lormon emigration which followed the Oregon trail
over the pass and then branched south-west past Ft. Bridger, built
by James Bridger on Black's Fork.
The first rush to California came in 1849, tne "Forty-niners"
following the Oregon trail through Wyoming, and branching south-
west after they entered Idaho. The first stage-coach line, over
this route, a monthly service to Salt Lake City, started in 1851.
In 1858 a daily line from Atchison to San Francisco was travelling
the trail. In 1860 the famous Pony Express was established. In
1 86 1 the first telegraph line to the Pacific was constructed across
Wyoming along this route.
Indian Hostilities.— In 1862, however, Shoshone and Sioux
depredations were so constant that it became necessary to move
the stage line to a southern route nearly parallel with the present
Union Pacific railway. Government troops were detailed to pro-
tect the stage stations, emigrant trains and freighting trains.
Indian hostilities increased in 1863, 1864 and 1865 and came to a
climax in 1866, known as "the bloody year on the plains/' That
year Government troops were constantly on the move, and there
were numerous engagements in which many soldiers were lost.
In attempting to keep open the Bozeman road, a cut-off from Ft.
Laramie to the gold mines of Montana, Col. Fetterman and his
entire company of 80 men were surprised and massacred. War
with the Sioux continued until peace was made in 1868 with their
chief, Red Cloud.
Permanent Settlement.— The Union Pacific railway com-
menced to build across the State in 1867 and pushed rapidly for-
ward. Cheyenne and Laramie were founded at this time. In
order to protect and govern new settlements along the railway
the Territory of Wyoming was organized in 1868, though terri-
torial officials were not appointed until 1869. At the first
territorial legislature^ held in Cheyenne in Dec., 1869, women of
Wyoming were given the right to vote at all elections. This right
WYOMING VALLEY— WYON
83'
was confirmed by an equal suffrage clause in the State Constitution
drawn up in 1889. Wyoming was the pioneer State of the United
States, and perhaps of the world, to grant woman suffrage. Gold
discoveries in the South pass region in 1867 and 1868 brought
additional settlers to the new territory. The first land office was
opened in Cheyenne in 1870 and the first homestead entry com-
pleted in 1871.
Rise of Cattle Industry. — But Wyoming did not at first prove
attractive to homesteaders except in the best valleys along the
Union Pacific. Instead it was discovered that the bunch and
buffalo grass of the plains made excellent feed for cattle. Not only
did they fatten on it in the summer, but the thick ripe bunches,
retaining all their nutritious food elements, penetrated the thin
snows of the wind-swept plains, enabling the herds to live and
thrive all winter without extra food or care. Also cattle could
be grazed at a distance from the railroad and when ready for
market transported themselves. Soon great herds were on the way
north from the overstocked ranges of Texas, cowboys driving them
up the "long trail" to the tune of :
Whoopee ti yi yo, git along little dogies,
For you know Wyoming will be your new home,
and other trail songs. By the late '705 the ranges of Wyoming
were well stocked. Herds increased rapidly and almost without
expense. Only a "home ranch" for headquarters was necessary,
and the herds ranged far and wide on the public domain. Once or
twice a year they were rounded up, the calves branded, and the
steers for market cut out from the herd and started on the "drive."
The cattle industry sprang suddenly into full bloom in Wyoming
and declined almost as suddenly because the cattlemen overreached
themselves. The ranges were so overstocked that there was no
longer grass left for winter feeding. Thousands upon thousands
of cattle perished during severe and long-continued storms of the
winters of 1886, 1887 and 1888 so that many "cattle barons" were
financially ruined while others were left with only a shadow of
their former herds. Disease also broke out among the herds and
brought down the market price to less than one-half what it
had been.
Cattle War of 1892.— Finally railroads, Jong blocked by Indian
troubles, now pushed forward again, breaking up the ranges, and
bringing in the settlers. Stockmen were long bitter against these
"nesters." True, stockmen did not own the range, but they had
been there first, and most of them would have purchased their
lands had not the homestead law forbidden them to do so. Besides,
the stockmen felt the land was fit in many districts only for
grazing. They were not only inhospitable to the settlers but in
many instances took active measures to drive them out of the
country. A movement of this sort was the famous Johnson county
cattle war of 1892 when more than 50 armed men entered Johnson
county in a body against the settlers and small cattle owners, some
of whom they branded as "rustlers," while the settlers organized
to resist them. Only two lives were sacrificed, owing to the inter-
vention of troops from Ft. McKinney at a decisive moment. It
was one of the last struggles of the industry to keep its prestige.
After that many big owners were forced out of business, and the
country divided up among men with smaller outfits, who took no
chances, but cut the hay in the bottom lands for winter feed.
Thus began that combination of farming and stock-raising which
still prevails and seems best fitted for the State.
Rise of Sheep Raising.— With decline of cattle-raising, sheep-
raising began to increase. The first large herds reached the State
in the latter *8os. A long feud was also waged between the cattle-
men and the sheepmen, for the sheepmen tried to force their way
into ranges already occupied. Cattlemen claimed that cattle would
not go where sheep had grazed, and that the sheep destroyed the
range and polluted the water-holes. An imaginary "deadline" was
drawn by the cattlemen beyond which sheep must not go.
Herders violated this arbitrary law at their own peril, for the
annals of Wyoming record many cases where camps were burned
and herds and herders both killed. As the sheepmen grew stronger
these persecutions ceased, and when it was found that sheep were
fully as profitable as cattle, public opinion ^ided with the sheep-
men. Since 1900 Wyoming has been, in a number of years, the
leading wool-producing State of the Union.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, — The most important official State reports are the
biennial ones of the treasurer, secretary of State, commissioner of
public lands and farm loans, State geologist, board of equalization,
'department of education, board of charities and reform; the bulletins
of the University of Wyoming ; the yearly bulletin of the State depart-
ment of agriculture entitled Wyoming Agricultural Statistics; and the
bulletins of the State geologist, bulletin No. 17 being a Bibliography
and Index of Wyoming Geology 1823-1916. Miscellaneous Circular
No. 28 of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture deals with the National Forests
of Wyoming (1927). For history and Government: H. H. Bancroft,
History of Nevada, Colorado and Wyoming (San Francisco, 1890) ;
C. G. Coutant, History of Wyoming; G. R. Hebard, History and Gov-
ernment of Wyoming (San Francisco, 1919) ; H. M. Chittenden, His-
tory of the American Fur Trade (1919) ; A. J. Mokler, History of
Natrona County (Chicago, 1923) ; John Clay, My Life on the Range
(Chicago, 1924) ; A. H. Dixon and C. 0. Downing, Civil Government
of Wyoming (Gillette, Wyo., 1926) ; Noel J. Breed, The Early Devel-
opments of the Wyoming Country 1743-1853 (1928) ; and publications
of the Wyoming State historical department.
WYOMING VALLEY, a valley on the north branch of the
Susquehanna river, in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. The
valley, properly speaking, is about 3im. wide and about 25111.
long, but the term is sometimes used historically to include all
of the territory in the north-east of the State once in dispute
between Pennsylvania and Connecticut. In Connecticut the Sus-
quehanna Land Company was formed in 1753 to colonize the
valley, and the Delaware Land Company was formed in 1754 for
the region immediately west of the Delaware river. The rights
of the Six Nations to all this territory were purchased at Albany
(N. Y.), by the Susquehanna Company in 1754, but the work of
colonization was delayed by the Seven Years' war. A few colonists
settled at Mill Creek in 1763, but were attacked on Oct. 15
and driven away by the Indians. The five original towns of
Wilkes-Barre (q.v.), Kingston, (q.v.), Pittston (q.v.), Hanover
and Plymouth were founded by the company early in 1769.
In the meantime the Six Nations (in 1768) had repudiated
their sale of the region to the Susquehanna Company and had
sold it to the Penns. Settlers from Pennsylvania had arrived and
taken possession of the block-house and huts at Mill Creek in
Jan. 1768. The conflict which followed between the Pennsylvania
and the Connecticut settlers is known as the first Pennamite-
Yankee War. Although defeated in the early stages of the con-
flict, the Yankees finally gained the ascendancy and terminated
the war in the battle of "Rampart Rocks" on Dec. 25, 1775. The
General Assembly of Connecticut, in Oct. 1776, gave the valley
the status of a county (Westmoreland county).
As the War of Independence came to a close the old trouble
with Pennsylvania was revived. A court of arbitration appointed
by the Continental Congress met in Trenton (N.J.), in 1782, and
on Dec. 30 gave a unanimous decision in favour of Pennsylvania.
The refusal of the Pennsylvania Government to confirm the pri-
vate land titles of the settlers, and the arbitrary conduct of her
agent, Alexander Patterson, resulted in 1 784 in the outbreak of the
second Pennamite- Yankee War. Treachery and harsh treatment
by the Pennsylvania officers created a strong public opinion in
favour of the Yankees, and the Government was compelled to
adopt a milder policy. Patterson was withdrawn, the disputed
territory was erected into the new county of Luzerne (1785), the
land titles were confirmed (1787), and Col. Timothy Pickering
(q.v.) was commissioned to organize the new county and to effect
a reconciliation. The trouble was again revived by the repeal in
1700 of the confirming act of 1787 and by a subsequent decision
of the U.S. circuit court, unfavourable to the Yankees, in the case
of Van Horn v. Dorrance. All of the claims were finally confirmed
by a series of statutes passed in 1700, 1802 and 1807. Since 1808,
mainly through the development of its coal mines (see PITTSTON,
PA.), the valley has made remarkable progress both in wealth and
in population.
For a thorough study of the early history of Wyoming Valley, see
O. J. Harvey, A History of Wilkes-Barre.
WYON, THOMAS (1792-1817), English medallist, was born
at Birmingham. He was apprenticed to his father, the chief en-
graver of the king's seals, and studied at the Royal Academy,
London. He became probationary engraver to the Mint in 1811,
832
WYRE FOREST— WYVERN,
and engraved his medal commemorative of the peace, and his
Manchester Pitt medal. In 1815 he was appointed chief engraver
to the Mint. His younger brother, Benjamin Wyon (1802-1858),
his nephews, Joseph Shepherd Wyon (1836-1873) and Alfred
Benjamin Wyon (1837-1884), and his cousin, William Wyon
(1795-1851), were also distinguished medallists.
WYRE FOREST, the remains of an ancient forest in south-
eastern Shropshire and northwestern Worcestershire. It lies on
high ground southwest of the Severn river and contains some fine
scenery. It forms the southern portion of the Severn valley coal-
fields. Wyre Forest station is on the G.W.R. three miles north-
west of Bewdley.
WYSPIAtf SKI, STANISLAW (186^-1907), Polish painter
and dramatist, was born in Cracow in 1869. His paintings reveal
a genius for dramatic construction, but the loss of the use of his
hand forced him to turn to writing. Wesele (The Wedding) is
usually regarded as his greatest work and has a high place in
Polish literature. The three tragedies A Warsaw Song, Lelewel
and November Night constitute a vivid and powerful portrayal
of the November revolution of 1838. In these plays and in The
Legion, Deliverance and The Acropolis he gives voice to the
national aspirations of his countrymen and concentrates on the
causes of weakness in his nation which put off the hour of its
delivery. The Curse and The Judges are concerned with the lot
of the peasants, their ignorance and passions and the pathos of
their lives. They adapt the form of the Greek tragedies, the
people of the village forming the chorus which comments on the
actions of the principal characters. Boleslas tlie Bold, The Church
on the Rock, King Casimir are historical dramas. Wyspianski
seems to have felt prophetically the approach of a stormy era of
war and sacrifice which his people must prepare to meet. The
World War greatly increased his influence and Polish drama of
recent times has remained under his spell.
WYSS, JOHANN (1781-1830), Swiss author, was born on
Mar. 13, 1781, at Bern, where in 1806 he became professor of
philosophy and later chief librarian of the University. He was
a collector of Swiss tales and folklore, writing Idyllen imd
Erzdhlungen atis der Schweiz (1815-22), and editing the 15
volume collection Alpenrose (1811-30). He is better remembered,
however, as the author of Der Schweizerische Robinson (1812—
13), first translated into English in 1820 as The Swiss Family
Robinson and appearing in many editions since. He is also the
author of the Swiss National hymn, "Rufst du, mein Vaterland?"
He died at Bern on Mar. 31, 1830.
WYTHE, GEORGE (1726-1806), American jurist, was born
in the county of Elizabeth City, Va., in 1726. He had little formal
schooling but was well taught by his mother and was admitted
to the Virginia bar in 1757. He was elected to the house of
burgesses in 1758 and as such in 1764 was placed on a committee
to prepare petitions to the King and both houses of Parliament
against the threatened Stamp Act. Wythe drew up the petition
to the House of Commons in such strong language that it required
considerable modification before it could be sent. In 1775 he was
sent to the Continental Congress where he remained to sign the
Declaration of Independence. In 1776 he was appointed with
Jefferson and Pcndleton to make the laws of Virginia more appro-
priate for an independent State, an important work which required
three years to complete. In the meantime he was an important
member of the constitutional convention in Virginia. He was a
member of the Federal constitutional convention in 1787, and,
in the following year, of the Virginia convention which ratified
it.
In 1777 Wythe was appointed a judge of the court of chancery,
and in 1786 when the court was reorganized he was made sole
chancellor of the State, which position he held until his death. He
was one of the first judges to lay down the principle (Comth. v.
Catron, 1782) that a court can annul a law deemed to conflict
with the constitution, a doctrine which became of tremendous
importance as applied by his pupil, John Marshall (q.v.). From
1779 t° X7^9 he also held a professorship of law at William and
Mary College, one of the first such chairs in the United States, but
his increasing duties as chancellor forced him to relinquish it. He
continued a private school at Richmond afterward. Wythe's in-
fluence as a teacher probably constituted his most lasting service
to the nation. Besides the great chief justice, Marshall, two presi-
dents, Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe, were numbered
among his pupils, and Henry Clay was for four years clerk of his
court. Wythe died at Richmond, Va., on June 8, 1806. His
Decisions were published in 1795 (2nd. ed. with memoir, 1852).
Thomas Jefferson prepared a sketch found in his Writings (Monti-
cello ed., vol. i., 1904). See also L. S. Herrink, "George Wythe," in
John P. Branch Historical Papers, vol. iii. (1912).
WYTTENBACH, DANIEL ALBERT (1746-^820),
German-Swiss classical scholar, was born at Bern on Aug. 7,
1746. He studied Greek under Heyne at Gottingen, and dedicated
his first work to Ruhnken, who wrote that he had not expected to
find in Germany such knowledge of Greek and such critical powers.
Heyne recommended him to Ruhnken and Valckenaer, and in
1770 he went to Leyden. He obtained a professorship in 1771,
and began his Bibliotheca Critica, which continued to appear for
about 30 years. He became professor of Greek at the Athenaeum
at Amsterdam in 1785. He edited the Moralia of Plutarch for the
Clarendon Press, the second portion of which underwent strange
adventures during the war between Holland and Great Britain, and
was eventually found at Hamburg. The book was finished in 1805.
He went to Amsterdam in 1799 on Burmann's death and published
his charming Vita Ruhnkemi (Leyden, 1799). During his last
years he became nearly blind. His only important work was his
edition of the Phaedo, and he died of apoplexy on Jan. 17, 1820.
Hemsterhuis, Valckenaer, Ruhnken and Wyttenbach, more than
any others after Bentley, laid the foundations of modern Greek
scholarship. The precise study of grammar, syntax and style, and
the careful criticism of texts by the light of the best manuscript
evidence, were upheld by these scholars in the Netherlands when
they were almost entirely neglected elsewhere on the Continent,
and were only pursued with partial success in England.
WYVERN, WIVERN or WYVER, the name of an her-
aldic monster, with the forepart of a winged dragon and the hind
part of a serpent or lizard (see HERALDRY). The earlier spelling
of the word was wiver or wivere; O.E. wyvre; O.Fr. wivre, mod.
givre. It is a doublet of "viper," with an excrescent n, as in
"bittern," M.E. bitore.
X— XAVIER
833
the eastern and western Greek alphabets
a form X or 4"1 occurred, but it had a different
value in each. In the western it was used to repre-
sent the double sound ks, with which value it
passed into Latin and came down to modern
times. In the eastern or Ionic alphabet it had the
value of the unvoiced velar aspirate (A'//). We have insufficient
evidence to determine the exact nature of the connection between
the forms in both alphabets or the origin of either. It is possible
that the western )( with the value of modern X was descended
from the same stem as Semitic ^ (samech), which is otherwise
represented in the Greek alphabet only by its name transferred
to another letter. It is, however, far from certain that this is so,
and were it the case the value of the letter in the east would not
be accounted for. Certain facts tend to show that the letter was
regarded as one in spite of its difference of value in the two alpha-
bets. In the Lydian alphabet a form + occurs, whose value can-
not always be determined, though it appears in some cases to be
that of p. The letter was probably in use in the Asianic alphabet
from which the Greeks derived their own representing a sound
that did not occur in Greek. (B. F. C. A.)
XANTHIC ACID (xanthogcnic acid), an organic acid named
from the Greek £cu>06s, yellow, in allusion to the bright yellow
colour of its copper salt. The salts of this acid, C2H;,O-CS-SH,
are formed by the action of carbon disulphide on the alcoholates,
or on alcoholic solutions of the caustic alkalis. Ethyl xanthic
acid, C2H:,0-CS-SH, obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric
acid on the potassium salt at o° C, is a colourless oil which is
very unstable, decomposing at 25° C into carbon disulphide and
alcohol. The potassium salt crystallizes in yellow needles and is
formed by shaking carbon disulphide with a solution of caustic
potash in absolute alcohol. On the addition of cupric sulphate to
its aqueous solution it yields a yellow precipitate of cuprous,
xanthate. Potassium xanthate is used in indigo printing and also
as an antidote for phylloxera. Other alcoholic solutions yield
similar xanthates, and cellulose xanthate serves in the production
of viscose silk.
XANTHIPPE, the wife of Socrates (q.v.). Her name has
become proverbial in the sense of a nagging, quarrelsome woman.
Attempts have been made to show that she has been maligned,
notably by E. Zeller ("Zur Ehrenrettung der Xanthippe," in his
Vortrage und Abhandlungen, i., 1875).
XANTHONE, in organic chemistry, a compound containing
a ring system (formula 1.) similar to that present in many of
the natural colouring matters. (See ANTHOCYANINS AND CHEM-
ISTRY, ORGANIC: Heterocyclic Division.)
(I.)
\.
CO
\
o
OH CO
O
(II.)
It is dibenzo-7-pyrone, Ci3H«O2, and crystallises in needles
which melt at 173-174° C, boil at 250° C and are volatile in
steam. Its yellow solution in concentrated sulphuric acid has a
blue fluorescence. Xanthone is prepared by 'dehydrating phenyl
salicylate (salol) or 2 : 2/-dihydroxybenzopbenone with concen-
trated sulphuric acid. Euxanthone (i:7;dihydroxyxanthone, for-
mula II.) is the colour principle in Indian yellow obtained from
the urine of cows fed on mango. In this dye the euxanthone is
partly free and partly present as the calcium or magnesium salt
of euxanthic acid (a combination of euxanthone and glycuronic
acid) crystallising in yellow needles (m.p. 237° C). Euxanthone
is prepared synthetically by condensing resorcinol with quinol-
carboxylic acid.
Gentisein, a trihydroxyxanthone, of which the methyl ether
(gentisin) is contained in the gentian root, dyes mordanted cotton
in bright yellow shades and has been synthesised from phloroglu-
cinol and quinolcarboxylic acid.
XANTHUS (mod. Gtinuk), an ancient city of Lycia, on the
river Xanthus (Eshen Chai) about 8 m. above its mouth. It was
besieged by the Persian general Harpagus (546 B.C.), when the
acropolis was burned and all the inhabitants perished (Herod,
i. 176). The city was afterwards rebuilt; and in 42 B.C. it was
besieged by the Romans under M. Junius Brutus. It was taken
by storm and set on nre, and the inhabitants perished in the flames.
The ruins lie on a plateau, high above the left bank of the river.
The nearest port is Kalamaki, whence a tedious ride of three to
four hours round the edge of the great marsh of the Eshen Chai
brings the traveller to Xanthus. The whole plan of the city with
its walls and gates can be discerned. The well-preserved theatre
is remarkable for a break in the curve of its auditorium, which
has been constructed so as not to interfere with a sarcophagus
on a pedestal and with the uHarpy Monument" which still stands
to its full height, robbed of the reliefs of its parapet (now in the
British Museum). In front of the theatre stands the famous
stele of Xanthus inscribed on all four sides in Lycian and Greek.
Behind the theatre is a terrace on which probably the temple of
either the Xanthian Apollo or Sarpcdon stood. The best of the
tombs — the "Payava Tomb," the "Nereid Monument," the "Ionic
Monument" and the "Lion Tomb" — are in the British Museum,
as the result of Sir Chas. Fellows's expedition; only their bases
can be seen on the site. A fine triple gateway, much polygonal
masonry, and the walls of the acropolis are the other objects of
most interest.
See O. Bcnndorf and G. Niemann, Rfisen in Lykien und Karicn
d«»4). (D. G. H.)
XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE (1506-1552), Jesuit mission-
ary and saint, commonly known in English as St. Francis Xavier
and also called the "Apostle of the Indies." He was the youngest
son of Juan de Jasso, privy councillor to Jean d'Albret, king of
Navarre ,and his wife, Maria de Azpilcucta y Xavier, sole heiress
of two noble Navarrese families. He was born at his mother's
castle of Xavier or Xavero, at the foot of the Pyrenees and close
to the little town of Sanguesa, on April 7, 1506, according to a
family register, though his earlier biographers fix his birth in 1497.
Following a Spanish custom of the time, which left the surname
of either parent optional with children, he took his mother's name.
In 1524 he went to the university of Paris, where he entered the
College of St. Barbara, then the headquarters of the Spanish and
Portuguese students, and in 1528 was appointed lecturer in Aristo-
telian philosophy at the College de Beauvais. In 1530 he took his
degree as master of arts. He and the Savoyard Pierre Lefevre,
who shared his lodging, had already, in 1529, made the acquain-
tance of Ignatius of Loyola — like Xavier a native of the Spanish
Basque country.
Ignatius succeeded, though in Xavicr's case after some opposi-
tion, in gaining their sympathy for his missionary schemes (see
LOYOLA, IGNATIUS OF) ; and they were among the company of
seven persons, including Loyola himself, who took the original
Jesuit vows on Aug. 15, 1534. They continued in Paris for two
years longer; but on Nov. 15, 1536, they started for Italy, to
concert with Ignatius plans for converting the Muslims of Pales-
tine. In Jan. 1537 they arrived in Venice. As some months must
elapse before they could sail for Palestine, Ignatius determined
that the time should be spent partly in hospital work at Venice
and later in the journey to Rome. Accordingly, Xavier devoted
himself for nine weeks to the hospital for incurables, and then
set out with eight companions for Rome, where Pope Paul III.
sanctioned their enterprise. Returning to Venice, Xavier was
ordained priest on Midsummer Day 1537; but the outbreak of
war between Venice and Turkey put an end to the Palestine
expedition, and the companions dispersed for a 12 month 's home
mission work in the Italian cities. Nicolas Bobadilla and Xavier
834
XAVIER
betook themselves first to Monselice and thence to Bologna, where
they remained till summoned to Rome by Ignatius at the close of
1538.
Ignatius retained Xavier at Rome until 1541 as secretary to the
Society of Jesus. (See JESUITS for the events of the period
1538-41.) Meanwhile John III., king of Portugal, had resolved
on sending a mission to his Indian dominions, and had applied
through his envoy, Pedro Mascarenhas, to the pope for six Jesuits.
Ignatius could spare but two, and chose Bobadiila and a Portu-
guese named Simao Rodrigucs for the purpose. Rodrigues set out
at once for Lisbon to confer with the king, who ultimately decided
to retain him in Portugal. Bobadiila, sent for to Rome, arrived
there just before Mascarenhas was about to depart, but fell too
ill to respond to the call made on him.
Mission in the East Indies. — Hereupon Ignatius, on March
15, 1540, told Xavier to leave Rome the next day with Mascaren-
has, in order to join Rodrigues in the Indian mission. Xavier com-
plied, merely waiting long enough to obtain the pope's benediction,
and set out for Lisbon, where he was presented to the king, and
soon won his entire confidence, attested notably by procuring for
him from the pope four briefs, one of them appointing him papal
nuncio in the Indies. On April 7, 1541, he sailed from Lisbon with
Martim Alfonso de Sousa, governor designate of India, and lived
amongst the common sailors, ministering to their religious and
temporal needs, especially during an outbreak of scurvy. After
five months' voyage the ship reached Mozambique, where the
captain resolved to winter, and Xavier was prostrated with a severe
attack of fever. When the voyage was resumed, the ship touched
at Malindi and Sokotra, and reached Goa on May 6, 1542. Exhib-
iting his brief to D. Joao d'Albuquerque, bishop of Goa, he asked
his permission to officiate in the diocese, and at once began walk-
ing through the streets ringing a small bell, and telling all to come,
and send their children and servants, to the "Christian doctrine"
or catechetical instruction in the principal church. He spent five
months in Goa, and then turned his attention to the "Fishery
Coast," where he had heard that the Paravas, a tribe engaged in
the pearl fishery, had relapsed into heathenism after having pro-
fessed Christianity. He laboured assiduously amongst them for
15 months, and at the end of 1543 returned to Goa.
At Travancorc he is said to have founded no fewer than 45
Christian settlements. It is to be noted that his own letters con-
tain, both at this time and later on, express disproof of that mirac-
ulous gift of tongues with which he was credited even in his life-
time, and which is attributed to him in the Breviary office for his
festival. Not only was he obliged to employ interpreters, but he
relates that in their absence he was compelled to use signs only.
He sent a missionary to the Isle of Manaar, and himself visited
Ceylon and Mailapur (Meliapur), the traditional tomb of St.
Thomas the apostle, which he reached in April 1544, remaining
there four months. At Malacca, where he arrived on Sept. 25,
1545, he remained another four months, but had comparatively
little success. While in Malacca he urged King John III. of
Portugal to set up the Inquisition in Goa to repress Judaism, but
the tribunal was not set up until 1560. After visiting Arnboyna,
the Moluccas and other isles of the Malay archipelago, he returned
to Malacca in July 1547, and found three Jesuit recruits from
Europe awaiting him. About this time an attack upon the city was
made by the Achinese fleet, under the rajah of Peclir in Sumatra;
and Xavier's early biographers relate a dramatic story of how he
roused the governor to action. This story is open to grave sus-
picion, as, apart from the miracles recorded, there are wide dis-
crepancies between the secular Portuguese histories and the
narratives written or inspired by Jesuit chroniclers of the i7th
century.
Voyage to Japan.— While in Malacca Xavier met one Yajiro,
a Japanese exile (known to the biographies as Anger, Angero or
Anjiro), who fired him with zeal for the conversion of Japan. But
he first revisited India and then, returning to Malacca, took ship
for Japan, accompanied by Yajiro, now known as Paul of the
Holy Faith. They reached Kagoshima on Aug. 15, i$49» and
remained in Japan until Nov. 20, 1551. (See JAPAN.) On board
the "Santa Cruz," the vessel in which he returned from Japan to
Malacca, Xavier discussed with Diogo Pereira, the captain, a
project for a missionary journey to China. He devised the plan
of persuading the viceroy of Portuguese India to despatch an
embassy to China, in whose train he might enter, despite the law
which then excluded foreigners from that empire. He reached
Goa in Feb. 1552, and obtained from the viceroy consent to the
plan of a Chinese embassy and to the nomination of Pereira as
envoy. Xavier left India on April 25, 1552, for Malacca, intending
there to meet Pereira and to re-embark on the "Santa Cruz/'
Voyage to China. — The story of his detention by the governor
(officially styled captain) of Malacca — a son of Vasco da Gama
named Alvaro de Ataide or Athayde — is told with many pictur-
esque details by F. M. Pinto and some of the Jesuit biographers,
who have pilloried Ataide as actuated solely by malice and self-
interest. Ataide appears to have objected not so much to the
mission as to the rank assigned to Pereira, whom he regarded as
unfit for the office of envoy. The right to send a ship to trade with
China was one for which large sums were paid, and Pereira, as
commander of the expedition, would enjoy commercial privileges
which Ataide had, ex officio, the power to grant or withhold. It
seems doubtful if the governor exceeded his legal right in refusing
to allow Pereira to proceed ; in this attitude he remained firm even
when Xavier, if the Jesuit biographers may be trusted, exhibited
the brief by which he held the rank of papal nuncio, and threat-
ened Ataide with excommunication. (See R. S. Whiteway, Rise of
the Portuguese Power in India [London, 1898], appendix A. The
question is complicated by the fact that the Sixth Decade of Diogo
do Couto, the best contemporary historian of these events, was
suppressed by the censor in its original form, and the extant ver-
sion was revised by an ecclesiastical editor.) On Xavier's personal
liberty no restraint was placed. He embarked without Pereira on
July 1 6, 1552. After a short stay at Singapore, whence he des-
patched several letters to India and Europe, the ship at the end
of Aug. 1552 reached Chang-chuen-shan (St. John Island) off the
coast of Kwang-tung, which served as port and rendezvous for
Europeans, not then admitted to visit the Chinese mainland.
Xavier was seized with fever soon after his arrival, and was
delayed by the failure of the interpreter he had engaged, as well
as by the reluctance of the Portuguese to attempt the voyage to
Canton for the purpose of landing him. He had arranged for his
passage in a Chinese junk, when he was again attacked by fever,
and died on Dec. 2nd, or, according to some authorities, Nov. 27,
1552. He was buried close to the cabin in which he had died, but
his body was later transferred to Malacca, and thence to Goa,
where it still lies in a magnificent shrine. (See J. N. da Fonseca,
An Historical and Archaeological Sketch of Goa, Bombay, 1878.)
He was beatified by Paul V. in 1619 and canonized by Gregory
XV. in 1621.
Achievement. — In appearance Xavier was neither Spanish nor
Basque. He had blue or grey eyes, and fair hair and beard, which
turned white through the hardships he endured in Japan. That he
was of short stature is proved by the length of the coffin in which
his body is still preserved, less than 5 ft. i in. (Fonseca, op. cit.
p. 296). Many miracles have been ascribed to him; an official list
of these, said to have been attested by eye-witnesses, was drawn up
by the auditors of the Rota when the processes for his canoniza-
tion were formed, and is preserved in manuscript in the Vatican
library.
The contention that Xavier should be regarded as the greatest
of Christian missionaries since the ist century A.D. rests upon more
tangible evidence. His Jesuit biographers attribute to him the
conversion of more than 700,000 persons in less than ten years;
and though the figures are absurd, the work which Xavier
accomplished was enormous.. He inaugurated new missionary en-
terprises from Hormuz to Japan and the Malay archipelago, leav-
ing an organized Christian community wherever he preached; he
directed by correspondence the ecclesiastical policy of John III.
and his viceroy in India; he established and controlled the Society
of Jesus in the East. Himself an ascetic and a mystic, to whom
things spiritual were more real than the visible world, he had the
strong common sense which distinguished the other Spanish
mystics, St. Theresa, Luis de Leon or Raimon Lull. This quality
XENIA— XENOPHANES
835
is nowhere better exemplified than in his letters to Caspar Baertz
(Barzaeus), the Flemish Jesuit whom he sent to Horrauz, or in
his suggestions for the establishment of a Portuguese staple in
Japan. Supreme as an organizer, he seems also to have had a
singularly attractive personality, which won him the friendship
even of the pirates and bravos with whom he was forced to con-
sort on his voyages.
Modern critics of his work note that he made no attempt to
understand the oriental religions which he attacked, and censure
him for invoking the aid of the Inquisition and sanctioning per-
secution of the Nestorians in Malabar. He strove, with a success
disastrous to the Portuguese empire, to convert the Government
in Goa into a proselytizing agency. Throughout his life he re-
mained in close touch with Ignatius of Loyola, who is said to have
selected Xavier as his own successor at the head of the Society
of Jesus. Within a few weeks of Xavier's death, indeed, Ignatius
sent letters recalling him to Europe with that end in view.
(K. G. J.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Many of the authorities • on which the biographies
of Xavier have been based are untrustworthy, notably the Pere-
grinafam of F. M. Pinto (q.v.). Xavier's extant letters, supplemented
by a few other i6th century documents, outweigh all other evidence.
A critical text of the letters, with notes, bibliography and a life in
Spanish, will be found in Monumenta Xayeriana ex Autographic vel
ex Antiquioribtis Exemplis collecta, vol. i. (Madrid, 1899-1900), in
Monwnenta Historica SocietaLis Jesu. For translations, H. Coleridge,
The Life and Letters of Saint Francis Xavier (2 vols., 1872) is useful.
There are numerous old and uncritical biographies; best and earliest
are O. Torsellino (Tursellinus) I>e vita Francisd Xaverti, libri sex
(Antwerp, 1596) ; Eng. trans. T.F., The Admirable Life of Saint
Francis Xavier (Paris, 1632) and Joao Lucena, ffistoria da Vida do
Padre Francisco de Xavier (Lisbon, 1600). J. M. Cros, St. Francois
de Xavier, sa vie et ses Ifttres (2 vols., Toulouse, 1900), embodies
the results of long research. See K. G. Jayne, Vasco da Gatna and
his Successors, ch. xxv. to xxxii. (1910) ; Otis Carey, A History of
Christianity in Japan (2 vols., 1909) ; E. A. Stewart, Life of St. Francis
Xavier (1917) ; A. Bellessort, Saint Francois Xavier (1917) ; F.
Apalategui, Empresas y viajes apostolicds de San Francisco Xavier
(1920).
XENIA, a city of south-western Ohio, U.S A., the county seat
of Greene county; 16 m. S.E. of Dayton, near the Little Miami
river, at an altitude of 910 feet. It is served by the Baltimore
and Ohio, the Pennsylvania and electric railways and motorbus
Knes. Pop. (1920) 9,110 (22% negroes). It is the trade centre
of a rich farming and stock-raising district ; the seat of the Ohio
Soldiers* and Sailors* Orphans' home; and an important manufac-
turing city, making rope, twine and cordage, boots and shoes,
furniture and various other commodities. About 3 m. N.E. is
Wilberforce University for Negroes (1856). Xenia was laid out
in 1803, incorporated as a town in 1808 and as a city in 1870.
It has a city-manager form of government.
XENOCRATES, OP CHALCEDON (396-314 B.C.),
Greek philosopher and rector of the Academy from 339 to 314 B.C.,
removed to Athens in early youth. He became the pupil of the
Socratic Aeschines, but presently joined himself to Plaio, -whom
he attended to Sicily in 361. Upon his master's death (34? B.C.),
in company with Aristotle be paid a visit to Hermias at Atarneus.
In 339, Aristotle being then in Macedonia, Xenocrates succeeded
Speusippus in the presidency of the school. On three occasions
he was member of au Athenian legation, oace to J*hilip, twice to
Antipater. Soon after the death of Demosthenes in 322, resenting
the Macedonian influence then dominant at Athens, Xenocrates
declined the citizenship offered to him at the instance of Photion,
and, being unable to pay the tax levied upon resident aliens, was
sold, or on the point of being sold, into slavery. He died in 314,
and was succeeded by Polemon, whom he bad reclaimed from a
life of profligacy. Besides Polemon, the statesman Phodon,
Chaeron, tyrant of Pellene, the Academic Grantor, the Stoic Zeno
and Epicurus are alleged to have frequented his lectures.
Xenocrates's earnestness and strength of character won for
him universal respect. Wanting in quickness of apprehension and
in native grace, he made up for these deficiencies by & conatien*
tious love of troth and an untiring industry. Lew original than
Speusippm, he adhered more closely to the fetter of Platonic
doctrine, and it accounted the typical representative of the Old
Acadony. With Plato Xenocrates postulated ideas or numbers to
be the causes of nature's organic products, and derived these ideas
or numbers from unity (which is active) and plurality (which is
passive) ; but unlike Plato, he took for his principles arithmetical
unity and plurality, and accordingly identified ideal numbers with
arithmetical numbers. In thus reverting to the crudities of certain
Pythagoreans, he laid himself open to the criticisms of Aristotle,
who, in his Metaphysics, recognizing amongst contemporary Pla-
tonists three principal groups — (i) those who, like Plato, dis-
tinguished mathematical and ideal numbers; (2) those who, like
Xenocrates, identified them; and (3) those who, like Speusippus,
postulated mathematical numbers only — has much to say against
the Xenocratean interpretation of the theory, and in particular
points out that, if the ideas are numbers made up of arithmetical
units, they not only cease to be principles, but also become subject
to arithmetical operations. Xenocrates's theory of inorganic
nature was substantially identical with the theory of the
elements propounded in the Timaeus, 53 C scq. Nevertheless,
holding that every dimension has a principle of its own, he rejected
the derivation of the elemental solids — pyramid, octahedron, ico-
sahedron and cube — from triangular surfaces, and in so far ap-
proximated to atomism. Moreover, to the tetrad of simple ele-
ments— viz., fire, air, water, earth — he added ether. His cosmology
was also drawn almost entirely from the Timaeus.
Soul is a self-moving number, derived from the two funda-
mental principles, unity and plurality whence it obtains its powers
of rest and motion. It is incorporeal, and may exist apart from
body. The irrational soul, as well as the rational soul, is immortal.
The universe, the heavenly bodies, man, animals, and presumably
plants, are each of them endowed with a soul. Xenocrates identifies
the universe and the heavenly bodies with the greater gods, and re-
serves a place between them and mortals for the lesser divinities.
Xenocrates appears to have recognized three grades of cognition,
each appropriated to a region of its own — viz., knowledge, opinion
and sensation, having for their respective objects supra-celestials
or ideas, celestials or stars, and infra-celestials or things. Of his
logic we know only that with Plato he distinguished rb xaO' aur6
and r6 TrpAs n, rejecting the Aristotelian list of ten categories as
a superfluity.
Valuing philosophy chiefly for its influence upon conduct,
Xenocrates bestowed especial attention upon ethics. He wrote
much upon this subject; but the indications of doctrine which
have survived are scanty. Things are goods, ills or neutrals. Goods
are of three sorts — mental, bodily, external; but of all goods
virtue is incomparably the greatest. Happiness consists in the
possession of virtue, and consequently is independent of personal
and extraneous advantages. The virtuous man is pure, not in act
only, but also in heart. To the attainment of virtue the best help
is philosophy; for the philosopher does of his own accord what
others do under the compulsion of law. Speculative wisdom and
practical wisdom are to be distinguished.
Xenocrates was not in any sense a great thinker. His meta-
physic was a travesty rather than a reproduction of that of his
master. His ethic had little which was distinctive. But his austere
life and commanding personality made him an effective teacher,
and his influence, kept alive by his pupils Polemon and Crates,
ceased only when Arcesilaus, the founder of the so-called Second
Academy, gave a new direction to the studies of the school.
See D. Van der Wynperssc, DC Xenocrate Chalcedonio (Leiden,
1822) ; C. A. Braudis, Gesch. d. gnechisch-rdrmschen Philosophie (Ber-
lin, 1853), ii. 2, i; E. Zellcr, Philosophic d. Griechen (Leipzig, 1875),
ii. i ; F. W. A. Mullach, Frag. Philo. Graecorurn (Paris, -1881), iii»> and
Uberweg, Grundriss der Gesch. der Philosophie, Bd. I. (1926).
(H. JN.; X.)
XENON, a very rare gas occurring to the extent of one part
in about 20 million parts of the atmosphere (q.v.). Xenon (sym-
bol Xe, atomic number 54, atomic weight 130-2), was isolated in
1898 by Sir W. Ramsay and M. W. Travers who liquefied it at
—109° C and iolidifced it at -140° C.
XBNOPHANES of Colophon, the reputed founder of the
Etaatic school of philosophy, it supposed to have been born in the
third or fourth decade of the 6th century E.C. An exile from his
Ionian home, he resided lor a time in Sicily, at Zancle and at
Catana, and afterwards established himself in southern Italy, at
XENOPHON
Elea, a Phocaean colony founded in the 6ist Olympiad (536-
533). In one of the extant fragments he speaks of himself as hav-
ing begun his wanderings 67 years before, when he was 25 years
of age, so that he was not less than 92 when he died. His teaching
found expression in poems, which he recited rhapsodically in the
course of his travels. In the more considerable of the elegiac frag-
ments which have survived, he ridicules the doctrine of the migra-
tion of souls (xviii.), asserts the claims of wisdom against the prev-
alent athleticism, which seemed to him to conduce neither to
the good government of states nor to their material prosperity
(xix.), reprobates the introduction of Lydian luxury into Colo-
phon (xx.), and recommends the reasonable enjoyment of social
pleasures (xxi.). Of the epic fragments, the more important are
those in which he attacks the "anthropomorphic and anthropop-
athic polytheism" of his contemporaries. According to Aristotle,
"the first of Eleatic Unitarians was not careful to say whether the
unity which he postulated was finite or infinite, but, contemplating
the whole firmament, declared that the One is God." Whether
Xenophanes was a monotheist, whose assertion of the unity of
God suggested to Parmcnides the doctrine of the unity of Being,
or a pantheist, whose assertion of the unity of God was also a
declaration of the unity of Being, so that he anticipated Par-
menides is a question about which authorities differ.
Of Xenophanes's utterances about (i) God, (2) the world, (3)
knowledge, the following survive: (i) "There is one God, greatest
among gods and men, neither in shape nor in thought like unto
mortals. ... He is all sight, all mind, all ear (i.e., not a com-
posite organism). . . . Without an effort ruleth he all things by
thought. ... He abideth ever in the same place motionless, and
it befitteth him not to wander hither and thither. . . . Yet men
imagine gods to be born, and to have raiment and voice and body,
like themselves. . . . Even so the gods of the Ethiopians are
swarthy and flat-nosed, the gods of the Thracians are fair-haired
and blue-eyed. . . . Even so Homer and Hesiod attributed to the
gods all that is a shame and a reproach among men — theft, adul-
tery, deceit and other lawless acts. . . . Even so oxen, lions and
horses, if they had hands wherewith to grave images, would
fashion gods after their own shapes and make them bodies like to
their own. (2) From earth all things are and to earth all things
return. . . . From earth and water come all of us. . . . The sea
is the well whence water springeth. . . . Here at our feet is the
end of the earth where it reacheth unto air, but, below, its founda-
tions are without end. . . . The rainbow, which men call Iris, is a
cloud that is purple and red and yellow. (3) No man hath cer-
tainly known, nor shall certainly know, that which he saith about
the gods and about all things; for, be that which he saith ever so
perfect, yet doth he not know it ; all things are matters of opinion.
. . . That which I say is opinion like unto truth. . . . The gods
did not reveal all things to mortals in the beginning; long is the
search ere man findeth that which is better."
There is very little secondary evidence to record. "The Eleatic
school," says the Stranger in Plato's Sophist, 242 D, "beginning
with Xenophanes, and even earlier, starts from the principle of
the unity of all things." Aristotle, in a passage already cited,
Metaphysics, AS, speaks of Xenophanes as the first of the Eleatic
Unitarians, adding that his monotheism was reached through the
contemplation of the o^pa^s. Theophrastus (in Simplidus's
Ad Physica, 5) sums up Xenophanes's teaching in the propositions,
"The All is One and the One is God." Timon (in Sext. Empir.
Pyrrh. i. 224)* ignoring Xenophanes's theology, makes him resolve
all things into one and the same unity. The demonstrations of the
unity and the attributes of God, with which the treatise DC
Melisso, Xenophane et Gorgia (now no longer ascribed to Aristotle
or Theophrastus) accredits Xenophanes, are plainly framed on
the model of Eleatic proofs of the unity and the attributes of the
Ent, and must therefore be set aside.
The wisdom of Xenophanes, like the wisdom of the Hebrew
Preacher, showed itself, not in a theory of the universe, but in a
sorrowful recognition of the nothingness of things and the futility
of endeavour. His theism was a declaration not so much of the
greatness of God as rather of the littleness of man. His cosmology
was an assertion not so much of the immutability of the One as
rather of the mutability of the Many. Like Socrates, he was not
a philosopher, and did not pretend to be one ; but, as the reasoned
scepticism of Socrates cleared the way for the philosophy of Plato,
so did Xenophanes's "abnormis sapientia" for the philosophy of
Parmenides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — S. Karsten, Xenophanis Colophonii Carminum
Reliquiae (Brussels, 1830) ; F. W. A. Mullach, Frag. Phil. Graec.
(Paris, 1860), i.; G. Teichmiiller, Studien z. Gesch. d. Begriffe
(Berlin, 1874); E. Zcller, Phil. d. Griechen (Leipzig, 1877), i-;
J. Freudenthal, Ueber d. Theologie d. Xenophanes (Breslau, 1886),
and "Zur Lehre d. Xen.," in Archiv j. Gesch. d. Philos. (Berlin,
1888), i. 322-347; H. Diels, Poetarum Philosophorum Fragmenta
(1901) ; and Die Fragments der Vorsokratiker, Bd. I. (4th ed., 1022) ;
J. Burnct, Early Greek Philosophers (3rd ed., 1920). For fuller
bibliography, including the controversy about the De Melisso Xen. et
Gorgia, see t)berwcg, Grundriss d. Gesch. d, Philos.t Bd. I. (1926);
D. Eishorn, Xenophanes; ein Beitrag zur Kritik der Grundlagen der
bischerigen Philosophiegeschkhte (Vienna, 1917). See also PARMENIDES.
XENOPHON, Greek historian and philosophical essayist, the
son of Gryllus, was born in Athens about 430 B.C. As the descrip-
tion of the Ionian campaign of Thrasyllus in 410 (Hellenica, i. 2)
is clearly derived from Xenophon's own reminiscences, he must
have taken part in this campaign, and cannot therefore have been
less than 20 years of age at the time. He belonged to an equestrian
family of the deme of Erchia. It may be inferred from passages in
the Hellenica that he fought at Arginusae (406 B.C.), and that
he was present at the return of Alcibiades (408 B.C.), the trial of
the Generals and the overthrow of the Thirty. Early in life he
came under the influence of Socrates, but an active career had
more attraction for him. In 401 B.C., being invited by his friend
Proxcnus to join the expedition of the younger Cyrus against his
brother, Artaxerxes II. of Persia, he at once accepted the offer. It
held out the prospect of riches and honour, while he was little
likely to find favour in democratic Athens, where the knights
were regarded with suspicion as having supported the Thirty. At
the suggestion of Socrates, Xenophon went to Delphi to consult
the oracle; but his mind was already made up, and he at once
proceeded to Sardis, the place of rendezvous. Of the expedition
itself he has given a full and detailed account in his Anabasis,
or the "Up-Country March." After the battle of Cunaxa (401
B.C.), in which Cyrus lost his life, the officers in command of the
Greeks were treacherously murdered by the Persian satrap
Tissaphernes, with whom they were negotiating an armistice with
a view to a safe return. The army was now in the heart of an
unknown country, more than a thousand miles from home and in
the presence of a troublesome enemy. It was decided to march
northwards up the Tigris valley and make for the shores of the
Euxinc, on which there were several Greek colonies. Xenophon
became the leading spirit of the army; he was elected an officer,
and he it was who mainly directed the retreat. Part of the way
lay through the wilds of Kurdistan, where they had to encounter
the harassing guerrilla attacks of savage mountain tribes, and part
through the highlands of Armenia and Georgia. After a five
months' march they reached Trapezus (Trebizond) on the Euxine
(Feb. 400 B.C.). At Cotyora he aspired to found a new colony;
but the idea, not being unanimously accepted, was abandoned, and
ultimately Xenophon with his Greeks arrived at Chrysopolis
(Scutari) on the Bosporus, opposite Byzantium. After a brief
period of service under a Thracian chief, Seuthes, they were
finally incorporated in a Lacedaemonian army which had crossed
over into Asia to wage war against the Persian satraps Tis-
saphernes and Pharnabazus. Xenophon, who accompanied them,
captured a wealthy Persian nobleman, with his family, near
Pergamum, and the ransom paid for his recovery secured Xeno-
phon a competency for life.
On his return to Greece Xenophon served under Agesilaus, king
of Sparta, at that time the chief power in the Greek world. With
his native Athens and its general policy and institutions he was
not in sympathy. At Coroneia (394 B.C.) be fought with the
Spartans against the Athenians and Thebans, for which his fellow-
citizens decreed bis banishment. Tbc Spartans provided a home
for him at Scillus in Elis, about two miles from Olympia; there
he settled down to indulge his tastes for sport and literature. After
Snarta's crushing defeat at Leuctra. Ci7i B.c.V Xennnhnn wa«
XENOPHON
837
driven from his home by the people of Elis. Meantime Sparta
and Athens had become allies, and the Athenians repealed the
decree which had condemned him to exile. There is, however, no
evidence that he ever returned to his native city. According to
Diogenes Laertius, he made his home at Corinth. The year of his
death is not known; all that can be said is that it was later than
355 B.C., the date of his work on the Revenues of Athens.
The Anabasis (composed at Scillus between 379 and 371 B.C.)
is a work of singular interest, and is brightly and pleasantly
written. Xenophon, like Caesar, tells the story in the third per-
son. His description of places and of relative distances is very
minute and painstaking. The researches of modem travellers
attest his general accuracy. It is expressly stated by Plutarch
and Diogenes Laertius that the Anabasis was the work of Xeno-
phon, and the evidence from style is conclusive. The allusion
(Hellenica, iii. i, 2) to Themistogenes of Syracuse as the author
shows that Xenophon published it under an assumed name.
The Cyropaedia, a political and philosophical romance, which
describes the boyhood and training of Cyrus, hardly answers to
its name, being for the most part an account of the beginnings
of the Persian empire and of the victorious career of Cyrus, its
founder. The Cyropaedia contains, in fact, the author's own
ideas of training and education, as derived conjointly from the
teachings of Socrates and his favourite Spartan institutions. It
was said to have been written in opposition to the Republic of
Plato. A distinct moral purpose, to which literal truth is sacri-
ficed, runs through the work. For instance, Cyrus is represented
as dying peacefully in his bed, whereas, according to Herodotus,
he fell in a campaign against the Massagetae.
The Hellenica written at Corinth, after 362 B.C., is the only
contemporary account of the period covered by it (411-362 B.C.)
that has come down to us. It consists of two distinct parts ; books
i. and ii., which are intended to form a continuation of the work
of Thucydides, and bring the history down to the fall of the
Thirty, and books iii.-vii., the Hellenica proper, which deal with
the period from 401 to 362 B.C., and give the history of the
Spartan and Theban hegemonies, down to the death of Epaminon-
das. There is, however, no ground for the view that these two
parts were written and published as separate works. There is
probably no justification for the charge of deliberate falsification.
It must be admitted, however, that he had strong political pre-
judices, and that these prejudices have influenced his narrative.
He was a partisan of the reactionary movement which triumphed
after the fall of Athens; Sparta is his ideal, and Agesilaus his
hero. Hardly less serious defects than his political bias are his
omissions, his want of the sense of proportion and his failure to
grasp the meaning of historical criticism. The most that can be
said in his favour is that as a witness he is at once honest and
well-informed. For this period of Greek history he is, at any rate,
an indispensable witness.
The Memorabilia, or "Recollections of Socrates/' in four books,
was written to defend Socrates against the charges of impiety and
corrupting the youth, repeated after his death by the sophist
Polycrates. The work is not a literary masterpiece; it lacks co-
herence and unity, and the picture it gives of Socrates fails to do
him justice. Still, as far as it goes, it no doubt faithfully describes
the philosopher's manner of life and style of conversation. It
was the moral and practical side of Socrates's teaching which most
interested Xenophon; into his metaphysical speculations he seems
to have made no attempt to enter : for these, indeed, he had neither
taste nor genius. Moving within a limited range of ideas, he
doubtless gives us "considerably less than the real Socrates, while
Plato gives us something more." It is probable that the work in
its present form is an abridgement.
Xenophon has left several minor works, some of which are very
interesting and give an insight into the home life of the Greeks.
The Oeconomics (to some extent a continuation of the Memor-
abilia, and sometimes regarded as the fifth book of the same) deals
with the management of the house and of the farm, and presents
a pleasant and amusing picture of the Greek wife and of her home
duties. There are some good practical remarks on matrimony and
on the respective duties of husband and wife.
In the essays on horsemanship (Hippike) and hunting (Cyneget-
icus), Xenophon deals with matters of which he had a thorough
knowledge. In the first he gives rules how to choose a horse, and
then tells how it is to be groomed and ridden and generally man-
aged. The Cynegeticus deals chiefly with the hare, though the
author speaks also of boar-hunting and describes the hounds, tells
how they are to be bred and trained, and gives specimens of suit-
able names for them.
The Hipparchicus explains the duties of a cavalry officer. He
dwells at some length on the moral qualities which go to the mak-
ing of a good officer, and hints very plainly that there must be
strict attention to religious duties.
The Agesilaus is a eulogy of the Spartan king, who had two
special merits in Xenophon 's eyes: he was a rigid disciplinarian,
and he was particularly attentive to all religious observances. We
have a summary of his virtues rather than a picture of the man
himself.
The Hiero works out the line of thought indicated in the story
of the Sword of Damocles. It is a protest against the notion that
the ''tyrant" is a man to be envied, as having more abundant
means of happiness than a private person.
The Symposium, or "Banquet," to some extent the complement
of the Memorabilia, is a brilliant little dialogue in which Socrates
is the prominent figure. He is represented as "improving the
occasion," which is that of a lively Athenian supper-party, at which
there is much drinking, with flute-playing, and a dancing-girl from
Syracuse, who amuses the guests with the feats of a professional
conjurer. Socrates's table-talk runs through a variety of topics,
and winds up with a philosophical disquisition on the superiority
of true heavenly love to its earthly or sensual counterfeit.
There are also two short essays, attributed to him, on the polit-
ical constitution of Sparta and Athens, written with a decided
bias in favour of the former, which he praises without attempting
to criticize. Sparta seems to have presented to Xenophon the best
conceivable mixture of monarchy and aristocracy. The second is
certainly not by Xenophon, but was probably written by a member
of the oligarchical party at Athens shortly after the beginning
of the Peloponnesian War.
In the essay on the Revenues of Athens (written in 355 B.C.) he
offers suggestions for making Athens less dependent on tribute
received from its allies. Above all, he would have Athens use its
influence for the maintenance of peace in the Greek world and for
the settlement of questions by diplomacy, the temple at Delphi
being for this purpose an independent centre and supplying a
divine sanction.
The Apology, Socrates's defence before his judges, in the gen-
eral opinion of modern critics is not a genuine work of Xenophon,
but belongs to a much later period.
The editions of Xenophon's works, both complete and of separate
portions, are very numerous, especially of the Anabasis; only a
selection can be given here. Editio princeps (1516, incomplete) ;
E. C. Marchant (1900-1912, in the Clarendon Press Scriptorum
Cltisxicorum Bibliotheca). Anabasis: J. F. Macmichaei (1883) ; C. W.
Kriigcr and W. Pokel (1888) ; W. Gemoll (1899). Cyropaedia: G. M.
Gorham (1870) ; L. Breitenbach (1875) ; A. Hug (1883) I F. Hcrtlein
and W. Nitsche (1886); H. A. Holdcn (1887-90). Hellenica: L.
Breitenbach (1874-84); R. Buchsenschiitz (1880-91); O. Keller
(1890) ; G. E. Underbill, Commentary on the Hellenica (i.-vii., 1900).
Memorabilia: A. R. Clucr (1880) ; R. Kiihner (1882) ; L. Breitcnbach
(1889); J- Marshall (1890). Occonomicus: H. A. Holden (1895);
C. Graux and A. Jacob (1886). Hiero: H. A. Holdcn (1888).
Agesilaus: R. W. Taylor (1880); 0. Guthling (1888). Resp. Lace-
daem.: G. Pierleoni (1905). Resp. Athenienstum : A. Kirchhoff
(1874) J E. Belot (1880) ; H. Miiller and Striibing (1880) ; E. Kalinka
(1913). Cynegeticus: G. Pierleoni (1902). Hippike: Tommasini
(1902). Reditus Athen.: A. Zurborg (1876). Scripta Afinora: L.
Dindorf (1888). There is a good English translation of the complete
works by H. G. Dakyns (1890-94), and of the Art of Horsemanship
by M. H. Morgan (U.S.A., 1890). Of general works bearing on the
subject may be mentioned: G. Sauppe, Lexilogus Xenophonteus
(1869) ; A. Croisct, X., son caractere et son talent (1871) ; I. Hart-
raann, Analecta Xenophontea (1887) and Analecta Xenophontea Nova
(1889) J C, Joel, Der echte und der Xenophonteische Socrates (1892) ;
mann-Preuss, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Classicorum (i., 1880) and in
838
XERXES— X-RAYS
C. Bursian's Jakresbericht (c^ 1000) by E. Richter. (E. M. WA.)
XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayfrsha; Old
Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosk — i.e., Ahasuerus [</.t».] —
with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for V, instead of
Akhskavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt
the name is written Khshai'arsh), the name of two Persian kings
of the Achaemenid dynasty.
i. XERXES I., son of Darius I. and Atossa, the daughter of
Cyrus the Great, and therefore appointed successor to his father
in preference to his eldest half-brothers, who were born before
Darius had become king (Herod, vii. 2 f.). After his accession
in October 485 B.C. he suppressed the revolt in Egypt which had
broken out in 486, appointed his brother Achaemenes as satrap
and "brought Egypt under a much heavier yoke than it had
been before" (Herod, vii. 7). His predecessors, especially Darius,
had not been successful in their attempts to conciliate the ancient
civilizations. This probably was the reason why Xerxes in 484
abolished the "kingdom of Babel" and took away the golden
statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the legiti-
mate king of Babel had to seize on the first day of each year, and
killed the priest who tried to hinder him1. Therefore Xerxes does
not bear the title of "King of Babel" in the Babylonian docu-
ments dated from his reign, but "King of Persia and Media," or
simply "King of countries" (i.e., of the world). This proceeding
led to two rebellions, pwbably in 484 and 479; in the Babylonian
documents occur the names of two ephemeral kings, Shamash-
irba and Tarziya, who belong to this time. One of these rebellions
was suppressed by Megabyzus, son of Zopyrus, the satrap whom
the Babylonians had slam2.
Darius had left to his son the task of punishing the Greeks for
their interference in the Ionian rebellion and the victory of Mara-
thon. From 483 Xerxes prepared his expedition with great care: a
channel was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount
Athos; provisions were stored in the stations on the road through
Thrace; two bridges were thrown across the Hellespont. Xerxes
concluded an alliance with Carthage, and thus deprived Greece
of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigen-
tum. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the
Persians ("Medized"), especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. A
large fleet and a numerous army were gathered. In the
spring of 480 Xerxes set out from Sardis. At first Xerxes was
victorious everywhere. The Greek fleet was beaten at Artemisium,
Thermopylae stormed, Athens conquered, the Greeks driven back
to their last line of defence at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the
Bay of Salamis. But Xerxes was induced by the astute message
of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicar-
nassus) to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions,
instead of sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and
awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armament8. The battle of
Salamis (Sept. 28, 480) decided the war. (See SALAMIS.) Having
lost his communication by sea with Asia, Xerxes was forced to
retire to Sardis; the army which he left in Greece under Mar-
donius was in 479 beaten at Plataea (q.v.). The defeat of the
Persians at Mycale roused the Greek cities of Asia.
Of the later years of Xerxes little is known. He sent out
Sataspes to attempt the circumnavigation of Africa (Herod, iv.
143), but the victory of the Greeks threw the empire into a state
of languid torpor, from which it could not rise again. The king
himself became involved in intrigues of the harem (cf. Herod, ix.
1 08 ff. — compare the late Jewish novel of Esther, in which a
remembrance of the true character of the king is retained) and
was much dependent upon courtiers and eunuchs. He left inscrip-
tions at Persepolis, where he added a new palace to that of Darius,
at Van in Armenia, and on Mount Elvend near Ecbatana ; in these
'Herod, i. 183, by Ctesias changed into a plundering of the tomb
of Belitanas or Belus: cf. Aelian, Var. Hist. 13, 3; Aristobulus ap.
Arrian vii. 17, 2, and Strabo xvi., p. 738.
•Ctesias, Pers. 22; his legendary history Is transferred by Herodotus,
iii. ist> ff., to the former rebellion against Darius.
*See G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War (1901),- and in criticism
W. W. Tarn, "The Fleet of Xerxes," in Journal o{ Hellenic Studies
(1908), 202-234; also Macan's notes on Herod, iv.-vi. (1895), and
authorities for PLATAEA, SALAMIS.
texts he merely copies the words of his father. In 465 he was mur-
dered by his vizier Artabanus (q.v.) who raised Artaxerxes I. to
the throne.
2. XERXES II., son and successor of Artaxerxes I., was assassi-
nated in 424 after a reign of forty-five days by his brother
Secydianus or Sogdianus, who in his turn was murdered by Darius
II. (q.v.).
See Ctesias, Pers. 44; Diod. xii., 64, 71, and the chronographers ;
neither of the two ephemeral kings is mentioned in the canon of
Ptolemy nor in the dates of Babylonian contracts of this time,
The name XERXES was also borne by a king of Armenia, killed
about 212 B.C. by Antiochus the Great (Polyb. viii. 25; Johannes
Antiochenus, p. 53 ; his name occurs on copper coins) ; and by a
son of Mithradates the Great of Pontus (Appian, Mithr. 108,
117). * (Eo. M.)
XINCA, a group of about 10,000 Indians living in southern
Guatemala along the Rio de los Esclavos, including most of the
departments of Santa Rosa and Jutiapa. They were first encoun-
tered by the Spaniards upder Pedro de Alvarado in 1524 and were
finally subdued two years later by Pedro Portocarrero. On account
of their stubborn resistance many of them were branded and sold
as slaves, whence the name of the river that cuts their territory.
The Xinca may be the remnants of an ancient population which
preceded the Maya and Nahua. The Maya regarded the Xinca as
barbarians, a feeling very generally entertained in Guatemala
to-day.
See D. G. Brinton, On the Xinca Indians of Guatemala (American
Philosophical Society, Proceedings, Philadelphia, 1884) ; Walther
Lehmann, Zeniral-Amerika, i Teil, ii. Band (1920).
XIPHILINUS, JOANNES, epitomator of Dio Cassius,
lived at Constantinople during the latter half of the itth century
A.D. He was a monk and the nephew of the patriarch of Con-
stantinople of the same name. (Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxx.)
The epitome (kK\cyal) of Dio which was prepared by order of
Michael Parapinaces (1071-78), comprises books 36-80, the
period included being from the times of Pompey and Caesar down
to Alexander Severus. Book 70 appears to have been missing in
his copy, while in books 78 and 79 a mutilated original must have
been used. Xiphilinus divided the work into sections, each con-
taining the life of an emperor. He omitted the name of the
consuls and hence sometimes falls into chronological errors. The
epitome is valuable as preserving the chief incidents of the period
for which the authority of Dio is wanting.
See J. Melber's Dio in Teuhner series ; C. Wachsrauth, Einleitung in
das Studium der alien Geschichte (1895) ; W. Christ, Geschichte der
grieckischen Literatur (1898).
XOSA, a group of Bantu-speaking peoples occupying the east-
ern half of the Cape Colony. They comprise a large number of in-
dependent tribes, each governed by a chief assisted by councillors.
Their subsistence is derived from a combination of cattle-keeping
with agriculture. Socially they are organized into patrilineal exog-
amous clans. Marriage is polygamous and involves the payment
of a bride-price ; and both the sororate and the levirate are prac-
tised. Ancestor-worship is the main form of religious cult, and
both magic and witchcraft play a strong part in the lives of the
people.
See A. Kropf, Das Volk der Xosa-Kaffern, 1889.
X-RAYS, NATURE OF. X-rays, or RSntgen rays, is the
name given to the radiations which, in the general spectrum of
electromagnetic waves, occur after ultra-violet rays as we pass
towards the shorter wave lengths. It is difficult to define the
region exactly. As is well known the visible spectrum extends
from the wave lengths of the extreme red (about O-SM) to the
furthest violet (about o-4/i), next follows the ultra-violet and
then a region is reached where the absorption of the radiation by
all kinds of matter becomes very great.
It is in the region of 1,000 Angstrom units (or, to use other
units, o-i ;*, or io"5 centimetre), that we may place the beginning
of the X-rays, but we must remember that the radiations in the
ultra-violet series of hydrogen are undoubtedly the terms of an
X-ray series (the K series) of this gas. At the short wave length
end we may regard the K rays of uranium, or more exactly the K
BOHR'S THEORY]
X-RAYS
839
discontinuities of this element, as marking the limit of a region of
radiations intimately connected with the electronic structure of
the atom and from that point the gamma rays begin (i.e., for
wave-lengths less than -fa of an Angstrom unit). (See RADIA-
TION.)
The quantum theory (g.v.) establishes a correspondence be-
tween each radiation of given wave-length and a certain number of
volts, and when the radiations are excited by an electric discharge
it is necessary that the potential of this discharge should be at
least- equal to this voltage. The visible and the ultra-violet radia-
tions then correspond to just a few volts while the X-rays range
from some hundred volts to more than a hundred thousand volts ;
to excite the gamma rays it would be necessary to employ a poten-
tial of several millions of volts.
In this wide interval are found rays the properties of which
vary in a continuous manner as a function of the wave length.
The Bragg-Peirce law which expresses the progressive and regular
character of the absorption of a radiation in terms of the atomic
number of the absorbing clement appears to be valid throughout
a region which extends at least from io"2 A to 10 A, and probably
much beyond in the short wave length direction.
Towards the end of the year 1895 Professor Rontgen, in his
laboratory at Wurzburg, in Bavaria, carried out experiments on
the electric discharge through rarefied gases. The experiments of
Crookcs had at that time attracted a great deal of attention to
this branch of physics. Rontgen had covered his discharge tube
with black paper and placed a phosphorescent screen near it to
see if a new radiation penetrated through the paper. Not only
did the screen commence to fluoresce but also a new radiation
was disclosed in a neighbouring room through a closed door. It
is said that a foreign scientist visiting the German physicist some
years later asked "what did you think then?" and he replied "I
did not think, I experimented."
The history of the discovery of the X-rays by Rontgen is
described under RONTGEN, WILHELM KONRAD VON.
The extraordinary penetrative qualities of X-rays were the
object of the first researches, while the attempts to discover in
them optical properties, analogous to those of the radiations of
ordinary light, received a check, so much so that for a long time
even their undulatory nature was in doubt. It was necessary to
wait until the experiments of Laue, Friedrich and Knipping in
1912 to find, in the passage of X-rays through crystalline media,
a remarkably fruitful method, which by demonstrating that the
new radiations show, like light, the phenomena of interference
and of diffraction, enabled the wave length to be determined and
at the same time the different kinds to be separated. Between
these two dates, 1895-1912, the study of Rontgen rays had made
great advances, thanks especially to the work of Barkla on the
secondary rays which they excite by falling on different bodies,
and that of Whiddington on the excitation of X-rays by means
of cathode rays of increasing velocities.
One of the first and most important results to which tfce study
of X-rays led was the discovery that their passage through gases
rendered the latter conductors of electricity. It was found later
that this effect was in reality due to the ionisation which the fast
moving electrons ejected from the atoms produce along their
paths. The new radiations showed themselves capable of produc-
ing a considerable effect on photographic plates, a phenomenon
also very probably due to a secondary action.
These two effects allow us to estimate the intensity of X-rays
by measuring the ionisation current produced or the degree of
blackening of photographic emulsions.
In addition, X-rays produce a certain number of chemical
actions and the well-known phenomenon of luminescence in many
substances. To-day barium platinocyanide and calcium tungstate
are most commonly employed, either as fluorescent screens for
visual observation, or as intensifiers to shorten photographic
exposures.
All these remarkable properties have attracted keen attention;
but what actually gives X-rays a place apart in the realm of
Physics, is that by revealing simple general laws of very wide
application in natural philosophy they yield us information con-
cerning the interior parts of atoms, much better than do the
other radiations.
It is the laws- of JC-rays which have most effectively helped to
clarify the ideas of modern physicists on the structure of atoms.
The study of Rontgen rays is so closely bound up with these
conceptions that it is necessary to outline the latter at this point.
As a result of the theories of Sir Ernest Rutherford and Niels
Bohr the atom of an element of atomic number N (that is to say
in the Nth place in the natural order of the elements) is regarded
as composed of a nucleus possessing a total positive charge equal
to N times the elementary charge surrounded by a swarm of N
electrons distributed in a certain manner around it. (See also
ATOMS.) We understand, especially from the ideas of Bohr, that
these electrons may be divided into several classes, characterised
by the work which must be expended to extract from the atom an
electron of a certain class. In conformity with the quantum
theory we may define for each of these electronic levels a fre-
quency vv related to the work Wp necessary to extract the
electron from the atom by the relation —
Wr
"»"•
We denote by the letters A", L, M, etc., successive levels proceed-
ing outwards from the nucleus. This being premised it is con-
venient to recall that the fundamental hypotheses of Bohr's
theory are as follows :—
A spectral line is emitted by an atom when an electron passes
from one level to another which is nearer the nucleus, e.g., from
the A/ to the K level, and this spectral line (which is emitted
with an energy hv) possesses a frequency v defined by —
Conversely the transport of an electron from one level to another
further from the nucleus, e.g., from A" to A/, would correspond to
the absorption of energy of a definite frequency; in the case of
luminous radiation, this is called a resonance absorption; but as
we shall see later, this process does not, in general, appear to be
realised with X-rays.
When an electron is removed from one level it seems nearly
always to be taken right out of the atom, which corresponds, in
the case in which the first level is, for example, the L level, to a
transport of an electron from this level to infinity with absorption
of a wave of frequency VL which would be :• —
It is only by the absorption of energy of a frequency at least
equal to VL that an electron of the L ring may be extracted from
the atom. In passing through this frequency the incident radiation
will suddenly become susceptible to a new mechanism of absorp-
tion and we ought to find a sudden rise in the curve of its absorp-
tion coefficient.
Bohr's theory enables us to predict the lines of a spectrum,
when the various levels are stated. Among all these lines we may
consider separately those which have the same final level, because
their manifestation is conditioned by the same initial phenomenon :
the existence of a vacant position in this level. Experiment shows
that these lines actually have their origin in a uniform mechanism
and form a natural group, a "series" of lines which will bear the
name of the final level. If an exciting radiation, falling on a
small portion of matter which contains a large number of atoms,
is capable of ejecting an electron from the K ring of a number
of them, it is natural to suppose that in some of the atoms, for
example, the space will be filled up by an electron coming from the
L ring with emission of the line <XK\ the vacancy thus created on
the L ring will be filled at the expense of the Af ring with the
emission of the line <XL. In other atoms it will be an electron
from the M ring that will jump directly to the K ring emitting
the line $K and so on.
The emission of the series is, then, a statistical phenomenon
resulting from events which occur in a large number of perturbed
840
X-RAYS
[ABSORPTION
atoms and the intensity of a line measures the probability of the
particular combination of levels to which it corresponds.
Consider for an instant the higher terrn^ of a series whose
initial levels belong to the outer regions of the atom. They will
have frequencies approaching the critical frequency of their final
levels and their existence will depend on the real or virtual state
of the outer initial levels. The series will thus be more numerous
for the elements of high atomic weight, in which the levels occu-
pied by electrons are themselves more numerous. External actions,
chemical action, forces of cohesion, etc., which modify the sur-
face levels, will likewise influence the higher terms of the series.
In fine it is by the lines close to the critical discontinuity that
the influences of outside agents will be manifest. These lines
may thus share with the lines of the luminous spectrum certain
properties which will be absent in the lines arising from inner
levels, the latter being practically independent of outside
influences.
With the help of the preceding considerations we may describe
in a summary and general way the properties of X-rays from the
point of view of their emission and of their absorption by matter.
Emission. — For X-rays to be emitted there must be a vacant
place among the electrons of the atomic layers, and this phenom-
enon occurs in the following cases : —
1. When the atom is ionised by collisions with other atoms or
molecules, if these collisions are sufficiently intense. It is such
collisions which give rise to the X-rays of very long wave-length
in gaseous discharge tubes, and which also, by reason of the
thermal agitation at very high temperatures, give rise to rays of
shorter wave-length such as those which are met with in the
hot stars.
2. When the atom has absorbed a primary radiation which has
removed an electron by the action of the photoelectric effect (see
below). The atom then returns to its normal state with emission
of rays of greater wave length than those of the exciting radiation;
this is the most general case of secondary radiation. On irradiat-
ing a body with X-rays of frequency greater than of its K
absorption discontinuity it is caused to emit the complete series
of its normal X-rays.
3. When the atom is ionised as a result of a collision with fast
electrons, it is then necessary, as shown by the experiments of
Duane and Hunt and of Webster, for the energy of the exciting
electron to be greater than the quantum hv of the discontinuity
which characterises the level whence the atomic electrons are
removed; it is this process which takes place in the X-ray tubes.
A tube which has been evacuated, contains an anticathode of the
element the rays of which it is desired to obtain. If the tube con-
tains a little residual gas, electrons of the cathode stream strike
the anticathode and by their collision cause the emission of
X-rays; their number, however, is difficult to regulate and their
speed ill-defined. A better result is obtained by employing a tube
with an incandescent cathode of the Coolidge type. (See RONTGEN
RAYS: Applications.) Such an incandescent filament serving as a
cathode emits electrons of which the speed is a function of the
applied voltage and the number a function of the temperature of
the filament, i.e., on the magnitude of the heating current. We
thus have a known number of electrons of known energy.
The characteristic rays taken as a whole (i.e., the K series, L
series, M series, etc.) do not constitute the total radiation emitted
from a target when it is subjected to the bombardment of a stream
of electrons. There is, in addition, a continuous spectrum, more
pronounced in the case of the elements of high atomic number,
which is quite different in nature from the characteristic rays.
The commencement of this spectrum, on the high frequency
side, is abrupt and corresponds to the energy of the exciting
cathode rays, as given by the quantum relation. That is to say, the
highest frequency emitted, hvmi*, is connected with the potential
V applied to the tube by the formula
where e represents the electronic charge and h Planck's constant.
The examination of the distribution of the intensities as a
function of the wave-length in the continuous spectrum shows that
after this abrupt beginning, the intensity increases with increase
of wave-length and passes through a pronounced maximum. There
is a certain analogy with the well known curve which represents
the emission of radiation by a black body; a fact which has not
failed to attract attention. When the radiation is measured in
various azimuths with respect to the exciting pencil of cathode
rays, the position of the beginning of the spectrum remains in-
variable, but the intensity distribution is found to be modified.
In accordance with theoretical predictions, the proportion of the
high frequencies is much greater in the direction of the cathode
rays.
The mechanism of the production of this continuous back-
ground still remains obscure. Attempts were made in the first
place to find in it the radiation which the electromagnetic theory
predicts in the case when an electron undergoes a change in its
velocity but we have a very imperfect acquaintance with the laws
of decrease of velocity of the fast electrons when they penetrate
into matter. It is certain that the old classical theories are not
sufficient and that it is necessary to introduce the idea of quanta.
The recent experiments of Davisson and Germer, G. P. Thomson,
etc., confirming the conceptions of the wave mechanics, have
thrown new light on the behaviour of the electrons when they
travel through an obstacle. In this way will be found perhaps
a satisfactory explanation of the experimental data concerning the
continuous spectral background of the Rontgen rays.
Absorption. — The best known property of X-rays, whicjj has
attracted wide attention to this type of radiation, is their ability
to penetrate substances quite opaque to ordinary light, but it
must not be thought that all X-rays are equally penetrating. Their
absorption depends in a simple and general way on the wave-
length of the rays and on the atomic number of the absorbing
body; the higher the frequency of the rays and the lower the
atomic number of the absorbing body, the greater will be the
transparency. Certain rays are able to penetrate several centi-
metres of steel while others are stopped by a few millimetres
of air.
The study of the gradual diminution of intensity undergone by
a beam of X-rays in passing through matter has shown that it
depends on two different causes. On one hand the presence of
atoms of matter in the path of the beam causes a scattering of a
fraction of the latter in all directions in space ; on the other hand,
the same atoms are capable of absorbing quanta of the incident
radiation while undergoing a more or less intense ionisation.
The first phenomenon has been called "scattering" and may be
effected moreover in two very different ways, with which we shall
have to deal later. The second phenomenon is that of absorption
properly so called ; let us recall first how we may represent it on
the Rutherford-Bohr model. Several groups of electrons exist in
the atom and to remove an electron of any group from the atom,
a definite amount of energy must be supplied. When the atom
is placed in a radiation of frequency v, or when it is bombarded
by quanta hv, the electrons whose energy of ejection is less than
hv may in certain favourable cases be ejected from the atom by
the absorption of a quantum. Experiments have up to now always
indicated that quanta of radiant energy are absorbed as a whole ;
if then a quantity of energy W* is necessary to remove an
electron of the nth class, the latter will leave the atom after an
absorption of a quantum hv>W* and with kinetic energy
This is Einstein's law of photoelectricity. After the departure of
the electron, the atom remains in an abnormal ionised state; we
know that it is then in a condition to emit one of the lines of the
W
series characterised by the spectral term -r%
h
The phenomenon of absorption can thus be viewed in two dif-
ferent aspects according as attention is directed to the diminished
intensity of the resulting X-ray beam or to the modifications pro-
duced by it in the state of the matter irradiated. The first point
of view, to which we will keep in the following paragraphs,
corresponds to the study of the law of absorption; the second
leads to an examination of the photoelectric effect itself, that is
X-RAYS
PLATE
X-RAY APPARATUS, AND SPECIMENS OF RESULTS OBTAINED
1. Self-contained and self-protecting 200.000 vojt X-ray installation, at
used for the routine examination of castings. 2? A 400,000 volt X-ray
installation, showing transformer, In centre four valve rectifiers, and high
radiator, with heat-radiating fins at top. 7. Common photograph of butt
weld, apparently sound. 8. Radiograph of the human teeth, revealing a
metallic filling. 9. Radiograph illustrating hidden cracks In casting. lp.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT]
X-RAYS
841
to say the expulsion of electrons by the absorption of quanta of
radiation, and is the subject of a later paragraph.
Let us consider solely the diminution in intensity of a beam
of X-rays of wave length X passing through an element of
atomic number N; the intensity of the beam after having passed
through a thickness x of the absorbing material, is related to
the initial intensity by the relation
The absorption is said to follow the exponential law. The quan-
tity r, i.e., the coefficient of total absorption, is the sum of two
other quantities <r and M, the first of which expresses the effect of
scattering and the second that of the true absorption. The scat-
tering, and therefore the coefficient <r, varies but little with the
atomic number, while on the other hand the absorption, and the
coefficient /* increase rapidly with N. This difference in the vari-
ations of the two phenomena permits their contributions to the
total diminution in intensity to be separated; in particular, for
dense materials and X-rays of the morp normal wave-lengths,
scattering is practically negligible in comparison with absorption,
thereby simplifying the study of the latter. It seems natural to
introduce besides the coefficient /z of the exponential law, the
coefficient p/p of absorption per unit mass, where p denotes the
density of the absorbing material, and the coefficient of atomic
absorption /iftt related to the preceding by the atomic weight of
the absorbing body and Avogadro's number.
In 1914 Bragg and Peirce showed that apart from the discon-
tinuities, the quality ju/P approximately followed a law of the
form
^ = CX8 N3 .
p
The coefficient C assumes a new value at each discontinuity.
Numerous experimental researches have confirmed this result,
but the values of the powers of X and of N, though certainly in the
neighbourhood of 3, have, not yet been accurately established.
If we consider the absorption per atom, the preceding law be-
comes
Each time one of the critical values vn of the frequency is
passed through, in the direction of increasing frequency, the
coefficient A undergoes a sudden increase. It attains its maximum
value when the quantum of the radiation is greater than the
energy required to remove one of the K electrons from the
absorbing atom. Richtmeyer found for fairly heavy elements
the value
when X is expressed in centimetres, while Windgardh found
2-44 X i o"2.
Bragg's law gives the variation of the coefficient ^At only be-
tween the discontinuities, but we can also represent the whole of
the curve by a single mathematical formula. We may consider
each one of the absorption mechanisms, which come successively
into play as the frequency increases, as contributing a term in
X*/V4 to the value of n^ and write
the summation extending over all groups of electrons whose
"extraction work" is less than the quantum of the incident
radiation. The sum S thus increases by one term each time the
frequency passes one of the critical values vn. It is evident that
AK = aK
It is very instructive to consider the ratio of the values of
Mat on the two sides of a discontinuity; this is termed the
"absorption jump." The K jump has been carefully studied,
especially by Allen. According to him, i^s value for different
elements is:
Mo (42) Ag (47) Tu (74) Pb (82)
7'4 7'i 4-7 3'9
Other writers give, ife is true, slightly different figures; for ex-
ample, for silver, Stoner and Martin give dK — 6*7 and Richt-
meyer $K=6-6. One thing however is certain, the K jump
diminishes as the atomic number increases. This shows that the
Bragg- Peirce law cannot be rigorously true, at least so far as the
factor N4 is concerned; for if it were we should have:
— = const.
VK ALt\*KN* AL>
and this is contrary to experience.
L. de Broglie and A. H. Kramers have put forward interesting
theories to predict the values of the absorption coefficients and
jumps and, although we cannot regard their arguments as
rigorous, have obtained results which are confirmed at least
approximately by experiments.
When a continuous spectrum is analysed by means of crystal
diffraction after having passed through an absorbing screen,
absorption bands are found beginning abruptly and extending
towards the high frequencies. The K band is single, the L band
triple whilst the M and N bands exist in still greater numbers.
Bohr's simple scheme predicted one band for each series;
Sommerfeld's theory, at least in its original form, predicted only
two L bands; we shall not deal with the more complicated theories
by means of which attempts have been made to explain the
observed phenomena. (See the article on the spectroscopy of
X-rays by M. Siegbahn.)
Photoelectric Effect.— The absorption of X-rays by the
atoms of matter is accounted for by the removal of an electron
which leaves the atom with kinetic energy hv=Wn, where v
is the frequency of the absorbed radiation, and Wn is the work
required for the removal of the electron. It follows that if hetero-
geneous radiation falls on a body, each wave-length included in
the spectrum of the incident beam will be able to excite all
those levels whose "extraction work" is less than its own par-
ticular quantum. Further, the characteristic rays of the irradiated
body will appear as a result of the return to their normal state
of the excited atoms and these radiations will act in their turn
on the material of the screen to produce in it the same phenomena.
We ought therefore, to observe a large series of groups of elec-
trons, each group of corpuscles having an energy which can be
expressed by a relation of the form hvv — W<u in conformity with
Einstein's expression.
Experiments have confirmed this point of view entirely; by
irradiating secondary radiators with X-rays and analysing in a
magnetic field the streams of electrons produced, actual cor-
puscular spectra are obtained, an electronic analogy as it were,
of the X-ray spectra, which yield information both as to the
incident radiations and the levels of the atoms irradiated.
The photoelectric effect of X-rays can also be demonstrated
by the "Cloud method" of C. T. R. Wilson. In a gas through
which a beam of X-ray passes, the sinuous paths of the electrons
ejected from certain atoms can be seen and photographed. In
this case the phenomenon is visible for a single atom and a large
number of interesting observations can be made, such, for
example, as an estimation of the initial directions of the velocities
of the ejected electrons.
It is thus seen that the conductivity created in the gas by
X-rays results from the pairs of ions separated by the photo-
electrons along their trajectory and is not a direct effect of the
incident rays. Observations of the details of the phenomenon
have led to the discovery that the secondary X radiation is often
absorbed by the emitting atom itself and photoelectrons emerge
directly (Auger effect). Several phenomena moreover, seem defi-
nitely to indicate that the radiation has a greater tendency to be
absorbed by the actual atom which has emitted it than by others,
and it would be of great interest to know the laws of this internal
absorption.
Wilson's method enables us equally well to determine the initial
direction of the velocity of the ejected electrons and to make a
X-RAYS
[SCATTERING
comparison, either with the direction of the incident beam, or
with the state of the polarisation of the latter.
In spite of the difficulty of the measurements, the fact emerges
from the experiments that the electron possesses a component of
velocity in the direction of propagation of the rays, and that the
magnitude of this component increases with the frequency as if a
certain quantity of momentum passed from the wave to the cor-
puscle. It seems to be equally well established that the elec-
trons have a tendency to emerge following the direction of the
electric vector of the polarised wave.
The initial velocities do not however possess a unique direction
but are distributed more or less closely about a mean value; the
theories of Bubb, and of Auger and Perrin, especially the latter,
are interesting attempts to explain the experimental results.
Diffraction of X-rays. — The analysis of .light by means of
optical gratings is accomplished by allowing it to fall on a series
of fine lines engraved on glass or metal, the gratings consisting of
from 50 to 1,000 lines per millimetre. For radiations of wave-
length a thousand times shorter, such as X-rays, it would be neces-
sary to employ lines correspondingly more closely drawn (that is,
if it was desired to follow exactly the same method, for we shall
sec that the artiiice of "grazing incidence" enables optical gratings
to be used in the study of X-rays). It is for this reason that the
natural gratings afforded by crystals with their regular alignments
of molecules suggested themselves.
Crystals are in fact regarded as composed of piles of equi-
distant planes, in which the atoms, or molecules, are distributed
in a regular manner and form the intersections of a lattice system.
To take a simple case, for example potassium chloride, if we
suppose that the atoms of chlorine and potassium are placed at
the intersections of a cubic lattice each atom will act as a diffract-
ing centre. The effect of the whole, due to the interferences of
all the elementary waves issuing from each atom, can be easily
calculated.
The German physicist, von Laue, and his collaborators, Friedrich
and Knipping, first succeeded in 1912 in obtaining in this way the
phenomena of crystal diffraction. Von Laue gave the theory of it
and Sir William Bragg showed that the diffracted rays could be
considered as reflected regularly at the different planes of the crys-
tal lattice provided that their wave-length satisfied the relation:
where n is any integer, d the spacing between the lattice planes
parallel to the plane considered, and 0 the angle made by the
incident ray with this plane.
It is thus seen that a heterogeneous beam of X-rays, on passing
through a crystalline medium, will give a series of beams whose
positions can easily be predicted beforehand, and which will fur-
nish a diagram of spots on a photographic plate placed perpen-
dicular to the incident beam. The arrangement of these spots
reflects the symmetry of the crystal employed.
If, on the other hand, we imagine a single crystalline face and
cause the angle of incidence 0 to vary, we shall obtain reflected
rays which will correspond to the different wave lengths present
in the initial beam and will consequently furnish a true spectrum
thereof.
We shall not deal further with this branch of spectroscopy which
will form the subject of a special section (see below), but we
must mention here the fundamental law discovered by Moseley
in 1913 and which can be expressed as follows:
The X-ray spectra of all the elements are built up on a common
model; the frequencies v of their homologous lines, expressed as
a function of the atomic number N of the elements, follow the
law:
It is well known how Bohr's theory accounts for this relation,
one of the most important in physics, since it expresses the unity
of structure of the different atoms by pointing to the gradual and
regular change in their emission lines as one runs over the entire
list of the elements. It will be noticed that Moseley 's law is an
expression of regular increase, and is not a periodic relation such
as applies to the less fundamental properties of the elements of the
Mendeleyev series. This distinction arises because the majority
of the other properties of the elements, e.g., chemical and physical,
depend upon the outer electrons of the atom, while X-ray spectra,
especially the highest frequency series of the heavy elements, are
governed by the electrons nearest the nucleus.
It goes without saying that the Laue diagrams furnish a most
valuable means of study in the investigation of crystal structures
and in general, of the different regular arrangements in which
atoms and molecules may exist in material media. In this way
a new method of investigation has been made available for crystal-
lographic study.
Employing the formula n\ = 2rfsin0 Sir William Bragg has
evaluated d by making a simple assumption regarding the arrange-
ment of the atoms at the intersections of the crystalline lattices in
the very simple cubic crystals of KC1, NaCl, etc., and then using
the molecular mass and the number of atoms in a gram molecule
(Avogadro's number). The estimation of the frequencies by the
method based on photoelectric effect and Einstein's equation and
above all the production of X-ray spectra by means of ordinary
optical gratings utilising grazing incidence, have definitely estab-
lished the validity of the reasoning originally used to obtain the
absolute value of d. We shall simply mention that d is 2-8i4X
io~8 cm. for sodium chloride, and may increase to about 100X10 8
cm. for the distance between the regular stratifications presented
by the layers of long chain fatty acids. „
To obtain diffraction effects with X-rays it is not essential to
employ crystals of large dimensions. Finely powdered crystals
(and even micro-crystalline structures, such as those offered by
metal sheets) give rise no longer to diagrams of spots, but to
more or less clearly defined circles. Even homogeneous liquids
furnish diffuse halos under certain conditions, the theory of which,
still somewhat uncertain, introduces the mean distances between
the molecules.
For the first approximation theories of the diffraction of X-rays
by arrangements of atoms assume the latter to be stationary,
though they are, of course, continually displaced by thermal agita-
tion. It is not impossible to allow for this complication, and one
is led to the conclusion that the temperature does not modify
the position of the spots, but diminishes their intensity in relation
to that of the adjacent continuous background. Experiment has
confirmed these predictions at least quantitatively.
The intensity of crystalline diffraction, its distribution among
the spectra of the different orders, the variation of the effects with
the degree of perfection of the crystals and the study of the dis-
tribution of the electrons in the atoms by means of these data
have all given rise to interesting researches which it is impossible
to outline here, but which constitute a new chapter in physical
chemistry.
Scattering of X-rays. — It is a general property of light to be
re-emitted by the bodies on which it falls; the rays forming an
incident pencil are re-distributed in space and until recently it was
admitted, without question, that their wave-length underwent no
modification.
The classical theory of the scattering of X-rays has been given
by Sir Joseph Thomson. It led to a prediction of the distribution
of the intensities of the scattered rays in different azimuths with
relation to the incident beam and to their state of polarisation.
To a first approximation these predictions have been verified by
experiment, as Barkla in particular has shown.
Scattering by an atom is supposed to be due to the forced
vibrations of the electrons of this atom. When the distance between
these electrons is great in comparison with the wave-lengths, the
total intensity scattered is the sum of the intensities due to each
electron, but matters become complicated if the wave-length is
comparable with the dimensions of the atoms. Debye thus ex-
plained the intense scattering of soft X-rays and showed how we
pass gradually to Thomson's results for high frequencies.
The fundamental phenomena of diffraction of X-rays by crystal-
line media has been explained on the basis of the classical theory
of scattering, and the latter has great success to its credit, but it
is nevertheless certain that it is insufficient.
RONTGEN RAYS] ^
A. H. Compton has in fact discovered a very important phe-
nomenon, that there are in reality two kinds of scattering1, one
which takes place without a sensible change of wave length and
the other in which the scattered ray has a lower frequency than
that of the incident ray. The increase of wave length is then a
function of the angle of scattering B following the formula
X* — Xo= 2 — sin2 - where h is Planck's constant, w0 the mass of
WoC 2
the electron and c the velocity of light it will be noted that
Xj— X0 is independent of X.
Compton and Debye have given a very interesting quantita-
tive theory of this phenomenon ;bascd on the fact that the energy
of the incident quantum is divided into two parts, one represented
by the scattered radiation and the other by kinetic energy com-
municated to the scattering electron. The conservation of energy
and the conservation of momentum arc assumed between the
atoms of radiation and the scattering electron (it is known from
Einstein's work that a quantum of radiation hv possesses a quan-
hv
tity of momentum •- - ) •
c
Experiment has confirmed this theory remarkably. In particular
the existence of the recoil electrons having velocities in accordance
with the predictions of Compton and Debye has been demon-
strated by the cloud method of C. T. R. Wilson.
We have there one of the most striking examples of the success
of the corpuscular theories of light; certain particulars are how-
ever still far from clear; the electrons always behave as though
quite free (or firmly bound when the scattering takes place with-
out change of wave-length) and many points concerning the funda-
mental mechanism of scattering still remain obscure.
We shall mention two further experiments which Wilson's
method has rendered possible and which illustrate very well these
phenomena of the propagation of light in quanta.
The first is due to C. T. R. WTilson: a beam of X-rays, while
passing through an expansion chamber, falls on a copper "target,"
and we are then able to find on the same photographic plate the
trajectory of a photoelcctron ejected from the copper and a little
further on in the gaseous mass that of another photoelectron
ejected from an atom of the gas by the fluorescent X-rays of the
copper due to the first phenomenon. We cannot more directly
watch the transference of energy by discrete entities.
A second experiment has been carried out by Compton and
Simon; a beam of X-rays experiences scattering by an atom of
gas with change of wave-length and expulsion of a recoil electron
whose trajectory is recorded in the form of a "fish track"; the
tangent of the angle which the trajectory makes initially with
the direction of the beam can be calculated. At the same time
there is a chance that the scattered quantum may be absorbed in
the vicinity and furnish a photoelectron; the origin of the trajec-
tory of this photoelcctron joined to the origin of the fish track
will furnish the angle of scattering, so that all the geometrical
elements necessary for the verification of the Compton-Debye
theory can be obtained on the one plate. Experiment has shown,
that to a first approximation at least the verification is satisfactory!
Physical Optics of X-rays.— For many years it seemed im-
possible to establish physical optics for X-rays, but Laue's dis-
covery, establishing their diffraction, gave rise to a new view, which
lead to a recognition for these radiations of an extension of the
principal properties presented by luminous radiations.
Bragg's formula —
appeared, at the outset, quite rigorous, but the very precise experi-
ments of Siegbahn and his collaborators showed that it was not so.
Ewald pointed out that this divergence is explained by supposing
a refraction of the waves in the crystalline medium with an index
/A«I— 6 with J—
N being the number of electrons per unit volume and v the
JIt is known that Raman has quite recently found evidence of a
change in wave-length in the case of scattering of ordinary light by
liquids.
frequency. This gives for the index of refraction a value just a
few thousandths less than unity; in passing from air into the
crystal an incident ray undergoes a perceptible refraction and in
certain cases a total reflection.
A. H. Compton has 'proved experimentally the existence of this
total reflection and Siegbahn has succeeded in obtaining an actual
prismatic spectrum of X-rays. The index undergoes a sudden
variation when an absorption discontinuity is passed through.
The phenomenon of total reflection with grazing incidence has
been utilized by Compton and Doan and by Thibaud to obtain
X-ray spectra using ordinary optical gratings (gratings having
even no more than 200 lines to the millimetre can be used).
Several physicists, and in particular Haga, had originally tried
to obtain diffraction of X-rays by means of a fine slit, but the
rays employed were of too short a wave-length to produce a per-
ceptible effect. Holweck using radiation of the order of 100
Angstrom units succeeded in demonstrating diffraction by a slit
and specular reflection on a metallic mirror.
The very small difference separating the index of refraction of
X-rays from unity renders any attempt to apply the ordinary pro-
cesses of polarisation by reflection very difficult and up till now, the
phenomenon of double refraction has not been found. Theory
indicates however, that scattering may furnish a method of ob-
taining linearly polarised radiation. Barkla first showed that a
scattering body, composed of a light element, gives rise to a
radiation which is practically free from secondary fluorescent
radiation. On examining this radiation scattered in a direction at
right angles to the incident beam, polarised rays ought to be ob-
tained, but the polarisation thus obtained, while being perceptible,
is very incomplete. Much better results are obtained, as was
done by Mark and Szilard, by using crystal diffraction so that the
diffracted ray makes a right angle with the incident radiation.
Conclusive Remarks. — X-rays certainly play an important
part in stellar physics. It must not be forgotten in fact that at a
given temperature the radiation in thermal equilibrium, or black
body radiation, has a definite composition in which the very high
frequency radiations are only present in any considerable quan-
tity at very high temperatures. This condition is very probably
realised in the hot stars in which the atoms are practically always
in a state of intense ionisation such as is never found in terrestrial
phenomena.
The discovery and study of X-rays has had an especially im-
portant influence on the development of Physics. It was the
properties of conducting gases which led to the discovery of
electrons and to that of the radioactive bodies ; the diffraction of
Rontgen rays by crystals has given new life to crystallography and
the study of the whole of the fine structure of matter, at the same
time that it enabled X-ray spectra to be obtained. The last through
Moseley's law have rendered the unity of structure of the chemi-
cal elements indisputable and supplied to the Bohr atom its
strongest support.
It is the high frequency of Rontgen rays which brings out more
clearly the r61e of light quanta, renders Einstein's law on the
photoelectric effect the more easily verified and which permitted
the discovery of the Compton effect to be made. Rontgen rays
afford ground particularly favourable to the birth of new ideas
in the theories of radiation; ideas which will one day lead to the
reunion in the same synthesis of the undulatory and corpuscular
aspects of radiation. (DE BR.)
RdNTGEN RAYS
Applications. — X-rays were discovered in the fall of 1895 by
Prof. Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen, professor of physics in the
University of Wurzburg, Bavaria. The discovery was the result
of a somewhat extensive research concerning the passage of an
electric current in an evacuated tube. This subject had received
attention for many years and X-rays had unquestionably been
produced, though not recognized, by very many investigators.
Probably the first person actually so to produce X-rays was
William Morgan in the year 1785.
The first recognition of the new rays occurred semi-accident-
ally: Rontgen happened to notice that when he passed an electric
discharge through his tube some crystals of barium-platinocyanide
X-RAYS
[ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
~- ANOOE
which were in the vicinity became brilliantly fluorescent, although
the visible light from the tube was completely screened by black
paper. He also found that various substances placed between the
tube and a card on which barium-platinocyanide crystals were
spread cast a shadow. Rontgen named these new rays, "for the
sake of brevity," X-rays. The most striking attribute of the new
rays was that they had the power of penetrating objects which
were opaque to ordinary light and consequently their potential
value in the realm of medicine was immediately recognized. In
fact, some four days after the discovery was known in America,
X-rays were successfully used to locate a bullet embedded in the
calf of a patient's leg.
The tube with which Rontgen made his discovery bears very
little resemblance to a modern X-ray tube; it was, in fact, the
commonly used glass bulb called
the Crookes tube, in which the
cathode stream, instead of being
directed on to a metal plate, now
called the target, was directed
from the cathode or negative
electrode on to the glass wall of FIG. I.--TYPE OF VACUUM TUBE
the tube and produced X-rays at WITH WHICH RONTGEN DISCOVERED
the place of impact. X-RAYS
The earliest form of electrical generator to operate the vacuum
X-ray tube was the induction coil, which in Rontgen's time was of
a very primitive pattern. The discovery of X-rays, however, gave
a great stimulus to the development of this piece of apparatus and
comparatively soon afterwards mammoth induction coils were
constructed having an electric potential of many thousands of
volts and capable of giving electric sparks of i or even 2 ft. in
length.
X-ray Tubes.— One of the earliest experimenters with X-rays,
Sir Herbert Jackson, introduced the "focus" tube some two months
after Rontgen's discovery. In this tube the cathode stream was
"focussed" by means of a concave negative electrode on to a
small area of a metal target which was mounted in the centre of
the bulb. The actual focussing of the cathode stream, however,
was not a new thing, as it had been demonstrated by Sir William
Crookes some 20 years previously to show the heating effect of
the cathode stream. The X-ray tube introduced by Sir Herbert
Jackson has remained the standard type of tube for over 30 years,
except that refinements and modifications have been added from
time to time to legislate for ancillary developments. The early
tubes depended for their operation upon the presence of a certain
amount of residual gas, which became ionized and so provided
the electrons constituting the cathode stream. Such tubes, known
as gas tubes, are still in use and have many advantages.
To provide for the gradual absorption of the residual gas which
takes place during operation various devices have been introduced
from time to time whereby small fresh supplies of gas can be
introduced into the bulb. A common form of such a regulator, as
AUXILIARY Attoor
REGULATOR
KATHODE
TAMCT on ANOOC
FIG. 2. — ORDINARY "GAS" X-RAY TUBE
it is called, consisted of a small piece of mica mounted in a small
auxiliary tube and arranged so that the mica could be heated, the
effect of which was to drive out a little air from between the
layers of mica, which passed into the main bulb. In 1898 the self-
regulating X-ray tube was introduced. Heated regulators were
made automatic in operation by attaching wires to the regulator
terminals, which could be placed quite near to the main terminals
of the tube. As the gas in the X-ray tube becomes less its re-
sistance to the passage of the current increases, and finally it ar-
rives at a condition where it is easier for the discharge to jump
from the main terminal to the regulator wire than to pass through
the tube. The passage of the current through the regulating sub-
stance releases a little gas which passes into the main bulb, the
resistance of which is lowered, and the discharge once more passes
normally through the X-ray tube. In the early tubes platinum was
generally used as the target because of its very high melting point.
ANOOC
KATHODE
FIG. 3.— DIAGRAM OF THE STANDARD COOLIDGE X-RAY TUBE
In 1913 a new type of X-ray tube was introduced by Dr. W. D.
Coolidge, of Schenectady, U.S.A. Its advent was the result of a
considerable amount of, work that had been done on thermionics
by many investigators, notably Fleming and Richardson. The new
tube is entirely independent of residual gas and depends upon the
evaporation of , electrons from an incandescent filament to form
the cathode stream. The target of the Coolidge tube is of massive
tungsten. The use of this highly desirable metal in the form of
a massive target followed the valuable work done by Dr. W. D.
Coolidge on the metallurgy and hot working of metallic; tungsten.
Another form of hot cathode X-ray tube was invented about
the same time by Lilienfeld in Germany, in which the electrons
were produced in a reservoir and "boosted" by an auxiliary high
tension circuit through a small hole communicating with the main
portion of the tube, where they were taken in hand by the main
high tension circuit and shot across to the target. By virtue of its
extreme simplicity of operation, however, the Coolidge tube enjoys
great popularity.
Still another type of hot cathode tube is the "Mctalix," intro-
duced by Philips of Holland ; a novel feature of this tube is that
it is cylindrical and narrow in shape and a large portion of the
tube is made of metal. The X-rays emerge only from a com-
paratively small opening either at the end or in the centre. The
tube is, therefore, self ''protecting" and does not require the heavy
and complicated tube boxes which safety of operation demands
for other types of tube.
Hot cathode X-ray tubes operate at saturation voltage, and the
penetrating power and X-ray intensity, which depend upon voltage
and current, are adjustable and controllable independently; a state
of affairs which it is impossible to realize in the older "gas" X-ray
tubes.
Electrical Apparatus.— Although the induction coil is still
used to provide the high tension electricity to operate X-ray
tubes, it has largely been supplanted by the more consistent piece
of apparatus known as the high tension transformer. The voltage
delivered by such generators in common use for X-ray work may
be anything from 60,000 to 250,000 volts. The normal voltage
for medical and surgical radiography is about 100,000. X-rays
for the treatment of disease, however, are required at 250,000
volts and even more.
The type of voltage normally yielded by a static high tension
transformer is what is known as alternating; in other words, the
current passes first in one direction and then in the other, the
duration of each impulse being very small (there are about 100
such impulses per second in the usual type of X-ray transformer).
Such an alternating supply is unsuitable for the generation of
X-rays. The voltage impulses must all be in the same direction,
consequently arrangements have to be made to suppress or re-
verse one set of impulses. The device generally employed for this
purpose is a switch, the contacts of which revolve in harmony with
the voltage impulses of the transformer as it is rotated by a motor
run synchronously with the electrical pulsations. The electrical
connections of this switch or commutator are so arranged that
only current in one direction is allowed to pass through the X-ray
tube. Another method of "rectification," as it is called, is by
EARLY APPLICATIONS]
X-RAYS
845
FIG. 4.— DIAGRAM OF THE METALIX X-RAY TUBE
means of large thermionic valves.
A transformer and rectifying device such as we have outlined
produces what is known as a pulsating voltage. This is because
each little voltage impulse grows in strength and dies away, and
as it is only a portion at the maximum that is utilized in an X-ray
FIG. 5.— DIAGRAMS SHOWING THAT THE CURRENT IN THE X-RAY TUBE
IS ALWAYS IN THE SAME DIRECTION EVEN THOUGH THE POLARITY AT
THE TRANSFORMER TERMINALS IS CONTINUALLY CHANGING
tube it follows that each impulse of current is followed by an
interval of no current. There is another type of X-ray transformer
so arranged that certain electricity storers or condensers, as they
are called, are connected in the circuit in such a way that they
discharge a current during each of these intervals and so produce
a constant or continuous voltage. The latter type of transformer
is in fairly general use for the purpose of X-ray treatment and
also for the radiography of metals.
DEVELOPMENTS
Nature and Properties. — X-rays have the power of penetrat-
ing materials which are opaque to ordinary light. This property
was immediately appreciated by Rontgen. Another property,
which in fact led to their discovery, is that they cause certain
chemicals, for example barium-platinocyanide, to fluoresce; in
other words, to emit visible light. This property is made use of
in the familiar X-ray fluorescent screen, which is a piece of card-
board or other material covered with fine crystals of a suitable
salt. Any object placed between the source of the X-rays and
the screen throws a sharp shadow on the brilliantly glowing sur-
face. X-rays affect a photographic plate in exactly the same way
as does ordinary light, the only difference being that they act
equally well whether the plate is wrapped or unwrapped. They
have certain other chemical properties; for example, they cause
iodine to be freed fronr a solution of iodoform in chloroform.
They have also certain biological effects which are very imper-
fectly understood and form the subject o! extensive research.
One of the most important properties possessed by X-rays is
their power to change a non-conducting gas into an electrical
conductor. It is known as the power of ionization. Like light,
X-rays may be polarized and they may be diffracted by a crystal,
the latter being a. property of the greatest importance inasmuch
as it forms the basis of the modern science of crystal analysis.
Early Applications. — The power of X-rays to penetrate
opaque objects depends very largely upon the density of the
material. It was very soon realized for example that flesh was
more transparent to the rays than bone, and consequently it was
possible to see the bones in the body. This fact was immediately
recognized as being of the utmost importance and it was at once
ordered by the German minister of war that the subject should
be investigated from the point of view of its possible service
to military surgery.
We said that the penetrability of a substance is governed by
its density, but by April 1896 it had been determined that the
X-ray absorbing power of a chemical element depended upon
its atomic weight, which is a much more accurate statement.
During the first few weeks after Rb'ntgen's discovery reports
were received from all over the world recording the great value
of the new rays. The extraction of a bullet from a patient's leg
had been facilitated by their use even though it had moved some
five inches from the entrance wound. In Paris the rays had been
used to diagnose a diseased thigh bone and in Berlin to watch the
growth of new bone following a fracture. The technique devel-
oped rapidly and by the end of Feb. 1896 the method -was in
comparatively general use. Twenty minutes was the average
time of exposure required to obtain a radiograph of an arm in
1896. In 1928 the exposure necessary for this purpose is a small
fraction of a second and the result is of course infinitely better.
In May 1896 the first exclusive X-ray periodical appeared in
England. It was called the Archives of Skiagraphy, and the first
number recorded an X-ray cinematograph film 40 ft. long show-
ing the movement of a frog's leg.
By 1897 systematic work was in progress on the biological
effects of X-rays. This work had been stimulated by the early
appearance of X-ray dermatitis or skin disease which had attacked
various experimenters during the year 1896. It was very soon
found that the action of the rays on physiological tissue was by
no means consistent, some cells being stimulated by irradiation
to rapid growth, others being killed and disintegrated. It was
also observed that some cells exhibited much greater sensitive-
ness to the rays than others. These early experiments engendered
the hope that X-rays would prove to be a powerful agent in the
destruction of harmful bacteria in the human body — a hope that
has, unfortunately, not been realized.
j In 1897 Dr. Morton, of New York, obtained a remarkable
radiograph of an entire and fully clothed adult body. The entire
skeleton was shown and the total exposure was only 30 minutes.
Noticeable among the very early medical applications of X-rays
were their trial in the treatment of cancer and tuberculosis.
Although non-medical applications of X-rays are very largely
a modern development, yet early in the history of the subject
many such applications were suggested a,nd even tried. One inter-
esting application was suggested in the year 1899; it was called the
"Izambard" process of printing by X-rays. A number of sheets
of sensitized paper were to be piled up and the copy, which was
to be prepared with an ink which was semi-opaque to X-rays,
placed on the top, the whole mass was then to be radiographed.
Experiments with the method showed that a block of paper some
two inches in thickness could be successfully radiographed with-
846
X-RAYS
[INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
out undue distortion. There are obvious disadvantages about
the suggestion which caused it to be abandoned.
The radiography of metals was recognized as an important
future use of X-rays as early as Feb. 1896, when Prof. A. W.
Wright, of Yale university, radiographed a metallic weld and
revealed a fracture which was not apparent to the eye. The very
limited power of an X-ray tube prevented the development of
this work for many years, but, as we shall see, it was to become
hardly less important than the medical and surgical aspects. The
examination of coal for impurities and ash was another early
application which was to be revived some 30 years later in a more
practical manner. ( Kemp, Colliery Guardian, pp. 539-541, Feb.
29, 1924.) A short list of the various applications of X-rays
which were actually tried during the time immediately following
the discovery is of prophetic interest in view of our later and
more systematized knowledge of the subject. They had been
used to detect the adulteration of flour and sugar with sand and
chalk, and in connection with the general subject of food adultera-
tion the relative X-ray transparency of various foodstuffs was
measured by Herr. W. Arnold in Germany. Other applications
were : —
To detect pearls in pearl oysters;
To distinguish between real and artificial gems ;
To discover the contents of postal parcels;
To recognize explosives and contraband in baggage;
To examine the insulation in electric cables.
USE IN MEDICINE
The extraordinary value of Rontgen's discovery has been no-
where more in evidence than in medicine. Although the biological
effects of the rays are so little understood, it seems to be quite
clear that physiological cells react to X-rays in different ways
and certain organs in the body respond much more readily than
others. X-rays are a most efficient cure for ringworm, yet the
treatment must be exercised with great caution because of the
sensitiveness of the hair follicles to the rays, the action of which
may produce baldness. During the World War 1914-1918 this
depilatory property was taken advantage of in a singularly in-
genious manner. Tissue which was normally hair-bearing was
first treated by X-rays, and it was then possible to use it for
grafting in plastic surgery. Generally speaking, it has been found
that X-rays in small doses tend to stimulate biological activity,
while large doses tend to destroy such cells. It has been said
that X-rays have a specially selective action on cancer cells and
certainly their value in the treatment of cancer has been amply
demonstrated. Some interesting investigations concerning the
effect of X-rays on biological tissue have been published by Dr.
W. Moppett, of Sydney, Australia (Moppett, Australian Medical
Journal, vol. i. 15, April u, 1925), who shows that the differ-
ence in the biological action of X-rays of slightly different wave-
length is enormous.
The use of X-rays for the treatment of cancer and other
tumours in the human body has raised a scientific question of great
difficulty concerned with the accurate measurement of dosage.
This is a matter of great complexity, as so many important fac-
tors are involved. Not only must the X-rays be known with
great accuracy, both with regard to their quality (wave-length)
and their quantity (intensity), but the intensity must be measured
at the exact spot where the rays are intended to operate. A
unit of X-ray intensity has been defined as that quantity of X-rays
which would produce an ionization current of one electro-static unit
in each cubic centimetre of air. Methods of measuring intensity
have been various. Some methods seek to transform the energy
of an X-ray beam into heat energy and measure it with delicate
thermopiles; but the most precise method is to utilize the ioniz-
ing properties of the rays and to measure the ionization produced
in a given quantity of gas. A rough-and-ready method which
finds considerable favour with the medical profession, is to ob-
serve the change in colour produced in "pastilles" of barium-
platinocyanide by the rays. The colour produced by any par-
ticular X-ray intensity is compared with a standard. The in-
formation so obtained, however, is not absolute but only relative.
Another method of measuring X-ray intensity has been developed
by Ftirstenau, which depends upon the property possessed by
X-rays of causing the element selenium to change its electrical
resistance; but here again the results are only relative.
The use of X-rays as a curative agent has increased enormously
since their value was first recognized in medicine, and their im-
portance in this sphere is no longer second to their great value in
medical and surgical diagnosis. In this branch they are not only
used to examine bones and the coarser structures of the body,
but the technique has so improved that the circulatory and
respiratory systems are now investigated systematically by radio-
graphical methods. By the administration of an opaque "meal"
which usually consists of a barium salt in a palatable form, com-
plicated processes of digestion may be studied by the physician
as they proceed.
The question of localization of foreign bodies and foci of disease
has received a considerable amount of attention and has developed
into a high state of accuracy. The work was first carried out by
the late Sir James Mackenzie Davidson, who developed ingenious
geometric methods of localization. Stereoscopic X-ray pictures
are also used in this connection and, when viewed in a suitable
holder or stereoscope, afford a remarkably graphic method.
Another application of X-rays which is now in universal use
is concerned with dentistry. By the development of small flexible
apparatus and small X-ray tubes it has been possible so to com-
mercialize these units that most dentists possess one <|s part of
their ordinary equipment and the diagnosis of the condition of
the roots of teeth has, by the help of X-rays, become a matter
of absolute precision. Yet another practical biological applica-
tion is to be found in veterinary practice, where X-rays have been
shown to have considerable value. The Royal Army Veterinary
Corps in England possess a specially designed installation which
is in constant use.
MODERN INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
The industrial applications of X-rays fall mainly into two divi-
sions, the first being radiography or the photographic method.
Under this heading we will also consider the visual examination
by means of a fluorescent screen, which has obvious advantages
over the photographic method in many instances. The second main
division is concerned with the more difficult technique known as
X-ray crystal analysis. We will consider these two spheres of
usefulness in sequence.
In the first place it is in the science of engineering that X-rays
have been shown to have the most important place. Engineering
materials are constantly a source of weakness. Flaws and cracks
in castings are always liable to occur and very often are only dis-
covered when expensive machining has been done; they may then
have to be scrapped and the work is wasted. If X-rays could be
used to examine all castings immediately they would be univer-
sally employed, but unfortunately there is a limiting thickness
of metal beyond which X-rays cannot penetrate. In the year
1928 this limiting thickness is about 5 in. of steel. Metal ingots
and castings below this thickness are all capable of X-ray inspec-
tion although, owing to the complicated shape of many castings,
their examination by X-rays is not always a practical thing. The
illustrations give some idea of what a radiograph of a casting
looks like. The white lines and patches indicate that in these places
the metal departs from its normal homogeneity. (Plate I., fig.
9.) They represent flaws, either blowholes, inclusions, or cracks.
A certain number of patches or cracks may occur in a casting
and still not be serious enough to entail its rejection. The actual
significance of the X-ray picture in terms of mechanical strength
is a matter for experience in interpretation. The positions and
dimensions of metallic flaws may be calculated with great accuracy
by stereoscopic methods. Interpretation is very quickly learnt
by engineers and the radiograph becomes an infallible guide as
to the soundness of material.
The faults to which castings are so liable demand continuous
research in the actual process of casting various metals, and here
again X-rays have become a most valuable adjunct to the con-
ventional methods. The castings produced by a certain method
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS]
X-RAYS
847
SHOLC
are radiographed and weak places noted, the technique is then
suitably modified and the resulting castings again radiographed
and so on. Among the castings and forgings that are at present
radiographed on a service routine scale are those for gun carriages,
aeroplane parts, locomotive parts, high pressure steam installa-
tions, and expensive steel cylinders, together with many others
of specialized importance. The method is in general use in America
and installations are in use for the same purpose in the factories
and dockyards of the British Government.
Metallic welding affords another wide field of X-ray useful-
ness. All welding is liable to
faults and even the best methods
depend very largely upon the skill
and care of the individual work-
man. There is no method save
X-rays of testing a weld with-
out destroying it. The illustra-
tions show the sort of X-ray pic-
tures yielded by good and bad
welds. As a result of an exten- FIG. «.— DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING
sive experience it is customary at METHOD OF SCREENING TO ELIM.
Woolwich to estimate the me- INATE SCATTERED RADIATION
chanical strength of a weld by a mere examination of the radio-
graph.
Another X-ray application has its main expression in the in-
spection of assembled articles, such as fuzes, where the finished
product depends for its proper functioning on the completeness
and correct assembly of its internal components. In such cases
elaborate and expensive systems of inspection are often necessary.
In many instances X-rays afford an accurate method of perform-
ing such a check. The inspection departments of the British
Government have specially designed X-ray equipment for routine
use in suitable cases.
Wooden structures, such as aeroplane spars, also offer a suit-
able field for X-ray application. Worm holes, resin pockets, and
graining may be determined with great exactness.
A striking example of the value of X-rays was experienced
in the World War, when strange ammunition of unknown con-
tent was radiographed before being cut up for examination, there-
by avoiding all risk of accident.
In the course of a research on glued joints it was necessary
to determine the disposition of the glue. By adding a small per-
centage of a heavy salt to the glue, thereby rendering it opaque
to X-rays, the dispersion of the glue in the joint was shown with
clearness in a radiograph. Motor tyres may be examined by X-rays
to determine the position of the internal canvas or cords. Electric
insulating materials, such as ebonite and built up paper materials,
may be examined for the presence of impurities and electrically
conducting particles. Abrasive wheels have been examined for
cracks, and fireclay pots used in the manufacture of glass have
been inspected for the presence of harmful metallic impurities.
X-rays have also been used by Customs authorities to investigate
the contents of sealed packages. Real pearls may be distinguished
from imitation by X-rays because the real pearl emits a visible
fluorescence under the action of the rays. Diamonds, which are
very transparent to X-rays, may be distinguished from imitations,
which as a rule are much more opaque. The use of X-rays to
demonstrate the fit of shoes and boots is now a familiar sight
in a boot shop. The exact measurement of the fit of screw threads
is a matter that has given rise to a good deal of difficulty; X-rays
are now being used for this purpose with remarkable success.
Dr. Heilbron, of Amsterdam, conducted some very remarkable
and beautiful experiments with X-rays on pictures painted by old
masters. The pigments of modern painters arc in general much
less opaque to X-rays than those used many years ago. Dr.
Heilbron was able to produce X-ray evidence of extraordinary
alterations having been made to some pictures. One picture
examined by Dr. Heilbron was by Cornells Engelbrechtsen, where
the X-ray picture showed the figure of a vested priest which
had been covered at a later date by the painted portrait of a
woman. This hidden feature of the original painting had been un-
discovered for 400 years. Another picture*, a representation of
the Madonna by Geertgen van St. Jans, was shown by the X-ray
picture to have originally included an infant in the arms of the
figure, which had subsequently been painted out. Many other
pictures were examined with most interesting and striking results.
The development of X-ray apparatus has resulted in the pro-
duction of small and portable equipments for various purposes,
among which may be mentioned a set for the use of plumbers
and builders to enable them to locate the position of wires and
pipes in the walls and floors of buildings. The rays have also been
used to detect metallic corrosion in slabs oi ferro-concrete, From
the examples that have been quoted it will be realized that it is
difficult to imagine an industry where X-rays will not ultimately
prove of service. Such unlikely specimens as chocolates, golf
balls, and even elephants have been subjected to the process with
useful results. The biological properties of X-rays have been
pressed into industrial service in that they have been used to
sterilize tobacco and cigars, and experiments have been carried out
to discover whether they could be usefully employed to destroy
certain harmful larvae in packing cases required for transhipment
of sensitive materials.
The second main sphere of industrial X-rays depends upon
the fact that, when suitable technique is employed, the constituent
atoms and molecules which form a crystal reflect X-rays in a
perfectly definite and regular manner, producing what is known
as an X-ray spectrogram.
Different materials, when suitably excited, produce different
i and characteristic X-rays, consequently X-rays may be used as
a method of chemical analysis. The method affords a very reliable
qualitative test, and considerable work has been done in develop-
ing it as a more practical system of quantitative analysis. In
certain cases X-ray chemical analysis has advantages over the
conventional method, for example in certain mixed salts it is im-
possible by ordinary chemical methods to say how the tiny crystals
of the mixture arc made up. Each element, however, yields its
own characteristic X-ray wave-lengths under suitable stimulus,
and therefore accurate information as to the constitution of a
chemical mixture may be obtained by an examination of what
is called an emission spectrogram. Impurities in materials may
also be detected by the same technique.
It was due to the fact that each element emits characteristic
X-rays that the missing element of atomic No. 72 was discovered
in 1923 by Coster and Hevesy of Copenhagen1 and called by
them Hafnium, out of compliment to the place of its discovery
(Hafnia was the old name for Copenhagen). Scientific con*
siderations led these investigators to examine the X-ray spectra
yielded by certain minerals, and in the course of their investiga-
tions they discovered spectrum lines of the frequency known to
be characteristic of the missing element. (See HAFNIUM,)
Practical applications of X-ray spectroscopy should be men-
tioned; but it is to be borne in mind that this aspect of the work
was of much later development than radiography and involves
a much more specialized knowledge, therefore it is practised
chiefly in physical laboratories. Although many of the results
have the greatest value in industry, yet the method, by reason of
its specialized character, has not the same general use as radiog-
raphy.
All substances of a crystalline nature are suitable specimens
for X-ray spcctroscopic investigation, for example the investiga-
tion of the minute structure of cellulose by X-rays has had the
greatest value in the textile and explosive industries.
In metallurgy this particular use of X-rays has achieved uni-
versal recognition as a method of investigating the* structure of
metals in a way that is quite impossible by any other agency, By
reason of the limiting value of the wave-lengths of visible light,
there is a degree of smallness beyond which no microscope will
ever be of value; X-ray spectroscopy, on the other hand, enables
crystal structure to be studied with great accuracy. The effect
of heat treatment of steels is a subject in which X-rays have con-
siderable contributory value. The change in crystal structure in
metals consequent upon mechanical treatment, such as rolling,
may be shown by the differences produced in the resulting X-ray
}Natute> vol. iii. p. 79 (Jan. 1923).
848
X-RAYS
[RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
spectrogram. The study of strain in metals is greatly facilitated
by the use of X-ray spectroscopy, inasmuch as any condition
resulting in the alteration of atomic structure may show itself
in properly prepared X-ray spectrograms. The method has also
been of assistance to the metallurgist in his study of metallic
alloy systems.
Interesting work has been done on the examination of pivots
by X-rays. By reason of their structure many materials have
3
2
S
1*
1
v»
i
EXPOSURE FOR MILD STEEL
HOT KATHODE TUBE
DOUSLE COATED FILM WITH
Two INTENSIFYING SCREENS
16" fROM FOCAL SPOT
-
x
/'
/
/
'
/
/
x
S
%
'i
^
;
'
/
^
x
^
x
x
X
x
s
'
-
^
;
;:J;
:-
x
x
X*
-
^
* ««~.Be 5S8 g 85588|||i;
EXPOSURE IN MILLIAMPCRE SECONDS
,
FIG. 7. — SPECIMEN OF PRACTICAL EXPOSURE CHART
much greater strength on one or two points on their surface than
on others. The diamond, for example, may function perfectly
as a pivot if the right spot is chosen to bear the strain. This par-
ticular spot depends upon the direction in which the constituent
carbon particles are arranged. The regularity of arrangement
that characterizes the diamond results in the formation of cer-
tain cleavage planes (or planes of maximum weakness), and a
study of the arrangement of the carbon atoms in any particular
diamond by X-rays will enable the experimenter to select that
particular spot, with regard to these planes, most able to with-
stand wear. Explosives may be subjected to this special method
of analysis in order to study the effect of atomic arrangement
on their explosive properties, and their general sensitivity and
stability; and also to detect impurities which may manifest them-
selves in the course of preparation or storage.
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
It is well to remember that radiography is the production of
a shadow picture. The shadows exist in the picture because X-rays
are absorbed to different degrees by different media. If we were
to radiograph a perfectly homogeneous piece of muscle or steel we
should obtain a photographic plate quite uniformly blackened
because the X-ray absorption would be quite uniform. The absorp-
tion of X-rays by any material depends, firstly, upon the material
itself — in general the higher its atomic weight the more absorbent
it is — and, secondly, upon the penetrating power or wave-length
of the X-rays. The latter condition depends, generally speaking,
on the voltage which is applied to the terminals of the X-ray tube.
Thus, remembering the first condition, lead is more absorbent
than iron, iron more than aluminium, and aluminium more than
organic substances such as flesh. At the same time, if we use an
X-ray tube having a tungsten target the X-rays will be more pene-
trating when generated by 200,000 volts than at 106,000 volts, and
so on. If a beam of X-rays of suitable penetrating power is passed
through an object of varying thickness or varying composition the
emerging rays (which affect the photographic plate) will have
different intensities corresponding to the variations in the object,
and the result will be a mixture of shadows of varying degrees
of intensity. For example, a hidden cavity in a piece of metal
means that the total thickness of the material is less at that
particular place, and the X-ray absorption will also be less ; there-
fore we shall obtain more intense X-rays in that area, resulting in
a darker patch on the negative. If, instead of a photographic
plate, we are using a fluorescent screen, we shall see a brighter
patch on the screen corresponding to the more intense radiation.
Unfortunately, of the energy represented by the X-rays that
fall on the photographic film only a very small fraction (less
than i%) has any photographic effect, the remainder simply passes
through the emulsion without affecting it. The photographic effect,
however, may be increased by the use of suitable intensifying
screens that absorb more of the rays and in consequence emit
actinic rays which reinforce the photographic image.
When an object is radiographed only a part of the incident
radiation emerges, a large amount is absorbed and, as we say,
scattered by the object itself. Not only is the radiation scat-
tered inside the object but also at all its surfaces; and if this
general scatter, which may be likened to a fog, reaches the photo-
graphic film its effect will be to produce photographic fogging and
so destroy much of the valuable detail of the picture. One of
the most important points, therefore, in radiographic technique
is, first, to suppress all the X-rays coming from the tube except
those which pass directly through the specimen to the photo-
graphic film and, secondly, to arrange that those rays which are
scattered by the surfaces of the specimen itself shall be pre-
vented as far as possible reaching the photographic emulsion.
The first condition is usually realized by enclosing the X-ray
tube in a box made of a highly absorbent material; by reason of
its high atomic weight, combined with its comparative cheapness,
metallic lead is usually adopted for this purpose. The box is
fitted with an adjustable aperture or diaphragm to control the
size of the emergent X-ray beam.
There are many methods of realizing the second condition
and the choice is governed by the character, shape, and size of
the object to be radiographed. For medium sized objects it is
often convenient to protect all the surfaces by sheet or powdered
lead, and to protect, the film in the same way. The diagram will
illustrate the general method employed. When the object has
very irregular edges it may be convenient to use a wax impreg-
nated with lead or other heavy element. Another method is to
immerse the specimen in a liquid having about the same coefficient
of absorption as the specimen. In order to obtain good radio-
graphs it is very necessary to centre the focal spot of the X-ray
DIRECT BEAM OF
> FROM Tuu
SCATTERED RAYS
LEAD
LEAD STRIPS
FILM
FlG. 8. — DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING USE OF A GRID DIAPHRAGM
tube target over the middle or most important part of the ob-
ject. The rays must fall nearly perpendicularly on the film,
as obliquity of the rays will result in distortion and consequent
loss of detail in the image.
The question of the correct exposure conditions is one of the
most troublesome factors in successful radiography and calls
for a great deal of experience, for it is not easy to rdduce it to
any general or simple rule which will fit all cases. The quantity
of .X-rays obtained from a tube is measured by the number of
milliampe'res of current passing through the tube, and exposure
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
849
is usually expressed in terms of the product of milliamperes and
time, as milliampere seconds. Both the intensity and the quality
of the X-rays govern exposure, and the latter also depends, there-
fore, upon the voltage impressed on the X-ray tube. If we wish
to obtain a radiograph of a substance easily penetrable by X-rays,
such as an arm, we should use a voltage of say 70,000 volts; but,
on the other hand, if we wished to radiograph a thick mass of steel
we should have to employ a voltage from 200,000 volts upwards.
The diagram shows a typical exposure chart which has been
worked out under practical conditions for mild steel.
Something has been said about the difficulty of overcoming
the bad effect of scattered X-rays on a radiograph when such
scattering occurs at the surfaces and edges of the specimen, and
also in the surrounding medium, but the scattering which occurs
inside the specimen has also a most deleterious effect. Much of
this scattering is lost by absorption in the specimen but a great
deal of it will emerge and affect the photographic emulsion, and
as by its very nature it has no definite direction it will cast no
definite shadow but it will merely produce a general fog. The
manner in which technique seeks to overcome this difficulty is
by the use of what is known as a grid. This piece of apparatus
has many different forms but the principle involved is always the
same. By the interposition of suitably disposed absorbing sur-
faces between the specimen and the film, the radiation which has
not a suitably defined direction is absorbed and so prevented
reaching the photographic emulsion. The diagram illustrates the
general method of arrangement and shows the effect of the absorb-
ing strips. It is obvious that the use of such a grid will result
in an image of the strips appearing in the photographs as a series
of lines. Although in some cases this may not detract from the
value of the radiograph, yet in others it may be very undesira-
ble. In the majority of such grids provision is made to over-
come this difficulty by arranging for the system of absorbing
surfaces or grids to travel across the film during the exposure
at a uniform speed and in a direction at right angles to the
length of the grids. Thus each part of the film is covered in turn
for the same time by each grid so that no shadow results. The
use of these grid diaphragms for all radiography, both medical
and industrial, has become universal practice and the consequent
improvement in general results is very striking.
X-ray Protection. — With the increasing application of X-rays
to problems of industry the question of protection of the operator
has become even more important than hitherto. X-rays are known
to have serious effects upon the health of those who are exposed
to their action. Fortunately it is possible, by careful design of
plant, entirely to eliminate this risk. In most countries expert
committees have been appointed whose business it is to lay down
regulations governing the type and amount of protection that
shall be used for any particular design of X-ray installation, and
prospective users will be well advised to employ an expert con-
sultant to design and certify the safety of installations required for
all special purposes. The presence of high tension electric wires :
produce certain chemical effects in the atmosphere of the room
in which they are installed. This necessitates somewhat elab-
orate ventilation systems to provide for a complete and frequent
change of the atmosphere. Here again the expert should be
consulted. If X-ray apparatus is carefully designed and the
rules for its operation scrupulously adhered to, there need be no
anxiety concerning the dangers of the rays. The lamentable loss
of health and even of life that has been recorded among X-ray
operators is, to a certain extent, due to the fact that the technique
was new and in course of development, and it was quite impossible
then to foresee many of the injurious effects that have now be-
come well known. See RADIOTHERAPY; RADIOLOGY; X-RAY TREAT-
MENT. (E. V. P.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W. C. Rontsen, Ueber eine neue Art von Strahlen,
Ann. dcr Phys., 64, i (1898) ; W. Friedrich, P. Knipping and M. Lane,
Interference Phenomena with X-Rays, Ber. baycr. Akad. Wiss., Bd.
303 (1912) ; H. C. S. Mosely, The High Frequency Spectra of the Ele-
ments, Phil. Mag., 26 (1913) ; W. H. and W. L. Bragg, Reflection of
X-Rays by Crystals, Proc. Roy. Soc., 88A (1913), and X-Ra\s and
Crystal Structure (sth edn., 1925) ; R. Leboux-Lebard et A. Dauvil-
lier, La Physique des rayons X (1921) ; M. de«Broglie, Les Rayons X
(1922), and Intr. a la physique des rayons X et Gamma (1928) ; P. P.
Ewald, Kristalle und Rontgenstrahlen (1923); M. Seigbahn, Spectro-
skopie der Rontgenstrahlen (1924; Eng, trans., 1925); R. W. J.
Wy-koff, Structure oftCrvstals (1924); A. Dauvillicr, La Technique
des .'ayons X (1924) ; A. H. Compton, X-Rays and Electrons (1926).
See also ATOM, QUANTUM THEORY and SPECTROSCOPY.
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE. The idea of
a regular, underlying structure has always been at the back of
scientific studies of crystals. It is suggested by their very appear-
-f / f -r f f
-f Y •< -f ;
-f f f /
/
FIG. IA
ancc, and it becomes almost a necessity to explain the regularities
of the laws of the arrangements of the external faces and the
physical properties of the crystals. Christian Huyghens, in the
i yth century, first put forward the idea that a crystal was essen-
tially a regular piling of atoms or molecules similar on a minute
scale to a pile of shot or to the blocks of the Great Pyramid. It
was not until the beginning of the igth century, however, that the
Abbe Haiiy gave it a firm mathematical footing. (See CRYSTALLOG-
RAPHY.)
PART I. THE ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE
The idea implicit in Hatty's work was that crystals consist of a
regular ordering of exactly similar molecules in three dimensions.
/ I/ / /
FIG. IB
This is easiest to understand from its two dimensional analogue.
In fig. i A a set of similarly oriented identical patterns is shown,
repeated supposedly indefinitely. A certain movement 0-A takes
me from a point O of one pattern to a corresponding point A in
850
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
another Now an exactly similar movement O'A' would take me
from any point of the pattern to the corresponding point or from
any point in any pattern O" to a corresponding point on another
A". Similarly, the different movement O-B may be seen to have
the same property. They are the so-called translations of the crys-
tal. Now we can easily see that any translation O-C can be made
up of a succession of translations O-A and O-B, so that O-A and
O-B may be taken as the primitive translations or the axes a b
of the crystal. All the points derived in this way make up the
FIG. 2
lattice and by drawing lines parallel to the axes (fig. iB) we
define the cell of the crystal, the contents of all cells being
identical. Of course, we might have chosen another set of axes,
OX, OY instead, but the lattice is completely determined in either
case by the lengths of the axes and the angle between them, and
the whole crystal by the lattice and by the co-ordinates of each
point in a single cell, referred to its axes as units. To extend this
to three dimensions, we simply have to take another axis c, not
in the plane of a-b, and the cells become parallelepipeds, extend-
ing in space in all directions. (See fig. 2.)
Symmetry. — Now there are other ways than translations in
GLIDE PLANE -/- -/- — V- —•/-. / ••=••-
7
FIG. 3A
which identical patterns may appear. For instance, in fig. 3A
each pattern is accompanied by its reflection in the plane O-A,
imagined perpendicular to the plane of the paper; or in fig. 38,
by the two other patterns made by turning it about a three-fold
axis through 0. In fig. 30 we see both of these together. It is
only necessary to specify the positions of one of the asymmetric
patterns in the cell, and the nature of the symmetry to define the
crystal as completely as before. The elements of symmetry per-
mitted in space lattices are essentially those of crystallography,
that is, two, three, four and six-fold axes, centres of symmetry,
reflection planes and axes of the second sort. (See CRYSTALLOG-
RAPHY.) But there is the important condition that all axes must
be translations and all planes lattice planes, and in addition, there
are glide planes and screw axes. In fig. 3 A we have the two rows
of patterns (marked SJ'i"fo)» each °* which can be seen to be
a reflection of the other in a plane, but which has also been moved
on a half translation of the cell. This is called a glide plane re-
FIG. SB
flection. An ordinary axis of symmetry is a pure rotation, but
screw axes move the pattern a fraction (J, ^, ^ or £) of the lattice
translation, parallel to the axis in each operation, so that at the
end of a complete turn the pattern has moved through one trans-
lation, e.g., three-fold screw axes perpendicular to the paper are
shown in fig. 19. Screw axes may be right or left handed. In
nature they are familiar as phyllotaxy, the arrangement of leaves
on a stem.
The considerations of symmetry give us an ultimate method
of classifying any regular arrangement of patterns in space. First
we can divide the lattices into the fourteen types of Bravais
FfG. 3C
(1811-1863), (See Figure 4.) The seven systems of symmetry,
cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, rhombohedral, orthorhombic,
monoclinic and triclinic, give rise to the simple lattices (i.) Ff,
(iv.) F,, (vi.) FA, (vii.) I\A, (viii.) ro, (xii.) Tm, (»v.) IV But be-
sides these there exist a number of face centred lattices [where the
primitive translation is not from corner to corner of a rectangular
face. but to its midpoint]; one face centred fix.) IV, (xiii.) IV or
all face centred (iii.) FV", (xi.) IV". Lastly, there are the three
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
851
body centred lattices [where the primitive translation is to the
centre of a rectangular parallelepiped rather than to its opposite
corner]; (ii.) T/, (v.) IV, (x.) IV.
Next, we can divide the symmetry further, according to the
nature of the axes and planes and the presence or absence of
centres of symmetry into the thirty-two crystal classes. (See
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.) But the existence of glide planes and screw
FlG. 4.— (I.) SIMPLE CUBIC LAT-
TICE rr3 EQUAL AXES OF LENGTH
("a" AT RIGHT ANGLES)
FIG. 4. — (II.) BODY CENTRED CUBIC
LATTICE Fr (EQUIVALENT POINT IN
CENTRE OF CUBE)
axes permits of still further divisions inside each class and for
each variety of lattice possible in that class. If these two are
specified, the complete inner symmetry or space group of the
crystal is given. The determination of the two hundred and thirty
possible space groups was begun by Sonchke (1842-1897) and
finished by Schoenfiies, Fedorow and Barlow at the beginning of
the present century.
But though the geometrical frame-work for the complete de-
scription of crystal structure had thus been worked out, there
remained no way of applying it, for it was impossible to de-
termine either the nature of the lattice, the existence of screw
axes and glide planes or even the size of the cell, much less the
positions of the atoms in it. Yet the labour of the mathematicians
was not wasted. Soon after they were concluded, a controversy
was waging as to the nature of X-rays. Some maintained they
were corpuscular and others that, they were waves analogous to
light. However, no one had then succeeded in diffracting them
with a grating. (See LIGHT.) This seemed to show that if they
were waves, their wave lengths must, be much less than that of
visible light, io~5 cm. Now early in 1912 it occurred to von Laue,
then a young physicist at Munich, who was in touch with the
Crystallographic School at. Groth, that the lattices of crystals,
of which the little that was known indicated a periodicity of io~8
cm., were of the right order to act. as a grating for X-rays, and
if they were waves to diffract them in definite directions. Friedrich
and Knippirig carried out the experiment of passing a narrow beam
of X-rays through a crystal with a photographic plate behind it.
The experiment was strikingly
successful. The plate was cov-
ered with a regular pattern of
spots, whicty was what von Laue
had predicted. This experiment
gave the key both to the nature
of X-rays and the structure of
crystals.
The Braggs* First Crystal
Analyses. — The new discovery
aroused immediate interest, In
England it was taken up by Sir
CUBIC LATTICE i\" (EQUIVALENT William Bragg and his son, W. L.
POINT AT CENTRES OF CUBE FACES) Bragg, who in the same year
determined the first crystal structures, those of rock salt and
zinc-blende, and at the same time developed a method of analysis
which was to be the basis of all further work. The way in which
they accomplished the double task of determining the wave lengths
of X-rays and the structure of crystals is told in their classic book,
"X-rays and Crystal Structure." Here we will simplify it by
assuming from the start that we can produce X-rays of single
wave length X (most easily from the fluorescent radiation of
metals such as iron, copper, molybdenum arid rhodium).
FlG. 4. — (III.) FACE CENTRED
Bragg's Law.-— The action of X-rays on crystals is best dealt
with as selective reflection from crystal planes. If a set of planes
be drawn through co/responding points in a crystal (see fig. $A),
not necessarily in any relation to the superficial faces, these will
be a constant interval apart. This is the spacing of the plane
dhki; ([hkl] are the Millerian indices, that is, the reciprocals of
the fractional intercepts on the axes. See CRYSTALLOGRAPHY).
If a train of waves falls on such a set of planes p (see fig. 6) at
a glancing angle 0, each plane will reflect a small part of the wave
FlG. 4. — (IV.) SIMPLE TETRAGONAL FlG. 4. — (V.) BODY CENTRED TET-
LATTICE J\ (TWO EQUAL AXES RAGONAL LATTICE }\ (EQUIVALENT
"A" AND "C" ALL AT RIGHT POINT IN THE CENTRE OF CELL)
ANGLES)
train regularly and let the rest through to the next plane. Now,
in general, the reflected wave trains from successive planes will
be out of phase with each other, will interfere and no reflection
will result. (See LIGHT: Interference.) But if the path dis-
tance of the wave passing from plane to plane is a multiple of
the wave length \, all the reflected waves will be in phase and
the train as a whole will be reflected by the crystal. This occurs
when and only when
This is the fundamental relation of crystal analysis known as
"Bragg's Law." The integer ;/ is the so-called order of the
reflection. Thus the same plane will reflect at angles 0i, 02 . . . 0n,
i . /% ^ • /i 2^ . * wX *
where sm0i = — ; sm02 = — . . . sm0n--= — - for the same wave
2(1 2(1 2d
length. The higher the order or the smaller the spacing, the
larger the angle of reflection. No plane whose spacing is less
than half the wave length reflects at all. It is only necessary to
measure 0, the angle at which X-rays of known wave lengths are
reflected by a crystal, to know the spacing of its lattice planes.
But X-rays are able to give much more information than this.
Consider a crystal with two scattering points in the cell of scat-
tering powers A and B. (See Figure sB.) Wave trains scattered
from the A and B plane are now
out of phase and necessarily
interfere. If the B planes are xd
from the 4's, the resulting in-
tensity of the nth order of reflec-
tion will be proportional td
(A+B cos27rn*)2-f/^ sin227Tfl*.
If, for instance, B was half way
between two ,4's, #-i, this would
become (A+B)2 for the even or-
ders and (A-B)2 for the odd.
The even orders would be strong
and the odd weak, and these
would vanish if A and B were
equal, and the plane in this case
being said to be halved. A crystal
with more scattering points gives
120°
FlG. 4.— (VI.) HEXAGONAL LATTICE
Th (THREE CELLS SHOWN TO IL-
LU8TRATE THE HEXAGONAL SYM-
METRY)
rise to a more complicated expression but it should be clear that
the intensity of reflection is both an indication and a check on the
positions of the scattering centres inside the cell.
The chief experimental methods are therefore devised for a
double purpose. Firstly, to find the glancing angles for the X-rays
reflected by the different planes of the crystal, and secondly, to
measure the intensity of the X-rays reflected. There are four chief
experimental methods.
In the Bragg ionisation spectrometer (see fig. 7) the X-rays
from the tube inside the lead box pass through the two slits
852
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
A and B, which limit them to a narrow beam, and meet the crys-
tal C mounted to rotate about a vertical axis. The reflected beam
is received in an ionisation chamber I, in which there is an absorb-
ing gas such as methylene iodide, producing ions which charge the
electroscope E. The crystal and chamber are moved to record
each reflection and their angular position gives the glancing angle,
while the ionisation current is a measure of the intensity. The
Bragg spectrometer undoubtedly pro-
vides the most thorough method, but it
is slow in action and suitable only for
large crystals, so that methods depend-
ing on the photographic action of X-
rays have also been developed.
The Rotation Method.— For the
rotation originally due to clc Broglie, an
apparatus similar to fig. 8 is used. The
X-rays from a tube not shown pass
through the fine barrel aperture A and
fall on the crystal C, which is rotated
uniformly on the spindle S, driven by
Fic 4.— evil.) RHOMDO-
mark.
the motor M. As each crystal plane
comes into a reflecting position, the re- ing an angle (d) wi'th each
fleeted ray registers on the photographic other
plate P, producing a pattern such as shown in fig. g. Each plane
reflects four times per revolution, giving the photograph a sym-
metrical appearance. From the position of the spot on the plate,
the spacings or the indices of the planes can be calculated. An
important property of the rotation method is that if the crystal
is rotated about a translation a of the lattice, all the reflected rays
lie on a set of cones of angles <j>n where sin<£ = — these cones
intersect the plate in hyperbolae called layer lines (see fig. 9) and
their distance apart is the best measure of the true axes of the
crystal. It can be seen from the
photograph that the spots are of
very different intensities. These
are usually estimated by eye, as
strong, medium, weak, etc., so
that the method is definitely in-
ferior in this respect to the ionisa-
tion spectrometer.
The Powder Method.— In the
powder method, due to Debye FIG. 4.— (vm.) SIMPLE ORTHO-
and to Hull and Scherrer, a crys- RHOMBIC LATTICE r«
talline powder is used instead of Jnhfl™ unequal •*•• •• b- "• at rl°hl
a single crystal, depending on the
fact that among so many grains some will be in the exact position
to reflect. Consequently from the central beam diverge a set of
cones each corresponding to the reflection from a single plane and
forming circular rings on a plate (see fig. i2a) or so-called Debye
curves on a film bent round
a cylinder (see fig. I2b). Unfor-
tunately, many planes often have
the same or nearly the same
spacings, which causes them to be
confused and limits the method
to simple crystals. However, as
it is the only method for sub-
stances which cannot be obtained
as single crystals, it is very use-
ful, particularly for metals.
The Laue method depends on a
different principle from the first
three. Here the crystal is kept
fixed, and a beam of white X-rays, that is with wave lengths rang-
ing from between ^25 to -5 A. (Angstrom units«io"s cm.), is
passed through it, usualy parallel to a crystallographic axis. The
apparatus used is the same as before (see fig. 8). For a great num-
ber of planes there will always be some wave length which is right
for reflection and a spot is formed, the position of which depends
only on the angular position of the reflecting plane. Thus the Laue
FlG. 4. — (IX.) ONE FACE CENTRED
ORTHORHOMB5C LATTICE T ' AS
(VIII.) BUT WITH AN EQUIVALENT
POINT AT THE CENTRE OF ONE
PAIR OF FACES
method gives no information as to spacing. But, as can be seen
from the photographs (see fig. na and b) it gives an excellent
picture of the symmetry of the crystal and also of the relative
intensities of a great number of reflecting planes.
Plainly, though any one of these methods but the last could be
and has been used alone for crystal analysis, it is much better to
use all to amplify and check each
other's results. In this way we
arrive at the experimental data
for crystal analysis ; the spacings
and intensities of the X-ray re-
flections of a number of planes of
known indices.
Stages in Structure Analy-
sis.— With these data the actual
analysis divides into two parts. It FIG. 4. — (X.) BODY CENTRED OR-
is carried out schematically as THORHOMBIC LATTICE r</' AS vm.
follows' BUT WITH AN EQUIVALENT POINT
i. Determination of Cell She. 1N CENTRE OF CELL
The lengths of the three axes, a, 6, c, are found from rotation
photographs or from the spacing of planes given by the formula
dhkl-
for orthogonal crystals. For monodinic and triclinic crystals it is
more complicated and here the angles between the axes are usually
FlG. 4.— (XI.) FACE CENTRED
ORTHORHOMBIC LATTICE JV" AS
(VII!.) BUT WITH EQUIVALENT
POINTS IN CENTRES OF ALL SIX
FACES
FIG. 4.— (XII.) SIMPLE MONOCLINIC
LATTICE To*
Two axes d and o making an angle B
with each other and one axis b per-
pendicular to both of them
molecular weight
obtained from the external crystal form. It is easiest to use the
pinacoid spacings (100) (oio) (ooi), which give the axes directly,
but these may be halved, so for the true cell, one general plane
(hkl) at least must be taken.
2. Determination of the number of molecules per cell. If D
is the density of the crystal, and V its volume in cu.A. (V*=abc
for an orthogonal cell), then the cell will contain Z molecules of
Af, where
I.66XIO'24
being the weight of an atom.
3. Determination of the Lat-
tice Type. This is done by means
of the halvings of planes of the
type (hkl). In simple lattices
there are no inner regularities
and all kinds of planes appear, FIG m CENTRED FACE
whereas in centred lattices, cer- CENTRED) MONOCL:NIC LATTICE
tain planes are inter-spaced iden- rm' (EQUIVALENT POINTS IN THE
tically so that they do not reflect CENTRES OF [A. B] FACES>
in odd orders and are said to be halved. A halving when h+k is
odd will, for instance, indicate a c face-centred lattice IV (see
fig. 4 [xiii]).
4. Determination of Space Group. It is first necessary to know
the crystal class. This must be done by the methods of ordinary
crystallography. Laue photographs are useful in detecting axes,
but unfortunately, X-ray methods cannot distinguish directly be-
tween crystals with or without a centre of symmetry. Next, screw
axes and glide planes can be detected, for the former cause all
orders of the plane normal to it to disappear except that corre-
sponding to a multiple of the screw translation, e.g., in quartz,
owing to the trigonal screw axis, perpendicular to the c plane, only
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
the third, sixth, ninth, etc., orders of this plane reflect. Glide
planes, on the other hand, halve whole sets of planes of the type
(hko), where h+ k is odd. Space groups are usually found by the
use of tables, of which those of Astbury and Yardlcy and Wyckoff
are most used. They are denoted by a complex symbol, such as
Z?4<jh, where Deh stands for the symmetry class and h is the ordinal
number in a space group table, usually that of Schoenflies.
Once the space group is known ancl the number of molecules
per cell, the symmetry of the individual molecule follows, which
is in general lower than that of
the crystal. Further, the condi-
tions of symmetry fix the posi-
tions of the atoms within cer-
tain limits. If we designate the
co-ordinates of the atom, referred
to the axes a b c as u v w, the so-
called parameters of the atom,
FIG. 4.-<xiv.> TRICLINIC LATTICE then the symmetry conditions
Th"ree unequal axi* a, b, c, inclined may fix the values of U V W Within
at angles d, b, y to each other certain limits. If there are very
few atoms of a particular kind in the cell, u v w may become
o o o or 1/2 1/2 1/2, that is, the atom must be at a corner or in
the centre of a cell. Or two parameters may be fixed, o o v, fix-
ing the atom anywhere on the c axis ; or o v w, fixing it anywhere
in the a plane. However, it is only in the simplest cases that the
symmetry positions fix all the atomic positions. Usually, a set
of independent parameters are left undetermined, which may
be only one, as in graphite, or twenty or more as in a silicate.
The difficulty of fixing parameters leads to many crystals being
left at this stage, but though it is indirect, the fixing of parameters
by means of intensity considerations is far the most interesting
part of crystal analysis.
The method consists in assuming certain values for the para-
meters and calculating from these the theoretical intensity of re-
flections from a set of planes. These are compared with the ob-
served intensities, and the process repeated by trial and error,
until the theoretical and observed intensities agree within the
errors of the experiment. In many ways this method resembles the
of electrons in the atom. Actually, the electrons are diffused in
space, so that their scattered radiations interfere, making F fall
off very rapidly with the angle 6, particularly for light atoms,
Structure factor curvtes giving Fd can be found experimentally for
each kind of atom or calculated from the wave mechanics distribu-
tion of electricity in the atom, as has been done by Pauling and
Hartree. The exponential terms simply allow for the phase differ-
PLANKf (110)
• SCATTfRING POWER A
on »» B
FIG. 5A
solution of a cross-word puzzle. The cell and space group provide
the square and the pattern, the atoms the letters and the intensities
the clues.
Atomic Structure Factors. — The amplitude of the reflection
from the plane (hkl) of a crystal which has n atoms per cell with
the parameters ui Vi w\, UiViWz, ........ U* v* w» is given by
FIG. SB
encc of the different atomic centres for the reflection of the plane
(hkl). The observed intensity, before comparison with the calcu-
lated, must itself be corrected for absorption of the X-rays in the
crystal, which is complicated by the fact that the very reflections
of the X-rays increase the absorption differently for each plane.
Corrections must also be made for temperature effects, as the
atoms in a crystal vibrate more at higher temperatures, which
reduces the reflection intensity.
The calculation and comparison of intensities is a lengthy but
straight-forward process, but the assigning of parameters is like
solving a geometrical problem and always depends, in part, on
intuition. Gradually, however, as more and more structures arc
being worked out, probable arrangements of atoms can be seen
more easily, particularly by the use of the ideas of atomic diame-
ters and co-ordination numbers (see Part II.). It was by the use
of these that Pauling and West successfully and independently
predicted the structure of topaz A12S-04F2. But however the
parameters are obtained, good intensity agreement absolutely
confirms the structure as correct because the slightest change of
atomic position causes such changes in intensity distribution be-
CO is the J. J. Thomson formula for the scattering from a single
electron, which depends only on the angle of scattering 6. Pi, fit,
........ T7,, are the so-called structure factors of the different
atoms. If the atoms scattered as a point, Fr^Zr the total number
FlG. 6
tween the different reflections as to wholly upset the agreement.
This completes our account of the methods of crystal analysis
as far as the positions of the atoms are concerned. Unfortunately,
to illustrate it with even a single example, would exceed the length
of this article, and the reader must be content with the results of
the analysis given in Part II. Strictly, however, merely to know
the position of the centres of the atoms in a crystal, is only the
beginning of a real knowledge of their structure. A complete
knowledge must also include a quantitative account of the forces
by which the crystal is held in equilibrium and of the dynamics
of the crystal when it is acted on by mechanical or electrical
854
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
EARTHING KEY
VERNIER OF CRYSTAL TABLE
FIG. 7.— BRAGG IONISATION SPECTROMETER
fields. Such an account should give all the mechanical and physical
properties of the crystal in terms of its structure. This part of
PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE
CRYSTAL —
APERTURE SYSTEM
MOTOR
FlG. 8.— APPARATUS FOR ROTATION AND LADE PHOTOGRAPHS ETC.: (A)
APERTURE SYSTEM. (C) CRYSTAL, TP) PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE. (S) RO-
TATING SPINDLE
crystal analysis is only beginning hut already the work of Born,
Lande, Leonard Jones Joffe and several others has accounted
quantitatively for the mechanical properties of simple ionic
crystals, particularly of the rock salt type.
PART II. THE STRUCTURES OP CRYSTALS
Crystal Chemistry-— By the methods outlined above, the
structures of an ever increasing number of crystals have been
worked out every year (1926 for
instance, produced over three
hundred papers on the subject)
yet the field is so immense and
the difficulties of analysis so con-
siderable, that we can still only
deal satisfactorily with the sim-
pler types of crystal structure.
Already, however, owing to the
work of Sir William and W. L.
Bragg, of Fajans, Wasatsjerna, FIG. 9.-ROTATION PHOTOGRAPH
Pauling and above all, V. M. Goldschmidt, we can put forward
a theory of the mode of crystal construction which can be used
to predict unknown structures and structures and properties of
new substances.
To understand the essence of this theory of crystal chemistry,
we must start not from the crystal but from the atom. The most
convenient form in which to represent the atom for this purpose
is by Schrodinger's wave mechanics. Here each atom is pictured
as a nucleus of positive electricity, surrounded by shells of diffuse
negative electricity, growing denser towards the centre. Each
cell corresponds to a set of Bohr orbits with the Same chief
quantum number in the classical
quantum mechanics. These elec-
tron cells serve in the first place
to give the atom a finite size
(see ng. 12). This does not mean
that the atom is a rigid sphere of
definite radius. The wave me-
chanics atom must be considered
as having a definite degree of
compressibility and deformabil-
ity. The chemical and crystal-
lographic properties of an atom
depend partly on the size but
more on the character of its TORE- "O^BBLL VsoNsT"
outer shell of electrons. FIG. 10. — (A) SPECTRUM OF ALU-
Certain arrangements of elec- MINIUM CRYSTAL TO POWDERED
trons (2, 8, 18, 32 for chief quan- FORM' (B) SPECTRUM OF GOLD
turn numbers i, 2, 3, 4) have their inner quantum numbers so
balanced that they are in a condition of minimum energy and so
are physically stable and without external electric fields. These
arrangements occur in the inner shells of most elements (but not
in the iron, palladium, platinum or rare earth groups) but only the
FlG. 11. — LAUE PHOTOGRAPH OF: (A) ROCK SALT. (B) BERYL
elements of the inert gas group have stable outer shells. The other
elements tend to fall into two groups. Those with one, two, or
rarely up to four or five electrons more than the next lower stable
grouping are the metals. They all tend to ionize, that is, to lose
these spare electrons and assume a more stable configuration, ac-
quiring a positive charge as a result; thus a sodium atom with
eleven electrons loses one readily to become a singly charged
sodium ion Na+, with ten electrons in the configuration of the rare
gas neon. The non-metallic type of atom is, on the other hand!
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
855
OKOUP V CROUP vi GROUP VII
N1TR06EN GROUF OXYGEN GROUP HALOGENS
OUTER SHELL S-* OUTER SMELL §-1 OUTER SHELL t-J
0« MS
(7)
(18)
GROUP o
RARE OASIS
He
(2)
Ne
00)
GROUP I GROUP II
ALKALIES ALKALINE EARTH
OUTER8HELL ••! OUTER SHELL • + <
(16)
07)
08)
(53)
(36)
Xe
(54)
GROUP III GROUP IV
EAUTHS CARBON OROUP
OUTER SHELL 8 + 3 OUTER SHELL 0 + 4
OR S-4
(5)
(13)
(56)
(82)
(55)
V (83)
NON METALS
METALS
FlG. 12. — APPROXIMATE ABSOLUTE SIZES OF ATOMS AND IONS, INNER CIRCLES IN METALS AND OUTER IN NON-METALS SHOW THE
IONIC STATE; NUMBERS IN () ARE ATOMIC NUMBERS (SCALE 50,000,000:1)
one, two or three electrons short of the number required to form
the next stable configuration and tends to take up extra electrons
to complete the shell, acquiring a negative charge in the process.
Isolated atoms and ions only exist at temperatures and pres-
sures such as we find in stars and vacuum tubes. Under normal
conditions they are always found combined. We know four such
types of combination. These are called the heteropolar or ionic,
the homopolar, the molecular and the metallic.
Two ions such as Na+ and Cl~" will attract each other with a
force — where r is the distance between them, and there will be
r2
an equilibrium when this force balances the repulsive force ex-
isting between their outer shells at close quarters. It is this
repulsive force that gives the atoms their finite size. It is also elec-
trical in origin but much more complex and expressible in such
terms as — ; • In the presence, however, of more Na+ and Cl~
ions, it is easy to see that NaCl will become
NaCl and then NaClNa
CINa ClNaCl
NaClNa
and so on in three dimensions, each positive" 1911 being surrounded
by as many negative ions as possible and building up a crystal of
rock salt (see fig. 13). Ions arc of very different sizes (see ftg. 12)
and when a small, highly charged positive ion such as Be++ is close
to a large, diffuse ion S~—,it not only attracts it but distorts its
structure, attracting the electron shell and repelling the nucleus.
This is called polarisation. Polarisation is particularly effective
when the negative ion is unsymmetrically surrounded by positives,
as in layer lattices (see fig. 29). A polarised heteropolar attraction
can in this way build up a complex ion, such as (Mg++O4 — )6~~.
Homopolar Combinations. — In homopolar combination, two
or more atoms with incomplete electron shells make up for their
lack of stability by sharing electrons, thus achieving a complete-
ness of outer shell for the combination which cannot exist for the
individual. The simplest case is hydrogen. Individual hydrogen
atoms, each with its one electron, are highly reactive because a
one quantum shell is complete with two electrons, as in helium.
Consequently two hydrogen atoms H combine to form the stable
hydrogen molecule H2, which spectrally and in many other ways
resembles helium. In a similar way, by the sharing of a balanced
pair of electrons, are formed the diatomic molecules F2, O«, NI of
the non-metallic elements. An atom can share electrons with
more than one other atom. Oxygen sharing electrons with two
hydrogens forms the unsymmetrical water molecule H/ \jr
or carbon and two oxygens to form the symmetrical carbon diox-
856
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
ide O-C-0. The process, which can be extended indefinitely to
form more and more complicated molecules, particularly those of
organic chemistry (where the carbon atorn^ possessing four two-
electron bonds [co-valencies in modern ch'emical terms] which
FIG. 13.— SODIUM CHLORIDE STRUCTURE (SCALE 70,000,000:1)
bring its outer shell from four to eight electrons) enables long
chains of atoms to be formed as in the paraffins, or rings as in ben-
zene derivatives. This reaches its ultimate limit when the linking is
extended indefinitely in all directions and results, not in forming
a molecule, but a crystal such as diamond (see fig. 23), which may
CAESIUM C»*
FIG. 14.— CAESIUM CHLORIDE STRUCTURE (SCALE 90,000,000:1)
be considered as one solid molecule. But homopolar bonds can
also build up complex ions, such as the ammonium ion NH4+with
its ten electrons, which has the same relation to the neutral mole-
cule CH4 as the sodium ion Na+ has to neon; or the series of
negative ions C104, SO* P04 and Si04.
Molecular Combination.— Between electrically neutral atoms
and molecules which have also completed outer shells, there still
exists a type of residual attraction which may be called molecular.
In the simplest cace of an inert gas atom, this residual attraction
is only effective at very close distances and consequently, except
at the lowest temperatures, the substance remains a gas. But at
such temperatures it solidifies in a state of equilibrium between
the attractive and repulsive forces, both probably due to distor-
tions in the electronic structure. Very similar is the attraction
FIG. 15. — FLUORITE STRUCTURE (SCALE 60,000.000:1)
between non-polar molecules such as Oa which also tend to have
low melting points, but when a molecule is polar, that is, acts as
an electric dipole or multipole, these poles attract others of oppo-
site sign, with forces approaching those of ionic crystals.
Metallic Combination. — Metallic combination occurs when
all the atoms tend easily to lose electrons. The positive ions thus
formed cohere together, held by the electron gas, produced from
the discarded electrons now no longer bound to particular atoms.
It is from such knowledge of the units of crystal structure,
that is, atoms, simple and complex ions and molecules, and of the
kind of forces holding them together, that we can see the physico-
chemical meanings of the crystal structures which are found by
the quite independent means of X-rays. But the process is two-
sided. At the same time we learn from the structure much of the
chemical and physical properties of atoms inaccessible by other
methods.
Crystallised substances, that is to say, all solids with the ex-
ception of the glasses, may be divided into four main classes : the
FIG. 16. — RUTILE STRUCTURES (SCALE 60.000,000:1)
ionic, the adamantine, the molecular and the metallic; and three
prominent intermediate classes: the silicates, the layer lattices
and the metalloids. The leading properties of these classes are
shown in Table I.
Ionic crystals have been more studied than any of the other
classes because the simple Coulomb electrical forces holding them
together lead to simpler structures, of which it is sometimes pos-
sible to give a quantitative explanation. The first law of formation
for ionic crystals was stated by Goldschmidt as follows :
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
857
Crystal
type
Crystal
units
Type of
binding
Characteristic properties
Typical
Crystals
Optical
Electrical
Thermal
Mechanical
Ionic
Simple and com-
plex ions
Klectrical at-
traction be-
tween ions of
opposite signs
}
Transparent ab-
sorption invis-
ible. Colour (if
present) is due
to atoms
Moderate insu-
lators in high
fields conduct
by transfer of
ions
f Fairly high melt-
ing point ion-
ization occurs
in liquid and
vapour
Hardness in-
creasing with
higher ionisa-
tion
Tendency to
fracture by
cleavage
NaCl fig. (13)
CaF, (15)
CaCO, (21)
K2SO4
(NHOiPtric (20)
Silicate
O~~ or F~ ions
Sc4 '*• or Be*-*" or
A13+ and other
positive ions
1
Weak to moder-
ate polarisa-
tion
In short infra
red due to com-
plex ions
In long infra red
due to crystal
lattice
Refractivity due
to posi tive
ions
When polarisa-
tion is slight
they dissolve
with ionisa-
tion in ionising
solvents (wa-
ter) when
stronger are in-
soluble
Very high melt-
ing points,
glasses formed
on cooling of
, melt
Very hard with
tendency to
cleave or frac-
ture conchoi-
clally
Olivinc M&SiOi (22)
Cyanite A^SiO*
Garnet R"3 R'"2SiaOi
Spinel Al_>MgO4
Corundum A12O3
Adamantine
Atoms of the
fourth group
and groups on
either side of it
11 o m o p o la r
bonds tnrdugh-
out or strongly
polarized
ionic binding
Transparent
with high rc-
f rac t i v i t y
or opaque
metalloidal
Diamond is a
perfect insula-
tor. The others
conduct
metalloidally
Very insoluble
Very high melt
ing points with
tendency to
v a p o u r i s c
except in more
metalloidal
Very hard
Hard ness less for
metalloidal
types
Diamond C (23)
Zinc Blende XnS
Wurtzite £nS (24)
Carborundum CSi
Molecular
Inert gas atoms
Non polar and
p o 1 a r m o 1 e -
cules
Van dcr Waal's
forces or resid-
ual electric
fields between
molecularpoles
Transparent
optical prop-
erties due to
molecules and
similar to gas
and liquid
phases
Insulators ex-
cept when very
polar; soluble
in non-ionizing
(molecular)
solvents except,
when polar
Melting point
very low with
neutral atoms,
rises with heav-
ier molecules
and polar
molecules
Very soft, hard-
ness increasing
with polarity of
molecules.
Deforma-
tion plastic
Argon A (31)
CO, (25)
Ice HjO (18)
Paraffins Cnlli+z (26)
Calomel HftCli (27)
Layer
Strongly polaris-
ing ami easily
polarised
ions
In layers. Homo-
polar or polar-
ised ionic
Between layers
Molecular
As Adamantine
Various. Similar
both to molec-
ular and ada-
mantine
Various. Similar
both to molec-
ular and ada-
mantine
Cleaving readily
in layers
which are soft
ami flexible
Graphite C (28)
Cdl, (29)
Metallic
Positive ions
and electron
gas
Electrical
attraction
between posi
tivc ions and
electron gas?
Opaque (due to
free electrons)
with selective
reflection in in-
fra red
Conduc to rs
c o n d u c -
tivity inversely
proportional
to no. of free
electrons
Soluble in acids
where II ' ions
absorb free
electrons
Moderate to
very high melt
ing points.
Long liquid
interval
Moderate
hardness
increased by
alloying. Idas-
tic but yield
by glide plane
slipping when
overstressed
Copper, Iron (31)
Iron, Sodium (32)
Zinc (33)
Metalloidai
Metal atoms and
atoms of the
sulphur and
arsenic type
Mixture of
homopolar
ionic and me-
tallic binding
Opaque metallic
or transparent
with high re-
fractivity and
colour
Medium to bad
conductors
Soluble only
with decompo-
sition
Tendency
to vaporise or
decompose at
high t c m -
peratures
Moderately
hard to soft.
Properties a
mixture of
those of other
types
Nickel Arsenide NIAs
Fahlerz R"2SbS3
Pyrites FeS, (34)
"The crystal structure of a substance is determined by the size
and polarisation properties of its components, which may be
atoms, ions or atomic groups."
Size of an ion is, after its charge, its most important property.
It varies very greatly for different ions. In fig. 12, the size of a
number of ions and atoms which illustrates their dependence on
atomic number and charge, it can be seen that the size of a
positive ion in the same group increases with the atomic number,
while in the same series for positive ions, it decreases markedly
with increasing charge, which acts by tightening the whole struc-
ture. But in negative ions, the increased size due to the repulsion
of the extra electrons is counteracted by the greater fields they
find themselves in, and consequently doubly charged negative ions
are never greater than and sometimes smaller than singly charged.
The way in which the increased charge tightens the structure is
shown by the fact that KC1, where both ions have eighteen elec-
trons, the interatomic distance is 3-14 A; whereas in CaS, also
with eighteen electrons each, but quadruple electrostatic force, the
corresponding distance has shrunk to 2-84 A.
The way in which atomic diameter influences structure can be
seen from the simplest ionic structure of the type AX, with equal
numbers of ions of opposite signs. The simplest of these is the
structure of rock salt (see fig. 13), where stfdium and chlorine ions
occupy alternate corners of a cubic lattice. The co-ordination
number is 6:6, that is, each sodium has six chlorine neighbours
and vice versa. Actually, the chlorine ions are so large compared
to the sodium that they form an octahedron that encloses it almost
completely. Simple geometry shows that this can only be the case
if RA (radius of positive ion) : Rx (radius of negative ion) 073.
This relation holds for all halides of the alkaline metals with the
exception of the chloride, bromide and iodide of caesium where the
ratios RR are .91, -84 and -75 respectively. Now these last three are
the only alkaline halides which do not belong to the sodium chlo-
ride type but to the caesium type. (See fig. 14.) Here the co-ordi-
nation number is 8 :8 and there is, so to speak, more room for the
larger caesium ion inside the cube of chlorine ions. Where RA:Rx
is very small, the factor of polarisation comes in, and the struc-
ture ceases to be ionic and becomes adamantine or molecular.
If we pass to the next simpler series, AX2, a similar situation
occurs. Where RA-Rx is greater than -73, the structure is of the
fluorite type. (See fig. 15.) Here the co-ordination number is 8:4,
the calcium ions being surrounded by a cube of eight fluorine
ions, just as the caesium by the chlorines. A great number of
compounds belong to this type, which includes the chlorides of
the alkaline earths and the oxides of zirconium, thorium and
uranium. If RA:Rxlies between -73 and -41, a structure is formed
858
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
analogous to rock salt. This is the rutile structure. (See fig. 16.)
Here the co-ordination number 6:3 cannot be satisfied in the
cubic system and the octahedron of oxygen ions is placed on its
FlG. 17. — CRISTOBALITE STRUCTURE (SCALE 60,000,000:1)
side in a tetragonal structure. The two other forms of Ti02,
anatase and brookite, are also built with the same co-ordination
but with the octahedra distorted and differently placed. A great
number of substances belong to the rutile structure. The fluorides
o
J* TRIGONAL SCREW AXIS
A* TRIGONAL SCREW AND DEAD Axis
FlG. 18. — TRIDYMITC STRUCTURE. FIG. 19. — QUARTZ PERPENDICULAR TO
TRIGONAL: THE NUMBERS 0246 FOR THE O" ATOMS AND 135 FOR THE
Si4. ATOMS REFER TO DEPTHS BELOW PLANE OF PAPER (SCALE 30,-
000.000:1)
of Mg., Mn., Co., Fe., Ni., Zn. and the dioxides of Mn., Mo., Sn.,
W. and Pb., as well as several others.
When RA^X l*es between -41 and -22, the co-ordination number
is 4:2, which is approaching an adamantine structure. This is the
NH* ION
FlG. 20. — AMMONIUM HEXACHLOROPLATINATE STRUCTURE (SCALE 30.-
000.000:1)
case for the different forms of silica, SiO, Cristobalite, Tridymite
and Quartz. These are shown in figs. 17, 18 and 19. Though ap-
parently different, these structures have the essential point in
common that they are built from silicon ions completely sur-
rounded by four oxygens in a tetrahedron. Each oxygen is shared
between two tetrahedra and the different forms of structure arc
merely due to different arrangements of these tetrahedra. Thus
the polymorphism of silica is not due to any change in the mole-
cule.
So far we have dealt only with crystals with simple ions, but
those with complex ions are essentially similar. When the ion is
co7 ION
• CARBON
(OXYGEN ATOMS NOT SHOWN
TO AVOID CONFUSION)
FlG. 21. — CALC1TE STRUCTURE (SCALE 50,000,000:1)
approximately spherical, as is ammonium NH4, or highly sym-
metrical as NKNnOe+^PtCle — it can take its place in a crystal
exactly like a simple ion of the same size. Ammonium, NH4, is
practically indistinguishable in its compounds from Rb. Such
Oo
IN AND ABOVE PLAN! OP PAPER
FlG. 22.— OLIVINE M0a, S. 0, (SCALE 40.000,000:1)
a compound as (NH4)2 (PtCl6) (see fig. 20) is, except for its
larger size, essentially the same as fluorite. When the compound
ion is not nearly spherical, loss of symmetry results. In the case
of calcite (see fig. 21), for instance, the ions are arranged very
much as in rock salt, but owing to the flatness of the C03"" ion,
one trigonal axis is shortened,
leading to a rhombohedral crys-
tal. A number of crystals, such
as FeC03 and NaNO3, belong to
the calcite class. With ions of the
type BX4, such as BFr,ClO4~,
$64 — , P04 — ,the structures are
of even lower symmetry, though
in all of these the tetrahedronal
arrangement of oxygen atoms is
maintained.
There are a great number of
ionic crystals which are neither of
the simple ionic or complex ionic
types, which may be grouped
together as a silicate type, though
not all contain silicon. The
FlG. 23. — DIAMOND STRUCTURE; IF
ATOMS MARKED Z ARE REPLACED BY
ZINC AND THE REMAINING BY SUL-
PHUR, ZINCBLENDE STRUCTURE IS
GIVEN (SCALE SO,OOO,OOO:1)
structure of the silicates are complex but, as W. L. Bragg has
shown, they consist essentially of oxygen ions in a close-packed
arrangement, either cubic or hexagonal. (See figs. 31 and 33.)
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
859
These ions are held together by strongly charged metallic ions,
which occupy the spaces between them. In the tetrahedral spaces
are found the smallest and most highly charged ions Si4+ Be++
In the octahedral spaces larger ions with smaller charges, such as
Ti4+, A13+, Mg++, Fe++. Still larger ions, such as Ca-n-Na+or K+,
introduce distortions into the structure. The symmetry of the
S ATOMS
F/G. 24.— WURTZITE STRUCTURE (SCALE 80,000.000:1)
silicates adjusts itself to fit these ions with the minimum distor-
tion, which leads to large and complicated cells, generally of low
symmetry. One of the simplest, of these olivine Mg2Si04 is
shown in fig. 22. Other silicates of known structure include cyanite
AlzSiO,-,, phenacite Be-jSiOi, beryl Be3Al2Sir,Oix and the garnets
CARBON ATOM
( J OXYGEN ATOM
FIG. 25.— CARBON DIOXIDE STRUCTURE (SCALE 80,000,000:1)
Rs'Rz" SiaOj2. Two non-silicate types are also built from close-
packed oxygens, the corundum type A1203, including haematite
Fe203, NgTiOs, and the spinel type AljMg04, including magnetite
Fe2FeO4 and Ag2Mo04.
In adamantine crystals the forces binding the whole crystal
together are homopolar, so it may be considered that they are
single molecules. The typical adamantine crystal is the diamond.
(See fig. 23.) Here each carbon is joined to four others (co-
ordination 4:4) by a homopolar electron sharing bond in a tetra-
hedral fashion, alternate tetrahcdra pointing in opposite directions.
If we replace alternate carbon atoms with zinc and sulphur, we
arrive at the zinc blende structure, which is typical for adaman-
tine compounds. Such compounds are chiefly found in the fourth
group of the periodic table and in compounds between elements
either side. For instance, we have
CaAs XnSe Culir
V 33 30 34 29 35
^•435 2'45 2'4<> A
It should be noticed that here, un-
, there is little change in interatomic
distance. Another 4:4 is represented
by Wurtzite (see fig. 24), the other
form of zinc sulphite. The relations
and the distances of neighbouring atoms
arc the same in both cases, but in
Wurtzite, the symmetry is hexagonal
instead of cubic. The three forms of
carborundum represent a compound
diamond -Wurtzite structure with a very
large cell.
In molecular crystals, the units of
structure are neutral atoms or mole-
cules, and as the forces are so much
weaker, the determining factor is the
shape of the molecules. The most
ideally simple cases are the crystals
of the inert gases, which are cubic close-
packed. (See fig. 30. ) The similar
structures are found for symmetrical
molecules such as CH4, Snl4 and more
or less distorted for molecules N2, O2,
I2, NH3 or C02 (sec fig. 25), none of
which are strongly polar. Another
simple case is when the molecules are
long, straight structures, such as those
of the paraffins. (Fig. 26). Here they
lie together like bundles of sticks, form-
ing loosely connected layers. A study
of compounds with benzene rings, ben-
zene, naphthalene, hcxamethylbenzene,
shows that this ring of carbon atoms
has a real existence and is probably
plane, while studies of structures with
quadruply substituted carbon atoms as
penterithretol or tetraphenyl methane
nds are arranged almost tetrahedrally.
a molecule possesses unbalanced electrical poles, these
arrange themselves in the crystal so as to neutralize each other as
much as possible, cither by polymerising or forming jiseudionic
crystals ; thus ice formed from the strongly polar ^ / \ ^ has
tridymite structure (sec tig. 18), in which each oxygen is sur-
rounded by four hydrogens, or calomel CIHgHgCl (see iig. 27),
in which the mercury atoms are surrounded by chlorines.
A small but very interesting class are the layer crystals, in
which the forces binding the atom extend only in two dimensions,
forming large sheets which are held together by weaker molecular
forces. The typical layer lattice is that of graphite. (Sec fig. 28.)
Here the sheets are hexagons of carbon atoms, bound together in
3:3 co-ordination, 1-42 A, while the layers bound molecularly
are 3-4 A. Another example is cadmium iodide. Here the
polarisation of the large iodide ions prevents the normal ionic
fluoride structure. To this type belong the hydroxides Ca(OH)2
Mg(OH)« and the sulphides ZrS2, SnS2.
Metallic crystals differ from the previous classes by the presence
of free electrons, the attraction between which arid the positive
ions gives the structure its stability. The basis of the structure
of the neighbouring groups
Compound OaGc
Atomic. Number 32 32
Interatomic clist. 2-43
all with diamond structure,
like the case of KC1 and Ca
d
V
I=,
I)
fc
ai
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ai
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2ND
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't.
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GAP
BETWEEN
MOLECULE
ENDS
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IT
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1ST
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FlG. 26.— NORMAL PAR-
AFFIN STRUCTURE (SCALE
14.000,000:1)
shows that the carbon bon
If •» ivi/\l/»/M il/» rw»ccr»cc<»c
86o
X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
of pure metals and alloys is one of close packing, but the .radii
of atoms in metals are much greater than those of the correspond-
ing ions in ionic crystals. (See fig. 12.) The pure metals have
very simple structures: face centred cubic for Cu, Al, Fey (see fig.
30); Body centred cubic for Na, Fe2, Fe8 (see fig. 31) and close
packed hexagonal cubic for Mg, Zn, W (see fig. 32). Several metals
have phases with different structure. Iron, for instance, between
the temperatures 1100° and 1425°, has a face centred cubic
structure. Both above and below this temperature, its structure
is body centred. Manganese has two forms with very complicated
cubic structures, and tin, at low
temperatures (grey tin) is like
diamond, while at ordinary tem-
peratures (white tin) it has a
distorted diamond structure.
Our knowledge of the real con-
stitution of alloys is immensely
furthered by X-rays. They are
essentially of two types, solid
solutions and compounds. In
solid solutions, the atoms of one
metal are replaced by another,
distributed by chance throughout
its structure. This is shown by an
X-ray pattern similar to the pure
metal but with a different size of
cell. In inter-metallic compounds
on the other hand, the atoms
of the different metals have defi-
nite positions similar to those in
ionic compounds, such as CuZn,
but usually more complicated,
with a tendency to large cells
of high symmetry. 6 Bronze Cu3iSn8,
of side 17-9 A. and 416 atoms. The
FlG. 27. — STRUCTURE OF CALOMEL
HO" CJ:, (SEE FIG. I) (SCALE
30.000.000:1)
for instance, has a cell
laws of combination in
FIG. 28. —GRAPHITE STRUCTURE (SCALE 120,000,000:1)
metallic compounds are quite different from those of ordinary
chemistry, but seem to depend on electron numbers.
There are a number of substances which show resemblances
to both metallic, adamantine and ionic crystals. They may be
roughly classed together as metalloidal. These include the semi-
metals Se, Te, As, Sb, Bi and a great number of simple and com-
plex arsinides, antimonides, sulphides, selenides, etc. They re-
semble the metals in having free or loosely bound electrons, which
makes them in a lesser degree opaque and conducting, and also
by the complexity and indefinite composition of many compounds
such as the fahlerz group, which contain Cu, Ag, Hg, Pb> FE, AS,
.»— •-
Di RECTION OF CLEAVAGE
FlG. 29. — CADMIUM IODIDE STRUCTURE (SCALE 80.000.000:1)
Sb-j-S, in varying proportions. The structures, however, are much
less close-packed and resemble adamantine structures. Some,
however, are more like ionic structures. Typical are pyrites (sec
fig- 33), which is a rock salt structure with Fe++in the place of
Na+and the complex ion S2~~in that of Cl~. Another is the
nickel arsenide structure, a hexagonal structure with 6:6 co-
ordination, to which belong very many substances, such as FeSe,
CoSb.
This completes the systematic account of the structures of crys-
tals, but X-rays have proved useful, not only in determining the
positions of atoms in crystals but of the arrangement of minute
crystals in materials. It is possible by means of X-rays to find
FiG. 30. — FACE CENTRED CUBIC
STRUCTURE OF 7 IRON AND COPPER
AND ARGON (SCALE 60,000,000:1)
FlG. 31. — BODY CENTRED STRUG-
TURE OF L IRON (OR SODIUM)
(SCALE 60,000,000:1)
the position of the crystal axes of crystals far too small to be
seen microscopically and to study their arrangement in relation
to the properties of the material. This has been done in both tex-
tiles and ceramics, but most effectively in metals.
Apart from their hardness, the chief mechanical property of
metals is that of neither fracturing nor cleaving when over-
stressed, but deforming by the slipping of atoms along the glide
planes, with consequent increase in hardness. This enables metals
to be successfully wo,rked, rolled, drawn, etc. Pure metals form
X-RAY TREATMENT
861
glide planes very easily, but the presence of another metal in
solid solution interferes with the regularity of the lattice and
makes gliding much more difficult, thus increasing hardness. The
effect of alloying is greater, the more highly charged the alloying
ion. Carbon has more effect, for instance, on iron than the same
amount of cobalt. A piece of metal when cast has its small crystals
of which it is composed oriented at random towards each other.
On rolling or drawing, the crys-
tals are not only elongated but
they tend to take up positions
with some crystaliographic axis
in the direction of the rolling.
This is shown on a Debye dia-
gram by the splitting up of the
uniform rings into patches indi-
cative of these preferred direc-
tions. On heating a rolled or a
drawn metal, it recrystallises and
the random orientation of the
particles is restored. But at the
same time, the hardness is lost.
The explanation of these pro- MG! SZ.-HEXAGONAL c L o s E
cesses of hardening and annealing PACKED STRUCTURE OF ZINC
is being energetically sought, (SCALE 40,ooo,ooo:t)
largely by X-ray methods, and already this has led to important
technical results. It is clear that the practical importance of X-ray
analysis has only begun to be felt and will, in time, prove to be
of immense significance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — General: Sir W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, X Rays
and Crystal Structure (1915, 4th ed. 1924) ; Sir W. H. Bragg, An
Introduction to Crystal Analysis (1928) ; R. W. Wyckoff, The Struc-
ture of Crystals (1924) ; F. Rinne, Crystals and the Fine Structure
of Matter (trans., 1924) ; P. P. Ewald, Krystalle und Rontgenstrahlen
(1923) ; H. Mark, Die Venvendung der Rontgenstrahlen in Chemie
und Tcchnik; Muugin, La Structure des Crystaux (1924). Structure
Theory: H. Hilton, Mathematical Crystallography (Oxford, 1903) ;
Schocnflies, Theorie der Krystallstructur (Leipzig, 1925) ; P, Niggli,
Geometriches Krystallo graphic des Discontinuums (Leipzig, 1919) ;
Structurtheoretische Grundbegriffc; Wiener Harms, Handbuch der
Experimentalised Physik, Teil VII. (i), 1928. Space Group Tables:
R. W. Wyckoff, Analytical Theory of Space Groups (Washington,
1922) ; W. T. Astbury and K. Yardley, Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society , V. 224, p. 221. Crystal Physics: Born, Atom-
FIG. 33. — IRON PYRITES (SCALE 60.000.000:1)
theorie des festen Zustandes (1923) ; Born and Bollnof, Ewald and
Grimm, Handbuch der Physik, Band XXIV. (1927) ; Joffe, Crystal
Mechanics (1928). Crystal Chemistry: V. M. Goldschmidt, Verteil-
ungesetz der Element et Vll., VIII. (Oslo, 1927) ; P. P. Ewald und
Hermann, Zeitschrift fur Krystallographiet "Structurbericht" 1913-
1926 (Leipzig, 1927) ; Morse, Bibliography of Crystal structure (Chi-
cago, 1928). (J. D. BE.)
X-RAY TREATMENT (see RADIOLOGY; RADIOTHERAPY).
The X-rays are used extensively in medical treatment. They are
valuable in many forms of skin disease, particularly those of a
chronic character. They have a favourable influence upon en-
largements of the lymphatic glands, of the spleen and of the
thyroid gland. They give useful palliative effects in certain forms
of malignant disease, and some permanent cures of cancerous
conditions have been obtained by their use. In rodent ulcer, which
presents features allied to cancer, there is no doubt of the efficacy
of X-ray treatment for bringing about a complete cure in the
majority of cases, provided that the disease has not advanced too
deeply into the tissues.
The idea of using X-rays in the treatment of disease arose
from recognition of the injurious effects which followed pro-
longed application of the rays for diagnostic purposes. Many
early workers with X-rays noted the production of an inflamma-
tion of the skin, or a falling out of the hair over parts which had
been subjected to X-rays, and Leopold Freund, of Vienna, has
stated that his first attempts to utilize X-rays in treatment were
made in 1896 to cure a hairy mole and were prompted by what
he had read of such occurrences. A definite action of the rays
upon the skin having been observed, their employment in the
treatment of skin diseases followed as a natural corollary.
Amongst the earliest investigators of the possible therapeutic
effects of X-rays the names of Schiff, Freund, Kienbock, Holtz-
knecht, Sjogrcn and Stenbcck may be mentioned. In Great Brit-
ain C. R. C. Lyster, Sir Malcolm Morris, E. Dore and J. H.
Sequeira were amongst the earliest investigators.
Therapeutic Dosage. — For operating successfully with an
agent capable of producing decidedly harmful effects when given
in large doses it is necessary to have a method of measurement,
and the need for this quickly became apparent when X-rays
were used for treatment. The results of X-ray photography had
already shown that the tubes employed were capable of emitting
radiations of varying powers of penetration, and that the tubes
were by no means constant in this respect; and the question
whether highly penetrating rays or rays of feeble penetration
were to be preferred for therapeutic use became the subject of
much discussion. It is now recognized that the choice depends
upon the object of the treatment. So too the problem of measur-
ing the quantity of rays emitted by a tube during a given time be-
gan to call for a solution. In 1901 Benoist designed an apparatus
by which the quality of the rays emitted by a tube at any moment
could be determined, and in 1902 HolUknecht. brought out the
first quantitative device, a chromo-radiometor, which enabled
the dose administered to a patient to be observed, and recorded for
future guidance. Holtzknecht also drew up a scale of units by
means of which the indications of his apparatus could be inter-
preted. The units of Holtzknecht are still used to express the
dosage of X-rays, though his apparatus has been superseded.
Holtzknecht's method of measurement consisted in observing the
change of colour in certain pastilles when exposed to X-rays, and
his apparatus consisted of a scale of tints, and a number of
pastilles of a yellow tint which acquired a green colour during
exposure. The composition of these was kept a secret, but analy-
sis revealed in them the presence of potassium sulphate combined
with celluloid or gelatine. The pastilles were laid upon the sur-
face under treatment, and their change of colour was compared
at intervals with the scale of standard tints.
Quantitative Measurement.— -It was next thought that
under suitable conditions the measurement of the current passing
through the X-ray tube mipht serve as a guide to the quantity
of X-rays emitted by the tube, but, although this is the case
to a certain extent, the method of quantity measurement em-
ployed almost universally in X-ray treatment was that devised
by Sabouraud and Noire, and used with signal success by them in
an enormous number of cases of ringworm, in which disease
measurement of dose is of the most critical importance, for the
following reason. The cure of ringworm by X-rays requires that
all the hair of the affected region shall be caused to fall out, but,
nevertheless, it is necessary for obvious reasons that the hair
should grow again after the disease has disappeared. Now if the
dose of X-rays be insufficient the hair does not come out and no
cure results, while if the dose be too great the hair comes out but
does not grow again ; and the margin of safety is quite a narrow
862
XYLENE— -X Y Z CORRESPONDENCE
one. The method of Sabouraud and Noir6 which proved itself
reliable for such critical measurements of dosage as are required
for ringworm treatment, has to-day the universal acceptance of
all X-ray workers for other forms of superficial X-ray treatment,
although the use of their pastilles has certain disadvantages,
notably that they react ill to highly penetrating or "hard" rays.
Sabouraud's pastilles consist of small disks of platino-cyanide
of barium. This chemical compound has a bright yellow-green
colour when freshly prepared, and changes through gradations of
yellow to a brown^ colour when exposed to X-rays. The pastilles
are supplied in a book with which a permanent tint of colour is
supplied, to indicate the colour change in the pastille which cor-
responds with a quantity of X-rays equal to the maximum dose
which the healthy skin will stand without inflammatory conse-
quences. This is often spoken of as a "pastille dose." As the
amount of irradiation needed to produce the change of colour is
considerable, the salt is fixed, during the treatment, at a point half-
way between the source of the rays and the skin surface under
treatment. During an exposure the chemical salt, in the form of
a small disk of the material on cardboard, is adjusted in the re-
quired position by means of a pastille holder, and it is examined
at intervals during the course of the exposure, until it has reached
the required tint. When in the holder the pastille must be pro-
tected from light, and should have a piece of metal as a backing.
In X-ray treatment some protection of the surrounding healthy
parts is usually necessary. With this object various methods of
shielding were devised, either covering the patient by imperme-
able materials, or enclosing the tube in an impermeable box with
suitable windows for the passage of the pencil of rays which is to
fall upon the part under treatment.
Effect on Tissues. — The effect of the rays on healthy tissues
is in the main a destructive one, but some of the cells of the tis-
sues are more sensitive to the rays than are others; and this
permits of a selective effect being obtained, with the destruction
of some cells and not of the whole tissue. Young cells, and ac-
tively growing cells, are the most susceptible, and for this reason
it is possible to influence the glands of the skin and the papillae
of the hairs with a dose which will not destroy the skin itself.
The art of successful working with X-rays is based upon a careful
adjustment of the dose so as to secure a selective destruction of
the morbid elements, and to avoid wholesale damage to the part
treated. The effects of excessive doses of X-rays is to produce
an inflammation which may result in painful sores which obsti-
nately refuse to heal for many weeks or months. In the case of
"soft" rays a quantity up to double that of the usual maximum
or pastille dose may be employed in urgent cases without risk of
any serious inflammation. In the treatment of ringworm the exact
pastille dose must not be exceeded or the fall of the hair is likely
to be followed by permanent baldness.
The distance of the skin surface from the centre of the tube
must be known, and the pastille arranged in place accordingly.
Fifteen centimetres is a usual distance, and at this distance a tube
working with a current of a rnilliampere should give the full thera-
peutic dose or "pastille dose" in about 15 minutes. In general
X-ray treatment it is quite usual at the present time to proceed
by the method of full doses at rather long intervals. From the
experience obtained by Sabouraud in numerous cases of ring-
worm it has been found that a full dose must not be repeated un-
til a month has elapsed.
Treatment of Abnormal Growths. — A great amount of
work has been done with X-rays for the treatment of cancer, but
it is now recognized that the X-rays do not cure a cancer, although
thry are of value for the relief of pain. Diminution of size in
cancerous growths has frequently been observed, and in some
instances sarcomatous tumours have completely disappeared
under X-ray treatment. Sooner or later, however, the cancer
or sarcoma returned either in the original site or elsewhere, and
the patient died of the disease. How far the use of intensely hard
X-rays produced by currents of some 150 KV, as in the Erlangen
method of treating cancer, will prove effective, is doubtful.
X-ray treatment is of service for the treatment of enlarged
"strumous" glands in the neck. When these glands arc in the
early stages, and there has not been any softening or breaking
down of the gland tissue, the application of X-rays, a few times
repeated in moderate doses, will determine the subsidence of
the enlargement and may effect a complete cure.
In the massive glandular enlargements of lymphadenoma a
great reduction of the tumours can be brought about by heavy
doses of X-rays, but the results are to give u symptomatic rather
than a real cure, for fresh glandular growths take place internally,
and the usual course of the disease is not fundamentally modified.
So too in leukemia, the symptom of excessive abundance of
white cells in the circulating blood can be surprisingly altered
for the better by X-rays, but generally without real cure of the
underlying condition. The effect appears to be due to a direct,
destructive action upon the leucocytes of the blood.
The use of X-rays in fibroid tumours of the uterus has been
advocated, particularly in France and in Germany. The action
of the rays seems to be in part due to their influence upon the
activity of the ovaries and in part to a direct effect upon the
growing fibroids themselves, causing decrease of activity, relief
of symptoms and reduction of the tumours. Not all varieties of
fibroid are suitable for this kind of treatment. (II. L. J.)
XYLENE, the name given to certain hydrocarbons, the
dimethylbenzenes, of which three forms exist with the same for-
mula, C(,Hi(CH3)2 (see ISOMERTSM); they occur in the light oil
fraction of the coal tar distillate, but cannot be separated by
fractional distillation owing to the closeness of their boiling points.
The mixture can be separated by shaking with sulphuric acid,
whereupon the ortho- and meta- compounds are sulphonatcd,
the para- compound remaining unattached. The ortho and meta
acids may be separated by crystallization of their salts or
sulphonarnides. The principal constituent of the light oil is meta-
xylene, which is successively nitrated and reduced to commercial
m-xylidine, (4-amino-i :3-xylene). From para-xy\tne a similar
base, /Kxyiidine (2-amino-i :4-xylcne), is prepared. Both xyli-
dines are employed in colour making. A>/rt-xylene is also used in
making artificial musk which is trinitro-frr/.-butyl-w-xylene. (Sec
PEK FUMES.) Ortho-xylene is obtained from ortho-bromotolu-
ene, methyl iodide and sodium as a colourless mobile liquid boil-
ing at 142°, melting at —28°, and having a specific gravity of
0-8932 at o°. Meta- or iso-xylene, the most important isomcride,
has been obtained from Borneo petroleum (see TOLUENE), or by
distilling with lime mesitylenic acid, CnH^CHa^CC^H, an oxi-
dation product of mcsitylene, Colls (CH.ih- Meta-xylene boils
at. 139°, melts at —54°, and has a specific gravity of 0-8812.
Para-xylene obtained when camphor is distilled with zinc chloride,
is best prepared from />ara-brotnotoluene or dibromobenzene,
methyl iodide and sodium.
The three xylenes are oxidized by nitric acid to the correspond-
ing coluine acids. Further oxidation leads to ortho-, meta (iso)-,
and para (tere)-phthalic acids. (See PHTHAUC ACID.)
XYLOPHONE, a small instrument of percussion, of definite
sonority, sometimes used in the orchestra to mark the rhythm.
XYSTUS, Greek term for the covered portico of a gym-
nasium.
X Y Z CORRESPONDENCE, the letters which when
made public in 1798 nearly involved France and the United
States in war. By orders of the French Directory fully a thousand
U. S. vessels had been stopped on the high seas for examination.
President Adams sent three commissioners, C. Pinckney, Marshall
and Gerry, to France to negotiate a treaty which would do away
with this annoyance. The commissioners were met in France by
three agents who demanded a large sum of money before the
Directory would receive the commission and also notified the
commission that France would expect a loan from the United
States if satisfaction of any other kind was to be given. The
commissioners upon rejecting these overtures were ordered out
of France. Their report was published at once in the United
States and in it the French agents were labeled X, Y and Z, from
which the correspondence took its name. The United States in-
creased its army and navy, and hostilities were actually begun,
when Talleyrand disavowed any connection with the agents and
agreed to receive any minister the United States might send.
Y— YACHTING
863
^•r— • -Jp'The 25th letter of the modern alphabet dates
^^ J only from Roman days in its present position. The
^^f Latin alphabet as adapted from the Chalcidic and
j| Etruscan ended with X- The two final letters
• Y and Z were introduced after the conquest of
dHLj — J Greece for use in Greek words transliterated and
borrowed. Y was the form taken by the letter upsilon in the Ionic
alphabet, which by the time of the Roman conquest had become
generally used in Greece. The letter in the western or Chalcidic
alphabet was in the form V in which form it had passed into
Latin with the vocalic value of u and the consonantal value
of modern English w. In the Greek KOivf) based upon Attic the
letter Y had the value of French u or German u. This sound was
unknown in the Latin language, and if pronounced in borrowed
Greek words passed quickly into that of i.
In Old English and Middle English the letter was frequently
used in place of i, e.g., in words such as cyng. In modern English
its value is identical with that of i both long and short, its most
frequent use being perhaps as final in the adverbial termination
(e.g., widely, strongly). In addition it represents a palatal spirant
most frequently when initial (e.g., in words such as yacht., yoke,
young). (B. F. C. A.)
YABLONOI or YABLONOVOI ("Apple Mountains"),
known to the Mongols as Dynze-Daban, a range of the eastern
part of Asiatic Russia. The range is really the eastern slope of a
narrow north-north-east extension of the Malkan horst, which
rises from eruptive rocks near Kiakhta. The Ingoda river flows
along the foot of the range, which is 5-6,000 ft. above sea-level,
the highest point being Mount Sokhondo, near the Mongolian
frontier. The descent of the Yablonoi to the trough of the Ingoda
is 800 to i ,000 ft. and the slope is mainly rocky debris, with scat-
tered patches of forest. The scarp cuts across the Archaean rocks,
which strike to the east-north-east ; all the horsts and ridges lying
to the east of the Yablonoi are thus cut through by the Ingoda-
Shilka valley, their waters flowing across the grain of the country
in their course towards the Khingan range. The Yablonoi slope is
part of the watershed between the Arctic-flowing and the Pacific-
flowing streams and it also forms the boundary between the
Siberian and the Daurian flora. The trans-Baikal railway crosses
the range at 3,137 ft. above sea-level.
YA-CHOW-FU, a city near the western borders of Szechwan,
China in 30° N., 103° E. Population about 30,000. It is situated
on the banks of the river Ya where tea is grown. The city is
walled and is about 2 m. in circumference. It is first mentioned
during the Chow dynasty (1122-255 B.C.).
YACHT, a light and comparatively small vessel, propelled by
means other than oars. The term is now limited to vessels used
for pleasure, or for racing purposes. For sailing yachts see
YACHTING. Since 1840 power yachts have been increasingly used,
especially as long distance cruising became a favourite pastime of
the rich. The earliest power yachts were paddle boats, but the
paddle was in time abandoned entirely in favour of the screw. For
many years steam auxiliaries were the fashion. As a rule they were
built with such a small beam that some canvas was necessary for
steadying purposes. Of these cruiser yachts perhaps the highest
development was reached in the "Valhalla," a ship rigged auxiliary
with triple expansion engines of 1,490 tons Thames Measure-
ment, built in 1892. The purely steam yacht developed steadily
and during the last decade of the nineteenth century there was
a boom in such construction, particularly for owners in the
United States. Conspicuous among the big yachts built during
this period were the "Valiant" of 1893, 2,184 tons, the "Lysis-
trata" of 1900, 2,082 tons, and the "Mayflower," 1,844 tons which
was for a time the official yacht of the President of the United
States.
The internal combustion engine was useolf or pleasure purposes
at sea from the early days of the 2oth century, almost as soon as it
became practical on land, but to begin with it was in small craft
only. For some years before the war the size of yachts propelled
by petrol engines, either as full power or as an auxiliary, was
increasing steadily and when war broke out the first Diesel-
engined yachts were under construction.
After the war the full-powered motor yacht of considerable
tonnage, with either Diesel or semi-Diesel machinery, established
itself in popular favour in the place of the steam yacht, very
few of the latter type having been built of recent years.
The "Nourmahal" of 2,001 tons, the "Savarona" of 1,833, and
the "Warrior" of 1,245 tons are typical of the big modern motor
yachts, while engines have been installed for auxiliary purposes
in yachts of every size, from the i,ig5-ton "Flying Cloud"
built for the Duke of Westminster to small cruisers of three and
four tons. The new cruiser yacht without auxiliary power is,
in fact, now the exception and it has even been found necessary
to draw up rules forming racing classes of auxiliaries.
YACHTING, the sport of racing in yachts and also the pas-
time of cruising for pleasure in sailing, steam, or motor vessels.
Yacht racing dates from the beginning of the igth century; for,
although there were sailing yachts long before, they were but few,
and belonged exclusively to princes and other illustrious person-
ages. During the reign of Elizabeth a pleasure ship was built (1588)
at Cowes (Isle of Wight), so that the association of that place with
the sport goes back a very long time. In 1660 Charles II. was
presented by the Dutch with a yacht named the "Mary," until
which time the word "yacht" was unknown in England. He was
fond of sailing, for he designed a yacht of 25 tons called the
"Jamie," built at Lambeth in 1662, as well as several others later
on. In that year the "Jamie" was matched for £100 against a
small Dutch yacht, under the duke of York, from Greenwich to
Gravesend and back, and beat her, the king steering part of the
time — apparently the first record of a yacht match and of an
amateur helmsman.
The first authentic record of a sailing club is in 1720, when the
Cork Harbour Water Club, now known as the Royal Cork Yacht
Club, was established in Ireland, but the yachts were small. Mait-
land, in his History of London (1739) mentions sailing and rowing
on the Thames as among the amusements then indulged in; and
Strut t, in his Sports and Pastimes (1801), says that the Cumber-
land Society, gave yearly a silver cup to be sailed for near London.
The boats usually started from Blackfriars bridge, went up the
Thames to Putney, and returned to Vauxhall, being no doubt, mere
sailing boats and not yachts or decked vessels. From the middle to
the end of the i8th century yachting developed very slowly:
although matches were sailed at Cowes as far back as 1780, very
few yachts of any size, say 35 tons, existed in 1800 there or else-
where. In 1812 the Royal Yacht Squadron was established by 50
yacht owners at Cowes and was called the Yacht Club, altered to
the Royal Yacht Club in 1820.
EARLY TYPES OF YACHT
Early English Yachts. — Among the earliest of which there
is any record were 'the "Pearl," 95 tons, built by Sainty at Wyven-
hoe near Colchester in 1820, for the marquess of Anglesey, and
the "Arrow," 84 tons, originally 61 ft. 9^ in. long and 18 ft. si in.
beam, built by Joseph Weld in 1822, which for many years re-
mained a racing yacht, having been rebuilt and altered several
times. The Thames soon followed the example of the Solent and
established the Royal Thames yacht club in 1823, the Clyde
founding the Royal Northern yacht club in 1824, and Plymouth
the Royal Western in 1827. In this year the Royal Yacht Squa-
dron passed a resolution disqualifying any member who should
apply steam to his yacht. In 1830 one of the largest cutters ever
constructed was launched, viz., the "Alarm," built by Inman at
Lymington for Joseph Weld of Lulworth Castle, from the lines of
864
YACHTING
IJfcACING
a famous smuggler captured off the Isle of Wight. She was 82
ft. on the load-line by 24 ft. beam, and was reckoned of 193 tons
old measurement, in which length, breadth and half -breadth (sup-
posed to represent depth) were the factors for computation. Some
yachtsmen at this time preferred still larger vessels and owned
square-topsail schooners and brigs tike the man-o'-war brigs ol
the day, such as the "Waterwitch," 381 tons, built by White of
Cowes, in 1832, for Lord Belfast, and the "Brilliant," barque,
493 tons, belonging to J. Holland Ackers, who invented a scale
of time allowance for competitive sailing. In 1834 the first royal
cup was given by William IV. to the Royal Yacht Squadron. In
1836 the Royal Eastern yacht club was founded at Granton near
Edinburgh; in 1838 the Royal St. George's at Kingstown and the
Royal London; in 1843 the Royal Southern at Southampton and
the Royal Harwich; in 1844 the Royal Mersey at Liverpool and
the Royal Victoria at Ryde. The number of vessels kept pace
with the clubs— the 50 yachts of 1812 increasing nearly tenfold
before the middle of the century.
First Alteration in Type.— In 1848, after J. Scott Russell
had repeatedly drawn attention to the unwisdom of constructing
sailing vessels on the "cod's head and mackerel tail" plan, and
had enunciated his wave-line theory, Mare built at Blackwall an
entirely new type of vessel, with a long hollow bow and a short
after-body of considerable fulness. This was the iron cutter
"Mosquito/' of 59 ft. 2 in. water-line, 15 ft. 3 in. beam, and
measuring 50 tons. Prejudice against the new type of yacht being
as strong as against the introduction of steam, there were no
vessels built like the "Mosquito," with the exception of the
"Volante," 59 tons, by Harvey of Wyvenhoe, until the eyes of
English yachtsmen were opened by the Americans three years
later. About this period yacht racing had been gradually coming
into favour in the United States. (See below.) John C. Stevens,
who played a leading part in the development of boats for pleas-
ure sailing and racing in the United States, commissioned George
Steers of New York, builder of the crack pilot schooners, to
construct a racing schooner to visit England in the year of the
great exhibition, and the result was the "America" of 170 tons.
She crossed the Atlantic in the summer of 1851, but failed to
compete for the Queen's cup at Cowes in August, although the
club for that occasion threw the prize open to all the world, as her
owner declined to concede the usual time allowance for difference
of size. The members of the Yacht Squadron, not wishing to risk
the reproach of denying the visitor a fair race, decided that their
match for a cup given by the club, to be sailed round the Isle of
Wight later in the same month, should be without any time allow-
ance. The "America" entered and competed against 15 other
vessels. The three most dangerous competitors being put out
through accidents, the "America" passed the winning-post 18
minutes ahead of the 47-ton cutter " Aurora," and won the cup;
but, even if the time allowance had not been waived, the American
schooner yacht would still have won by fully a couple of minutes.
The prize was given to the New York Yacht Club and consti-
tuted a challenge cup, called "the America's cup," for the yachts
of all nations, by the deed of gift of the owners of the winner.
(See below for a complete account of these races.)
The First Great Era of Yacht Racing.— Between 1870
and 1880 there were some very notable additions to the racing fleet,
including the schooners "Gwendolin," "Cetonia," "Corinne," "Mi-
randa" and "Waterwitch"; the large cutters "Kriemhilda," "Vol
au Vent," "Formosa," "Samoena" and "Vanduara," a cutter built
of steel; the 40-tonners "Foxhound," "Bloodhound," "Myosotis"
and "Norman"; the 2o-tonners "Vanessa" (Hatcher's master-
piece), "Quickstep," "Enriqueta," "Louise" and "Freda"; and
the yawls "Florinda," "Corisande," "Jullanar" and "Latona."
The "Jullanar" may be noted as a specially clever design. Built
in 1874 from the ideas of Bental, an agricultural implement
maker of Maldon, Essex, she had no dead wood forward or
aft, and possessed many improvements in design which were em-
bodied and developed by the more scientific naval architects,
G. L. Watson, William Fife, Jr., and others in later years. Lead,
the use of which commenced in 1846, was entirely used for ballast
after 1870 aad placed on the keel outside.
No fewer than 400 matches took place in 1876, as against 63
matches in 1856, with classes for schooners and yawls, for large
cutters, for 4o-tonners, 2o-tonners and xo-tonners. The Yacht-
Racing Association, established in 1875, drew up a simple code
of laws for the regulation of yacht races, which was accepted by
the yacht clubs generally. The association adopted the rule for
ascertaining the size OF tonnage of yachts which had been for many
years in force, known as the Thames rule; but in 1879 they
altered the plan of reckoning length from that taken on deck to
that taken at the load water-line, and two years later they adopted
an entirely new system of calculation.
The Plank-on-edge.— These changes led to a decline in
yacht-racing, the new measurement exercising a prejudicial effect
on the sport, as it enabled vessels of extreme length, depth and
narrowness, kept upright by enormous masses of lead on the out-
side of the keel, to compete on equal terms with vessels of greater
width and less depth, in other words, smaller yachts carrying an
inferior area of sail. The new type was known as the "lead mine"
or plank-on -edge type.
Dixon Kemp in 1887 induced British yachtsmen to abandon
the system of measuring yachts by tonnage and to adopt a new
system of rating them by water-line length and sail area. The new
system contained no taxes or penalties upon beam or depth nor
upon "over all" length. The only factors measured were the
water-line and the area of the sails. All the old tonnage rules
taxed the length and the breadth. This change of the system
measurement crushed the plank-on-edge type completely.
Revival of Yacht-racing Under Length and Sail Area
Rule. — Yachtsmen were greatly pleased with the broader and
lighter types of yachts that designers began to turn out under
the length and sail area rule. They were more comfortable and
drier in a seaway than the old vessels. The first large cutters
built with considerable beam were "Yarana" and "Petronilla" in
1888, and in 1889 the first of Lord Dunraven's Valkyries was a
vessel that was much admired. Then in 1890 "Iverna," a hand-
some clipper-bowed cutter owned by Mr. Jameson, came out and
raced against "Thistle."
The Second Great Era in Yachting.— The seasons fol-
lowing 1892 are identified with the big cutter racing. The revival
under the length and sail area rule had so far extended to "Iverna,"
"Tarana," "Petronilla," and "Valkyrie I." being built in the
first class, but then there had been a pause of some years during
which large numbers of 4o-raters, 2o-raters and the Solent classes
had been built. Just when the critics were declaring that in the
future no yachtsmen would build a class racer larger than a 40-
rater (60 ft. L.W.L. with 4,000 sq.ft. of sail), the prince of Wales
(afterwards Edward VII.) gave an order for the cutter "Britan-
nia," while Lord Dunraven built "Valkyrie II.," A. D. Clarke "Sa-
tanita" and Peter Donaldson "Calluna"; and in this same season
(1893), an American yachtsman took the Herreshoff yacht "Nava-
Jioe" over the Atlantic. Yacht designing and building now became
a science demanding the highest tax upon the skill and ingenuity of
the naval architect. The cutter "Valkyrie II." visited the United
States in 1893, but Lord Dunraven's vessel was beaten by the
"Vigilant." Curiously enough, when the crack Herreshoff cutters
"Navahoe" and "Vigilant" visited the British Isles they were
severely beaten by the British yachts. During the years that fol-
lowed the "Britannia" held a wonderful record.
Some other famous racing yachts which were built under the
length and sail area rule were "Ailsa" (1895), "Isolde," "Caress,"
"Audrey," "Niagara," and the "Norman."
It was evident that a skimming-dish of "Britannia's" or
"Isolde's" rating would have no cabin accommodation or head
room, and that the evolution of such type would be as bad for the
sport as the development of the old plank-on-edge had been in
1885. It seemed strange that whilst the old tonnage rule had
evolved the plank-on-edge ten years previously, the sail area
measurement now evolved a plank-on-side, balanced by a fin. The
fact was that designers had solved the problem. The rule measured
only the length and the area of canvas. Taking the length of the
vessel on the water-line as constant, then the vessel with the
smallest possible weight could be driven with less sail at the same
YACHTING
PLATE I
NEW YORK YACHT CLUB CLASS BOATS
1. Start of the Seawanhaka schooners at the Larchmont regatta In 1928. Designed by Cox and Stevens, 16 of these boats were turned out at
the same time in 1925, principally for raring on Long Island Sound. They are 56'6" overall, 38' waterline and 12' beam. 2. The "Banzai,"
a 30' class boat of the New York Yacht (II ub designed by N. G. Herrishoff and representative of a famous class of one design boats built in
America 25 yean ago. All of original liVtoati of this class still afloat
XXIII. 864
PLATE II
YACHTING
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INTERNATIONAL RULES]
YACHTING
865
speed as vessels with greater weight and greater sail. This solution
of the problem was not apparent to designers from 1880 to 1885,
because of the difficulty of obtaining stability. From 1880 to 1885
stability was obtained by means of very heavy keels. In 1895 the
stability was obtained by means of a light piece of lead placed
at the bottom of a deep steel fin.
The First Linear Rating Rule. — To endeavour to check
the tendency to build skimming-dishes the Yacht-Racing Associa-
tion introduced in 1896 a new system of measurement which was
proposed by R. E. Froude. The novelty of the system consisted
of a tax upon the skin girth of the yacht, whereby a vessel with
hollow midship section was penalized by her* girth being measured
round the skin surface. Froude's first system of rating began on
Jan. i, 1896, and ended at the close of the year 1900. The measure-
ment of the yacht was obtained by the following formula: —
Length L.W.L.-f- beam -f ? skin girth -f 4 V (sail area) ..
--- — unear rating.
This rule partially failed in its object. It^was hoped that the skin-
surface measurement would prevent the* fin-bulb type being suc-
cessful, but Froude and his colleagues had under-estimated the
possible developments of exaggerated pram bows, immense scow-
shaped shoulders and stern-lines, all of which could be introduced
into the skimming-dish type with great success. So, notwithstand-
ing the small premium on displacement this rule contained, the
dishes could still beat the full-bodied yachts.
The Second Linear Rating Rule.— This rule, also sug-
gested by Froude, was introduced on Jan. i, 1901. The Y.R.A.
agreed to fix this rule for a period of seven years. The object of
the rule was to ensure a big-bodied vessel. The formula was: —
Length -f- breadth -f- ? girth 4- 4</ -f- i V (sail area)
- * ----- =_ ----- 2 - ^ -- >. =
rating.
Now the novelty of this rule was the new tax d. This d represents
the difference in feet between the measurement of the girth of the
yacht's hull taken round the skin surface and the girth at the same
place measured with a string pulled taut. This measurement is
taken -^ the distance from the fore end of the water-line. It is
easy to see that in a full-bodied yacht J=a small unit, whilst in a
hollow-bodied yacht J— a larger unit. Four times d being taken,
it f ollowecHhat hollow-bodied yachts were heavily penalized. This
ingenious d measurement was evolved by Alfred Benzon, a Danish
scientist and yachtsman.
Class Racing, Handicapping and Cruiser Racing. —
Yacht racing may be subdivided under these three heads. Yacht
racing by rating measurement or tonnage, when either the first
yacht to finish is the winner, or the yacht saving her time by a
fixed scale of time allowance in proportion to the rating of the
vessel and the length of the course, is called class racing, and it
obviously tends to encourage the fastest possible vessel under the
current rating rule to be produced. It has always been regarded
as the highest form of the sport. It is naturally, however, the
most expensive form, because only the most up-to-date and per-
fectly equipped vessels can keep in the first flight.
From time to time, chiefly from about the years 1884 and 1885
onwards, handicaps framed according to merits have been fashion-
able amongst yachtsmen. They were originally devised to afford
amusement and sport to out-classed racers and cruisers. Owing
to the expense of class racing, handicap racing thrived greatly
during the period of the first and second girth rules. During these
periods, too, the third style of yacht racing came into vogue,
namely, cruiser racing; either very fast cruisers were built
specially for the purpose of handicap racing, or a number of
yachts of exactly similar design were built specially to the
owner's orders for the purpose of racing in a class together. The
fast handicap cruisers had the great advantage over class racers
from 1896 up to 1906, inasmuch as they were much more strongly
built. "Valdora" (107 tons), "Brynhild" (160 tons), "Leander,"
"Namara," "Rosamond," "Merrymaid" and many others were
yachts of the former type.
Yachts Built Under the Second Linear Rating Rule. —
Few large vessels were built expressly for racing under this rule;
indeed the Fife 6s-footer "Zinita" (1904) was the only light-
scantling yacht of any importance. However, two very handsome
first-class vessels wefe constructed to the rule: "White Heather I."
by Fife in 1904, and "Nyria" by Nicholson in 1906; they were
some 12 ft. shorter than the great cutters of "Britannia's" year
and altogether smaller, having less beam and draught and some
1,700 sq.ft. less sail area. The growing dissatisfaction of yacht-
owners at the extreme light scantling of modern racing yachts
was strongly demonstrated by the fact that both "White Heather
I." and "Nyria'' were specially ordered to be of heavy scantling,
and they were classed Ai.at Lloyd's. They were therefore of the
semi-cruiser type. "Nyria," however, was the extreme type of
a yacht of her period in shape, although heavy in construction.
The First International Rules Introduced. — In April
1904 B. Heckstall Smith drew the attention of German, French
and British yachtsmen to the fact that the yacht measurement
rules (then different in the various countries) were generally due
to terminate about the end of 1907, and suggested that many
advantages would accrue if an international rule could be agreed
upon. The Yacht -Racing Association agreed to take the matter
up, and at two international conferences, held in London in
January and June 1906, an international rule of yacht measure-
ment and rating was unanimously agreed to by all the nations of
Europe. America alone refused to attend the conference. R. E.
Froude, a nephew of the historian, struck the keynote of the
object of the conference by a statement that the ideal yacht
should be a vessel combining "habitability with speed." Old plank-
on-edge types under the tonnage rules were habitable but slow.
Skimming-dishes attained the maximum speed, but were unin-
habitable. A good form was attained in 1901 with "Magdalen,"
but since that year the bane of light construction had become
harmful to yachting. Hence the conference aimed at a rule which
would produce a yacht combining habitability with speed. They
adopted a form of linear rating comprising certain penalties upon
hollow midship section (i.e., Benzon's d tax) and also upon full
pram bows. The following was adopted as the rule by which all
racing yachts in Europe were rated : —
T, -}- Tt -l \G -f- 3<jf -f- jj V S-F _ rating in linear units, i.e., cither feet
_ ~or metres.
Where L =» length in linear units.
B= extreme beam in linear units.
G — girth in linear units.
</ = girth difference in linear units*
S — sail area in square units.
F= freeboard in linear units.
The length L for the formula was the length on the water-line,
with the addition (i) of the difference between the girth, covering-
board to covering-board, at the bow water-line ending, and twice
the freeboard at that point, and (2) one-fifth of the difference
between the girth, covering-board to covering-board, at the stern
water-line ending, and twice the freeboard at that point. The
additions (i) and (2) penalize the full overhangs and the bow
overhang in particular. The girth, G, was the chain girth measured
at that part of the yacht at which the measurement is greatest,
less twice the freeboard at the same station, but there were certain
provisions allowing the measurement of girth generally to be taken
0-55 from the bow end of the water-line. The girth difference, d
in the formula, was the difference between the chain girth, meas-
ured as above described, from covering-board to covering-board,
and the skin girth between the same points, measured along the
actual outline of the cross-section.
For racing the yachts were divided into n classes. Class A for
schooners and yawls only, above 23 metres (75-4 ft.) of rating,
with a time allowance of four seconds per metre per mile. All the
yachts in this class were classed Ai at Lloyd's. In racing, yawls
sailed at their actual rating and schooners at 12% less than their
actual rating. The other classes were ten separate classes for single
masted vessels only in which there was no time allowance what-
ever.
Racing Yachts All Built to Fixed Scantlings—Under
the international rule the old trouble of ultra-light scantling in
866
YACHTING
[AMENDED RULES
racing yachts was completely abolished, for all yachts were obliged
to be built under the survey and classed with one of the classifica-
tion societies — Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping,
Norsk Vcritas, Germanischer Lloyd, or Bureau Veritas; and
yachts of the international cutter classes so built were classed R,
denoting that their scantlings are as required for their respective
rating classes. The international rule for measurement and
classification fixing the scantlings was introduced on Jan. i, 1908;
England, Germany, France, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Austria-
Hungary, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Spain, Finland, Russia and the
Argentine Republic agreed to adopt it until Dec. 31, 1917. Eng-
land adopted the new system a year before it formally became
international.
The new rule produced the type of yacht desired — a vessel
combining habitability with speed. Amongst the handsomest
examples were the German emperor's schooner "Meteor" (1909),
and the schooner "Germania" (1908), 400 tons or 31^ metres
measurement, Class A, both built by Krupp's at Kiel. German
designed, German built and German rigged and manned, they
demonstrated the wonderful strides made by Germany in yacht-
ing. A few years before there were not a dozen smart yachts in
Germany, and, indeed, the Kaiserlicher Yacht Club at Kiel was
only founded in 1887. The "Germania" holds the record over
the old "Queen's course" at Cowes, having in 1908 sailed it a
quarter of an hour faster than any other vessel. Her time over
the distance of about 47 to 48 nautical miles was 3 hours 35 min.
IT sec., or at the rate of 13-1 knots. In 1910 Herreshoff built in
America a wonderful racing schooner of A class for the inter-
national rules called the "Westward," and in the races this clipper
sailed at Cowes she proved the most weatherly schooner ever built.
The success of the international rule was remarkable. The
following is a list of the racing yachts built under it in all coun-
tries from its foundation in 1907 to the outbreak of war in 1914.
Class in metres
Length in feet
Number of yachts
built
23 ... .
19 ...
15 ...
12 ...
JO ...
Q
8
75'4
62-3
4Q*2
3Q'4
32-8
2Q*5
26'2
3
6
19
35
54
25
174
7 .....
2VO
86
6
ig-7
16*4
328
4.1
S.
Total ....
771
This total does not include the big schooners of Class A, such as
"Meteor IV.," "Meteor V.," "Germania," "Waterwitch," "West-
ward" and "Margherita," enormous vessels of 400 tons, and a
number of small yachts built in Scandinavia and neutral countries
early in the war, from 1915 to 1917, when the first international
rule came to an end. There were thus upwards of 800 yachts
built to this rule for international racing.
Much of the finest racing in the whole history of yachting
took place from 1908 until 1914. The International Yacht Racing
Union was established under the chairmanship of the British
Yacht Racing Association and consisted of all the European
nations and the Argentine Republic. British yacht building was
flourishing, German yachting was at its zenith under the Kaiser.
International regattas on a big scale were held at Spithead in 1911,
at Kiel in 1912, at Le Havre in 1913, and in the Oslo fjord in
1914. America was attracted to European yachting, and in 1910
an American racing schooner came to Europe, the "Westward,"
323 tons, designed and built by Herreshoff. She started in u
races and won them all. Sir Thomas Lipton's 23-metre cutter
"Shamrock" remained the best British cutter during these seasons.
The End of the First International Rule. — The yachting
season of 1912 was notable for the appearance of a new * 5-metre
yacht, the "Istria," designed on novel lines by C. Nicholson for
Sir Charles Allom, and the first of a series of yachts by the same
clever designer which quickly began to defeat the purpose of the
international racing rule. In 1912 and 1913 his great schooner
"Margherita" and the cutters "Istria," "Pamela," "Paula III."
and others were of most undesirable type, but so efficient as racers
that they outsailed the yachts of all other designers.
The Second International Rule,~7Vje Present Rules 1920-
28. — On the eve of Cowes week, 1914, the war put an end to
all yacht racing. The pastime was only revived in 1919-20, after
much difficulty, by the Yacht Racing Association. At the end of
the war the Scandinavian nations purchased nearly all the best
British racing yachts. The cost of building new yachts was pro-
hibitive and the high wages of sailors raised the running expenses
to nearly treble the pre-war rate. At the instance of the Y.R.A.
the International Yacht Racing Union was reformed and a new
rating rule was adopted in 1920. It was essential, in framing the
second or present international rule, (i) to keep in view Froude's
ideals of combining "habitability and speed" in the new racing
yachts, and (2) to keep in view the economy of labour in working
the yachts, i.e., to reduce the area of canvas utilized to propel the
hull. The object was tottry to produce a habitable vessel of say
20 to 25 tons displacement, which, instead of requiring enormous
sails to drive the hull, and which would thus need a crew of say
eight men to work her, to produce a racing yacht with a hull
that could be driven with one-third less canvas and a crew of only
four men. The international conferences of 1919, 1924 and 1926
framed two separate rules, one for yachts up to i2-metres and
another for yachts above i2-metres. These are as follow^: —
Part I. For classes of 6-, 8-, TO- and i2-metres:
' rating.
2-5
Part II. For yachts above i2-metres:
2-3
L = the "sailing length" being the length L.W.L. (length on water-
line) with certain additions, including measurements of the
length of the overhangs at the bow and stern, and also the
fullness or girth of the said overhangs.
G~ the chain girth.
<f = the difference between the skin and chain girths, but not taken
round the bottom of the keel.
5 = the sail area.
F = the freeboard.
A limit in each rule was placed upon draught of. water and height
of masts or sail plans.
By far the most important innovation, however, in both rules
was a limit upon the displacement of the yacht in proportion to
her length. For many years there had been a "limit" or "penalty"
upon the displacement of yachts in America. In 1919-20 the
International Yacht Racing Union of Europe adopted the Ameri-
can limit upon displacement. Under sec. 8 it is explained how, in
the year 1895, the lack of displacement of the skimming dish
fin and bulb raters killed the original English length and sail area
rule, there being, of course, no limit upon the minimum displace-
ment then permitted. These new international rules are, in effect,
nothing more nor less than length and sail area rules plus the all-
important addition of a limit upon the minimum displacement.
This is an actual fact, because L and 5 are the predominant factors
of the rules, and the G, d and F amount to a very trifling per-
centage of the total. Now the minimum limit placed upon dis-
placement in both Parts I. and II. of the present international
rule is :
Displacement"!!! tons'shall not be less than (0-2 L.W.L. in ft4-o-5 ft)3
35
It will be found this gives a minimum weight or displacement of
about 3^ tons to a 6-metre yacht of about 22 ft.; a weight of
about 21 to a 1 2-metre yacht of 42 ft. and about 107 tons to a
23-metre yacht of 75 feet.
All the yachts below 1 2 metres have to be classed for scantlings
R at Lloyd's and all those above 12 metres Ai at Lloyd's,
The Bermudian Fig.— A direct outcome of the new inter-
Fi
\S
POSTWAR DEVELOPMENTS]
national rule has been the evolution of the Bermudian rig (q.v.).
The Development of Yachting Since the War.— Owing
to the increased cost of the sport, the progress of yachting from
1919 until the present time has been gradual. For a few years
class racing for new yachts under the international rule has been
chiefly confined to the smaller classes of 12 metres and under. A
6-metre yacht built in 1914 cost about £500, and in 1928 she
cost about £1,100. The 75-foot or 23-metre "White Heather"
and "Shamrock," built in 1907 and 1908, cost about £9,000 or
£9,500. The new 23-metre yachts "Astra" and "Cambria," built
in 1928, cost between £24,000 and £25,000. It is, therefore, not
a matter for surprise that yachtsmen now cruise and race in
yachts of smaller tonnage than in former times. Notwithstanding
the cost of building, an enormous number of racing yachts have
been built to the second international rule from 1920 to 1928,
as is shown by the following table :
YACHTING 867
sailed so many races. The following is her complete record:
Class in metres
Length in feet
Number of yachts
built
23
12
75 '
2Q.2
3
2A
10
8
6
3^-8
26-2
19-7
20
60
200
Total ....
307
These yachts have been built in Great Britain, Scandinavia,
America, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Spain. The British
23-metres (built in 1928) are the "Astra," built by Nicholson
for Sir Mortimer Singer, and the ''Cambria," by Fife, for Sir
William Berry. The most famous i2-metres have been the
"Vanity," built by Fife for J. R. Payne, and the "Norisca," built
by Johan Anker at Oslo.
Great contests for the British-American Cup were sailed in the
years 1921-22, -23 and -24 Between "teams" of British and Amer-
ican 6-metre yachts. Each country was represented by four
selected yachts to form its team. Two contests were sailed in
America and two in Britain, and the British won the rubber after
many exciting and close races. William Fife the Scottish designer
showed his superiority with "Tolly," "Reg," "Betty" and "Zenith,"
and Frederick Stephen, another eminent Scottish yachtsman, de-
signed and built his own yacht, "Coila III.," and competed with
great success in these sporting races. Under the second inter-
national rule, however, no individual country has carried off the
palm. Norway, Sweden and America have shared the honours
with Britain. For the first time in the history of yachting it ap-
pears that yacht designers are unable to make certain of defeating
an old yacht, under the rules, with a new vessel.
The King's Yacht "Britannia."— Encouragement, has been
given to the pastime of yacht racing since the war by the King's
taking the lead in the sport in British waters and re-fitting
the old cutter "Britannia" for racing. This yacht, designed by
G. L. Watson, and built in the year 1893 has a hull form very
similar to that fostered and developed by the new rating rules
of 1920. The chief difference between the "Britannia's" hull form
and that of modem yachts being that the latter have greater free-
board, and are consequently able to develop higher speed when
pressed by fresh wind. The form of modern yachts is also some-
what more elongated and more easily driven in light winds.
Nevertheless, with the aid of a small handicap allowance in her
favour, the "Britannia" has been raced with much success from
1920 to 1928. She is of larger tonnage than "Astra," "Cambria,"
"Shamrock," "White Heather," "Lulworth" or "Nyria," and she
has been re-rigged with stronger and more substantial gear than
most of her newer opponents. Consequently, although not so
fast for her size, she has often won many races on her merits
in the heavy weather which occurs during the summer round the
British coast. The King has personally won many famous races
with "Britannia" against the modern yachts, in what is known by
sailors as "Britannia's weather." The "Britannia" has thus had
two distinct careers. First, from 1893 to J^97i and second, from
1920. No other vessel in the world has won so many prizes or
Year
Number of
starts
Number of
first prix.es
Number of
other prizes
Total
1893 . .
43
24
9
33
1894 • •
48
3<>
2
38
1805 .
So
38
2
40
1806 .
58
U
IO
24
T8Q7 .
20
10
2
12
1913 and
1914
22
12
0
12
IQ20 .
23
7
4
II
1921 .
28
9
7
16
IQ*3 •
26
6
ii
17
1924 .
*9
7
5
12
1925 .
36
ft
6
12
1926 .
*3
4
7
II
1927 .
24
8
8
16
420
iSi
73
254
The Speed of Sailing Yachts. — It may be said that the
speed of sailing yachts of normal dimensions varies according tc
the square root of their length. In judging the speed of modern
yachts a comparison thereof is usually made through the "rating
measurement." A yacht of 2o-metrcs or 65-6 rating length, in a
strong wind can maintain a maximum speed of about 12 knots
The time allowance in seconds per mile between yachts of different
"sizes,'* "ratings" or "lengths," is usually found by the formula:
2,160 __ 2,160
~W ~" "W"
where R is the rating length of the large yacht and r that of the
smaller yacht.
It is interesting to recall some old records of speed over courses
inside the Isle of Wight.
Date
Yacht
Distance
Time
Remarks
1858
The Arrow
45 miles
4 h. 19 m.
Cutter) Same
1872
The Arrow
50
4 h. 40 m.
Cutter/vessel.
1872
Kriemhilda
50
4 h. 37 m.
Cutter.
1883
Marjorie
50
4 h. 26 m.
Cutter.
1883
Samoena
5°
4 h. 15 m.
Cutter.
i88«j
Lorna
50
4 h. 14 m.
Yawl.
1885
I rex
50
4 h. 7m.
Cutter.
1870
Kgeria
50
4 h. 27 m.
Schooner.
1875
Olga
5°
4 h. 25 m.
Schooner.
1879
Enchantress
5°
4 h. 18 m.
American schooner.
IOO2
Meteor
47
3 h. 50 m.
American schooner.
1908
Cicely
46
3 h. 43 ni.
British schooner.
1908
Shamrock
47
4 h. o m.
British cutter, only
75 ft. L.W.L.
I008
Gei-mania
47 M
3 h. 35 m.
German schooner.
The First Contest for the America's Cup. — The international
trophy was originally a cup given by the Royal Yacht Squadron
at Cowes, Isle of Wight, on Aug. 22, 1851, for a race open to
all yachts, with no time allowance of any kind, the course being
"round the Isle of Wight, inside the No Man's buoy and Sand
Head buoy and outside the Nab." Fifteen vessels took up their
stations off Cowes and started from moorings. In the table fol-
lowing are the names of the competitors.
Yacht
Rig
Tons
Owner
Beatrice .
Schooner
161
Sir W. P. Carew.
Volante .
Cutter
48
Mr. J. L. Craisie.
Arrow
Cutter
81
Mr. T. Chamberlayne.
Wyvern .
Schooner
205
The duke of Marlborough.
lone .
Schooner
75
Mr. A. Hill.
Constance
Schooner
2lS
The marquis of Conyngham.
Gipsy Queen .
Schooner
100
Sir H. B, Hoghton.
Alarm
Cutter
103
Mr. J. Weld.
Mona
Cutter
82
Lord Alfred Paget.
America .
Schooner
170
Messrs. Stevens.
Brilliant .
3-masted
schooner
302
Mr. G. H. Ackers.
Bacchante
Cutter
80
Mr. B. H. Jones.
Freak . .
Cutter
60
Mr. W. Curling.
Eclipse
Cutter
5°
Mr. H. S. Fearon.
Aurora
Cutter
84
Mr. T. Lc Marrhant.
868
YACHTING
[SAILING METHODS
The fleet started at 10 o'clock. Abreast of Ventnor the
American schooner was a mile ahead of "Aurora," which was the
last British craft to keep her in sight in a thick haze that blew
up from the south-west late in the afternoon At the Needles the
wind dropped until it was very light, and the "America" was then
some 6 m. ahead of "Aurora," the time being about 6 P.M. The
finish was: —
America (winner) ....
8.37 P.M.
Aug. 22
Aurora
8.58 P.M.
Aug. 22
Bacchante
9.30 P.M.
Aug. 22
Kclipse
9-45 P.M.
Aug. 22
Brilliant
1.20 A.M.
Aug. 23
The "America" was built at New York by the firm of George
and James R. Steers for the special purpose of competing with
British yachts. The principal dimensions of the "America" were:
tonnage 171; length over all 94 ft.; on the keel 82 ft.; beam
22 ft. 6 in.; foremast 79 ft. 6 in.; mainmast 81 ft. (with a rake
of 2j in. to the foot in each mast); hollow bowsprit 17 ft. out
board only; forcgaff 24 ft.; maingaff 28 ft.; mainboom 56 ft.
She was ballasted with pig-iron; 21 tons of the iron were per-
manently built into the vessel and the rest stowed inside. Below
deck she was comfortably fitted for the living accommodation
of the owner, guests and crew, and a cockpit on deck was a feature
that few English yachts of the period possessed.
The cup won at Cowes by the "America," although not originally
intended as a challenge cup, was afterwards given to the New York
Yacht club by the owner of the "America" as a challenge trophy
and named the "America's cup." In 1887 the sole surviving owner
of the cup, George L. S. Schuyler, attached to the trophy a deed
of gift which sets forth the conditions under which all races for
the cup must take place. In brief the conditions are: (i) That
the races must be between one yacht built in the country of the
challenging club and one yacht built in the country of the club
holding the cup. (2) That the size of the yachts, if of one mast,
must be not less than 65 ft. L.W.L. and not more than 90 ft.
L.W.L. If of two-masted rig not less than 80 ft. L.W.L. and not
more than 115 ft. L.W.L. (3) The challenging club must give
ten months' notice of the race, and accompanying the challenge
must be sent the name, rig and the following dimensions: length
L.W.L.; beam and draught of water of the challenging vessel
(which dimensions shall not be exceeded), and as soon as possible
a custom-house registry of the vessel. (4) The vessel must pro-
ceed under sail on her own bottom to the place where the contest
is to take place. For results of subsequent contests see table,
p. 870.
HOW A YACHT IS SAILED
The method and principle upon which a yacht race is sailed
may be described in a way easily understood by any landsman.
The course is usually a triangle or a square. Suppose the starting
and finishing line is between the two mark boats XY (fig. i);
and suppose the start to be in an easterly direction. Suppose also
the direction of the wind to be north. Then the course would be
from the starting line round the marks or buoys placed at B, C, D,
A, and back to finish across the line XY. The start of a yacht
race is at a fixed hour, say 1 1 A.M. Two signal guns are fired, one
at 10.55 to prepare, and the other at n A.M. to start. During the
five minutes interval between the guns, the yachts may sail about
anywhere they like, "jockeying," so as to try to get into the best
position as the second gun fires. The object of the steersman is to
sail his yacht across the line XY at full speed immediately after
the starting gun has fired.
The first leg of the course is easterly, from the line XY to the
point B. This is sailing at right-angles to the wind and is called
"reaching." The yacht sailing from XY to B is said to be "reach-
ing on the port tack" because the wind is blowing upon her "port"
or left hand side. When reaching, the sails are trimmed as in fig. 2.
The next course is from B to C. This is dead before the wind and
is called "running." When the wind is dead aft, or nearly so, and
EAST
the yacht is running before it, the balloon sail called the spinnaker
is set. The spinnaker must be taken in before the yacht gets to
C. When running, the sheets are eased right off as in fig. 3. The
third course is from C to D, this is again reaching, as from A to
B, but the yacht is now "reaching on the starboard tack" because
the wind is blowing upon her
"starboard" or right hand side
(fig. .4).
The yacht having reached to
D, now has to sail from D to A.
This is absolutely dead against
the direction of the wind. The
yacht cannot sail dead against the
wind but only at an angle of
rather less than 45° from it. The
yacht, therefore, has to "tack to
windward," or "turn to windward,"
making a zig-zag course. She
FIG. I.— DIAGRAM OF THE COURSE may ejther make long tacks (fig,
OF A YACHT RACE ^ Qr ^^ ^^ ^ ^ which_
ever method will take her quickest from D to A. This turning to
windward is the greatest test of the yacht's ability, and also of the
ability of the helmsman. Much more distance and time may be
gained or lost during the zig-zag than at any other period of the
race. When sailing to windward the sheets are hauled very close.
In fig. 7 the yacht is close hauled on the starboard tack, and in
fig. 8 she is close hauled on the port tack. Having attived at A, the
course is next a reach on the port tack, with the wind on the left
side, from A to the finishing line XY. As the bowsprit of the win-
ning yacht crosses the finishing line, her winning gun is fired. A gun
is usually fired for the first three yachts in a race. If the course
had been a triangular course from the start to BD, A and back
to the finish, then the leg of the course BD would have been at
FIGS. 2-, 1.— DIAGRAMS SHOWING HOW A YACHT RACE IS SAILED
2. Reaching on Port tack. 3. Running. 4. Reaching on Starboard tack. 5 &
6. Course tacking to windward. 7. Starboard. 8. Port tack. 9. "A Quarter-
Ing Wind." 10. Tacking. 11. Gybing
an angle "between running and reaching." To sail off the wind
from B to D in this manner is called "a free reach" or "a quarter-
ing wind," or to sail with "wind on the quarter." This is the fastest
point of sailing, appreciably faster than running with spinnaker be-
fore the wind. With a quartering wind the sheets are trimmed
as in fig. 9. A yacht is said to "tack" when she changes her course
from port tack to starboard tack, or vice versa, when sailing to-
wards the wind. Similarly, she is said to "gybe" when she changes
her course from port tack to starboard tack, or vice versa, when
sailing "off" or away from the wind. The boom in "tacking" and
YACHTING
TI.ATF. Til
•o j_
0- •§«
31=
CO . *
CC Si
_
UJ ® "o.
I il
111 o"S
2 II
QC * . _
uj -8
0 is
CC o °
UJ «,-5
c «
I?
1'I.ATF. IV
YACHTING
LARGE EUROPEAN YACHTS
1. A three masted topsail schooner yacht with the wind over her quarter. In this rio square yards are carried on the foremast
2. A schoone. yacht close hauled on the wind off Cowes, Isle of Wight, yachting centre offthe south coast of England
UNITED
STATES]
YACHTING
869
"gybing" passes from one side to the other, as in figs. 10 and n.
Yachts are not allowed to collide during the five minutes interval
between the guns before the start or during the race. Those over-
taking must keep out of the way of those which are being over-
taken. Those with the wind on their left (port) side must keep
out of the way of those with the wind on their right (starboard)
side. When, also, two vessels find themselves converging, the
yacht which is to windward must keep clear. When rounding or
passing marks at the corners of the course or other obstructions,
the outside yachts must give the inside yachts room, and no yacht
must hit or touch any of the marks or buoys marking the course.
The length of the course varies with the size of the competing
yachts. Large yachts sail twice round a course of 20 m. — a dis-
tance of 40 miles. Small craft may sail a course of 6 or 8 miles.
(B. H.-S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. R. Sullivan and others, Yachting, 2 vols. (Bad-
minton Library, 1895) ; V. J. English, Navigation for Yachtsmen
(1896); L. Moissenet, Yachts et Yachting, Voilure, Navigation et
manoeuvre du yacht (1897); C. J. Jemmett and R. A. B. Preston,
A Treatise on the Law relating to Pleasure Yachts (1903) ; A. H.
Clark, The History of Yachting, 1600-1815 (N.Y., IQCH) ; F. B. Cookc,
Seamanship for Yachtsmen (1923) ; W. D. Bowman, Yachting and
Yachtsmen (1927) ; A. E. Bullen and G. Prout, Yachting; how to
sail and manage a small modern yacht (Glasgow, 1927) ; C. Worth,
Cruising for Amateurs (6th ed., 1928) ; B. H. Smith and H. du Boulay,
The Complete Yachtsman (sth ed., 1928). See also The Cruising Ass.
Libr. Cat.: A collection of books for Seamen and Students of Nautical
Literature, collected by H. I. Hanson (1927).
THE UNITED STATES
Early History. — Organized yachting and yacht-racing in
America began about 1840 with the formation of the first yacht or
boat clubs for the promotion of pleasure-boating and the racing
of yachts for sport. While a number of boats had been built in
the United States and used solely for pleasure-sailing previous to
that date, and hence could be classed as yachts, they were few in
number, and in type they were more or less similar to the com-
mercial or fishing craft of the same size in the locality in which
they were to be used. The country, at that time, was too new and
the people along the seaboard too busy in developing the trade and
commerce of the newly formed States, and in opening up the land,
to allow either the leisure or the means for the development of
pleasure-boating.
Yachts had been used in both Great Britain and Holland since
the 1 7th century, and in the history of the Dutch Colony of New
Amsterdam, which later became the English Colony of New York,
there is mention of a yacht, or boat built for pleasure-boating,
named the "Onrust" (Restless), which is claimed to be the first
decked vessel built, in America. She was about 44 ft. in length
and followed the characteristics and proportions of the Dutch
boats used in Holland. It is probable that this craft was used also
for commercial purposes when not used for pleasure sailing. While
the "Onrust" was spoken of as a yacht, there is no authentic data
relating to other yachts, or to the sport of racing boats, before the
beginning of the igth century. Except for the "Onrust," the
earliest mention of a boat used exclusively for pleasure in New
York waters was of a 2O-ft. sail-boat owned by John C. Stevens,
named the "Diver," and built some time prior to 1809. The name
of Stevens is one intimately connected with the development of
yachting in America for many years. In 1816 this same John C.
Stevens built a perigua named the "Trouble." She was 56 ft. long,
with a flat bottom, round bilge and two masts, each carrying a
single sail. Some four years later he built a catamaran, or double-
hulled boat, called the "Double Trouble," of which little is known
except that she was not a success.
On the New England coast, where the population was largely
seafaring, there was built in 1801, for Captain George Crownin-
shield, a wealthy shipowner and merchant, a large sloop of 22 tons
called the "Jefferson," which her owner used largely as a yacht
until the War of 1812, when she was fitted out as a privateer and
took several prizes. Later she was sold into the fisheries. Follow-
ing this venture, Crowninshield had built in 1816 a vessel called
"Cleopatra's Barge," intended solely for pleasure-cruising, and so
luxuriously fitted and furnished as to entitle her to rank as a
yacht even according to present standards. The builder of this
boat was Retire Becket, a well-known ship-builder of Salem, Mass.
In her, Crowninshield made a pleasure-voyage to the Mediter-
ranean and back in 1816-17, probably the first American yacht to
go abroad. "Cleopatra's Barge" was 83 ft. long on the water, 23
ft. breadth of beam, and her tonnage was 191 tons.
It was in New York harbour, however, that most of the early
yachting was done, and the first comprehensive attempt made to
develop boats for pleasure-sailing and for racing. In this develop-
ment the Stevens family, of which John C. Stevens was one of
four brothers, played a leading part. Inheriting a love of the sea
and mechanical tastes, they did much experimenting, and built
successively larger yachts, following the "Diver" and the
"Trouble." From 1830-40, sailing and racing boats for pleasure
became common among men of means, and a good sized, though
mixed, fleet of boats was to be found in New York waters.
Organized Yachting. — It was not until yacht clubs were or-
ganized, bringing together those who were interested in the sport,
that yachting and racing began to develop along lines that tended
to make it a popular pastime, or that yacht design began to show
much improvement. As early as 1811 the Knickerbocker Boat
Club of New York was formed, but it died the following year.
After several other clubs, both in New York and Boston, had been
formed and had died, the New York Yacht Club was organized
on July 30, 1844, aboard John C. Stevens' new schooner-yacht
"Gimcrack," anchored off the Battery. Among its original mem-
bers were most of the leading yachtsmen of New York, and it was
the first club that survived. To-day it is, in point of age and pres-
tige, the foremost yacht club in America, and much of the develop-
ment of yachting can be traced to the influence of the club itself,
or its members. Five years later the Southern Yacht Club, of New
Orleans, was organized, followed in 1854 by the North Carolina
Yacht Club, and in 1857 by the Brooklyn Yacht Club, but for 20
years the New York Yacht Club was representative of American
yachting and was the forerunner of the many yacht clubs that
sprang up after the Civil War (1861-65) in all parts of the country
wherever there was pleasure-sailing, until in 1928 there were over
450 organized yacht clubs in the United States and Canada.
Development of Design.— At the time of the formation of the
New York Yacht Club, and for many years thereafter, the design-
ing of yachts was not pursued as a science. Most of the yachts
were turned out by local builders, working by "rule-of-thumb,"
each builder having his own particular fad or fancy for some par-
ticular type or model, these models being influenced largely by the
environment and water conditions. With the shoal waters of the
Atlantic coast, American yachtsmen as a whole preferred broad,
shoal centreboard craft, with great initial stability, which enabled
them to carry a large spread of sail without a great amount of
ballast. These boats were very fast in smooth water. The centre-
board was an adaptation of the lecboards of Holland, but was low-
ered through the keel instead of over the side. The first boat fitted
with this sliding keel was constructed by Captain Schank, at Bos-
ton, in 1774. Later he continued his experiments in England and
finally devised a successful centreboard in 1778. However, in
1811, the first patent for a centreboard was granted in the United
States to three brothers, Jacocks, Henry and Joshua Swain, of
Cape May, N.J., and as this device came into rapid use in the
shoal waters of the Jersey coast, it may be looked upon as an
American innovation.
On New York waters, therefore, under the stimulus of the New
York Yacht Club, a large fleet of light draft centreboard yachts
soon made its appearance, the boats being modelled by such noted
builders as J. B. Van Deusen and "Pat" McGiehan, or such well-
known boat sailors as Phil and Joe Ellsworth, or the Van Buskirks.
These men had practical experience, but little technical knowledge
of designing, and little real development was made during this
period, it being an easier matter to rely on beam for stability and
great sail area for speed, rather than on refinement of design. In
New England, also, the centreboarder was becoming the popular
type when speed was the consideration. All of the yachts of the
period were then built on the accepted theory of full bow and fine,
easy run, or the "cod's head and mackerel tail" principle, and
870
YACHTING
[UN1TEII STATES
RECORD OF THE "AMERICA'S" CUP RACES
Date
Name
Tonnage
Course ,
Allows
Elapsed
time
Corrected
time
Wins
by
m. s.
h. m. s.
h. m. s.
m. a,
Aug. 22, 1851
f America .
\Aurora
170-
47-
>From Cowes around Isle of Wight (Aurora Second)
10.37.00
10.55.00
10.37.00
10.55.00
18.00
Aug. 8, 1870
/Magic
iCambria ,
97-2
227-6
N.Y.Y.C. Course (Cambria Tenth) \
4.07.54
4-34-57
3-58.26
4 37-38
39.12.7
Oct. 1 6, 1871
/Columbia .
Livonia
220-
^80-
N.Y.Y.C. Course J
6.17.42
6 . 43 . 00
6.19.41
6.46.45
27.04
Oct. 1 8, 1871
Columbia .
I Livonia
220*
280-
20 m. to windward off Sandy Hook Lightship and return . \
3 01.33 J
3.00.49*
3.07.41!
3-I8.15J
10.33*
Oct. 19, 1871
/Livonia> .
Columbia .
280-
32O-
N.Y.Y.C. Course (Columbia disabled)
3.53.05
4.12.38
4.02.25
4 17-35
I5.IO
Oct. 31, 1871
! Sappho
Livonia
310-
20 m. to windward off Sandy Hook Lightship and return
5 33 - 24
6 . 04 . 38
5 - 36 . 02
6.09.23
33 21
Oct. 33, 1871
Sappho
'Livonia
310'
280-
j N.Y.Y.C. Course
4 38.05
5.04.41
4.46.17
5 . i i • 44
25.37
Aug. ii, 1876
/Madeleine.
Court test ol Duffcrin
ISI'40
| N.Y.Y.C. Course <
5.24.55
5-34-53
5.23. 54
5-34-53
XO.S9
Aug. 12, 1876
Madeleine.
Countess of Dufferin
151-49
I38-20
J29 m. to windward off Sandy Hook Lightship and return . j
7-19.47
7 . 46 . oo
7.18.46
7.46.00
27.14
Nov. 0, 1 88 1
Mischief .
Atalanta .
79-27
84-
N.Y.Y.C. Course j
4 • i 7 09
4.48. 24^
4-17.09
4-45. zyl
28.20!
Nov. 10, 1 88 1
Mischief .
lAtulantu .
79-27
84-
16 m. to leeward from Buoy 5 off Sandy Hook and rrlutn . <j
4 54 53
5 .36.52
4 54 53
5 - 33 47
38.54
Sept. 14. 1885
(Puritan .
140*
N.Y.Y.C. Course ' . {
o'is
6.06.05
6.22.52
6 . 06 . OS
6.22.24
*6.i9
Sept. 16, 1885
/Puritan
l(ienesta .
140-
80-
20 in. to leeward off Sandy Hook Lightship and return .
0^38
5.03.14
5 05 . 20
5.04-53
1.38
Sept. 9, 1886
/May Mower
.Galatea
171-74
171-14
N.Y.Y.C. Course /
0*38
5.26.41
5-39.21
5.26.41
5 - 38 . 43
12. 02
Sept. ii, 1886
I May flower
1 Galatea
171-74
171- 14
20 in. to leeward off Sandy Hook Lightship and return . . <
0.39
6 . 40 . oo
7.18.48
6,40. oo
7 . i 8 . 09
29 . 09
Sept. 27, 1887
/Volunteer .
Thistle
209-08
253-04
N.Y.Y.C. Course f
O.'os
5 '".'46}
4-53.18
5.12.41!
19.331
1
Sept. 30, 1887
Volunteer .
Thistle .
209-08
253-94
!2O m. to windward off Scotland Lightship ami return
0 . 06
S- 48.56*
5-5451
5-43-561
5-54 45
TT. 48!
Oct. 7, i«93
ViKilaut
Valkyrie II. .
96-78
93- i r
15 m. to windward oil Scotland Lightship ami return . . /
I "48
4 • 05 . 47
4.13.23
4 05.47
4-11.35
5.48
Oct. 9, 1893
Vigilant
Valkyrie II . .
y6-78
0.3- 1 1
/
'Course — Equilateral Triangle — 30 miles '
,;48
3.25.or
3.37.24
3-25 or
3 - 35 • 36
10.35
Oct. 13. 1893
Vigilant
Valkyrie 11. .
96-78
93-57*
MS m. to windward off Scotland Lightship and return
1.33
3.24.30
3 26.52
3 - 24 - 39
3-25.19
0.40
Sept. 7, i«95
Defender .
Valkyrie 111. .
100-36
101-49
>i5 m. to windward off .Scotland Lightship rind return
o . Jo
5 - oo . 24
5.08.44
4-50.S5
5 - 08 . 44
8.4$
Sept. ro, 1895
Defender ,
Valkyrie III. .
100-36
101-49
Course — Equilateral Triangle— 30 miles j
0.2Q
3 . 50 . 25
t3.55.09
3-5S.50
3.55.09
0.47
Sept. 12. 1895
Defender .
Valkyrie III. .
100-36
101-49
15 m. to windward and return from Sandy Hook Lightship . |
0 . 20
4 . 44 . i 2
4-43-43
/Columbia .
102-135
15 m. E.S.E. from Sandy Hook Lightship and return- 30 /
4-53-53
4-53-53
10.08
[Shamrock .
I O I • OO JL
miles ........
o . 06
5 .04.07
5 .04.01
Oct. 17. 1899
[Columbia .
i Shamrock .
102-135
101-092
to m. Triangular from Sandy Hook Lightship — 30 miles . . {
o .06
3-37.00
i Columbia .
102-135
(15 m. S. by W. from Sandy Hook Lightship and return— 30 /
o. 16
3-38.25
3-38.09
6.34
Oct. 20, 1899
(Shamrock .
102-565
/ miles 1
3 - 44 43
3.44 43
Sept. 28, 1901
/Columbia .
{ Shamrock II. .
102-355
103-79
1 15 m. E, by S. from Sandy Hook Lightship and return — jo/
/ miles
0.43
4-31.07
4 • 3 i . 44
4 . 30 . 24
4-3T -44
I .30
Oct. 3, I no I
/Columbia .
102-355
Course — Equilateral Triangle — 30 miles
0.43
3-13 18
3.12.35
3-35
.Shamrock II. .
/Columbia .
103-79
IOJ-355
IS m. S.S.E. from Sandy Hook Lightship and return — 30
0.43
3. 16. 10
3. 16. 10
4-32.57
.41
Oct. 4» J90I
(Shamrock II.
I03-70
miles
4 • 33 38
4 . 33 - 38
Aug. 22, 1003
/Reliance .
IShamrock III. .
IOK-4I
104-37
1 5 m. to windward and return— 30 miles
I'.'M
3.32.17
3-41.17
3-32.17
3 • 39 . 2O
7.03
AUK. as. 1003
/ Reliance .
IShamrock III. .
108-41
104-37
JCourae — Equilateral Triangle — 30 miles j
I -57
3.14.54
3.18 10
3-14-54
3. 16. 12
1. 19
Sept. 3. 1903
/Reliance .
\ Shamrock III. .
108-39
104-37
j 15 m. to windward and return — 30 miles j
1 .57
4 . 28 . 00
Did not finjsl
4.28.00
1.
/Resolute .
83-5
115 m. to windward off Ambrose Channel Light-vessel and re-
IDid not finish.
July 15, 1920
l Shamrock IV. .
93-8
f turn- '30 miles ...
6.40
4-24 58
4.24.58
July 2o, 1920
/Resolute .
IShamrock IV. .
83-5
94*4*
(Course-- Equilateral Triangle — distance 30 m off Ambrose'
/ Channel Light-vessel ...
7 .01
5-31.45
5.24.44
S.aa. 18
2.36
/Resolute .
83-5
15 m. to windward off Ambrose Channel Light- vessel and re-
4 . 03 . 06
3.56.05
7.01
July 21, 1020
IShamrock IV. .
94-4
turn- 30 miles ...
7.01
4.03.06
4 . 03 . 06
July 23, 1920
/Resolute .
t Shamrock IV. .
83-5
93-8
Course— Equilateral Triangle— distance 30 in off Ambrose
Channel Light-vessel ...
6.40
3.37,52
3-4i 10
3-3I.I2
3.41-10
9.58
/Resolute .
83-5
15 in. to windward off Ambrose Channel Light-vessel and re-
5-35 IS
5-28. 35
19 45
July 27, 1920
(Shamrock IV. .
93-8
/ turn — 30 miles \
6.40
5.48.20
5.48-20
•Re measure*.!. tDisqualified for foulitiK Defender.
^Throat halyard rendered on winch drum— withdrew.
{Withdrew on crossinn the line.
§Carried away topmast and withdrew.
design had not progressed as far as it had in England. Even the
very large yachts were centreboarders, and in 1845 Jonn C. Stevens
built the "Maria," a sloop 92 ft. in length, which, after her second
season, proved very fast and was one of the most famous as well
as one of the fastest yachts in the country for many years.
So in 1850 the full bow of the "Maria" was cut away and the
yacht was lengthened to 116 ft. over all, and given a sharp bow
and hollow water lines forward. This increased her speed in smooth
water. Associated with John C. Stevens at this time, was a young
ship builder and modeller of New York, George Steers, who with
Mr. Stevens modelled the schooner "Gimcrack" and helped in
the changes in the "Maria." Stevens and Steers worked so much
together that at this time it is impossible to dissociate their work.
In 1849 Steers modelled and built the pilot boat "Mary Taylor" in
which he discarded the "cod's head and mackerel tail" principle
and used the fine entrance and long bow with the midship section
farther aft. The "Mary Taylor" was most successful, beating all
the fast pilot boats of her day. She brought fame to George Steers,
and her form was quickly imitated by other builders.
During the winter of 1850-1851, George Steers modelled for a
syndicate of six American yachtsmen, headed by John C. Stevens,
and all members of the New York Yacht Club, a schooner of about
170 tons to go to England in the summer of 1851 and race there at
the suggestion of some British merchants, the occasion for the
proposal being a world's fair that was to be held in London that
year. This yacht, built under the supervision of Steers at the yard
of William H. Brown, in New York, and named the "America,"
proved to be the most famous yacht ever built. For the result of
this experiment, see above.
In 1857 the surviving members of the "America" syndicate
executed a deed of gift for the cup won by this yacht at Cowes,
and known up to then as the Hundred Guinea Cup, and turned the
cup over to the New York Yacht Club, to be held as a perpetual
challenge cup for friendly competition between foreign countries.
Thus the cup became known as the America's Cup (q.v.\ and has
become the most coveted yachting trophy in the world, emblematic
of supremacy in speed under sail. Up to 1928 13 matches had
been sailed for this 'jjWue ribbon of the sea," all of them resulting
UNITEK) STATES]
YACHTING
871
in victories for the defenders, and up to this time the cup still re-
mained in the custody of the New York Yacht Club. All of the
challenges have come from Great Britain or Canada, and the
results of all these races are given in the table on page 870.
In 1876, the advocates of the shoal-draft boat were given a
rude jolt when the new i4o-ft. centreboard schooner "Mohawk,"
built for Commodore W. T. Garner, of the New York Yacht Club,
was capsized off Staten Island, drowning her owner and several
guests. She was lying at anchor with her sails up and sheets made
fast when she was struck by a squall, heeled down on her beam
ends, where she filled and sank.
A few years after the " Mohawk" disaster Cary Smith turned out
the sloop "Mischief," called a "compromise sloop," a centreboard
boat, but deeper than the "skimming dishes," with more shape, and
relying not alone on beam for stability. "Mischief," 67 ft. long,
successfully defended the America's Cup in 1881 against the
Canadian centreboard challenger "Atalanta." That same year there
arrived in New York from Scotland a little cutter that was to
exert a powerful influence on the future of yacht design in Amer-
ica, and that strengthened the growing band of yachting en-
thusiasts who were looking for something better in design than
the wide, shoal centreboardcrs. This was the "Madge," designed
by George L. Watson, a young British designer, and owned by
James Coats, of Paisley, who had recently lived in America.
"Madge" was a typical British cutter, 46 ft. long over all, 38^ ft.
on the water, and only 7 ft. 9 in. beam. She was shipped to New
York. That first summer she won nearly all her races against the
crack centreboarders, most of them being won without calling on
her time allowance. The success of the "Madge" put centreboard
advocates on the defensive.
The discussion was still acute when the next challenge for the
America's Cup was received, in 1885, from the British yacht "Gen-
esta," a typical narrow cutter. There was much difference of
opinion in America as to what type to build to meet the challenger;
but a group of Boston yachtsmen, less committed to shoal draft
than those around New York, went to a young Boston naval archi-
tect, Edward Burgess, and commissioned him to design a large
sloop to defend the cup. Burgess was familiar with the cutter type,
recognized its good points, and also knew the centreboard boats
as they had developed around Cape Cod. Discarding all tradition,
he decided to strike out in a radical way and design a yacht that
to him appeared best suited to the conditions to be met, and com-
bining the best points of the cutter with the wider beam and
shoaler hull of the centreboard sloops. The result was the "com-
promise cutter," "Puritan," 81 ft. long on the water. On this
length "Puritan" had a beam of 22^ ft., draft of 8 ft. 8 in., and a
centreboard. She had the plumb stem of the cutter and was deep
enough to get a beautifully modelled underbody. "Puritan" proved
most successful, beating the shoal-draft defender built in New
York handily and defeating the cutter "Genesta," the challenger.
These victories made Burgess the most successful designer in
America, and the type originated by him grew rapidly in popu-
larity and soon became the recognized American type. "Puritan"
was followed in the next two years by the "Mayflower" and the
"Volunteer," both by Burgess and each a successful defender of
the America's Cup. Unfortunately, Burgess died in 1891, at the
height of his career, and while still a comparatively young man.
The year that Burgess died, Nathaniel G. Herreshoff, of Bristol,
R.I., had turned out a yacht that focussed the attention of Ameri-
can yachtsmen on the boat-building plant at Bristol, owned by him
and his brother, John B. Herreshoff, and that was destined again
to revolutionize yacht design and to bring fame to American yachts
and to the Herreshoff family, which had been building boats on
Narragansett bay since Civil War days. This yacht was "Glori-
ana." The new yacht was a masterpiece of designing and build-
ing and was very successful from the first. She was followed the
next year by "Wasp," from the same designer, and embodying the
same general principles.
When the next challenge for the America's Cup (1893) was re-
ceived from the Royal Yacht Squadron, Herreshoff designed the
successful defender, the sloop "Vigilant," 85 ft. on the water
While oracticallv a keel boat, she carried .a centreboard, which
worked through a slot in the lead keel. Since the "Vigilant," N. G.
Herreshoff has designed all of the defenders for the America's Cup
up to and including the last race in 1920, when the "Resolute"
successfully defended, and Herreshoff became the foremost yacht
designer in America, for either large or small yachts.
The Scow Type and the Seawanhaka Cup.— On certain
waters of Canada, notably the St. Lawrence river, and on the
lakes of Minnesota and Wisconsin, where conditions are not suited
to keel boats, the Universal Rule is not used, and in these locali-
ties the scow type has been developed to a very high state. These
boats are extremely flat, drawing but a few inches, have two bilge
boards instead of one centreboard, double rudders, and are sailed
without ballast. On a reach they are exceedingly fast, and it is
claimed that the larger boats sometimes attain a speed as high as
17 m. per hour in a strong breeze and smooth sea. They are
usually sailed in 28-ft., 32-ft. and 38-ft. classes.
The contests for the Seawanhaka Cup between 1895 and 1912
did much for the development of the scow type. This famous
trophy was put up by the Seawanhaka-Corinthian Yacht Club,
of Oyster Bay, in 189$, for international competition between
small yachts. The first race was sailed that year against an Eng-
lish challenger, "Spruce III.," a "half-rater." The following year
the cup was won by the Royal St. Lawrence Yacht Club of Can-
ada, with an extreme scow named the "Glencairn." There fol-
lowed a long series of races between Canada and the United States.
Recent Development of Yacht Design. — During the World
War there was very little yacht building in America, and no
marked development in design. But following the readjustment
period there was a marked increase in interest in all forms of
yachting, and larger fleets were to be seen at the principal regattas
than previously. In this development the small yacht predomi-
nated, due somewhat to the greatly increased cost of running large
sailing craft, and to the fact that yacht racing was making a
strong appeal to those who wanted to handle their own craft.
Therefore, the smaller racing classes were promoted, principally
the 3i-rating (Class P), 25-rating (Class Q) and 2o-rating (Class
R) classes, and numerous one-design classes.
One-Design Classes. — As early as the late '905 several racing
classes in which the boats of each class were identical in design
were formed, and proved popular, both because the boats were,
theoretically, of equal speed, and because there was considerable
economy in building many boats exactly alike at one time. Some
of the earlier of these one-design classes were the Newport 30-ft.
class of fin-keel sloops, and the 7o-ft. class of large sloops, both
designed by Herreshoff. There followed, then, a great demand for
such classes of yachts of one-design. Among the important one-
design racing classes developed in the first quarter of the 2oth cen-
tury are the following :
(.'lass
Load water
line
Designer
Feet
liar Harbor 31 -footers ,
3*
Herreshoff
New York Yacht Club 3o-f t. class
New York Yacht Club soft, class
3°
50
)>
New York Yacht Club 4o-f t. class
40
Larch mont O class
38
Wm. Gardner
Seawanhaka Schooner class .
38
Cox & Stevens
Class S One-design
20j
Herreshoff
Victory class
21
Wm. Gardner
Interclub class ....
*9
C. 1"). Mower
Star class (over 400 boats have
been built to this class) .
16
Wm. Gardner
Indian Harbor Arrow class .
21
John G. Alden
i2-metre class ....
43
KurRCHS & Morgan
lo-mctre class ....
3'>
8-metre class .....
30
And many smaller classes under
20 ft. water line length .
The North American Yacht Racing Union—Legislation
affecting yacht racing, the rules under which yachts were raced,
and measurement rules, up to about 1900, had been in the hands
of individual yacht clubs, or local yacht racing organizations com-
posed of a number of clubs in the same locality. There was thus
872
YAHGAN— YAKIMA
great lack of uniformity in different sections of the country. At
the time of the agitation for a new measurement rule to supersede
the "length-and-sail-area" rule, the New York Yacht Club took
the lead and called a conference of yachting organizations of the
Atlantic coast and the Great Lakes to find out what was wanted
and to bring about uniformity by getting the other sections to
adopt the new rule (the Universal Rule) that was then being
formulated. This was a step forward, but the conference was not
permanent in character, and there was no real governing body on
yachting affairs in America. To remedy this situation, there was
formed in 1925 a union of most of the local yacht racing associa-
tions, and a number of prominent yacht clubs, the guiding spirits
in the matter being Clifford D. Mallory and Commodore W. A. W.
Stewart, of the Seawanhaka-Corinthian Yacht Club. This organi-
zation, called the North American Yacht Racing Unicn, was the
first permanent legislative and governing body of national scope
in America, and through it both the racing and measurement rules
have been standardized, and an appeal body for its members
formed. In 1927 delegates from this union met with delegates of
the International Yacht Racing Union, in Lcndon, to bring about
closer co-operation internationally in yachting affairs.
Cruising Yachts. — The development of cruising yachts in
America has followed in a general way the development of the
racing type. While no measurement rule had to be considered in
their design, it was natural that in hull design the boats should
take the same characteristics as the racing craft, especially as they
were sailed on more or less protected waters, or along the coast
where harbours were frequent. However, shortly after the World
War, several designers, notably John G. Alden and William H.
Hand, Jr., developed a type of small seaworthy yacht for cruising,
embodying many of the characteristics of the New England fishing
schooners. These boats were good offshore cruisers, and they
quickly became popular, and were soon taking part successfully in
long distance and ocean races, such as the one from New London
to Bermuda, while several boats of this design, from 50 to 55 ft.
long over all, made the Atlantic passage with safety and comfort.
In size, they ranged from 40 to 125 ft. over all length, and a large
fleet was built between 1920-28.
Ocean Racing. — Long distance racing along the coast, and
ocean races between yachts, have been more popular among Ameri-
can yachtsmen than among those of the European yachting na-
tions. The first transatlantic race was sailed in 1866, between three
American schooners, in the month of December, one of them being
a centreboarder, and the others keel yachts. These schooners
were the "Henrietta," "Fleetwing" and "Vesta," the first winning
in the fast time of 13 days 21 hours and 45 minutes. There was
another Atlantic race in 1871 between the American schooner
"Dauntless" and the British schooner "Cambria," and in 1887 the
"Dauntless" and the new schooner "Coronet" raced from Sandy
Hook to Roche's Point, Ireland, in March. The greatest ocean
race ever sailed was in 1905, when n large yachts raced from
Sandy Hook to Land's End, England, two being British yachts,
one a German, and the rest American. It was won by the Ameri-
can three-masted schooner "Atlantic" in 12 days 4 hours and i
minute, for the course of 3,013 miles, still the record in 1928.
About 1905 ocean racing in small yachts was inaugurated by the
late Thomas Fleming Day to demonstrate that small boats,
properly designed, built and handled, could keep the sea with
safety. He inaugurated the race from New York to Bermuda, and
later, one to Havana for power craft. After the war the Bermuda
Race was revived and is now sailed every two years. For larger
yachts there are two challenge cups for ocean racing, held by the
New York Yacht Club, for which many historic contests have
been sailed. These are the Cape May and the Brenton Reef cups
for competition over ocean courses between Newport, R.I., and
Cape May, N.J. On the Pacific coast the principal ocean race,
for which a permanent cup has been put up, is one from the Cali-
' fornia coast to Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands, a distance of about
2,200 miles. This is sailed every two years. In 1928 a transatlan-
tic race from New York to Spain was sailed, nine schooner yachts
starting and seven finishing. The winners were the "Elena" and
the "Nina," the latter being only 59 ft. long over all.
N It is in the development of the sailing yacht that American
yachtsmen are most interested and towards which they have
devoted most of their energy and effort. (H. L. ST.)
YAHGAN, an Indian tribe, now almost extinct, who occupy
the south coast of Tierra del Fuego and the adjacent islands south-
ward to Cape Horn. Hence they are the southernmost people in
the world. That they have lived in the same region for many
centuries is attested by great middens which cover their camping
places. Yahgan life before the European settlement was extremely
simple. In spite of the cold climate their chief garment was a
single seal or other skin, which they wore on the windward
shoulder. Their houses were usually small domed affairs of sap-
lings covered with bark and grass or seal-skins. Their canoes,
peculiar for their high pointed ends and a fireplace amidships,
were constructed of the bark from a beech tree. Their manufac-
tures included baskets of several weaves, harpoons, spears, shell
necklaces and simple tools. Their diet embraced shellfish, seal,
whale, various birds, a few berries and several kinds of fungi. The
Yahgan had no organized tribal life or recognized leaders. Each
family, often including several wives, was a law unto itself, wan-
dering at will and rarely camping in one place for more than a
few days. At times, groups of relatives would assemble to perform
elaborate initiation ceremonies for both the boys and the girls, who
were forced to undergo various privations, to have their courage
tested by masked apparitions, and to learn the tribal lore. It has
been asserted that the Yahgan have no religion. However, they
believe in evil spirits, who must be propitiated by their medicine
men, and they also reverence a supreme God. Their mythology
is surprisingly rich.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — S. K. Lothrop, The Indians of Tierra del Fuego,
Contributions, vol. x., Museum of the American Indian, Heye Founda-
tion (1928) ; Wilhelm Koppers, Unter Feuerland~Indianern (Stutt-
gart, 1924) ; J. M. Cooper, Analytical and Critical Bibliography . . .
of Tierra del Fuego, Bulletin 63, Bureau of American Ethnology
(1917). (S. K. L.)
YAK, the wild (and domesti-
cated) ox of the Tibetan plateau;
a species allied to the bison
group. The yak, Poephagus grun-
niens, is one of the largest of
oxen, characterized by the growth
of long shaggy hair on the flanks
and under parts of the body and
the well-known bushy tail. The
wild species is black in colour. Domestic yaks are often black
and white, and small-sized breeds exist. The magnificent half-
tamed animals kept by the natives of the elevated Rupsu plateau,
south of the Indus, afford the only means of transport by this
route between Ladak and India. But even these are inferior
to the wild yak, which stands nearly 6ft.
at the shoulder and is confined to the arid
plateau of Tibet.
YAKIMA (yaklma), a city of south-
central Washington, U.S.A., on the Yakima
river, at an altitude of 1,075 ft.; the coun-
ty seat of Yakima county. It is on Federal
highways 97 and 410; has a municipal air-
port of 80 ac. ; and is served by the North-
Jn ern Pacific and the Union Pacific railways,
'.! and by electric inter-urban and motor-
PHAGUS GRUNN.ENS) ^ ^ *°*' l'?^' l8'-539 (*?%
fMA^ua fcKunmtn:» natlve white); 1928 local estimate over
26,000. Yakima is the metropolis of a productive region of di-
versified agriculture, formerly a sagebrush desert, which owes
its prosperity largely to reclamation by the Federal Government
which will have brought 475,000 ac. under irrigation with the com-
pletion of undertakings in hand in 1928. Apples and other fruits
are leading crops, but potatoes, green vegetables, live stock, grain,
hay and dairy products are also important. The farm products
shipped out of the valley in 1927 amounted to 42,248 carloads,
valued at $41,666,500. The district has cold-storage facilities from
whkh to load 9,500 c^rs, and the manufacturing industries of the
THE WILD YAK (PO'EPHAGUS GRUN-
MUSEUM OF NATURAL
YAKSAS
PLATE
STATUES OF YAKSAS OR INDIAN DEITIES
1. Yaksas, or deities, spouting lotus rhizome and flowers, and as Atlantes
(Saner 1st cent. B.C.). 2. Yakfl, or dryad, under a tree (1st cent. A.D.—
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). 3. Chandi Yaks? (2nd cent. B.C. — Indian
Museum, Calcutta). 4. Gangita Yaksa (2nd cent. B.C. — Indian Museum,
Calcutta). 5. Yaksas Atlantes forming capital of column supporting arch
of gate (Sand 50 B.C.). 6. Yaksa spouting lotus Rhizome and flowers (from
Bharhut 2nd cent. B.C. — Indian Museum, Calcutta). 7. Assamukh? Yak??
(Bodhgaya 100 B.C.). 8. Kubera Yaksa (lst-2nd cent. A.D. — Archaeo-
logical Museum, Mathura). 9. Yaks? carrying food and water (lst-2nd
cent. A.D. — Archaeological Museum, Mathura). 10. Yak$a under trco
(1st— 2nd cent. A.D. — Archaeological Museum, Mathura)
YAKSAS— YAKUTSK
873
city (including large lumber mills and canneries) produce about
90 different commodities and have an annual output valued at
$13,000,000. Bank clearings in 1927 totalled $77,903,887. The
State Fair is held at Yakima annually in September. Five miles
south of the city is the Yakima Indian Reservation, and the
eastern entrance to Rainier National Park is 50 m. N.W. The
city was incorporated in 1886 under the name of North Yakima.
In 1900 the population was 3,154, and this increased to 14,082
by 1910. "North" was dropped from the name in 1917.
YAK$AS. The Sanskrit designation Yak$a, of uncertain deri-
vation, is applied upon occasion to practically every Indian deity,
and even to the Buddha, in an honorific sense. Later, in sectarian
and especially in Buddhist literature, the Yak§as are represented
in the interests of edification either as devoted assistants and
defenders of the faith, or as inferior beings of an ogre type.
More generally we may say that Yaksas are supernatural beings,
deities of varying rank, who have once been men, and will be re-
born again on earth. Generally speaking benevolent, they are
closely connected with vegetation, human fertility and wealth;
they are essentially tree spirits, others being more like gnomes;
they possess magic powers, especially that of concealment.
The cult of Yaksas seems to have been at one time the domi-
nant aspect of popular religion in India; it may be described as an
early form of devotional Hinduism, perhaps going back to a period
in history contemporary with the Vedas. In the Atharva Veda
and in certain Upanisads the Brahman itself is called "a great
Yaksa," and the indwelling spirit in Man a "self-like Yaksa."
The individual Yak§as are for the most part local and tutelary
deities; the Sakyas, for example, worshipped the Yaksa Sakya-
vardhana. "He who prospers the Sakyas." Other Yakfas are the
guardian angels (drakkhadevata) of individuals. Others called
Guhyakas are earth spirits who function as the bearers of ve-
hicles and as supporters of buildings, like Atlantids. The chief of
the Yaksas is Kubera or VaiSramana, who is mentioned already
in the Atharva Veda, and is best known as the great king who
is regent of the north, where are his heaven, palaces and groves.
He is essentially a god of wealth; his chief symbols are a lotus
and a conch represented as fountains of money; as a tree-spirit he
is associated with the banyan (see Plate, fig. 8). Another great
Yaksa is his generalissimo, Manibhadra. A group of 28 Yaksa
kings is mentioned in more than one place, but the total number of
Yaksas mentioned in the literature is very large. Many have come
to be regarded as local manifestations of higher Brahmanical
deities, especially Siva. Kamadeva, the god of love, belongs appro-
priately to the Yaksa class; his symbol, the makara (mythical
crocodile), represents the waters, or rather an essence in the
waters, identical with the sap of trees, the water of life
(amrta).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. K. Coomaraswaray, "Yaksas," Smithsonian Insti-
tution Miscellaneous Publications, vol. 80, No. 6 (Washington, 1928) ;
J. M. Walhouse, "On the Belief in Bhutas, Devil and Ghost Worship in
Western India," Journ. Anthrop. Soc. (1876); Don M. de Z. Wick-
remasinghe, Cat. Sinhalese Mss. in the British Museum, pp. 44-54
(1900) ; E. Arbmann, Rudra (Uppsala, 1922) ; A. Hillebrandt, Vedish
Yak$a, in Festgabe Richard Garbe, Erlangen, 1927. (A. K. C.)
YAKUB KHAN (1849-1923), ex-amir of Afghanistan, son
of the amir Shere Ali, was born in 1849. He showed great ability
at an early age, and was made governor of Herat by his father,
but broke into open rebellion against him in 1870, and was im-
prisoned in 1874 in K^bul. However, when Shere Ali in 1878
fled before the British, he handed over the government to Yakub,
who, on his father's death in the following February, was pro-
claimed amir, and signed a treaty of peace with the British at
Gandamak. He agreed to receive a British resident, and was in
turn to receive a subsidy and support against foreign attack, But
in September of the same year his revolted troops attacked the
British residency, and the resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari, and his
staff and suite were cut to pieces. This outrage was instantly
avenged, for in October Earl (then Sir Frederick) Roberts with a
large force defeated the Afghans on the 6th and took possession
of Kabul on the i?th. Yakub Khan thereupon abdicated, took
refuge in the British camp, and was sent to India on Dec. 13. He
died at Dehra in the United Provinces on Nov. 15^ 1923.
YAKUTSK, an A.S.S.R. of Asiatic Russia formed in 1922,
stretching from the Siberian area on the west to the Far Eastern
area on the east, and from the Arctic ocean on the north to about
lat. 54° N., where it Is again bordered by the Far Eastern area.
It covers about 4,000,000 sq.km. and is therefore almost equal in
size to European Russia, but its total population in 1926 was
roughly 278,800.
The region is the least explored in Russia, and has a tragic
history of disaster overtaking many scientists whose efforts to
investigate this inhospitable region have given us what informa-
tion is available. A geological expedition sent out to the Aldan
watershed by the Soviet Government in 1926 nearly perished of
starvation and records that the price of salt was 4 grammes of gold
for 400 grammes of salt and that meat cost 30 to 40 grammes of
gold per kg. In 1927 the National Academy of Science organised
a further expedition which proposes to remain for five years'
investigation of various districts in Yakutsk.
Physical Features.— Much of Yakutsk is occupied by the
basin of the Lena (q.v.). The Lena forms the eastern marginal
river to that ancient block along the edge of which the Yenisei
(q.v.) flows in the west. It flows in a true valley of erosion of
very great age and is not confined by mountains except near its
mouth, where the Khara-ulakh range, a spur of the folded moun-
tains of the Verkhoyansk arc, rises on its right bank and deflects
its course, while subsidiary fold lints affect the lower courses
of the Olenek and the Anabar to the west. To the north lies a
broad tundra belt sloping to the Arctic, from which rise four domes
of basic eruptive rock.
Climate. — The soils of the republic are not favourable to
cultivation; a broad belt south of the Arctic consists of dry
clayey, stony tundra soil, merging southwards into forest tundra
soil and then into the ash coloured alkali forest soils of the south,
while there are belts of silty bog soils on the mountains. Along
the banks of the Lena and Olekma, are strips and patches of fertile
alluvial soils. The climate is severe and extreme, and Verkhoyansk
(67° 50' N., 133° 50' E.) has the greatest annual range of tempera-
ture in the world; its average January temperature is —59° F,
absolute minimum —90° F, average July temperature 60° F,
absolute maximum 93° F. The fact that this cold pole lies so far
cast shows that the Atlantic has much more moderating influence
than the Pacific, the latter being shut off by mountains, and also
having strong prevailing off-shore winds. The change of tempera-
ture between the seasons is sudden and there is a drop of 40° F
between October and November. At Yakutsk in lat. 62° i' N.,
winter is still extremely long and severe. The average January
temperature is —46° F and the river is frozen froirj Nov. 12 to
June 10 in most years.
Occupations.— The Skoptsi, an exiled religious sect, settled
in Yakutsk in the '6os of the I9th century and introduced agri-
culture in the neighbourhood of Olekminsk and Yakutsk. The
clean, well-built Skoptsi villages are in striking contrast to the
dirty Yakutsk settlements. Barley occupies 53%, spring rye 27%
and wheat 11% of the grain harvest. Potatoes, turnips and cab-
bages thrive and cultivation is slowly spreading in the alluvial
patches of the Lena and Aldan, though the disturbed post-1917
conditions have temporarily checked progress. The limit of culti-
vation here extends to 63-5° N. and during 1898-1917 the sown
area was trebled, many of the Yakuts sowing patches of grain.
Meadowland is important, and 725,000 tons of hay were raised
in 1925-26. Cattle and horse breeding is successful as far north
as Yakutsk; both horses and cattle are short, long-haired and
very hardy. The milk yield is small, but of good quality. There
are no sheep or pigs. Cattle-breeding would be much improved
by better attention to winter quarters and food: the animals are
crowded in insanitary huts, and plague often spreads.
North of this agricultural region is the region of the nomad
reindeer breeders, relying entirely on their herds, while in some
regions there is no reindeer-breeding and the natives rely on fish.
Ivory. — An important product is mammoth ivory, of which
25 tons were exported in the year 1926. The mammoth (Elephas
primi%eiuus) existed in comparatively recent times in great
numbers in the polar region of Siberia and entire carcasses, with
YAKUTSK— YALE UNIVERSITY
flesh, skin, fur and congealed blood in the veins have been found
in the region. Mammoth ivory is mentioned by Pliny and its
existence was known to the Russians in 1582.
Mines.— Gold is the main product of tne republic, realising
about 8,000,000 roubles in 1925-26. It has been known to the
Russians since the mid-igth century, when it was worked in the
Olekma mines, now abandoned. The Aldan mines, re-opened in
1923, produced about 280,000 oz. of gold that was registered in
1925-26 and much contraband was probably also raised. The
gold here is easily worked, being on or near the surface, but there
are great difficulties of transport and the miners are often unable
to procure the necessities of life. In 1914 a fresh source at
Nyukhinsk was discovered and is now being successfully exploited.
Iron ore is worked in an entirely primitive way and smelted
by the Yakuts to make hunting knives. They were capable smiths
long before the coming of the Russians. Coal of recent origin and
poor quality extends over a belt of 1,200 m. north and south of
Yakutsk, but is little used. There is an area of curative mud on
the Lena river with a high percentage of iron and aluminium, and
a health resort is planned. Sulphur springs exist in many places,
especially near Parsheva, and jasper and carncol are found below
Zhigansk, where there is iron, coal and platinum. Spars, amber,
graphite, gypsum, crystal and emerald are reported, but unworked.
Population. — The Yakuts are a Turkic branch of the Ural-
Altaic stock and their language closely resembles that of the
Turks. A Yakut grammar by Boethlingk was published in 1851.
They are thick set, brachycephalic, with dark eyes and hair,
narrow foreheads, broad noses and long narrow eyes.
The Yakuts form 85% of the population, and the Russians,
mainly in the Aldan mining region and in Yakutsk, form 11%.
There are also Chinese and Koreans in the mining district. Half
the population of the republic live in or near Yakutsk. In former
times brodyagi or escaped convicts were a great terror in the
district, and there has been much intermixture with Russian
exiles, convicts and traders.
The Tungus are another branch of the Ural-Altaic group, as
are the Lamuts. The Yukaghir are a Palaeo-Siberian tribe, mainly
found now between the Kolyma and Indigirka rivers and occu-
pied in hunting and fishing. They are very short, with yellow or
brown complexion, dark eyes and hair, and scanty beards. They
are fast dying out, especially since the advance westwards of the
Chukchee has lessened the number of wild reindeer. The latter
tribe is spreading westward from the Far Eastern Area (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Suess, Face of the Earth, vol. iii. and iv. (with bib-
liographical record of Russian expeditions) ; Kropotkin, Oro graphic de
la SibMe (1904) ; I. W. Shklovsky, In Far North-East Siberia (transl.
1916) ; Handbook of Siberia and Arctic Russia (1920) ; Nordcnskjold,
The Voyage of the Vega (1881) ; Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia (1914) ;
Atlas of the U.S.S.R. (1928) (in Russian) ; S. Obrucher, "Discovery of
a Great Range in North-East Siberia," Geographical Journal, vol. Ixx.,
No. 5, Nov. 1927. See also RUSSIA, Bibliography.
YAKUTSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, the administrative
centre of the Yakutsk A.S.S.R., situated 2 m. from the river
Lena, here 9 to 11 m. wide, on its left bank, in 62° 5' N., 129° 4'
E. Pop. (1926) 10,513. The alluvial soil on which it is built is
frozen all the year round, but thaws to a depth of 3 or 4 ft. in
summer, when the streets become quagmires. Many mud huts
exist, though there are some brick houses, and the schools,
churches and official buildings are of brick; some wooden houses
are built on high platforms as a protection against the June floods,
when the ice breaks on the river, which remains open till Novem-
ber. Winter sledge tracks radiate from the town to the Sea of
Okhotsk, Vilyuisk, the Kolyma and to Irkutsk (1,165 m.). There
are no good roads. There is telegraphic communication, but it
frequently breaks down, especially in spring and autumn, when
the roads are impassable and repair of the lines is impossible.
Efforts are being made to establish air communication with the
town and so lessen its isolation. Between the town and the Aldan
are meadow lands with sandy sub-soil and scattered clumps of
birch, willow and spruce. The fort was founded in 1632, and the
town later became a centre for the trade in furs, mammoth ivory,
reindeer hides and cattle. The policy of education in the ver-
nacular is being encouraged.
YALE UNIVERSITY, the third oldest institution of higher
education in the United States, situated at New Haven, Conn.
In 1 700 the needs of New England in the way of higher education
were supplied by Harvard college, at Cambridge. Massachusetts
Bay Colony was naturally the chief patron of Harvard, but Con-
necticut bore her full share in support of the enterprise. The two
commonwealths, however, diverged to some extent in their theo-
WREXHAM TOWER, MEMORIAL QUADRANGLE, AT YALE UNIVERSITY,
DESIGNED ON THE LINES OF WREXHAM CHURCH IN WALES, WHERE ELIHU
YALE, FIRST DONOR TO THE COLLEGE, IS BURIED
logical and political development and there arose the desire for a
separate college in Connecticut. The first distinct traces of this
scheme appear in the early summer of 1701, in the neighbourhood
of New Haven. The Rev. James Pierpont (Harvard, 1681),
minister of the New Haven church, was the chief promoter of the
new enterprise.
The General Court of the Colony met at New Haven on Oct. 9,
1701, and a charter was granted (probably on Oct. 16) "for the
founding, suitably endowing and ordering a Collegiate School
within his Majesty's Colony of Connecticut." The founders chose
the Rev. Abraham Pierson of their number as rector of the Col-
legiate school and it was at his parsonage in Killingworth that the
first scholar sought admission in March 1702.
The school continued at Killingworth, with the annual com-
mencements at Saybrook, until the death of Rector Pierson on
March 5, 1707. From 1707 to 1716, although the commencement
exercises were held annually at Saybrook, the students resided in
the several towns where their tutors were established. It was not
until a gift of nearly 1,000 volumes of great value was secured
by Jeremiah Dummcr, the agent for Connecticut at London, that
a building for the school became necessary. After much argument
it was decided to establish the institution at New Haven. A cargo
of gifts for the Collegiate school, from Elihu Yale, former gov-
ernor of Ft. St. George, Madras, India, and a native of Boston,
including, beside books, East India goods which were sold in
Boston for £562. 1 2s., led the trustees to use the name Yale college
at the commencement of 1718, the first to be held in the com-
pleted college building.
Although the Collegiate school had been founded independent
of church control, strong influence was exerted early in its history to
bring it under ecclesiastical domination. In 1722, when the rector,
Timothy Cutler, was dismissed because of a leaning toward
Episcopacy, the college required that every officer must publicly
accept the confession of faith adopted at the Synod (1708), and
that stern Calvinistic faith became the officially adopted creed
and was strictly tautfht to its scholars. Although President Clap
YALE UNIVERSITY
875
secured the passage in 1745 of a new charter which legalized the
name "Yale College" and in general provided a more explicit and
liberal statement of powers and privileges conferred in 1701 and
1723, the organization of a College Church in 1757 provoked
much criticism and revived the struggle to bring the college under
the control of the legislature. President Clap made a convincing
defence of the independent rights of the corporation but the
assembly refused to pass the usual grant to the college in 1755.
The charter drawn up by President Clap is still in force. In
1792 the governor and lieutenant governor of the State and six
senior State senators were made ex officio members of the cor-
poration. In 1872 the six senators were replaced by six graduates,
chosen by the alumni. The act authorizing the name Yale uni-
versity was passed in 1887.
The curriculum of -the college changed but little before the
administration of Timothy Dwight the Elder (1795-1817), who
expanded the usefulness of the college by the organization of pro-
fessional schools. Benjamin Silliman, Sr. (1779-1864), was ap-
pointed to the first chair in chemistry, mineralogy and geology in
the United States in 1802. In 1810 a nfedical department was
established, and the theological and law departments were organ-
ized in 1822 and 1824.
Under the administration of Theodore Dwight Woolsey (1846-
71) graduate courses were organized in 1846 and the Graduate
school (under the title Department of Philosophy and the Arts)
was established the following year. The degree of Doctor of
Philosophy was first conferred in the United States by Yale in
1861. In 1847 also courses in applied chemistry were offered and
in 1852 instruction in engineering. Two years later these courses
were distinguished as a separate section with the title "Yale
Scientific School," which was changed in 1863 to "Sheffield
Scientific School" in appreciation of the assistance of Mr. Joseph
E. Sheffield, of New Haven, who endowed the school in 1860 and
subsequently increased his original gifts by frequent donations.
In 1863 the Connecticut legislature gave to the scientific school a
grant for promotion of scientific education, so that, until revoca-
tion ot this act in 1892, this school was also the State college of
agriculture and applied arts. The School of Fine Arts, established
through the generosity of Augustus R. Street, was opened to
students in 1869, the first of its kind to come within the scope of
any university. The elective system of instruction was substituted
for the fixed curriculum in 1876 and in the same year the degree
of Master of Arts was first given; a graduate course in law also
was established, offering the first advanced course in America or
England leading to the degree of Doctor of Civil Law,
During the presidency (1886-99) of Timothy Dwight, grand-
son of the former President Dwight, the institution more than
doubled in resources, faculty and student enrolment. The School
of Music was established in 1894, and its work augmented through
the patronage of Joseph Battell, Albert Arnold Sprague and his
daughter, Mrs. Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge.
An outstanding feature of the administration of Arthur Twining
Hadley (1899-1921) was the development of the university idea
co-ordinating the various schools and departments. The School of
Forestry, the oldest forest school in continuous operation in the
United States, was founded in 1900, as the result of the gifts of
James W. Pinchot and his family.
The establishment, through the gift of Edward L. Harkness, of
a department of drama in the School of the Fine Arts, and of a
School of Nursing by gifts from the Rockefeller Foundation and
the development of facilities for an Institute of Human Relations,
indicate the latest additions to the opportunities offered by Yale.
The present (1929) board of trustees, called the Yale cor-
poration, consists of the president of the university, James Row-
land Angell, the governor and lieutenant governor of Connecticut,
ten fellows known as the successors of the original trustees, and
six graduates elected for six-year terms. The corporation has five
administrative officers, the president, provost, secretary, treasurer
and associate treasurer and controller. The general administra-
tion of each school of the university is in the hands of a dean
and a board of permanent officers, subject to the approval of the
corporation. The university council, made up of the university's
administrative officers, the deans, elected representatives of the
divisions and other officers, helps to co-ordinate the work of the
different schools and departments and considers educational prob-
lems of the university. The teaching in the university is divided
among 35 departments of study which serve the various schools.
All members of these departments who are of professorial grade
are grouped in four divisions: language, literature and the arts;
history and the social sciences; mathematics and the natural
sciences; and engineering courses of study in candidacy for
degrees in course are offered in ten schools which confer in all 25
degrees and two certificates.
The course of study in Yale College is designed to provide for
substantial mastery of some one field of humanistic: study together
with an intelligent acquaintance with allied subjects. The Shef-
field Scientific school provides for concentration in the principal
fields of science and engineering, besides offering many electives.
The school of the Fine Arts offers four professional courses,
architecture, drama, painting and sculpture, in which lectures
are combined with technical practice. The School of Music ad-
mits those who intend to become musicians by profession, or
to enter the field of musical criticism and literature of music.
The curriculum of 28 months (the equivalent of three college
years) in the School of Nursing is divided into pre-dinical (four
months) and clinical (two years) periods. Women are admitted
to the Graduate school, School of Medicine, School of Law and
School of Music, and to the courses in drama, painting and sculp-
ture in the School of the Fine Arts.
The University library, including departmental collections, had
a total (1928) of 1,902,512 volumes and pamphlets. Besides the
gifts in the early years of the college, particular mention should
be made of the Aldis collection of American belles lettres, the
Elizabethan Club library of Shakespeare quartos and folios,
the Henry R. Wagner collection of British and Irish economic
and historical tracts, the Parker collection of books on Napoleon
and the Ezra Stiles manuscript diaries and itineraries. Other
important collections are the Penniman library of education, the
William A. Speck collection of classical German literature, the
Albert S. Wheeler Roman law library, the Lowell Mason music
library, the Frederick S. Dickson collection of Fielding's works,
the Scandinavian library of Count Riant, the Curtius and Seymour
libraries of classical literature, the Robert von Mohl library of
political science, the Edward M. House collection of historical
papers and the J. Sumner Smith Russian library. Among its rare
volumes the library has a copy of the Gutenberg 42 line Bible.
The collections of the School of the Fine Arts include the Jarves
gallery of Italian art, numbering 120 primitives (i3th to i?th
centuries); the Trumbull gallery of historical portraits and other
works, numbering 102 pictures; the Alden collection of Belgian
Renaissance woodwork; and the Achelis collection of Durer and
Rembrandt prints. The university also owns a valuable collec-
tion of Greek and Italian vases. The Peabody museum of natural
history was given by George Peabody in 1866.
The Yale university press was founded in 1908 for the publica-
tion of works having permanent interest and value. Since 1926
the Yale university press has published the Yale Review (1892),
a national quarterly owned by the university. The university
also publishes the American Journal of Science (1818), the oldest
scientific publication in the United States, founded by Prof. Ben-
jamin Silliman. The publications which are under the direction
of students are the Yde Law Journal, Yale Literary Magazine
(founded in 1836), the first undergraduate publication in the
country, the Yale Daily News (1878), the oldest daily, the Yale
Record, a humorous monthly, and the Yale Scientific Magazine.
In 1929 there were 680 officers and instructors and 508 assis*
tants in instruction and administration. The students registered
as candidates for degrees numbered 5,025 ; of this total 3,189 were
undergraduates and 1,836 students in the graduate and profes-
sional schools. There were also 718 students who were not
enrolled as candidates for degrees or certificates.
The buildings number 77. Connecticut hall (1752), a four-
storey brick building with gambrel roof, long known as South
Middle college, is the only building remaining from the i8th
876
YALU— YANCEY
century. The university funds on June 30, 1928, amounted to
$58,024,459.36 ($21,181,302.17 in 1918), exclusive of land and
buildings valued at $50,000,000, and of funds and property
amounting to $2,712,013.78 held by the Snemeld trustees. The
total income in 1927-28 was $5,960,665.25.
The alumni advisory board, representing the alumni groups
through duly elected members, serves to secure careful discussion
of university interests. In 1926 there were 23,752 living degree
holders and 8,964 non-graduates, the majority from (he North
Atlantic division, but other sections of the country are well repre-
sented, as well as foreign countries. The division according to
occupations shows a preponderance in the fields of education,
medicine, ministry, engineering, banking, industry and commerce.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — L. H. Ba^g, Four Years at Yale (New Haven,
1871); official publications of Yale university; W. L. Kingsley, ed.,
Yale College, A Sketch of its History, etc. (1879); F. B. Dexter,
Sketch of the History of Yale University (1887), and Biographical
Sketches of Yale College with Annals of the College History, 1701-
1815 (1885-1912); L. S. Wdch and W. Camp, Yale, Her Campus,
Class Rooms, and Athletics (Boston, 1899); A. P. Stokes, Memorials
of Eminent Yale Men (New Haven, 1914) ; E. Oviatt, The Beginnings
of Yale, 1701-1726 (New Haven, 1916). (L. G. B.)
YALU, BATTLE OF THE. This was the opening battle
on land of the RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR, and is described under that
heading. Fought on May i, 1904, by Gen. Kuroki's I. Army, ad-
vancing from Korea, the Japanese success was a valuable moral
tonic and created a profound impression in Europe.
YAM, a term usually applied to the tubers of various species
of Dioscorea of the monocotyledonous family Dioscoreaceae.
These are plants with thick tubers (generally a development of
the base of the stem), from which protrude long, slender, annual
climbing stems, bearing alternate or opposite, entire or lobed
leaves and unisexual tlowers in long clusters. The flowers are gen-
erally small and individually inconspicuous, though collectively
showy.- Each consists of a greenish, bell-shaped or flat perianth
of six pieces, enclosing six or fewer stamens in the male flowers,
and surmounting a three-celled, three-winged ovary in the female
flowers. The ovary ripens into a membranous capsule, bursting
by three valves to liberate numerous flattish or globose seeds.
The species are natives of the warmer regions of both hemispheres.
D. sativa and D. data are the species most widely diffused in
tropical and subtropical countries. D. aculeata, grown in India,
Cochin China and the South Sea islands, is one of the best varie-
ties. D. Batatas, the Chinese yam, or Chinese potato, is hardy in
Great Britain, but the great depth to which its enormous tubers
descend renders its cultivation unprofitable. It has deeply pene-
trating, thick, club-shaped, fleshy roots, full of starch (about 13%
of the fresh weight) which when cooked acquire a mild taste like
that of a potato; they grow 3 ft. or upwards in length, and some-
times weigh more than i^ Jb. The plant grows freely in deep sandy
soil, moderately enriched. The tubers of D. alata sometimes weigh
loo Ib. Most of the yams contain an acrid principle, which is
dissipated in cooking.
The only European species is D. pyrenaica, a native of the
Pyrenees, a remarkable instance of a species growing at a long
distance from all its congeners. In N6rth America there is a single
native species, D. villosa, called wild yam-root or colic-root. This
is found from Rhode Island to Ontario and Minnesota and south-
ward to Florida and Texas, but is of slight economic value. True
yams must not be confounded with the sweet potato, Ipomoea
Batatas. The common black bryony (Tamius communis) of
hedges in England is closely allied to the yams of the tropics, and
has a similar root-stock, which is reputed to be poisonous.
For the history of the yam, and its cultivation and uses in India, see
G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, iii. (1890).
YAMA, in Vedic Hindu mythology the twin of his sister
YamI, and with her the first human pair. Yama is king of the
dead, and later, their judge. The word is Sanskrit for "twin."
YAMAGATA, ARITOMO, PRINCE (1838-1922), Japanese
field-marshal, was born in Choshu. He began life as an ordinary
samurai and rose steadily in reputation and rank, being created
a count in 1884, a marquess in 1895 (after the war with China)
and a prince in 1907 (after the war with Russia). He twice held
the post of premier, and was the leader of Japanese conservatism,
being a staunch opponent of party cabinets. He died at Odawara
on Feb. i, 1922.
YAMAMOTO, TATSUO, BARON (1856- ), Japanese
statesman, was born in Oita-ken, and educated at Keio. After
some time in a business career he entered in 1890 the Bank of
Japan of which he was appointed director and then governor
(1898-1903). In 1910 he became governor of Hypothec Bank of
Japan. He was made minister of finance in 1911-1912, minister
of agriculture and commerce in 1913-1914, and again in 1918-
1922. At that time he belonged to the Seiyukai Party, but
in 1924 he seceded and established a new party, Seiyuhonto,
with Tokonami, as leader, becoming himself the adviser to the
party. When the Kenseikwai and the Seiyuhonto parties united
to form the Minseito, in 1927, he became the adviser to the new
party. He was made the crown member of the house of peers in
1903, and created baron in 1920.
YAMBOL, a town of Bulgaria, on the river Tunja, 49 m. W.
of Burgas by rail, and an important corn growing centre. Pop.
(1926) 23,134. In the lown are the remains of old fortifications,
and the ruins of a fine mosque. Yambol is first mentioned in the
nth century, when it was known by the Byzantines as Hyampolis.
YAMETHIN, a town and district in the Mandalay division of
Burma. The town has a station on the railway 275 m. N. of.
Rangoon on the main line to Mandalay. It is an important centre
of trade with the Shan States. The district lies between the
Shan States and the Meiktila, Magwe and Toungoo districts and
comprises the Sittang valley in the centre, the Pegu Yomas on the
west and the forested Shan hills on the east. Area, 4,176 sq.m.;
pop. (1921) 323,189, showing an increase of 16,810 in the decade.
The staple crop is rice, which is irrigated from tanks and canals.
Millets and oil-seeds are grown in the north, where drought has
more than once caused distress. Besides the chief town, Pyinmana
and Pyawbwe, both also on the railway, carry on an active trade
with the Shan States. Pyinmana has a forest school, and from
Pyinmana a branch railway now crosses the forested Pegu Yomas
to the Magwe district.
YANCEY, WILLIAM LOWNDES (1814-1863), Ameri-
can political leader, son of Benjamin Cudworth Yancey, lawyer
of South Carolina, was born in Warren county, Ga., on Aug. 10,
1814. He attended Williams college for one year, studied law
at Greenville, S.C., and was admitted to the bar. He was
elected in 1841 to the State house of representatives, became
State senator in 1843 and in 1844 was elected to the na-
tional House of Representatives to fill a vacancy, being re-elected
in 1845. In 1846 he resigned his seat, and devoted himself to the
resistance of anti-slavery aggression. In 1848 he secured the
adoption by the State Democratic convention of the so-called
"Alabama Platform/* declaring that it was the duty of Congress
not only to allow slavery in all the territories but to protect it,
that a territorial legislature could not exclude it, and that the
Democratic Party should not support for president or vice presi-
dent a candidate not openly opposed to the exclusion of slavery
from the Territories. When the Democratic convention in Balti-
more refused to incorporate his ideas into the platform, Yancey
with one colleague left the convention. He opposed the Compro-
mise of 1850, and went so far as openly to advocate secession.
In 1858 he advocated the appointment of committees of safety,
the formation of a league of united southerners, and the repeal
of the laws making the African slave-trade piracy. He attended
the Charleston convention of the Democratic Party in April
1860, and again demanded the adoption of his ideas. Defeated,
he again left the hall, followed by the delegates of Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, Texas and two
of the three delegates from Delaware. On the next day the
Georgia and a majority of the Arkansas delegation withdrew.
In the Baltimore convention of the seceders he advocated
the nomination of John C. Breckinridge, and made a tour of the
country on his behalf. When the South seceded, he delivered the
address of welcome to Jefferson Davis on his arrival at Mont-
gomery, but declined a place in President Davis's cabinet. On
March 31, 1861, he mailed for Europe as the head of a commis-
YANG-CHOW-FU— YAP
877
sion sent to secure recognition of the Confederate Government,
but returned in 1862 to take a seat in the Confederate senate.
On account of his failing health, he left Richmond early in 1863,
and on July 27 died at his home near Montgomery.
See Joseph Hodgson, The Cradle oj the Confederacy (1876) ; J. W.
Du Bose, Life and Times of W. L. Yancey (1892) ; W. G. Brown, The
Lower South in American Historv (1902) ; J. W. Du Bose, "Yancey:
A Study/' Gulf States Hist. Ma&., vol. i., pp. 239-252, 311-324 (Mont-
gomery, Ala., 1903) ; and G. Petrie, "What Will Be the Final Estimate
of Yancey," Alabama Hist. Soc., Reprint No. 14 (1904).
YANG-CHOW-FU, a city in the province of Kiangsu,
China, formed of the two distinct cities of Kiang-tu and Kanch-
'uan. Population about 100,000. The. walls are between 3 and
4 m. in circumference. It was the ancient capital of the Yang
Kingdom. It possesses an early historical connection with for-
eigners for Marco Polo ruled over it for three years by appoint-
ment from Kublai Khan (?i282-85). It is a cultural and literary
centre rather than an industrial or commercial city.
YANGTZE KIANG (Yahng-ts-Ke-ahng), the principal
commercial river of the country. This river, the length of which
is estimated at some 3,000 miles, is known as the Yangtze by
Europeans throughout its course, but among the Chinese this term
indicates only the last three or four hundred miles where it flows
through a region known in ancient times as "Yang." The ordinary
official name for the whole river is Ch'ang Kiang or Ta Chiang,
meaning the "long river" or the "great river." Popularly in the
upper reaches every section has its local name. As it enters China
it is known as the Kinsha Kiang (river of Golden Sand) and
farther down as the Pai-shui Kiang; in Szechwan after its junction
with the Min it is for some distance called the Min-kiang.
The beginnings of the river are somewhat indefinite but may
be located in the high and difficult country between Tibet, Sin-
kiang and Kuku-nor. The river flows in a south-easterly direc-
tion not far removed from some of the headwaters of the Hwang-
ho. Proceeding south-eastward the Yangtze follows one of those
narrow longitudinal valleys separated from one another by lofty
ridges that mark the bending southward of the eastern extensions
of the Himalayan folds against the older core of south-east China.
At Batang in this section of the course the river is 8,540 ft. above
sea-level. Its entrance into China proper is marked by bends in
its course as it bursts through lines of weakness in the sides of
the corridor valleys. The river then begins a long south-west
to north-east course through the Red Basin of Szechwan. As the
Yangtze cuts across the longitudinal valleys it receives many
tributaries (flowing in parallel valleys) all naturally on the left
hand bank. At Wa-Wu in Szechwan the height of the river is
1,900 ft. above sea-level, a fall of about 8 ft. per mile from Batang.
Through the Red Basin of Szechwan the Yangtze flows at first
with fairly low banks but towards the east it becomes deeply
encased and the rapids are many and dangerous. This is due to
the fact that Szechwan is tilted down against the up-thrust of the
fault-line of the west and thus the river cuts with ease through its
western half but gets through on the east by means of deep
gorges. (See SZE-CHUEN.) At Chung-king, where the Kialing
enters on the left, the river is only 630 ft. above sea-level. After
receiving the Wu-kiang on the right the river enters deep gorges ^
and emerges at I'chang (130 ft. above sea-level.) In its subsequent
course the river skirts the north side of the old land-block of
south-east China. Here the physical features are mostly set
north-north-east to south-south-west or west-north-west to east-
south-east. The Yangtze follows these directions alternately in
successive sections. Below I'chang it is in the Hupeh basin, the
Han flows in from the north-west and the basin focuses on
Hankow (q.v.).
From I'chang to the sea, a distance of 1,000 miles, the fall of
the river is exceedingly small, being as far as Hankow at the rate
of 2^ inches and from Hankow to the mouth at the rate of little
more than i inch per mile. The last 200 miles of the Yangtze
course are practically a dead level.
The drainage area in Szechuan and below is about 650,000 sq.m.,
of which more than four-fifths lie above Hankow. The period of
low water is from December to March. Melting snows in Tibet
together with the summer monsoon cause, an annual rise in the
river of from 70 to 90 ft. at Chungking and from 40 to 50 ft. at
Hankow. The mean volume of water discharged into the sea is
estimated at 770,000 cu.ft. per second and the quantity of sedi-
ment at the mouth ai 6,428 million cu.ft. per annum.
The Yangtze forms a commercial highway of first class im-
portance. Except in winter-low-water, vessels of between 5,000-
6,000 tons can reach Hankow. Sandbanks between Hankow and
Fchang make navigation more difficult and above I'chang the
gorges add to the dangers. But on the whole the Yangtze as a
highway is the collecting and distributing centre of half the com-
merce of all China. Various "agreements" between China, Britain
and other powers from 1898 have given Britain political influence
over most of the Yangtze basin.
The great towns and centres of trade on the banks of the river
are Chin-kiang at the junction with the Grand Canal; Nanking;
An-king; Hankow and Wu Chang, I'chang, King-chow; Kwei-
chow; Chung-king, and Sui fu.
YANKEE. The term means properly a citizen of New Eng-
land, but by extension, chiefly by Europeans, it is often used to in-
dicate any native of the United States. The origin of the word is
uncertain, but according to a common statement the Massachu-
setts Indians are reported to have given the name, Yenkees, or
Yenghecs, to the English colonists, the term being a corruption of
the word English; or as some think, a corruption of the French
word, anglais, in which case the word must have originated in
Canada, as the early Canadian Indians were the only ones in con-
tact with the French, The British soldiers seem to have used it
as a term of reproach for the New Englanders about 1775, who
afterwards took up the word and used it in reference to them-
selves. During the Civil War the Southerners used it in a derisive
sense to indicate inhabitants of the Northern States.
YANKTON, a city of South Dakota, U.S.A., on the high
bank of the Missouri river, near the mouth of the James, 1,200
ft. above sea-level, and 60 m. from the S.E. corner of the State;
the county seat of Yankton county. It is on Federal highway
8 1 and is served by the Chicago and North Western, the Chicago,
Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, and the Great • Northern rail-
ways, and by motor-coach lines to many points. Pop. (1925
State census) 5,507. In 1780 Pierre Durien reached the Indian
village then occupying the site of Yankton, and married into
the tribe. He guided the Lewis and Clark expedition from Saint
Louis to Yankton, and in 1811 his son accompanied the Astoria
expedition up (he river and on to the Coast. In 1858 a permanent
trading post was established here. The city was laid out in 1859,
chartered in 1869, and in 1910 adopted a commission form of
government. From 1861 to 1882 it was the capital of the
Territory of Dakota.
YAOS or AJAWA, a Bantu-Negroid people of east-central
Africa, whose home is the country around the upper reaches of
the Rovuma river, and the north of Portuguese East Africa. They
have spread into the territory south of Lake Nyasa and throughout
the Shire districts. They are the tallest and strongest of the
natives in the Mozambique country. They were formerly slave-
traders, but were reduced to submission by the English in
1896.
See Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (1906) ;
Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa (1897) ; H. L. Duff, Nyasa-
land under the Foreign Office (1903).
YAP. This island of the Caroline group, formerly owned by
Germany, is situated in the Pacific ocean, south of Japan and
east of the Philippines, and north of the equator, in lat. 9-35 N.,
long., 138-15 E. It has an estimated population of 7,155, almost
entirely of Malay origin.
The importance of Yap arises from its cable connections,
since it is a station on the direct line from the United States to
the Dutch East Indies via Guam, while another cable runs from
Yap to Shanghai. On May 7, 1919, Japan was given a mandate
over the islands north of the equator previously owned by Ger-
many, including Yap. The United States Government protested,
and asked for a reopening of the subject on the ground that at
the Peace Conference it had reserved the right to object to exclu-
sive control of the cable landings by Japan and taken the position
8;8
YAPOK— YARMOUTH
that the island should be internationalized for cable purposes.
Further, it was contended, the United States, not having ratified
the Treaty of Versailles, was not bound by it. The supreme coun-
cil of the Allies expressed its inability to reopen the matter. The
controversy was finally disposed of at the Washington confer-
ence, Dec. 12, 1921, by an agreement between the two Powers,
wherein the United States recognized the Japanese mandate and
Japan agreed that the United States should have free access to
the island on a footing of entire equality with Japan or any other
nation in respect to the Yap-Guam cable and any other cables
which might be laid by the United States or its nationals, and
also similar rights and privileges in regard to radio-telegraphic
service. The United States was also granted free entry and exit
for persons and property. The United States Senate ratified the
convention embodying this agreement March i, 1922. (See
WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.)
YAPOK: see WATER-OPOSSUM.
YA'QUBI [Ahmad ibn abi Ya'qub ibn Ja'far ibn Wahb ibn
Wadih] (gth century), Arab historian and geographer, was a
great-grandson of Wadih, the freedman of the caliph Mansur.
Until 873 he lived in Armenia and Khurasan; then he travelled
in India, Egypt and the Maghrib, where he died in 891. His
history is divided into two parts. In the first he gives a compre-
hensive account of the pre-Mohammedan and non-Mohammedan
peoples, especially of their religion and literature. For the time
of the patriarchs his source is now seen to be the Syriac work
published by C. Bezold as Die Schatzhohle. In his account of
India he is the first to give an account of the stories of Kalila
and Dimna, and of Sindibad (Sinbad). When treating of. Greece
he gives many extracts from the philosophers (cf. M. Klamroth
in the Zeitschrift der deutschev\ morgenldndischen GeseUschaft,
vols. 3d. and xli.). The second part contains Mohammedan history
up to 872, and is neither extreme nor unfair, although he inherited
Shi'ite leanings from his great-grandfather.
Edition by T. Houtsma (2 vote., Leiden, 1883). Ya'qubl's geography,
the Kitab id-Bulddn, contains a description of the Maghrib, with a full
account of the larger cities and much topographical and political
information (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden, 1892). (G. W. T.)
YAQUI, the best known and sturdiest Indian tribe of Sonora,
Mexico. Their language, generally called Cahita by older authors,
belongs to the Finnan division of the Uto-Aztecan family. The
Yaqui were, and in part remain, settled agriculturists, but offered
a stubborn resistance to the first Spanish invaders. They grad-
ually came under mission influence, but in the i9th century Mexi-
can encroachments on their lands and water rights led to a series
of uprisings which were quelled with difficulty only to flare up
anew, and since the final subjugation of the Apache, left the Yaqui
the one unsubdued and feared tribe in North America. They pass
as the best labourers in Sonora, and several thousand have recently
settled in Arizona. They number about 30,000.
YAQtJT or YAKUT (Yaqut ibn 'Abdallah ur-Rumi) (1179-
1229), Arab geographer and biographer, was born in Greece of
Greek parentage, but in his boyhood became the slave of a
merchant of Hamah (Hamath), who trained him for commercial
travelling and sent him two or three times to Kish in the Persian
Gulf. After his master's death he became a bookseller, and he
travelled in Persia, Syria, Egypt and visited Merv, Balkh, Mosul
and Aleppo. About 1222 he settled in Mosul and worked on his
geography, the first draft of which was ready in 1224. After a
journey to Alexandria in 1227 he went to Aleppo, where he died
in 1229. In his large geography, the Mu'jam ul-Bulddn (ed. F.
Wiistenfeld, 6 vols., Leipzig, 1866-73), the places mentioned in
the literature or the stories of the Arabs are given in alphabetical
order, with the correct vocalization of the names, an indication
whether they are Arabic or foreign and their locality. A sketch of
their history and of their monuments follows.
The parts of this work relating to Persia have been extracted and
translated by Barbier de Meynard under the title Dictionnaire gto-
grafhique, historique et litttraire de la Perse (1871). Yaqut wrote
a dictionary of geographical homonyms, the Mushtarik (ed. F. Wiisten-
feld GSttingen, 1846). YaqQt also wrote an important dictionary of
learned men, the Mu'jam ul-Udabd'. Vol i. has been edited by D. S.
Margoliouth, Irshdd al-Arib II a Mart/at al Adlb (London, 1908).
YARKAND (Chinese name SOCHE Fu), the largest town in
one of the two chief oases of the Tarim basin in the dominion of
Sinkiang, 38° 25' N. and 77° 16' E., 3,900 ft. above sea-level.
The oasis lies along several rivers of the south-west part of the
Tarim basin and, as these streams come from the glaciers of high
Pamir, they are strong and give a good water supply. The Kash-
gar oasis lies to the north-west and the Khotan oasis (across a
desert belt) to the south-east. In the Yarkand oasis irrigation is
highly developed and the soil at the foot of the mountains is largely
fertile loess on which wheat, barley, rice, beans, and oil plants are
grown, while there are also many fruit orchards. Among the
mountains there is good pasture and large herds of camels, yaks,
goats, sheep and cattle are kept. Cotton and silk (mulberry) are
cultivated to same extent.
Marco Polo visited Yarkand between 1271 and 1275 and Goes
went there in 1603. Schlagintweit passed through Yarkand a few
days before he was killed at Kashgar in 1857.
The town is surrounded by a great earth wall with towers of
Chinese type and has mosques and madrasas (colleges) of great
fame though less well known than those of Bukhara and Samar-
kand. Estimates of the population, all some years old, vary from
50,000 to 100,000, probably according to the extent to which
suburbs have been reckoned with the city. There are several
smaller towns in the Yarkand oasis: Tashkurgan on the Pamirs,
Yangi-hissar, Posgam, Kargalyk, at the bifurcation of ways to
Khotan and Ladakh, Sanju, Tagarchi, Kartchum, Besh-taryk and
Guma. The city is a centre of caravan trade along routes from
Cadakh, Khotan, Kansu and Trans-Caspian regions, as well as
India and Russia generally. Horses, cotton, skins and leather and
leather goods, carpets, silk, etc., are dealt in, and carpets as well as
woven stuffs in silk, cotton and wool are made.
YARMOUTH, a seaport town and port of entry, Yarmouth
county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Dominion Atlantic and
Canadian National railways, 218 m. from Halifax. Pop. (1921)
7,073. Steamers run to Boston, Mass., and to St. John, N.B., and
Halifax. Fish and lumber are exported.
YARMOUTH, a port at the western extremity of the Isle
of Wight, England, on the Solent, where the estuary of the Yar
debouches. Pop. (1921) 893. Steamers connect it with the S.R.
at Lymington on the mainland. It appears in the Domesday
Survey of 1086 under the name of Ermud.
YARMOUTH (GREAT YARMOUTH), a municipal, county and
parliamentary borough, watering-place, and seaport of Norfolk,
England (with a small portion in Suffolk), 121 m. N.E. from
London by the L.N.E.R., served also by the M. and G.N.R. Pop.
(1921) 60,700.
Yarmouth (Magna Gernetnutha) , which lies near the site of the
Roman camp of Garianonum, is believed to have been the landing-
place of Cerdic in the 5th century. Not long afterwards, the con-
venience of its situation having attracted many fishermen from the
Cinque Ports, a permanent settlement was made, and the town
numbered 70 burgesses before the Conquest. Henry I. placed
it under the rule of a reeve. The charter of King John (1208),
which gave his burgesses of Yarmouth general liberties according
to the customs of Oxford, a gild merchant and weekly hustings,
wds amplified by several later charters asserting the rights of the
borough. In 1552 Elizabeth granted a charter of admiralty juris-
diction, afterwards confirmed and extended by James I. In 1668
Charles II. incorporated Little Yarmouth in the borough by a
charter which with one brief exception remained in force till
1703, when Anne replaced the two bailiffs by a mayor, reducing the
aldermen and common councilmen to 18 and 36. Yarmouth re-
turned two members to parliament from 1300 to 1868, when it
was disfranchised until 1885. The borough now returns one mem-
ber. The herring trade, which has always been the main industry
of Yarmouth, used to be carried on at an annual fair between
Michaelmas and Martinmas.
Yarmouth lies on a long and narrow peninsula of sand, between
the North sea and the Breydon Water (formed by the rivers Yare
and Waveney) and the river Bure. The old town of Great Yar-
mouth was built chiefly along the east bank of the Yare, but the
modern town has extended beyond its ancient walls, of which some
YARN
879
remains exist, to the seashore. On the landward or Suffolk side
of the estuary is the suburb of Southtown, and farther south that
of Gorleston. The principal features of Yarmouth are the north
and south quays, and the straight narrow lanes called "rows,"
145 in number, running at right angles to them. The old town is
connected with Little Yarmouth by a bridge across the Yare of
stone and iron, erected in 1854. The church of St. Nicholas,
founded in not by Herbert Losinga, and consecrated in 1119, is
the largest parish church in England.
Yarmouth roads, off the coast, afford excellent anchorage ex-
cept in E. or N.E. winds. The channel to the quays was made
by Joost Jansen, a Dutch engineer, in 1567, and affords a depth
at the bar of 1 2 ft. at low water. The herring and mackerel fish-
eries are most important, and fish-curing is an extensive indus-
try, Yarmouth bloaters being widely famous. The fishing fleet
numbers some 500 vessels of 20,000 tons, and employs about 3,000
hands. The principal imports are coal, timber and seeds, and ex-
ports are grain and fish.
See Victoria County History, Norfolk; H. Swindcn, History of Great
Yarmouth (1772) ; C. J. Palmer, History oj Great Yarmouth (1854) :
Marlowe, People and Places in Marshland (1927)
YARN. The derivation of this word from "garn" a word com-
mon to the Scandinavian languages, meaning "guts," is interesting
since today "cat-gut," which may be the drawn-out "guts" of
the silk-worm, is a well-known commodity; and the same "guts"
spun by the silk-worm itself into a fine filament are the basis
of the best silk yarn produced. The silk-worm, however, in its
"spinning" simply thins-out the silk fluid to a double microscopic
strand some 500 to 1,000 yards long, several of which are com-
bined by mechanical means to form a yarn; while the human
spinner usually combines a number of much shorter fibres or
filaments, also by mechanical means, into a continuous strand
often much longer than the i ,000 yards filament of the silk-worm ;
and this also is spoken of as a yarn.
Materials. — The materials from which yarns arc constructed
or spun markedly influence the processes of production. In the
case of the best silk yarn the worm itself does what is termed the
spinning and the later running-together of several of the long
silk filaments is not spoken of as spinning but as "throwing."
In the case of a typical short fibre — say the cotton fibre £"-2"
long — the spinning process is the binding together of many thou-
sands of cotton fibres into a fine regular, continuous thread —
usually spoken of as "yarn." Two or more of these threads or
single yarns may be combined together by "twisting" to produce a
thicker, stronger yarn. Of the true long fibres there are only two
types, the natural silk reeled from the cultivated silk-cocoon and
the synthetic artificial silks.
Of the short fibres there are many classes. The longest are the
waste silks just mentioned; then come the animal fibres includ-
ing hairs and wools up to 18" long, short wools down to, say,
2" long and broken-up wool fibres (variously termed shoddy,
mungo, extract, flocks, etc., according to their source and manner
of breaking up from the virgin wool clothes, knitted garments,
etc.) which (it is popularly said) can be spun into yarn if they
possess two ends; next come the "stem-fibres" such as flax (pro-
ducing linen yam), hemp, jute and china-grass which may vary
in length from several inches down to fractions of an inch ; lastly
come the cotton fibres and cotton wastes often under one inch
in length along with which should perhaps be ranked the mineral
fibre asbestos, which may be spun into a yarn from which fire-
proof cloths are woven.
Structures.— ^arn structures may be considered from two
points of view, in the first case particular fibres lend themselves
only to particular "fibre combinations." Thus long silk filaments
can only be "thrown" together with or without "twist." But the
twisting of silk filaments is an art in itself. Thus several filaments
may be reeled together from separate cocoons and these given
a suitable "combining-twist" to produce what is known as singles;
then several of these singles may be thrown together with little
twist to produce almost a "paralleled-fibre" thread termed "tram"
the most lustrous yarn known, or with much twist to produce a
strong, fairly lustrous yarn termed "organ^ne" which is employed
as "warp." On the other hand one inch cotton fibres after being
drawn into a fairly fine "paralleled sliver" termed a "roving" can
only be spun out into a fine thread by means of "supporting twist"
which no doubt binds the fibres more or less concentrically in the
thread or yarn: this is said to be the true form of spinning —
draft (that is, drawing-out thinner) against twist.
Fancy Twists. — These naturally group themselves into three
classes, viz., structural twists; colour twists; and structural-and-
colour twists. Of the first class the two most important are the
knop yarn — in which knops are formed at any required intervals
on an otherwise level thread by holding one thread tightly and
allowing the second thread to run in slackly to form knops of the
required size, after which equal delivery of the two threads for
the required length is followed again by the varied delivery to
form the knop; and the curl yarn — in which a knop yarn is first
formed and then this two-fold yarn twisted, in the opposite direc-
tion, with a third thread, this opening out the knops into loops
which may be produced at more or less regular intervals or
"spaced," i.e., a length of the thread without loops and then a
series of loops, which in turn are followed by a length of the thread
without loops. Of fancy colour twists the simplest is the cork-
screw twist which is formed by first twisting, say, a dark and a
light thread in the normal manner and then twisting this two-fold
yarn in the reverse direction, with a third dark thread, this produc-
ing the special appearance which gives its name to the yarn.
Other Fancy Yarns. — Fancy yarns of an effective character
may also be produced with simple modification in the normal
carding and spinning processes. Thus "knicker yarns" are pro-
duced by throwing little bits of highly coloured material into the
last cylinders of the card so that instead of being broken up by
carding they are carried forward as "knickers" into the spun
thread. "Random yarns" are produced by feeding the card with
alternate stripes of dark and light material and taking the con-
densed slivers off with a zig-zag or moving-hterally doffer which
takes sections of the lengths of its slivers from first one and then
the other stripes. "Marl yarns" are produced by running two
differently coloured slivers together on the roving frame just
prior to the worsted spinning process, so that the colours are
"regularly irregularly" mixed together.
If on the other hand a very level mixture effect is required dark
and light coloured tops are mixed together in the worsted drawing
processes, or, better still, the "tops" are printed the required col-
ours in bands and then passed through the worsted drawing proces-
ses this producing the extraordinary level mixture effect termed a
"melange." Of the simple twofold yarns the best known is the
"granderelle" in which a dark and light thread — usually of similar
material, but not necessarily so — are finely twisted together as
perfectly as possible. Another twofold twist termed a "spiral
yarn" is formed by two single threads twisted in opposite direc-
tions being combined with twofold twist which necessarily shortens
one of the threads by adding twist and markedly lengthens the
other by taking out twist. Thus the slack thread "spirals" round
the tight thread.
Yarn Effects and Special Properties.— The effects which
may be produced by suitable selection of materials and yarn
structure may be grouped into three classes, viz., light-reflective
effects; form effects, and colour effects. Light reflection from the
surface of a woven fabric depends upon the material or materials
employed, upon the fibre arrangement in the thread, upon the
thread interlacings and upon such modifications as may be intro-
duced in the finishing processes. Thus some wools are lustrous —
the Wensleydale wool, for example — and some are opaque and
dull — the Down wools. Ordinary cotton is dull, mercerized cotton
is lustrous. A lightly twisted net silk yarn ("tram") is the most
lustrous yarn known, while a specially hard twisted net silk yarn
(crape) is the dullest yarn produced. Tram silk yarn interlaced
on the "satin" principle produces the most lustrous fabric and
crape silk yarn interlaced on the "crape" principle produces the
dullest fabric known.
Merino wool spun on the woollen principle when woven into
a normal fabric gives a dull surface but if the fibres are "raised"
from the surface and laid parallel in the "finishing" processes then
88o
YAROSLAVL— Y AXES
a brighter fabric may result than that produced from a merino
wool spun on the worsted principle in which the fibres are laid
parallel in the thread structure only.
The "form" effects will have been appreciated from the descrip-
tions already given of knop, curl, spiral, etc., yarns. These yarns
specially coloured as already described offer the designer the oppor-
tunity of producing a never-ending array of novel fabrics. Should
specially white fabrics be required a "bleached" yarn is employed
but it is more usual to bleach the material in the fabric state.
Should a yarn which may be spun white but later — either in the
yarn or cloth state— dyed two distinct colours be sought for,
cotton may be blended with wool in the carding or in the draw-
ing processes, or strands of wool and of cotton may be twisted
together and dyed distinctive colours later.
Yarn Counting and Numbering. — The numbering or
"counts" of yarns, 30% 40'$, 8o's, etc. — may be explained best by
the counting of woollen yarns. The basic weight is the "wartern"
of six Ib. the "quartern" of the old 24 Ib. stone. This appears
to have been a convenient weight for the spinners to take away to
their homes for hand or "jenny" spinning. If this weight was spun
in 1,536 yd. — that is each dram spun out to one yard — it was
termed "one skeins." If one dram was spun to 2 yd., it was termed
"two skeins"; if to 20 yd., it was "twenty skeins." Later it was
found more convenient to deal with the unit weight of i Ib., so
that it has come to be usual to reckon the woollen "skein" as 256
yd. and the number of skeins to which a pound of this material
is drawn out as the "counts," spoken of as "skeins" in the woollen
districts. Thus if i Ib. is drawn out to 5,120 yards (256X20) the
yarn is a "20 skeins." Unfortunately the woollen industry was
spread over the whole of the known world before the unifying
mechanical era dawned with the result that not only each country
but each manufacturing district has adopted its own system of
woollen yarn counting. Thus 200, 300, 420 yd. skeins are to be
found and there is a still further complication in the United States
where in one case the length is fixed and the count or skeins is
given by the number of times the unit weight (the grain) is con-
tained in this unit length. This method is that natural to the net
silk industry in which the drams per 1,000 yards, or the deniers
(or ^ deci-gram) per 450 metres gives the count spoken of as
the "deniers."
The cotton spinning industry which started from England
adopted from the first a hank (or skein) of 840 yards and the
hanks per Ib. as the "count" and this has obtained world-wide
acceptance. The worsted industry, apparently an off -shoot of the
cotton industry, taking a yard instead of a i \ yard reel has adopted
a hank of 560 yards and the hanks per Ib. give the count. An
attempt is now (1928) being made to adopt a universal system of
counting yarns. The kilogram and the kilometre (or gram and
metre) are suggested as the universal bases for everything except-
ing "thrown" silk ami artificial silk yarns for which a base length
of 500 metres is suggested and the weight of this in decigrams to
give the "deniers" or "count."
The yards to which one pound of material may be spun naturally
vary with the fineness and nature of the material. Thus cotton has
been spun on a commercial basis to 588,000 yd. per Ib., linen to
180,000 yd. per Ib., worsted yarn to 56,000 yd. per Ib., and woollen
yarn to 15,000 yd. per Ib.; while net silk yarns, if required, may
even be thrown finer than the finest cotton.
Sometimes to obtain a fine, straight-fibred thread, wool is spun
or twisted with cotton and later the cotton is "carbonized" by acid
treatment. The reverse process may also be employed. Special
note should be made that in twisting threads together the count
number of the yarn will be lessened in proportion to the added
weight of the thread or threads. Thus two threads of a 40'$ count
twofoldcd give a 2o's count — written 2/4o's. There is, however,
an exception to this in spun silk yarn in which a 2/40*5 yarn
(aften written 40/2) is a 40*5 but twofold, i.e., two threads of
8o's are twisted together giving a folded yarn with 40 hanks (each
840 yd.) to the pound. The twisting of varied count numbers is
really simple but mystifying to the uninitiated. Thus a lo's count
twisted with a 4o\s count does not give an intermediate count num-
ber (say 25's) but naturally a thicker count than~io's and conse-
quently a lower count number, viz., 8's count; and this is true in
whatever denomination the count may be stated — cotton, linen,
woollen, worsted, etc. (A. F. B.)
YAROSLAVL, a province of the Russian S.F.S.R., sur-
rounded by those of Tver, Cherepovetz, Vologda, Kostroma, Ivan-
ovo-Vosnesensk and Vladimir. Area 31,705 sq.km. Pop (1926)
1 ,33 7*7* 7- Thick deposits of boulder clay, remains of the bottom-
moraine of the ice-cap of the Glacial period, cover the Jurassic
clays, and patches of Triassic "variegated marls" outcrop in some
places, while Upper Carboniferous limestones crop out only in the
north-west and towards the east. Coniferous forest, with firs pre-
dominating, occupies 39% of the province, and marshes are
extensive, especially between the Sheksna and Mologa, and in the
Rostov district. Dwarf birch, the Arctic raspberry (Rubus arcti-
cus) and Linnaea borealis are widespread. The climate is severe,
the rivers being frozen 118 to 183 days per annum, average Jan-
uary temperature 6-5° F, average July 61-5° F. The prevailing
south-west and west winds make the rainfall heavier than in
central Russia.
Of the land free from' forest and marsh, only 25% is under
plough culture, with rye (36-9%), oats (23.4%) and flax (7-4%).
Potatoes, barley, grass, vegetables, chicory and herbs are grown,
the latter especially in the Rostov district. Meadow and grassland
prevail and the province has a flourishing dairy industry, with
exports of butter and cheese. In the years 1926-27 a peat fuel
electric station was opened at Liapinsk near Yaroslavl. Bog iron
ores, copper sulphate and pottery clay are obtained ahd there are
salt and mineral springs.
The principal river is the Volga, which is connected with the
Neva by the Mariinsk and Tikhvinsk canals through its tributaries
the Shcksna and the Mologa. The Kotorost, flowing from Lake
Nero to the Volga, is navigable in spring, and the Kostroma, flow-
ing along the north-eastern boundary, is a channel for the export
of timber and peat fuel. Of the rivers, 39% are available for steam
navigation; the railway net is poor, and good roads are absent,
except for the Moscow-Yaroslavl road. Yaroslavl and Rybinsk
(q.v.) are the chief towns.
Yaroslavl, the chief town of the above province on the
right bank of the Volga, at its confluence with the Kotorost, in
57° 38' N., ^9° 50' E. Pop. (1926) 112,103. It is a productive
centre with textile factories, and tobacco, leather and lacquer
industries. Founded in 1026-36, it was the chief town of the
principality from 1218 to 1417, when it was annexed by Moscow.
The Uspenskiy cathedral was begun in 1215 and rebuilt 1646-48,
and there are remains of i5th and i7th century monasteries.
YARROW, river and parish of Selkirkshire, Scotland. The
river, issuing from St. Mary's Loch, flows for 14 m. E. by N. to
the Tweed, which it joins about 3 m. below the county town.
The stream and vale are famous in poetry.
YARROW (Achilka Mitte folium), a plant of the family Com-
positae, also called milfoil, native throughout the Northern Hemi-
sphere and Great Britain, the United States and Canada. It has
white or sometimes rose-red flowers, borne in flat-topped clusters,
and very finely divided leaves. Legend ascribes the discovery of
its healing virtues to Achilles in whose honour it was named.
The leaves, anciently in great repute for use in the treatment of
wounds, are said to be occasionally so employed in domestic medi-
cine. The closely allied A. Ptarmica, the sneezewort or sneezewort
yarrow, so named because of the use of the root for snuff, native
to Europe and northern Asia and found in the British Isles, id
widely naturalized in eastern North America.
YARURAN, a small group of tribes of South American In-
dians, constituting an independent linguistic stock. The Yaruros
lived in Venezuela, on the Orinoco river between the Meta and
the Capanaparo; in recent times they have spread somewhat
further down stream to the Arauca and beyond.
See J, Chaffanjon, L'Ortnoque el la Caura (Paris, 1889).
YATES, RICHARD (1818-1873), American political leader,
born at Warsaw, Kentucky, Jan. 1 8, 1818. He graduated at the
Illinois College at Jacksonville in 1838, was admitted to the bar,
and entered politics as a Whig. From 1842 to 1845 and again in
1849 he served in the state House of Representatives. He was a
YATUNG— YEAST
88 1
representative in Congress in 1851-1855, but having become a
Republican, was defeated for a third term. From 1861 to 1865
he was governor of Illinois, and was successful in enlisting troops
and in checking the strong pro-Southern sentiment in the state.
He was a member of the United States Senate in 1865-71, and
was prominent in Reconstruction legislation. He died at St.
Louis, Missouri, on the 2;th of November 1873. His son Richard
(b. 1860) was governor of Illinois from 1901 to 1905.
YATUNG :see TIBET.
YAUCO, a prosperous and progressive town situated in the
south-western part of Porto Rico. Its population according to the
U.S. census of 1920 was 7,054, and that of the municipal district
was 25,848. It is located on the main line of the belt line railroad
and on the main highway which connects Ponce with Mayaguez.
It is the southern terminus of a newly constructed highway con-
necting the town with Lares and other northern towns. The
largest centre for the manufacture of cane-sugar is in this part of
the island at the port of Guanica. This port was the first landing
place of the American troops under command of Gen. Miles, on
July 25, 1898.
YAWS, the name in use in the British West Indies for a con-
tagious inoculable tropical disease, running a chronic course and
characterized by a peculiar eruption, together with more or less
constitutional disturbance. It is known by various local names
in different parts. The name framboesia was first given to the
disease by Sauvages in 1759 from the likeness of the typical
excrescences to a raspberry. Yaws was long thought to be peculiar
to the African negro, but a disease the same in every respect has
long been known in the East Indies, affecting the Malays rather
than the negroes, its chief seats being Amboyna, Ternate, Timor,
Celebes, Java and Sumatra. It has been identified by De Rochas
and other observers in New Caledonia and Fiji.
The general course of the disease is as follows. In children
(who form a large part of the subjects of yaws) there will
probably be early rheumatic pains in the limbs and joints, in
adults the eruption is often the first sign. The eruption begins as
small pimples that have a whitish speck on their tops, grow rapidly
and reach some half-inch in diameter. The pustules then break
and a thick viscid ichor exudes and dries upon them as a whitish
slough and around their base as a yellowish-brown crust. Beneath
the slough is the raspberry excrescence or yaw proper, a reddish
fungous growth with a nodular surface. The favourite seats of the
eruption are the forehead, face, neck, arm-pits, groin, genitals,
perinaeum and buttocks. Hairs at the seat of a yaw turn white.
In young children or infants the corners of the mouth ulcerate,
as in syphilis, and the perineal excrescences resemble condylomata.
Aetiology.— Yaws is a highly contagious disease. It is neither
hereditary nor congenital. The disease spreads by contact with
previously infected cases; and it has been proved by experiment
that infection may be conveyed by flies, carrying infective
material from a yaws sore to an ordinary ulcer. The virus must
be introduced directly through a breach of the skin or mucous
membrane; an attack in childhood gives a large degree of im-
munity for the rest of life. In 1905 Aldo Castellani demonstrated
in yaws the presence of a slender spirillum, which he named the
Spirochaeta pertcnuis or Spirochaeta pallidula. It was also ex-
perimentally proved by him (i) that the material taken from
persons suffering from yaws and containing the Spirochaeta per-
tenuis is infective to monkeys; (2) that when the Spirochaeta
per tenuis is removed by filtration the material becomes inert; (3)
that the injection of blood from the general circulation of a yaws
patient gave positive results in monkeys; (4) by means of the
Bordet-Gengou reaction it is possible to detect specific yaws anti-
bodies and antigen.
The prophylaxis consists in the segregation of the patients
suffering from the disease, the antiseptic dressing of the erup-
tion, the application of a covering to protect it from flies, and
the thorough cleansing and disinfection of infected houses and
clothing, even the demolition of houses in endemic centres, and
finally compulsory notification to the local sanitary authority.
As regards treatment, the malady in a' person of good con-
stitution runs its course and disappears in a few weeks. When the
eruption is declared, iodide of potassium and arsenic are very
beneficial. As external applications, weak lotions of zinc or car-
bolic acid may be used, and, if the excrescences arc irritable, a
watery solution of opium. In 7,157 West Indian cases treated in
various hospitals there were only 185 deaths, a mortality of 25-8
per thousand (Nicholls).
YAZDEGERD ("made by God," Izdegerdes), the name of
three Sassanid kings of Persia, (i) YAZDEGERD L, son of Shapur
III., 399-420, called "the sinner" by the Persians, was a highly
intelligent ruler, who tried to emancipate himself from the domin-
ion of the magnates and the Magian priests. He punished the
nobles severely when they attempted oppression; he stopped the
persecution of the Christians and granted them their own organi-
zation. With the Roman Empire he lived in peace and friendship,
and is therefore as much praised by the Byzantine authors
(Procop. Pers. i. 2; Agath. iv. 26) as he is blamed by the Persians.
After a reign of twenty years he appears to have been murdered in
Khurasan. (2) YAZDEGERD II., was the son of Bahram V. Gor,
438-457. He persecuted the Christians and Jews, and had a short
war with Rome in 441. He tried to extend his kingdom in the
East and fought against the Kushans and Kidarites (or Huns).
(3) YAZDEGERD III., a grandson of Chosroes II., who had been
murdered by his son Kavadh II. in 628, was raised to the throne
in 632 after a series of internal conflicts. He was a mere child
and never really ruled ; in his first year the Arabic invasion began,
and in 637 the battle of Kadisiya decided the fate of the empire.
Ctesiphon was occupied by the Arabs, and the king fled into Media.
Yazdegerd fled from one district to another, till at last he was
murdered at Merv in 651. (See CALIPHATE, sect. A. i.) The
Parsees, who use the old Persian calendar, continue to count the
years from his accession (era of Yazdegerd, beginning June i6th,
A.D. 632). (ED. M.)
YAZOO CITY, a city of western Mississippi, U.S.A., about
midway between Memphis and New Orleans, on the (navigable)
Yazoo river; the county seat of Yazoo county. It is on Federal
highway 49, and is served by the Illinois Central railroad. Pop.
5,244 in 1920 (52% negroes) ; estimated locally at 10,000 in 1928.
At the eastern entrance to the rich "Delta" between the Yazoo and
the Mississippi rivers, it is an important market and shipping
point. The city was founded about 1830.
YEAR-BOOK, a term applied to annual summaries either of
events throughout the world during the previous year or of gen-
eral or local progress in some one department of administration,
art, science or industry. Typical examples are The Statesman's
Year-Book, Annual Register, Whitakcr's Almanac, Hazell's An-
nual, biographical records like Who's Who, genealogical records
such as those of Debrett and Burke, and the Continental Almanack
de Got ha, a scientific and scholastic publication of the type of the
Index Gencralisf and the innumerable specialized economic and
industrial publications.
The English legal Year Books, described by Pollock as "our
glory, for no other country has anything like them," are reports of
cases covering the period 1292 to 1534, written in provincial
French. Abridgments of these Year Books were made by Sir
Anthony Fitzherbert in 1516 and by Sir Robert Brooke in 1568.
The first systematic printer of them was Richard Pynson, from
1510; the principal publisher, from 1553, was Richard Tottell.
In 1863 A. J. Horwood was commissioned by the then master of
the Rolls to edit the unpublished Year Books of Edward I. This
Rolls series was continued by L. 0. Pike. The work has been
supplemented by Maitland and others working for the Selden So-
ciety. The most convenient brief discussions of the Year Books
are in Holdsworth's History of English Law (1903-09), vol. ii.,
pp. 444-462, and W. C. Bolland's The Year Booh (1921). They
are now thought to have had an official or even semi-official
character.
YEAST. The botanist and microbiologist apply the term
yeast to a group of plants many of which exhibit a marked
ability to change sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The
characteristics of the group, which includes hundreds of species,
are quite restricted. These, together with discussion of taxonomy,
882
YEATS
are given under FUNGI and FERMENTATION. To the layman, un-
trained in botany, the term yeast suggests the cakes of pressed
yeast available in almost every hamlet, The ability of certain
yeasts to form carbon dioxide from sugar has caused some of
them to be used for leavening bread. For centuries, other species
have been used in the making of wine, alcohol, beer, etc.
Yeasts probably have as early origin as the bacteria. Griiss
examined some fossil remains of Devonian plants and obtained
striking evidence of the existence of budding fungi in this early
age. This same investigator on examination of the sediment from
a beer jar in Theban tomb of the Xlth dynasty (2000 B.C.) iso-
lated a yeast which was named Saccharomyces Winlocki. Examin-
ation of "beer bread" found among the offerings in other tombs
also yielded the same yeast. It is now known that yeasts are
widely distributed in nature and that those species concerned in
fermentation pass the winter in the soil. They are disseminated by
bees, dust and other agents in the spring.
The use of yeast in such fermentations as that of bread has
made it convenient to have a constant supply of fresh active yeast,
While in former days the by-product of certain fermentation in-
dustries was used, pressed (or compressed) yeast is now available
to those who desire it. To this end the organism is grown in suit-
able media and the crop harvested when a sufficient crop of cells
has appeared. The medium, according to an older method, con-
sists of wort prepared from grains mashed in water. The mash
prepared from grains is inoculated with lactic acid bacteria to
"sour" it; the acid prevents putrefaction and also serves as
food for the yeasts. The clear wort is passed into fermenters
where it receives the seed yeast. The temperature is kept constant
and rapid growth takes place. The yeast cells are then separated
from the fluid in wlu'ch they have grown by filter presses. They
are mixed with starch and pressed into large cakes. These are
sent to distributing centres, where they are cut and wrapped in
the small size package commonly used in the home. In more
recent times, yeast has been cultivated in mineral salt-sugar solu-
tions instead of the wort described above. The cells are also in-
corporated in corn meal which is pressed into cakes.
Besides the application of yeasts in fermentology, they have
been widely heralded as therapeutic agents. Their application to
the cure of disease goes back to very early times. Many of the
statements on the use of yeasts in this manner rest upon uncon-
trolled experiments, if indeed they may be called experiments. We
are told that the monks used yeast for curing plague and that
Hippocrates advised its use in leucorrhea. Since 1917 great in-
terest was aroused by a publication of Hawk, et al. who reported
beneficial results in furunculosis, acne vulgaris, constipation and
certain other gastro-intestinal and cutaneous diseases.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. Guilliermond, The Yeasts, trans, by F. W.
Tanner (New York, 1920) ; A. Jorgensen, Microorganisms and Fermen-
tation (London, 1925) ; P. Lindner, Mikroskopische Betriebskontrolle
in den Gdrun£s%twe.rbfn (Berlin, 1905) ; E. O. Jordan and I. S. Falk,
The Newer Knowledge of Bacteriology and Immunology, ch. xxxvii.
(1928). (F. W. TA.)
YEATS, WILLIAM BUTLER (1865- ), Irish author
was born at Sandymount near Dublin on the i3th of June 1865.
His father J. B. Yeats was a distinguished Irish artist and mem-
ber of the Royal Hibernian Academy, his mother's family was
from County Sligo. Soon after his birth his parents moved to
London but his early years were largely spent in Sligo and even
when, at the age of nine or ten, he went to school in London he
returned to Sligo for his holidays and his early work is full of
allusions to its mountains and little lakes, indeed this beautiful
county has coloured all his writing. He studied painting for a short
time but at the age of twenty-four published his first book of
poems The Wanderings of Oisin (1889) and from that time for-
ward gave his whole attention to literature. He was now living in
London and a member of the group of young writers whose work
appeared in The Yellow Book. A friend of 'William Morris and
W. E. Henley and a frequent contributor to The National Ob-
server, he was one of the founders of the Rhymer's Club and a
close friend to Arthur Symons and Lionel Johnson. Years later he
published two books, Reveries over Childhood and Yoiuth (1915)
and The Trembling of the Veil (1922) — now brought together in
the volume called Autobiographies — and in these will be found the
history, fascinatingly told, of the first thirty years of his life. In
1892 his first poetic play The Countess Cathleen was published; it
was followed two years later by another play The Land of Heart's
Desire and in the previous year appeared his first volume of essays
The Celtic Twilight. With Edwin J. Ellis he edited the Works of
William Blake (1893) and also edited A Book of Irish Verse
(1895). Three books of prose appeared in 1897: The Secret Rose,
The Tables of the Law and The Adoration of the Magi; the last
two were published privately but subsequently appeared publicly.
By 1897 he had become interested in the formation of an Irish
theatre and with the help of Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn and
other friends the first performance of the Irish Literary Theatre
took place in Dublin in 1899. This Theatre gradually developed,
attracting to itself writers such as Mr. George Moore and "A.E."
and creating new writers such as J. M. Synge and Mr. Padraicv
Colum and by 1904 had established itself in the Abbey Theatre
of which theatre Yeats has been a Director ever since and has
contributed to its repertory many noble plays in verse and prose/
Side by side with playwriting went the writing of lyrics and the
rewriting of much of his early work — for he has always been his
own harshest critic. Since 1897 his most noteworthy volumes of
poems are The Wind among the Reeds (1899), Responsibilities
(1914), The Wild Swans at Coole (1917), Later Poems (1922) and
The Tower (1927). His literary and critical essays are of impor-
tance, they are to be found in the volumes Ideas of Good and Evil
(1903), The Cutting of an Agate (1912), Per Arnica Silentia
Lunae (1918) and a number of witty and profound essays on the
art of the theatre now collected into the volume Plays and Cow-
troversies (1923). The private publication of a philosophic book
A Vision (1925) must bo noted. Owing to his habit of rewriting,
versions of his work arc many and various and the Collected Edi-
tion in eight volumes published in 1908 has long ago been super-
seded. The volumes at present published by Macmillan & Co. are
practically a collected edition of the work which he wishes to
preserve but in the opinion of many he has discarded or grievously
altered many beautiful early poems. His first three plays in prose
Kathleen ni Houlihan (1902), The Pot of Broth (1902) and The
Hour Glass (1903) are entirely successful stage plays. It is diffi-
cult to speak with certainty of the stage success of his verse plays
because, owing to the absence of a verse-theatre in England, the
number of performances of them has not been large. He hoped in
starting the Irish Literary Theatre to found amongst other things
a verse-theatre in Ireland and during its early years a number
of his verse plays were performed there but later the dramatic
genius of Ireland emphatically declared itself to be realistic and
not poetic and his dream of a verse-theatre had to be abandoned.
But certainly The Countess Cathleen has proved itself a very suc-
cessful stage play, the story is swift and dramatic, the incidents
are full of variety, the verse is limpidly clear. The one-act play
The Land of Heart's Desire (1894) is very popular and frequent
performances of it are given by non-professional theatrical com-
panies in England and America. His later plays demand great
tragic acting, a demand met by Mrs. Patrick Campbell in her per-
formance in Deirdre (1907) when the play showed itself to be of
perfect construction and of intense passionate beauty. Given a
great tragic actor The King's Threshold (1904) is as fine a stage-
play as Deirdre. Other plays belonging to this period are The
Shadowy Waters (1900), On Bailees Strand (1904) and The
Green Helmet (1910). By this time he had despaired of finding
a verse-theatre and his next play The Player Queen was in
prose. It is a delightful phantasy and syccessful on the stage.
Later still, influenced by the Japanese, he was to write four curious
Plays for Dancers (1921) and, in the same mood, The Cat and the
Moon (1924). Three of these plays have been performed and
with success. He finds in this unrealistic form freedom from stage
conventions and an opportunity for phantasy, and another volume
of plays for dancers will soon appear. They will never have a wide
popular appeal but to some they will seem the most beautiful work
he has done for the stage. Considered as a poet his poetry falls
into three periods, the early, the middle and the late. His early
poetry was elaborate and richly wrought, influenced in some de-
YELLOWBIRD— YELLOW FEVER
883
gree by the Pre-Raphaelites, yet side by side with these possibly
over-decorated poems can be found beautiful lyrics as simple as
an Irish country ballad. By 1910 he had wearied of elaboration,
he had been too much imitated, and he turned and attacked his
own "embroideries." He had found, too, a new inspiration, a na-
tional one, and Poems written in Discouragement (1913) are the
result of that inspiration. A year later with the publication of
Responsibilities the new note in his verse is firmly struck, the
last shred of embroidery for embroidery's sake has been discarded
and the beauty of these poems is "like a tightened bow." He is
struggling with a new, austere method, he has not entirely mas-
tered it but he triumphantly emerges from the contest in his next
volume The Wild Swans at Coole (1917). This book and each
succeeding book mark his third period, the latest volume being
The Tower (1927). Some poems in these volumes are obscure but
only because they are part of his own difficult philosophy ; if that
be understood the poems are clear. The sweep and range of his art
from The Wanderings of Oisin to The Tower are amazing and it
is difficult to think of any other poet writing in English who is so
varied and so developed. In 1928 appeared translations of
Sophocle's Oedipus the King and Oedipus at Colonnus. They are
translations made specially for the Abbey Theatre; they are in
prose and aim at simple, effective speech rather than meticulous
verbal accuracy, the choruses are in rhymed verse and the plays
have proved very successful on the stage. As one of the founders
of the Irish Literary Society Yeats had early shown his practical
concern with the intellectual life of his country; his work at the
Abbey Theatre was but a development of that concern and it
was natural for the Government of the Irish Free State to nomi-
nate him in 1922 as one of its first Senators. In 1924 he was
awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. (L. Ro.)
YELLOWBIRD, a name applied in the United States to
the American goldfinch (Astragalinus tristis) and to the yellow
warbler (Dendroica aestiva). (See GOLDFINCH, WARBLER.)
YELLOW FEVER? a specific infective tropical fever, the
virus of which is transmitted by a mosquito. The disease occurs
endemically in certain limited areas. The area of distribution in-
cludes the West Indies, Mexico, part of Central America, the W.
coast of Africa and Brazil.
The incubation period of yellow fever is generally four or five
days, but may be as short as twenty-four hours. The illness
usually starts like any other febrile attack. But there soon occurs
a peculiar look of the eyes and face, which is characteristic: the
face is flushed, and the eyes suffused at first and then congested
or ferrety, the nostrils and lips red, and the tongue scarlet — these
being the most obvious signs of universal congestion of the skin,
mucous membranes and organs. There is high fever and albumen
will nearly always be found in the urine. After two or three days
the temperature falls below the normal ; the pulse becomes slow
and feeble, the skin cold and of a lemon-yellow tint, the act of
vomiting effortless, the first vomit being clear fluid, but afterwards
black from admixture of blood. This prostration may end in
recovery, with copious flow of urine, which even then is very
dark-coloured from the presence of blood or may increase and
end in death. Much blood in the vomit and in the stools, to-
gether with all other haemorrhagic signs, is of evil omen.
The case mortality averages from 12 to 80%. In Rio in 1898
it reached the appalling height of 94-5%. In cities where it is
endemic the case mortality is usually lower.
Modern Researches. — The dreaded "vomito negro" which
for four centuries claimed more than 50% mortality among its
victims, has been relegated to a place of secondary importance
since the institution, in 1901, of the anti-mosquito campaign.
Since 1910 no epidemic invasion of yellow fever into temperate
regions has occurred, and some of the most noted endemic centres
in Ecuador, Mexico and Brazil have been freed of the disease,
probably forever ; no case has been reported in the entire Western
Hemisphere for many months. The use of oil for destroying
mosquito larvae has now been practically abandoned in favour
of placing in the tanks which serve as water supply for houses
in the tropics one or two small fish, which eagerly devour the
"wrigglers."
Connor, in Guayaquil, first used this method successfully in
1919, and it has since been used in other countries with excellent
results. The fish must be of small size and able to withstand
handling and transportation. Those chiefly used are the minnows,
Gatnbusia affinis, Dormitator latifrons and Fundulus heteroclitus
and the common "lefa" of South America (Pygidium piurae C.)
some being top-feeding and others bottom-feeding fish.
Bacteriological Investigations. — While the transmitter of
the yellow fever germ had been experimentally proved, by the
American Army Board under Reed, to be the mosquito, Aedes
aegypti (formerly known as Stegomyia fasciata or S. calopas),
the microbe which produced the disease had remained unknown
until 1918 when a minute spiral organism, subsequently named
Leptospira icteroides, was isolated from the blood and organs
of yellow fever patients, in Guayaquil, Ecuador. Inoculation of
cultures of this organism reproduced all the characteristic symp-
toms and lesions of yellow fever in guinea pigs, marmosets and
young puppies. Yellow fever was also transmitted directly to
guinea pigs with blood taken from yellow fever patients and the
same micro-organism from experimentally infected animals.
Investigations previously conducted by the American Army
Board in Havana had demonstrated that the germ of yellow fever
could pass through the pores of certain bacteria-proof filters (see
FILTER-PASSING VIRUSES), and this fact alone had been sufficient
to disprove the relation to yellow fever of a dozen or more dif-
ferent bacteria. Leptospira icteroides, on the other hand, proved
to be a filter-passer and to conform with other well-known char-
acteristics of the yellow fever virus; thermal death-point; trans-
missibility by Aedes aegypti; ability to produce typical fever, ex-
tensive haemorrhages into the gastro-intestinal tract, resulting
in the "black vomitus" and melaena, severe nephritis, general
jaundice and the characteristic changes of liver and kidney (fatty
degeneration and necrosis). Another important proof that con-
nects Leptospira icteroides with yellow fever is that this micro-
organism is killed by the blood serum of persons who have just
recovered from yellow fever but not by that of healthy persons
or persons recovering from other diseases.
Leptospira icteroides was subsequently isolated from cases of
yellow fever in Mexico, Peru and Brazil. It is actively motile,
measures 4-9 JJL long and o-2/iwide and there are two spirals for
each micron. The ordinary microscope does not reveal its presence
in the living condition, but it is easily seen by means of dark-
ground illumination. It grows only on special culture media. The
isolation of Leptospira icteroides has made it possible to prepare
a preventive vaccine, similar in type to that in use for protection
against typhoid fever, and a curative serum. While a given locality
may be freed from yellow fever by destruction of mosquito lar-
vae, this type of preventive work requires some months. New-
comers meantime are in danger, and protection, even of a tem-
porary nature, is welcome. Injection of a small quantity of killed
cultures of Leptospira icteroides, as first shown in experimental
animals, confers temporary protection from the yellow fever
infection, the inoculation taking effect within, about two weeks.
The results of prophylactic inoculation of 20,000 or more in-
dividuals since 1919 indicate that if persons are satisfactorily
vaccinated they are protected against yellow fever for about six
months. The curative serum has been tried in several hundred
cases. When it has been used early in the disease, i.e., before
the fourth day of illness, the death-rate has been comparatively
small (16% as compared with the usual 50% or more in yellow
fever). It is without appreciable benefit when given later in the
illness, when the micro-organisms have done irreparable injury to
the liver and kidneys.
Since 1925 doubt has been thrown on the causal relationship
of Leptospira icteroides to yellow fever by discovery of the fact
that the common rhesus monkey (Macacus rhesus) and to a lesser
degree the Indian crowned monkey (Af. Sinicus) are very suscep-
tible to the disease which may be transmitted to them by the bites
of infected mosquitoes or. inoculation with blood of a yellow fever
patient. Material from such infected animals or from yellow fever
cases is without effect upon guinea pigs which are extremely sus-
ceptible to L. icteroides. Since L. icteroides is serologically identi-
884 YELLOW RIVER— YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
cal with L. icterohaemorrhagia it is thought probable that the
organism described by Noguchi as the cause of yellow fever had
been obtained from cases of Weil's disease or possibly from
patients with a double infection. Working with a strain of yellow
fever isolated in Senegal and rhesus monkeys A. W. Sellards
and E. Kindle have advanced matters further in favour of a
filterable virus theory by showing that like some other filterable
viruses yellow fever infective material is unaffected by cold and
if frozen will maintain its virulence for at least twelve days (Brit.
Med. Tr. 1928, i. 713).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. R. Carter, Nelson's Loose-Leaf Medicine, vol.
2, p. 113; M. E. Connor, Amer. Jour. Trop. Med., vol. 4, 277 (1924) ;
H. Noguchi and others, Monograph No. 20 of the Rockefeller Institute
for Medical Research (New York, 1924) ; H. Noguchi, Jour. Trop.
Med. and Hyg.t 28, 185 (1925); F. F. Russell, "War on Disease,"
Sigma Xi Quarterly (13, n, 1925) ; Rockefeller Foundation, Annual
Report, p. 168 (1923) ; Stokes, Bauer and Hudson, *' Experimental
Transmission of Yellow Fever to Laboratory Animals," Amer. Jour.
Trop. Med.t 8 No. a (1928) . (H. No.)
YELLOW RIVER: see HWANG Ho.
YELLOW-ROOT, SHRUB, a small North American shrub
of the crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae, q.v.) found in woods
from western New York to Kentucky and Florida. It has smooth
stems, i ft. to 2 ft. high, with yellow wood, long yellow roots,
parsley-like leaves, and small purplish flowers in slender drooping
clusters. It is sparingly planted for ornament.
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, a national Ameri-
can public park, the first and most noted of a number of such
national reserves set apart by the U.S. Government to preserve,
for the benefit and enjoyment of the people, certain regions of
extraordinary or unique natural grandeur and impressiveness.
Yellowstone National Park includes about 3,350 sq.m. — 62 m.
long and 54 m. wide — lying largely in the north-west corner of
Wyoming but extending a little over 2 m. northward into Montana.
National forests surround the park on all sides — the Gallatin,
Absaroka and Beartooth to the northward; the Shoshone to the
eastward; the Teton and Targhee to the southward; and the
Targhee, Madison, and Gallatin to the westward.
A broad volcanic plateau with an average elevation of 8,000 ft.
occupies the centre of the park. The park is enclosed on its
northern and north-western border by the Gallatin range, a bold
picturesque sierra of which Electric peak, elevation 11,000 ft.,
constitutes the culminating crest. The Teton range, one of the
most spectacular features of the northern Rockies, looms high
upon the southern horizon, but only its bold spurs and foot-hills
enter the park. East of the Tetons stretch the wild Gros Ventre
and Wind river ranges well up toward the southern boundary of
the park. The majestic Absaroka range, connected at the south
with the Wind river range, forms an unbroken barrier along the
whole eastern side of the park, its western side and many of its
rugged peaks and canyon-grooved mountain masses lying within
the park. A confused mass of mountains near the north-eastern
part of the park connects the Absaroka with the Snowy range.
The general high elevation of the park is reflected in the climate,
the mean annual temperature being considerably lower than that
of the surrounding lower areas, and the amount of precipitation,
both rainfall and snowfall, higher. At the Yellowstone Park
weather station, elevation 6,200 ft., the mean temperature for the
year is 38-7° F, ranging from 18-0° F in January to 61-3° F in
July. The average annual snowfall at the Yellowstone Park sta-
tion has been 100-5 in-, varying from traces in July and August to
20-6 in. in January. The mean relative humidity varies from 53%
at noon to 75% at 6 A.M. The annual percentage of sunshine is 56.
Such climatic conditions favour forest development and the
growth of luxuriant grasses together with a varied alpine verdure.
The whole of the park lies within the limits of the lodge-pole pine
forest characteristic of the high Rockies though the higher slopes
of the Absarokas and other high ranges arc clothed with belts of
spruce-fir forests and the crests of the mountains themselves are
above timber line. The lodge-pole pine is a pioneer tree which
invades terrain left open by other species, chiefly as the result of
forest fires. Sunny, rocky slopes are in places occupied by the
Douglas fir. Aspen and Engelmann spruce and a few limber pines
are intermingled with the lodge-pole pines. Beautiful intermon-
tane meadows where numerous grasses and sedges carpet the
ground, and saxifrages, valerians, cinquefoils, senecios, orchises,
betonies, gentians, grass of Parnassus and many other brilliant
flowers blossom during the summer are interspersed with the rocky
forest-clad ridges, while the banks of many pools, lakes and
streams abound in water-lilies, buttercups, cresses, reeds and
rushes. A few salt-loving plants grow about the hot springs and
geysers, while in the hot waters issuing from them an interesting
series of low plant forms is found.
The native fauna of the park area has been jealously guarded
and preserved. Many elk and deer, a few antelope, bison, moose
and mountain sheep; bears, foxes, coyotes, even wolves, lynxes
and panthers; many species of squirrels, ground squirrels, mice,
shrews, gophers, rabbits; the beaver, muskrat, otter, marten,
skunk, weasel, badger, wolverene, marmot, mink; and several
others less common wander in larger or fewer numbers into or
about the park, though most of them may be encountered only in
the remoter, less frequently visited, sections of the park. Pro-,
portionally as richly numerous and varied as the mammal life, the
bird forms include over 200 species, some permanently resident,
many only migrant. The streams are well stocked with fish,
particularly trout, of which the native redthroat (SdUno clarkii)
is one of the gamest and most eagerly sought.
Perhaps the most amazing spectacle of the park is its display
of over 100 geysers and 4,000 hot springs. The geysers are con-
centrated in three adjoining groups upon the middle-west side, but
hot springs occur everywhere at widely separated points, one
steam jet even issuing from the Grand Canyon depths, more than
1,000 ft. below the rim. The most famous geyser is Old Faithful,
which may be taken as typical. The regularity of its eruptions,
the violence of its explosions, and the grace and beauty of its
water column make it one of the most admired of the park
geysers. The interval between eruptions averages 65 minutes, the
period of eruption lasts 4^ minutes, and it throws into the air a
column of water from 95 to 130 ft. in height. The Excelsior
geyser, which ceased erupting in 1888, hurled aloft a greater
volume of water with appalling fury of action. The Giantess
geyser, when in action, is far more powerful than Old Faithful,
but plays with less regularity, with intervals of nearly three
weeks' duration. Another titanic geyser unexpectedly broke forth
in 1928 with furious activity. It hurls water in all directions,
some columns to a height of 100 feet. Two major eruptions every
24 hours forms its schedule, each eruption lasting for three hours
or more, with outbursts at 15 to 20 second intervals.
The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone is also one of the truly
wonderful features of the park. It is a magnificent and pictur-
esque gorge penetrating deep into the volcanic rocks of the park
plateau. It presents on a grand scale a remarkable picture of
recent canyon cutting by the Yellowstone river, which, leaving
Yellowstone lake at its broad outlet, flows northward through
an open valley for about 15 m. and then plunges by two impres-
sive falls, respectively no and 312 ft. in height, into the Grand
Canyon. The walls of the canyon rise abruptly 800 to 1,100 ft.
above the rushing turbulent stream which cuts the gorge. Much
of the exquisite beauty and impressive grandeur of the region
comes from the brilliantly-coloured canyon walls, with their
bizarre bands and stripes of soft pink and salmon to blazing
Indian red, deep orange in masses, and yellow and green blotches
all gayly intermingled. Yellowstone lake is large — 20 m. north to
south, and 15 m. east to west — irregular in outline, and wooded to
the water's edge.
The first recorded visit to Yellowstone Park was made by John
Colter in 1810 when he took refuge' there from hostile Indians.
His story was wholly discredited, as was the story of the next
visitor, Joseph Meek, a trapper who visited the region in 1829.
The first description of the Firehole geyser basin was written by
Warren Angus Ferres, a clerk in the American Fur Company,
between 1830 and 1840, but not until 1852 was the region defined
and described in its entirety by Father De Smet, the famous
Jesuit missionary, who derived his information from the noted
Indian scout and frontiersman, Jim Bridger. The first Government
YELLOWSTONE TRAIL— YEMEN
885
THE YELLOWSTONE TRAIL
expedition sent out in 1859 under the command of Capt. W. F.
Reynolds, brought back little authentic* information regarding
the section, and the reports of private explorers were discredited.
Finally the well-equipped expedition under Henry D. Washburn
and N. P. Langford, in 1870, established the facts and led to the
creation of the Yellowstone National Park.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Glimpses of Our National Parks, Circular of Central
Information Regarding Yelloivxtone National Park, and Rules and
Regulations, Yellowstone National Park, all by the National Park
Service, U.S. Department of the Interior (published annually) ;
A. Hague, Geology of the Yellowstone National Park (1899) » H. M.
Chitttnden, Yellowstone National Park (1895) ; R. S. Yard, The Book
of the National Parks (1920), and Annual Reports of the super-
intendent of the park (1880 seq.). (W. E. E.)
YELLOWSTONE TRAIL, an American highway leading
from Plymouth Rock, on the Atlantic, to Seattle, on Puget sound.
It is 3,400 m. long. The roadway is paved or hard from Plymouth
to Oshkosh, and improved over most of the rest, with some
hard surfacing and pavement to the Pacific. This highway is one
of the finest across the United States. It touches Albany and
Buffalo, N.Y., Cleveland, 0., Chicago, 111., St. Paul, Minn., Selby,
S.D., Butte, Mont., and Spokane, Wash.
YELLOW-THROAT, the name given to a species, with
several sub-species, of North American birds of the Passerine
family Mniotiltidae, the American wood warblers. The best
known is the Maryland yellow-throat (Geothlypis trichas) which
ranges over the greater part of the United States and southern
Canada. About 5 in. long, this bird is olive green above, yellow
below; with black forehead and cheeks in the male. Its sub-species
the tule yellow-throat (G. t. scirpicola) is resident in southern
California. The western yellow-throat (G. t. occidentalis) is
found in south-eastern California and south-western Arizona.
YELLOW-WOOD, AMERICAN (Cladrastis lutea), a
handsome North American tree of the family Leguminosae (q.v.),
called also yellow locust, gopher-wood and virgilia. Though some-
what rare in the wild state, being found only locally in rich soils,
chiefly along mountain streams, from North Carolina to Mis-
souri, it is widely cultivated for ornament. It has a short trunk
branching into a graceful crown, sometimes rising 50 ft. high, with
smooth bark, pinnate leaves, and fragrant, pea-like, white flowers,
i in. long, borne in loose, drooping clusters, 10 in. to 20 in. long,
blossoming in June. The hard strong wood yields a yellow dye.
YEMEN (Yaman), an extensive region forming the south-
western portion of Arabia. The limits of power exercised by the
various rulers are not clearly defined, but Yemen includes the
province of Asir and reaches in the north towards the Hejaz and
the Nejd. On the east its limits merge with the desert, while on
the south they abut on Hadhramaut. Yemen may be looked upon
as possessing three centres: the British protectorate of Aden (q.v.)
in the south; the domains of the Imam Yahya, whose capital is
Sana (q.v.) and those of the Idrisi Seyyid Ali Mohammed,
whose capital is Sabia (170° n' N., 42° 37' E.), and whose
influence stretches down the coast to Hodeida (q.v.).
The Imam Yahya is Imam of Yemen proper, and his lands
include those abandoned by the Turkish power in 1918 and con-
sequently the limits of his power are in line with those of the
Anglo-Turkish boundary of 1902-4. He governs an area of some
75,000 sq.m., with a population between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000.
Ptolemy and the ancient geographers in general include the
whole peninsula under the name of Arabia Felix (tvdaljj,uv ) , in
which sense they translate the Arabic Yemen, literally "right
hand," for all Arabia south of the Gulf of Aqaba was to the right
from their standpoint of Alexandria; the Mohammedan geog-
raphers, however, viewing it from Mecca, confine the term Co the
regions south of Hejaz, including Asir, Hadhramaut, Oman and
part of southern Nejd. Yemen occupies the uptilted edge of a
block of ancient land forming Arabia.
The uptilted edge of the old block is known as the Jibal or
highlands of Yemen, with an average height of 9,000 ft., though
many summits exceed 10,000 ft., e.g., Jebel Manar (10,565 ft.).
The principal town of the Jibal is Ta'iz (pop. about 4,000). It
was formerly a large city, and from its position in the centre of a
comparatively fertile district at the junction of several trade
routes it must always be important. Some 30 m. further north
are the small towns of Ibb (6,700 ft.) and Jibla, about 5 m.
apart, typical hill towns with their high stone-built houses and
paved streets. Manakha produces the best coffee in Yemen. An-
other group of hill towns lies still further north in the mountain
mass between the Wadi Maur and Wadi La'a, where the strong-
holds of Dhafir, Afar, Haja and Kaurkaban have long been known
for their independence. The last-named was once a city of 20,000
inhabitants, and the capital of a small principality which preserved
its independence during the earlier Turkish occupation between
1536 and 1630. The lowland strip of Yemen is known as the
Tehama and is hot and generally sterile. The lowland strip is
from 20 to 30 m. wide. There are oases, however, near the foot
of the mountains, fertilized and irrigated by hill streams and
supporting many large villages and towns. The most important of
these are Abu Arish, Bet el Fakih and Zubed in the western
Tehama, the latter a town of 20,000 inhabitants. Hodeida (q.v.)
and Aden (q.v.) are the only ports of commercial importance,
while Mokha is the old centre of the coffee trade. Beyond the
crest of the uptilted edge of the old block stretches the third
natural region of Yemen — the great desert. As it lies entirely
to the east of the high crest, it has a smaller rainfall than the
Jibal. Its general character is that of a steppe increasing in
aridity towards the east where it merges in the desert, but broken
in places by rocky ranges, some of which rise 2,000 ft. above the
general level, and which in the Hamdan district north of Sana
show evidence of volcanic action. It is intersected by several
wadi systems, of which the principal are those in the north uniting
to form the Wadi Nejran, in the centre the Wadi Kharid and
Shibwan running to the Jauf, and in the south the Wadi Bana and
its affluents draining to the Gulf of Aden. The plateau has a
gradual fall from the watershed near Yarim, 8,500 ft. above sea-
level, to less than 4,000 ft. at the edge of the desert.
The northern part nearly down to the latitude of Sana, is the
territory of the Hashid and Bakil tribes, which never submitted
to the Turks. Sa'da is an important town on the old pilgrim road
886
YEN— YENISEI
120 m. N. of Sana, Khaiwan and Khamr. In the north-east
bordering on the desert, is the district of Nejran, a mountainous
country with several fertile valleys including the Wadi Nejran
Bedr and Habuna, all probably draining north-cast to the Wadi
Dawasir. Further south is the oasis of Jauf, a hollow or depres-
sion, as its name signifies, containing many villages. It was the
focus of the old Minaean and Sabaean kingdoms, known to the
ancients through their control of the frankincense trade of south
Arabia. Ma'in, identified by Halevy as the seat of the former, is
on a hilltop surrounded by walls still well preserved. Marib, the
Sabaean capital, was celebrated for its great dam. The city was
abandoned, probably owing to the deterioration of the country
through desiccation, which has forced the settled population
farther westward, where Sana became the centre of the later Him-
yaritic kingdom. The Arhab district drained by the Wadi Kharid
and Shibwan between Sana and the Jauf is covered with Him-
yaritic ruins, showing that the land formerly supported a large
settled population where, owing to the want of water, cultivation is
now impossible. Throughout the whole of Yemen is found the
majil — a cemented well for the storing of water. These wells have
associations with Persian influence in the 6th century A.D.
South of the territory described above arc Amran and Shiban
on the road leading north from the capital Sana; Dhamar (the
seat of an ancient university) and Yarim are on the road leading
south to Aden; and two days' journey to the east is Rada.
The inhabitants of Yemen are settled, and for the most part
occupied in agriculture and trade, the conditions which favour the
pastoral or Bedouin type found in Hejaz and Nejd hardly existing.
The people may be considered under four groups: (i) The Sey-
yids or Ashraf, descendants of the prophet, forming a religious
aristocracy; (2) the Kabail, or tribesmen, belonging to the
Kahtanic or original south Arabian stock, who form the bulk of
the population; (3) the trading class, and (4) a mixed group
mostly of African descent and including a number of Jews.
Economically, Yemen is more or less in a transitional stage
between the passing away of the Turkish control (1853-1918) and
the completion of native organization. Agricultural products are
widely distributed throughout the country, wheat, barley, millet
and coffee being well known.
See C. Nicbuhr, Travels and Description of Arabia (Amsterdam,
1774); D. G. Hogarth, Penetration of Arabia (London, 1904); E.
Glaser, Geschichtc nnd Geographic Arabiens (Berlin, 1890), and in
Petermann's Mitt. (1886) ; R. Manzoni, // Yemen (Rome, 1884) ; A.
Deflers, Voyage en Yemen (Paris, 1889) ; S. M. Zwemer, Arabia
(Edinburgh, 1900) ; W. B. Harris, A Journey through Yemen (London,
1893) ; H, Burchardt, Z. d. Ges. fur Erdhunde (Berlin, 1902), No. 7.
YEN. The monetary unit of Japan. It is 'divided into 100
sen, each of 10 rin. The yen is based on the gold standard, which
was adopted in 1897. Gold is coined into pieces of 20, 10 and 5
yen. The yen itself is not coined, but is by law equivalent to -75
gramme of fine gold. This makes the mint par of exchange with
England as. o^d. per yen, and with the United States, 49.846
cents per yen.
The following table shows, during the post-war period, the
changes in the internal purchasing power of the yen, and aJso
its rate of exchange upon New York, this last figure being a
measurement of the yen in terms of gold.
Year
Wholesale price
index number
(July, 1914=100)
Exchange rate
on New York
par =» 49 -846 cents
1919
2/*7
1920
377
IQ2I
211
40* 19
Aft'OO
1922 ...
1023 ...
1924 ...
J92S ...
1926 ...
19.27 (first nine months) .
206
200
217
212
*88
179
48-00
48-75
43*37
41-00
45*95
47'75
During the World War, the yen was maintained at or above
parity with the dollar, and at the armistice was consequently in
a strong position. Nevertheless, Japan was affected by the world-
early 1920, and the yen depreciated both internally and against
the dollar. It was in Japan that the boom first broke, right at the
beginning of 1920, and as for a time the fall in prices (i.e., the
recovery in internal purchasing power) in Japan preceded similar
movements elsewhere, the strength of the yen on the foreign ex-
change markets was well maintained. On the other hand the trade
depression of 1921 was particularly severe in Japan.
During 1922 and 1923, recovery was making slow but sure
progress, but all was thrown into confusion by the earthquake of
the latter year. Export trade, in common with other forms of
activity, was dislocated and heavy imports of materials for re-
construction purposes were needed. Despite loans from abroad,
this imposed too great a strain upon the exchanges, and the gold
standard had to be temporarily abandoned.
From 1925 to early 1927 prodigious efforts were made to re-
habilitate the yen and to restore the full gold standard. Consid-
erable progress was made, but at the cost of more rapid deflation
than the already weakened economic system of the country could
stand. In early 1927 came a series of bank failures, which shook
the country to its core. The Government and the Bank of Japan
came to the rescue and after some anxiety, got the situation in
hand. It was necessary, however, to abandon the attempt to re-
store the yen to parity, and the year closed with it standing at
46-55 cents, or 6i% below parity. In fact, during 1927 it had a
net fall of two cents. (N. E. C.)
YENISEI (from a Tungus word meaning Great River), a
river of Asiatic Russia, rising in Mongolia and flowing into the
Arctic Ocean, having a total length of 2,700 m. and a basin ex-
tending over a million square miles. It marks a structural bound-
ary of great antiquity in the history of the continent. The western
plain, /extending from the Urals and covered by quaternary allu-
vial deposits, with a few isolated remnants of friable Tertiary
sandstones, forms, apart from the smaller rivers of the Arctic
tundra, a catchment area for the Ob. Near the left bank of the
Yenisei there is a slight rise in the plain which deflects a few short
tributaries to the Yenisei, but most of its drainage area lies to the
right, on the ancient plateau remnant of Angara land, the middle
of which forms a watershed, with drainage either to the Arctic, or
to the east and west. Thus the Yenisei and the Lena are marginal
rivers of an ancient block. Contrasts between the land to the
west and that to the east of the Yenisei, north of Krasnoyarsk,
are sharp, orographically, geologically, in soil formation and in
climate, the winter isotherms curving southward on the higher
land. The effects are that the plateau population is scanty, and
that the limit of possible cultivation, which from the Urals to long.
50° E. remains considerably north of lat. 60° N., on the plateau
lies considerably farther south. North of the Arctic circle, the
difference disappears, the whole region being tundra.
Towards the south the plain forms an amphitheatre west of
Lake Baikal; within it lie the courses of the Angara, the Stony
or Middle Tunguska, the upper courses of the Lower Tunguska
and of the Lena. It is bounded by the Archaean masses on the
Middle Yenisei, cut off by a fracture along the river between the
confluences of the Angara and the Stony Tunguska, and by the
pre-Cambrian fold mountains to the south. Bogdanovich supposes
that a great inland lake existed in the amphitheatre during the
Angara epoch of the Mesozoic. The Yenisei is thus a mountain
river of composite character. In Chinese Mongolia it flows through
a longitudinal valley at the northern foot of the Tannu-ola; it then
cuts through the western Sayan mountains and passes through
portions of successive transverse valleys to Krasnoyarsk and its
confluence with the Angara. It then flows along the western
base of the Archaean range and finally enters the most north-
westerly part of the Palaeozoic plateau. The Yenisei is formed by
the junction of the Bei-kem and Chua-Kem streams in the Uryan-
khansk district of Chinese Mongolia, and is known as the Ulu-
kcm or Upper Yenisei. It receives the Kemchik river on the left
and the town of Kemchik at the junction is much visited by Rus-
sian traders, who also have quarters in Krasniy at the junction of
the Bci-kem and Chua-kem (or Little Yenisei).
After crossing the frontier it receives the Us on the right bank
YENISEISK— YEOMANRY
887
north of the frontier are formidable rapids, the limit of raft navi-
gation. This part of its course is through coniferous mountain
forest, with some meadow land along the banks. Gold, asbestos,
salt, coal, magnesia and iron occur in the mountains, but are little
worked; the inhabitants are mainly nomad Finno-Tatar hunters,
though Russian colonization is slowly spreading. The river now
enters a prairie region, with the Abakan draining it on the left
and the Tuba on the right. Minusinsk (q.v.) lies 8 m. from the
confluence of the Abakan and Yenisei; and the Minusinsk black
earth region, sheltered by the West Sayan mountains, the Siberian
Urals and the Abakan range, is noted for its fertility and its mild
climate and has been settled from prehistoric times. Gold and
coal are found. Iron is found on the Irba, a tributary of the
Tuba. At Novo-Selovsk 55° 5" N., 91° 16' E., the ChuUrn, a
tributary of the Ob is only 6 m. distant, but canalization is im-
practicable owing to difference of level. At Krasnoyarsk (q.v.)
the railway crosses the river, which here flows through a plain
with mountains to the south and west, whose red sandstone and
marl have given Krasnoyarsk its name.
South of the Pit mountains (the northern limit of corn growing
land), the Angara or Upper Tunguska enters the Yenisei, after
flowing 1,100 m. from Lake Baikal. The Selenga and the Angara
were probably once united and Lake Baikal is of later forma-
tion. A rich gold-bearing region extends from the Angara to the
Stony Tunguska, and the Pit enters the Yenisei on the right in
this district. The Stony Tunguska, 1,000 m. long, is almost un-
inhabited, and here the deciduous forest merges into the conifer-
ous. From the Stony Tunguska to Turukhansk is dense coniferous
forest, with a few settlements on the right bank mainly. The
Bakhta, north of the Stony Tunguska, flows through a marshy,
uninhabited country. Above the confluence of the Stony Tun-
guska, the Yenisei broadens and reefs of rock known as the
"Seventy Islands" rise above its waters.
The Lower Tunguska, 2,000 m. long, rising in lat. 57° N., 20 m.
from the Lena, winds through a marshy forest country, with no
settlements except in its upper course, where the villages are
linked with the easily reached Lena. Coal, graphite and asbestos
exist, but are not worked. The Turukhan enters from the left
and is used by the Samoyedes to link with the Taz. The town of
Turukhan, 10 m. from the Yenisei on the delta of the Turukhan,
is now derelict and Monastir Turukhan (Troitskoe Monastir) on
the right bank has replaced it. The Kureika river enters from the
left and is linked with Obdorsk by a western track. There is un-
worked graphite in the Kureika valley. In lat. 69°-70° N., the
scattered larches and birches give way to treeless tundra. There
is a Russian trading settlement at Dudinsk, at the confluence of
the Dudina and 60 m. E. coal of good quality is found in the Novil
mountains,* and platinum is reported. A scattered population,
descendants of Russian exiles and natives, extends from Dudinsk
to the Khatanga river. The Yenisei delta and gulf are not fully
explored. The west is low and marshy and the east steep. Fish
abound and native fishermen migrate north in summer. Golchikha,
a Samoyede village on an island in the delta in 71° 45' N., 84° E.,
has steamer communication with Krasnoyarsk and Minusinsk, fish
and fur going upstream and corn, meat and manufactured goods
downstream. Yenisei navigation is less important than that of
the Ob, owing to the scantier population and more difficult en-
vironment. In winter the frozen river serves as a good road. At
the delta the river is usually frozen from Oct. 30 to June 23 ; at
Turukhansk, from Nov. 1 1 to June 8, at Krasnoyarsk from Dec.
5 to May 12; and at Minusinsk from Nov. 29 to May n. There
are floods in mid-May and mid-June, and huge blocks of ice col-
lect in and near the mouth after the thaws.
Exploration and Settlement-— The Yenisei was first reached
by Cossack bands in 161 8 to 1620, who came from the Ob via the
portage between the Ket tributary of that river and the Kaz
tributary of the Yenisei which is now linked by canal. They met
with much opposition from the Tungus and Buriat tribes and it
was not till 1648 that the Russians penetrated to Lake Baikal via
the Angara river. The exploration of the delta was much delayed,
for though English and Russian navigators visited the Kara Sea
in the i6th century, the upper course of the river, 6 m. wide near
the delta, and with a delta opening into a gulf 40 m. wide, presents
great difficulties when the warmer waters from the south under-
mine the ice and huge ice floes swell up and burst away, forming
ice hills sometimes 50 to 60 ft. high on the banks, while the pack
ice blocks on the current travel northwards at 20 m. an hour,
crashing against one another with deafening reverberations.
After 1853, a wealthy Siberian, Sidoroff, agitated for 20 years
to establish links between Europe and the mouths of the Arctic
rivers of Siberia and in 1874 an English vessel reached the mouth
of the Ob, while Nordenskjold, the famous Swedish explorer, in
1875 entered the mouth of the Yenisei. In 1876 an English vessel
reached Kureika on the Yenisei and in the following year Sidoroff
reached the delta from Yeniseisk, and sailed to Leningrad. In
1878, the Fraser and Express, two ships of Nordenskjold's "Vega"
expedition ascended the Yenisei. A company was formed to estab-
lish trade via this route, but was unsuccessful and was dissolved
in 1900. The project is now being revived and in 1928 a Kara Sea
expedition, consisting of three British and five Norwegian vessels,
set out from Hamburg on Aug. i, sailing via the North Sea, Bar-
ents sea, through the Novaya Zemlya islands and the Kara sea to
the mouths of the Ob and Yenisei, taking 15,000 tons of agricul-
tural machinery, metals, drugs and coal, to exchange for timber,
flax, cow-wool, hides and horsehair, brought up the rivers on barges
towed by steamers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Nordenskjold, The Voyage of the Vega, 1881; P.
Kropotkin, Orographie de la SibMe (1905) ; Suess, The Face of the
Earth, vol. in. (1908), with references to Russian articles, esp. by
Obruchev; E. Argand, La Tectonique de I'Asie (1922, publ. 1924).
YENISEISK, a town in the Siberian area of the Russian S.F.-
S.R., in 58° 39' N., 92° 4' E., on the right bank of the Yenisei
river at an altitude of 285 ft. It is a centre for fur trading and
gold mining; pop. (1926) 5,957, about 50% of that in 1913.
There is not much wharf accommodation, though there is regular
steamer connection to Krasnoyarsk. The river at Yeniseisk is a
mile wide and navigation opens about May 19 and closes about
Dec. i. The town was founded in 1618.
YEOMAN, a term meaning, first, a class of holders of land
and second, a retainer, guard, attendant or subordinate official.
The word appears in M.E. as $cman, $oman and yeman; it does
not appear in O.E. It is generally accepted that the first part is
the same word as the Ger. Gau, district, province, and probably
occurs in O.E. as gea in S&firi-gea, Surrey; i.e., southern district,
and other place-names. "Yeoman" thus meant a country-man, a
man of the district, and it is this sense which has survived in the
special use of the word for a class of landholders.
The extent of the class covered by the word "yeoman" in Eng-
land has never been very exactly defined. One of the earliest
pictures of a yeoman is that given by Chaucer in the Prologue to
the Canterbury Tales. Here, represented as a forester, he fol-
lows the esquire as -a retainer or dependant. The yeomen of later
ages, however, are practically all occupied in cultivating the land,
although, doubtless from its younger sons, the class furnished
retainers for the great lords, men-at-arms and archers for the
wars, and tradesmen for the towns. Medley (Eng. Const. Hist.)
describes the yeomen of the i5th century as representing on the
whole "the small freeholders of the feudal manor." Holinshed,
in his Chronicle, following Sir T. Smyth (De republica Anglorum),
and W. Harrison (Description of England), describes them as
having free land worth £6 annually, and in times past 403., and as
not entitled to bear arms. They formed the intermediate class be-
tween the gentry and the labourers and artisans.
YEOMANRY, the name given to the volunteer mounted
troops of the home defence army of Great Britain, ever since their
original formation; it indicated that recruiting, organization and
command were upon a county basis, the county gentlemen officer-
ing the force, the farmers and yeomen serving in its ranks, and
all alike providing their own horses. Although the yeomanry was
created in 1761, it was not organized until 1794. Under the
stimulus of the French War recruiting was easy, and 5,000 men
were quickly enrolled. A little later, when more cavalry were
needed, the Provisional Cavalry Act was passed, whereby a sort
of revived knight-service was established, every owner of ten
888
YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
horses having to find and equip a horseman, and all who owned
fewer than ten, grouped by tens of horses, similarly finding one.
A great stimulus to yeomanry recruiting was given by an amend-
ing act which was soon passed by which yeomanry cavalry could
be substituted for provisional cavalry in the county quota. At the
peace of Amiens, the yeomanry was retained, although the pro-
visional cavalry was disbanded. There was thus a nucleus for
expansion when Napoleon's threatened invasion (1803-5) called
out the defensive powers of the country, and as early as December
1803 there were in England, Scotland and Ireland, 44,000 yeomen.
At the same time the limitations as to place of service in Great
Britain were abolished.
From the extinction of Chartism to the South African War
the history of the yeomanry is uneventful. The strength of the
force gradually sank to 10,000. But when it became apparent
that mounted troops would play a decisive part in the war against
the Boers, the yeomanry again came to the front. Of its 10,000
serving officers and men, 3,000 went to South Africa in newly
formed battalions of "Imperial Yeomanry," armed and organized
purely as mounted rifles, and to these were added over 32,000
fresh men, for whom the yeomanry organization provided the
cadres and training. In 1901 the yeomanry was remodelled; the
strength of regiments was equalized on a four squadron basis,
fresh regiments were formed and the strength of the force was
more than trebled. In 1907 the yeomanry became part of the new
Territorial Force.
At the outbreak of the World War in 1914, 53 regiments of
yeomanry mobilized. The first to see active service was the
Oxfordshire Yeomanry who accompanied the Royal Naval Divi-
sion in the Antwerp campaign, but it was not until the spring
of 1915 that the employment of yeomanry was seen on any
considerable scale. In France four regiments of yeomanry were
brigaded with regular cavalry in the cavalry corps and proved
in every way worthy of this distinction.
Only in the Palestine campaign was opportunity found for the
successful employment of large cavalry formations. Fourteen
regiments of yeomanry, nine of which had formed part of an im-
provised dismounted force in Gallipoli, served in the various
divisions of the Desert Mounted Corps and contributed very ma-
terially to the success of Allenby's Jerusalem campaign and of
the final advance on Damascus and Aleppo. The actions of Huj
and El Mughar in the operations following the third battle of
Gaza, both executed entirely by yeomanry, provided classic
examples of the successful employment of the mounted attack
in mobile warfare. In the spring of 1918 eight of these regi-
ments were grouped into machine gun battalions and sent to
France, their places being taken by Indian Cavalry.
One complete infantry division was formed entirely of yeo-
manry units. This was the 74th Division (the "broken spur"
division), so called from the divisional sign which they adopted.
This division was formed in Palestine at the beginning of 1917
from 1 8 yeomanry regiments, 12 of which had previously seen
service in Gallipoli. The 74th Division first saw service as a
division at the second battle of Gaza, and served with consid-
erable distinction in the third Gaza campaign and in the opera-
tions attending the capture of Jerusalem, and afterwards in
France and Flanders whither it was sent in the spring of 1918.
The Scottish Horse and Lovat's Scouts Brigade served as infantry
in Gallipoli, Macedonia and France and Flanders. The remain-
ing yeomanry regiments were employed as divisional cavalry.
Since the war much attention has been given to the training of
the unit and efficiency has been largely increased by the presence
in the force of so many officers with experience of war.
(E. F. LA.)
YEOMEN OF THE GUARD, originally "Yeomen of the
Guard of (the body of) our Lord the King" — "Valecti garde
(corporis) domini Regis" — the title maintained with but a slight
variation since their institution in 1485, of a permanent mili-
tary corps in attendance on the sovereign of England, as part of
the royal household, whose duties, now purely ceremonial, were
originally those of the sovereign's personal bodyguard. They are
the oldest existine bodv of the kind. The first warrants to indi-
vidual "Yeomen of the Guard" date from Sept. 16, 1485, im-
mediately after the victory of Henry VII. at Bosworth (Aug. 22).
The first official recorded appearance of the king's bodyguard
of the Yeomen of the Guard was at the coronation of its founder
Henry VII. at Westminster Abbey on Oct. 31, 1485, when it
numbered 50 members. That number was rapidly increased, for
there is an authentic roll of 126 attending the king's funeral in
1509. Henry VIII. raised the strength of the Guard to 600 when
he took it to visit Francis I. of France at the Field of the Cloth of
Gold (q.v.). In Queen Elizabeth's reign it numbered 200. The
corps was originally officered by a captain (a post long associated
with that of vice-chamberlain), an ensign (or standard-bearer), a
clerk of the cheque (or chequer roll, his duty being to keep the roll
of every one connected with the household), besides petty officers,
captains, sergeants or ushers. In 1669 Charles II. reorganized the
Guard and gave it a fixed establishment of 100 yeomen, officered
by a captain, a lieutenant, an ensign, a clerk of the cheque and
four corporals, which is the present organization and strength.
The captaincy is now a ministerial appointment filled by a noble-
man of distinction under the lord chamberlain, and the old rank
of "corporals" has been changed to "exon," a title derived from
"exempt," i.e., exempted from regular regimental duty for em-
ployment on the staff. Formerly officers on the active list were
given these appointments in addition to their own.
The original duties of the Guard were of the most compre-
hensive nature. They were the king's personal attendants day
and night at home and abroad. They were responsible for his
safety not only on journeys and on the battlefield, but also within
the precincts of the palace itself. In Tudor times the Yeomen
of the Guard alone were entrusted with the elaborate formality
of making the king's bed. Another of their duties still retained
is the searching of the vaults of the houses of parliament at the
opening of each session, dating from the "Gunpowder plot," in
1605, when the Yeomen of the Guard seized Guy Fawkes and
his fellow-traitors and conveyed them to the Tower.
The dress worn by the Yeomen of the Guard is in its most
striking characteristics the same as it was in Tudor times. It
has consisted from the first of a royal red tunic with purple
facings and stripes and gold lace ornaments. Sometimes the
sleeves have been fuller and the skirts longer. Red knee-breeches
and red stockings (white in Georgian period only), flat hat, and
black shoes with red, white, and blue rosettes are worn. Queen
Elizabeth added the ruff. The Stuarts replaced the ruff and
round hats with fancy lace and plumed hats. Queen Anne dis-
carded both the ruff and the lace. The Georges reintroduced the
ruff, and it has ever since been part of the permanent dress. Up
to 1830 the officers of the Guard wore the same Tudor dress
as the non-commissioned officers and men, but under William
IV. the officers were given the dress of a field officer of the
Peninsular period. The weapons of the Guard are a steel gilt hal-
berd with a tassel of red and gold and an ornamental sword.
The real fighting days of the Guard ended with the Tudor
period, but it was only with the final appearance of an English
King in battle (Dettingen 1743) that the Guard's function of
attending a sovereign on the battlefield ceased. For a brief
period during the Georgian era the Guard lost to a certain extent
its distinctive military character and a custom crept in of filling
vacancies with civilians, who bought their places for considerable
sums, the appointments being of great value. William IV. put a
stop to the practice, the last civilian retired in 1848, and the
Guard regained its original military character. Every officer
(except the captain), non-commissioned officer, and yeoman must
have served in the Home or Indian army or Royal Marines. They
are selected for distinguished conduct in the field, and their pay
is looked upon as a pension.
The nickname "Beef -eaters," which is sometimes associated
with the Yeomen of the Guard, had its origin in 1669, when
Count Cosimo, grand duke of Tuscany, was in England, and,
writing of the size and stature of this magnificent Guard, said,
"They are great eaters of beef, of which a very large ration is
given them daily at the court, and they might be called 'Beef-
eaters/ "
YEOTMAL— YEW
In 1509, Henry VIII, envying the magnificence of the body-
guard of Francis I. of France, decided to have a noble guard of
his own, which he accordingly instituted and called 'The Gentle-
men Speers." It was composed of young nobles gorgeously
attired. In 1539 ^e guard was reorganized and called "Gentlemen
Pensioners." That title it retained till William IV.'s reign, when
the corps regained its military character and received their present
designation, "The Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms."
See The History of the King's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the
Guard, by Colonel Sir Reginald Hennell, D.S.O., Lieutenant of the
Yeomen of the Guard (1904).
YEOTMAL, a town and district of India in Berar. It stands
on an elevated plain at about 1,400 feet. The population in 1921
was 17,238. It was formerly the headquarters of the Wun dis-
trict but in 1905 the new district of Yeotmal was established,
the old Wun district being renamed with additions from the
district of Basim. Cotton ginning and pressing are the main
industries. The town is also the chief trading centre of the dis-
trict, being connected by a road, 29 miles long, with Dhamangaon
on the G.I.P. railway, while a narrow .gauge line recently con-
structed connects it through Darhwa and Karinja with Murtizapur
on the main G.I.P. line.
The DISTRICT OF YEOTMAL has an area of 5,219 square miles.
Yeotmal is a large cotton producing district, but its upland is less
fertile than the average of Berar. The greater part of the dis-
trict is drained by the Penganga. River, which joins the Wardha
in the south-east corner. There are large forest reserves in the
south and south-east in which game abounds. There is a consid-
erable aboriginal element of Gonds and Kalams in the wilder
portions. The 1921 population was 748,959. There is coal at
Pisgaon in the Wun taluq near the Wardha River. The climate
in the uplands is cool and the rainfall (41") plentiful.
YEOVIL, a market town and municipal borough in the Yeovil
parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the G.W.
and S. railways, 127 m. W. by S. of London. Pop. (1921) 14,994.
The town lies on the river Yeo, and is a thriving place, with a few
old houses. The town is famous for its manufacture of gloves
(dating from 1565). It has also brick works, a brewery, and large
engineering works. Its agricultural trade is considerable. Yeovil
(Gyoele, Evill, Ivle, Yeoele) before the Conquest was part of the
private domains of the Anglo-Saxon kings.
YERBA BUENA (Micromeria Chamissonis), a pleasantly
aromatic North American herb of the mint family (Labiatae,
tf.v.), found in woods from British Columbia to southern Cali-
fornia. It is a slender perennial, with trailing stems i ft. to 2 ft.
in length; roundish, short-stalked leaves, ^ in. to i in. broad, and
delicate, two-lipped, white flowers, borne on hair-like stalks usually
singly in the leaf-axils. Medicinal properties were ascribed to it.
YERBA MANSA (Anemopsis californica), a North Ameri-
can herb of the lizard's-tail family (Saururaceae), found in wet
saline places from western Texas to central California and south-
ward to Mexico. It is a perennial with upright stems, £ ft. to 2 ft.
high, springing from aromatic, creeping rootstalks, and astringent,
slightly spicy foliage. The flowers are borne in terminal spikes,
i in. to i J in. long, surrounded at the base by a circle of con-
spicuous white bracts ; the fruit is a capsule, splitting open from
the top. The Spanish-Californians used the plant medicinally.
YERBA MATE: see MAT£.
YERBA SANTA (Eriodictyon califomicum)^ North Ameri-
can balsamic shrub of the water-leaf family (Hydrophyllaceae) ,
native to dry slopes and mountain ridges from south central
California to southern Oregon. It grows from 2 ft. to 8 ft. high,
bearing narrowly lanceolate leaves, which are very glutinous-
resinous above and densely white-woolly below, and bluish or
white flowers in loose clusters. The Indians and early Spanish
settlers made extensive medicinal use of the bitter-aromatic
leaves; the Indians also chewed and smoked them.
YERSIN, ALEXANDRE £MILE JOHN (1863- ),
Swiss bacteriologist, was born at Rougemont, Switzerland, on Sept.
22, 1863, and studied at Lausanne, Marburg and Paris. He was
associated with Roux in his researches on the diphtheria serum
at the Pasteur institute, and then continued his researches in China
and Indo-China, where he explored the Mois country and pre-
pared a series of maps of the region. He introduced the culture
of rubber into Indo-China. The plague bacillus was discovered by
him in Hongkong in 1894, Kitasato simultaneously making the
same discovery. The next year Yersin prepared a serum to combat
the disease. Under the auspices of the Chinese Government a
branch of the Pasteur institute was founded by him at Canton.
Yersin established a similar institution at Nha Nang, Annam, in
the same year, of which he became director. Yersin was awarded
le grand prix Leconte by the Paris Academic des Sciences in 1927.
YEW (Taxus baccata), a tree which belongs to a genus of
Coniferae (see GYMNOSPERMS), in which the ordinarily woody
SONS, LTD.)
YEW (TAXUS BACCATA), TWIGS WITH (A) MALE AND (B) FEMALE
FLOWERS
cone of the pines and spruces is represented by a single seed sur-
rounded by a fleshy berry-like cup. Usually it forms a low-grow-
ing evergreen tree of very diverse habit, but generally with dense
spreading branches, thickly covered with very dark green linear
leaves, which are given off from all sides of the branch, but which,
owing to a twist in the base of the leaf, become arranged in a
single series on each side of it.
The trees are usually dioecious, the male flowers being borne on
one individual and the female on another. The male and the
female flowers are placed each separately in the axil of a leaf,
and consist of a number of overlapping scales. In the female
flower these scales surround a cup which is at first shallow, green
and thin (the so-called aril), but which subsequently becomes
fleshy and red, while it increases so much in length as almost
entirely to conceal the single straight seed. It is clear that the
structure of the female flower differs from that of most conifers,
from which it is now separated in a distinct family, Taxaceae.
The poisonous properties, referred to by classical writers such
as Caesar, Virgil and Livy, reside chiefly if not entirely in the
foliage. This, if eaten by horses or cattle, especially when it has
been cut and thrown in heaps so as to undergo a process of fer-
mentation, is very injurious. As a timber tree the yew is used
for cabinet-work and axle-trees, where strength and durability are
required. It was once largely used for the English long-bow.
The European yew, T. baccata, is a native of Europe, north
Africa, and Asia as far as the Himalayas and the Amur region.
The yew is wild in Great Britain, forming a characteristic feature
of the chalk downs of the southern counties and of the vegetation
of parts of the Lake District and elsewhere. The evidence of fossil
remains, antiquities and place-names indicates that it was formerly
more widely spread in Europe than at the present day. The varie-
890
YEZD—YEZO
ties grown in the United Kingdom are numerous, one of the most
striking being that known as the Irish yew — a shrub with the py-
ramidal or columnar habit of a cypress.
The yew is a favourite evergreen tree, either for planting sepa-
rately or for hedges, for which its dense foliage renders it well
suited. Its dense growth when pruned has led to its extensive use
in topiary work, which was introduced by John Evelyn and became
very prevalent at about the beginning of the i8th century.
In the United States and Canada the best known native yews
are the American yew or ground-hemlock (T. canadensis) , a low,
straggling shrub rarely over 5 ft. high, found in woods from New-
foundland to Manitoba and southward to Virginia and Iowa, and
the western or Pacific yew (T. brevifolia), a tree sometimes 50
ft. high, with a trunk diameter of 2 ft, which grows from Cali-
fornia to Alaska and eastward to Montana. The hard, heavy,
very fine-grained, exceedingly durable wood of the Pacific yew,
one of the best woods used by the Indians for making bows, is
especially suitable for tool-handles and similar purposes. Two
other North American species occur: the Florida yew (T. flori-
dana), a rare tree of western Florida, and the Mexican yew (T.
globosa), found in the mountains of Mexico.
Numerous dwarf forms and leaf-colour variants of the Japa-
nese yew (T. cuspidata) , a tree sometimes 50 ft. high, native to
north-eastern Asia, are planted for ornament.
For further details see Veitch, Manual of Coniferae (1900) ; Elwes
and Henry, Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (1906) ; C. S. Sargent,
Manual of the Trees of North America (1905, and ed. 1922) ; L. H.
Bailey, Manual of Cultivated Plants (1924) ; G. B. Sudworth, "Check
List of the Forest Trees of the United States,'* US. Dept. Agric. Misc.
Cir. 92 (1927)-
YEZD, a province and town of Persia. The former is bounded
on the west by the province of Isfahan, on the north by Sam-
nan-Damghan, on the east by Khurasan and on the south by
Kerman and Fars. Much silk is produced in this district, but not
sufficient for the requirements of the looms of Yezd, and quan-
tities are imported from Gilan. Other products are opium,
madder, almonds and grain, of which last, however, only one-
third of the supply required for local consumption is grown, the
surplus requirements being brought from the adjacent province
of Khurasan. The eartern part of the province bordering on the
Dasht i Lut (desert) is much exposed to moving sands, and culti-
vation here is very sparse. The revenue of the province amounted
in 1926-7 to 2,754,933 krans.
Yezd, the chief town of the province, is situated in 31° 54' N.
and 54° 22' E. at an elevation of 4,240 ft., 162 m. S.E. -of
Isfahan and 192 m. N.W. of Kerman. The population according
to one authority was estimated at 60,000 in 1900 while another
gives 50,000 only, of whom Zoroastrians or Parsees form a con-
siderable proportion. When the Arabs invaded Persia, the Zoroas-
trians fled before the persecution of the Muslims towards Yezd
and Kerman and they have since remained here. The town, with
its narrow, dirty and unpaved streets, is divided into the Shahr
i Nau (new town) and Shahr i Kohneh (old), separated by a wall
with two gates. There are several mosques, seven colleges and
numerous caravanserais. The main building of the old town is the
Ark, or citadel, where the governor resides. In the Parsee quarter
the streets are wider and cleaner, and the houses better, each hav-
ing its own garden. The highest and lowest recorded shade tem-
peratures are respectively 106° Fahr. in July and 20° in Decem-
ber. Commercially speaking Yezd occupies an important central
position in Persia, whence a number of routes radiate. Passable
roads for motors lead to Isfahan and to Kerman, from which
latter place Duzdab, at the Indian railhead, and Seistan, are
reached by a choice of caravan tracks. There is also an important
direct caravan track to Bandar Abbas.
See G. N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question (1892) ; E. G.
Browne, A year amongst the Persians (1893 and 1926) ; P. M. Sykes,
Ten thousand miles in Persia (1902) and "A Fourth Journey in Persia/*
Geogr. J., 1902, XIX. (P. Z. C.)
YEZIDIS, a religious sect, numbering about 50,000 persons,
dwelling chiefly in the neighbourhood of Mosul. Their own name
for themselves is Dasni, but they are called by their neighbours
Yezidi; the origin of both names is uncertain, but the latter is
probably derived from the Persian Yazdan, God. Their religion
was probably originally an offshoot of Mazdaism, but it has ab-
sorbed elements from Christianity and Islam, for they regard
Christ as an angel in human form and recognize Muhammad as
a prophet with Abraham and the other prophets, and practise cir-
cumcision and baptism. They regard the devil as the creative agent
of the Supreme God, and seek to propitiate him as the author of
evil; they avoid mentioning his name and represent him by the
peacock. Their sacred books have been translated by F. Nau,
Recueil de textes et de documents sur les Ytzidis (1918).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — L. Menant, Les Ytzidis (1892) ; R. Frank, Scheich
Adi, der grosse Heilige der Jezidis (1911) ; R. H. W. Empson, The cult
of the Peacock Angel (1928, bibl.)
YEZO, the most northerly of the five principal islands form-
ing the Japanese empire, the five being Yezo, Hondo, Shikoku,
Kyushu and Formosa. It is situated between 45° 30' and 41° 21'
N. and between 146° 7' and 139° n' E.; its coast-line measures
1,423.32 m., and it has an area of 30,148-41 square miles. On the
north it is separated from Sakhalin by Soya Strait (La P£rouse)
and on the south from Nippon by Tsugaru Strait. Its northern
shores are washed by the Sea of Okhotsk, its southern and eastern
by the Pacific Ocean, and its western by the Sea of Japan.
Orography. — The highest mountain in the island is Ishikari-
dake (6,955 ft.) and the next in importance is Tokachi-dake
(6,541 ft.). Yubari-take in Ishikari has a height oj 6,508 ft.,
and in the province of Kushiro are 0-akan-dake (4,470 ft.) and
Meakan-take (4,500 ft.). Near Hakodate are two conspicuous
volcanic peaks, Komaga-take (3,822 ft.) and Tokatsu-dake (3,800
ft.) ; and 24 m. from Kushiro (by rail) is & volcano called Atosa-
nobori, or Iwo-zan (sulphur mountain), whence great quantities
of first-rate sulphur are exported to the United States. Rishiri,
an islet on the extreme N.W., has a peak of the same name rising
to 6,000 ft.
Rivers, — Yezo boasts the largest river in the Japanese empire,
the Ishikari-gawa, which is estimated to measure 275 m. Its other
large rivers are the Teshio-gawa (192 m.), the Tokachi-gawa (120
m.), the Shiribeshi-gawa (88 m.), the Kushiro-gawa (81 m.), the
Toshibetsu-gawa (64 m.) and the Yubetsu-gawa (64 m.). The
valley of the Ishikari is the most fertile part of the island; the
Tokachi is navigable to a point 56 m. from its mouth, but the
Teshio has a bar which renders its approach extremely difficult.
Nearly all the rivers abound with salmon.
Lakes. — There are no large lakes, the most extensive — Toyako,
Shikotsuko and Kushiroko — not having a circumference of more
than 25 miles. Lagoons, however, are not uncommon. The larg-
est of these — Saruma-ko in Kitami — is some 17 m. long by 7
wide. It abounds with oysters nearly as large as those for which
the much smaller lagoon at Akkeshi is famous, the molluscs meas-
uring about 1 8 in. in length.
Climate. — The climate differs markedly from that of the main
island of Japan, resembling rather the climate of the British Isles,
though the winter is longer and more severe, and the atmosphere
in the warm season contains a greater quantity of moisture. Dur-
ing five months the country is under snow, its depth averaging
about 2 ft. in the regions along the southern coast and more than
6 ft. in the northern and western regions. An ice-drift, setting
from the north and working southwards as far as Nemuro, stops
all sea trade on the east coast during January, February and
March, though the west coast is protected by the warm current
of the Kuro-shiwo. Fogs prevail along the east coast during the
summer months, and it is not uncommon to find a damp, chilly
atmosphere near the sea in July, whereas, a mile inland, the
thermometer stands at 80° or 90° F in the shade, and magnolia
trees are in full blossom.
Fauna. — Tsugaru Strait has been shown to form a line of
zoological division. Pheasants and monkeys are not found on the
Yezo side of this line, though they abound on Hondo, and, on
the other hand, Yezo has grouse and solitary snipe which do not
exist in Hondo. The Yezo bear, too, is of a distinct species.
Population. — The island seems to have been originally peo-
pled by a semi-barbarjous race of, pit-dwellers, whose modern
YGGDRASIL— YIDDISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 891
representatives are to be found in the Kuriles or their neighbours
of Kamchatka and Sakhalin. These autochthons were driven out
by the Ainu, and the latter, in their turn, succumbed to the
Japanese. The population of Yezo is about 630,000 of whom
some 14,000 are Ainu. There is a steadily growing but not large
emigration from Japan proper to Yezo. Yezo is divided into ten
provinces, the names of which, beginning from the south, are
Oshima, Shiribeshi, Ishikari, Teshio, Kitami, Iburi, Hidaka, To-
kachi, Kushiro and Nemuro. Of these, Oshima, Shiribeshi and
Ishikari are by far the most important. There are only three
towns having a large population, viz., Hakodate (163,972), Sap-
poro (145,065) andOtaru (134,469).
Industries and Products. — Marine products constitute the
principal wealth of Yezo. Great quantities of salmon, sardines and
codfish are taken. The salmon are salted for export to Nippon and
other parts of Japan; the sardines are used as an agricultural
fertilizer and the codfish serve for the manufacture of oil. An
immense crop of edible seaweed is also gathered and sent to
Chinese as well as to Japanese markets. This kombu, as it is
called, sometimes reaches a length of 90 ft. and a width of 6 in.
The herring fishery, too, is a source of wealth, and the canning
of Akkeshi oysters as well as of salmon gives employment to many
hands. Vast tracts are covered with a luxuriant growth of ash,
oak, elm, birch, chestnut and pine, but, owing to difficulties of
carriage, this supply of timber has not yet been much utilized.
Communications. — The roads are few and in bad order, but
there is a railway which, setting out from Hakodate in the ex-
treme south, runs, via Sapporo and Iwamizawa, to the extreme
N. with branches from Iwamizawa, S. to Mororan and E. to
Poronai, and from Oiwake N.E. to the Yubari coal-mines. There
is also a line W. along the S. coast from Nemuro.
History. — Yezo was not brought under Japan's effective con-
trol until mediaeval times. In 1604 the island was granted in
fief to Matsumae Yoshihiro, whose ancestor had overrun it, and
from the close of the i8th century the cast was governed by
officials sent by the shogun, whose attention had been attracted
to it by Russian trespassers. In 1871 the task of developing its
resources and administering its affairs was entrusted to a special
bureau, which employed American agriculturists to assist the work
and American engineers to construct roads and railways; but in
1 88 1 this bureau was abolished, and the government abandoned
to private hands the various enterprises it had inaugurated. The
modern government departments attend to the development of
Yezo in the same way as for the rest of the islands of the Empire.
See the Annual Report of the Japanese Government.
YGGDRASIL, in Scandinavian mythology the mystical ash
tree which symbolizes existence, binds together earth, heaven and
hell, and is the tree of life, knowledge, fate, time and space. Its
three roots go down into the realms — (i) of death, where, in the
well Hvergelmer, the dragon Nidhug (Nifthoggr) and his brood
are ever gnawing it; (2) of the giants; (3) of the gods, Asgard.
Its stem upholds the earth, its branches overshadow the world
and reach up beyond the heavens. Honey-dew falls from the
tree, and on its topmost bough sits an eagle. G. Vigfusson and
York Powell (Corpus Poeticum Boreale, Oxford, 1883) see in
Yggdrasil not a primitive Norse idea, but one due to early contact
with Christianity.
YIDDISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The
word Yiddish is derived from the modern German Judisch
Deutsch or Jewish German. It is the language spoken by the
Polish and Russian Jews whose forbears, early in the middle ages,
were invited to Poland from the Rhineland, to form a trading
class in between the nobles and the serfs. They have kept their
Low German tongue, writing and printing it in Hebrew characters
to this day. Yiddish, though based on a Low German vocabulary
and construction, was cut off from living German, whence its
irregularities of grammar and spelling. It continued to absorb
Hebrew and Aramaic words and expressions, together with Slav
ones, Polish or Russian, and has a few of older Romance origin.
The Hebrew and Aramaic came from the Hebrew Bible and its
huge commentary the Talmud, which is largely Aramaic (q.v.).
For the women, notably in the Tzetwh U&nnh! (Heb. "Come out
and see!"), there were prayers and legends in Yiddish, or Mamc-
Joshen (class. Heb. lashdn—" tongue") or Zhargdn, in modern
Hebrew: Yekudit=" Jewish" (s. Judith), Yiddit, Zhargdn. Yid-
dish is essentially a folk-tongue, it had no written grammar, it
eludes all strict grammatical analysis, though efforts are now
being made to bring about uniformity in its grammar and spelling
in view of its continued existence among the Jews of east Europe.
Yiddish Literature is merely the reflection of the segre-
gated, intense Jewish world of Eastern Europe which has been
broken up, never to be reconstructed. It enshrines a distinct
phase of Jewish history, one which began when the first Jews
migrated to Poland from the Rhinelands in the middle ages, and
which lately closed in a darkness still hard to penetrate. It is a
literature rich in folksongs and tales. A wealth of folk-lore, still
in course of discovery, gathered on the long road from Ur of
the Chaldees to Pinsk and Minsk, passed into Yiddish from
Talmudical and European sources. This legendary material re-
mained common to the Jews of Poland and Germany.
The literature of the latter differed at all times little from that
of their Gentile neighbours except for the Hebrew lettering. The
Oppcnheim collection in the Bodleian library contains many publi-
cations of these earlier periods. Across the Polish frontier the
literary cleavage between Jew and Gentile was complete. Inter-
course with Germany grew ever less. Yiddish literature came
to mean one or two chapbooks of legends and the still familiar de-
votional work for women, the Tzenah Urenah, delightful in its
renderings of Talmudical traditions.
Early in the iQth century the Haskalah, a movement for the
enlightenment of the Jewish masses, initiated in Berlin by Moses
Mendelssohn, began to creep across the Russo-Polish frontiers.
The young Talmud student deciphered his first German book,
frequently the poems of Schiller, in secret and m fear — woe betide
him were he found with a volume of secular recreation, and in
the tongue spoken by so many heretic Jews! Still he read and
then came the wish to express his own feelings in Yiddish, to
speak to the people in their every-day language. Lcfin translated
the Psalms ar\d Ecclcsiastcs, Linetzki wrote his autobiography,
the Polish Boy, J. L. Gordon his few powerful verses.
Revival in Russia. — Round the '6os and 'yos, when Russian
schools and culture were made accessible to Jewish youth, Yid-
dish literature suffered a decline. After the persecutions of the
'8os it took on fresh life. The Jewish people, re-awakened to the
fact that they were not Jewish Russians but Russian Jews, said
in the words of Peretz: "We also want to bring our sheaf to
the universal harvest." The people needed comfort and guidance.
Spektor wrote his tales, sweet and simple in style, priceless in
observation; Frug, till then a Russian poet, his melodious verse;
J. Dienensohn his pathetic Jossclc. Abramovitch laid aside his
fluent Hebrew pen and wrote novels in a rich Yiddish, dealing
with evil inside as well as outside the community; I. L. Perctz
and "Sholem Alechem," both now dead, wrote abundantly.
Peretz produced talcs, poems and dramas. The two last have a
spectral charm, but his Stories and Pictures is his great achieve-
ment. "Sholem Alechem,1' the humourist, is even more of a house-
hold word in the humblest home where Yiddish is spoken. His
Tovie dcr Milchiger (Tobias the Milkman) is an immortal type.
David Frishman is a distinguished critic. Among other later and
gifted story-tellers, much of whose work was published in New
York, are Sholem Asch, A. Reisin, Libin and Peretz Hirschbcin.
Leo Wiener's History of Yiddish Literature in the igth Century
(1899), is invaluable to the student. Some English translations
are: Jewish Cldldren (Sholem Alechem), by Hannah Bcrman;
One Act Plays from the Yiddish t by Etta Block; A Lithuanian
Village (Leon Kobrin), by I. Goldberg, who has also translated
the Haunted Inn of Peretz Hirschbein and other plays; Stories
and Pictures (I. L. Peretz) and Yiddish Tales (20 different
authors), by H. Frank. (H. F.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Abramovitch, Die Kliatshe, Fistike der KMike (The
Cripple), Das kleine Menshele. (The Little Afaw), etc.; S. Asch, Blatter
(Leaves), Junge Johren (Youthful Years) ; Friig, Licder (Poems) ;
Lihin, Gekliebene Skiszen (Selected Sketches), Modne Menshen
(Queer Folk)\ Opatosho, Die PtiUshc W alder (The Polish Woods)
and other novels; 1. L. Peretz, Erzdhlungen und Bilder (Stories and
892
YLANG-YLANG— YOKOHAMA
Pictures) ; Reisin, Collected Works; Sholera Alechem, Collected Works
(including Stempenyu, Afenachem Mendel and Tovie der Milchiger) ;
Spektor, Collected Tales including Die zwei Chevertes (The two
Companions) ; Yehoash, Collected Poems and From New York to
Rehovoth.
The United States.-— Yiddish literature in America developed
under a combination of influences. On the one hand Russian
literature — the writings of Tolstoi, Turgeniev, Dostoievski and
Chekhov — played a decisive role in its growth for the obvious rea-
son that nearly all Yiddish writers came from Russia and it was
they who founded the Yiddish press, wrote the plays for the
theatres, started weekly and monthly publications.
The distinctive contribution of the United States to Yiddish
literature of the world has been the Yiddish language press.
During the past four decades Yiddish journalism has swallowed
up the ablest writers. There has never been a profitable market
for Yiddish books in America on account of the poverty of the
Jewish masses. Nine-tenths of the novelists, short story writers,
poets, playwrights and critics have been obliged to eke out a
livelihood as practising newspapermen. Hence the Yiddish press
has been more than a purveyor of news and political comment.
The man who has created modern Yiddish journalism is Abraham
Cahan. From the founding of the Jewish Daily Forward in 1897
Cahan has been guide and mentor of the Yiddish press.
In addition to The Forward there are three other dailies in
New York, viz., Jewish Morning Journal, Day-Warheit and Frei-
heit. The Morning Journal (edited by Peter Wiernik) is a con-
servative paper in politics no less than in religion. The Day-
Warheit espouses the cause of Jewish nationalism, while Freiheit
advocates communism. The total circulation of the several papers
is in the neighbourhood of 400,000. Among the leading journal-
ists in addition to those already mentioned are Zivion, Hillei Ro-
goff, Dr. A. Coralnik, M. Olgin, Dr. S. Margoshes, Jacob Fish-
man. The name of the late Louis E. Miller, one of the founders
of The Forward and for years editor-publisher of Warheit and
other publications, must be included in this list. Also S. Yanofsky,
long the editor of Frcic Arbeiter Shtimme (Free Workmen's
Voice), an influential literary weekly of anarchist tendencies.
Much of the best modern Yiddish poetry has been written in
the United States. Morris Roscnfeld was the most popular and
most versatile poet produced in America. He was lyricist, satirist,
polemicist. Yehoash, regarded by some as superior to Rosenfeld,
was less popular. His poetry is cerebral, much of it obscure.
Yehoash wrote magnificent nature poems; he translated Long-
fellow's "Hiawatha," devoted long years to the translation of
the Old Testament from the original Hebrew into Yiddish and was
the author of a Dictionary of Hebraic Elements in the Yiddish
language, a pioneer work. A. Reisin, for years editor of the
monthly magazine Zukunft (Future) is a poet of great power and
originality as well as a foremost publicist. Excellent poetry has
also been written by M. Winchevsky, Mani Leib, Rolnik, Joel
Slonim, M. L. Halpern, Zisha Landau, Dilon, Nochem Yud.
The earliest writers of short, stories were Z. Libin, Jacob Gordin
and Leon Kobrin. Libin's career dates from the 'gos. His sketches
are full of a peculiar humour tinctured with sadness inspired by
the hardships of life of the early immigrants. Libin has written
extensively for the stage not without success. Kobrin has been a
prolific playwright and translator. Gordin's fame rests on the
seventy-odd plays which he wrote for the stage during the last
20 years of his life rather than his earlier sketches. He was the
reformer of the Yiddish stage in America.
Only two or three of the many plays which David Pinski has
written proved successful on the stage, notably Yekel the Black-
smith and The Treasure. Some of his plays, short stories and a
novel have been translated into English. Strongly under the in-
fluence of the Russian realists, Z. Levine occupies a unique posi-
tion as a writer of grim stories unrelieved by humour. Highly
esteemed by some critics, his reading public remains limited.
Fifteen or more years ago there emerged a group of young
writers who challenged the supremacy of the older men. To-day
(1929) their position is being challenged by a still younger group.
The most notable of the young writers are Opatosho, Ignatev and
Raboi.
Many of the leading writers of Europe have lived in America
for shorter or longer periods but have remained distinctly Euro-
pean writers for the most part. None of the sketches or
poems which Reisin, for instance, has written in America are
equal to his best European work. Asch, who is indubitably one of
the two or three greatest living Yiddish writers, is the author of
two novels of American life : Uncle Moses and Lederer. His fame,
however, will rest on Motke Ganef, Kidush Has hem, Gott fun
Nekomah and Dos Shtetel — all written in the old country.
Next to the press the stage has been the most potent cultural
influence in the life of the Jewish immigrants. Long under the
domination of Shomer, Lateiner and "Professor" Hurwich, it was
devoted to the presentation of vapid musical comedies, operettas
and blood-curdling melodramas. Jacob Gordin, and after him
Libin, Kobrin, Asch, Pinski, Sacklcr, Gottcsfeld and Leiwick,
rescued the stage from the doldrums. Asch's God of Vengeance,
though dealing with life in Warsaw, was first produced in New
York and is perhaps the greatest single Jewish drama of modern
times. Of plays dealing essentially with American conditions,
Leiwick's Shmattess (Rags) ranks near the top. In recent years
Gottesfcld has written delightful comedies of American life.
Peretz Hirschbein's idyllic plays (Dos Fervorfen Winkel, Grinne
F elder, etc.) have been extremely successful and have vastly en-
riched the repertoire of the American Yiddish stage. There are
approximately 20 Yiddish theatres in the country, fully half of
them in greater New York. Second avenue in New \ork is the
Yiddish "Great White Way." (N. Z.)
YLANG-YLANG (Cananga odorata), a medium-sized tree
of the custard-apple family (Anonaceae), found in southern India,
Java and the Philippines and planted in warm regions for its ex-
ceedingly fragrant flowers, which yield the widely-prized perfume
of the Pacific islands, known as ylang-ylang among the Malays.
The tree has somewhat drooping branches; large, ovate, sharp-
pointed leaves; numerous greenish or yellowish flowers, about
2 in. long, and oblong, greenish fruits about i in. long. It has been
sparingly cultivated in southern Florida.
YO-CHOW-FU, a city dn the Chinese province of Hunan
standing on high ground east of the outlet of Tung-Ting lake. Pop-
ulation about 20,000. The actual settlement is at Chinling-Ki, a
village 5^ m. below Yo-Chow and -J m. from the Yangtze. From
Yo-Chow the cities of Chang Sha and Chang Teh are accessible,
for steam vessels drawing 4 to 5 ft. of water, by means of the
Tung-Ting lake and its affluents the Siang and Yuan rivers. The
district in which Yo-Chow-Fu stands is the ancient habitat of the
aboriginal San Miao tribes who were deported into south-west
China. The city, which was built in 1371 is about. 3 m. in cir-
cumference, and is surrounded by a wall. The city was entered
by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853. Yo-Chow-Fu is a collecting centre
for native export products and for foreign goods on their way
inland. It was opened to foreign trade in 1899.
YODEL, a peculiar kind of singing consisting of alternations of
high falsetto notes with ordinary chest tones. It is practised by
the Swiss and Tirolese in the singing of their native melodies.
YOGA, "diversion of the senses from the external world,
and concentration of thought within" (Sanskrit "yoking"). The
Yoga system in Hindu philosophy is a branch of the Sankhya.
(q.v.), but loosely inserted into it is the conception of a personal
God, who is indissolubly connected with the subtlest form of
matter. Union with him was not the original object of yoga.
By its practices of hypnotism and self-mortification the Yogi
(mod. Jogi) could attain miraculous powers and control of
nature itself. Siva (q.v.), was essentially the great Yogi.
YOKOHAMA, a seaport of Japan on the west shore of
Tokyo Bay, 18 m. south of Tokyo by rail. It stands on a plain
shut in by hills, one of which, towards the south-east, terminates
in a promontory called Honmoku-misaki or Treaty Point. The
temperature ranges from 95° to 43° F, and the mean temperature
is 57-7°. The cold in winter is severe, owing to north winds,
while the heat is great in summer, though tempered by south-west
sea breezes. The rainfall is about 70 in. annually. In 1859, when
the neighbouring town of Kanagawa was opened to foreigners un-
der the treaty with the -United States, Yokohama was an insig-
YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK, LTD.— YONKERS
893
nifkant fishing village; and notwithstanding the protests of the
foreign representatives the Japanese government shortly after-
wards chose the latter place as the settlement instead of Kana-
gawa. Pop. (1927) 518,902. The Japanese government con-
structed public works, and excellent water was supplied from the
Sagamigawa. The foreign settlement has well-constructed streets,
but the wealthier foreigners reside south of the town, on the
Bluff. The land occupied by foreigners was leased to them by
the Japanese government, 20% of the annual rent being set
aside for municipal expenses.
The harbour, which is a part of Tokyo Bay, is good and
commodious, somewhat exposed, but enclosed by two break-
waters. The average depth in > the harbour at high water is about
46 ft., with a fall of tide of about 8 ft. Rice, metal, woollen
and cotton goods are the chief imports; and silk, silk goods and
tea are the chief exports. The town was almost obliterated by
an earthquake in Sept. 1923. Many thousands of its inhabitants
were killed, some 80% of the houses were destroyed.
The starting-point of reconstruction was the new railway sta-
tion on the coast, and the widening of 2$ m. of existing streets
and the building of 29 m. of new streets was undertaken. Rail-
ways have been restored, and plans for their further reconstruc-
tion are in hand. During the earthquake about a mile of the
breakwater sank 8 ft. and most of the wharves were destroyed.
The repair of the docks and harbour has been completed.
YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK, LTD., THE (Yokohama
Shokin Ginko). This bank was founded in 1880 with an author-
ised capital of Yen 3,000,000 with the object of affording financial
facilities in respect of the foreign trade of Japan. Subsequently,
its capital was increased several times until it stood at Yen 100,-
000,000, all paid up by December 1920.
The business carried on by the bank consists of (i) foreign ex-
change, (2) inland exchange, (3) loans, (4) deposits of money
and custody of articles of value, (5) discount and collection of
bills of exchange, promissory notes and other securities, and (6)
exchange of coins. The bank may also buy or sell public bonds,
gold and silver bullion, and foreign coins, if so required by the
condition of its business. It may also be entrusted with matters
relating to foreign loans and with the management of public
money for international account.
The head office of the bank is in Yokohama, and there are 44
branches, 7 of which are in Japan and the remainder distributed
throughout China, Manchuria, Europe, North and South America,
India, Australia and the East Indies. On the 3oth June, 1928,
the ordinary reserve fund of the bank was raised to Yen 102,-
500,000, actually exceeding the capital, while a special reserve
for bad debts was over Yen 4,000,000. (D. No.)
YOKOSUKA, a seaport arid naval station of Japan, on the
west shore of Tokyo Bay, 12 m. south of Yokohama. The town
is connected by a branch line with the main railway from Tokyo.
The port is sheltered by hills and affords good anchorage. The
site was occupied by a small fishing village until 1865, when
the shogun's government established a shipyard here. In 1868
the Japanese government converted the shipyard into a naval
dockyard, and subsequently carried out many improvements. In
1884 the port became a first-class naval station.
YOLA, a native state of British West Africa, forming the
major part of the province of Adamawa, Northern Nigeria. In
the partition of Africa part of Adamawa fell to Germany and
was included in the Cameroons. The British part was known
as the province and emirate of Yola. In 1919 the former Ger-
man part, of Adamawa came under British mandate and was in-
corporated with Yola. In 1926 the name of the province and
emirate was changed to Adamawa. By the people the Fula ruler is
known as the Lamido of Adamawa. The capital is Yola, a town
founded by the Fula conqueror Adama about the middle of the
1 9th century. The town is situated in 9° 12' N., 12° 40' E. and is
built on the left or south bank of the Benue, 480 m. by river
from Lokoja. It can be reached by shallow draught steamers
when the river is in flood. The Niger Company had trading rela-
tions with Yola before the establishment of British administra-
tion in Northern Nigeria.
In 1903 an exploring expedition was sent up the Gongola, which
coming from the north joins the Benuc below Yola, and the
navigability of the river for steam launches as far as Gombe
at high water was demonstrated. The Gongola valley was in
ancient times extensively cultivated and after the establishment
of the British protectorate it again became a prosperous agri-
cultural region. Cotton and food crops are cultivated.
Adamawa province has an area of 33,424 sq.m. and a pop.
(1926) of 549,137. In many districts the Fulani and indigenous
tribes are inextricably intermingled.
See NIGERIA; ADAMAWA, and the Annual Report on the Northern
Provinces, Nigeria (Kaduna), first issued in 1028.
YONGE, CHARLOTTE MARY (1823-1901), English
novelist and writer on religious and educational subjects, daughter
of William Crawley Yongc, 52nd Regiment, and Frances Mary
Bargus, was born on Aug. n, 1823 at Otterbourne, Hants. She
was educated by her parents, and from them inherited much of the
religious feeling and High Church sympathy which coloured her
work. She lived at Otterbourne all her life, and was one of the
most prolific writers of the Victorian era. In 1841 she published
five works of fiction, including The Clever Woman of the Family,
Dynevor Terrace and The Trial; and after that she was the author
of about 120 volumes, including novels, talcs, school manuals and
biographies. Her first conspicuous success was attained with The
Heir oj Redclyffe (1853), which enjoyed an enormous vogue. The
Daisy Chain (1856, repr. 1911) continued the success. She was
for more than 30 years editor of the Monthly Packet. She died at
Otterbourne on March 24, 1901.
See E. Romanes, Charlotte Mary Yongc: an Appreciation (1908) ;
and C. Coleridge, Charlotte Mary Yonge, her Life, and Letters (1903).
YONKERS, a city of Westchcster county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the east bank of the Hudson river, adjoining New York city
on the north and facing the Palisades. It is served by the New
York Central and electric railways, motor-bus lines, a ferry to
Alpine, N.J., and river steamers. Pop. (1920) 100,176 (26%
foreign-born white); 1928 estimate, 121,300. Yonkers is an
important manufacturing city as well as a popular residential
suburb. It has 4-5 m. of water front and a 30 ft. channel, and
is within the limits of the Port of New York. The business
streets, in the old part of the town along the river, too narrow
for modern demands, are congested with traffic. In the heart of
the business district stands the Philipse Manor-hall (built in
1682 and enlarged in 1745), one of the best examples of colonial
architecture in America, now maintained as a State museum. In
the northern part of the city (Glenwood) are the old Colgate
mansion and the home of Samuel J. Tilden. There are many
beautiful residential districts, on hills commanding delightful
views, and many fine estates and country clubs in the environs.
An Indian village (Nappeckameck) stood on the site of Yon-
kers, at the mouth of the Nepperhan creek, when the Dutch
founded New Amsterdam, and the territory was within the
"Keskeskick Purchase," acquired from the Indians by the Dutch
West India company in 1639. In 1646 it was included in the
large grant extending from the Hudson to the Bronx river, made
to Adrian van der Donck, the first lawyer and historian of New
Netherland. He encouraged settlers to come in, built a saw-mill
near the mouth of Nepperhan creek (or Saw-Mill river), and
soon the settlement came to be known as De Jonkhcer's Land
(the estate of the young lord), from which the name of Yonkers
was gradually evolved. Later much of the estate passed into the
hands of Frederick Philipse, who in 1682 built for his son the
manor house mentioned above. This mansion was confiscated
in 1779, as the Frederick Philipse of that time was suspected of
Toryism. It came into the possession of Yonkers in 1867, and
was used as the city hall from 1872 until it was bought by the
State in 1908. Early in the Revolution Yonkers was occupied
for a time by part of Washington's army and was the scene of
several skirmishes. In 1854 the manufacture of elevators was
begun in Yonkers by Elijah G. Otis. The village was incorporated
in 1855 and in 1872 it became a city. In 1880 the population was
18,892, which increased to 47.931 in 1900 (a gain of 154% in
20 years) and then more than doubled between 1900 and 1920.
YONNE— YORK
GENEALOGICAL TABLE OP THE HOUSE OF YORK
Edward HI.
1
Edward, the William • Lionel, »
Black Prince of Hatfield duke of
| (died young) Clarence
Richard II.
(dethroned 1390) Edmund Mortimer, »Philii
third carl of March 1
Roger Mortirm
fourth earl of Ma
Elizabeth, d. of John of Gaunt, Edmund, Thomas William
William de Burgh, duke of Lancaster duke of York of Woodstock, of Windsor
earl of Ulster 1 duke of Gloucester (died young)
Henrv TV.
>pa 1 I
Henry V. Edward,
| duke of York
r, - Eleanor Holland, Henry VI.
rch eldest daughter of |
Thomas, aecond Edward,
earl of Keut prince of Wales
Edmund Mortimer,
fifth carl of March
Anne Mortimer "Richard, carl of Cambridge
1 (executed 1415)
ukc of York
Ralpn, earl of Westmorland (killed in battle 1460)
Edward IV. fil. i.ffl.O George, duke o
| (attainted
Edward V. Richard,
(murdered 1483) duke of York
(murdered 1483)
f Clarence Richard III. Anne, married Henry Holland, duke of El
1478) (killed in battle 1485) Exeter, and had no child by him. Uy
I her second husband, Sir Thomas St.
Edward. Jaeger, she had a daughter married to
prince of Waled Sir G«o. Manners, Lord Rooa, and
(d. 1484) mother of the first earl of Rutland
izabeth=Tohn de la Pole,
duke of Suffolk
(d. 1490
Edward, Margaret,
earl of Warwick countess of Salisbury
(executed 1409) (executed 1541)
*»Sir Richard Pole John de la Pole, Edmund Humphrey and
f carl of Lincoln de la Pole Edward,
(d. 1487) (d. 1513) churchmen
Richard Four
de la Pole daughters
(d. 1525)
Henry Pole, Sir Geoffrey Pole, Arthur Pole Reginald Pole, Ursula, married to Henry. ^
Lord Montague of Lonlington, cardinal Lord Stafford, son of
(executed 1530) Sussex Edward, duke of Buck-
Five sons and one daughter. Among the former were
Arthur and Edmund, who were prisoners in the Tower
YONNE, a department of central France, formed partly from
the province of Champagne proper (with its dependencies, Senon-
ais and Tonnerrois), partly from Burgundy proper (with its de-
pendencies, the county of Auxerre and Avallonnais) and partly
from Gatinais (Orleanais and llc-de-France). It is bounded by
Aube on the north-east, Cote-d'Or on the south-cast, Nievre on
the south, Loiret on the west and Seine-et-Marne on the north-
west. Pop. (1926) 277,230. Area 2,892 sq. miles. The highest
elevation (2,000 ft.) is in the granitic highlands of Morvan.
The department belongs to the basin of the Seine, except a small
district in the south-west (Puisaye), which belongs to that of the
Loire. The river Yonne flows through it from south to north-
north-west, receiving on the right bank the Cure, the Serein and
the Armangon, which water the south-east of the department.
Farther north it is joined by the Vanne.
The department is served chiefly by the P.L.M. railway. The
canal of Burgundy, which follows the valley of the Armanqon, has
a length of 57 m. in the department, that of Nivernais, following
the valley of the Yonne, a length of 33 miles. The department
constitutes the archiepiscopal diocese of Sens, has its court of
appeal in Paris, its educational centre at Dijon, and belongs to
the district, of the V. army corps. It. is divided into 3 arrondisse-
ments (37 cantons, 486 communes), of which the capitals are
Auxerre, also capital of the department, Avallon and Sens; these
with Chablis, St. Florentin and V6zelay are its chief towns (qq.v.).
Pontigny has a Cistercian abbey, where Thomas Becket spent two
years of his exile, with a i2th century church. Druyes has a 12th-
century chateau. Villeneuve-sur- Yonne has a mediaeval keep and
gateways and a church of the i3th and i6th centuries. The Re-
naissance chateaux of Fleurigny, Ancy-le-France, Tanlay and the
chateau of St. Fargeau, of the i3th century, rebuilt by Made-
moiselle dc Montpensier under Louis XIV., are all noteworthy.
At St. More there arc remains of the Roman road from Lyons to
Gallia Belgica and of a Roman fortified post. There are many
megalithic monuments in the department.
YORCK VON WARTENBURG, HANS DAVID
LUDWIG, COUNT (1759-1830), Prussian general field-marshal,
was of English ancestry. He entered the Prussian army in 1772,
but in 1779 was cashiered for disobedience. Entering the Dutch
service, he took part in the operations of 1783-84 in the East
Indies as captain. Returning to Prussia in 1785 he was, on the
death of Frederick the Great, reinstated in his old service, and in
1794 took part in the operations in Poland. Five years afterwards
Yorck began to make a name as commander of a light infantry
regiment, being one of the first to give prominence to the training
of skirmishers. In 1805 he was appointed to an infantry brigade,
and in the Jena campaign played a successful part as a rearguard
commander, especially at Altenzaun. He was taken prisoner, se-
verely wounded, at Lubeck. In the reorganization of the Prussian
army after the peace of Tilsit, Yorck took a leading part. At first
major-general commanding the West Prussian brigade, afterwards
inspector-general of light infantry, he was finally appointed sec-
ond in command to General Grawert, the leader of the auxiliary
corps which Prussia was compelled to send to the Russian War of
1812, succeeding to the command on Grawert's retirement. He con-
ducted the advance on Riga with great skill; but his conviction
that the French army was doomed led him at last to neutralize
the Prussian army by the Convention of Tauroggen (Dec. 30).
The step was intensely popular, and although it. was officially pro-
posed to court-martial Yorck, he was absolved when the Treaty
of Kalisch ranged Prussia with the Allies. During 1813-14 Yorck
led his veterans with success at Bautzen, Katzbach, War-
tenburg (Oct. 4) and Leipzig (Oct. 18). In France, he dis-
tinguished himself at Montmirail and Laon. The storm of Paris
was his last fight. In 1821 he was created general field-marshal.
He had been made Count Yorck von Wartenburg in 1814. He
died at his estate of Klein-Ols, the gift of the king, on Oct. 4, 1830.
See Seydlitz, Tagebuch des Prtussischen Armee Korps 1812 (1823) '»
Droysen, Leben des G. F. M. Grafen Yorck von Wartenburg (1851).
YORK (HOUSE OF), a royal line in England, founded by
Richard, duke of York (q.v.), who claimed the crown in opposi-
tion to Henry VI. His claim was, perhaps rightly, barred by
prescription, the house of Lancaster having then occupied the
throne for three generations; it was really owing to the mis-
government of Margaret of Anjou that it was advanced at all.
The duke was descended from Lionel, the third son of Edward
III., while the house of Lancaster came of John of Gaunt, the
fourth son. The claim was derived (see the Table) through
females; but this could not reasonably have been objected to
after Edward III.'s claim to the crown of France; and the
duke's claim was probably supported by the fact that he was
descended from Edward III. both through his father and through
his mother. (See Table.) The earldom of Ulster, the old in-
heritance of the De Burghs, had descended to him from Lionel;
YORK
895
the earldom of March from the Mortimers, and the dukedom of
York and the earldom of Cambridge from his paternal ancestry.
His marriage with Cecily Neville, daughter of Ralph, ist earl of
Westmorland, allied him to a powerful family in the north.
The reasons why the claims of the line of Clarence had been
so long forborne are easy to explain. Richard II. named Roger
Mortimer, 4th earl of March, as his successor; but he died in
1398, and his son Edmund was a child at the time of Henry IV. 's
usurpation. Henry took care to secure his person; but the claims
of the family troubled his and Henry V.'s reigns. And it was to
make Edmund king that his brother-in-law Richard, earl of
Cambridge, conspired against Henry V. soon after his accession.
Richard, duke of York, seems to have taken warning by his
father's fate; but, after seeking to correct by other means the
weakness of Henry VI. 's government, he took up arms against
the ill advisers, and claimed the crown in parliament as his
right. The Lords admitted that his claim was unimpeachable, but
suggested that Henry should retain the crown for life, and the
duke and his heirs succeed after his death. This was accepted by
the duke, and an act to that effect received Henry's own assent.
But the act was repudiated by Margaret of Anjou, and the duke
was slain at Wakefield. Soon afterwards, however, his son was
proclaimed king at London as Edward IV., and the victory of
Towton immediately after drove his enemies into exile. After his
recovery of the throne in 1471 he had little more to fear from
the house of Lancaster, But the seeds of distrust had already
been sown in his own family, and in 1478 his brother Clarence
was put to death as a traitor. In 1483 Edward died; and Edward
V., after a nominal reign of two months and a half, was put
aside by the duke of Gloucester, who became Richard III. But
Richard was in turn slain at Bosworth by the earl of Richmond,
who, as Henry VII., married the eldest daughter of Edward IV.
and united the houses of York and Lancaster.
Here the dynastic history of the house of York ends. But a
host of debatable questions and pretexts for rebellion remained.
The legitimacy of Edward IV. 's children had been denied by
Richard HI. and, though the act was denounced as scandalous,
the slander might still be reasserted. The duke of Clarence had
left two children and the attainder of their father could not be a
greater bar to the crown than the attainder of Henry VII. himself.
Seeing this, Henry had kept Edward, earl of Warwick, a prisoner
in the Tower of London. Yet a rebellion was raised in his behalf
by means of Lambert Simnel, who was defeated and taken
prisoner at the battle of Stoke in 1487. The earl of Warwick
lived for 12 years later in confinement, and was ultimately put
to death in 1499. His sister Margaret married Sir Richard Pole
(or Poole), and could give no trouble, so that Henry VIII. treated
her with kindness. He made her countess of Salisbury, reversed
her 'brother's attainder, created her eldest son, Henry, Lord Mon-
tague, and had one of her younger sons, Reginald, carefully
educated. (See POLE, REGINALD and POLE, FAMILY.)
YORK, ALBERT FREDERICK ARTHUR GEORGE,
DUKE or (1895- ), second son of King George V. and Queen
Mary, was born at York Cottage, Sandringham, Dec. 14, 1895.
After passing through Osborne and the Royal Naval college, Dart-
mouth, he was gazetted midshipman in Sept. 1913. Though de-
barred by ill health from active service during the early years
of the World War, he served in the battle of Jutland as a sub-
lieutenant, being mentioned in despatches. At the end of 1917
he was attached to the naval branch of the Royal Air Force and,
in Oct. 1918, was on the Western Front, qualified as a pilot and
eventually became wing-commander in 1920. After the war
(Oct. 1919) he entered Trinity college, Cambridge, taking an
abridged course in history, economics and civics. He has since
shown a special interest in industrial questions, becoming president
of the Society for Industrial Welfare. He was created duke of
York in June 1920 and K.T. on the occasion of his marriage to
Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, April 26, 1923, having been previ-
ously (Dec. 1916) created K.G. In 1922 and 1923 the Duke
represented the King at court ceremonies in Rumania, Serbia
and Czechoslovakia. In 1925 he was made president of the
British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, and hi June was appointed
to the Privy Council. On April 21, 1926 a daughter was born to
the duke and duchess of York. The Princess Elizabeth, as she is
called, is in the direct succession, after the Prince of Wales and
her father, to the British throne.
YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-
1402), fifth son of Edward III., was bom at King's Langley in
Hertfordshire on June 5, 1341. He accompanied his father on a
campaign in France in 1359, was created earl of Cambridge in
1362, and took part in expeditions to France and Spain. After
marrying Isabella (d. 1393), daughter of Peter the Cruel, king
of Castile, he was appointed one of the English lieutenants in
Brittany, whither he led an army in 1375. A second campaign in
Brittany was followed in 1381 by an expedition under his leader-
ship to aid Ferdinand, king of Portugal, against John I., king of
Castile; but Edmund shortly returned to England as Ferdinand
had concluded an independent peace with John. Accompanying
Richard II. on his march into Scotland, he was created duke of
York in Aug. 1385, and subsequently on three occasions acted as
regent of England. He held a parliament in 1395, and he was
again serving as regent when Henry of Lancaster landed in Eng-
land in 1399. After a feeble attempt to defend the interests of the
absent king, York joined the victorious invader ; but soon retired
from public life. He died at King's Langley on Aug. i, 1402.
YORK, EDWARD, DUKE OF (c. 1373-1415), elder son of
the preceding (Edmund of Langley), was created earl of Rutland
in 1390. Being a friend of his cousin, Richard II., he became
admiral of the fleet, constable of the tower of London and warden
of the Cinque Ports. He accompanied the king to Ireland in 1394
and was made earl of Cork; arranged Richard's marriage with
Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France; and was one of the
king's best helpers in the proceedings against the "lords appellant"
in 1397. He became constable of England and obtained the lands
in Holderness previously belonging to Thomas of Woodstock,
duke of Gloucester, together with other estates and the title of
duke of Aumerle or Albemarle. He deserted Richard in 1399,
but only at the last moment; and in Henry IV.'s first parliament
he was denounced as the murderer of Gloucester. He was reduced
to his former rank as earl of Rutland, and deprived of his recent
acquisitions of land. It is uncertain what share Rutland had in
the conspiracy against Henry IV. in Jan. 1400, but he was probably
not seriously involved. He served as royal lieutenant in Aqui-
taine and in Wales, and became duke of York on his father's
death in 1402. He was concerned in the scheme, concocted in
1405 by his sister, Constance, for seizing the young earl of
March, and his brother Roger Mortimer, and carrying them into
Wales, and he was imprisoned in Pcvensey castle. Released a
few months later, he was restored to the privy council and regained
his estates. York led one division of the English army at Agin-
court, where, on Oct. 25, 1415, he was killed by "much hete and
thronggid." He was buried in Fotheringhay church.
YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (I763-
1827), second son of George III., was born at St. James's Palace
on Aug. 16, 1763. At the age of six months his father secured
his election to the rich bishopric of Osnabrikk. He became a
knight of the Bath in 1767, a K.G. in 1771, and was gazetted
colonel in 1780. From 1781 to 1787 he lived in Germany. He
was appointed colonel of the 2nd horse grenadier guards in 1782,
and promoted major-general and appointed colonel of the Cold-
Stream Guards in 1784.
He was created duke of York and Albany and earl of Ulster in
1784, but retained the bishopric of Qsnabrikk until 1803. On his
return to England he took his seat in the House of Lords, where,
on Dec. 15, 1788, he opposed Pitt's Regency bill in a speech
which was supposed to have been inspired by the prince of Wales.
A duel fought on Wimbledon Common with Colonel Lennox, after-
wards duke of Richmond, served to increase the duke of York's
popularity. In 1791 he married Princess Frederica (b. 1767),
daughter of Frederick William II. of Prussia. The princess was
enthusiastically received in London, but the marriage was not
happy, and a separation soon took place; the princess retired to
Oatlands Park, Weybridge, where she died on Aug. 6, 1820.
In 1793 the duke of York was sent to Flanders in command
896
YORK
of the English contingent of Coburg's army. (See FRENCH REVO-
LUTIONARY WARS.) On his return in 1795 the king promoted him
field-marshal, and on April 3, 1798, commander-in-chief. He then
led the army sent to invade Holland in conjunction with a Rus-
sian corps d'armee in 1799. From the time of the duke's arrival
with the main body of the army, disaster followed disaster until,
on Oct. 17, the duke signed the convention of Alkmaar, by which
the allied expedition withdrew after giving up its prisoners.
Although unsuccessful as commander of a field army the duke
devoted himself with the greatest vigour and success to reforms
at home until his enforced retirement from the office of com-
mander-in-chief on March 18, 1809. In the proceedings for brib-
ery in connection with Mary Anne Clarke (q.v.) the duke was
acquitted of having received bribes himself by 278 votes to 196.
In May 1811, he was again placed at the head of the army by
the prince regent, and rendered valuable services. He died on
Jan. 5, 1827, and was buried at St. George's Chapel, Windsor.
A firm friendship existed between the duke and his elder
brother, afterwards George IV., and he was also his father's
favourite son. He founded the Duke of York's school for the sons
of soldiers at Chelsea, and his name is also commemorated by the
Duke of York's column in Waterloo place, London.
YORK, RICHARD, DUKE OF (1411-1460), was born on
Sept. 21, 1411, the son of Richard, earl of Cambridge. He became
duke of York in 1415, and on the death of Edmund Mortimer in
1425 he represented in the female line the elder branch of the
royal family. He had been kindly treated by Henry V., and his
name appears at the head of the knights made by Henry VI. at
Leicester on May 19, 1426. York served in France (1430-31),
and in 1432 he obtained livery of his lands and went over to
Ireland to take possession of his estates there. In Jan. 1436 he
was appointed lieutenant-general of France and Normandy. He
showed vigour and capacity, and recovered F6camp and other
places in Normandy. He was not supported cordially by the home
Government, and in 1437 applied to be recalled. York returned
to England in the autumn of 1437. From this time he attached
himself to Humphrey of Gloucester's party, in opposition to the
Government under Cardinal Beaufort. By his marriage in 1438 to
Cicely, sister of the carl of Salisbury, he allied himself to the
rising family of the Nevilles. On July 2, 1440, York was again
appointed to the French command. His previous experience made
him stipulate for full powers and a sufficient revenue. He did not
go to Rouen till June 1441. During his second governorship York
maintained the English position in Normandy. Hampered by his
political opponents at home, he was recalled in 1446 on the pre-
text that his term of office had expired.
The death of Humphrey of Gloucester in 1447 made York the
first prince of the blood. Suffolk, now Henry's chief minister,
found a convenient banishment for a dangerous rival by appoint-
ing York to be lieutenant of Ireland for ten years (Dec. 9, 1447).
York, however, put off his departure for 18 months.
During his absence Jack Cade's rebellion occurred. In Sept.
1450 York landed in Wales, came to London with an armed retinue
and forced himself into the king's presence. He declared that
he desired only justice and good government. He took part in the
punishment of Cade's supporters, and discountenanced a proposal
in parliament that he should be declared heir to the crown. In
March 1452 he came once more in arms to London, and en-
deavoured to obtain Somerset's dismissal. On a promise that his
rival should be held in custody he disbanded his men, and, thus
outwitted, found himself virtually a prisoner. However, a nom-
inal agreement was concluded, and York accepted the king's par-
don. The situation was changed by the birth of a prince of Wales
and the king's illness in Oct. 1453. York secured his recognition
as protector on March 27, 1454. But at the end of the year the
king's sudden recovery brought York's protectorate to an end.
When it was clear that the queen and Somerset would proceed
to extremities, York and his friends took up arms in self-defence.
Even when the two armies met at St. Albans, York endeavoured to
treat for settlement. The issue was decided by the defeat and
death of Somerset on May 22, 1455. York used his success with
moderation. He became constable of England, and his friends
obtained office. This was no more than a change of ministers. But
a return of the king's illness in Oct. 1455 made York again for a
brief space protector. Henry recovered in Feb. 1456, and at
Coventry, in October, the Yorkist officials were displaced. Still
there was no open breach. York would not again accept honour-
able banishment to Ireland, but made no move till the queen's
preparations forced him to act. In Sept. 1459 both parties were
once more in arms. York protested that he acted only in self-
defence, but the desertion of his best soldiers at Ludlow on Oct.
12 left him helpless. With a few followers he escaped to Ireland,
where his position as lord-lieutenant was confirmed by an Irish
parliament, and he ruled in full defiance of .the English govern-
ment. In March 1460 the earl of Warwick came from Calais to
concert plans with his leader. York landed in England on Sept. 8,
and marched on London. On reaching Westminster, he took up his
residence in the royal palace, and formally asserted his claim to the
throne in parliament. A compromise was arranged ; Henry was to
retain the crown for life, but Richard was to succeed him. On
Nov. 8, he was accordingly proclaimed heir-apparent and protec- •
tor. Early in December, Richard went north with a small force.
On Dec. 30, he was hemmed in by a force of Lancastrians at
Wakefield. Declaring that he had never kept castle in the face
of the enemy, Richard rashly offered battle, and was defeated
and slain. His enemies had his head cut off, and set it up on the
walls of York adorned with a paper crown.
Richard of York was not a great statesman, but £e had quali-
ties of restraint and moderation, and might have made a good
king. He had four daughters and four sons. Edmund, earl of
Rutland, his second son, was killed at Wakefield. The other three
were Edward IV., George, duke of Clarence, and Richard III.
See The Fasten Letters with Dr. Gairdncr's Introduction; Three
Fifteenth Century Chronicles, and Collections of a London Citizen
(published by the Camden Society) ; Chronicles of London (ed.
C, L. Kingsford, 1905) ; J. S. Stevenson's Wars of the English in France
(Rolls Series). The French chronicles of Matthieu d'Escouchy, T.
Basin and Jehan Waurin should also be consulted (these three are
published by the Sotitte de I'Histoire de France'}. For modern
accounts see especially Sir James Ramsay's Lancaster and York, and
The Political History of England, vol. iv., by Professor C. Oman.
YORK, a county and parliamentary borough, archiepiscopal
city, county town of Yorkshire and county in itself, on the
L.N.E.R. and Derwent Valley light railway, 188 m. N.W. of Lon-
don. Pop. (1921) 84,039. It is situated in the low lying vale of
York at the junction of the Ouse with the Foss. It lies at the cross-
ing of the two most important natural routes of the region, the
north-south waterway formed by the Ousc and the east-west land-
way on the York moraine ridge through which the river has cut a
gap. The town is thus well above flood level, and at the head of the
tidal part of the Ouse before the regulation of the river in the i8th
century. The tides are now felt 7 m. down-stream from York.
York may have been a British settlement. As Eboracum or
Eburacum it was the military capital of Roman Britain, the fort-
ress of Legio IX. and later of Legio VI. Victrix being situated
near the site of the cathedral on the defensive land between the
Ouse and the Foss; a municipality (colonia) grew up on the oppo-
site side of the Ouse. The emperor Hadrian visited York in 120
and, according to tradition, the body of the emperor Severus who
died there in 211 was burnt on Severus hill near the city. After
the death of Constantinus Chlorus, which also took place in York,
his son, Constantine the Great, was inaugurated emperor there.
In 314, a bishop of York is mentioned together with, and with
precedence of, a bishop of London, as present at the council of
Aries. Nothing is known of the history of the city from the time
the Romans withdrew from Britain in 410 until 627 when King
Edwin was baptized there; shortly afterwards, Paulinus, the first
archbishop, was consecrated. York became the capital of the
Angle kingdom of Northumbria and when in the 7th century,
Britain was divided into two archiepiscopal provinces, York was
made the capital of the northerly one, and still remains the eccle-
siastical capital of the northern province which now does not
include Scotland. In the years 732 to 766, York became one of
the most celebrated places of education in Europe. The Danish
kingdom of York was formed from that part of Angle Northum-
YORK
897
bria to the south of the Tees and later, when the country was
organized into shires by the West Saxon kings, the remoteness
of this region hindered organization which was possible in the
south and it became first a vassal state and later one shire. The
city was taken by Harold Hardrada in 1066. The fortress built
there by William the Conqueror in 1068 was stormed by the men
of the north of England who put to death the whole of the Nor-
man garrison. In revenge, the Conqueror burnt the town and laid
waste the country between the Humber and the Tees. York was
an important calling place on the route to Scotland and several
parliaments were held there by the English kings, the first being
that of ii7S, when Malcolm, king of Scotland, did homage to
Henry II. The Council of the North was established in York in
1537 after the suppression of the Pilgrimage of Grace. During
the Civil War, York was garrisoned by Royalists. It was besieged
by parliament in 1642 and surrendered after Marston Moor.
York is not mentioned in Domesday survey. The first charter,
which is undated, was given by Henry II. granting the citizens a
merchant guild and all the free customs which they had in the
time of Henry I. In 1194 Richard I. granted exemption from toll
throughout the kingdom and in 1200 King John confirmed the
preceding charters and in 1212 granted the city to the citizens at a
fee-farm of £160 a year. Richard II. conferred the title of lord
mayor and in 1396 the city was made a county of itself and the
burgesses were given power to elect two sheriffs. The town was
incorporated in 1464, and in 1473 the citizens were directed to
choose a mayor from among the aldermen. As this led to constant
disputes, Henry VII. arranged that a common council, consisting
of two men from each of the more important gilds and one from
each of the less important ones, should elect the mayor. The city
is now governed under a charter of Charles 11. confirming that
of 1464. It has been represented in parliament since 1295.
Numerous remains of Roman occupation have been found, in-
cluding the Multangular tower whose base is of mingled stone and
brick work. It was at the western corner of the fortress and
formed part of the reconstruction of Constantine in about 300.
In 1925 a systematic excavation was undertaken at the eastern
corner of the fortress, which had been covered by a mound since
Norman times. It proved to be of older date, the earliest finds
dating back probably to 71. This corner formed probably the
earliest building of the fortress and around it was placed a ram-
part of clay, surrounded by a wooden palisade. Remains of the clay
rampart and some of the post holes of the palisade have been
found and in the basement chamber of the corner tower part of
the rampart is still visible. The fortress was first girded with a
stone wall in about 105-108 and a fragment of this may be seen.
There was possibly some reconstruction in 120. In 180 a great
rising against the Romans took place in the north and amongst
other forts York suffered. Great damage was done at the east
corner and the old wall had to be rebuilt. Excavations also show
that towers were built along the wall, probably at intervals of 45
yards. Remains of a Roman gateway have been found in the
north-east rampart.
The cathedral of St. Peter, commonly known as the Minster,
is in the form of a Latin cross, consisting of nave with aisles,
transepts, choir with aisles, a central tower and two west towers.
It occupies the site of the wooden church in which King Edwin
was baptized by Paulinus on Easter Day 627. Following his bap-
tism, Edwin began to build a church in stone, but it was partly
destroyed during the troubles which followed his death. It was
repaired but suffered from fire in 741. At the time of the Norman
invasion the Saxon cathedral with the archbishop's library, per-
ished in the fire by which the greater part of the city was de-
stroyed, the only relic remaining being the central wall of the
crypt. It was reconstructed in 1070-1100, but of this building
few portions remain. The apsidal choir and crypt were rebuilt
in 1154-81, the south transept in 1216-55, and the north transept
and central tower in 1228-56. With the exception of the crypt
the early English transepts are the oldest portions of the building
now remaining. The south transept is the richest and most elab-
orate in its details, one of its principal features being the magnifi-
cent rose window; the north transept contains a famous series
of lancet windows called the "Five Sisters," with specially fine
glass. The foundation of the new nave was laid in the last years
of the i3th century and the work was completed about 1340; the
chapter house was built about the same period. The Lady chapel
and presbytery were begun in the early Perpendicular style in
1361. The rebuilding of the choir was begun at the same period,
but was not completed until about 1400. It is late Perpendicular,
with a very fine great east window. During this rebuilding, the
whole of the ancient Norman edifice was removed and the only
Norman architecture now remaining is the east portion of the
crypt of the second period. To correspond with the later altera-
tions the central tower was recased and changed into a Perpen-
dicular lantern tower in 1444. The south-west tower was begun
in 1432, and the north-west tower in 1470, and with the erection
of this tower, the church was completed as it now stands; it was
reconsecrated on Feb. 3, 1472. The woodwork of the choir was
burnt in 1829 and in 1840 the south-west tower was reduced to a
mere shell by fire.
The stained glass, both in the cathedral and in other churches
of the city, is famous; its survival may be traced to the stipulation
made by the citizens, when surrendering to parliament in the
Civil War, that it should not be damaged. During the World
War, the fall of German aircraft bombs in the vicinity of the
Minster made it advisable to remove some of the most precious
mediaeval glass to a position of safety. It was then found that
owing to the corrosive effect of the atmosphere, it was necessary
to clean each quarry, and lead lights in many instances replace
stone mullions. About three-fifths of the work has been com-
pleted, including that on the "Five Sisters" window, the cost of
which was borne by the women of the country as a national
memorial to the women of the empire who gave their lives in the
World War.
St. Mary's abbey situated in the present museum gardens was
founded for Benedictines in 1078; its head ranked as a mitred
abbot with a seat in parliament. The principal remains of the
abbey are the north wall and the ruins of the church in Early
English and Decorated styles, and the principal gateway with
a Norman arch. They lie outside the walls near the cathedral. The
hospitium, built in the i4th and i5th centuries with its upper
part of wood, houses the collection of Roman antiquities.
York also possesses a large number of churches of special
architectural interest including All Saints, North street, Early
English, Decorated and Perpendicular, with a spire 120 ft. in
height; Christ church with south door in Decorated style,
supposed to occupy the site of the old Roman palace; Holy
Trinity, in Goodramgate, Decorated and Perpendicular, with
Perpendicular tower; Holy Trinity, Micklegate, formerly a
priory church, now restored, showing Roman masonry in its
walls; St. Denis, Walmgate, with rich Norman doorway and
Norman tower arches; St. Helen's, St. Helen's square, chiefly
Decorated; St. John's, North street, chiefly Perpendicular; St.
Margaret's, Walmgate, celebrated for its curiously sculptured
Norman porch and doorway; St. Mary the Elder, Bishophill,
Early English and Decorated, with brick tower, rebuilt in 1659;
St. Mary the Younger, Bishophill, with a square tower in the
Saxon style, rebuilt probably in the i3th century; St. Mary,
Castlegate with Perpendicular tower and spire 154 ft. in height,
the body of the church dating back to transitional Norman times;
St. Michael-le-Belfry, founded in 1066, but rebuilt in 1538 in
late Perpendicular style; St. Martin's-le-Grand, fine Perpendicu-
lar; and St. Martin 's-cum-Gregory, Early English and Perpen-
dicular.
The ancient city is enclosed by walls dating in part from
Norman times, but they are, in the main, of the I4th century.
Their circuit is a little over 2^ m. and the area enclosed is divided
by the river Ouse, the larger part lying on the left bank. On the
east for a short distance the Foss takes the place of a wall. The
walls are pierced by four principal gates or bars. On the south-
west is Micklegate bar, a square tower built over a circular,
probably Norman, arch, and with embattled corner turrets on
which the heads of traitors were formerly exposed. Bootharn
bar, the main entrance from the north also has a Norman arch.
YORK— YORKSHIRE
Monk bar on the north-east was formerly called Goodramgate,
but was renamed in honour of General Monk. Malmgate bar
retains the barbican which was repaired in 1648.
Of the castle built by the Conqueror, in 1068, in the angle
between the Ouse and the Foss, some portions were probably
incorporated in Clifford's tower, the shell of which, showing an
unusual ground plan of four intersecting circles, rises from an
artificial mound. To-day, the castle serves as the prison and
county courts.
St. William's college, near the Minster, was founded in 1453
as a college for priests holding chantries in the Minster; its
restoration as a church house and meeting place for Convoca-
tion was undertaken in 1906. Restoration of the Merchant Adven-
turers hall, a mediaeval building with half-timbered work has been
in progress for some years.
The county borough was created in 1888. The division of
Yorkshire into three separate administrative and registration
counties has deprived York of its position as a civil capital. The
municipal city and the Ainsty (a district on the south-west
included in the city bounds in 1449) are, for parliamentary
purposes, included in the North Riding; for registration purposes
in the East Riding; and for all other purposes in the West Riding.
The parliamentary borough extends into the East Riding. York
is the garrison town and headquarters of the northern command.
See Francis Drake, Eboracum; or the History and Antiquities of
the City oj York, from its origin to the present time (1736) ; Extracts
from the Municipal Records of the City of York during the reigns of
Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard III. (1843) ; Victoria County
History, Yorkshire; J. Raine, York (1893); A. P. Purey-Cust, York
Minster (1897); Heraldry of York Minster (Leeds, 1890); B. S.
Rowntree, Poverty: a Study of Town life (1901) ; Gordon Home,
Roman York (1924); C. Wellbeloved, Eboracum or York under the
Romans (1842) ; M. Sellers, The Merchant Venturers Guild; Handbook,
Brit. Assoc., York Meeting, 1906, York Mercers and Merchant Ven-
turers, Surtees Society.
YORK, a town of York county, Maine, U.S.A., on the At-
lantic coast, 45 m. S.W. of Portland; served by motor-bus lines
connecting with the Boston and Maine railroad. Pop. (1920)
2,727. The town has an area of 64 sq.m., embracing the widely
known summer resorts of, York Beach and York Harbor and
several other villages. The first settlement was made about
1624. In 1641 Sir Ferdinando Gorges made it the borough of
Agamenticus, which in 1642 he chartered as the city of Gorgeana.
In 1652, when Massachusetts extended her jurisdiction over
Maine, it became the town of York. In 1692 most of the houses
were destroyed by Indians and the inhabitants killed or taken
captive. York was the shire-town of Yorkshire from 1716 to
1735; of the district of Maine from 1735 to 1760 (together with
Falmouth, now Portland) ; and a county seat of York county
from 1760 to 1832. In the i8th century York had a considerable
trade with the West Indies and along the coast, and as late as
the middle of the i9th century it had important fishing interests.
Development as a summer resort began about 1873.
YORK, a city of south-eastern Pennsylvania, U.S.A., the
county seat of York county; on Federal highways 30 (the Lin-
coln) and in, 90 m. W. of Philadelphia and 28 m. S. by E. of
Harrisburg. It is served by the Maryland and Pennsylvania, the
Pennsylvania and the Western Maryland railways. Pop. (1920)
47,512 (94% native white); 1928 local estimate (including con-
tiguous boroughs) 70,000. The city's area of 3-5 sq.m. is built up
closely and there are populous industrial districts just outside the
corporate limits in several directions. The streets in the central
part of the city (laid out in 1741 in a bend of Codorus creek, by
a surveyor for the Penns) bear such names as King, Queen, Duke,
Princess and George, and the city itself was named after the
English York. Penn common was set aside for the public in the
original plan. The Quaker meeting house was erected in 1765, and
there are several old burying grounds. The building used by Gen.
Wayne for his headquarters while recruiting his brigade for the
march on Yorktown still stands, in the heart of the city, and in
Farqubar park there is a copy of the Provincial court house in
which the Continental Congress held its sessions. The city's
assessed valuation for 1927 was $52,109,350. Since 1912 it has
had a commission form of government. York is the commercial
centre of a rich agricultural region, and it has many large and
diversified manufacturing industries. There are some 325 plants in
the city and its immediate suburbs, with an annual output valued
at $90,000,000. Bank debits in 1927 aggregated $282,610,000.
York was the first permanent settlement in Pennsylvania west
of the Susquehanna. It was laid out in 1741 in the centre of
Springettsbury manor, a tract of 64,000 ac. granted to Springett
Penn (a grandson of William Penn) in 1722. The first settlers
were chiefly Germans from the Rhenish Palatinate (Lutherans,
Reformed, Mennonites and Moravians), with some English
Quakers and Scotch-Irish. The village was on the Monocacy road,
the main route to the South and the South-west, and grew rapidly.
When York county was erected in 1749 it was made the county
seat, and by 1754 it had 210 houses and a thousand inhabitants.
In 1777, when the British approached Philadelphia, the Continen-
tal Congress left the city, and after holding one day's session in
Lancaster, crossed the Susquehanna to York and made it the
national capital from Sept. 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778. In the
old county court-house (built 1754-56 and torn down in 1849)
the Congress passed the- Articles of Confederation, received the
news of Burgoyne's surrender, issued the first national Thanks-
giving proclamation, received word from Franklin in Paris that
France would aid with money, ships and men, received Von
Steuben and Lafayette and commissioned them as major-generals.
It was in York that the Conway Cabal was frustrated by Lafay-
ette. Here $1,500,000 in silver, lent by France, was brought in
Sept. 1778, and here Benjamin Franklin's printing press, moved
from Philadelphia, issued $10,000,000 of Continental money.
During the Civil War Confederate troops entered the town on June
28, 1863, and a small Federal force retreated before them. York
was incorporated as a borough in 1787 and as a city in 1887.
YORKE, CHARLES (1722-1770), English lord chancellor,
second son of Philip Yorke, was born in London on Dec. 30,
1722, and was educated at Corpus Christi college, Cambridge. In
1745 he published a treatise on the law of forfeiture for high
treason; in 1746 he was called to the bar. Yorke obtained a
sinecure appointment in the Court of Chancery in 1747, and be-
came M.P. for Reigate. In 1751 he became counsel to the East
India Company, and in 1756 solicitor-general. He resigned with
Pitt in 1761, but in 1762-3 was attorney-general under Lord
Bute. Resisting Pitt's attempt to draw him into alliance against
the ministry he had quitted, Yorke maintained that parliamentary
privilege did not extend to cases of libel; though he agreed with
Pitt in condemning the principle of general warrants. Yorke be-
came recorder of Dover in 1764, and in 1765 again became attor-
ney-general in the Rockingham administration. He supported the
repeal of the Stamp Act, while urging the simultaneous passing of
the Declaratory Act. He drew up the constitution for Quebec,
In 1767, Yorke resigned office. In 1770 he was invited by the
duke of Grafton to take Camden's seat on the woolsack, but was
pledged not to take office with Grafton. However, Yorke yielded
to the king's entreaty, met the leaders of the Opposition on
Jan. 17, and, overwhelmed with shame, fled to his own house,
where he died on Jan. 20. The patent raising him to the peerage
as Baron Morden had been made out, but his last act was to
refuse his sanction to the sealing of the document.
YORKSHIRE, a north-eastern county of England, bounded
by Durham, the North sea, the Humber estuary (separating it
from Lincolnshire), Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire,
Lancashire and Westmorland. It is the largest county in England,
having an area of 6,046.3 sq.m. (exclusive of water) and being
more than double the size of Lincolnshire, which ranks next to it.
In a description of the county it is constantly necessary to refer
to its three great divisions, the North Riding, East Riding and
West Riding. (See map of ENGLAND, Sections I., II.)
Physical Features. — The county of Yorkshire can be divided
into four upland tracts separated by lowland areas. These lie in
the south-west, north-west, north-east and south-east quadrants of
the county respectively. The great Yorkshire plain, drained by
the Yorkshire Ouse (q.v.), stretches from the river Tees, which
forms the northern boundary of the county, through the Vale of
Mowbray, Vale of York and Vale of Ouse to the Trent basin in
YORKSHIRE
899
the south. The Ousc divides the county into an eastern and a
western division; whilst the "Aire Gap" separates the north Pen-
nine moors from the south Pennine moors, and on the eastern
side the Vale of Pickering separates the north Yorkshire moors
from the Yorkshire Wolds. The north Pennine moors, which
stretch northwards beyond the limits of the county, form a high
moorland tract of Carboniferous limestone and Yoredale beds
capped by millstone grit. The rocks have a very small dip east-
ward but are fractured by a series of faults, the most important
being the Craven faults from Kirkby Lonsdale by Ingleton,
Stainforth and Linton. There are also inliers of Ordovician and
Silurian rocks at Horton and at Sedbergh.
The chief valleys are Teesdale, Swaledale, Wensleydale, Nidder-
dale, Wharfedale and Airedale. The chief peaks are Mickle
Fell (2,591 ft.), Whernside (2,414 ft.), Ingleborough (2,373 ft-)>
Buckden Pike (2,302 ft.) and Penyghent (2,273 ft.). The "Aire
Gap," which forms the gateway between north Lancashire and
Yorkshire, has been followed by roads, railways and canals. The
south Pennine moors are formed of millstone grit, which has
been arched upwards approximately alo*ng the county boundary
and the coal measures arc preserved along the eastern and western
flanks. The uplands are bleak grouse moors in which the feeders
of the rivers Aire, Calder and Don, have carved out valleys across
the northern portion of the Yorkshire, Derby and Notts coal-
field. Between the Yorkshire plain and the Pennines there is a belt
of magnesian limestone, which, lying across various members of
the Carboniferous, forms a well marked scarp-face toward them in
the southern half of the county. The country along this belt
forms a marked contrast with the districts of Palaeozoic rocks on
the west, for the limestone produces a rich soil, the effect of
which is seen in a luxuriant vegetation.
On the south the alluvium-filled Vale of Pickering marks the
site of an ancient lake and the river Derwent, which drains the
vale, has broken its way through the Jurassic ridge of the
Howardian hills to reach the Vale of York. In this south-eastern
quadrant the chalk forms the Yorkshire Wolds and has a general
dip towards the south-east thus forming scarp edges from Flam-
borough Head, along the south side of the Vale of Pickering and
sweeping round in a broad arc toward Market Weighton. This
ridge of higher ground is continued southward across the Humber
into the Lincolnshire Wolds. The north Yorkshire moors rise
immediately from the coast and form cliffs for the most part,
whilst to the south of Flamborough Head the cliffs disappear
beneath the low-lying drift-covered Holderness. There are several
watering-places along the coast; the principal are Redcar, Salt-
burn-by-the-Sea, Whitby, Robin Hood's bay, Scarborough, Filey,
Bridling ton and Hornsea. There are numerous mineral springs in
Yorkshire, the principal being at Harrogate.
Minerals.— The coal-field in the West Riding is one of the
chief sources of mineral wealth in Yorkshire, the most valuable
seams being the silkstone, which is bituminous and of the highest
reputation as a house coal, and the Barnsley thick coal, the great
seam of the Yorkshire coal-field, which is of special value, on
account of its semi-anthracitic quality, for iron-smelting and
engine furnaces. Associated with the upper coal measures are
iron-ores, occurring in the form of nodules. Brick-clay, pottery-
clay and fire-clay are also raised, as well as gannister and oil-
shale. Middlesbrough is the most important centre of pig-iron
manufacture in the kingdom. Lead-ore occurs in the Yoredale
beds of the north Pennine moors, and flagstones are quarried in
the Yoredale rocks. In the millstone grit there are several beds
of good building stone, but that most largely quarried is the
magnesian limestone of the Permian series.
Archaeology.— In spite of the importance of the Creswell
caves in Derbyshire for Palaeolithic remains, Yorkshire has very
little to show until the end of that stage, and remains which be-
long typologically to this period may actually date from a con-
siderably later period. In this connection we note objects from
the Victoria cave, Settle, and from Holderness. Petch has made
special studies of the pigmy flints of south Yorkshire and has
found large numbers of sites all above the 1,000 ft. contour line.
(See J. A. Petch, Early Man in the District of Iluddersfield
[Huddersfield, 1924].) Implements of Late Neolithic type are
found almost all over the county, and such implements, made of
finely chipped flints, are especially characteristic of the district
behind Scarborough 'and the Yorkshire Wolds, which henceforth
stands out as an especially important region in prehistoric times.
The Yorkshire Wolds are one of the chief regions of Britain for
round barrows and Beaker pottery, while remains of the Bronze
age abound both here and in the Aire gap. The north Yorkshire
moors are in process of detailed study by Elgee. On the moors
above Ilkley are interesting traces of an apparently megalithic
culture, with large stones decorated with cup and ring markings,
supposed swastikas, etc. Three decorated chalk drums from
Folkton Wold are important, showing southern and probably
Iberian influence. Jet ornaments are another feature. The rarity
of Bronze age finds in the central Ouse basin is a noteworthy
feature. The Yorkshire Wolds yield abundant evidences of early
Iron age finds, and important settlements have been located near
Arras and Hesslcskar farms, 3 m. E. of Market Weighton. The
finds in these regions show affinities with those of the period on
the English plain and in north-eastern Gaul.
History .—By Roman times the Vale of York had become
important and carried the north road. From Lindum (Lincoln)
the main road ran north-west to Danum (Doncaster) and thence
to Legiolium and Calcaria (Tadcaster), thence branching off to
Eburacum (York, q.v.\ the Roman capital of the north. The
main road continued through the Vale of York from Calcaria
past Isurium to Cataractorium (Catterick Bridge) and thence
over the Tees to the north.
In the 6th century, an Anglian tribe having seized the promon-
tory at the mouth of the Humber, named by the invaders Holder-
ness, gradually subjugated the East Riding. The earliest settle-
ments were chiefly confined to the rich valley of the lower Der-
went, but the district around Weighton became the sacred ground
of the kingdom which was named Deira, and Goodmanham is said
to mark the site of a temple. Ella, the first king of Deira, ex-
tended his territory north to the Wear, and his son Edwin com-
pleted the conquest of the district which was to become York-
shire. Traces of the "burns" by which Edwin secured his con-
quests are perhaps visible in the group of earthworks at Barwick
and on the site of Cambodunum, but the district long remained
scantily populated. The defeat of Edwin at Hatfteld in 633 was
followed by a succession of struggles between Mercia and Nor-
thumbria for the supremacy over Deira. After the Danish conquest
of Deira, Guthrum in 875 portioned the district among his fol-
lowers, under whose lordship the English retained their lands.
Cleveland came under Scandinavian influence, and the division
into tithings probably originated about this date, the boundaries
being arranged to meet at York, the administrative centre which,
by A.D. 1000, had a population of over 30,000. At the battle of
Stamford Bridge in 1066 Harold Hardrada, who had seized York,
and Earl Tosti were defeated and slain by Harold of England.
For many years after the harrying of the country by the Con-
queror all the towns between York and Durham lay uninhabited.
In 1138 David of Scotland was defeated near Northallerton in
the battle of the Standard. In the barons* wars of the reign of
Henry II. Thirsk and Malgeard castles were captured and
demolished. Robert Bruce in 1318 destroyed Northallerton,
Boroughbridge, Scarborough and Skipton. In 1322 at the battle
of Boroughbridge, the rebel barons were defeated by the forces
of Edward II. In 1399 Richard II. was murdered in Pontefract
castle. In 1408 the rebel forces of the earl of Northumberland
were defeated at Bramham moor near Tadcaster. In 1453 a
skirmish at Stamford Bridge was the opening event in the struggle
between the houses of York and Lancaster; in 1460 the duke of
York was defeated and slain at Wakefield; in 1461 the Lancas-
trians were defeated at Towton. The suppression of the monas-
teries roused deep resentment in Yorkshire, and the inhabitants
flocked to join the Pilgrimage of Grace. On the outbreak of the
Civil War of the i7th century, opinion was divided in Yorkshire.
Sir William Savile captured Leeds and Wakefield for the king in
1642, and in 1643 Newcastle, having defeated the Fairfaxes at
Adwalton moor, held all Yorkshire except Hull. In 1644, how-
900
YORKSHIRE
ever, the Fairfaxes secured the East and West Ridings, while
Cromwell's victory at Marston moor was followed by the capture
of York, and in the next year of Pontefract and Scarborough.
On the redistribution of estates after the Norman Conquest,
Alan of Brittany, founder of Richmond castle, received the honour
of Richmond, and Ilbert de Lad the honour of Pontefract. Earl
Harold's estate at Coningsburgh passed to William de Warenne,
earl of Surrey, together with Sandal castle, which in the i4th
century was bestowed on Edmund Langley, duke of York. Other
Domesday landholders were William de Percy, founder of the
abbey of Whitby; Robert de Bruce, ancestor of the royal line in
Scotland; Roger de Busli; the archbishop of York enjoyed the
great lordship of Sherburn, and Howdenshire was a liberty of the
bishop of Durham.
The shire court for Yorkshire was held at York, but extensive
privileges were enjoyed at various times by the great landowners.
In the i3th century the diocese of York included in this county
the archdeaconries of York, Cleveland, East Riding and Rich-
mond. In 1541 the deaneries of Richmond were transferred to
Henry VIII. 's new diocese of Chester. Ripon was created an
episcopal see by act of parliament in 1836, and the deaneries of
Craven and Pontefract were formed into the archdeaconry of
Craven within its jurisdiction, together with the archdeaconry of
Richmond. The archdeaconry of Sheffield was created in 1884.
In 1888 the area of the diocese of Ripon was reduced by the
creation of the see of Wakefield, including the archdeaconry of
Halifax and the archdeaconry of Huddersfield. The diocese of
Ripon now includes in this county the archdeaconries of Craven,
Richmond and Ripon. The diocese of York includes the arch-
deaconries of York, East Riding and Cleveland. Between 1913
and 1919 the bishoprics of Sheffield and Bradford were created.
The woollen industry began after the Conquest, and historical
details may be found under LEEDS, BRADFORD, etc. The time of
the American War marked the gradual absorption by Yorkshire
of the clothing trade from the eastern counties. Coal appears to
have been used in Yorkshire by the Romans, and was dug at
Leeds in the I3th century. The early fame of Sheffield as the
centre of the cutlery and iron trade is demonstrated by a line in
Chaucer. In the I3th century forges are mentioned at Rosedale
and at Gisburn. In the i6th century limestone was dug in many
parts of Elmet, and Huddlestone, Hcsselwood and Tadcaster had
famous quarries; Pontefract was famous for its liquorice, Aber-
f ord for its pins, Whitby for its jet. Alum was dug at Guisborough,
Sandsend, Dunsley and Whitby in the iyth century. Bolton
market was an important distributive centre in the i;th century,
and in 1787 there were n cotton mills in the county.
Architecture. — Of ancient castles Yorkshire retains many
interesting examples. The fine ruins at Knaresborough, Pickering,
Pontefract, Richmond, Scarborough and Skipton are described
under their respective headings. Barden tower, picturesquely
situated in upper Wharfedale, was built by Henry de Clifford (d.
1523). Bolton castle, which rises above Wensleydale, is a square
building with towers, erected in the reign of Richard II. by
Richard Scrope; it was rendered untenable in 1647. Of Bowes
castle near Barnard castle, there remains only the square keep.
Cawood castle, near Selby, retains its gateway tower erected in
the reign of Henry VI. Conisborough castle stands by the Don
between Rotherham and Doncaster. The ruins of Danby castle
are of various dates. Harewood castle in lower Wharfedale con-
tains no portions earlier than the reign of Edward III. The keep
of Helmsley castle was built late in the i2th century. Other
remains are: — The fortress of Middleham, Mulgraves castle,
Ravensworth castle, Sheriff Hutton castle, Spofforth castle, Tick-
hill castle, Whorlton castle, the fortress of Wressell, the mansions
Gilling, Ripley, Skelton and the Elizabethan hall of Burton Agnes.
In ecclesiastical architecture Yorkshire is extraordinarily rich.
At the time of the Dissolution there were 28 abbeys, 26 priories,
23 nunneries, 30 friaries, 13 cells, four commanderies of Knights
Hospitallers and 4 preceptories of Knights Templars. The prin-
cipal monastic ruins are described under separate headings and
elsewhere. These are Bolton abbey (properly priory), a founda-
tion of Augustinian canons ; Fountains abbey, a Cistercian founda-
tion, the finest and most complete of the ruined abbeys in Eng-
land; the Cistercian abbey of Kirkstall near Leeds (q.v.); the
Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx, and the Benedictine abbey of St.
Mary, at York. Separate reference is also made to the ruins of
Jervaulz (Cistercian) and Coverham (Premonstratensian) in
Wensleydale, and to the remains at Bridlington, Guisborough,
Malton, Whitby, Easby near Richmond, Kirkham near Malton,
Monk Bretton near Barnsley, and Mount Grace near North-
allerton. There are fine though scanty remains of Byland abbey,
of Early English date, between Thirsk and Malton. There was a
house of Premonstratensians at Egglestone above the Tees near
Barnard castle. Other ruins arc the Cistercian foundations at
Meaux in Holderness, Roche, east of Rotherham, and Sawley in
Ribblesdale; the Benedictine nunneries of Marrick, and Rose-
dale; and the Gilbertine house of Watton in Holderness.
Agriculture and Manufactures. — Nearly nine-tenths of the
East Riding is under cultivation, but of the North and West Rid-
ings only about three-fifths. The boulder-clay of Holderness forms
the richest soil in Yorkshire, and the chalk wolds, by careful cul-
tivation, form one of the best soils for grain crops. The central
plains bear all kinds of crops excellently. Wheat is grown in the
East and West Ridings, but oats are the principal crop in these
ridings, whilst barley exceeds wheat in the East and North. The
bulk of the acreage under green crops is devoted to turnips and
swedes but potatoes form an important crop, especially in the
West Riding. Liquorice is cultivated near Pontefract. The propor-
tion of hill pasture is greatest in the North Riding and least in the
East, and the North and West are amongst the principal sheep-
farming districts in England.
The industrial district of south Yorkshire is situated on the
northern half of the Yorkshire, Derby and Notts coal-field. The
West Riding is the chief seat of the woollen manufacture of the
United Kingdom, and has almost the monopoly in the produc-
tion of worsted cloths. The early development of the industry was
in part due to the rearing of sheep on the moors and to the
abundance of water-power, while later the presence of coal further
established it, but now most of the wool used is imported from
abroad. The industry engages the most important towns. Almost
every variety of woollen and worsted cloth is produced at Leeds;
Bradford is especially concerned with yarns and mixed worsted
goods; Dewsbury and Batley with shoddy; Huddersfield with
fancy goods and Halifax with carpets. Linen is also manufactured
at Leeds and Barnsley and the cotton industry has also penetrated
to the neighbourhood of Halifax. The people of the industrial
part of Yorkshire are noted for their singing, and choral societies
are numerous. The woollen industry flourishes in the soft-water
area and gives place to the iron-and-stecl industry south of the
Calder valley. Sheffield is especially famous for the finest grades
of steel, for heavy machinery, hardware, fine metal-work, cutlery
and plated-goods. The development of the iron ore deposits of
Cleveland dates only from the middle of the igth century. In
addition to a large amount raised locally, the smelters of the
Middlesbrough district import large quantities of ore from Sweden
and Spain. The attendant industries such as the production of
steel, shipbuilding, etc., also flourish. The chemical industry is im-
portant both here and in the West Riding where also a great
variety of other industries has sprung up, such as the great leather
industry at Leeds, the manufacture of clothing, printing and
bleaching, and paper-making. Besides coal and iron ore, large
quantities of clay, limestone and sandstone are raised. Excellent
building-stone is obtained in the West Riding. The sea-fisheries
are important, the chief fishing ports being Hull, Scarborough,
Whitby and Filey. Leeds has become a great business centre and
almost a metropolis for the woollen area of the West Riding.
Communications. — Two main lines traverse the county, the
L.N.E. line from London, passing through Doncaster, Selby, York,
Northallcrton, to Durham and the north; the other, the L.M.S.
line from London and Derby to Sheffield, Leeds, Skipton, Settle
and on to Carlisle. In addition to these there is a perfect network
of lines, the L.N.E. serving for the most part the north and east
of Leeds and the L.M.S. the West Riding. The Pennines are
crossed by the L.M.S. from Huddersfield to Manchester, Halifax
YORKSHIRE ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY— YORKTOWN 901
to Todmorden, as well as through the "Aire gap," and by the
L.N.E. from Penistone to Manchester, Northallerton to Hawes
Junction and across the north-west of the county from Barnard
Castle to Kirkby Stephen. A complete system of canals links the
centres of the southern West Riding, with the sea, east and west.
Population and Administration.— The area of the ancient
county is 3,889,432 ac.; its population (1921) 4,182,529. The dis-
tribution of the population may be inferred from the following
statement of the parliamentary divisions, parliamentary, county
and municipal boroughs, and urban districts in the three ridings.
It should be premised that each of the three ridings is a dis-
tinct administrative county though there is one high sheriff for
the whole county. The city of York (pop. 84,039) is situated
where the three ridings meet in the Ainsty of York, wholly out-
side the three ridings.
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The county and boroughs of Yorkshire return a total of 57 mem-
bers to parliament. The West Riding has an area of 1,773,529 ac.,
with a population in 1921 of 3,181,174. Of this area the south in-
dustrial district, considered in the broadest sense as extending be-
tween Sheffield and Skipton, Sheffield and Doncaster, and Leeds
and the county boundary, covers rather less than one half. The
North Riding has an area of 1,362,058 ac., with a population
(1921) 456,436. The East Riding has an area of 750,115 ac., with
a population (1921) 460,880. The county is divided between the
dioceses of York, Ripon and Wakeficld, Sheffield, and Bradford
with small parts in those of Manchester, Blackburn, Southwell,
Durham and Lincoln. York is the seat of the northern archdiocese.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — T. Sheppard, Yorkshire, Past and Present (1912)
and Bibliography of Yorkshire Geology (1915) ; P. F. Kendal and
H, K. Wroot, The Geology of Yorkshire (1924) ; B. Hobson, The West
Riding of Yorkshire (1921), East Riding of Yorkshire (1924); W.
Edwards, Early History of the North Riding (1924). See also Victoria
County History: Yorkshire.
YORKSHIRE ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY. A
group of men in the West Riding, interested in the woollen and
colliery industries, promoted a bill in 1901 which incorporated The
Yorkshire Electric Power company with an authorized share cap-
ital of £2,000,000. The concern was vested with powers of supply-
ing over a large area in perpetuity and established a generating sta-
tion near Dewsbury. A supply was made available in Dec. 1904,
but for many years difficulties were experienced in consequence
of the conservatism of manufacturers and the opposition of vested
interests. During the war the company played an important part
in the provision of munitions, the first shell-filling factory being
supplied by them near Leeds.
The company's second generating station was established near
Barnsley, where electricity is generated by means of surplus coke
oven gas. A third station was put into commission in 1927 at
Ferrybridge near Knottingley. It is of interest that the system
of generation and supply adopted by the company in 1903, viz.,
50 cycles, three-phase alternating current, has now become the
British national standard.
A large number of collieries in the West Riding and many
textile mills and engineering works are now supplied by the com-
pany, and in addition about 60 local authorities and other
authorized distributors are taking a bulk supply for distribution
in the towns and villages. This work has been greatly facilitated
by an associated company, Electrical Distribution of Yorkshire,
Ltd., formed in 1905. The original capital was increased in 1922
to .£4,000,000, and in 1927 a further act was obtained authoriz-
ing a further £2,000,000. At the beginning of 1928 the capital
expenditure of the company and its associated distribution com-
pany was over £5,500,000. (L. C. M.)
YORKTOWN, a town and the county seat of York county,
Virginia, U.S.A., on the York river loin, from its mouth, and
about 6om. E.S.E. of Richmond. In 1920 the population of Nel-
son district, which includes Yorktown town, was 986. It is served
by a steamship line, and about 6^m. distant is Lee Hall, a station
on the Chesapeake and Ohio railway. Large deposits of marl near
the town are used for the manufacture of cement. In the main
street is the oldest custom-house in the United States, and the
house of Thomas Nelson (1738-1789), a signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence. In commemoration of the surrender of
Lord Cornwallis in October 1781, there is a monument of Maine
granite (looft. 6in. high) designed by R. M. Hunt and J. Q. A.
Ward; its cornerstone was laid in 1881 during the centennial cele-
bration of the surrender, and it was completed in 1883. York-
town was founded in 1691, as a port of entry for York county. It
became the county seat in 1696, and although it never had more
than about 200 houses its trade was considerable until it was
ruined by the Revolutionary War. In that war the final victory
of the Americans and their French allies took place at Yorktown.
Baffled by Gen. Nathanael Greene in his campaign in the Caro-
linas, his diminished force (fewer than 1,400) sadly in need of
reinforcement, and persuaded that the more southern colonies
could not be held until Virginia had been reduced, Lord Cornwal-
lis marched out of Wilmington, N.C., on April 25, 1781, arrived
at Petersburg, Va., on May 20, and there, with the troops which
had been under William Phillips and Benedict Arnold and with
further reinforcements from New York, raised his army to more
than 7,000 men. Facing him in Richmond was Lafayette, whom
Washington had sent earlier in the year with a small force of light
infantry to check Arnold, and who had now been placed in com-
mand of all the American troops in Virginia. Cornwallis's first
attempt was to prevent the union of Lafayette and Gen. Anthony
Wayne. Failing in this, he retired down the James in the hope,
it is thought, of receiving reinforcements from Gen. Henry Clinton.
While Cornwallis was marching from N. Carolina to Virginia,
Washington learned that a large French fleet under De Grasse
was to come up from the West Indies in the summer and for a
brief period co-operate with the American and French armies.
At a conference on May 21 at Wethersfield, Conn., with the
French commanders, Washington favoured a plan for a joint at-
tack on New York when De Grasse should arrive. An attack on
the British in Virginia was, however, considered. The minutes of
the conference with some suggestions from Rochambeau having
been sent to De Grasse, he announced in a letter received on Aug.
14 that he would sail for the Chesapeake for united action against
Cornwallis. About the same time Washington learned from La-
fayette that Cornwallis was fortifying Yorktown. Sir Samuel
Hood with 14 ships-of-the-line arrived at the Chesapeake from the
\Vest Indies three days ahead of De Grasse, and proceeding to
New York warned Admiral Thomas Graves of the danger. Graves
took command of the combined fleet, 19 ships-of-the-line, and on
Aug. 31 sailed for the Chesapeake in the hope of preventing the
union of the French fleet from Newport, under Count de Barras,
with that under DC Grasse. He arrived at the Chesapeake ahead
of De Barras, but after an encounter with De Grasse alone (Sep-
tember 5), who had 24 ships-of-the-line, he was obliged to return
to New York to refit, and the French were left in control of the
coast. Leaving only about 4,000 men to guard the forts on the
Hudson, Washington set out for Virginia with the remainder of
his army immediately after learning of De Grasse's plan, and
the French land forces followed. The allied army was transported
by water from the head of the Chesapeake to the vicinity of
Williamsburg, and on Sept. 28 it marched to Yorktown. Receiv-
ing, on the same day, a despatch from Clinton promising relief,
and fearing the enemy might outflank him, Cornwallis abandoned
his outposts during the following night and withdrew to his inner
defences, consisting of seven redoubts and six batteries con-
nected by intrenchments, besides batteries along the river bank.
902
YORUBA— YOSEMITE
The allies, 16,000 strong, took possession of the abandoned posts
and closed in on the town in a semicircle extending from Wormley
Creek below it to about a mile above it, the Americans holding
the right and the French the left. On the nsght of Oct. 5-6 the
allies opened the first parallel about 6ooyd. from the British
works, and extending from a deep ravine on the north-west to
the river bank on the south-east, a distance of nearly two miles.
Six days later the second parallel was begun within 3Ooyds. of
the British lines, and it was practically completed on the night
of the Hth and isth, when two British redoubts were carried by
assault, one by the Americans led by Alexander Hamilton and
one by the French led by Lieut. -colonel G. de Deux-Ponts. On
the morning of the i6th Cornwallis ordered Lieut.-colonel Aber-
crombie to make an assault on two French batteries. He carried
them and spiked n guns, but they were recovered and the guns
were ready for service again 12 hours later. On the night of the
i6th and iyth Cornwallis attempted to escape with his army to
Gloucester on the opposite side of the river, but a storm ruined
what little chance of success there was in this venture. In grave
danger of an assault from the allies, Cornwallis offered to surrender
on the i yth; two days later his whole army, consisting of 7,073
officers and men, was surrendered, and American Independence
was practically assured. The British loss during the siege was
about 156 killed and 326 wounded; the American and French
losses were 85 killed and 199 wounded.
In 1862 the Confederate defences about Yorktown were be-
sieged for a month (April 4-May 3) by the Army of the Potomac
under Gen. McClellan. There was no intention on the part of the
Confederate commander-in-chief, Joseph Johnston, to do more
than gain time by holding Yorktown and the line of the Warwick
river as long as possible without serious fighting, and without
imperilling the line of retreat on Richmond; and when after
many delays McClellan was in a position to assault with full
assistance from his heavy siege guns, the Confederates fell back
on Williamsburg.
See T. N. Page, "Old Yorktown," in Scribner's Magazine (Oct.
1881); H. P. Johnston, The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender
of Cornwallis (New York, 1881) ; A. S. Webb, The Peninsular Cam-
paign (New York, 1882) ; J. C. Ropes, Story of the Civil War, vol.
ii. (1898) ; and Jean Henri Clos, The Glory of Yorktown (Yorktown,
1924).
YORUBA, a people inhabiting the Ilorin and Sokoto
provinces of Northern Nigeria and the Abeokuta, Ijebu, Onclo and
Oyo provinces, and the Lagos district, of Southern Nigeria, and
comprising the following sub-tribes: Abori, Egba-Awori, Ekiti,
Eko, Ijebu, Ijesha, Jekri and Oyo. The kingship was at first hered-
itary but later became elective, and there were numerous min-
isters, officials, and eunuchs. Each province, town or village also
had its chief. They are divided into clans and extended family
groups, but have no age-classes except among the Ekiti. Marriage
is prohibited between those whose paternal or maternal kinship
can be proved. Descent was formerly matrilineal but is now
patrilineal, the widows being inherited by the sons, except in the
case of their own mothers. The father's property is inherited by
the sons, the mother's by the daughters. There are societies of a
political and religious character, having secret rites, such as the
Egungun, Oro, and Ogboni. The Yoruba are cultivators, and their
religion is animist; they practise divination (I fa).
See P. Amaury Talbot, The Peoples of Southern Nigeria (1926).
YOSEMITE, the name given to a beautiful valley and its
picturesque environs in east-central California on the west slope
of the Sierra Nevada mountains almost 150 m. due E. from
San Francisco. It embraces 1,125 sq.m. of magnificent mountain
scenery, of which the valley is the crowning glory. The park ex-
tends from the cold alpine granite crags and humble storm-torn
pines of the Mt. Lyell crests of the Sierra Nevada divide, 13,090
ft. above sea level, westward 30 m. or more down the slope to the
mild forest-clad valley-floors where stand the giant sequoias,
towering sugar pines, superb yellow pines and stalwart Douglas
firs, only 2,000 ft. above the sea.
The picturesque country north of the valley was occupied from
early times by trappers; but the valley itself was unknown to the
white man until March 21, 1851, when a Captain Doling of the
Mariposa battalion pursuing Tenaya, chieftain of the Yosemite
(Indian word meaning ''grizzly bear'*) Indians, and his warriors,
entered the majestic valley which was their stronghold. On his
return he gave a vivid account of the wonderful place.
By 1865 the valley had become so well known and so popular
that Congress granted it to the State of California as a reservation
with the agreement that the State should use all income from it in
building a road into it and improving the reservation. The Mari-
posa big tree grove, discovered by Galen Clark in 1857, was
granted to the State at the same time. California kept faith,
and in a few years the Yosemite became world famous. In 1890
Yosemite National Park was established, and in March 1905,
California re-ceded the valley to the National Government.
Climate. — The climate of the park is unusually mild for its
altitude, and from June to October little rain falls. In late October
or early November the heavier rains begin, soon changing to snows
which fill the valleys and drift about the slopes so that for months
at a time travel is well-nigh impossible over most of the trails.
The annual precipitation in the park ranges from 30 in. in the
valley to 55 in. at an elevation of 5,000 feet. Over practically
the whole park except a few of the lowest slopes and valleys the
precipitation is adequate for forest growth. The average annual
snowfall at Yosemite over a period of 16 years was no-7 in. begin-
ning in October and ending in May; the maximum recorded for
Tamarack was in the winter of 1906-07 when the snowfall
attained 884 in., or about 75 feet. The snow which^ sometimes
accumulates to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. melts slowly in spring and
early summer. In the summer months terrifying thunderstorms
with destructive lightning are frequent, though yielding little rain.
Flora and Fauna. — The flora of the park is rich and varied,
illustrating by the changes in character and species with elevation
the effect of altitude. The lower slopes and valleys of the park lie
in the main timber belt where yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa),
sugar pine (Pinus Lambertiana) , incense cedar (Libocedrus de-
currens), white fir (Abies concolor), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
mucronata), some black oak (Quercus Kelloggii) and the big tree
(Sequoia gigantea) are the conspicuous or dominant species; the
middle slopes lie in the upper portion of the main timber belt
where red fir (Abies magnifica), tamarack pine (Pinus contorta),
and Jeffrey pine (Pinus Jefferyi) come in ; the upper slopes and
knobs lie in the timber-line belt of Sierra juniper (Juniperus occi-
dentalis), mountain hemlock (Psuga Mertensiana), white-bark
pine (Pinus albicaulis), foxtail pine (Pinus Balfouriana) and tam-
arack pine ; and the uppermost peaks and crests lie above timber-
line where willows and dwarf junipers and pines but a few inches
high creep close to sheltering ledges and boulders, with arctic and
alpine grasses and flowers struggling to mature their seed in the
crevices of the cold gray granite. Gaily coloured flowers burst
into bloom on all but the very highest crests during the mild sum-
mer months, making the alpine meadows and mountain woodlands
a continuous garden of bloom. The rare flame-red spike of the
beauteous snowplant rises above the meadows of the park like
a glowing torch.
The fauna of the park is somewhat zoned as is the vegetation,
but not within such regularly defined and discernible limits.
Wolves, mountain lions and grizzly bears have been almost, if not
quite, exterminated within the confines of the park. The black
or brown bear and deer are common. Small mammals, like chip-
munks, the Sierra red squirrel, Sierra marmot (Marmota flavi-
ventris subsp.), porcupine and the bushy tailed wood-rat (Neo-
toma cinerea subsp.) characterize the conspicuous animal life, in
most of the timbered areas, while above timber-line the coney
makes his permanent residence. In the lower forests western
robins, bluefronted jays, Sierra juncos, and a number of wood-
peckers are distinctive species. Higher, in the red fir forests, ruby-
crowned and golden-crowned kinglets, several species of nut-
hatches and sapsuckers, and the Townsend solitaire distinguish the
avifauna. At timber-line is the famous Clark nutcracker, and
above timber-line the rosy finch.
The Scenic Valley.— In this picturesque environment the
Yosemite valley, declared to be the most beautiful valley in the
world, is set like a precious gem. Entrance to the park by train
YOSHIHITO— YOUNG
903
is from the west, by automobile from both east and west, and all
routes converge upon the valley whence the rest of the park may
readily be explored. The train from the station at Merced climbs
up the slope from a hot treeless plain into the very heart of the
calm cool forest at the entrance of the park. At El Portal auto-
mobiles take the place of the train, and after a few miles of travel,
the route opens upon the wonderful vista of the valley, with El
Capitan rising 3,000 ft. above the valley floor guarding the cause-
way upon the left, and the Cathedral Rocks with their shimmering,
lacy Bridal Veil falls, 900 ft. high, standing guard upon the right.
Within the gateway three main roadways enter the valley to
merge into one at El Capitan bridge, the Big Oak flat road on the
north side of the valley, Wawona road on the south side, and El
Portal road along the Merced river in the middle.
Within the portal formed by El Capitan and Cathedral Rocks
the valley widens. El Capitan meadows constitute the first open
vista. At the back of Cathedral Rocks on the south side of the
valley rise the Gothic pinnacles of Cathedral Spires, beyond them
eastward Taft Point with its Profile cliff and farther eastward
Sentinel Rock and Union Point. Across* the valley and eastward
from El Capitan on the north side of the valley, Rocky Point rises
abruptly from the bank of Merced river to be continued upward
and northward to Eagle Peak by the majestic Three Brothers,
while Columbia Rock still a little farther eastward overlooks
Camp Yosemite. Opposite Union Point, and far above Yosemite,
towers Yosemite Point with its striking Castle cliffs. Near
Yosemite Point, Yosemite creek dashes over the precipice, 2,600
ft. high, one sheer drop of 1,430 ft. and tumbles along over the
rocks a few hundred yards, to cascade again over the lesser Lower
falls 320 ft. high. Beyond Yosemite falls and the camp below, the
valley extends several miles farther eastward, with Glacier Point
and Sentinel Dome to the southward, and Washington Column,
North Dome and Basket Dome to the northward, to terminate
at the juncture of the two superb canyons, Tenaya entering from
the north-east and Merced or Little Yosemite valley from the
south and east, with the spectacular massive buttress of Half
Dome standing between. Mirror lake lies in the lower valley of
Tenaya creek between Half Dome and Basket Dome.
Geology. — Yosemite valley is 8 m. long, and from £ to x m.
wide. Its walls rise sheer from 2,000 to 6,000 ft. above the valley
floor. The origin of the valley has long been controversial, but
the weight of opinion inclines toward the theory that glacial groov-
ing and carving down a valley, previously determined by streams
cutting along fault and fracture planes in the granite, have formed
the canyon. The peneplain has a precipitous escarpment facing
eastward over the great basin, the down-throw side of a great fault
zone, and a gentler slope westward toward the great valley of Cali-
fornia. The tilting clearly evident in the formations and physiog-
raphy of the park, probably began slightly in Cretaceous time,
continuing as a more or less gradual movement until the Tertiary,
when tremendous volcanic and tectonic action filled the valleys,
with the exception of the Yosemite, the Hetch Hetchy and similar
others, with thousands of feet of lava, and raised the crest of the
Sierras abruptly several thousand feet, tilting the great block more
sharply westward, and stimulating the streams to renewed erosional
activity. From Tertiary time the volcanic activity continued and
the Sierra crest kept rising until the beginning of the Quaternary
when the greatest movement of all was initiated and the crest of
the Sierras was lifted as much as 8,000 ft., the block tilted at a
very high angle, and the streams, like the Merced and the- Yosem-
ite, were given accentuated cutting power. Since that time many
small movements have taken place, the streams of Yosemite park
with their high gradients have cut and worn their beds deeper and
deeper, and the great glaciers that formed on the high slopes of
the Sierran crests grooved them still deeper, straightened the walls
of the sides, transformed the cascades of the tributary streams into
sheer cataracts, and sculptured the impressive cliffs and domes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— -F. E. Matthes, "Little Studies in the Yosemite Val-
ley" in Sierra club Bulletins vii. (1910), viii. (1911) and ix. (1913);
D. W. Johnson, "Hanging Valleys of the Yosemite" in Bulletin of the
American Geographic Society xliii. ; F. E. Matthes, Sketch of Yosemite
National Park and an Account of the Origin of the Yosemite and Hetch
Hetchy Valleys, a United States Department of the Interior bulletin
(1912); John Muir, The Yosemite (1912); A. F. Hall, Guide to
Yosemite, a U.S. National Park Service bulletin (1920): and R. S.
Yard, The Book of the National Parks (1920). (W. E. E.)
YOSHIHITO (1870;;i9*6), i23rd Emperor of Japan, third
son of the Emperor Meiji (Mutsuhito), was born at Tokyo on
Aug. 31, 1879. On the eighth anniversary of his birthday the
Prince was proclaimed heir-apparent, the first and second sons
of the Emperor Meiji having died in infancy. In Sept. 1887
the Prince commenced attending the Peers' School, and on Nov.
3, 1889, entered the army and was declared imperial crown prince.
Two years later he left the school to continue his studies under
private tutors. In 1897 he took his seat, in accordance with
prescriptive right, in the house of peers. On May 10, 190x5, the
crown prince married Sadako, fourth daughter of the late Prince
Michitaka Kujo, and on April 29, 1901, a son, Hirohito, was
born, followed by a second son Prince Yasuhito Chichibunomiya,
on June 25, 1902, and a third. Prince Nobuhito Takamatsuno-
miya, on Jan. 3, 1905. On July 30, 1912, on the demise of his
father, the crown prince ascended the throne but owing to the
national mourning the formal ceremony of enthronement did not
take place until Nov. 1914. His reign was proclaimed as the
era of Taisho (Righteousness). In the following year a fourth
son, Prince Takahito Suminomiya, was born on Dec. 2. Owing
to the indifferent health of the Emperor, whose life was a con-
stant struggle against disease, his son Hirohito became prince
regent on Nov. 25, 1921. The Emperor died on Dec. 25, 1926, of
heart failure following bronchial pneumonia. The reign of Hiro-
hito, who succeeded his father as emperor, is designated the
period of Showa (Light and Peace).
Prince Chichibu (Yasuhito Chichibunomiya) came to England
in 1925 and studied at Magdalen College, Oxford. He left Eng-
land for Japan in Dec. 1926, when his father was seriously ill. He
married Princess Setsuko, the eldest daughter of Ambassador
Matsudaira, on Sept. 28, 1928.
YOSHIZAWA, KENKICHI (1874- ), Japanese diplo-
mat, was born in Niigata-Ken. He studied English literature for
his degree in the Imperial university of Tokyo. He entered the
diplomatic service, was consular assistant at Amoz, South China.
After two years spent at Shanghai and in London he returned to
the Foreign Office in Tokyo, and was sent as secretary to the
Legation in Peking. This office he held until, in 1919, he became
director of the Asiatic bureau, where his experience of Far-
Eastern people enabled him to adjust differences between his
own country and other oriental Powers. He retained this post
until 1923, and was again in Peking in an official capacity when
the new Russo-Japanese alliance was broached in 1924. Many
Japanese fought against the proposed alliance, but the treaty was
signed in January 1925.
YOUGHAL (pronounced Yawl), a seaport and watering-
place of co. Cork, Ireland, on the west side of the Blackwater
estuary, and on the Cork and Youghal branch of the Great
Southern railway, 26^ m. E. of Cork. Pop. (1926) 5,340. Youg-
hal was a settlement of the Northmen in the 9th century, and was
incorporated by King John in 1209. The Franciscan monastery,
founded at Youghal by FitzGerald in 1224, was the earliest house
of that order in Ireland. Sir Roger Mortimer landed at Youghal
in 1317. The town was plundered by the earl of Desmond in 1579.
In 1641 it was garrisoned and defended by the earl of Cork. Sir
Walter Raleigh was mayor of Youghal in 1588-89, and is said to
have first cultivated the potato here.
YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820), English writer on agri-
culture and social economy, second son of the Rev. Arthur Young,
rector of Bradfield, in Suffolk, chaplain to Speaker Onslow, was
born on Sept. n, 1741. After being at a school at Lavenham, he
was in 1758 placed in a mercantile house at Lynn, but showed no
taste for commercial pursuits. He published, when only 17, a
pamphlet On the War in North America, and in 1761 went to
London and started a periodical work, entitled The Universal
Museum, which was dropped by the advice of Samuel Johnson.
He also wrote four novels, and Reflections on the Present State of
Affairs at Home and Abroad in 1759. After his fathers death in
1759, his mother had given him the direction of the family estate
9°4
YOUNG
at Bradfield Hall; but the property was small and encumbered with
debt. From 1763 to 1766 he devoted himself to farming on his
mother's property. In 1767 he undertook on his own account the
management of a farm in Essex. He engagfed in various experi-
ments, and embodied the results of them in A Course of Experi-
mental Agriculture (17 70) .
In 1768 he published the Farmer's Letters to the People of
England, in 1771 the Farmer's Calendar, which went through a
great number of editions, and in 1774 his Political Arithmetic,
which was widely translated. About this time Young acted as
parliamentary reporter for the Morning Post. He made a tour in
Ireland in 1776, publishing his Tour in Ireland in 1780. In 1784
he began the publication of the Annals of Agriculture, which was
continued for 45 volumes. This work had many contributors,
among whom was George III., writing under the nom de plume
of "Ralph Robinson." Young's first visit to France was made in
1787. Traversing that country in every direction just before and
during the first movements of the Revolution, he has given valu-
able notices of the condition of the people and the conduct of
public affairs at that critical juncture. The famous book Travels
in France appeared in 2 vols. in 1792; it is an historical document
of the first importance on the condition of the French provinces on
the eve of the Revolution.
On his return home he was appointed secretary of the Board
of Agriculture, then (1793) just formed under the presidency of
Sir John Sinclair. In this capacity he gave most valuable assist-
ance in the collection and preparation of agricultural surveys of
the English counties. His sight, however, failed, and in 1811 he
had an operation for cataract, which proved unsuccessful. He died
on April 20, 1820. He left an autobiography in ms., which was
edited (1898) by Miss M. Betham-Edwards.
YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-77), Mormon leader, born at
Whittingham, Vt. (U.S.A.), June i, 1801. He moved to Mendon,
N.Y., in 1829, and three years later joined the newly organized
Mormon Church. (See MORMONS.) He was appointed an apostle
in 1835, played a leading role in the removal of the Mormons
from Missouri to Illinois, and in 1840 was sent to Liverpool to
direct Mormon missionary work in England. There he organized
branch missions, established emigrating agencies and began publi-
cation of the Millennial Star. He ret urned to America two months
after the death of the prophet, Joseph Smith (q.v.), to take over
the leadership of the church. The people of Illinois having de-
manded the removal of the Mormons, Young was faced with the
Herculean task of leading them to a new country where they
would be free from interference. After organizing the groups
and planning every move in detail, the migration of nearly 5,000
people was gotten under way in 1846. Early in 1847 Young, lead-
ing the advance band, reached the valley of Great Salt Lake, and
there decided to settle. He founded Salt Lake City, began the
cultivation of crops by irrigation and directed the dispersal of
the emigrant trains as they arrived. Both in moral and economic
realms his word was law and he laid down the policies of the
settlement. When the Territory of Utah was organized in 1850
he was appointed governor by President Fillmore and reappointed
in 1854. Though not appointed again in 1858 because of his
defiance of the United States in the so-called Mormon War, he
continued to be the supreme power of the Territory. He en-
couraged agriculture, developed natural resources, established
manufactures, founded Deseret University at Salt Lake City and
Brigham Young Academy at Provo, built the Salt Lake Theatre,
laid the foundations of the Mormon Temple, and created the
Zion's Co-operative Mercantile Institution which grew into the
largest institution of its kind in the West. His genius as a leader
is generally recognized, the settlement of Utah being one of the
best examples of organic colonization in history. He followed the
doctrine of plural marriage and at his death at Salt Lake City
Aug. 29, 1877, was survived by 17 wives and 47 children.
For bibliography see MORMONS.
YOUNG, EDWARD (1683-1765), English poet, author of
Night Thoughts f son of Edward Young, afterwards dean of Salis-
bury, was born at his father's rectory at Upham, near Win-
chester, and was baptized on July 3, 1683. He was educated at
Winchester College and New College, and Corpus Christi, Ox-
ford. His first publication was an Epistle to . , . Lord Lans*
doune (1713). It was followed by a Poem on the Last Day
(1713), dedicated to Queen Anne; The Force of Religion: or
Vanquished Love (1714), a poem on the execution of Lady Jane
Grey and her husband, dedicated to the countess of Salisbury;
and an epistle to Addison, On the late Queen's Death and His
Majesty's Accession to the Throne (1714), in which he made
indecent haste to praise the new king. About this time began his
connection with Philip, duke of Wharton, whom he accompanied
to Dublin in 1717, and with whom he had a lawsuit in 1740; the
upshot was that Young was awarded an annuity of £100, but
failed to secure a sum of £600 which he claimed. Meanwhile,
his plays, Busiris and Revenge, were produced at Drury Lane in
1719 and 1721. Between 1725 and 1728 Young published a series
of seven satires on The Universal Passion. They were dedicated
to various personages, and were collected in 1728 as Love of
Fame, the Universal Passion. This is qualified by Samuel John-
son as a "very great performance/' and abounds in striking and
pithy couplets. In 1726 he received, through Walpole, a pension
of £200 a year.
Young was nearly fifty when he decided to take holy orders.
In 1728 he was made one of the royal chaplains, and in 1730 was
presented to the college living of Welwyn, Hertfordshire. He
married in 1731 Lady Elizabeth Lee, daughter ol the ist earl
of Lichfield. The Complaint, or Night Thoughts on Life, Death
and Immortality, was published in 1742, and was followed by
other "Nights," the eighth and ninth appearing in 1745. In 1753
his tragedy of The Brothers, written many years before, out
suppressed because he was about to enter the Church, was pro-
duced at Drury Lane. Night Thoughts had made him famous,
but he lived in almost uninterrupted retirement, although he con-
tinued vainly to solicit preferment. He was never cheerful, it
was said, after his wife's death in 1740. He disagreed with his
son, who had remonstrated, apparently, on the excessive influence
exerted by his housekeeper Miss (known as Mrs.) Hallows. He
died at Welwyn on April 5, 1765.
Other works by Young are: The Instalment (to Sir R. Walpole,
1726); Cynthia (1727); A Vindication of Providence . . . (1728),
a sermon; An Apology for Punch (1729), a sermon; Jmperium Pelagi,
a Naval Lyrick . , . (1730) ; Two Epistles to Mr. Pope concerning
the Authors of the Age (1730) ; A Sea-Piece . . . (1733) ; The Foreign
Address, or The Best Argument for Peace (1734) ; The. Centaur not
Fabulous; in Five Letters to a Friend (1755) ; An Argument . . .
for the Truth of His [Christ's] Religion (1758), a sermon preached
before the king; Conjectures on Original Composition . . . (1759),
addressed to Samuel Richardson; and Resignation . . . (1762), a poem.
YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883), Scottish industrial chemist,
born in Glasgow, July 13, 1811, is best known in connection with
the establishment of the Scottish mineral-oil industry. In 1847
Lyon Playfair told him of a spring of petroleum which had
made its appearance at Riddmg's colliery at Alfreton in Derby-
shire, and in the following year he began to utilize it for making
both burning and lubricating oils. This spring was practically ex-
hausted by 1851. It had served to draw Young's attention to the
question of oil-production, and in 1850 he took out his funda-
mental patent for the distillation of bituminous substances. This
was soon put into operation in Scotland, first with the Boghead
coal and later with bituminous shalos, and Young successfully em-
ployed it in the manufacture of naphtha and lubricating oils, and
subsequently of illuminating oils and paraffin wax. Young died at
Wemyss Bay on May 14, 1883.
YOUNG, MAHONRI MACKINTOSH (1877- ),
American sculptor, painter and etcher, was born at Salt Lake City,
Utah, on Aug. 9, 1877. He studied with J. T. Harwood, Salt Lake
City, at the Art Students' League, New York city, and at the
Julien and other academies in Paris. After his return to the
United States he became instructor in drawing at the Art Students'
League and later instructor in sculpture at the American School of
Sculpture. His works are characterized by simplicity, dignity
and breadth of conception, united with exquisite workmanship.
He is known chiefly through his statuettes, figures of labourers and
YOUNG— YOUNGSTOWN
9°5
cowboys, which exhibit close observation of nature and virile form.
Among his best known works are "Man with Pick" in the Metro-
politan Museum of Art; the Hopi and Apache groups in the
Museum of Natural History, New York city; "A Labourer" and
"The Rigger" in the free public library, Newark, N.J.; the "Sea-
Gull" monument in Salt Lake City; "Rolling His Own" and
"Monument to the Dead" (with Bertram Goodhue), in Paris.
YOUNG, OWEN D. (1874- )» American lawyer and
business man, was born at Van Hornesville, N.Y., on Oct. 27,
1874. He was educated at St. Lawrence university, N.Y. (A.B.,
1894), and Boston university law school (LL.B., 1896). He
commenced the practice of law in Boston (1896), being associ-
ated with and later a partner of Charles H. Tyler until 1912,
when he retired in order to become general counsel for the Gen-
eral Electric Company. In 1913 he was elected vice president in
charge of policy and in 1922 was elected chairman of the board
of directors. He organized and became chairman of the board
of the Radio Corporation of America. He was also a director of
the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, General Motors Cor-
poration, the International General Electric Company, and chair-
man of the American section of the international chamber of
commerce. He was a member of President Wilson's second in-
dustrial conference, chairman of the committee on business cycles
and unemployment appointed by President Harding, and chair-
man of the American group, international court of arbitration of
trade disputes of the international chamber of commerce. In
Dec. 1923, he accepted the invitation of the reparations com-
mission to act as a member of the first committee of experts
charged with the enquiry into the balancing of the German budget
and the stabilizing of the German currency. Their ensuing report
was accepted by the commission. He was appointed agent-general
for reparations payments ad interim on that date, holding the
position till Oct. 31, when he resigned. Again by invitation Young
became a member of the second committee of experts which met
in Paris in January, 1929, to draw up a plan for the permanent
settlement of the reparations problem. Because of the unusual
confidence in his ability and fairness felt by the European govern-
ments, he was drafted as chairman of the conference against his
own desires. When the conference seemed on the verge of collapse
in mid-April he offered a compromise which served as the basis
of the final settlement arrived at in June. (See REPARATIONS.)
YOUNGHUSBAND, SIR FRANCIS (EDWARD)
(1863- ), British soldier, explorer and author, was born at
Murree, India, on May 31, 1863, and educated at Clifton and
Sandhurst. He entered the army in 1882, and rose to the rank
of lieutenant-colonel in 1908. In 1886 he crossed the heart of
Central Asia, by crossing the Muztagh, the great mountain bar-
rier between China and Kashmir. In 1890 he was transferred to
the Indian political department, and in 1902 accompanied the
British mission to Tibet, sent out to counteract the Russian
influence on the Dalai Lama. The mission was ended by the
treaty of Sept. 7, 1904, and Younghusband was made K.C.I.E.
in the same year. His work during this period resulted in an
extension of the Indian system of triangulation which finally
determined the geographical position of Lhasa. He also proved
that the Muztagh is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan
plateau. Sir Francis returned to England in 1905 and was ap-
pointed Bede lecturer at Cambridge, but in 1906 he went to
Kashmir as resident, remaining there until 1909. From the time
when he first went to India he travelled widely in India and also
in Manchuria, China, Turkistan and South Africa. He was made
K.C.S.I. in 1917.
His publications are: Heart of a Continent (1898); Relief of
Chitral (1898) ; South Africa of To-day (1898) ; Kashmir (1909) ;
India and Tibet (1912); Within (1912); The Heart of Nature
(1921); The Gleam (1923); Wonders of the Himalaya (1924);
But in Our Lives (1926); The Epic of Everest (1927); The
Light of Experience (1927); Life in the Stars (1927).
YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION, an or-
ganization for social and religious work among young men,
founded in England in 1844 by George Williams (1821-1905).
It grew out of meetings for prayer and Bible-reading which
Williams held among his fellow-workers in a dry-goods business
in the City of London. Similar associations had been founded
earlier in Scotland. The distinctive feature of the movement
was the combined interest in social and in religious welfare. It
spread rapidly; branches were soon formed in France and Holland,
and overseas in the United States, Canada, India and Australia.
The first world-conference was held in Paris in 1855. The pri-
mary purpose was to win men to Christ and enlist them in His
service, as understood by evangelical Christians in the mid-i9th
century. But the story of the association — especially under the
stimulus of conditions created by the World War — has been one of
steady evolution with centres in every part of the civilized world.
Under the leadership of Dr. John R. Mott, the Y.M.C.A., as an
international agency of religious influence, social service, indus-
trial goodwill, physical recreation and inter-racial conciliation, has
been extended until it is now active in 56 countries, autonomously
organised under the World Committee at Geneva. There are
9,754 associations, employing 7,396 executive officers, with a
membership of 1,601,967, of whom 474,922 are boys. The value
of the property and funds is $242,636,070. In the United States,
the Association is accepted frequently as a quasi-municipal insti-
tution, supported by citizens of all opinions and a similar endorse-
ment of the Association has been forthcoming from many states-
men and governments.
YOUNGSTOWN, a city of north-eastern Ohio, U.S.A., on
the Mahoning river, about equally distant (65 m.) from Cleve-
land and Pittsburgh; the county seat of Mahoning county. It
has a municipal airport; is served by the Baltimore and Ohio,
the Erie, the New York Central, the Pennsylvania, the Pitts-
burgh and Lake Erie and the Lake Erie and Eastern railways,
two industrial belt lines, inter-urban trolleys, motor-bus and truck
lines; and is on the route of the proposed barge canal from Lake
Erie to the Ohio river. Pop. (1920) 132,258 (26% foreign-born
white); 1928 local estimate over 178,000.
The city occupies 34-5 sq.m., lying on both sides of the river,
at an altitude of 858 ft. at the public square. It is on the water-
shed between Lake Erie and the Ohio river, and is surrounded
by rolling hills. The adjacent country is a fine agricultural region,
rich in mineral resources. Youngstown is the centre of the second
largest iron and steel district of the country, producing £ of
all the pig iron and J of all the steel made in the United States,
and using annually more than 8,500,000 tons of iron ore from
the Lake Superior mines. Coal comes in over relatively short
hauls, and the limestone needed in the production of steel is
quarried in the immediate vicinity.
The public square (given in 1802 by the founder of the city)
is still the centre of municipal life. Facing it, or near by, art
several of the older churches, several banks, stores and office
buildings, the fine Stambaugh memorial auditorium, the Reuben
McMillan free library (named after the city's first superintend-
ent of schools), and the beautiful Butler Art institute, of Georgia
marble, designed by McKim, Mead and White. The parks of the
city cover 1,950 ac. The character of the chief occupations is
reflected in the preponderance of men in the population (115
males to 100 females in 1920), the small proportion of women em-
ployed (18-5% of all ten years of age and over, the smallest pro-
portion in any of the large cities in 1920) and the very small
proportion of children 10 to 14 years of age working for wages
(2-5% in 1920). The city's assessed valuation for 1927 was
$364,669,130. Bank debits for 1927 aggregated $853,827,000.
Youngstown was named in honour of John Young (1763-
1825) of New Hampshire, who in 1796 bought a tract of land in
the Western Reserve, on which the city now stands, from the
Connecticut Land Company, and lived here from 1799 until
1803. The first settlement was made in 1796 by William Hillman.
A township government was organized in 1802, the town was
incorporated in 1848 and in 1867 it was chartered as a city. In
1876 the county seat was moved from Canfield to Youngstown,
and in 1879, after much litigation, the legality of the change was
confirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court. Iron was mined in the
vicinity in 1803 by Daniel Eaton, who in 1804 built the first blast
furnace north of the Ohio and west of Pennsylvania and in 1826
906 YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION— YPRES
the first one within the present limits of Youngstown. As late
as 1860 the population of the city was only 2,759. By 1880 it
had grown to 15,435 and by 1900 to 44,835. The 20th century
has been the period of rapid development. Between 1900 and
1920 the population increased threefold, and the area was en-
larged in about the same ratio.
YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION, an
organization founded in 1855 by two ladies simultaneously. In
the south of England Miss Robarts started a prayer union with
a purely spiritual aim, and in London Lady Kinnaird commenced
the practical work of opening homes and institutes for young
women in business. In 1887 the two branches united in the
Young Women's Christian Association, which seeks to promote
the all-round welfare of young women by means of residential
and holiday homes, club and rest rooms, classes and lectures, and
other useful departments. The association has spread all over
the world, and the total membership is over half a million.
See article "Young Women's Christian Association," by Emily Kin-
naird, in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. xii.
YPRES, JOHN DENTON PINKSTONE FRENCH,
IST EARL OF (1852-1925), British soldier, was born at Ripple,
Kent, on Sept. 28, 1852. The son of a naval officer, he entered
the royal navy, in which he served as cadet and midshipman
from 1866 to 1870. Joining the militia he passed from this into
the army in 1874 and was gazetted to the i9th Hussars. He mar-
ried Eleanora, daughter of R. W. Sclby Lowndes in 1880. He
served in the Nile expedition in 1884-5, an^ commanded his
regiment from 1889 to 1893. After two years on the war office
staff he commanded a cavalry brigade (1897-9), and on the
mobilisation of the expeditionary force for S. Africa in 1899 ne
was chosen to command the Cavalry Division and was promoted
major-general. Pending the assembly of this he served in Natal
where he commanded the troops on the field at Elandslaagte and
took part in the early combats near Ladysmith, but he proceeded
to Cape Colony just before the place was invested. After a few
weeks in charge of the force at Colesburg, he led the cavalry
during Lord Roberts' advance from Cape Colony, relieved Kim-
berley, cut off the retreat of Cronje's army, and occupied Bloem-
fontein. During the subsequent advance into the Transvaal he
was in command of the left wing, and at a later stage of the
victorious campaign he played a prominent part in the move from
Pretoria to Komati Poort. For these services he was given the
K.C.B. During most of the second phase of the struggle he was
in command of the forces operating against the enemy in Cape
Colony, and he was on the conclusion of hostilities promoted
lieutenant-general and was given the K.C.M.G.
He commanded at Aldershot from 1902 to 1907, in which year
he was promoted general, and he then became inspector-general
of the Forces for five years. He was appointed chief of the
Imperial General Staff in 1912 and was promoted field-marshal in
1913. In April 1914 he vacated the post of C.I.G.S., owing to
military troubles in Ireland in connection with Ulster, but four
months later he was chosen to take charge of the Expeditionary
Force on the outbreak of the World War, and he commanded the
British Army on the Western Front from the outset of the
struggle until the end of 1915. The terribly costly and some-
what fruitless advances of this year, culminating in Loos, pro-
voked criticism at the time, and controversy has raged over
French's share in them since. He certainly failed signally to har-
monise with Kitchener at the War office. He resigned in De-
cember of that year, Sir D. Haig taking his place, and he returned
to England, to be raised to the peerage as Viscount French of
Ypres and High Lake. He then became commander-in-chief in
the United Kingdom, and he held that appointment until May
1918, when he was selected to be lord lieutenant of Ireland. This
position he occupied under most trying conditions until early in
1921. On resigning he was rewarded with an earldom. He died on
May 22, 1925, at Deal Castle, Kent. At the end of the war, Lord
French published his personal narrative under the title, "19/4."
YPRES (epr, popularly wi'purz), a town of Belgium in
West Flanders, of which it was formerly considered the capital.
Pop. (1925), 14,845. It is situated 35 m. S. of Ostend and 12 m.
W. of Courtrai, on the Ypertee, a small river flowing into the Yser,
both of which have been canalized. In the i4th century it ranked
with Bruges and Ghent. Its fine Halles or cloth market, with a
fagade of over 150 yd., was begun in 1201, completed in 1304, and
reduced to ruins in the World War. The cathedral of St.
Martin dated from the i3th century, with a tower of the I5th
century and was also ruined in 1914-18. Jansen, bishop of Ypres
and the founder of the Jansenist school, is buried in the cathedral.
For four war years (1914-18) the town was the centre of a salient
of the British armies and was reduced to ruins, but has been
largely rebuilt. The Menin Gate has been built as a memorial to
missing British soldiers. There are 40 cemeteries within two
miles of Ypres.
YPRES, THE BATTLE OP, 1914, is the name given to
the heavy but indecisive fighting near Ypres at the close of the
arace to the sea" (Oct. 19 to Nov. 22, 1914). It is commonly
spoken of as the First Battle of Ypres.
Genesis of the Battle.— When in Oct. 1914 the British Expe-
ditionary Force under F.M. Sir John French left the Aisne front •
to be transferred to Fianders, its various corps, as they arrived
in succession on the left of the Allied line, at once came into
contact with the enemy, for each of the two belligerent forces
was simultaneously extending its front northwards. Thus the II.
Corps (Smith-Dorrien) on Oct. 10 began the "battle of La
Bassee," and the III. Corps (Pulteney) and the Cavalry Corps (the
ist and 2nd Cavalry Divisions under Allenby), on Q^t. 12-13, the
battles of "Armcntieres" and "Messines." On Oct. 14-15 the IV.
Corps (Rawlinson), the Belgian army and a French Marine bri-
gade, falling back from Antwerp, and de Mitry's cavalry corps
and two French Territorial divisions, coming up from the west be-
tween Ypres and the Belgians, completed the Allied line to the sea.
Of this line, the British held the portion from the La Bassee canal
to Langemarck, north of Ypres.
The co-ordination of the Allied operations in Flanders was
placed by Gen. Joffre in the hands of Gen. Foch, and the general
plan now adopted was for the British, supported by the French
and Belgians, to advance from the neighbourhood of Ypres, break
through the enemy's front, cut off any Germans between the gaps
thus made and the sea, and then turn southward to roll up the
German line.
The Opening of the Battle. — On Oct. 19, on the arrival
behind Ypres of the I. Corps (Haig), Sir J. French sent forward
Rawlinson's corps (consisting only of the 7th Division and the
3rd Cavalry Division) towards Menin, and directed Pulteney's
and Allenby's corps to move down the Lys on both banks in the
same direction. But on the day previous, the i8th, the enemy,
with a general plan similar to that of the Allies, had also begun an
advance, with a new IV. Army under Duke Albrecht of Wiirttem-
berg, on a front from the Ypres-Gheluvelt (Menin) road to the
sea. This army consisted of the new XXII., XXIIL, XXVI. and
XXVII. Reserve Corps composed of young volunteers with 25%
of old soldiers and the III. Reserve Corps of three divisions
which had besieged Antwerp. Thus, as the German VI. Army,
under Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, south of the IV.
Army, also attacked, battle was engaged on the i9th on the whole
front from La Bassee to the sea. In the sector between the river
Lys and the sea, the German XIX. Corps attacked the left wing
of Wilson's division (4th) of Pulteney's corps; four German cav-
alry corps advanced against Allenby's two cavalry divisions;
whilst of the 1 1 divisions of the German IV. Army, four were sent
against Capper's division (7th) and Byng's cavalry division of
Rawlinson's corps, two and one-half against the French north of
Ypres, and four and one-half against the Belgians.
On Oct. 21, just as Haig's corps, which had been put in on the
left of Rawlinson's, was making good progress towards Lange-
marck, the French on its left fell back before the enemy to the
Ypres canal. Haig, with his flank thus exposed to the attack of
the XXIII. Reserve Corps, whilst engaged with the XXVI. on
his front, had to use his reserve to cover his left, and his advance,
thus deprived of any fresh impetus, came to an end. Elsewhere,
the British were opposed to at least double their numbers: Cap-
per's division to the XXVII. Reserve Corps, the three British
1914]
YPRES
907
cavalry divisions to eight German, and Wilson's division to the
XIX. Corps. Nevertheless, they managed to hold their line un-
broken on the 2ist and 22nd. When on Oct. 23 the French IX.
Corps (Gen. Dubois) reached Ypres and took over the Zonne-
beke-Langemarck sector from Lomax's ist Division of Haig's
corps, a further slight advance was made ; but the enemy was in
superior numbers and had too much heavy artillery for any deci-
FIRST BATTLE OF YPRES
l9!*Oct.-22'!?Nav.l9l4'.
sive success to be obtained. On the 24th Duke Albrccht equally
abandoned any hope of a break-through until he could be rein-
forced; but desultory fighting continued, and on the 26th Cap-
per's division lost the Kruiseecke salient, south-east of Gheluvelt.
Meantime, the Belgians had been hard put to it and on Oct. 27
let in the sea at Nieuport to form an inundation in front of their
line along the Yscr.
The Second German Offensive. — On the same day, the 27th,
Gen. von Falkenhayn, the chief of the German general staff,
issued instructions for a new attack with increased forces. Six
fresh divisions, brought from quiet parts of the line, to form
under Gen. von Fabeck, the right of the VI. Army, were on the
3Oth to take the place of the four cavalry corps and attack Ypres
from the south-east for the purpose of breaking through on the
front Messines — Gheluvelt, which was held by two of the three
cavalry divisions, now all united under Alienby's command, and
Capper's division. At the same time, all the German troops north
of the La Bassee canal were ordered to make a general attack.
The addition of six divisions to the Ypres front gave, excluding
cavalry, the Germans isi to the French and British six and one-
half ; but their artillery was even more overwhelming, for Fabeck,
apart from what the other German commanders before Ypres
possessed, was allotted over 250 heavy and super-heavy guns and
howitzers, to which the Allies could only oppose 50, and of these
more than half were of old and obsolete patterns.
There was some preliminary fighting on the 29th, when the
British lost a little ground near Menin road. On this date, the
eve of the second German offensive at Ypres, the line was held
from the Lys to Zonnebeke by part of Wilson's division, the cav-
alry corps and the 7th, ist and 2nd Divisions, all three since the
27th under Haig, who henceforward commanded in front of
Ypres. Thence Dubois's IX. Corps and de Mitry's cavalry corps
carried it on to the canal. The greater part of the Allied front
maintained its ground on the 30th, but, under the heavy pressure
of the six fresh German divisions, Alienby's cavalry divisions and
Capper's division were forced back to the Messines-Wytschaete
ridge, losing Zandvoorde and Hollebeke. Further danger in this
sector was averted by Gen, Dubois, at Haig's request, sending his
own reserve of four battalions and three batteries to the assistance
of the British cavalry, and Gen. Haig himself despatching first
two battalions and later three more, under Maj.-gen. E. Bulfin.
Gheluvelt, Oct. 31. — Matters, however, became more serious
on the 3 ist, when, after a heavy bombardment, a convergent
attack of five German divisions and three brigades on Haig's
three divisions broke the line on a two battalion front at Ghelu-
velt, despite the desperate resistance of the ist Battalion of the
Queen's, which was annihilated. Elsewhere the front held, but at
Messines part of the village was lost, and immediately south of
the Menin road the line was pushed back. The situation was
critical, and just at this time the staffs of Lomax's and Monro's
divisions of Haig's corps were nearly all killed or disabled by a
shell that struck Hooge Chateau.
A counter-attack ordered by Brig.-gen. H. Landon (3rd Bri-
gade) drove back the Germans who had advanced from Gheluvelt
along the Menin road; the village itself was recovered owing to
the stout defence of the ist South Wales Borderers north of the
break, who held on to the park and chateau to the north of the
village until a determined counter-attack of the 2nd Worcester-
shires initiated by Brig.-gen. C. Fitzclarence (ist Brigade) recap-
tured it; whilst south of the road a third counter-attack by the 2nd
Royal Sussex, ist Northamptonshire, and 2nd Gordon High-
landers, under the orders of Maj.-gen. E. Bulfin, regained all the
ground that had been lost there, and more. At night, however, a
retirement was made to a selected line east of Gheluvelt.
French Reinforcements.— On Nov. i the Germans con-
tinued to attack, and Messines was lost by AUenby's cavalry corps,
but the French XVI. Corps (32nd, 39th and 43rd Divisions under
Gen. Grossetti) arriving to relieve the cavalry, greatly strength-
ened the defence. Wytschaete and the rest of the ridge, however,
were lost by the French next day. The Allied line was now held
by the British and French alternately : from the Lys to opposite
Messines by the British; thence as far as the Ypres-Comines
railway by the French; thence along the front of Shrewsbury
forest and Polygon wood to Zonnebeke by Haig's three divisions ;
and thence to the canal, by the French again; and this remained
the distribution until the end of the battle. During Nov. 3, 4 and 5
the German attacks somewhat died down ; a composite division of
Smith-Dorrien's II. Corps (under Maj.-gen. F. W. D. Wing) and
the French nth Division reinforced the Allies. But this assist-
ance was counter-balanced by three out of five German divisions
on the Belgian front being brought down against Ypres.
The Final German Effort. — The German supreme command
now decided to attack the haunches of the Allied salient round
Ypres from the north-east and south-east. Four more divisions,
including a composite one of the Guard Corps, and the 4th (Pome-
ranian), one of the best in the whole army, were despatched to
the sector with more heavy artillery. On the 4th, Crown Prince
Rupprecht was given a definite order to break through south-east
of Ypres, and whilst this offensive was in preparation to continue
attacks all along the line, and the Duke of Wurttemberg was or-
dered to move against the north-east part of Ypres. During the
6th, yth, 8th and 9th the Germans managed to make a little prog-
ress at several points; they gained Le Gheer on the edge of
Ploegsteert wood, and Zwarteleen near Hill 60, barely 2m. from
Ypres; but elsewhere they were repulsed with heavy loss, and
Grossetti's corps recovered ground lost between Wytschaete and
St. Eloi. On the loth, after a long and desperate defence, Dix-
mude (i3m. north of Ypres) was lost by the Belgians, and a very
heavy attack was delivered against the French on the north-east
and north of Ypres which gained a small amount of ground.
The Prussian Guard Attack on Nov. 11. — On Nov. n at
6:30 A.M., on a dark and misty morning, the German artillery
opened a terrific fire, increasing in intensity as 9 A.M. approached,
at which hour the German infantry, under cover of the mist,
advanced to the assault on the Lys-Polygon wood front. The
British were weary with three weeks' continuous fighting without
reliefs, the French nearly as tired. But, in spite of the German
numerical superiority — 23 divisions to 9^, with cavalry in about
the same proportion — the Allied line resisted the enemy's repeated
assaults except at two places — just north of the Menin canal,
908
YPRES
where a detachment of Dubois's IX. Corps was driven back, and
just north of the Menin road. South of and across this road,
where the German 4th Division and Winckler's Guard Division
attacked, a front of about 2m., stood Wing's composite division
of Smith-Dorrien's II. Corps, its battalions so weak that it was
about the strength of a brigade, the 2nd K. O. Scottish Borderers
on the right, then the 2nd R. Irish Rifles, ist Gordon Highlanders,
ist Cheshire, 2nd Bedfordshire, ist Lincolnshire, ist Northum-
berland Fusiliers, 4th Royal Fusiliers, and 2nd Duke of Welling-
ton's. North of the road was Fitzclarence's brigade of the ist
Division (the ist Scots Guards, 2nd Cameron Highlanders and
ist Black WTatch), 800 men in all, with the ist King's of Monro's
division in Polygon wood beyond them. By the mere weight of
the advance of the German 2nd Guards Brigade (six battalions
of the ist and 3rd Foot Guards Regiments), the front and sup-
port lines of Fitzclarence's three Scots battalions were over-
whelmed. The attack passed over them, but fire from the ist
King's in Polygon wood, from three strong points (small defended
posts with all-round defence) which formed Fitzclarence's third
line of defence, and from various battalion headquarters in farms
put in a state of defence, then held the Germans up and took
heavy toll of them. About 400 or 500, however, pressed on into
the Nonnc Bosschen (wood), only to be met by the point-blank
fire of Haig's field artillery in action beyond it; and the rifle-fire of
some artillery men and engineers, including cooks and grooms,
hastily collected. The final discomfiture of the German Guards
was completed by a counter-attack of the 2nd Oxfordshire and
Buckinghamshire through the Nonne Bosschen.
The Close of the Battle.— On the next day, Nov. 12, the
weather began to break and become wintry; nevertheless, on this
and the following days the Germans made several further attacks
against the French in the Wytschaete area and against Wing's
division south of the Mcnin road. These did not alter the situa-
tion, and the fighting then died down, and both sides set about
completing their defences. With the end of the First Battle of
Ypres, on the 22nd, open warfare ceased, and the operations of
siege warfare, so-called trench warfare, begun on the Aisne in
September, prevailed along the whole western front.
Opposed to more than double its own numbers, the British
Expeditionary Force had held its own by sheer good shooting and
superior training, and the skilful use by Gen. Sir Douglas Haig
of his very small reserve. But such heavy losses had been incurred
in the five weeks' battle and in the fighting at La Bassee and
Armentieres, which went on during the same period, that of the
original British Expeditionary Force of fully trained officers and
men very few remained, and for the future the empire was de-
pendent on three divisions from overseas garrisons, on Territorial
and New Army divisions, and dominion troops.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — ''Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914,"
History of the Great, War, vol. ii. (1925), where there is a bibl.; Gen.
Dubois, Deux Ans de Commandemenl sur le front de France (1920) ;
Die Schlacht an der Yser und bei V 'pern (1917), issued by the German
General Staff. (J. E. E.)
YPRES, THE BATTLES OF, 1915, commonly called the
second battle of Ypres, comprise the period of severe fighting
that took place in front of Ypres beginning on April 22 with the
first gas attack and continuing to May 25, 1915. It resulted in
heavy casualties and considerable loss of ground round the town
of Ypres, the base of the Allied salient, measured along the Ypres
canal, being reduced from 8m. to 5im., and its maximum depth
from 6m. to 2^ miles.
Phases of the Battle.— For the purposes of general descrip-
tion, the battle is best divided into five phases (see sketch map) :
(i) the first German attack on April 22 against the French, result-
ing in the loss of the Pilckem area; (2) the second attack on April
24 against the Canadian Division, resulting in the loss of the St.
Julien-Gravenstafei area; (3) the fruitless British counter-attacks;
(4) the British withdrawal to the Frezenberg line, abandoning the
Zonnebckc area; and (5) the renewed German attacks (Frezen-
berg-Bellewaarde), resulting in further loss by the British of a
narrow belt of ground.
The Situation Before the Battle. — During the winter of
1914-15 the German Supreme Command had decided to carry
out an offensive against Russia in 1915, and to stand on the
defensive in the western theatre, leaving only sufficient troops
there to hold the line. No general attack at Ypres was contem-
plated. It was, however, desired to try a new weapon, gas, thor-
oughly in the field, and the Ypres front was selected for the pur-
pose on the advice of the German meteorological experts. Duke
Albrccht of Wurttemberg commanding the IV. Army, which held
SECOND BATTLE OF YPRES.
22 APRIL — 25 HAY 1915.
English Miles.
1 *fr ' S
the sector from the Comines-Ypres canal to the coast, proposed
to turn the use of gas to local advantage, to improve his position.
If he could obliterate the Ypres salient and drive the Allies beyond
the canal, he would deprive them of a bridgehead which gave
them facilities for attack. The duke's forces consisted of the
XV. Corps, the four new Reserve Corps, XXVII., XXVI.,
XXIII. and XXII., and two Ersatz and two Landwehr brigades
which had fought at the first battle of Ypres. The Marine Divi-
sion guarded the Belgian coast.
The Allied line from the Comines canal northward was held by
part of the 5th Division (Morland), as far as Hill 60; the 2yth
Division (Snow); the 28th Division (Bulfin); and the ist Cana-
dian Division (Alderson). The last three formed the II. Corps
(Plumer) of the II. Army (Smith-Dorrien). The 2yth and 28th
Divisions had been formed of troops from Indian and overseas
garrisons, but, having suffered heavily from the winter conditions
in Flanders, contained in April a considerable proportion of par-
tially trained reinforcements. The Canadian Division had reached
England in Oct. 1914, and had embarked for France in Feb. 1915.
After being in the line at Neuve Chapelle, it had, between April
15 and 17, relieved French troops covering Ypres. The front de-
fences taken over by the II. Corps were poor, but there was a
well-developed back line known as "the G.H.Q. Line." The left
of the Canadians extended as far as the Ypres — St. Julien — Poel-
cappelle road, beyond which were two French divisions under
Gen. Putz: the 45th Division, which had arrived on April 16, con-
taining nine newly raised Zouave battalions and three battalions
of African natives, these latter being in the line; and the 8yth
Territorial Division, a division of elderly reservists.
The Tint Gas Attack.— On April 22, after an afternoon of
comparative quiet, suddenly at 5 P.M. a yellowish cloud — now
known to have proceeded from chlorine gas released from cylin-
ders in the trenches — was seen to form on the German front
opposite the African troops and French Territorials. It blew
slowly towards them, whilst the German artillery opened with
every kind of gun, firing on the French troops with shrapnel and
bombarding all the villages in the salient and the town of Ypres
with high-explosive shell. The French infantry in the line fled
beyond the canal, leaving their artillery to be captured, abandon-
YPRES
909
ing a large area of ground and entirely exposing the British left
flank (see sketch map). Fortunately for the Allies, the enemy
had begun his attack so late in the afternoon that in the dusk he
did not discover his immense success. Content with having se-
cured Pilckem ridge and establishing outposts beyond it, about
7.30 P.M., according to plan, as it is asserted, but more probably
in consequence of the stout defence put up by various small
Canadian detachments, the Germans ceased any attempt to push
into the gap, except at Steenstraat.
Gen, Plumer and his divisional commanders hurried what avail-
able troops they had to cover the gap, and when Gen. Putz in
the course of the evening informed Gen. Smith-Dorrien that he
meant to counter-attack at 4.30 A.M., and requested that the
British should assist, arrangements were made to co-operate. But
no movement of the French took place, nor were they in the suc-
ceeding days able to make any serious effort to recover the ground
they had lost on the eastern bank of the canal.
Several counter-attacks were made by the British on April 23
to regain the ground lost by the French. They were carried out by
the Canadians, the I3th Infantry Brigade, and Geddes's detach-
ment— a temporary formation composed of six battalions of the
27th and 28th Divisions — without avail. The forces were too
small, and there was not sufficient artillery or ammunition to sup-
port them. The Germans did no more than repel the counter-
attacks on the 23rd, but from the 24th onward proceeded to fol-
low two objectives: first to roll up the flank of the British line,
aiming to get behind the troops still in position; secondly, to in-
crease their gains across the canal near Steenstraat and separate
the Belgians from the French and British. By the division of their
forces, they failed to achieve either purpose.
The Second Gas Attack. — On April 24, at 4 A.M., the enemy
released gas against the front of the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Bri-
gades. In spite of having only extemporized means of protection
(handkerchiefs, linen bandoliers, etc., dipped in water), they held
fast for a time, but the enemy, after breaking in at one place,
enlarged his gains, and the 3rd Canadian Brigade was gradually
forced back, involving in the retirement through St. Julien the
troops on the new left flank that had been built up. Gen. Snow,
the only divisional general who had his headquarters cast of the
canal, at Potijze, took charge of the defence, and such reserves
as could be hurried up were eventually placed by Gen. Plumer
under his command, as communication across the canal between
the headquarters of the other commanders and their troops was
constantly interrupted. Although the Germans were driven out of
St. Julien by a counter-attack of two battalions of the York and
Durham Infantry Brigade of the Northumbrian (Territorial)
Division, another large piece of the salient was lost, and after
further German attacks on the 25th, Gravenstavel was abandoned,
and the British line ran from the original left of the 2Sth Division
past St. Julien, almost due west to the canal.
The British Counter-Attacks. — Counter-attack after coun-
ter-attack was now made by fresh troops hurried up to Ypres, the
nth Infantry Brigade (4th Division), the Lahore Division and
the Northumberland Infantry Brigade (Northumbrian Division)
with assistance on the left from the French. All were without suc-
cess; they found the enemy well entrenched, and their only result
was heavy casualties. In the operations of April 26, when some
of the French 45th Division co-operated on the left of the Lahore
Division, the Germans opened a few gas cylinders in defence, and
broke the attack; whilst on the 2yth gas shelling alarmed the
African natives and caused them a second time to retreat in panic.
The position of the British troops in the narrow salient, pro-
jecting 6m. in front of Ypres and only some 3m. across was
obviously untenable, as it was surrounded on three sides by the
enemy and subject to constant bombardment. Gen. Smith-Dor-
rien proposed to withdraw to a line nearer Ypres. In consequence,
however, of Gen. Foch's protests and promises that the French
would regain the ground they had lost, and of the political desir-
ability of not abandoning any more Belgian territory if it could
be avoided, Sir John French agreed to leave his troops in their
exposed position for some days longer. Gen. Joffre, having in
preparation his great offensive which was to begin on May 9, near
Arras, was not disposed to allow Gen. Foch to employ any more
troops near Ypres; and the French attacks languished.
The Withdrawal from the Apex of the Salient.— When
on May i the French. infantry in a projected attack failed to leave
their trenches, all hope of their recovering ground came to an end.
and Sir John French directed Gen. Plumer, who by his orders was
now in special charge of the operations near Ypres, to begin the
retirement to the Frezenberg line, abandoning a zone some 2m.
deep. This retirement was carried out with complete success by
the infantry brigades of the 2/th, 28th and 4th (which had re-
placed the Canadian) Divisions in the line on the nights of May
1-2, 2-3, and 3-4. The French now held the ijm. of the left of
the new semicircle round Ypres.
The Renewed German Attacks.— All hope of obtaining vic-
tory by gas attacks having disappeared, as the Allies were prepared
for them, the Germans now tried by sheer weight of artillery to
drive the British off their new position. After finally getting pos-
session of Hill 60 on May 5-6, they made carefully prepared
attacks on May 8 and on May 24. In spite of splendid defence
and desperate British counter-attacks, in which the 4th, 27th,
28th, and Northumbrian Divisions and the Cavalry Corps troops
were engaged, the enemy, dominating the situation with heavy
artillery, gained a small amount of ground. Meanwhile, on the
night of May 15-16, he had been compelled by the French to
abandon his position on the western bank of the canal. On May
25, after the II. Corps had established itself on a strong line, the
Germans brought the battle to a close.
The total British losses in the Ypres and Hill 60 fighting were
2,150 officers and 57,125 other ranks, the total killed being 10,519.
The German losses on the Allied front were returned at 860 of-
ficers and 34,073 other ranks.
See "Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1915," History of
the Great War based on Official Documents, vol. i., with a bibliog-
raphy (1927); Palat, Grande Guerre sur le front Occidental, vol. ix.
(1922); M. Schwarte, De dentsche Landkrieg, vol. ii. (1923). The
French and German official accounts are not yet available, but
official information furnished in advance is included in the British
account. (J. E. E.)
YPRES, BATTLES OF 1917. Almost continuous fighting
took place in the Ypres-Yser region during many weeks in the
summer and autumn of 1917, but the operations as a whole may
be said to have consisted of two distinct phases. First came the
brilliantly successful combat, lasting a few hours, which has come
to be known as the battle of Messines. Then, after a lull, there
came to be launched immediately north of the scene of the Mes-
sines victory a series of attacks at short intervals which lasted
four months. This was not a battle, but rather a campaign, with
the fighting more defined than the purpose — of the nature familiar
in the military annals of Flanders and the Low Countries generally.
Like its German forerunners of 1914 and 1915, it achieved little
except loss — in which, again, it repeated the earlier history of this
theatre of war. So fruitless in its results, so depressing in its
direction was this 1917 offensive, that "Passchendaele" has come
to be, like Walcheren a century before, a name of ill-omen and a
synonym for military barrenness.
An offensive in this sector had formed part of Haig's original
contribution to the Allied plan for 1917. Its actual inauguration
had been postponed by the unfortunate turn of events elsewhere.
When the ill-success of the opening offensive in the spring at
Arras (q.v.) and in Champagne (q.v.) was followed by the threat-
ened collapse of the French army as a lighting force, Haig's '"first-
aid" treatment was to allow the British offensive at Arras by the
III. Army to continue for some weeks longer, with the general
object of keeping the Germans occupied, and with the local
object of reaching a good defensive line. When successive thrusts,
against an enemy now fully warned and strengthened, failed to
reach this line, Haig decided to transfer the main weight of this
effort northward to Flanders, as he had originally intended. His
loyalty to his Allies and his acute sense of the common interest,
inspired him to press on with an offensive policy.
It is right to emphasise that in May Haig's opinion of the policy
to pursue was reinforced by the Prime Minister, Lloyd George,
who, having committed himself to the Nivelle gamble for victory,
910
YPRES
[J917
was equally ardent to continue the offensive. It is true, however,
that on cooler reflection he subsequently tried in vain to check the
policy which he had countenanced.
British Objectives. — The aim was the occupation of the
whole of the belt of high ground which extends from a point about
three miles north of Armentieres, to near Dixmude. It rises some
100 to 150 ft. above the great Flanders plain, and reaches a height
of over 200 ft. at some points. In the spring of 1917 its southern
portion enclosed to a great extent the Ypres salient, although the
Allies' trenches gave them possession of the lower slopes of their
side of the high ground. Farther to the north the enemy held the
whole of the high ground. The general plan of operations was to
begin at the southern end and to work thence northwards. The
capture of the high ground was to be followed by an advance in
the coast district. But the axis of the attack diverged from, instead
of converging on, the German main communications, so that an
advance could not vitally endanger the security of the enemy's
position in France.
But, worse still, the Ypres offensive was doomed before it
began — by its own destruction of the intricate drainage system in
this part of Flanders. The High Command had persevered for
over two years with the method of a prolonged preparatory
bombardment, believing that quantity of shells was the key to
success. The offensive at Ypres, which was finally submerged
in the swamps of Passchendaele in October, threw into stronger
relief than ever before the fact that such a bombardment blocked
the advance for which it was intended to pave the way — because
it made the ground impassable.
THE BATTLE OF MESSINES
The preliminary move is known as the Battle of Messines, and
its purpose was to gain the high ground about Messines and
Wytschaete as a flank bastion for the subsequent advance from
Ypres. For while in German possession it gave the enemy com-
plete observation of the British trenches and forward battery
positions, enabled them to command the British communications
up to the Ypres salient, and to take in enfilade, or even in reverse,
the trench positions therein. General Plumer and his II. Army,
who had been acting as wardens of the Ypres front for two years,
had been selected to carry out this operation, while the V. Army
under General Gough had been transferred from the Somme to
hold the line north of the II. Army. Preparations for the under-
taking had begun nearly a year before although their real develop-
ment dated from the winter. Thus when Haig asked Plumer, on
May 7, when he would be ready to deliver the attack Plumer
was able to say, "a month from to-day," and to keep his promise.
Messines was to be a strict siege operation, the capture of a
fortified salient at the minimum cost of lives by the maximum
substitution of mind (care in preparation) and material for man-
power. Mines, artillery, gas and tanks all contributed. But a
contrary wind curtailed most of the scheme of gas projection, and
the effect of the mines and artillery was so overwhelming that
the tanks were hardly needed. On the centre corps front alone,
of about three miles, a total of 718 guns and howitzers, 192 trench
mortars, and 198 machine-guns was concentrated.
For the defence of this salient the Germans depended on two
separate trench systems coinciding in trace with its arc, the more
advanced one pushed down the forward slope of the high ground
while the rear one followed its crest; they had also constructed
two chord positions, stretching along the base of the salient on
the reverse slope. The troops of the II. Army detailed for the
enterprise were, from right to left, the II, Anzac Corps, with
the Australian 4th Division in support, the IX. Corps with the
nth Division in support, and the X. Corps with the 24th Division
in support. There were thus nine divisions in front line and three
in support. The fact that the attack would converge against a
salient increased its chances, but it complicated the staff, troop,
and artillery organization of the attack. For the sectors of each
attacking corps were of varying depths, and contracted more and
more in width up to the final objective which was the chord of
the arc forming the salient. As, however, it was a siege opera-
tion, without any attempt at exploitation or a break-through,
it was easier to avoid the congestion which had occurred at
Arras (q.v.). The problem was further simplified by the plan
of allotting sectors so that five of the divisions had sectors of
equal breadth from front to rear, while the four which filled the
interstices had smaller tasks. Further, when the main ridge was
captured, fresh troops were to "leap-frog" through to gain the
final Oosttaverne line across the base of the salient. The first
bombardment and "wire-cutting" began on May 21, were devel-
oped on May 28 and culminated in a seven days* intense bom-
bardment, mingled with practice barrages to test the arrangements.
The loss of surprise did not matter at Messines as it was a purely
"limited" attack.
At 3.10 A.M. on June 7 the nineteen mines — one only had previ-
ously been blown by the enemy — were exploded, wrecking large
portions of the Germans' front trenches. Simultaneously the
barrage fell. When the debris and shock of the mines subsided,
the infantry advanced and within a few minutes the whole of the
enemy's front line system was overrun, almost without opposi-
tion. Resistance stiffened as the penetration was deepened, but
the training of the infuntry and the efficiency of the barrage
enabled continuous progress to be made, and within three hours
the whole crest of the ridge was secured.
The New Zealand Division had cleared the intricate fortifica-
tions of Messines itself — here the pace of the barrage was regu-
lated to 100 yards in fifteen minutes instead of the general pace
of 100 yards in three minutes. The garrisons of . Wytschaete and
the White Chateau held out for a time, but the first village was
captured after a fierce struggle by troops of the 36^ (Lflster)
and 1 6th (Irish) Divisions in a combined effort — a feat of sym-
bolical significance. Perhaps the most difficult sector was that of
the 47th (London) Division, which had not only to overcome the
highly fortified position of the White Chateau but had the Ypres-
Comines canal as an oblique interruption across its line of advance.
The Londoners, however, overcame both and by 10 A.M. the
objective of the first phase was reached along the whole attacking
line. While it was being consolidated, over forty batteries were
moved forward to support the next pounce.
At 3.10 P.M. the reserve divisions and tanks "leap-frogged"
through and within an hour almost the whole of the final objec-
tive was captured. Some 7,000 prisoners had been taken, apart
from dead and wounded. The success had been so complete that
only feeble counter-attacks were attempted that day. When the
expected general counter-attack was launched on the whole front
on the morrow, it failed everywhere against defences that had
been rapidly and firmly organized, and in the recoil yielded the
British still more ground.
THE MAIN OFFENSIVE
A long pause now occurred while preparations for carrying out
the rest of Haig's programme were being completed. Although
Plumer's victory of June 7 had put an end to the enemy over-
looking Ypres from the south, the Germans still, in a measure,
dominated the place from the east, from the north-east and from
the north. Thus, the preparations could not be concealed and the
Germans knew that they were being made. The plan at the outset
was that, while the II. Army stood fast, the V. Army under
Gough on its left with the French I. Army still further to the
left, should attack the enemy front from near Hooge to north
of Steenstraat on the Yser canal.
Nearly two months passed before the preparations for the
main advance were completed. This gave the Germans, amply
warned, time to make counter-preparations of characteristic thor-
oughness and ingenuity. Having learnt by experience that a
continuous system of trenches did not offer a satisfactory form
of defence unless there was abundant underground cover, and
realizing that the waterlogged soil of Flanders handicapped the
creation of subterranean galleries, they had established a system
of numerous disconnected trenches and strong points, arranged
in depth rather than in breadth, together with numbers of con-
crete blockhouses armed with machine-guns. As their front line
near Ypres had been in existence since 1915, they trusted to the old
system to meet the first shock of attack, and it was rather in the
YPSILANTI
911
later offensive operations that the Allies found themselves con-
fronted with these new defensive devices. A further new asset
was the introduction of mustard gas which the Germans used to
cause serious interference with the attackers' artillery.
On July 22 the bombardment opened, by 2,300 guns, to con-
tinue for ten days, until on July 31 the infantry advanced on a
fifteen-mile front to the accompaniment of torrential rain. On
the left substantial progress was made, Bixschoote, St. Julien,
and the Pilckem Ridge being gained, and the line of the Stcen-
beke reached. But in the more vital sector round the Menin
road the attack was repulsed.
The second blow, on Aug. 16, was a diminished replica of the
first in its results. The left wing was again advanced across the
shallow depression formed by the little valley of the Steenbeke
and past the ruins of what had been Langemarck. But on the
right, where alone an advance might have a strategic effect, a
heavy price was paid for nought, and even the tally of prisoners
shrank to a mere two thousand. Nor did men feel that the
enemy's skilful resistance and the mud were the sole explanation
of their fruitless sacrifice. Severe complaints against the direction
and staff work were general, and their justness seemed to receive
recognition when Haig extended the II. Army's front northward
to include the Menin road sector, and thereby entrusted to Plumer
the direction of the main advance towards the ridge east of Ypres.
It was a thankless task at the best, for the experience of war
attested the futility of pressing on in places where failure had
already become established, and it seemed heavy odds that the
laurels earned by Messines must become submerged in the swamps
beyond Ypres. Yet, in the outcome, the reputation of Plumer and
the II. Army staff, headed by Harington, was enhanced — less be-
cause of what was achieved in scale than because so much more
was achieved than could reasonably have been expected.
Bad weather and the need for preparation delayed the resump-
tion of the offensive until Sept. 20, but that morning the II. Army
attack, on a four-mile front, achieved success in the area of
previous failure — on either side of the Menin Road. Fractions
of six divisions, the igth, 39th, 4ist, 23rd, rst and 2nd Australian
advanced at 5.40 A.M.; by 6.15 A.M. the first objective was gained
almost unopposed, and, with the exception of one or two strong
points, the third and last objective was gained soon after midday,
and the counter-attacks were repulsed by fire. A fresh spring on
Sept. 26, and another on Oct. 4 — the last a larger one on a six-
mile front, by troops of the 37th, 5th, 2ist, and yth Divisions,
the ist, 2nd, and 3rd Australian Divisions, and the New Zealand
Division — gained possession of the main ridge east of Ypres,
with Gheluvelt, Polygon Wood, and Broodseinde, despite torrents
of rain, which made the battlefield a worse morass than ever.
On each occasion the majority of the counter-attacks had broken
down under the British fire, a result which owed much to the good
observation work of the Royal Flying Corps and the quick
response of the artillery. Some 10,000 prisoners were swallowed
in the three bites, and this frightened the enemy into modifying
his elastic tactics and strengthening his forward troops — to their
increased loss.
As a result of the operations begun on June 7 the crest of the
long belt of high ground overlooking the Flanders plain had now,
after four months of intermittent fighting, been secured from
Messines northwards to within a few hundred yards of the Ypres-
Roulers railway. And yet, regarding this Flanders offensive as
a whole, the work was in reality only begun. The Houthulst
forest, with the long line of high ground forming the quadrant
of a circle beyond it, was still in the enemy 's hands. Until the
ridge had been secured to the vicinity of Staden it would be
premature to embark upon the second part of the general scheme
of operations — an attack on the German positions along the
coast between Nieuport and Ostend, for which the IV. Army
under General Rawlinson had been assembled on the extreme left.
Unhappily, the Higher Command decided to continue the point-
less offensive during the few remaining weeks before the winter,
and thereby used up reserves which might have saved the belated
experiment of Cambrai (q.v.) from bankruptcy. Having wasted
the summer and strength in the mud, where tanks foundered
and infantry floundered, they turned in November to dry ground —
where a decisive success went begging for lack of reserves.
At Ypres minor attacks on Oct. 9 and 12 advanced the line a
trifle, and then, after an interval, a combined attack by the V.
Army and the French was tried, with small result, on Oct. 22. On
Oct. 26 the II. Army, in torrents of rain, as usual, made a fresh
effort, which was less successful than before, owing to the ex-
haustion caused by pushing forward over a morass and to the
fact that the mud not only got into and jammed rifles and ma-
chine-guns but nullified the effect of the shell-bursts. The trials
of the attackers were augmented by the enemy's increasing use
of mustard gas, and by his renewed adoption of his tactics of hold-
ing the bulk of his troops well back for counter-attack. Thus
when, on Nov. 4, a sudden advance by the ist Division and 2nd
Canadian Division gained the empty satisfaction of occupying the
site of Passchendaele village, the curtain was at last rung down
on the pitiful tragedy of "Third Ypres." It was the long-overdue
close of a campaign which had brought the British armies to the
verge of exhaustion, one in which had been enacted the most
doleful scenes in their history, and for which the only justifica-
tion evoked the reply that, in order to absorb the enemy's atten-
tion and forces the Higher Command had chosen the spot most
difficult for the defender and least vital for the attacker.
(B. H. L. H.)
YPSILANTI or HYPSILANTI, the name of a family of Pha-
nariot Greeks claiming descent from the Comneni. ALEXANDER
YPSILANTI (1725-1805) was dragoman of the Porte, and from
1774 to 1782 hospodar of Wallachia. He was again appointed
hospodar just before the outbreak of the war with Austria and
Russia in 1790. He allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the
Austrians, and was interned at Brtinn till 1792. Returning to
Constantinople, he fell under the suspicion of the sultan and was
executed in 1805. His son CONSTANTINE (d. 1816), who had
joined in a conspiracy to liberate Greece and, on its discovery,
fled to Vienna, had been pardoned by the sultan and in 1799
appointed by him hospodar of Moldavia. Deposed in 1805, ne
escaped to St. Petersburg, and in 1806, at the head of some
20,000 Russians, returned to Bucharest, where he set to work
on a fresh attempt to liberate Greece. His plans were ruined by
the peace of Tilsit; he retired to Russia, and died at Kiev. He
left five sons, of whom two played a conspicuous part in the
Greek war of independence.
ALEXANDER YPSILANTI (1792-1828), eldest son of Constantine
Ypsilanti, accompanied his father in 1805 to St. Petersburg, and
in 1809 received a commission in the Imperial Guard. He fought
with distinction in 1812 and 1813, losing an arm at the battle of
Dresden. He was one of Alexander's adjutants at the congress
of Vienna. In 1820, on the refusal of Capo d'Istria to accept the
post of president of the Greek Hetairia PhUikej Ypsilanti was
elected, and in 1821 he placed himself at the head of the insur-
rection against the Turks in the Danubian principalities. With
other Greek officers in the Russian service he crossed the Pruth
on March 6, announcing that he had the support of a "great
power." There followed a series of humiliating defeats, culmi-
nating in that of Dragashan on June 19. Eventually he crossed
the frontier into Austria in the hope of finding an asylum. He
was immediately thrown into prison, where he remained for seven
years. He died at Vienna on Jan. 31, 18:8.
DEMETRIOS YPSILANTI (1793-1832), second son of Prince
Constantine, fought as a Russian officer in the campaign of
1814, and in the spring of 1821 went to Morea, where the war
of Greek independence had just broken out. In January 1822 he
was elected president of the legislative assembly; but retired
early in 1823. In 1828 he was appointed by Capo d'Istria com-
mander of the troops in East Hellas. He succeeded, on Sept. 25,
1829, in forcing the Turkish commander Asian Bey to capitulate
at the Pass of Petra, which ended the active operations of the
war. He died at Vienna on Jan. 3, 1832.
See the works cited in the bibliography of the article GREEK INDE-
PENDENCE, WAR OF, especially the ^oKi^iovlarop^v of J. Philemon.
YPSILANTI (ip-sl-lan'tl), a city of Washtenaw county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on the Huron river, 713 ft. above sea-level,
912
YPURINAN— YSER
30 m. W. by S. of Detroit. It is on Federal highways 23 and 112,
and is served by the Michigan Central and the New York Central
railways, interurban trolleys and motor-bus lines. The population
was 7,413 in 1920 (8$% native white) and was estimated locally
at 13,500 in 1928. It is the seat of the Michigan State Normal
college (1849), one of the pioneer institutions of the kind in the
United States, with an annual enrollment of over 3,500. The city's
assessed valuation for 1926 was $13,476,786, and the output of
its diversified manufacturing plants was valued at $5,140,000.
Ypsilanti was laid out in 1825 and named after the Greek patriot.
It was incorporated in 1832 and chartered as a city in 1858.
YPURINAN, a small group of tribes of South American
Indians, forming an independent linguistic stock. The Ypurinas
(Hypurinas) live in western Brazil, on the upper Purus and Acre
rivers. They are forest rather than river Indians.
See W. Chandless, "Notes on the Tapajos, Purus and Aquiry" (J.
Roy. Geog. Soc. vol. xxxvi., xxxix.) ; J. B. S tee re, "Narrative of a
visit to Indian Tribes of the Purus River, Brazil" (U.S. Nat. Museum,
Rep. 1901).
YSAYE, EUGENE (1858- ), Belgian violinist, was born
at Liege in 1858, where he studied with his father and under R.
Massart, at the Conservatoire, until he was fifteen; he had some
lessons from Wieniawski, and later from Vicuxtemps. In 1879
Ysaye played in Germany, and next year acted as leader of Bilse's
orchestra in Berlin; he appeared in Paris in 1883, and for the
first time in London at a Philharmonic concert in 1889. He was
violin professor at the Brussels Conservatoire from 1886 to 1898,
and instituted the celebrated orchestral concerts of which he was
manager and conductor. Ysaye first appeared as conductor before
a London audience in 1900, and in 1907 conducted Fidelio at
Covent Garden. The sonata concerts in which he played with
Raoul Pugno (b. 1852), the French pianist, became very popular
in Paris and Brussels, and were notable features of several London
concert seasons. As a violinist he ranks with the finest masters of
the instrument, with extraordinary temperamental power as an
interpreter. During the war he went to America, and for some
time conducted the Cincinnati orchestra. He has received many
orders and decorations, including the Legion of Honour. His
compositions include Poeme 6l6(paque for violin and orchestra
and other pieces for violin, violoncello, etc. His brother TIIEO-
PHILC YSAYE (1865-1918), pianist and composer, was born at
Verviers in 1865. He studied at Liege and in Berlin, and finally
in Paris under Cesar Franck.
YSER9 a small coastal river, 78 km. long, of which 50 km. are
in Belgian territory. It is famous as marking the point, in the
World War (1914-18), at which the German advance towards
Calais and the English coast was checked. On Oct. 10, 1914, the
Belgian army, after being forced to evacuate Antwerp and Ghent,
retreated on the Yser; on the i6th the battle of the Yser began,
and the Allied troops fought desperately for 15 days. Eventually,
assisted by the Moods which, beginning on Oct. 29, reached Dix-
mudc by Nov. 2, the allies succeeded in establishing themselves
in an impregnable position on the left bank of the Yser.
YSER, BATTLE OF THE. On Oct. 10, 1914, the Belgian
field army encamped on the west bank of the Ghcnt-Terneuzen
canal (see ANTWERP, SIEGE OF). The British Naval Division,
which had embarked at St. Gilles-Waes, regained Dunkirk except
two battalions, which were cut off, and passed into Holland;
the French Fusilier Marine Brigade, half of the British 7th
Division and the 4th Belgian Brigade were holding Ghent and
had repulsed an attack on that city by the ist Res. Ersatz Bri-
gade. Information had been received that a Bavarian cavalry
division had advanced towards Deynze exploring between the
Schelde and the Lys; that a column of 20,000 men had passed
through Courtrai and Mcnin and that the German IV. Cavalry
Corps was holding the region Tourcoing-Ypres-Poperinghe. The
only way for the Belgian army to baffle the threat of envelop-
ment on a large scale was an immediate march to the coast. It
was decided to transport all the forces without delay to the
region of Ostend-Thourout-Dixmude-Furnes, the infantry by rail,
the artillery and transport by road, under the protection of all
the cavalry and Rawlinson's Corps.
Plans of Opposing Commanders. — The "race to the sea"
had in the meantime caused the Western Front to extend to
La Bassee. The British army had been withdrawn from the
region of the Aisne and was beginning to detrain west of Lille.
A few French divisions, taken from other sectors, were given the
same destination. It seemed to Gen. Joffre that the moment had
come for bringing about the much-desired envelopment of the
German right wing by a concentric offensive against Lille. The
British army, the Belgian army and some French reinforcements
would constitute, it was believed, under the high command of
Gen. Foch, an ensemble capable of securing a decisive victory.
Unfortunately, the assembling of the Allied troops by means of
the Paris-Calais and Paris-Hazebrouck railways would take time.
On the other hand, it was necessary to take in account that the
Beseler Army Group would not fail to follow the Belgians.
The mission of the Belgian army was once again that of gain-
ing time. The king, anxious to keep his left wing resting on the
sea, and to preserve at all costs a fragment of national territory
from invasion, thought best to entrench the army on the river
Yser and the Ypres canal.
Events soon proved the wisdom of this decision. The British
II. and III. and Cavalry Corps were stopped at the Lys by the
German IV., VII. and XIII. Corps; Rawlinson's Corps found
Mcnin in the hands of the XIX. Corps. Beseler's troops now
entered Bruges and Ostend. It was known that numerous de-
trainments were taking place west of Brussels and<hat a new
German IV. Army had installed its headquarters at phent. In
fact Falkcnhayn, the new chief of the German general staff, had
anticipated the Allies' projects and like them, considered the
moment for a decisive victory to have arrived.
With four new army corps, composed mainly of volunteers,
the XXII., XXIII., XXVI. and XXVII. Res. Corps, Beseler 's
group and the artillery park from the siege of Antwerp, Prince
Albert of Wurttemberg was charged to proceed to the Yser with
his right resting on the sea, in order to attack in flank and in
rear the Allied left, whose front the VI. Army was engaging be-
tween Arras and Armentieres. FaJkenhayn considered that : "The
conquest of the coast was the sole means of frustrating the war
of blockade which England contemplated and of retaliating
through our destroyers, submarines, aeroplanes and Zepplins.
... If we succeeded in driving the enemy out of the Yser val-
ley and pursuing him at the point of the sword, there was no
doubt that, having replenished our ranks and our stores, we
should be in a condition to overthrow the western front."
Thus the Belgian army, which had only just moved into posi-
tion in the general Allied line, found itself in focus for a new
battle. It occupied a front of 40 km., from the sea to Boesinghc,
with 4} divisions and ii divisions in reserve behind the centre.
The cavalry division was operating with de Mitry's French Cav-
alry Corps, east of the forest of Houthulst. On the army's right
a French territorial division extended as far as Ypres and Rawlin-
son's Corps had entrenched itself along the line Passchendaele-
Gheluvelt.
Opening of the Battle.— The battle commenced on the i8th
with an attack by Beseler's corps (4th Ersatz and 5th and 6th
Reserve Divisions) between the sea and Kcyem. The Belgian out-
posts were only driven back after desperate fighting and the
enemy did not even reach the Yser. On the morning of the igth
Ronarch's Marine Brigade and the sth Division debouched from
Dixmude on the flank of the III. Res. Corps. Beerst and Vladsloo
were retaken; but the intervention of the XXII. Corps, com-
'ing from Thourout, and the XXIII. coming from Cortemarck,
foiled the counter-attack. By the 2oth the fighting had become
general all the way from the sea to Gheluvelt between the Duke
of Wurttemberg's si divisions on the one hand and the Belgian
army, de Mitry's Cavalry Corps and Rawlinson's Corps on the
other. After 48 hours of obstinate fighting the Belgian positions
remained practically unchanged.
The attack of the 4th Ersatz Division on Nieuport had failed,
partly on account of the flanking fire from Admiral Hood's flo-
tilla; while that of the XXII. Corps against the bridgehead at
Dixmude had been checked by Meiser's Brigade. But in the night
YSTAD— YUAN SHIH-KJAI
of the 2ist-22nd the 6th Reserve Division made a surprise cross-
ing of the Yser in the Tervaete salient and threw over 2\ bat-
talions to the west bank. Concentrated artillery fire prevented the
division from making any progress on the 22nd, but a gallant
counter-attack, in which four battalions of grenadiers and cara-
bineers faced death with superb indifference, broke down com-
pletely under their machine-gun fire, owing to the exposed nature
of the ground. The following night the Germans passed a second
regiment into the beiid without, however, extending their ground.
On the 24th, the whole of the III. Reserve Corps and half of
the 44th Reserve Division, covered by a bombardment from 10
heavy howitzer batteries and 150 field guns, broke through the
front at St. Georges-Tcrvaete, only to find the Belgians deployed
behind the Nieuport-Dixmude railway embankment, together with
the French 42nd Division which had arrived in the meantime.
Finding themselves checked in this direction, the Germans re-
newed their attack on Dixmude. After a four hours' bombardment
(in which 21 and 42 cm. howitzers were employed amongst
others) which turned the town into a mass of burning ruins, the
43rd Reserve Division delivered its assault at midnight, driving
its guns through the middle of — and even in advance of — its
infantry. In spite of a threefold attempt it was completely re-
pulsed by the 12th Belgian Regiment, assisted by some French
companies of marines. A new attack on the night of the 25th-
26th met with the same fate.
Opening of the Nieuport Sluices.— The battle had been in
progress for eight days. Over a total of 48,000 rifles the losses
amounted to 15,000 in all ranks. Many guns had been put out
of action, by excessive use of rapid fire; the munitions were
nearly exhausted, the men at the end of their tether. Neither the
British nor the French, both hard pressed at Bixscoote, Langc-
marck and Zonnebeke, were able to send reinforcements. Having
no reserves, the Belgian commander decided to call in the sea to
his assistance.
On the 26th and 2yth all the pioneers were set to stop up the
22 culverts of the Nieuport-Dixmude railway embankment so
as to prevent the liberating tide from invading the Belgian posi-
tions. On the 27th at dawn a first attempt by the sluice of the
Furnes canal, at high tide, failed to yield an effective result. Fresh
attempts on the 28th and 2gth proved that the inflow of water
from this canal was too slight and too slow. Actually, another
sluice, that of the Noordvaart, promised a larger delivery but
as it lay in No Man's Land its utilization appeared hazardous.
Fortunately, the Germans — also being weary — remained rela-
tively quiet during that time. On the 29th, however, their artillery
blazed forth again, and it seemed that a new attack was imminent.
The Belgian command, acting on information from a waterman
named Geeraert, determined on an audacious coup. During the
night a party of pioneers opened the Noordvaart sluice under the
noses of the enemy. Driven by a strong gale the sea water rushed
through in a flood. At dawn on the 3oth, the three divisions of
Beseler's corps attad<ed along the line of the railway, taking
possession finally or Ramscapelle and Pervyse; but the drains
were now overflowing; the flooded meadows soon made it impos-
sible for the Germans to advance or even to stay; no alternative
was left to them but a hasty retreat. The battle of the Yser was
won and the left flank of the Allies definitely saved. Checked
along the coast line, the Germans moved the weight of their attack
farther inland and made their desperate assault on Ypres. The
Belgian army, in scrupulous observance of the spirit of the obli-
gations of neutrality, had, from Aug. 4 to Oct. 31, 1914, gloriously
defended its honour, paying the price with its blood and also
with the loss of practically the whole of its territory. (See also
YPRES, BATTLES OF, 1914.)
See Tasnier and Van Overstraeten, Varmie beige dans la guerre
Mondiale (1926). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.
(R. VAN O.; X.)
YSTAD, a seaport of Sweden on the S. Baltic coast, in the
district (I'dri) of Malmohus, 39 m, E.S.E. of Malmo by rail.
Pop. (1928), 11,247. Two of its churches date from the i3th
century. Its artificial harbour, which admits vessels drawing 19 ft.,
is freer from ice in winter than any other Swedish Baltic port.
YTTERBIUM, a rare metallic element (symbol Yb, atomic
number 70, atomic weight 173-5), of the rare-earth group, was
first separated by Marignac in 1878. In 1907 G. Urbain split
paleoytterbium into neoytterbium and lutecium. Von Welsbach
also, independently, separated Marignac's ytterbium into its two
component elements. The new ytterbium he named aldebaranium.
The name ytterbium is reserved by most chemists for that por-
tion of the mixture exhibiting the main characteristics of Marig-
nac's element. Ytterbium is almost identical with lutecium in its
properties. It possesses a very characteristic spectrum and has
a higher magnetic susceptibility than lutecium. (See RARE
EARTHS.) (C. J.)
YTTRIUM, a metallic element (symbol Y, atomic number 39,
atomic weight 89-0), belonging to the rare-earth group, was dis-
covered by Gadolin in 1794 and further purified by Mosander in
1843. Only a few workers have prepared absolutely pure yttrium
compounds. The common impurities are small amounts of hol-
mium and erbium. The purity of yttrium compounds can best be
determined by measuring the magnetic susceptibility, which for
the oxide should be —0-12X10 b. Traces of erbium and holmium
cause the magnetic susceptibility to become strongly positive.
Yttrium is one of the commoner rare earths found in the minerals
gadolinitc, xenotime, euxenite, etc. It may be separated from
all others except erbium by the fractional crystallization of
the bromatcs. The erbium may then be removed by boiling the
nitrate solution with sodium nitrite, when the yttrium is the
last to be precipitated. Yttrium oxide, YVO3, is pure white and
is rapidly attacked by most acids giving colourless solutions which
show no absorption spectrum. The spark spectrum is very char-
acteristic and strong. The pure metal has never been prepared.
(See RARE EARTHS.) (C. J.)
YUAN SHIH-K'AI (1859-1916), Chinese statesman, was
born at Hsiang Cheng, a member of a family belonging to the
smaller landed gentry of the province of Honan. His first impor-
tant post was in Korea, where, as Imperial Resident and the
trusted lieutenant of the Viceroy Li Hung-chang, he strove by
adroit diplomacy to preserve China's shadowy suzerainty over
the Hermit Kingdom and to check the steadily increasing ascend-
ancy of Japan. After the Chino-Japanese war (1894-95) he held
office as judicial commissioner, with military functions, under the
viceroy Li, in Chihli, where he brought the troops to a remarkable
standard of efficiency.
In Aug. 1898, the emperor Kuang Hsu, hoping to secure Yuan's
services in support of his scheme to seize and imprison the
empress dowager, summoned him to a special audience at the
Summer Palace. The subsequent coup d'etat by the empress
dowager, which removed the emperor from the throne and
replaced him under severe tutelage, owed its success to Yuan's
betrayal of the emperor's confidence and to his active support of
the conservative Manchu party. To the end of his unhappy
career, the emperor never forgave Yuan's treachery, and on his
death-bed (Nov. 1908) bade his brother, Prince Chun, see to it
that he should not go unpunished.
Yuan received from the empress dowager the governorship of
Shantung as reward for his services. In the summer of 1900, on the
outbreak of the Boxer rising, he maintained order and protected
foreigners throughout his jurisdiction. He had no sympathy with
the empress dowager's anti-foreign policy. After the signature
of the peace protocol (Peking 1901), as the aged Li Hung-chang
desired to be relieved of further duty, Yuan was appointed to
act in his place as viceroy of Chihli. At Li's death (Dec. 1901)
the appointment was made substantive. Yuan now held the high-
est office in the gift of the Throne; at the same time he was
made a Junior Guardian of the heir apparent. A month later the
Yellow Jacket was conferred upon him, together with the appoint-
ments of consulting minister to the Government council and
director general of the northern railway. In the following year he
became a minister of the army reorganization council. During
the five years of his viceroyalty, he raised and equipped six
divisions of troops, greatly superior in every way to those of the
Peking field force or the best provincial levies. But his rapid rise
' to place and power aroused much jealousy, and, in 1907, a cabal
YUCATAN
against him, led by his old rival, the ex-Boxer Tatar general
Tieh Liang, persuaded the empress dowager to transfer him from
the Tientsin viceroyalty to the capital. He was made grand coun-
cillor and president of the Board of Foreign Affairs, which post he
held until the death of the dowager and the emperor in Nov. 1908.
For a month after the death of the "Old Buddha," rumours
were rife in the north concerning the regent, Prince Chun's,
vindictive intentions with regard to Yuan. But he merely
deprived Yuan of office (Jan. 2, 1909) and ordered him into
retirement at his native place in Honan. But on the outbreak of
the revolution the regent, by an edict of Nov. 14, 1911, appointed
him viceroy of Hunan and Hupeh, with a mandate to proceed
south with his foreign-drilled troops and put an end to the
insurrection. Yuan clearly foresaw and declared that if the
monarchy were overthrown, the result would be chaos, "amidst
which all interests would suffer and for several decades there
would be no peace." Thus his avowed policy was to preserve
a limited monarchy, pledged to systematic and practical reforms.
Had he been loyally served by his representative, Tang Shao-yi,
in the negotiations with the revolutionary leaders at Shanghai,
above all, had he received the support which he was entitled to
expect in the shape of a foreign loan, he might have won. As it
was, he continued to fight on, practically single-handed, against
the forces of disruption, until Feb. 1912 when the terrified
Manchu court decided to abdicate. Within two days of the issue
of the abdication edict (Feb. 12), the southern revolutionaries, on
the initiative of Sun Yat-Sen, exemplified the "unbroken con-
tinuity of immemorial tradition" in China by inviting him to
stand for the presidency of the republic.
Yuan made a virtue of necessity, and on March 12 took the
oath of office as president. Nevertheless he continued to uphold
the principles which he had publicly proclaimed in justification
of his defence of the monarchy, and to insist upon maintenance
of the continuity of the classical tradition of government and the
preservation of the Confucian system. He was willing for a time
to pay lip-service to the republican formulas, but his actions
proved clearly that he had no sympathy with Canton.
In the summer of 1913, a "war to punish Yuan" was started
in the south by Sun Yat-Sen, Huang Hsing and other malcon-
tents, but Yuan, having by this time secured a foreign loan and
the moral support of the Powers, had no difficulty in retaining
the venal "loyalty" of the chief military commanders in the
provinces; the Cantonese insurrection came, therefore, to a swift
and inglorious end. But Yuan dissolved and proscribed the Kuo-
min tang, and with it made an end of its farce of parliamentary
government and representative institutions.
The movement for the restoration of the throne organized by
Yuan's adherents, began to take shape in the autumn of 1915.
The leaders of the movement failed especially to perceive the
danger created by Japan's 21 demands (May 1915), and to
realize that the active opposition of the Japanese Government
would in all probability be fatal to Yuan's ambitions. In October
the State council referred the question of the monarchy to the
provinces. The result (a foregone conclusion) was a practically
unanimous vote in favour of Yuan's accession. Meanwhile, how-
ever, the Japanese minister at Peking, supported by his British
and Russian colleagues, had made friendly representations to the
Chinese Foreign Office, deprecating the restoration of the mon-
archical system at this juncture. But on Dec. 12 the monarchy
was proclaimed and the enthronement ceremony fixed for Feb.
9, 1916. A week after this announcement, an insurrection, led by
one of Yuan's own nominees, broke out in Yunnan. The move-
ment spread rapidly, one province after another declaring its
independence. On Jan. 22 Yuan announced the postponement
and the establishment of the monarchy. Towards the end of
April he consented, while retaining the presidency, to surrender all
civil authority to the cabinet, under the premiership of Tuan
Chi-jui. He died on June 6, 1916. With him passed the last of
the great viceroys of the old regime.
YUCATAN, a peninsula of Central America, which includes
in its area of 55<4o° sq.m. the States of Campeche and Yucatan
and the territory of Quintana Roo in Mexico, plus small parts of
British Honduras and Guatemala. The natural boundary of the
peninsula on the south is formed in part by the ridges extending
across northern Guatemala, the line terminating in the east at the
lower part of Chetumal bay, and in the west at Laguna de Termi-
nos. From this base the land extends north and slightly east be-
tween the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea in nearly rec-
tangular form for about 280 m., with a mean breadth of about
200 m., and a coast-line of 700 miles.
Physical Features. — The coast on the north and west is low,
sandy and semi-barren. The outer shore-line on the north for
nearly 200 m. consists of a narrow strip of low sand dunes, within
THE CASTLE" AT CHICHEN ITZA, CAPITOL OF THE ANCIENT MAYA CIVILI-
ZATION, SHOWING A CEREMONIAL TEMPLE ON TOP OF THE G&EAT MOUND
which is a broad channel terminating to the east in a large lagoon.
There are a number of openings through the outer bank and
several small towns or ports have been built upon it. The eastern
coast consists of bluffs, indented with bays and bordered by
several islands, the larger ones being Cozumel (where Cort£s first
landed), Cancum, Mujeres and Contoy. There is more vegetation
on this coast, and the bays of Chetumal, Espiritu Santo, Ascencion
and San Miguel (on Cozumel island) afford good protection for
shipping. It is, however, sparsely settled and has little commerce
except in henequen, and in chicle, the basis for chewing gum.
The peninsula is almost wholly composed of a bed of coralline
and porous limestone rocks, forming a low tableland, which rises
gradually toward the south until it is merged in the great Central
American plateau. It is covered with a layer of thin, dry soil,
through the slow weathering of
the coral rocks.
The climate of Yucatan is hot
and dry and the absence of high
mountainous ridges to intercept
the moisture-bearing clouds from
the Atlantic gives it a limited
rainfall. The temperature ranges
from 75° to 98° F in the shade,
but the hea^: is modified by cool
sea winds which prevail day and
night throughout the greater part
of the year. The atmosphere is
also purified by the fierce tem-
pordes, or "northerns," which oc-
casionally sweep down over the
Gulf and across this open region.
The dry season lasts from Oc-
tober to May, the hottest months
appear to be in March and
LOADING SISAL AT PROGRESO. YU-
CATAN. FOR SHIPMENT TO AN
AMERICAN CORDAGE FACTORY
April, when the heat is increased by the burning of the corn and
henequen fields.
All the northern districts, as well as the greater part of the
Sierra Alta, are destitute of large trees; but the coast-lands on both
sides towards Tabasco and British Honduras enjoy a sufficient
rainfall to support forests containing the mahogany tree, several
valuable cabinet woods, vanilla, logwood and other dye-woods.
Logwood forests fringe all the lagoons and many parts of the sea-
board, which are flooded during the rainy season. The chief culti-
vated plants are maize, the sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, coffee and
YUCCA— YUE-CHI
915
especially henequen, which produces the so-called "sisal hemp."
History. — The modern history of Yucatan begins with the
expedition of Francisco Hernandez de Cordova, a Spanish adven-
turer settled in Cuba, who discovered the east coast of Yucatan
in Feb. 1517, when on a slave-hunting expedition. He followed
the coast round to Campeche, but was unable to penetrate the
interior. In 1518 Juan de Grijalva followed the same coast, but
added nothing to the information
sought by the governor of Cuba.
In 1519 a third expedition, under
Hernando Cortes, the conqueror
of Mexico, came into collision
with the natives of the island of
Cozumel. In 1525 the inland part
of the peninsula was traversed
by Cortes during an expedition to
Honduras. The conquest of the CHARACTERISTIC THATCH-ROOF
peninsula was undertaken in 1527 "WELLING OF THE POORER CLASS
by Francisco de Montejo, who IN YUCATAN
encountered a more vigorous opposition tfcan Corte*s had on the
high plateau of Anahuac. In 1549 Montejo had succeeded in
establishing Spanish rule over barely one-half of the peninsula,
and it was never extended further. The Spaniards found here the
remains of a high aboriginal civilization which had already entered
upon decline. There were deserted cities falling into ruins, and
others, like Chichen-itza, Uxmal and Tuloom, which were still
inhabited by remnants of their former Maya populations. (For
details of tne Maya civilization see CENTRAL AMERICA: Archae-
ology and Ethnology; also CHRONOLOGY: Mexican and Maya.)
Since the Spanish conquest, the Mayas have clung to the semi-
barren, open plains of the peninsula, and have more than once
revolted. They seceded in 1839 and maintained their independence
until 1843. In 1847 another revolt followed, and the Indians were
practically independent throughout the greater part of the penin-
sula until near the beginning of the Diaz administration. In 1910
there was another revolt with some initial successes, such as the
capture of Valladolid, but then the Indians withdrew to the un-
known fastnesses of Quintana Roo.
The Mexican State of Yucatan occupies the northern part of
the Yucatan peninsula, and is bounded east and south by the
territory of Quintana Roo, and south and west by the State of
Campeche. Its population in 1921 was 358,221 or a density of
24-10 per square mile. The capital is Merida.
Quintana Roo was separated from the State of Yucatan in 1902
and received a territorial government under the immediate super-
vision of the national executive, but its few remaining Indian
tribes (pop. in 1921, 10,966, or 0-57 per sq.m.) are practically
independent.
YUCCA, a genus of the family Liliaceae (q.v.), containing
about 30 species. The plants occur in greatest frequency in Mexico
and the south-west United States,
extending also into Central Amer-
ica, and occurring in such num-
bers in some places as to form
straggling forests. They have a
woody or fibrous stem, some-
times short, and in other cases
attaining a height of 30 ft. to 40
ft,, and branching at the top into
a series of forks. The leaves are T JOSHUA TREE t YUCCA
. . . . fl . ., , - I HE JOSHUA-TREE (YUCCA QHC.VI-
crowded m tufts at the ends of FOLIA)i A TREi YUCCA OF THE
the stem or branches, and are SOUTHWESTERN DESERTS OF THE
generally stiff and sword-shaped, UNITED STATES, SOMETIMES 35 FT.
with a sharp point, sometimes HIGH
flaccid and in other cases fibrous at the edges. The numerous
flowers are usually white, bell-shaped and pendulous, and are
borne in much-branched terminal panicles. The three-celled ovary
is surmounted by a short thick style, dividing above into three
stigmas, and ripens into a succulent berry in some of the species,
and into a dry three-valved capsule in others. The flowers are
fertilized entirely through the agency of certain moths. (See POL-
LINATION and YUCCA-MOTH.)
A coarse fibre is obtained by the Mexicans from the stem and
foliage, which they utilize for cordage, and in the south-east
United States the leaves of some species, under the name * 'bear-
grass," are used for scajting chairs, etc. The fruits of some species
are cooked as food, and the roots of others contain a saponaceous
matter used in place of soap.
Some 15 species of Yucca are native to the United States; of
these nine attain the stature of small trees. Among the best
known are the Spanish bayonet (Y. aloi folia), the Spanish dagger
(Y. gloriosa) and the bear-grass or Adam's-ncedle (Y. fila-
mentosa), of the south Atlantic and Gulf coast, all of which are
planted for ornament. Among the most conspicuous are the
Joshua tree (Y. brevifolia], sometimes 35 ft. high, and the Mohave
yucca (K. mohavensia), 8 ft. to 15 ft, high. An almost stemless
species (Y. Whipplei), called mission bells and Quixote-plant,
which rears a stout flower-stalk, 12 ft. to 15 ft. high, bearing an
immense cluster, 3 ft. to 6 ft. long, of fragrant, creamy-white,
drooping bell-shaped flowers, is a strikingly handsome plant of
the southern California chaparral (q.v.). The western Spanish
bayonet (Y. baccata), found from New Mexico to California,
bears a dark purple edible fruit.
YUCCA-MOTH, the name given to a genus of moths,
Pronuba, the various species of which are each adapted to a
separate species of the yucca (q.v.). The moth emerges at the
time of opening of the yucca flowers, which frequently remain
open only for a single night. The female moth rolls together a
ball of pollen, flies to another flower, lays four or five eggs in the
pistil and inserts the pollen mass in the opening thus formed.
Each larva, on hatching from the egg, requires about 20 seeds
of the yucca plant as food. As the plant produces some 200
ovules, this leaves about 100 seeds over to perpetuate the plant.
The yucca can be fertilized by no other insect. The larva of the
yucca-moth can only live on its own species of yucca.
YUCHL an Indian tribe, formerly on the Savannah river in
Georgia ana South Carolina to the number of 3,000-4,000, con-
stituting a separate linguistic stock. They gradually joined the
Creek confederacy and about 500, mixed with white and negro
blood, survive in the Creek area in Oklahoma. Their culture was
marked by traits of Muskogi type.
Sec F. G. Speck, Antkr. Pubt. Mns. Univ. Penn., i. (1909).
YUDENICH, NIKOLAI NIKOLAEVICH (1862- ),
Russian soldier, was born July 18, 1862. He entered the army in
1879, and from 1887 to 1902 served on the general staff. In
1902 he became a regimental commander, in 1905 a general, an
assistant chief of staff in 1907 and a chief of staff in 1913. At the
beginning of the World War he commanded the II. Turkistan
Corps, and was soon placed in command of all the military forces
in the Caucasus, a post which he held till the arrival of the Grand
Duke Nicholas in 1915. In March 1917 he resumed command,
but further advance was rendered impossible by the increasing
disorganisation of the Russian army. J^n 1919 Yudenich led anti-
Bolshevik forces in an attempt against Petrograd (Leningrad).
This venture was a failure, and Yudenich retired.
YUE-CHI or YUEH-CHIH, the Chinese name of a central
Asiatic tribe who ruled in Bactria and India, are also known as
Kushans (from one of their subdivisions) and Indo-Scythians
(q.v.). They appear to have been a nomad tribe, inhabiting part
of the present Chinese province of Kan-sub, and to have been
driven W. by Hiung-nu (q.v.) tribes of the same stock. They con-
quered a tribe called the Wusun, who lived in the basin of the Ili
river, and settled for some time in their territory (c. 175-140 B.C.).
They then attacked another tribe known as Sakas (q.v.) and drove
them to Persia and India. For about twenty years it would seem
that the Yue-Chi were settled in the country between the rivers
Chu and Syr-Darya, but here they were attacked again by the
Hiung-nu, their old enemies, with whom was the son of the de-
feated Wusun chieftain. The Yue-Chi then occupied Bactria
(q.v.), and little is heard of them for a hundred years. During this
period they became a united people, having previously been a con-
federacy of five tribes, the principal of which, the Kushans (or
Kwei-Shwang), supplied the new national name.
The chronology of this invasion and of the history of the
916
YUGOSLAVIA
[COMPOSITION
Kushans in India is uncertain; available evidence seems to show
that a king called Kozulokadphises, Kujulakasa or Kieu-tsieu-k'io
(? A.D. 45-85) united the five tribes, conquered the Kabul valley
and annihilated the remnants of Greek dominion. He was suc-
ceeded, possibly after an interval, by Ooemokadphises (Himaka-
pisa or Yen-kao-tsin-tai), who completed the annexation of N.
India. Then followed Kanishka (?c. A.D. 123-53), who is cele-
brated throughout eastern Asia as a patron of the Buddhist church
and convener of the third Buddhist council. He is also said to
have conquered Kashgar, Yarkand and Knot an. His successors
were Huvishka and then Vasudeva, who may have died c. A.D. 225.
After Vasudeva's reign the power of the Kushans gradually de-
cayed, and they were driven back into the valley of the Indus and
N.E. Afghanistan. Here, according to Chinese authorities, their
royal family was supplanted by a dynasty called Ki-to-lo(Kidara),
who were also of Yue-Chi stock, but belonged to one of the tribes
who had remained in Bactria when the Kushans marched to India.
The subsequent migration of the Kitolo S. of the Hindu Kush was
due to the movements of the Jwen-Jwen, who advanced W. from
the Chinese frontier. Under this dynasty a state known as the
Little Kushan kingdom flourished in Gandhura (E. Afghanistan)
about A.D. 430, but was broken up by the attacks of the Hunas.
See Vincent Smith, Early History of India (igo8); Hoernle and
Stark, History of India (1905) ; Rapson, Indian Coins (1898) ;
Gardner, Coins of Greek and Scythian Kings in India (1886) ; Franke,
Beitrage aus Chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der Turkvolker und
Skythen (1904), and numerous articles by Cunningham, Fleet, A. Stein,
Vincent Smith, Sylyain Levi, E. H. Parker and others in the Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society, Asiatic Quarterly, etc.
YUGOSLAVIA, a convenient name for the Serb, Croat, and
Slovene state (Kraljcvina Srba, Hrvata, i Slovenaca), which orig-
inated at the end of 1918 by the union of parts of the former
Austro-Hungarian empire with Serbia and, at a slightly later date,
with Montenegro. The declared basis of the union was ethnic, the
desire toeing to group together all the South Slavs (Yugoslavs),
though the actual frontiers represent a, series of compromises.
The inhabitants are mainly South Slav, but the new kingdom is,
nevertheless, one of the most heterogeneous of the post-war states
of Europe. Serbs constitute over one-third of the total population,
and outnumber any other single element. But the Serbia of 1918
was not a unit, its frontiers having undergone notable changes
since the outbreak of the Balkan wars. The Catholic Croats of
Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia, the next largest group, number
MAP SHOWING BOUNDARIES OF YUGOSLAVIA
over three millions, but surpass the Serbs of Serbia both in culture
and economic development. Serbia — or, more accurately, the
Serbs of Belgrade, the only large town in the old kingdom — is
however quite definitely the dominant partner.
The predominance of the Serbs of Belgrade is due both to
political and geographical causes. Among the former we have
to note that Belgrade, the capital of the old Serbian state as it is
of the new Yugoslav one, possessed all the advantages of the
presence of an organized national administration. No other part j
of the new state — apart from the small kingdom of Montenegro j
— had had any experience of complete self-government, Even
when associated with numerical preponderance and military
strength this might not have ensured concentration of power at
Belgrade, had it not been for the outstanding position of the town
at the convergence of great highways.
Divisions. — Yugoslavia has an area of 96,000 sq.m., almost pre-
cisely three times that of post-war Austria, with a population not
quite twice as great as that of Austria. It is made up of the fol-
lowing 7 areas; (i) the Serbia of the treaty of Bucharest (1913)
with some minor modifications; (2) the Montenegro of 1912;
(3) Bosnia and Hercegovina; (4) Dalmatia, without the town of
Zara and the islands of Lagosta and Pelagosa; (5) Croatia-
Slavonia, without Fiume but with some minor additions; (6)
Slovenia; (7) the Voyvodina or Duchy.
Of these the first two were independent South Slav states,
Serbia having had its area nearly doubled and its population in-
creased by one-half as the result of the Balkan wars. In both the
Cyrillic alphabet is used, and the majority of the people belong
to the Eastern or Orthodox church. But the new territories in
the south, obtained by Serbia as the result of the Balkan wars,
contain a considerable Muslim element, both in Old Serbia and
in Macedonia. Bosnia and Hercegovina, nominally Turkish till
the Austro-Hungarian annexation in 1908, had been administered
by the Austro-Hungarian government since 1878. There is a large
Muslim element in the population, Bosnia being the most northerly
Muslim outpost in Europe.
Dalmatia was a purely Austrian province, with^a mainly Catho-
lic population. Italian influence was, however, sttong in the
coastal towns, particularly in Zara, which has been assigned to
Italy. The Catholic Slavs of Dalmatia use the Latin alphabet
and thus technically rank as Croats. Croatia-Slavonia (capital
Zagreb) was formerly attached to Hungary, its port, Fiume,
forming the chief Hungarian sea-outlet. To the Croatia-Slavonia
which is included in Yugoslavia were added the commune of
Kastav, on the peninsula of Istria to the? west of Fiume, the
island of Krk (Veglia), and a small area (Medjimurje) between
the Mur and the Drava, with a Croat population. The port of
Fiume, after long negotiation, went to Italy. Slovenia, the land
of the Slovenes, is a name which has been given to a part of pre-
war Austria inhabited by Slovenes and now attached to Yugo-
slavia: there has, however, never been a Slovene state since the
early Middle Ages, and Slovenia is made up of fragments of
former Austrian provinces. Thus it includes southern Styria,
with the town of Maribor ( Marburg) , the greater part of Carniola,
with the town of Ljubljana (Laibach), and a few communes only
of Carinthia. To these has been added a small area (Prekmurje)
north of the river Mur, formerly attached to Hungary but con-
taining a Slovene population. The Slovenes are predominantly
Catholics and highly westernized. Finally, the Voyvodina is
similarly composed of scraps of territory, brought together be-
cause of the composition of the population and without any physi-
cal unity of its own. It includes the southern and often swampy
southern part of the Hungarian plain, and both from the ethnic
and the religious standpoint the population is very mixed. The
Slav majority is due primarily to the flight of Balkan Serbs
before the advancing Turk, for such low-lying lands were as a
rule avoided by the early Slav settlers, who preferred wooded and
hilly country. The considerable German and Magyar groups
mostly owe their origin to a deliberate process of colonization,
the Germans particularly having done much to drain and make
habitable the swampy lands. The Rumanian element is due to
migration from the hilly country to the east, especially during the
1 8th century. Many of the Slavs, particularly towards the east,
belong to the Orthodox Church, while Catholics are in a majority
to the west. There is also a Protestant element (German and
Magyar).
The lands included are a part of the Baranja, the Mesopotam-
ian area in the angle between the Danube and the Drava, the
remainder of the Baranja being still attached to Hungary; the
greater part of the BaCka, the area between the Danube and the
Lower Tisa, the smaller part remaining Hungarian; the western
part of the Banat, or area east of the Lower Tisa, the eastern part
PEOPLE]
YUGOSLAVIA
917
being attached to Greater Rumania. The Voyvodina in this sense
includes the town of many names now officially called Subotica
(Ger. Theresiopel, Magyar Szbadka), a market-town and a con-
siderable centre of communication for the plain. Subotica (102,-
ooo) is the third largest town of the new kingdom.
Regional Division. — It has to be noted that while the lands
briefly described above are those which were united together to
form Yugoslavia, they have ceased to exist as units. By a decree
promulgated by the Ministerial Council in 1922, Yugoslavia was
divided into 33 oblasti or regions, on a basis which has been stated
to show "strong religious and political party influences"; which
may be interpreted as meaning that they are intended to ensure
Serb predominance. It is noteworthy that the old administrative
or political river frontiers have sometimes been preserved in the
regions; as occurs for example with the Drina (where it separated
Bosnia and Serbia) and the Sava (where it separated Bosnia and
Slavonia), and there they isolate from each other groups of dif-
ferent religious and political sympathies. But the old political
frontier of the Danube has been disregarded to allow the oblast
of Belgrade to extend into the eastern part of the Backa which
has a considerable Orthodox element as well as many Catholics,
and also into a part of the Banat where there is a similar mingling
of creeds. The remainder of the Banat is included in a region
(Podu Navska or Danube) which also extends across the Danube.
Here the solidly Orthodox element in that part of the oblast which
lies in Serbia more than counter-balances the Catholics which are
intermixed with the Orthodox in the formerly Hungarian region
on the left bank of the Danube.
Population. — The 1921 census showed that about 9 out of the
12 million inhabitants of Yugo-Slavia spoke Serbo-Croat, and
over i million the Slovene language. Thus Serbs, Croats and
Slovenes constitute together about 83% of the total popula-
tion. The largest minority group is the German-speaking one,
numbering over half a million. Most of the Germans inhabit the
Voyvodina where they form about 23% of the population of that
heterogeneous territory. There they live in compact agricultural
colonies as well as forming a considerable part of the town popu-
lation. The remainder live for the most part, in Croalia-Slavonia
and in Slovenia. In the latter area they are mainly urban. The
Magyar-speaking element is only slightly less than the German-
speaking one, and the Magyars constitute nearly the same percent-
age of the population in the Voyvodina as do the Germans. There
they occur particularly in the neighbourhood of the river Tisa,
often in compact groups. Elsewhere they occur chiefly in Croatia-
Slavonia. The third considerable minority element is formed by
the Albanian-speaking peoples. These are not much inferior to
the Hungarians in numbers, and their proximity to the independent
kingdom of Albania in Old Serbia and Serbian Macedonia gives a
possibility of irredentist propaganda. Albanians are practically
limited to this part of Yugoslavia. There are also about } million
Rumanian-speaking people, of whom the majority live in the
Timok region of Serbia, or more accurately, between the river
Timok, the Danube and Upper Mlava. Rather more than \ mil-
lion people are registered as speaking Slav languages other than
Serbo-Croat or Slovene. These include a certain number of
Czechoslovaks in the Voyvodina and Croatia-Slavonia.
The density of population is highest in the Voyvodina (181
per sq. m.), a fact which reflects the productivity of this fertile
agricultural region, well fitted for the growth of cereals. In
Slovenia (169) and Croatia-Slavonia (162) the density is not
greatly inferior. Here the causes are not only the presence of
productive lands but the considerable degree of development of
the economic resources, associated with marked urbanization.
While Serbia has but one large town, and outside of that town has
a population mainly of peasants, occupations in Croatia and
Slovenia are diverse, mining and manufacturing having made a
good deal of progress. Serbia as a whole has a density (in per
sq. mile) -lower than that of Dalmatia (126), but the figure is
reduced by the fact that the lands added in 1913 are undeveloped
and thinly-peopled. In Bosnia and Hercegovina and particularly
in barren Montenegro the density is low. For the whole kingdom
the density is 125 per square mile.
Frontiers. — Yugoslavia is of trapezoidal shape, the long axis
having a N.W.-S.E. direction. The south-eastward extension is
narrowed by Albania, which separates Old Serbia and Serbian
Macedonia from the "Adriatic. The national seaboard extends
from the river Fiumara, on which stands the Italian port of Fiume,
to the river Bojana, which forms the frontier with Albania. Owing
to the numerous islands and peninsulas, the latter with long border-
ing channels, the coast has a total length of nearly 1,000 miles.
Of the four sides of the trapezium the northern one abuts, from
west to east, on Austria, Hungary and Rumania. Strategically it
is the weakest of all the frontiers, but this means that there is
easy communication with the adjacent states and with Central
Europe in general. The Hungarian section (353 m.) of this fron-
tier is the longest, and is traversed by the most important lines
of rail. The Austrian frontier (160 m.) is short but is again tra-
versed by important railway lines. The Rumanian section (337
m.) falls into two parts, the old Danube frontier with Serbia and
the new one in the Banat.
To the cast Yugoslavia marches with Bulgaria, and this frontier
(283 m.) is strategically the strongest of all. Strategic changes
have been made in the old Serbo-Bulgarian frontier in four places.
In the north, in the Timok region, a slight rectification had for/ its
object the affording of greater protection to the railway which fol-
lows the Timok valley from Knjazevac and Zaje£ar to Negotin
and thus to the Danube below the obstacle of the Iron Gate.
Formerly this railway was close to the frontier. The other changes
have been made in the region of Caribrod, where the Ni§-Sofia
railway line crosses the frontier; to the east of Vranje; and in the
Strumica region.
To the south the frontier with Greece (152 m.) remains that
agreed upon between Greece and Serbia in 1913. The Albanian
part (277 m.) of the western frontier is similarly in essentials that
laid down by the Conference of Ambassadors at London in 1913.
The north-western frontier with Italy (132 m.) has only been
settled with a considerable degree of difficulty, particularly in the
Fiumc region, where only the small port of Baros with the delta
region remains to Yugoslavia. The frontier is not drawn on a
linguistic basis, large numbers of Croats and Slovenes being
included within the borders of enlarged Italy.
Within these boundaries Yugoslavia has an extreme range in
latitude of from 4t°-47° N., and in longitude of from about
i4°-*3°E. ^
Communications. — A section of the main European highway
passes through Belgrade, branching at Nis for Constantinople
and Salonika respectively. Thus the new state had not to
improvise a national system from the cut fragments of routes
which converged on centres outside the n«ational territories, for a
main trunk line was already present.
In the northern area Yugoslavia obtained in the first place that
part of the Belgrade-Budapest route which runs via Novi Sad to
Subotica. This section was already linked to an important east-
west trunk line, with many branches, which follows broadly the
Sava valley. Thus Zagreb (130,000) the second city of the king-
dom, lying in the Sava valley, had direct connection with Belgrade
(250,000), as had also Ljubljana further west. Zagreb was also
connected, if by a somewhat difficult route, to the Hungarian port
of Fiume, and directly to Budapest. Ljubljana (53.000) had
similarly railway connections both to Fiume and to Trieste and
directly to Vienna through Maribor.
Further, southern Hungary had an excellent system of water-
ways, and just as Belgrade was linked to the Hungarian railway
net because of its position, so also that position makes it the
centre of the waterways. Navigation is possible on the R. Sava
to SiSak, south-east of Zagreb; on the Danube; on the Tisa; and
on the Drava as far as Bares on the left or Hungarian bank of the
river. In addition the Voyvodina contains a number of canals,
constructed to function both as means of irrigation and as water-
ways. Again, the navigable Sava receives a number of powerful
tributaries from forested Bosnia, well fitted for floating timber.
Conditions are different in Bosnia where Austrian policy in
railway construction was determined by political motives. It
was not to Austria's interest to facilitate communication between
918
YUGOSLAVIA
[NATURAL REGIONS
Turkish lands and Bosnia, and there is not even now any railway
through what used to be the sanjak of Noviparar, From Skoplje
in Serbian Macedonia a railway runs towards Novipajiar, but this
line ends "in the air" at Mitrovica. Again, since the Bosnians,
whether Muslims or not, are Slavs, it was contrary to Austria's
interest to permit of any direct connection being made between
Serbia and Bosnia. A possible route does, however, occur between
the Morava valley and Sarajevo (66,000). The Mofava has a large
left -bank tributary, the Western or Serbian Morava, which flows in
a generally west-to-east direction, and opens up a line of communi-
cation into western Serbia. A Serbian railway was built from the
Belgradc-NiS route along this valley line, which ended blindly at
Uiice, near the Serbian-Bosnian frontier. Within Bosnia feeders
of the River Drina made it easy to construct a line from Sarajevo
of similar direction. This line, however, stopped at ViSegrad, a
short distance from the frontier. By filling up the Uiice-ViSegrad
gap Yugoslavia was able to connect Sarajevo to the main Belgrade-
Nis line. Further, there is a connection from Paracin on that line
to Zaje£ar in the Timok valley, already mentioned. Since the
Zajec'ar line runs down to the Danube near Negotin there is thus
a transverse connection from Sarajevo to the navigable section of
the Danube below the Iron Gate and thus to the Black sea.
Sarajevo was linked to Austria by a line through the Bosnia
valley which joined the Sava valley trunk-line at the town of
Brod. The Austrians also connected Sarajevo with the Dalmatian
coast .by a narrow-gauge line, which has a rack-and-pinion
section and is quite unsuited for heavy traffic. It was largely a
tourist line, Austria having done much to develop the Dalmatian
coast as a tourist resort.
During the Austrian period Dalmatia may be said broadly to
have had no railways of any account apart from this line. The
multitude of small ports made coastal traffic easy, and the popula-
tion is chiefly centred in the towns on the fertile parts of the
shore — for the coast is not uniformly productive. DaJmatia was
not effectively linked with the interior, and without such links
there was no hope of finding outlets on the national seaboard. The
problem has not yet been solved, despite a certain amount of rail-
way construction. During the post-war period when feeling ran
high between Italy and Yugoslavia all sorts of obstacles were put
in the way of Italian coastal steamer services, and since Yugo-
slavia found it impossible to organize an effective national service,
trade and the revival of tourist traffic were seriously hampered.
Suda facts are of importance because they give reasons for the
intensity of the political feeling between Serbs and Croats, and the
danger of a policy so centralized at Belgrade as to be out of touch
with local needs. Railway construction in Dalmatia has Jed to the
t\vo ports -of Sebenico (Sibcnik) and Spalato (Split) being con-
nected via Knin and Gospic to OguKn on the main route between
Zagreb and Fiumc. A branch lioe from Knin goes by a very
indirect route via Prijedor to the main Sava valley Hne. Even if
it were possible to build a number of railway lines between Dalma-
tian ports .and the interior, tire tong and expensive haul would
complicate their use Further, the ports arc not equipped for deal-
ing with heavy traflk. It would appear, therefore, as though
Yugoslav maritime trade must continue to use foreign ports,
especially Salonika, where there is a Free Zone, and Fiume.
NATURAL JREGIOJf S
Three great types of land-forms Kit represented in Yugoslavia:
— (i) the western mountain b^t which is a continuation of the
Alpine folding; (2) the Danubian plains, or Pannonian basin of
Austrian geographers, wtb their southern isiliy rim; (3) the modi
disturbed belt of country, with alternating faitis and small plains,
separating the western mountains from the crust-block of old
rocks which forms tbe core of the Balkan peninsula; this is best
called the Morava-Varder depression, from tbe great valley which
traverses it from north to south. Speaking broadly, we may say
that (i ) includes the Slovene lands, the western and south-western
part of Croatia-Slavonia, Dalnaatia, a iaige part of Bosnia, tferce*
govina and Montenegro. Tbe extreme eastern edge of the Slovene
lands, the eastern part of Croatia-Slavowia, the northern part of
Bosnia mad Swhia, with the whole of Voyvodhu, fall into (2),
while a large part of Serbia is included under (3).
Of these three types, however, the mountain belt in particular is
too complex to be regarded as a unit. In the first place the moun-
tains of the north-west show some striking contrasts to the Dinaric
Alps which margin the west coast of the Balkan Peninsula proper.
The former are made up of the Julian Alps (Terglav, 9,400 ft.),
the Karawanken, the Steiner Alps (Grintovec, 8,395 ft-) and some
smaller ranges, all with a general west to east direction. This
means that the intervening valleys open towards the Danubian
plains. North of the Karawanken lies the valley of the Upper
Drava, of which, however, only a comparatively small part lies in
Yugoslavia. The river may be said to emerge from the mountain
to the plain section at the town of Maribor. Between the Kara-
wanken and the Julian Alps lies the roughly parallel Upper Sava
valley, of which a larger part falls within the state. Here the con-
siderable (25 in. by 6 m.) basin in which lies the town of Ljubljana
may be said to mark the end of the mountain section.
Farther south the mountain belt differs greatly in character.
The fold-lines take on a south-easterly direction, parallel to fehe
coast-line, and three distinct zones can be recognized. The coastal
ranges have been largely submerged beneath the sea to form the
chain of islands and the characteristic peninsulas. Here, particu-
larly in the islands and occasionally in narrow strips on the main-
land, there are areas with a considerable depth of fertile soil, en-
joying a Mediterranean type of climate, despite the blasts of the
bora, or cold northerly wind. Water occurs in th^ form of springs,
often of great force, with, on the mainland, rivers whicji sometimes
mingle their waters with the sea within a mile or two, or even a
few hundred yards, of their sources in the limestones, but occasion-
ally reach a considerable length. This coastal belt, with its char-
acteristic products, form a distinct natural region, and is separated
by steep limestone cliffs or hills from the barren karst behind.
The karst area of massive limestones extends from Carniola, south
of the Ljubljana basin, through western Croatia, the interior of
Dalmatia, a part of western Bosnia, the greater part of lierce-
govina and western Montenegro to the Albanian frontier. It in-
cludes ridges such as the Great and Little Kapela and the Velebit,
the Uskok Mts. west of Zagreb and other hilly areas, with inter-
vening basins and depressions of varying sizes, much of the surface
being below 2,000 ft. above sea-level.
Further inland, however, especially to the south, in Bosnia, the
extreme east of Hercegovina aiid eastern Montenegro, the eleva-
tion increases notably, outstanding heights being Durmitor {8,234
ft.) in north-west Montenegro and Majiic (7,840 ft.) on the fron-
tier between Montenegro and Hercegovina. This elevated area is
the Planina region of the Slavs, planina being the precise equiva-
lent of alp {mountain pasture) in the Alps proper. In the Planinas
or high mountain region then, upland pastures and forests
reappear.
The Five Natural Regions,— We may therefore 'recognize
five natural regions in Yugoslavia, falling into three groups. Of
these { i ) the Pannonian basin in the wide sense is by far the most
important economically, and with it may be associated (2) the
Slovene Alps, which ire linked to it by the Drava and Sava valleys.
(3) The Morava- Vardar depression forms a unit by itself. In Uae
west, despite the difficulties of communication (4) the coastal belt
may be associated with (5) the Dinaric karst and mountain belt.
i. The Pannonian Basin. — This obtains its name from the
old Roman province of Pannonia, the name being applied by geolo-
gists to a great depression between the Alps on the west and the
Transyivanian Mts. on the east which was flooded by water dur-
ing the Tertiary period. The "water was finally drained off by the
Danube as it cut its way through the encircling mountain rim by
the gorge which forms (be Iron Gate. Northwards the plain left
by the ebbing of tbe waters extends beyond the limits of Yugo-
slavia; southwards, beyond the plain which fringes tbe Sava-
Danube, it gives place to an undulating platform which seems to
represent the shore of the old lake. This hill country forms part
of northern Bosnia and northern Serbia, extending in the latter
country southwards to the hills west of Nis, notably the Jastrebac
and Kopaonik ranges.
That part of this productive Tertiary hill country which extends
TRADE J
YUGOSLAVIA
919
eastwards from the Kolubara to the Morava and is bounded to the
south by the valley of the Western Morava, forms the Sumadija
of the Serbs and constituted the heart of modern Serbia. Originally
thickly forested — Sumadija means forest — the woods have been
largely cleared except on the island-like mountains of older rock,
such as Rudnik, which rise from the general surface. In Bosnia,
however, much of the original woodland remains.
The whole region, including plains, river valleys, hill country
and isolated mountains and uplands, constitutes economically the
most important part of the state, and has a considerable variety
of resources. In Serbia the characteristic occupation is mixed
farming carried on by peasants on small holdings. The cereals
include maize, wheat, barley and oats. A great variety of vege-
tables is grown for local use, and there are numerous orchards, the
characteristic plum being accompanied by all the usual temperate
fruit-trees. Local advantages of climate and soil account for cer-
tain special crops, such as tobacco (especially near Uzice in the
valley of the Western Morava) ; the vine for table grapes or wine
in the more sheltered areas, especially near Smederevo in the
Morava valley and in the lower Timok valley; sugar beet in the
Morava valley; flax, especially in the Drina and Kolubara valleys;
mulberry for silkworm-rearing in the Morava valley, and so on.
Of stock animals the pig is particularly important but cattle and
horses are reared, with many sheep on the uplands.
In the Voyvodina conditions are broadly similar, but cereal
production, especially of wheat, is more important, and the farm-
ing is of a more advanced type. There is a correspondingly greater
developmerft of the industries using local raw material, such as
flour-milling, sugar-extraction, brewing and distilling, rope-making
from local hemp, the making of linen and silk goods, etc., and as a
consequence towns are more numerous and larger. The greater
variety of the surface in Croatia-Slavonia, again, brings certain
modifications. Orchards are numerous, and to the plums, vines,
apples, pears, etc., of Serbia are added walnuts and chestnuts.
Stock-rearing is extensively practised, and the fact that there are
large forested areas results in a great development of industries
based on wood and wood products.
The part of Bosnia included within the region may be said to
resemble a more backward Serbia. Maize is the most important
cereal, and since there has been less clearing for agriculture here
extensive and valuable forests remain. As in Serbia the plum is by
far the most important fruit-tree.
2. The Slovene Alps.— The essential features of this region
have been described. From the economic standpoint it has to be
noted that, on account of the limited amount of arable land, there
is not only no surplus of cereals, such as is found in (i), but an
actual deficiency, so that additional supplies have to be obtained
especially from Slavonia, Backa and the Banat. On the other hand
the well-organized dairying industry permits of a considerable
export of dairy products. Ljubljana and Maribor are not only
centres of this trade but also of a number of minor industries
similarly dependent on the extensive rearing of live stock, such as
meat-packing, the making of margarine, soap, candles and so
forth. Further, the valleys and the margins of the basins yield
fruit, including walnuts and chestnuts, the vine, especially in the
Drava valley where Maribor carries on a considerable trade in
wine of good quality, as well as small fruits.
Forests are not only extensive but include both conifers and
such hardwoods as beech, oak, chestnut, etc., and industries deal-
ing with timber are important. Since water-power is abundant
and coal also occurs, while the forests are widely distributed, many
of the industries are of old standing and of the small, scattered
type rather than commercialized undertakings. The products,
notably furniture, show the influence of localized skill and tradi-
tion and had a ready sale in the old Austria-Hungary. Minerals, in
addition to coal, are of some importance, though many of the
industries based upon them have suffered from the drawing of
the new frontiers.
3. The Morava-Vardar Depression. — This not very appro-
priate name may be given to the region which extends from the
southern margin of the Sumadija to the Greek frontier. It is
traversed by a series of basins strung along the Morava and Vardar
systems, and affording a continuous route from north to south.
Structurally the region is remarkably complex, for it represents
the zone of weakness where the fold-mountains of the west and
north-east abut upon, the central crust-block of the peninsula.
Instead of the continuous and extensive depression which gave
rise to the Pannonian basin to the north, earth movements were
limited and localised, producing numerous small basins, originally
flooded by water but now largely drained by river action. These
basins are floored by soft deposits and are in consequence fertile,
containing arable land. With them alternate great mountain
masses, such as the Kopaonik, Golja, Crna Gora, Sar and others.
The Crna Gora marks the limit between Old Serbia or Raska to
the north and Serbian Macedonia (see MACEDONIA) to the south.
Among the more important -rivers may be noted the Nisava, a
right-bank tributary of the Morava which allows of the passage of
the railway from Nis to Sofia and Constantinople. The Toplica,
a left-bank tributary of the Morava, drains a very fertile valley.
The long stream of the Ibar has a small headstream, the Sitnica,
which drains a part of the productive Kosovo polje, or plain of the
blackbirds, with the town of PriStina. The Ibar itself passes
through a wide valley containing the towns of Mitrovica and
RaSka and enters the western Morava. In a side valley to the west
lies the town of Novipazar, which is extremely "Turkish" in ap-
pearance and has a large Muslim element.
As regards resources the arable plains and basins produce a con-
siderable variety of crops, becoming more and more southern in
type as the Greek frontier is approached. The mountains and up-
lands allow for a notable development of the live stock industry,
the area in earlier days having furnished a considerable part of the
meat supplies of Constantinople, to which the sheep could be
driven by successive stages. Finally the mineral resources are
considerable, especially round Skoplje, Veles and Kumanovo.
Coal, copper, silver-lead, chrome ore, iron and antimony all occur.
Among the products of the live stock industry is wool of good
quality, particularly from the sheep reared on the eastern uplands.
This forms the basis of the celebrated carpet industry of Pirot,
in the upper NiSava valley, the carpets being noted for their excel-
lent colours and designs. Round Lake Dojran the camel is present.
The crops of Old Serbia are generally similar to those of the
Sumadija, but in Macedonia they are more varied. Thus the Breg-
alnica valley near KoCane is famous for its rice fields and near
Stip for opium poppy yielding a high percentage of opium, ex-
ported from Salonika. In the Strumica valley farther south cotton,
rice, sesame, tobacco, with much fruit and a variety of other crops,
all occur. Gevgeli, the frontier station on the Skoplje-Salonika
line, is famous for its silk production and silk factories.
4. The Coastal Belt. — The general geographical "interest of
this region far exceeds its economic one. Even the name is some-
what deceptiye, for parts of the coast are as barren and arid as
the karst lands of the interior. Characteristic Dalmatian land-
scapes are best seen in such areas as the Riviera of the Seven
Castles, which stretches from Spalato to Trau (Trogir), form-
ing a narrow, fertile strip about 10 m. in length, watered by
short, spring-fed streams and backed and sheltered by bare and
waterless limestone hills; or round Ragusa, one of the most per-
fect examples of the Mediterranean city-state in miniature. The
olive grows round Spalato, but olive oil is imported from Italy.
The coastal belt is for the most part unsuited to cereals, which
are grown in the poljen of the interior. But the marshy area
round the mouth of the river Narenta forms an exception to
the general statement. Wine is made and exported largely to
France to be mingled with locally-produced kinds. Special prod-
ucts of some interest are the liqueur maraschino, distilled from
cherries at Spalato and Sebenico (Sibenik) ; insect powder made
from locally-grown and wild pyrethrum, and a variety of sub-
stances obtained from the aromatic plants of the maquis. Among
the last rosemary (especially from the islands of Lesina [HvarJ
and Lissa [Vis]), sage and noble laurel may be named. Apart
from the shrubs, wood is rare.
Minerals are not very important, but large beds of cement-
stones occur near Spalato and form the basis of a considerable
industry using the water-power of the short river Jader, which
920
YUGOSLAVIA
[DEFENCE
gushes out of the limestone nearby. The water-power of the
river Kerka near Sebenico and of the river Cetina near Almissa
(Omi§) is also used for such industries as the making of calcium
carbide and cyanamide. These industries were mainly established
with Italian capital. Fishing is >of some importance, especially
on the islands, where Lissa has a canning industry. The catch
includes tunny, sardines, mackerel and crabs and lobsters.
5. The Dinaric Karst and Mountain Region. — If the coast
of Dalmatia is apt to be estimated too highly, precisely the re-
verse is true of this region which is less unproductive than it
appears at first sight. From the human standpoint the con-
trasts are very striking, for if Ragusa and Spalato are western
and Latin, with many evidences of a great past, towns like
Sarajevo, Mostar, Trcbinje and Cetinje are thoroughly eastern
in appearance, and the rural population is in many ways highly
primitive and backward. The area owes its Slav population to
the Turkish advance, to the same cause, that is to say, as that
which led ultimately to the decay of the coastal towns. The
Slavs of the interior lied, at various times, before the advancing
Turk, and were constrained to occupy and use poor land.
Montenegro is particularly well fitted for live stock rearing be-
cause of the appearance of schists in the mountain belt which
lies east of the Zeta valley. Here there is a better and more
permanent water-supply and a richer growth of grass.
Cereals, especially maize, with wheat and barley, are pro-
duced, if not on a very large scale, in the depressions of the
.karst, as in the basins of Knin, Sinj, Imotski and Vrgorac in
Dalmatia; in the similar basins of western Bosnia round Glumcc",
Livno and Duvno; and in the wider and more fertile parts of the
river valleys, especially in the lower Narenta valley in Hercego-
vina, and in those of the Moraca near Podgorica and of the White
Drin round Ipek in Montenegro. As contrasted with Bosnia, which
is definitely Central European in climate and crops, Mediter-
ranean influences penetrate a considerable distance into both
Montenegro and Hercegovina, very fine tobacco is produced in
Hercegovina and to a less extent in Montenegro, in the former
especially round Trebinje, Mostar and LjubuSki. Wine is also
produced in both.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Y. Chataigneau, "La Yugoslavia," Annales de G6og-
raphie, xxx. (1921) ;WN. Krebs, Beitrdge z. Geographic Serbiens u.
Rascicns (1922) ; B. Z. Milojevtf, "The Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats
and Slovenes," Geographical Review, xv. (1925) ; M. Shacklcton, "Eco-
nomic Resources and Problems of Yugoslavia," Scottish Geographical
Magazine, xli. (1925, bibl.) ; C. Patsch, " Jugoslavian" in Andree, Sieger,
Heiderich, Geographic des Welthandels, i. (1926, bibl.) ; A. Mousset,
La Royaumc Serbe, Croat? t Slovene (1926) ; Arteria's Handkarte des
Konigsreiches der Serben, Kroaten u. Slovenen (1926). (M. I. N.)
DEFENCE
The first shots in the World War were fired by Austrian guns
bombarding Belgrade on July 29, 1914. After a gallant resistance
the Serbian army was overpowered by its Northern adversaries
in October 1915, and forced into a disastrous retreat across Al-
bania as the result of a sudden blow struck from the right rear by
the old adversary Bulgaria. After being reconstituted in Greek
territory (Corfu) the Serbian troops joined the Allied army at
Salonika, and those troops formed the nucleus of the Yugo-
slavian army of to-day. In October 1918, when the resistance of
the central powers was on the point of collapse and the Bulgar-
ians had already thrown up the sponge, the Serbian army num-
bered 63,050 combatants, with a ration strength of 110,550. It
was organized in 6 infantry divisions and one of cavalry, with 289
field guns. Its battle casualties had exceeded 331,000, a figure
which included 45,000 killed and over 133,000 wounded in action.
Such was the recent war record of the Serbian troops in what is
now the army of Yugoslavia.
Present-day Army: Recruitment and Service. — The terri-
tory of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes is divided into 5 Army
areas, each of these containing 3 or 4 divisional areas subdivided
into military districts. Military service is obligatory for all
physically fit citizens between the ages of 21 and 40 with the
active army and subsequently with the reserve up to the age of
50. With the sanction of the cabinet, the war minister can also
call up youths of ages from 1 8 to 20 and all men under 55 years.
Service with the colours is for 18 months from the year in which
the 2ist birthday falls.
Strength and Organization. — The budget effectives (1927)
numbered 115,942, including 6,433 officers and 7,509 non-commis-
sioned officers. To this total 4,696 must be added if the students
at the various military schools are included, some of these being
liable to military service. The arms of the military service are
infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineers and air force. Of these the
cavalry is organized in two independent cavalry divisions, each
consisting of two brigades of cavalry and one group of horse ar-
tillery. A cavalry brigade contains two regiments of cavalry, each
of four groups and a machine-gun squadron. These cavalry divi-
sions, a small corps of frontier troops, a railway command, and a
motor-troops command (one battalion of motor troops with park,
depot and workshops), are organized independently, and not in-
cluded in the troops distributed territorially in the "divisional"
areas. The largest infantry formation therein is the brigade of 3
regiments each of 3 battalions each of 3 companies. The largest
artillery formation is the brigade of 2 regiments each of 2 groups
with 2 batteries in a group. Each divisional area contains a brigade
of artillery, a brigade of infantry and non-combatant departmental
troops. In addition to these the army troops in each army area
include i artillery regiment of 3 groups and an engineer detach-
ment containing i pioneer battalion, i bridging battalion, i tele-
graph and i searchlight company, i carrier piceon section and
wireless telegraph stations. The 16 divisional areas are grouped in
5 army areas. In addition to the army proper, account should
be taken of the 9 regiments and 2 extra battalions of gendarmerie.
Higher Command. — The king is the supreme head of the
army. In time of war he can appoint a commander of the field
troops. The officer so appointed is responsible to the war minis-
ter. The higher command includes a ministry of war with the
usual departments (including naval and air), a general staff,
inspectorates of troops and technical committees working under
the war ministry. The general staff and inspectorates of the differ-
ent arms are also defined as being the organs of the war ministry.
That ministry contains the usual departments for dealing with
personnel and material. The general staff contains sections to deal
with operations, intelligence, education, communications and histo-
rical work. The "arms and departments" are grouped as (a) prin-
cipal arms, (b) auxiliary arms and (c) special departments.
The minister of war commands the army in time of peace in the
name of the king, and with the assistance of the general staff.
The fortress command of Boka Kotorska (in the 2nd army
area) contains a garrison of i regiment of infantry, i regiment of
fortress artillery, i engineer battalion, i battalion of non-com-
batants, i medical company, i squadron of train and i motor-
section. A sum of 25,500,000 dinars was set apart for fortifica-
tion in 1926-27, compared with 16,000,000 in 1922-23.
Military Air Force.-— The air force is described as one of the
"arms" of the army. The head of the air department in the war
ministry also acts as inspector of the air force, thus holding a
position parallel to that of the inspector of the navy, who is head
of the marine department in the war ministry. The air force is
organized in 2 air regiments (10 squadrons), i ballooning com-
pany, 5 training schools, i aero-technical institution, and i air
battalion. There is a school for the advanced training of air
officers on the same lines as the similar schools for the other
arms. The defence estimates for 1926-27 showed a sum of 59,-
200,000 dinars for aviation, as compared with 24,000 in 1922-23.
In considering the preceding information, two points seem to
call for comment. The first of these is the organization of the
bulk of the troops in "divisional areas" with one infantry brigade
in each area, while the most mobile arm, the cavalry, is organized
in regular independent divisions. The reason for this divergence
from the usual custom is obscure. It is probably attributable to
political or topographical rather than to military reasons. The
second is the central control by the war minister of army (in-
cluding air force) and navy. With an infinitesimal sea-force, in-
capable of serious or distant operations, cooperation with the army
in coastal defence is doubtless facilitated by this arrangement.
RESOURCES]
YUGOSLAVIA
921
See also the League of Nations Armaments Year-Book (Geneva
1928) ; also Law on the Organization of the Army (August 9, 1923).
(G. G. A.)
4,251,459 metric tons, valued at 6400,153,000 dinars — the prin-
cipal items being as follows :
ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POSITION
.
Metric tons
Value in thousands
Agriculture and Live Stock. — Agriculture occupies about
80% of the total population of Yugoslavia. The different prov-
Building timber . . 1,150,071
885,404
inces vary greatly in climate, soil, configuration and methods
Live swine .
42,114
518,042
of cultivation. The coastal districts and the high Karst land
Live cattle .
26,350
39,673
354,501
immediately behind them are mountainous and often barren, and
Mai/e . .
1 07 ,680
337^94
present great difficulties of
communication. The most fertile dis-
Raw copper
13,305
a57»64S
tricts are the Voivodina (Banat and Backa), Slavonia and north-
I resh meat .
17,141
247,449
ern Serbia (especially the MacVa, Morava and Timok districts)
and portions of Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia. The principal crops
Hops . .
Wheat.
Prunes.
4,096
64,053
32,283
197,666
I95»522
are maize and wheat (40% of both being produced in the Voivo-
Wood for fuel
557,365
127,584
dina), sugar-beet, hemp and hops (also in the north), opium (in
Small livestock
13,688
121,461
Macedonia), and tobacco (chiefly in Macedonia and Hercegovina).
Cement
Fresh fruits
317,427
41,028
116,589
110,344
Areas Sown
and Productions in 1026
All others .
1.735,086
2,261,369
Total
* •> r T 4 ff\
6 400 r <j 5
Hectares
Quintals
rpt • L. * f i * f 1 i. * i. * fit
Wheat
1,726,940
18,855,919
Their chief countries of destination were as follows:
Barley
Rye
Oats
i7i$Si
3,761,072
1,557,827
3,577,250
Value in thousands
of dinars
Maize
2,173,534
34,101,063
Italy
1,589,982
Beans, various .
1,194,574
Austria
1,448,795
Potatoes ....
233,127
0,400,206
Czechoslovakia.
726,722
Sugar beet ....
Beet for fodder .
37,110
1 8,905
5)9^,631
2,072,737
Germany
Greece
678,774
619,800
Flax
T2»233
75,242
Hungary
488,16=?
Hemp
32,499
258,385
Switzerland
.116,306
Clover
100,465
3,424,195
France
176,540
Lucerne ....
61,895
2,263,749
Great Britain
83,566
Admirable wines are produced in Dalmatia and Hercegovina
in Syrmia (of the Hungarian type) and along the Danube in
Serbia (Smcderevo). The fruit industry is important, notably in
the Sumadija district of Serbia and in the east of Bosnia. In an
average year some 750,000 tons of fresh plums are produced, and
40,000 to 50,000 tons of dried plums and pulp are exported.
In 1928 there were eight sugar factories, two state-owned, the
rest in the hands of foreign banks and companies.
In Jan. 1927 there were in Yugoslavia 1,227,707 horses, mules
and asses; 3,737,538 horned cattle; 7,932,875 sheep; 2,806,182
pigs; and 1,721,283 goats. The forests cover 7,500,000 hectares
of land, of which all save 2,000,000 is old forest. Timber is a
main article of export, Italy, Egypt and the Levant being the
best customers. The most important state forests are in Bosnia,
beech, fir and oak being the commonest trees. The Slavonian oak
(known abroad as "Austrian oak") is valuable and of high
quality. In Serbia 60% of the forests are beech. At Teslic there
is a wood-distilling factory, which is the largest in Europe, and
produces methylated spirit, alcohol, formaldehyde and acetone.
Mining and Mineral Resources. — The mineral resources of
Yugoslavia have for the most part lain idle since Roman and
mediaeval times, but offer very great possibilities. Iron ore of
good quality occurs in enormous quantity and near the surface at
Ljubija, in Bosnia, where it is mined by the state mining authori-
ties and sold for exportation. Another iron mine worked by the
state exists at VareS, in Bosnia, and is worked in conjunction
with a coal mine and iron-smelting establishment and the iron-
works at Zenica. The metallurgical works here are on a primitive
scale, their production being pig-iron and small castings. The
ironworks at Jesenice (Slovenia), which have a capacity of
70,000 tons per annum, produce bar iron, iron and steel sheets,
steel rails up to 22 kilograms per metre (as used on the Bosnian
narrow-gauge railways), rolled iron, drawn iron and wire
nails. Bar iron is manufactured at Store, near Celje, in Slovenia;
steel and steel springs at GuStanj, on the Maribor-Klagenfurt
railway, and highly-silicated foundry iron is produced at Sopusko
in Slovenia. Large deposits of brown coal and lignite occur in
many parts of Yugoslavia, but there is no coking coal. Copper
is produced at Bor and Majdanpek in Serbia.
Foreign Trade.— The total exports in 1927 amounted to
Imports during 1927 amounted to 1,331,256 metric tons, valued
at 7,286,291,000 dinars, the most important items being cotton
and cotton manufactures (1,680,132,000 dinars), iron and iron
manufactures (688,814,000 dinars) and wool and woollen manu-
factures (723,222,000 dinars). Austria took first place on the
list of countries supplying Yugoslavia's imports, with Czecho-
slovakia a close second; Italy, Germany and Great Britain, in
the order named, coming next after these.
Revenue and Expenditure. — For the 1926-1927 budget year
the expenditure estimated by the Government was, if additional
credits voted after the enactments of the budget proper are con-
sidered, 12,821,770,208 dinars. That year, however, according to
the statement issued by the Ministry for Finance, only yielded
11,294,221,348 dinars in revenues, while up to the end of the year
the monthly returns showed that revenues were continuing to
dimmish. The budget estimates for the succeeding, 1927-1928,
year were, however, allowed to mount to 11477,570,000 dinars,
the principal sources being as follows:
Revenues
Direct taxation
Indirect taxation
Monopolies
State enterprise
Various revenues
Dinars
1,706,250,600
3,505,690,000
2,296,947,000
3,851,976,329
116,706,071
By the monetary convention, known as the Latin Union, to
which Yugoslavia is a party, the dinar was held to be the equiv-
alent of the French franc.
The system of presenting the estimates was changed after the
1926-27 budget, so that the budget proper, relating to administra-
tion, was separated from the budget of State enterprises. The
view was then taken that Government enterprises such as rail-
ways, forests and mines could not be properly developed under
the system by which they drew their capital from budget sources,
and a new system of "commercialization" of state enterprises
was adopted. Under the revised system the estimates for the
financial year 1928-29 (April i, 1928, to March 31, 1929) were
as follows:
922
YUGOSLAVIA
State Revenue and Expenditure
Total of regular and extraordinary revenues (in-
cluding surplus revenues from state enterprises)
Total of regular and extraordinary expenditure .
Surplus revenues
Dinars
7,668,958,647
7,489,638,059
1 79»33°,588
Budget of Si^ate Enterprises
Total of regular and extraordinary revenues .
Total of regular and extraordinary expenditure
Surplus revenues
Dinars
6,429,887,721
4,090,481,023
2,339,406,698
The surplus of revenue over expenditure in the general budget
(179,320,588 dinars), served to cover expenditure under article
No. 2 of the Financial Law (credit to Local Government Boards).
For purposes of comparison with preceding budgets the 1928-29
budget may be stated as follows:
Expenditure
Regular expenditure
Kxtraordinary expenditure
Kxpenditure on Government enterprises .
Expenditure on local government ....
Total
Dinars
6,623,490,459
866,147,600
4,090,481,023
179,320,588
11,750,439,670
Revenues
Regular revenue
Extraordinary revenue
Revenues from Government enterprises .
Total
Dinars
5,229,551,949
100,000,000
6,429,887,721
ii,759,439,670
Public Debts.— The following statement of the public debts
jf the Serb-Croat-Slovene kingdom was given officially by the
Ministry for Finance:
POSITION OF STATE DEBTS or THE KINGDOM OF SERBIA, CROATIA
AND SLOVKNIA ON Nov. i, 1927
Original
Present
amount
amount
I. Pre-war Debts
Fr.
Fr.
2% Lottery Loan of 1881 .
Tobacco Lottery Loan, 1888
33,000,000
10,000,000
14,340,000
8,410,000
4% Conversion Loan, 1895
355,292,000
317,290,000
5% Monopoly Loan, 1902 .
60,000,000
41,547,500
4!% Loan, 1906 ....
4,4% Loan, 1900 ....
95,000,000
150,000,000
67,976,500
124,760,000
5% Loan, 1913 ....
250,000,000
213,785,500
II. War Debts
£
L
(2) War debt to British Govern-
ment
32,800,000
32,725,000
(4) War debt to U.S.A. . .
62,850,000
62,450,000
(i) Material received from
Fr.
Fr.
French Government .
1,000,000,000
1,000,000,000
(i) Advance received from
French Government .
486,581,350
486,581,250
III. Post-War Debts
(a) Internal Debts
Dinars
Dinars
7% Investment Loan, 1921 .
500,000,000
496,050,000
4% Agrarian Loan for Bosnia
and Hercegovina, 1021
130,000,000
125,390,000
(5) 2i% War Indemnity Bonds.
4,454,218,000
4,329*362,000
POSITION OF STATE DEBTS OP THE
AND SLOVENIA ON Nov.
[FINANCE
KINGDOM OF SERBIA, CROATIA
i, 1927 — Continued
Original
Present
amount
amount
III. Post-War Debts— Continued
(b) Foreign Debts
£
i
(3) Relief debt to British Gov-
ernment ....
3,105,848
3,054,127
Government Foreign Loan of
TOO million dollars in gold,
1922
$
$
(7) (a) I. Instalment 8% bonds,
1922.
15,250,000
15,250,000
(7) (W II. Instalment 7% bonds,
1927.
30,000,000
30,000,000
£
£
5% London (Montenegrin)
Loan
250,000
216,340
Fr.
Fr.
6% Montenegrin Loan, 1913
11,284,060
9,600,936
7i% Loan for buying up of
Oriental railways
H9,97i,58i
119,977,265
(8) 5% Loan of 300 million francs
214,635,312
(6) Privileged Austro-Hungarian
Company "Steg"
7,965,187
7,114,578
IV. Participation in Loam of the
public debt of the farmer Austro-
*
Hungarian Monarchy, the serv-
t.
ice of which is entrusted to the
Caisse Commune of the Foreign
Holders of the Austrian and
Hungarian pre-War public debts
at Paris.
Debt on 3% bonds of "Stcg"
Fr.
Fr.
company
"36,086,929
35,382,429
(9.10.12) 4% Austrian bonds in
Gold florins
Gold florins
gold (perpetual).
8,917,341
8,917,341
(9.10.12) 4% Hungarian bonds
in gold (perpetual) .
84,691,079
84,691,079
(9.11.12) 4$% Austrian treasury
Crowns
Crowns
bonds of 1914 ....
4,544,023
4,544,023
(9.11,12) 4J% Hungarian bonds
of 1913 (perpetual) .
(9.11.12) 4J% Hungarian bonds
18,463,440
18,463,440
of 1914
67,121,332
67,121,332
(9.11.12) 4% Perpetual Hun-
garian bonds of 1910
38,132,220
38,132,220
Notes on War Debts — (i) The above represents only the
capital sum on Dec. 31, 1919. (2) The sum shown above repre-
sents the total of annuities. The capital sum of this debt was
fixed on Jan. i, 1927, at the amount of £25,591,428. The debt to
be paid in 62 years. (3) The sum shown above represents the
total of annuities. The capital sum of this debt was fixed on
Jan. i, 1927, at £2,068,843. The debt to be paid in 15 years. (4)
The sum shown above represents the total of annuities. The
capital sum of this debt was fixed on June 15, 1925, at the amount
of $51,037,886. The debt to be paid in 62 years. (5) The distri-
bution of bonds of this loan has not yet been completed. The
position shown is that on Dec. 31, 1927. (6) The sum shown
above represents the total of annuities remaining. (7) The
amortization of this loan commences on May i, 1932. (8) The
above sum represents the amount of this credit of 300 million
francs drawn upon at that date. (9) The kingdom's share in the
public debt of the former Austro-Hungarian monarchy in accord-
ance with the distribution made by the Reparations Commission.
(10) In accordance with the Innsbruck Protocol and the Prague
Agreement the coupon service is carried out on the basis of 32%
nominal value, (n) In accordance with the Innsbruck Protocol
and the Prague Agreement the coupon service is carried out at
present on the basis of 27% nominal value. (12) The share of
the loans of the public debt of the former Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, which were allotted to the Kingdom by the Peace
Treaty, and the bonds of which are in the possession of Serb-
Croat-Slovene subjects is not included ; neither is the share of the
HISTORY]
YUGOSLAVIA
923
debt in paper bonds which was allotted to the Kingdom and the
bonds of which are in the possession either of foreigners or of
Yugoslav subjects for the reason that the distribution of these
loans is not completed. To the foregoing should be added the sum
of 176,657,500 crowns, representing the outstanding portion of the
"autonomous" loans of the former Austro-Hungarian provinces,
the repayment of which devolves upon the Serb-Croat-Slovene
kingdom, but whose service had not been resumed at that time.
War and Relief Debts Settlement.— By the War Debt
Agreement signed in London on Aug. 9, 1927, the Yugoslav
Government agreed to pay in full and final settlement of the war
debt due to Great Britain, the following annuities: —
Year
Sterling
£
1927
1928
150,000
200,000
1929
i930~35 (inclusive)
1936-39 »
1940 and 1941 .(
1942-88 (inclusive)
i
250,000
300,000 a year
350,000 „ „
400,000 ,, ,,
600,000 ,, ,,
i.e., a total of £32,800,000; the payments to be made half-yearly
over a period of 62 years. On Aug. 8, 1927, a proposal was signed
in London for the funding and repayment of the Yugoslav relief
debts to Great Britain, Australia and certain European States.
The relief debt to Great Britain was fixed, inclusive of interest
at 6% up to Jan. i, 1927, at £2,068,843 7s. id., the sum to be
repaid within 15 years, with interest upon the amount from time
to time outstanding at 5% as from Jan. i, 1927. The first in-
stalment fell due on July i, 1927; the last falls due on Jan. i,
1942. The International Relief Bonds committee accepted the
proposal on Aug. 12. The other relief debts were repaid in cash.
(E. M. HA.)
HISTORY
The Adriatic Dispute at Paris. — At the Paris Conference
there was from the first a deadlock in the Adriatic dispute. (See
SERBIA.) Clemenceau and Lloyd George found themselves be-
tween two irreconcilable standpoints — between Sonnino, who
claimed the literal fulfilment of their treaty pledges, with the
addition of the port of Fiume, and Wilson, who refused all
cognizance of the secret treaties and regarded them as abrogated
by the Allies when they accepted his successive Notes as the
basis of the Armistice. The three Western Powers were in the
impossible position of judges in a dispute to which one was a
party, while two were accessories. On Feb. n, 1919, the Yugo-
slavs offered to submit the whole dispute to the arbitration of
President Wilson, and on April 16 to leave the settlement of
frontiers to a plebiscite.
But these proposals were rejected by the Italians, who even
withdrew for a time from Paris; and Wilson's public manifesto
on the Adriatic question (April 23) so far from improving matters,
actually stiffened Italian resistance. The problem was left un-
solved during the final stages of the negotiations on the German
treaty, and was still being postponed when, on Sept. 12, D'An-
mmzio and his Arditi, with official Italian connivance, seized
Fiume and proceeded to create a fait accompli. On Dec. 9, 1919,
the Supreme Council made a definite proposal to Italy on the basis
of a slight modification of the so-called "Wilson Line," Fiume as
a buffer State, a special regime in Zara, Valona in full sovereignty
and an Italian mandate in Albania.
Late in April the Yugoslavs consented to direct negotiations
with Italy, but the Nitti cabinet fell before any decision could
be reached, and it was not till Nov. 12, 1920, that the Treaty of
Rapallo was signed. By it Italy acquired a frontier considerably
farther east than the Wilson line, the watershed of the Julian
Alps as far as SnjeMk (Monte Nevoso), almost all Istria.with
Abbazia and Volosca, and a narrow strip of shore connecting it
with Fiume, which was to become an independent unit under the
League of Nations, while the Croat suburb of SuSak was to remain
in Yugoslavia and the BaroS Port was added as an outlet for
Yugoslav trade. Zara became a free city under Italian sovereignty,
but as a tiny island isthmus without hinterland or islands. Italy
renounced all claim to Dalmatia, and of all the islands retained
only Lussin and Cherso. Special linguistic and other privileges
were assured to the tiny Italian minority in the Dalmatian towns,
but no corresponding charter was granted to the 400,000 to
500,000 Slovenes and Croats annexed to Italy. One practical
result of the treaty was that Italy tacitly abandoned the cause of
King Nicholas and accepted as inevitable Montenegro's incor-
poration in Yugoslavia. Unhappily Italy allowed the treaty to
remain a dead letter as regards Fiume, which was firmly held by
D'Annunzio's irregulars, to the utter ruin of its trade and pros-
perity. The final liquidation of the Adriatic dispute was postponed
till Jan. 27, 1924, when Mussolini and Pastf (Pashitch) concluded
the so-called "Pact of Rome" guaranteeing the Peace Treaties
of St. Germain, Trianon and Neuilly and promising neutrality if
either should be attacked by a third party. A supplementary
agreement recognized Italy's annexation of Fiume, but left to
Yugoslavia the Baro§ Harbour and also a free commercial zone
in Fiume itself, with proper railway access.
The New Frontiers.— In five other directions also the regula-
tion of the new frontiers was a slow and difficult process.
1. The frontier between Yugoslavia and Rumania rests on a
decision of the Peace Conference, published on June 13, 1919.
Rejecting equally the frontier fixed by the secret treaty of 1916,
under the terms of which Rumania entered the war, and the line
up to which the Serbs had been allowed to occupy after the
Armistice, the Allies divided the Banat on a mainly ethnographic
basis. At the last moment they drove two awkward salients into
Rumanian territory, in order to include VrSac and Bela Crkva in
Yugoslavia, thereby blocking the railway outlet of Timi$oara and
Arad towards the Danube at Bazias.
2. The regulation of the Austro-Yugoslav frontier was decided
according to a plebiscite supervised by an inter-Allied Commission
at Klagenfurt. After a keen contest between rival Slovene and
Pan-German propagandists, voting took place in Oct. 1920 and
resulted in a majority of 12,747 for Austria in Zone A (the more
southerly section in dispute), whereupon Zone B also was auto-
matically assigned to Austria.
3. By the Treaty of Neuilly (Nov. 27, 1919), Bulgaria was
forced to cede to Yugoslavia (a) the Strumnica salient, which
threatened the Vardar railway from the east, (6) the district of
Koc'ana and the Bregalnica and (c) the town and district of
Tsaribrod, which places Sofia strategically at the mercy of her
neighbour.
4. The Albanian frontier remained in suspense till 1921, when
the Supreme Council sanctioned the line laid down by the Council
of Ambassadors in the winter of 1913, thus putting an end to the
disreputable design favoured in some quarters of an Italo-Yugo-
slav "deal" on the lines of "Scutari for Fiume.'1
5. The frontier with Hungary was the last to be regulated. By
the Treaty of Trianon the Banat (save a small Magyar triangle
opposite the city of Szeged) was divided between Rumania and
Yugoslavia, while the latter received the whole Backa (except
Baja and district), part of the Baranya (forming the angle be-
tween Drave and Danube) and the Medjumurje (between Drave
and Mur). Thus, in order to secure the town of Subotica
(Szahadka) with its large Bunjevac (or Catholic Serb) population,
she was allowed to annex not less than 250,000 Magyars.
Internal Politics. — So long as these vital frontier disputes
were outstanding, the Government hesitated to hold new elections,
and the new united parliament rested on a highly irregular basis,
the Serbian mandates having actually expired in June 1914, and
the delegates from most of the new provinces owing their positions
to membership in the numerous revolutionary committees which
sprang up in Oct. 1918. The chaotic party conditions slowly
crystallized into a keen struggle between the Radicals, who still
possessed the best party machine and stood for a narrowly Serbian
as opposed to a Yugoslav programme, and the new Democratic
party, which absorbed most of the Opposition groups in Serbia,
the old Serbo-Croat coalition of Croatia and the Slovene Liberals.
In Aug. 1919 Proti6 was replaced by Davidovic*, the Democratic
924
YUKON
leader, and the weight of the Coalition was transferred further to
the Left. A trial of strength continued inside its ranks, until,
in May 1920, Vesnic, who had been minister in Paris since 1905,
became premier and won the parties for a new parliamentary
franchise, based on universal suffrage. At the elections to the
Constituent Assembly (Nov. 1920) no party secured an absolute
majority, and the Radical-Democratic coalition was perforce
maintained, the Opposition consisting of 50 Croat peasants under
Stephen Radic (q.v.), the Croat and Slovene Clericals, and 58
Communists, largely recruited from the malcontents in the south.
Pasic, who again became premier in Jan. 1921, built up a ma-
jority by astute party bargaining, and thanks to the unwise
abstention of the Croat peasants, was able to steer through
parliament a new Constitution framed on extreme centralist lines.
On June 28 (Kosovo day) the prince regent took oath to the
new constitution, but he and Pasic narrowly escaped assassination
while driving home from the ceremony. On July 21, Draskovic,
who as minister of the interior had issued repressive decrees
(Obznane) against the Communists, was murdered by a young
Bosnian Communist, whereupon parliament passed drastic laws
for "the defence of the State," annulled the mandates of the 58
Communist deputies, and reduced" their party to impotence. In
the winter of 1922 the latent quarrel between Radicals and Demo-
crats ended -in open rupture, and Pasic formed a purely Radical
cabinet and appealed to the country. But the elections of 1923
brought no decision, and the Radicals clung precariously to
power. In August, Radic, rejecting the inadequate offers of Pasic,
fled abroad, in the hope of winning over Western opinion to his
cause. Realizing in London the hopelessness of such a design, he
settled in Vienna, and from there concluded a joint Opposition
bloc with the Democrats, Agrarians, Slovenes and Muslims, and
instructed his deputies to abandon their abstention and enter the
Skupstina. Pasic was thus without a majority, and resigned;
and in July 1924 Davidovic took office, but was compromised by
the indiscretions of Radic, who in the interval had visited Mos-
cow and coquetted with the "Peasant International."
In October Davidovic was forced to resign, and a concentration
cabinet under Pasic and Pribicevic, on rigidly centralist and re-
actionary lines, ordered new elections, dissolved the Croat Peasant
party, suppressed its newspaper and threw Radic into prison. At
the elections of Feb. 1925 the Government, by pressure and
corruption, secured a small working majority (163 to 152),
though it polled 300,000 fewer votes than its rivals. It then an-
nulled 58 out of the 67 Croat mandates, and was preparing further
reprisals when Radic 's nephew issued a declaration in the party's
name, recognizing the Constitution, dynasty and army, and thus
abandoning the whole basis of its agitation for the six previous
years. This was followed by an unholy alliance between Pasic
and Radic, who each threw over their now useless allies and
formed a joint cabinet. In November Radic himself became
minister of education. In April 1926, however, he withdrew his
support from PaSic, who was thus without a majority and finally
resigned, his position being weakened by age and by the public
scandals connected with his son, Rade; and though Pasic's suc-
cessor, Uzunovic, included representatives of the Croat peasants
in the new cabinet, the final breach between Radic and the
Radicals came in May.
A political deadlock ensued, until, in Dec. 1926, the news of
the Italo-Altyanian Treaty led to the resignation of the foreign
minister, Dr. Ninttc, and a prolonged cabinet crisis, complicated
by the sudden death of Pasic. At last, in April 1927, a Coalition
cabinet was formed by Velja Vukicevic, between Radicals, Demo-
crats, Slovene Clericals and Muslims: and the elections held in
September confirmexl this coalition's majority. This was fol-
lowed by a reconciliation between the two former rivals, Radi<5
and Pribic'evic", who set themselves to organize the "Prec"ani"
(or former subjects of Austria-Hungary) in opposition to Bel-
grade. Their campaign, which owed much of its strength to the
inefficient administration of the centralist regime and to the gross
inequality of taxation, was waged with increasing violence and
culminated in the tragedy of June 20, 1928, when an unbalanced
Montenegrin Radical deputy, PuniSa RaCid, fired upon the Croat
peasant deputies on the floor of the Skupstina, killing Pavle
Radic and one colleague outright and mortally wounding Stephen
Radic*. The Croats withdrew to Zagreb and declined to re-enter
the Skupstina until new elections had wiped out the crime; and
when the Vukicevic cabinet was reconstructed under the Slovene
Clerical leader, Father Korosec, they refused to negotiate and pro-
claimed a so-called "social boycott" of Belgrade.
Serbo-Croat relations once more became extremely strained, al-
though reasons alike of home and foreign policy rendered a
separatist movement impossible. Croatia could not stand alone
with Italy and Hungary in their post-war mood, and no human
skill could draw a frontier line dividing Croat and Serb. On the
other hand, the demand for a revision of the unduly centralist
Constitution of 1921 seemed likely to prove irresistible, and it
seemed probable that decentralization would provide a basis for
reconciliation.
The coup d'etat of Jan. 1929. — In actual fact, the deadlock
was solved, for the time being, by King Alexander, on Jan. 6. 1929,
suspending the Constitution of 1921 and appointing General Peru
Zivkovic as prime minister, with a cabinet consisting of repre-
sentatives of all the different provinces. Its programme was unity,
decentralization and improved administration, and both king and
premier expressly pledged themselves to introduce a new demo-
cratic and parliamentary regime.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — R. W. Seton-Watson, The Southern Slav Question
(1911 ; German ed., 1913) ; L. v. Sudland, Die, Siidslavisf.he Fra^c und
der Wrltkrieg (1918) ; Hermann Wcndcl, Dcr Kompf dqr Siidsltivcn um
Freiheit und Einheit (1925). See also A History of the Peace Confer-
ence of Paris (edit. H. W. V. Tempcrley) , vol. iv. (R. \V . S.-W.)
YUKON, the largest river in Alaska, and the fifth largest in
North America. With its longest tributaries not in Alaska, the
Lewes and the Teslin (or Hootalinqua), its length is about 2,300
m., in the form of a great arc, beginning in the Yukon district of
British Columbia, near the Pacific ocean, and ending at the Bering
sea coast. Its catchment area is about 330,000 sq.m., more than
one-half of which lies in Canada. The Lewes river rises in Lake
Bennct, or, more accurately speaking, Lake Lindeman, on the
northern slope of the coast range just over the Dyea pass up
from Lynn canal (at the head of Chatham strait). It flows north
through a chain of lakes with connecting streams until it is joined
by the Hootalinqua about 30 m. below the last of these lakes
(Lcbargc). Its confluence with the Pelly river, at Selkirk, Yukon
district, about 120 m. due cast of the Alaskan-Canadian boundary,
forms the headwaters of the Yukon proper. Flowing thence north-
west, the Yukon turns abruptly to the south-west near Ft. Yukon,
Alaska, on the Arctic Circle, and continues nearly at right angles
to its former course to a point south of the head of Norton
sound, where it turns again and flows in a north-west direction,
emptying into the sound from its south shore.
The Yukon valley comprises four sub-provinces, or physio-
graphic divisions, called the "Upper Yukon/' "Yukon flats,"
"Rampart region" and "Lower Yukon." The "Upper Yukon"
valley is about 450 m. long and from i to 3 m. broad, and is
flanked by walls rising to the plateau level from 1,500 to 3,000 ft.
above the stream. In this part of its course the Yukon receives
from the south the Selwyn river (about 40 m. below the junction
of the Lewes and Pelly rivers) ; from the west the White river
(about 60 m. below the Selwyn) ; from the north the Stewart
river (about 10 m. below the White), one of the largest tributaries
of the Yukon; from the east the Klondike river (near 64° N.
lat.); from the west Forty-mile creek (about 40 m. above the
Alaskan-Canadian boundary line), and many other smaller
streams. The "Yukon flats" flank the river for about 200 m.
and are from 40 to 100 m. wide. Here the stream varies in width
from 10 to nearly 20 m,, and involves a confused network of
constantly changing channels. Here, too, the river makes its
great bend to the south-west, and its channels are constantly
changing. The "flats" are monotonous areas of sand bars and low
islands, thickly wooded with spruce. The principal tributaries
here are the Porcupine river (an important affluent, which enters
the main stream at the great bend about 3 m. N. of the Arctic
Circle) ; the Chandlar river, also confluent at the great bend, from
the north, and, near the west edge of the flats, the Dall river, also
YUKON TERRITORY— YUMAN
925
from the north. The "Rampart region'* begins near 66° N. lat.,
where the "flats" end abruptly, and includes about no m. of the
valley, from i to 3 m. wide, and extending to the mouth of the
Tanana. No large tributaries are received in this part of the
river. At the west edge of the Ramparts the Yukon receives the
Tanana river, its largest tributary lying wholly within Alaska.
The Tanana valley is about 450 m. long, nearly parallel to the
Yukon from about due west of its headquarters to the great bend,
and drains about 25,000 square miles. Its sources lie in the glaciers
on the north slopes of the coast, or St. Elias range, and it receives
many tributaries. The Lower Yukon includes that portion between
the ramparts and the sea, a stretch of about 800 m. At the mouth
of the Tanana (which enters the main stream from the south) the
gorge opens into a lowland from 15 to 20 m. wide. Along the
north-west boundary of the valley are low mountains whose base
the Yukon skirts, and it continues to press upon its north bank
until the delta is reached. The valley is never less than 2 or 3 m.,
and the river has many channels and numerous* islands ; it has walls
nearly to the head of the delta, though about 100 m. above the
delta the south wall merges into the lowjand coastal plain ; the
relief is about 1,000 feet. The Yukon delta begins near 63° N.
lat. Here the main stream branches into several channels which
follow north or north-west courses to Norton sound. The north-
ernmost of these channels is the Aphoon pass, and the most
southerly is Kwikpak pass; their outlets are about 75 m. apart on
the coast, and from 40 to 50 m. from the head of the delta.
Between them is a labyrinth of waterways, most of the interven-
ing land bcfng not more than 10 ft. above low tide.
The Yukon river is unique among rivers, in that it rises within
15 m. of tidal waters in the Dyea inlet on the Pacific coast, whence
it flows in a north-westerly direction nearly i.ooo m., just crossing
the Arctic Circle, where it turns south-west through the middle
of Alaska, and then flows more than 1,200 m. until it reaches the
'ocean within sight of which it rose; for we may properly call
Bering sea a part of the Pacific ocean. This grand stream is also
surprising in the length of navigation way it gives in proportion
to its length, for less than 15 m. N. from where its tiniest stream-
lets trickle from the crest of Dyea pass lies Lake Bennet, whose
head is the true beginning of steamboat navigation on this noble
stream. From the starting-point of those same streamlets one
can look down on other streamlets beginning their steep descent
of the Dyea pass to the waters of the Lynn canal. The nearest
harbour for ocean-going vessels is a poor one at St. Michael's
island, about 60 m. north-east of the delta; here freight and
passengers arc transferred to flat-bottomed river steamers. These
enter the delta and the river by the Aphoon pass, which is about
4 ft. deep at mean low water, the current varying from i J to 4 m.
an hour. The Lewes is navigable as far as White Horse rapids,
which with Miles canon obstruct the river for a few miles. Above
them the stream is again navigable to its source, about 100 m.
beyond. The White pass and Yukon railway from Skagway to
White Horse (in m.) overcomes these obstructions, however, for
traffic and travel. The Stewart river, seldom less than 150 yd.
wide, is navigable by light-draught steamers to Frazer falls, a dis-
tance of nearly 200 miles. The Tanana is navigable for about
225 m. to the mouth of the Chena, and above the mouth of the
Chena it again becomes navigable for more than 250 m., including
its principal upper tributary, the Nebesna. The Koyukuk, the
second largest tributary, entering the Yukon about 600 m. up
from its mouth, is navigable for 570 m. (Camden). Altogether
the Yukon proper with its principal tributaries embraces more
than 3,500 m. of navigable waters. The system is open to naviga-
tion from May until September.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— W. H. Dall, Alaska and Its Resources (1870) ; F.
Schwatka, Along Alaska's Great River (1898) ; Lieut. J. C. Cantwell,
R.C.S., Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak
of the Yukon River Station, Alaska, 1899-1901 (Washington) ; W.
Ogilvie, Early Days on the Yukon (Ottawa) ; A. H. Brooks, "The
Geography and Geology of Alaska," U.S. Geol. Survey, Doc. No. 201
(Washington, 1906).
YUKON TERRITORY, the most westerly of the northern
territories of Canada, bounded south by British Columbia, west
by Alaska, north by the Arctic ocean and east by the watershed
of Mackenzie river. It has an area of 206,427 sq.m. (excluding
water). The territory is chietly drained by the Yukon river and
its tributaries, though at the south-east corner the headwaters
of the Liard river, flowing into the Mackenzie, occupy a part of
its area. The margins of the territory are mountainous, including
part of the St. Elias range with the highest mountains in Canada
at the south-west corner, Mount Logan (19,850 ft.) and Mount
St. Elias (18,008 ft.), and the north extension of the Rocky moun-
tains along the south and north-east sides; here, however, not
very lofty. The interior of the territory is high toward the south-
east and sinks toward the north-west and may be described as a
much dissected peneplain with low mountains to the south. The
most important feature of the hydrography is the Yukon (q.v.)
and the rivers which flow into it. The Klondike gold mines are
reached by river boats coming down 460 m. from White Horse,
the terminus of the White Pass railway, in in. long, from Skag-
way on an inlet of the Pacific.
Before the discovery of gold on the Forty Mile and other
rivers flowing into the Yukon the region was inhabited only by
a few Indians, but the sensational finds of rich placers in the
Klondike (q.v.) in 1896 brought in a vigorous population centred
in the mines and at Dawson City, which was made the capital
of the newly constituted Yukon territory. With the decline of
the gold-mining industry, the population decreased from 27,219
in 1901 to 8,512 in 1911 and 4.157 in 1921. In 1918 an amend-
ment to the Yukon Act abolished the council of the Yukon and
the territory is now administered by the Northwest Territories
Branch of the Canadian Department of the Interior. Law and
order are enforced by members of the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police. The Yukon is represented in the Dominion Parliament
by one member in the House of Commons. Placer gold is still
the principal mineral product, the value of the gold output in
1925, when 52 mines were working, being £988,465. The Yukon
has also been a steady producer of silver and in 1926 yielded
1,686,106 fine oz., mostly from Keno and Galena Hills, in the
Mayo district. A concentrator has been installed at Keno Hill.
The wide distribution of the ores of gold, copper, silver and lead
indicate enormous mining possibilities. Coal, of which there are
large reserves, is being mined in increasing quantities. Large
game and fur-bearing animals abound.
Though so near the Pacific the Yukon territory has a rigorous
continental climate with very cold winters seven months long,
and delightful sunny summers. Owing to the lofty mountains to
the west the amount of rain and snow is rather small, and the line
of perpetual snow is more than 4,000 ft. above sea-level, so
that glaciers are found only on the higher mountains; but the
moss-covered ground is often perpetually frozen to a depth of
100 or 200 ft. Vegetation is luxuriant along the river valleys,
where fine forests of spruce and poplar are found, and the hardier
grains and vegetables are cultivated with success.
YUMA, a city near the south-western corner of Arizona,
U.S.A., on the Colorado river, at the mouth of the Gila river; it is
the county seat of Yuma county. It is on Federal highway So;
has a municipal airport; and is served by the Southern Pacific and
the Yuma Valley railways. Pop. (1920) 4.237 (74% native white).
YUMAN, a speech stock of American Indians, named from
the Yuma tribe, living about the lower Colorado river and occu-
pying a distinctly desert habitat. The groups that belong are the
Havasupai, Walapai and Yavapai of the mountains of western
Arizona; the Mohave (q.v.\ Yuma, Kamia and Cocopa (Q.V.) in
the Colorado river bottomlands; the Maricopa O/.tO, Halchid-
homa, Kohuana, Halyikwamai, once on the river but driven out
and the remnants, except the Maricopa, lost to tribal identity;
the Diegueno to the rear of San Diego in California; and the
Akwa'ala, Yukiliwa, Cochimi and other groups known under
varying local names in Mexican California. Of these tribes, the
most advanced were those on the Colorado, who have changed
little since their discovery by Alarcon in 1540. They have always
been warlike and turbulent, but chiefly among one another. They
are agricultural, marking the north-western frontier in the con-
tinent of the native practice of maize farming. They make pottery
but no basketry. They are divided into totemic patrilineal clans.
926
YUNCAN— YVERDON
YUNCAN, a group of tribes of South American Indians,
forming an independent linguistic stock. The Yuncas (known also
as Chimus and Muchic) occupied originally the arid coastal region
of northern Peru comprised within the valleys of Trujillo, Chi-
cama, Jequetepeque, Lambayeque and Morope; later, by conquest,
they extended the area controlled north as far as Tumbez and
southward to Chancay. In the isth century they were conquered,
after stubborn resistance, by the Incas and their territory included
within the Inca empire. Their most important centre was the
great city of Chanchan (Gran Chimu), which was situated near
the present Trujillo.
The Yuncas were a city-dwelling, agricultural people with highly
developed agriculture, growing manioc, maize and sweet potatoes.
While the houses of the poorer people were doubtless of reeds
and matting or thatch, the better dwellings and all the important
structures were built of sun-dried brick. The temples were
stepped pyramids, raised on high platforms, and containing burial
chambers within. Some of the palaces were decorated with elab-
orately executed stucco relief patterns in geometric style derived
from textiles, and reminiscent of the stone mosaics of Mitla in
Mexico. The Yuncas were wide traders along the coast, using
reed and log balsas or rafts, and constructed regular harbour
works at their ports. They were expert textile makers and raised
cotton for the purpose; were very skilful Workers in gold, of
which great amounts have been excavated by treasure-hunters;
and were also makers of very line pottery, of which three sequent
styles may be distinguished. They would appear to have had a
rather elaborate social and governmental organization, with kings
or chiefs of considerable power. In their religion they venerated
the moon more than the sun (in contrast to their Inca conquer-
ors), and also held sea deities in high esteem.
See M. C. Balboa, Hhtoire du Perou; A. de la Calancha, Cronica
moralizada, etc. (Barcelona, 1638) ; E. W. Middendorff, Das Muchik
oder die Chimu-Sprache (Leipzig, 1892) ; M. Uhlc, "Die Ruincn von
Moche," J. Soc. Americ artistes de Paris, (ms.) vol. x., pp. 95-119;
A. L. Kroebcr, "The Uhlc Collection from Moche," Univ. of California,
Pub. Amer. Arch. Rthnol., vol. xxi., pt. 5.
YUNNAN (i.e., Cloudy South), a south-west province of
China, bounded north by Szechwan, east by Kwei-chow and
Kwang-si, south by Burma and the Lao tribes, and west by
Burma and Tibet; area 146,718 sq. miles. The population is
variously estimated at four to 12 millions, a recent and probable
estimate being between eight and nine millions. The inhabitants
include many races beside Chinese, such as Shans, Lolos and
Maotsze. The Musus, in north-west Yunnan, once formed an
independent kingdom which extended into East Tibet. Some of
the inhabitants are nominally Muslim. The west and north-west
have high mountain ranges and deep gorges of the Kinsha-kiang
(upper Yangtze-Kiang), the Mekong and the Salwcn; the ridges
have peaks over 16,000 ft. high, the slopes are often heavily
forested, population is small, communications are bad, and a jour-
ney from Yunnan Fu to Bhamo, via Tcng-yueh (505 m.) takes
nearly four weeks. The south-east includes the upper basin of
the Songkoi or Red river, and of the Pata-ho (upper Si-kiang) ;
the former becomes navigable near Man-hao, just before it
leaves Yunnan for Tongking. This region has rich valleys and
open, undulating country. The north-east, near the Yangtze-
Kiang's right bank, is not very high, though higher than Kwei-
chow, over the border, but it is deeply dissected and sparsely
peopled. There are a few lakes, especially near the capital,
Yunnan Fu. The mean monthly temperature of Yunnan Fu varies
from 47° F in December to 69° F in July, the warm season being
April to August and the rainy season March to August, with the
maximum in June (13-34 m-)- The total annual fall is 37 to 38
inches.
Besides Yunnan Fu, the capital, the province contains 13 pre-
fcctural cities, several of which — Teng-ch'uen Fu, Ta-li Fu,
Yung-ch'ang Fu, Ch'u-siung Fu and Lin-gan Fu, for example —
are situated in the valley plains. Mengtszc, Szemao and Momein
(or Teng-yueh) are open to foreign trade. Yunnan Fu is con-
nected by railway (1910) with Tongking. The line, which starts
from Haiphong, runs, in Yunnan, via Mengtsze hsien (a great
commercial centre), to the capital. Several important roads in-
tersect the province; among them are: — (i) The road from
Yunnan Fu to Bhamo in Burma via Ta-li Fu (12 days), Teng-
yueh Chow or Momein (eight days), and Manwyne — beyond
Ta-li Fu it is a difficult mountain route. (2) The road from Ta-li
Fu North to Patang via Li-kiang Fu, which thus connects West
Yunnan with Tibet. (3) The ancient trade road to Canton, which
connects Yunnan Fu with Pai-se Fu, in Kwang-si, on the Canton
West river, a land journey which occupies about 20 days. From
this point the river is navigable to Canton.
Yunnan, long independent, was subdued by Kublai Khan, but
was not finally incorporated in the empire until the i7th century.
It was the principal centre of the great Mohammedan rebellion,
which lasted 16 years and was suppressed in 1872.
See H. R. Davies, Yunnanf the Link between India and the Yangtze
(Cambridge, 1909) ; A. Little, Across Yunnan (London, 1910) ;
Rev. J. McCarthy, "The Province of Yunnan," in The Chinese Empire
(London, 1907) ; L. Richard, Comprehensive Geography of the
Chinese Empire (Shanghai, 1908).
YUN-NAN-FU, the capital of the province of Yiin-nan,
China, about 500 m, by rail N.N.W. of the port of Hai-Gong, Tong-
king. The town is centrally placed at a focus of ways within the
province. The plain in the neighbourhood of the city is fertile
and well populated and Yiin-nan-Fu is said to have about 45,000
inhabitants. Originally the surrounding district was known as the
"land of the southern barbarians" and the city is surrounded by
fortified walls some 6i m. in circuit. The city has a strong
Mohammedan colony and was almost reduced, to ruin by the
Mohammedan rising in 1855. The rise to prosperity w^s slow, but
the opening in 1910 of the railway from Tongking, built by the
French, gave a fresh impetus to commerce. The copper works are
important and there is a mint at Yiin-nan-Fu. Silk and leather
goods are made while English cotton fabrics are imported as well
as raw cotton from Burma.
YURIE V: we TARTU.
YUROK, a tribe on the lower Klamath river, asserted but
also disputed to be of Algonkin speech lineage, is perhaps the
nuclear group of the north-west California Indian culture, the
principal others being the Hokan Karok upstream from them, the
Athabascan Hupa (q.v.) of Trinity, the Chilula of Redwood, the
Tolowa of Smith river; and the Algonkin (?) Wiyot of Humboldt
bay. The Yurok once numbered about 2,400 in more than 50
small villages; 500 remain.
YURUCAREAN, a small group of tribes of South American
Indians, constituting an independent linguistic stock. The Yuru-
carcs live in Bolivia on the eastern slopes of the Andes and the
lowlands along the Chapare, Isiboro and Secure rivers, tribu-
taries of the Mamore. They are a tall, well-built folk, slightly
lighter in colour than the Quechua of the highlands, who gave
them the name by which they are known, signifying "white
men." Their dress consisted of a poncho-like garment, without
sleeves, of bast, decorated with geometric patterns, printed by
means of large wooden dies. The Yurucares are sedentary agri-
culturalists and hunters, living in open thatched shelters.
Sec A. D'Orbigny, L'Homme Americain (Paris, 1839) ; L. E. Miller,
The "Yurucare Indians of Eastern Bolivia" (Geog. Review, 1917, pp.
450-^64) .
YUSAFZAI, a large group of Pathan tribes, originally immi-
grants from the neighbourhood of Kandahar, which includes those
of the Black Mountain, the Bunerwals, the Swatis, the people of
Dir and the Panjkora valley, and also the inhabitants of the
Yusafzai plain in Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier
Province of India. Three sections of the tribe, the Hassanzais,
Akazais and Chagarzais, inhabit the W. slopes of the Black Moun-
tain, and the Yusafzai country extends to the Utman Khel terri-
tory.
YVERDON (i,437 ^.), a town in the canton of Vaud,
Switzerland, and on the south-western corner of Lake Neuchatel,
at the mouth of the Thiele. It is situated ,on the site of the small
Roman town of Eburodunum. The population is 8,850, French-
speaking and mostly Protestant. At the beginning of the 19th
century its castle was the home of Pestalozzi's school It has an
historical museum and several industries. It is a well-known spa
with warm and sulphurous springs.
YVES— YVETOT
927
YVES, SAINT, OF BRITTANY (1253-1303), was born
in 1253 at Kermartin, near Treguier, Brittany. His father was
H&oury, seigneur of Kermartin, and his mother Azou de Quen-
quis. In 1267 he went to Paris to study law, and ten years later
to Orleans to study canon law. On returning to Brittany he was
appointed ecclesiastical judge under the archdeacon of Rennes. In
1285 he was ordained priest and appointed first to the parish
of Tr£drez, and afterwards to Louannec, where he died on May
J9i J303- He was buried in the cathedral of Treguier, and was
canonized by Clement VI. in 1347. As a lawyer and judge he
was famed for his rectitude and wisdom and for his zeal in de-
fending the cause of widows and orphans. His feast is celebrated
on May 19. He is the patron saint of lawyers for he was "ad-
vocatus et non latro, res miranda populo" (a lawyer and not a
thief, a marvel to the. people).
YVETOT, a town of north France, in the department of
Seine-Inferieure, 24 m. N.W. of Rouen on the railway to Havre.
Pop. (1926) 6,136. Cotton goods and hats are made; also trade in
agricultural products. The lords of Yvetot bore the title of king
from the i5th till the middle of the i6th century, their petty
monarchy being popularized in one of B£ranger's songs. In 1593
Henry IV. here defeated the troops of the League.
928
Z— ZACHARIAE VONT LINGENTHAL
This letter together with Y was adapted by the
Romans from the Greek alphabet after the con-
quest of Greece for use in Greek words borrowed
or transliterated. It was the seventh letter of the
Greek alphabet and had the form I or "7"- ^
was not taken over by the Latins from the Chal-
cidic alphabet with the rest of the letters as the sound it repre-
sented did not occur in Latin. Its place in the alphabet was filled
by the letter G adapted from C to represent the voiced velar stop.
The letter corresponded to Semitic "T(sain).
The minuscule letter has generally retained the form of the
majuscule, though in certain hands the form ^ has developed.
The sound represented by the letter in Greek is not precisely
known. It was, at least in certain cases, a double sound and
probably varied in separate dialects as well as in different words
between z, z, zd, dz, or dz. In Latin it was probably the voiced
fricative corresponding to s and this value it has retained till
modern times. (B. F. C. A.)
ZABERN: see SAVERNE.
ZABRZE: see HINDENBURG.
ZACATECAS, a State of Mexico. Its area is 28,125 sq.m.,
pop. (1921) 379,329. It belongs wholly to the great central
plateau of Mexico, with an average elevation of about 7,700 feet.
The State is somewhat mountainous, being traversed in the west
by lateral ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental, and by
numerous isolated ranges in other parts — Mazapil, Norillos, Gua-
dalupe and others. There are no large rivers, only the small head-
streams of the Aguanaval in the north, and of the Guazamota,
Bolanos and Juchipila in the west, the last three being tributaries
of the Rio Grande de Santiago. As the rainfall is light this lack
of streams suitable for irrigation is a drawback to agriculture. The
climate is dry and generally healthy, being warm in the valleys and
temperate in the mountains. The agricultural products are cereals,
sugar and maguey; the first depends on the rainfall which often
fails altogether, the second on irrigation in the lower valleys,
and the latter doing best in a dry climate on a calcareous soil
with water not far beneath the surface. A natural product is
guaynle, a shrub from which rubber is extracted. The chief indus-
try of Zacatecas, however, is mining for silver, gold, mercury,
copper, iron, zinc, lead, bismuth, antimony and salt. Its mineral
wealth was discovered soon after the conquest, and some of its
mines are among the most famous of Mexico, dating from 1546.
The State is traversed by the Mexican Central and the Mexican
National railways. Its manufactures are limited chiefly to the
reduction of mineral ores, the extraction of rubber from guayule,
the making of sugar, rum, mescal, pulque, woollen and cotton
fabrics, and some minor industries of the capital. The capital
is Zacatecas, and the other principal towns are : Sombrerete, pop.
(1910) 6,311; an important silver-mining town 70 m. north-west
of the capital (elevation 8,430 ft.); Villa Garcia, pop. (1910)
7,813; Guadalupe, pop. (1910) 5»55i; Pinos, pop. (1910) 5,097,
a mining town; San Juan de Mezquital, pop. (1910) 4,220; and
Fresnillo, an important silver- and copper-mining centre.
ZACATECAS, a city of Mexico, capital of the State of
Zacatecas, 442 m. by the Mexican Central railway north-west of
Mexico City. Pop. (1921) 15,462. It is built in a deep, narrow
ravine, 8,050 ft. above sea-level, with narrow, crooked streets
climbing the steep hillsides, and white, flat-roofed houses of four
and five storeys overtopping each other. The city is well drained
and has a fine aqueduct for its water supply. The cathedral is
an elaborately carved red-stone structure with unfinished towers
and richly decorated interior. Overlooking the city from an eleva-
tion of 500 ft. is the Bufa Hill, which is crowned by a chapel and
is a popular pilgrimage resort.
Zacatecas was founded in 1546 and was built over a rich vein
of silver discovered by Juan de Tolosa in the same year. This and
other mines in the vicinity attracted a large population, and it soon
became one of the chief mining centres of Mexico. It was made
a city in 1585 by Philip II.
ZACCONI, LUDOVICO, Italian musical theorist, was born
about the middle of the i6th century at Pesaro, the years of his
birth and death being unknown. He made his home in Venice,
where he became an Augustine monk and was appointed maestro
di cappella at the church of his Order. After a short time spent
in the service of Wilhelm, duke of Bavaria in 1592, and a longer
period in Vienna with the archduke Charles, he returned in 1619
to Venice. Zacconi's fame is based on a single monumental work,
the Prattica di inusica utile et necessaria si al compositore . . .
si anco al cantor e (2 pts., Venice, 1596 and 1619). It is onc*of
three standard theoretical works of the Polyphonic period, the
others being the Dodecachordon of Glaureanus and the Musicae
activae Micrologus of Ornithoparcus; Zacconi's work, being the
latest of the three, treats of the methods of the ripest period
of the Polyphonic school.
Complete copies of the Prattica di Musica are in the British Museum
and the Royal College of Music, London. Sec the article by W. S.
Rockstro in Grove's Dictionary of Music; also F. Balielli, Un musichta
pesarcsc net seccolo xvi. (1905) and Notizic su la vita e Ic opere di L.
Zacconi (1912) ; H. Kretzschrnar, Ludovico Zacconi's Leben auj Grund
seiner Autobiographic (1910).
ZACHARIAE VON LINGENTHAL, KARL SALO-
MO (1769-1843), German jurist, was born on Sept. 14, 1769, at
Meissen in Saxony, the son of a lawyer, and was educated there
and at Leipzig university. He was professor of law at Wittenberg
(1798), and at Heidelberg from 1807 till his death on March 27,
1843. In 1820 he was member for his university in the new parlia-
ment of Baden, and in 1825, after the revision of the constitution,
for the district of Heidelberg. Throughout his parliamentary
career he was a strong conservative, and it was the growth of
liberalism that induced him to retire in 1829, and devote himself
entirely to juridical work. The German universities still had their
old jurisdiction in legal questions of international importance, and
Zachariae had referred to him such points as the claim of Sir
Augustus d'Este to the dukedom of Sussex, and the dispute about
debts due to the elector of Hesse-Cassel, confiscated by Napoleon.
He was ennobled in 1842.
His writings deal with almost every branch of jurisprudence,
and relate to Roman, Canon, German, French and English law.
The first book of much consequence which he published was Die
Einheit des Staats und der Kirche mit Rucksicht auj die Deutsche
Reichsver fas sung (1797), a work on the relations of church and
State, with special reference to the constitution of the empire.
In 1805 appeared Versuch einer allgemeinen Ilcrmeneiitik des
Rechts; and in 1806 Die Wissenschaft der Gesetzgebung, an
attempt to find a new theoretical basis for society in place of the
opportunist politics which had led to the French Revolution. This
basis he seemed to discover in something resembling Bentham's
utilitarianism. Zachariae's last work of importance was Vierzig
Biicher votn Staate (1839-42), to which his admirers point as his
enduring monument. It has been compared to Montesquieu's
L'fcsprit des lots, and covers no small part of the field of Buckle's
first volume of the History of Civilization.
For an account of Zachariae and his works, see Robert von Mohl,
Geschichte w. Literatur der Staatswissenschajten (1855-58), and
Charles Brocher, K. S. Zachariae, sa vie et ses oeuvres (1870) ; also
his biography in Allgem. Deutsche Biographic (vol. 44) by Wilhelm
Fischer, and Holtzendorff, Rechts- Lexicon, Zachariae von Lingenthal.
His son, KARL EDUARD ZACHARIAE (1812-1894), also an em-
inent jurist, was born on Dec. 24, 1812, and studied at Leipzig,
Berlin and Heidelberg. Having made Roman and Byzantine law
his special study, he visited Paris in 1832 to examine Byzantine
mss., went in 1834 to St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and Copen-
hagen for the same purpose, and in 1835 worked in the libraries
ZACHARIAS— ZAGREB
929
of Brussels, London, Oxford, Dublin, Edinburgh and Cambridge.
In 1837 he went in search of materials, to Italy and the East, visit-
ing Athens, Constantinople and the monasteries of Mount Athos.
Having a taste for a country life, and none for teaching, he gave
up his position as extraordinary professor at Heidelberg, and
in 1845 bought an estate in the Prussian province of Saxony. He
died on June 3, 1894.
For a list of Zachariae's works, see Allgem. Deutsche Biogr.
ZACHARIAS, ST., pope from 741 to 752, was a Greek by
birth, and appears to have been on intimate terms with Gregory
III., whom he succeeded (November 741). Contemporary history
dwells chiefly on his great personal influence with the Lombard
king Luitprand, and with his successor Rachis; it was largely
through his tact in dealing with these princes in a variety of
emergencies that the exarchate of Ravenna was rescued from
becoming part of the Lombard kingdom. A correspondence, be-
tween Zacharias and St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, is still
extant, and shows how great was the influence of this pope on
events then passing in France and Germany; he encouraged the
deposition of Childeric, and it was witla his sanction that Boni-
face crowned Pippin as king of the Franks at Soissons in 752,
Zacharias is stated to have remonstrated with the emperor Con-
stant ine Copronymus on the part he had taken in the iconoclastic
controversy. He died on March 14, 752, and was succeeded by
Stephen II.
The letters and decrees of Zacharias arc published in Migne,
Patrolog. lat. Ixxxix. p. 917-960.
ZAGAZIG (Zakazik), a town of Lower Egypt, capital of the
province of Sharkia. Pop. about 37,000. It is built on a branch
of the Fresh Water or Ismailia canal, and on the Al-Mo'izz canal
(the ancient Tanitic channel of the Nile), and is 47 m. by rail
N.N.E. of Cairo. Situated on the Delta in the midst of a fertile
district, Zagazig is a great centre of the cotton and grain trade of
Egypt. It has large cotton factories and the offices of numerous
European merchants. About a mile south of the town are the ruins
of Bubastis (q.v.).
ZAGHAWA: see NUBA.
ZAGHLUL, SAAD (1860-1927), Egyptian patriot, came of
fellahin stock in the district of Ibian, Gharbia Province. He was
educated at the village school and at the university of El Azhar, in
Cairo. In 1880, he became editor of the Official Journal. Later he
was nominated a Moawin under the Ministry of the Interior and
eventually became Chief of the Contentieux for the province of
Giza. Involved in the Arabi revolt, he was one of the many no-
tables detained on the occupation of Egypt by British troops in
1882. In 1884 he began to practise at the bar, and in 1893 became
a judge in the native court of appeal. He became Minister of
Education in 1906, and in 1910 Minister of Justice. At the Min-
istry of Justice he made a charge of corruption against the Khe-
dive Abbas Hilmi, and was asked (1912) by Lord Kitchener to
resign. Zaghlul's evidence was insufficient, but he was thought to
have been fundamentally justified, and his fierce opposition to
British domination was undisguised from that time onwards. He
then became vice-president of the Legislative Assembly.
On the signing of the Armistice (Nov. 1918) Zaghlul, who had
for long been considered the principal spokesman of the National-
ist party, appealed to the Residency in Cairo for the recognition
of Egyptian independence, basing his demand on President Wil- !
son's self-determination policy and the British proclamation de-
fining the status of the other countries liberated from Turkish
rule by the World War. His proposal that he, with other repre-
sentative Nationalists, should visit London to press their views
was refused by the Government, and his attitude was so hostile
that he and three others were arrested on March 8, 1919 and de-
ported to Malta. This was the signal for a murderous outbreak
in Egypt and serious disturbances (see EGYPT, History). Zagh-
lul and his friends were later released by Lord Allenby, and a
special mission under Viscount Milner was sent to Egypt in Nov.
1919 to report on the situation.
Zaghlul returned to Egypt early in 1921, where he represented
the extreme Nationalist party in opposition to the more moderate
ministry under the presidency of Adly Pasha. At the end of the
year, when trouble again broke out in Egypt, Zaghlul was arrested
once more and deported, first to Aden and then to the Seychelles.
In Sept. 1922 he was transferred to Gibralter, whence he was re-
leased on April 4, 1.923, on the grounds of ill-health. After the
promulgation of the new constitution, martial law was abolished
and Zaghlul was free to return to Egypt. He was enthusiastically
received, and in the elections of Jan. 1924 his supporters gained
an overwhelming majority. Yehia Ibrahim Pasha resigned and
Zaghlul formed a ministry. Conversations to secure a settlement
between England and Egypt took place in London (Sept. 25 —
Oct. 3) between Zaghlul and Ramsay Macdonald; Zaghlul re-
fused to modify his intransigent attitude, and no agreement was
reached. On Nov. 19, 1924 Sir Lee Stack, the Sirdar, was assass-
inated and Zaghlul was forced to resign. Nevertheless he became
president of the new Chamber of Deputies. From that time the
history of Zaghlul Pasha is the history of Egypt (q.v.).
Zaghlul died at Cairo on Aug. 23, 1927. He was 74, and his
health had long been failing, but he was still the life and soul of
Egyptian nationalism.
ZAGHOUAN, a small town of Tunisia, French North Africa,
35 m. S. of Tunis by rail, 275 ft. above sea-level. Pop. about
2,000. It occupies the site of an ancient town (perhaps Onellana)
of which nothing remains but a monumental entrance gate.
Below the rocky mass known as the Djebel Zaghouan (over
4,000 ft.) are the openings which were used for the Roman aque-
duct of Carthage; they were directed into an oval basin, behind
which was a hemicycle 100 ft. wide; in the centre of the curve
stood the temple of the protecting nymph or divinity.
ZAGREB, the capital of Croatia-Slavonia, Yugoslavia (Ger-
man, Agram), lies on the Sava, with a background of mountains
and surrounded by vineyards and country houses. Pop. (1921)
108,338. In 1910 it was only 79*83, but the influx of officials and
business men since the formation of the state of Yugoslavia, has
more than outweighed the exodus of Magyars and Germans. Zag-
reb is the second city of the kingdom and its commercial and
financial centre, with many important trade associations. It is
also the headquarters of one of the five army provinces. The
older part of the town, with narrow, winding streets, contains the
1 5th century Gothic cathedral and the bishop's palace, while the
newer part, with wide streets, open squares, a park and botanical
gardens, contains the business and industrial quarters. Here too
are the palace of justice, the South Slavonic academy, the univer-
sity, a synagogue, and a Protestant church. Roman Catholic
schools and churches arc numerous, and there is also a School of
Music. Tobacco, leather, linen, carpets, war material, hats and
caps, boots, paper, chemicals, varnish and oil-colours are made.
Recent excavations have shown that a settlement existed at
Zagreb in Roman times, and though the Croats probably built
a town there in the 7th century, the first written record of the city
occurs in 1093 when King Ladislaus of Hungary made it the see
of a bishop. The older part of Zagreb, known as the Kaptol, con-
tains the bishop's palace and the isth century Gothic cathedral
surrounded by the towers of the nth century fortress. In 1242
a walled town, now called the Upper Town, arose on a neighbour-
ing hill, and was raised to the rank of a royal free town by King
Bcla of Hungary. For centuries a bitter feud raged between the
Kaptol and the Upper Town, until these rivals were forced to
join hands against the Turks.
Zagreb, already the political centre of Croatia-Slavonia, was
selected as the capital in 1867. It suffered severely from earth-
quakes in 1880 and 1901. It is the home of an aristocracy and a
seat of culture on a level with more famous European centres.
Previously the centre of the Yugoslav movement, it is now par-
ticularist and Croat in sympathy. There were national disturb-
ances in the town in 1912, and the two military courts of justice
which sat here during the World War (1914-18) were considered
too strongly Croat in sympathy by the authorities at Vienna and
Budapest, so that in 1918 prisoners on trial for treason or mili-
tary offences, were sent to Bratislava (Pressburg). In that year,
when the Austrian empire was breaking up, an independent nation-
alist body assembled at Zagreb. In 1924 there was serious rioting
between the Croat Nationalists and the Yugoslav Sokols at a
930
ZAHAROFF— ZAMA
meeting of these patriotic athletic societies in the town.
ZAHAROFF, SIR BASIL (i8so~ ), financier and poll-
tician,was born in Constantinople in 1850. His father was Russian
and his mother Greek. Little is known of his early years except
that he was educated in London and Paris. In fact a veil of mys-
tery enshrouds most of his life. He is reputed to be one of the
world's richest men, his fortune being built up from munition
plants, shipbuilding, oil and other enterprises. He exerted a strong
if indirect influence during the World War and at the Paris con-
ference, being a close friend and political adviser of Lloyd
George, Venizelos, Clemenceau and Briand. During this period he
extended very considerable financial aid to the British and French
governments, and later was honoured by these countries for his
war services. He is said to have given Greece $2,500,000 a year
during the Balkan War, and half that sum during the World War.
To the American Near East Relief fund for refugee relief projects
in Greece he contributed several thousand pounds and he gave
1,000,000 francs to France for the "save the franc fund." He es-
tablished chairs of aviation at the universities of Paris, Petrograd,
and London and endowed the Marshal Foch professorship of
French literature at Oxford university and the Field-Marshal Haig
chair of English literature at Paris university.
ZAHN, ERNEST (1867- ), Swiss novelist and poet, was
born at Zurich on Jan. 24, 1867. Long associated with his father
in the management of the railway restaurant at Goschenen, at the
entrance to the St. Gotthard tunnel, he became in turn councillor,
judge and president of the diet of Canton Uri ; but he has latterly
devoted himself wholly to literature. His first book was Kdmpfe
(Zurich, 1893), a romance; his most popular novel is Lukas
Hochstrassers Haus (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1907). Other notable
volumes are: Blanche flur (Stuttgart, 1924), FrauSixta (Stuttgart,
1926), and two collections of short stories, Helden des Alltags
(Stuttgart, 1906) and Das Licht (Stuttgart, igi2).Herrgottsfdden
(Stuttgart, 1901), dealing with the St. Gotthard tunnel, has been
translated into English under the title of Golden Threads (1908).
See a study by H. Spiero, Ernest Zahn (Stuttgart, 1927).
ZAILA or ZEILA, a town on the African coast of the Gulf
of Aden, 124 m. S.W. of Aden. Zaila is the most western of the
ports of British Somaliland. Pop. (1921) about 7,000, Somali,
Arabs, Indians, Greeks, Jews and a few British. The town has
the sea on three sides; landward the country is unbroken desert
for some fifty miles.
Zaila owed its importance to its proximity to Harrar, the great
entrepot for the trade of southern Abyssinia. The trade of the
port received, however, a severe check on the opening (1902) of
the railway to Harrar from the French port of Jibuti, which is
35 m. N.W. of Zaila. Some trade with Harrar survived, and about
10% of the imports and 15% of the exports of British Somali-
land pass through Zaila.
ZAlMIS, ALEXANDER (1855- ), Greek statesman,
was born in Athens Oct. 28, 1855, and came of a family of poli-
ticians. Entering public life rather from duty than ambition,
Zai'mis became the "utility man" of Greek politics; thus he was
first appointed prime minister in Oct. 1897, to clear up the after-
math of the disastrous Graeco-Turkish War. Resigning in 1899,
after having accomplished that task, he again became premier
after the "Gospel Riots" had caused the fall of Theotokes in Nov.
1901, but succumbed to the majority which supported his uncle,
Deliyannes, in 1902. In Sept. 1906 he was appointed high commis-
sioner of the Powers in Crete, a post which he held until 1911.
In 1913 he was appointed governor of the National Bank. He
became premier for the third time in Oct. 1915, but returned to
the Bank after a month's office, emerging, however, to resume the
premiership in June 1916. He became for the fifth time premier
in. 1917, and announced to King Constantine the decision of the
three Protecting Powers that he must abdicate. He then retired
again to the National Bank, but was removed on the restoration of
King Constantine. After the king's second abdication, Sept. 1922,
Za'imis refused a sixth premiership, and was talked of as a pos-
sible president. On Dec. 4, 1926, he became premier of an
Oecumenical Government of three republican ex-premiers and the'
two Royalist leaders, and remained at the head of the two coalition
cabinets, which succeeded it in Aug. 1927 and Feb. 1928.
(W. M.)
ZAIMUKHT, the name of a small Pathan tribe who inhabit
the hills between the Miranzai and Kurram valleys.
ZAIRE, a Portuguese variant of a Bantu word (nzari) mean-
ing river, a name by which the river Congo was formerly known.
In the 1 6th and i7th centuries the powerful native kingdom of
Congo possessed both banks of the lower river, and the name of
the country was in time given to the river also. Until, however,
the last quarter of the igth century "Zaire" was frequently used
to designate the stream. It is so called by Camoens in the Lusiads.
(See CONGO, river.)
ZAISAN O'Noble"). (i) A lake of Asiatic Russia, situated in
a valley between the Altai range on the north-east and the Tar-
bagatai on the south, at an altitude of 1,355 feet- Its area is 707
sq.m., and its surface is dotted with islands; it is 60 to 65 m. long
and 10 to 20 m. wide and receives the drainage of ten rivers,
including the Black Irtysh and the Kendyrlyk; the White Irtysh
forms the north-western outlet of the lake. Roach, perch, carpf
trout, nyelma and sterlet abound during the fishing season, May
to August. The lake has a depth of 50 ft. and is navigable for
steamers; and barges ascend the Black Irtysh into Mongolia.
(2) A town in the Kazakstan A.S.S.R., in 47° 32' N., 84° 56'
E., situated on a route into Mongolia, at an altitude of 2,200 feet.
It lies south-east of Lake Zaisan and south of the Black Irtysh.
Pop. (1926) 8,130. Its tanning and leather industry is important
and it is a centre for trade between Kazakstan and ^longolia.
Topolni Mis, on Lake Zaisan, acts as a port for it.
ZAKOPANE, a town of Poland in the province of Cracow,
situated amid superb scenery in the heart of the Tatra mountains ;
a great health resort both in summer and winter, having a bob-
sleigh track and other facilities for winter sports; the most
frequented holiday resort of Polish tourists and rock climbers.
It has important thermal springs. The town lies 1,000 metres
above sea-level and has an alpine climate.
ZALEUCUS, of Locri Epizephyrii in Magna Graecia (fl. c.
660 B.C.), Greek lawgiver, is said to have been the author of the
first written code of laws amongst the Greeks. The story has some
familiar features. The Locrians were distressed at their own law-
lessness; they commissioned Zaleucus a slave, to draw up a code,
and he did so under divine inspiration. The code was a severe
one of the Draconic type which remained unchanged for centuries.
The story ends with the episode (cf. Charondas) of the lawgiver
committing suicide on discovering that he had inadvertently
broken one of his own laws.
See Bentley, Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris; F. D. Gcrlach,
Zaleukos, Charondas, Pythagoras (1858) ; G. Busolt, Griechische Ge-
schichtc (1885-1904).
ZALMOXIS or ZAMOLXIS, a semi-mythical social and re-
ligious reformer, regarded as the only true god by the Thracian
Getae. According to Herodotus (iv. 94), the Getae, who be-
lieved in the immortality of the soul, looked upon death merely
as going to Zalmoxis. It is probable that Zalmoxis is Sabazius, the
Thracian Dionysus or Zeus; Mnaseas of Patrae identified him
with Cronus. In Plato (Charmides, 158 B) he is mentioned with
Abaris as skilled in the arts of incantation. No satisfactory etymol-
ogy of the name has been suggested.
ZAMA, BATTLE OF, 202 B.C. One of the most decisive
battles in military history in its military result, Zama ranks above
any, save perhaps Waterloo, for its decisive effect on the course of
world history. For the defeat of Hannibal, the first and only true
defeat in his career, left Carthage naked, and her surrender put an
end to the long struggle between Rome and Carthage (see PUNIC
WARS) for the mastery of the Mediterranean World.
The prologue to Zama had been the invasion of Africa by
Scipio (q.v.), almost in defiance of the Roman senate which
wished him instead to attack Hannibal, who still stood unconquer-
able in Southern Italy. In Africa Scipio's brilliant series of vic-
tories over less formidable generals had forced Carthage to sue
for peace before Hannibal could answer the summons of recall.
But while the peace negotiations were being conducted in Rome,
Hannibal landed at Leptis, whereupon the Carthaginians broke the
ZAMA
truce, and Scipio's military position was gravely compromised —
isolated on hostile soil and with part of his force detached to
assist his ally Masinissa in securing his new kingdom of Numidia.
Instead of awaiting Hannibal near Carthage, Scipio cut himself
off from his base and marched on a divergent path into the interior.
Security lies often in calculated audacity, and an analysis of the
military problems makes it highly probable that his march inland
PLAN OF THE BATTLE OF ZAMA, 202 B.C., ENDING THE STRUGGLE
BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE FOR MASTERY Of THE MEDITERRANEAN
WORLD
up the Bagradas valley was aimed, by its menace to the rich in-
terior or%which Carthage depended for supplies, to force Hannibal
to push west to meet him instead of north to Carthage. By this
clever move he threatened the economic base of Carthage and
protected his own, also luring Hannibal away from his military
base — Carthage. A complementary purpose was that this line of
movement brought him progressively nearer to Numidia, shorten-
ing the distance which Masinissa would have to traverse with his
expected reinforcement of strength.
It had the intended effect, for the Carthaginians sent urgent
appeals to Hannibal to advance towards Scipio and bring him to
battle, and within a few days he marched west, and arrived by
forced marches at Zama. He then sent out scouts to discover the
Roman camp and its dispositions for defence — it lay some miles
farther west. Almost coincidently Masinissa arrived with 6,000
horse and 4,000 foot, and Scipio then broke up his camp and
moved to a fresh site near the town of Narragara, his position
being well chosen tactically, and having water "within a javelin's
throw." Hannibal also moved his camp forward to meet him.
A parley between the two commanders led to no result, and
both thereupon prepared to decide the issue by arms. The dispo-
sitions made by the rival leaders have several features of note.
Scipio placed his heavy Roman foot— he had probably two legions
— in the centre; Laelius with the Italian cavalry on tie left wing;
and on the right wing Masinissa with the whole of the Numidians,
horse and foot. The heavy infantry were drawn up in the normal
three lines: first, the Itastati; then the principes; and finally, the
triarii. But instead of adopting the usual chequer formation, with
the maniples of the second line opposite to and covering the inter-
vals between the maniples of the first line, he ranged the maniples
forming the rear Knes directly behind the respective maniples of
the first line — thus forming wide lanes between each two cohorts.
The Carthaginian had eighty elephants, more than in any pre-
vious battle, and in order to terrify the enemy he placed them in
front of his h'ne. Supporting them, in the first line, were the
Ligurian and Gallic mercenaries, intermixed with Balearic and
Moorish light troops. In the second line were the Carthaginian and
African levies, their combined strength probably exceeding that of
the first tine. Finally, Hannibal's own troops from Italy formed
the third line, held back more than 200 yards distant from the
others, in order evidently to keep it as an intact reserve. On the
wings Hannibal disposed his cavalry, the Numidian allies on the
left and the Carthaginian horse on the right. His total force was
probably in excess of 50,000, perhaps 55,000. The Roman strength
is less certain, but if we assume that each of Sciplo's two legions
was duplicated by an equal body of Italian allies, and add Masin-
issa's fo,ooo, the complete strength would be about 36,000.
The battle opened, after preliminary skirmishing, with Hanni-
bal's order to the drivers of the elephants to charge the Roman
line. Scipio promptly countered by a blast of trumpets along
the whole line. The strident clamour so startled and terrified
the elephants that many of them at once turned back on their
own troops. This was especially the case on the left wing, where
they threw the Numidians, Hannibal's best cavalry wing, into
disorder just as they were advancing to the attack. Masinissa
seized this golden opportunity to launch a counter-stroke, which
inevitably overthrew the disorganized opponents. With Masinissa
in hot pursuit, they were driven from the field, and so left the
Carthaginian left wing exposed. The remainder of the elephants
wrought much havoc among Scipio's vclites, caught by their
charge in front of the Roman line. But the foresight that had
provided the "lanes'' and laid down the method of withdrawal was
justified by its results. For the elephants took the line of least
resistance, penetrating into the lanes rather than facing the firm-
knit ranks of the heavy infantry maniples. Once in these lanes
the ^elites who had retired into the lateral passages, between the
lines, bombarded them with darts from both sides. Their reception
was far too warm for them to linger when the door of escape was
held wide open. While some of the elephants rushed right through,
harmlessly, and out to the open in rear of the Roman army, others
were driven back out of the lanes, and fled towards the Carthagin-
ian right wing. "It was at this moment that Laelius, availing him-
self of the disturbance created by the elephants, charged the
Carthaginian cavalry, and forced them to headlong flight. He
pressed the pursuit closely, as likewise did Masinissa." Both Han-
nibal's flanks were thus stripped bare.
In the meantime the infantry of both armies had slowly ad-
vanced on each other, except that Hannibal kept his third line
back. At first the Gauls and Ligurians had the balance of advan-
tage, through their personal skill in skirmishing and more rapid
movement. But the Roman line remained unbroken, and the
weight of their compact formation pushed the enemy back despite
losses. Another factor told, for while the leading Romans were
encouraged by the shouts from the rear lines, coming on to back
them up, Hannibal's second line — the Carthaginians — failed to
support the Gauls, but hung back in order to keep their ranks
firm. Forced steadily back, and feeling they had been left in the
lurch by their own side, the Gauls turned about and fled. When
they tried to seek shelter in the second line they were repulsed by
the Carthaginians, who deemed it essential to avoid any disarray
which might enable the Romans to penetrate their line. In a
short time the relics of the first line had dispersed completely, or
disappeared round the flanks of the second line. The latter, how-
ever, showed their fighting quality by thrusting back the Roman
first line — the hastati. In this they were helped by a human
obstacle, the ground encumbered with corpses and slippery with
blood, which disordered the ranks of the attacking Romans. Even
the principes had begun to waver when they saw the first line
driven back so decisively, but their officers rallied them, and led
them forward in the nick of time to restore the situation. This re-
inforcement was decisive. Hemmed in, because the Roman for-
mation produced a longer frontage and so overlapped their line,
the Carthaginians were steadily cut to pieces. The survivors fled
back on the relatively distant third line, but Hannibal continued
his policy of refusing to allow the fugitives to mix with and dis-
turb an ordered line.
The curtain now rose on what was practically a fresh battle.
The Romans "had penetrated to their real antagonists, men equal
to them in the nature of their arms, in their experience of war, in
the fame of their achievements. . . ." Livy's tribute is borne out
by the fierceness and the long uncertain issue of the subsequent
conflict, which refutes the suggestion that Hannibal's "Old Guard"
was but a shadow of its former power — in the days of Trasimenus
and Cannae. The Romans had the moral advantage of having
routed two successive lines, as well as the cavalry and elephants,
but they had now to face a compact and fresh body of probably
24,000 veterans, under the direct inspiration of Hannibal. And no
man in history has shown a more dynamic personality in infusing
his own determination in his troops. The Romans, too, had at last
932
ZAMBEZI
a numerical advantage, not large, however — the forces were
"nearly equal in numbers" according to Polybius — and in reality
still less than it appeared. For while all Hannibal's third line were
fresh, on Scipio's side only the triarii had not been engaged, and
these represented but half the strength of the hastati or principes.
Further, the velitcs had been so badly mauled that they had to be
relegated to the reserve, and the cavalry were off the field, en-
gaged in the pursuit. Thus it is improbable that Scipio had at his
disposal for this final blow more than 18,000 or 20,000 infantry,
less the casualties these had already suffered.
His next step is characteristic of the man — of his cool calcula-
tion even in the heart of a battle crisis. He sounded the recall to
his leading troops, and then, in face of an enemy at hardly more
than a bow-shot distance, he not only reorganized his troops but
reconstructed his dispositions. His problem was this: against the
first two enemy lines the Roman formation, shallower than the
Carthaginian phalanx and with intervals, had occupied a wider
frontage, and so enabled him to overlap theirs. Now, against a
body double the strength, his frontage was no longer, and perhaps
less, than Hannibal's. His appreciation evidently took in this
factor, and with it two others. First, that in order to concentrate
his missile shock power for the final effort it would be wise to make
his line as solid as possible and this could be done because there
was no longer need for or advantage in retaining intervals be-
tween the maniples. Second, that as his cavalry would be return-
ing any moment there was no advantage in keeping the ortho-
dox formation in depth and using the principes and triarii as a di-
rect support and reinforcement to his front line. The blow should
be as concentrated as possible in time and as wide as possible in
striking force rather than a series of efforts. He, therefore, made
his hastati close up to form a compact centre without intervals.
Similarly he closed each half of his principes and triarii outwards,
and moved them forward to extend the flank on either wing. He
now once more overlapped the hostile front. The role of Scipio's
infantry in the final phase was to fix Hannibal's force ready for
the decisive manoeuvre to be delivered by the cavalry. For this
r61e violence and wideness of onslaught was more important than
sustenance. Scipio made his redistribution deliberately and un-
hurriedly— the longer he could delay the final tussle, the more time
he gained for the return of his cavalry. It is not unlikely that
Masinissa and Laelius pressed the pursuit rather too far, and so
caused an unnecessary strain on the Roman infantry and on
Scipio's plan. For Polybius tells us that when the rival infantries
met, ''the contest was for long doubtful, the men falling where
they stood out of determination, until Masinissa and Laelius
arrived providentially at the proper moment." Their charge, in
the enemy's rear, clinched the decision, and though most of Hanni-
bal's men fought grimly to the end, they were cut down in their
ranks. Of those who took to flight few escaped.
The completeness of the victory left no room for a strategic
pursuit, but Scipio did not linger in developing the moral ex-
ploitation of his victory. An immediate move on Carthage
achieved its object, a bloodless capitulation.
ZAMBEZI, the fourth in size of the rivers of Africa, and the
largest of those flowing eastwards to the Indian ocean. Its length
(taking all curves into consideration) is about 2,200 m. The
area of its basin, according to Dr. Bludau, is 513,500 sq.m.,
or rather less than half that of the Nile. The main channel is
clearly marked from beginning to end. The river takes its rise
in 11° 21' 3" S., 24° 22' E. The source lies in British territory
in a depression of an undulating country 5,000 ft. above the
sea, covered with bracken and open forest. The water, like
that of all the rivers of the neighbourhood, issues from a black
marshy bog. Eastward of the source the water-parting between
the Congo and Zambezi basins is a well-marked belt of high
ground, falling abruptly north and south, and running nearly east
and west between 11° and 12° S.
The Upper River.— The infant Zambezi, after pursuing a
south-westerly course for about 150 m., turns more directly south
and, receives on either side numerous small tributaries. A few
miles above Kakengi (in 12° 24' S.), the Zambezi, narrow, pic-
turesque and tortuous, suddenly widens from 100 to 350 yd.
Below Kakengi are a number of rapids ending (13° 7' S.) in
the Suapuma cataracts. At this point the river flows tumultuously
through a rocky fissure.
The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the
Kabompo, a left-hand affluent. It joins the main stream in 14°
26' S. A little lower down (in 14° 18' S.) the Zambezi receives
from the west the waters of a much larger stream than the
Kabompo, namely, the Lungwebungu. The land, from 5,000 ft.
at the source, falls gradually to 3,600 ft. at Kakengi — a distance
of 220 m. From this point until the Victoria Falls are reached —
500 m. — the level of the Zambezi basin is very uniform, the fall
being in this distance 600 ft. only. Twenty miles below the
confluence of the Lungwebungu the country becomes flat, and
in the rainy seasons is largely covered by floods. From the east
the Zambezi continues to receive numerous small streams, but
on the west is without tributaries for 150 m., when the great
river formerly misnamed the Chobe, but known to the natives
as Kwando or Linyante, joins it (in 17° 47' S.).
The Middle Zambezi. — The Victoria Falls are reached some •
60 m. below the Kwand6 confluence. The surrounding country
is formed of horizontal flows of basic lavas, which are traversed
by two well marked sets of joints. Along these the river, fol-
lowing an extremely angular course, has eroded a great canon,
about 400 ft. deep and in many places, with vertical sides. (See
Victoria Falls.) Into the canon the river plunges over a vertical
wall of rock. The narrow gorge can be traced mor$ or less con-
tinuously along its course for about 40 miles. The midcjle course
of the river may be said to extend for 800 in. below the Victoria
Falls to the Kebrabasa Rapids, where the Zambezi crosses the
great East African escarpment, and enters the coastal belt.
The Lower River. — The lower Zambezi — 400 m. from Kebra-
basa Rapids to the sea — presents no obstacles to navigation save
the shallowness of the stream in many places in the dry season.
This shallowness arises from the different character of the river
basin. Instead of, as in the case of the middle Zambezi, flowing
mainly through hilly country with well-defined banks, the river
traverses a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only
at one point, the Lupata Gorge, 200 m. from its mouth, is the
river confined between high hills. Here it is scarcely 200 yd.
wide. Elsewhere it is from 3 to 5 m. wide, flowing gently in
many streams. The river-bed is sandy, the banks are low and
reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the rainy
season, the streams unite into one broad swift-flowing river.
About 100 m. from the sea the Zambezi receives the drainage
of Lake Nyasa through the river Shire. On approaching the
ocean, which it reaches in 18° 50' S. the Zambezi splits up into
a number of branches and forms a wide delta. Each of the four
principal mouths— Milambe, Kongone, Luabo and Timbwe— is
obstructed by a sand-bar.
Mileage of Navigable Water. — As a highway into the in-
terior of the continent the Zambezi, like all other large African
rivers, in greater or less degree, suffers on account of the bar at
its mouth, the shallowness of its stream, and the rapids and cat-
aracts which interrupt its course. Nevertheless its importance to
commerce is great, as the following recapitulation of its navigable
stretches will show: (i) From the sea to the Kebrabasa Rapids,
400 m. (2) From Chikoa (above Kebrabasa) to within 140 m.
of the Victoria Falls, 700 m. (3) From the rapids above the
Victoria Falls to the Katima Molilo Rapids, 100 m. (4) Above
the Gonye Falls to the Supuma cataract, 300 m. (5) Above the
Supuma cataract, 120 m. Thus for 1,620 m. of its course the
Zambezi is navigable for steamers with a draught up to 28 in.
Several of the Zambezi affluents are also navigable for many
miles. The Lungwebungu, which enters the upper river, is navi-
gable for a long distance, thus supplying communication with the
extreme north-west corner of the Zambezi basin. Parts at least
of the Luena, Kafukwe, Loangwa and the Kwando tributaries
are also capable of being navigated. The Shir6 is also navigable
for a considerable distance. The sum of such navigable reaches
within the Zambezi basin as exceed 100 m. is nearly 4,000 m.
Exploration of the River^-The Zambezi region was known
to the mediaeval geographers as the empire of Monomotapa and
ZAMBOANGA— ZAMOYSKI
933
the course of the river, as well as the position of Lakes Ngami
and Nyasa, were filled in with a rude approximation to accuracy
in the earlier maps. These were probably constructed from Arab
information. The first European to visit the upper Zambezi was
David Livingstone in his exploration from Bechuanaland between
1851 and 1853, Two or three years later he descended the Zam-
bezi to its mouth and in the course of this journey discovered the
Victoria Falls. During 1858-60, accompanied by Dr. (after-
wards Sir) John Kirk, Livingstone ascended the river by the
Kongonc mouth as far as the Falls, besides tracing the course
of its tributary, the Shird and discovering Lake Nyasa. For the
next 35 years practically no additions were made to our knowledge
of the river system. In 1889 the entrance of vessels from the
sea was much facilitated by the discovery by D. J. Rankin of
the Chinde channel north of the main mouths of the river. Major
A. St. Hill Gibbons and his assistants, during two expeditions,
in 1895-96 and 1898-1900, ably continued the work of explora-
tion begun by Livingstone in the upper basin and central course
of the river. Of non-British travellers Major Scrpa Pinto exam-
ined some of the western tributaries .of the river and made
measurements of the Victoria Falls (1878).
See David and Charles Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition
to the Zambesi and its Tributaries (1865) ; A. de Scrpa Pinto, II uw I
Crossed Africa (1881) ; D. J. Rankin in Proc. R.GS. (March 1890) ;
A. Sharpe, ibid. (December, 1890) ; H. S. Bivar, 44Curso medio do
Zambeze," B.S.G. Lisboa, vol. xxiv. (1906) ; G. W. Lamplugh in
Geo. JnL, vol. xxxi. (1908) ; F. Coillard, On the Threshold of Central
Africa (London, 1897), and A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa from South to
North through Marotseland (2 vols., London, 1904). (F. R. C.)
ZAMBOANGA, a municipality (with administration centre
and 52 barrios or .districts) and capital of Zamboanga province,
and an important port of entry, of Mindanao, Philippine Islands,
situated at the south extremity of the Zamboanga peninsula on
Basilian strait. Pop. (estimated, 1928) 43,832. It is an impor-
tant commercial centre, the site of an army post and a post of
the Philippine constabulary. Its climate is considered as among
the best of any region in the Philippines, being considerably
cooler than that of Manila. There is much valuable timber in the
vicinity, and many agricultural products are raised, including rice,
copra, abaca, sugar, tobacco and sweet-potatoes. There is also
a considerable export, especially of copra and abaca. Good ship-
ping facilities have been installed, as well as a modern water
system and an electric lighting plant. It has a meteorological
station. In 1918 it had 55 household industry establishments with
output valued at 22,000 pesos. Of the 26 schools, 17 were public.
There had long been a native settlement at this p)oint, but the
Spanish town was established in 1635. It early became the chief
point for the Christians in their contest with the Moros.
ZAMIA, in botany, a genus of cycads (q.v.\ comprising about
35 species of small fern-like plants, native to tropical and sub-
tropical America. They have a turnip-like, mostly underground
stem surmounted by a crown of leaves, i ft. to 2 ft. long, sur-
rounding large fruiting cones. The crushed stems yield starch
used for food. Two species, Z. floridana and Z. pumila, known as
coontie or comfort-root, occur in southern Florida.
ZAMINDAR or ZEMINDAR, an Indian landholder (from
Persian zamin-"land"). In official usage the term is applied to
any person, whether owner of a large estate or cultivating mem-
ber of a village community, who is recognized as possessing some
property in the soil, as opposed to the ryot (q.v.), who is re-
garded as having only a right of occupancy, subject in both cases
to payment of the land revenue assessed on his holding.
ZAMINDAWAR, a district of Afghanistan, situated on the
right bank of the Helmund river to the north-west of Kandahar,
bordering the road which leads from Kandahar to Herat via Farah.
Zamindawar is a district of hills, r.nd of wide, well populated
and fertile valleys watered by important affluents of the Helmund.
The principal town is Musa Kala, which stands on the banks of a
river of the same name, about 60 m. N. of Girishk. The whole
of this region is a well-known hotbed of fanaticism, the headquar-
ters of the Achakzais, the most aggressive of all Durani tribes.
ZAMORA, an inland province of Spain, one of the three
into which the former province of Leon has since 1833
divided; bounded on the west by Portugal and Orense, north by
Leon, east by Valladolid, and south by Salamanca. Pop. (1920)
266,215; area, 4,097 sq. miles. Zamora is traversed from east to
west by the river Duero or Douro (q.v.) ; the Tonnes also skirts
the south-western boundary for some 25 miles. Except in the
north-west, where it is entered by two outlying ridges of the
Cantabrian mountains, the Sierra de la Culebra and Sierra de
Pciia Negra, the surface is a level or slightly undulating pla-
teau; its lowest point is 1,070 ft. Its plains, especially the valley
of the Esla, yield much grain and pulse; wine and flax are also
produced; and on the higher grounds many merino sheep and
goats are reared. Three railway lines, from Astorga on the north,
Salamanca on the south, and Medina del Campo on the east, tra-
verse the province and meet at the city of Zamora. The only
towns with 5,000 inhabitants are Zamora (q.v.) and Toro (q.v.)*
ZAMORA, an episcopal city, and the capital of the Spanish
province of Zamora; on the right bank of the river Duero
(Douro), and at the junction of railways from Salamanca,
Medina del Campo and Astorga. Pop, (1920) 17,567. In the
early period of the Christian re-conquest Zamora was a place
of considerable strategic importance. Ferdinand I. of Castile and
Leon in 1061 gave it to his daughter Dona Urraca. After his death
in 1065 his son Sancho II. disputed possession with Urraca and
laid siege to the city, but without success, although the famous
Cid Ruy Diaz de Bivar was among his warriors. Zamora became
subject to Alphonso VI. in 1073. Zamora occupies a rocky height
overlooking the Duero, a little below its confluence with the
Valderaduey. The river is crossed by a fine 14th-century bridge
of sixteen pointed arches. The citadel of Zamora dates from the
8th century. The small but beautiful Romanesque cathedral, one
of four 12th-century churches, was completed about 1175.
ZAMOYSKI, JAN (1541-1605), Polish statesman, was the
son of Stanislaw, Castellan of Chelm, and Anna Herburtowna, a
noble Polish lady. After completing his education at Paris, Stras-
bourg and at Padua, where as rector of the academy he com-
posed his celebrated work De senntn romano (Venice, 1563), he
returned home in 1565, one of the most consummate scholars
and jurists in Europe, and at once entered politics. He played
a leading part, after the the death of Sigismund II., in remodelling
the Polish constitution and procuring the election of Henry of
Valois. After the flight of that prince Zamoyski seems to have
aimed at the throne himself, but quickly changed his mind and
supported Stephen Bathory, whose election he prepared and
whose foremost counsellor he became. Appointed chancellor on
May i, 1576, immediately after the coronation, as wielki hetman,
commander-in-chief, in 1580, Zamoyski strenuously supported
Stephen during his long struggle with Ivan the Terrible. He also
enabled the king in 1585 to bring the traitorous Samuel Zborowski
to the scaffold. On the death of Stephen, the Zborowski recov-
ered their influence and did their utmost to keep Zamoyski in
the background. At the election diet of July 9, 1587, however,
Zamoyski triumphed over his rivals, and rejecting an offer from
the Habsburgs of the title of prince, with the Golden Fleece and
20,000 ducats, procured the election of Sigismund of Sweden, son
of Catherine Jagiellonica (Aug. 19). The opposite party immedi-
ately elected the Austrian Archduke Maximilian, but Zamoyski
routed and captured the archduke at Byczyna (Jan. 24, 1588).
From the first there was a certain coldness between the new
king and the chancellor, Sigismund desiring an alliance with the
Habsburgs, which Zamoyski feared. Friction became acute when
Sigismund appointed an opponent of Zamoyski vice-chancellor,
and made other ministerial changes which limited his authority;
though ultimately, with the aid of his partisans and the adoption
of such desperate expedients as the summoning of a confederation
to annul the royal decrees in 1592, Zamoyski recovered his full
authority. In 1595 Zamoyski, in his capacity of commander-in-
chief, at the head of 8,000 veterans dethroned the anti-Polish
hospodar of Moldavia and installed in his stead a Catholic convert,
George Mohila. On his. return he successfully sustained in his
camp at Cecora a siege by the Tatar khan. Five years later
(Oct. 20, 1600) he won his greatest victory at Tirgoviste, over
Michael the Brave, hospodar of Walachia and Moldavia. But
934
ZANESVILLE— ZANZIBAR
beyond securing the Polish frontier Zamoyski would never go.
He refused to wage war with Turkey even under the most favour-
able circumstances, nor could he be drawn into the Holy League
against the Ottomans in 1600, making conditions for Poland's co-
operation which her allies could not possibly accept. Statesman
though he was, Zamoyski cannot, with all his genius and valour,
be called a true patriot. Sigismund was undoubtedly right when
he attempted to reform the Polish constitution in 1605 by strength-
ening the royal power and deciding all measures in future by
a majority of the diet. These reforms Zamoyski strenuously
opposed. The last speech he delivered was in favour of the
anarchic principle of free election. He died suddenly at Zamosc,
June 3, 1605.
See Vincent Laureo, 1574-78, et ses dtpSches inedites (Ital.) (War-
saw, 1877) ; AuRustin Theiner, Vctera monumcnta Poloniae et Li-
tuaniae vol. ii. (Rome, 1862) ; Adam Tytus Dzialynski, Collectanea
vitam resque gestas J. Zamoyodi ittustrantia (Posen, 1881).
ZANESVILLE, a city of south-eastern Ohio, U.S.A., the
county scat of Muskingum county; on the Muskingum river at
the mouth of the Licking, 58 m. E. of Columbus. It is on Federal
highway 40; and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the New
York Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wheeling and Lake Erie
and electric railways, motor-bus and truck lines and river packets
to Parkersburg and Pittsburgh. Pop. (1920) 29,569 (90% native
white). The city lies on both sides of both rivers, at an altitude
of 700 feet. A "Y" bridge (the only one of the type in the United
States) crosses the Muskingum, its two arms running on either
side of the Licking. The present concrete structure (erected
1901) replaced a covered wooden bridge of the same plan which
had stood for 68 years. Zanesville is one of the principal centres
in the country for the manufacture of clay products, notably
encaustic and mosaic tile, art pottery, laboratory porcelain, stone-
ware, white china, terra-cotta and brick. Other important manu-
factures are cement, glass containers, bottles and steel products.
There are railroad shops employing 400 men, and a great variety
of smaller industries. There were a few pioneers on the site
of Zanesville when "Zane's Trace" was cut through from Wheeling
(under an act of Congress of 1796) by Ebenezer and Jonathan
Zane and Ebenezers son-in-law, John Mclntire, who received
for this service three sections of land. Jonathan Zane and
Mclntire chose their sections at the point where the new road
(now the national highway) crossed the Muskingum river. The
town was planned in 1800, incorporated in 1814 and in 1850 was
chartered as a city. It was made the county seat when Muskingum
county was created in 1804, and from Dec. 1810, until May 1812,
it was the capital of the State. Zanesville was an important station
on the old national road. The population was 9,229 in 1860.
ZANGWILL, ISRAEL (1864-1926), Jewish man of letters,
was born in London on Feb. 14, 1864. His early childhood was
spent in Plymouth and at Bristol, where he received his first
schooling. He was in his ninth year when his parents settled in
Spitalftelds, and he entered the Jews' Free School, where even-
tually he became a teacher, working at the same time for his uni-
versity degree. He had written a clever fantastic tale entitled
The Premier and the Painter with Louis Cowen, when he gave up
teaching for journalism. He founded and edited Ariel, The London
Puck, and did much miscellaneous work on the London press.
He made his literary reputation with a novel, The Children of the
Ghetto (1892), which was followed by Ghetto Tragedies (1893);
The Master (1895) ; Dreamers of the Ghetto (1898) ; The Mantle
of Elijah (1901); and other tales and novels of great interest
dealing with Jewish life. Children of the Ghetto was produced
as a play in New York with success in 1899, and has since been
extensively played both in English and Yiddish. He was greater
as a playwright than as a novelist, and did admirable work both
in light comedy and in serious plays. Merely Mary Ann (Duke of
York's, 1904) and Too Much Money (1917) represent his lighter
gift; The Melting Pot (1908), The War God (1911) and The
Next Religion (1914), banned by the censor, all deal with serious
social problems. Zangwill was an outstanding personality in the
Jewish world. He was at one time president of the Jewish Terri-
torial Organization for the Settlement of Jews within the British
| Empire, and later an advocate of the Zionist movement. He died
on Aug. i, 1926.
ZANTE (anc. Zacynthus), southernmost of the Ionian
Islands, west of Greece, in 37° 40' N. lat. and 21° E. long.; 25 m.
long, about 12 broad, and 64 m. round, with an area of 277 sq.m.,
and a population in 1923 of 39,988. Zante lies 8 m. S. of Ceph-
alonia, forming with it, Leucas and Ithaca a crescent-shaped
group, the crest of a submerged limestone ridge facing the Gulf
of Patras. Zante is of somewhat irregular oval shape, indented
by a deep inlet at its south end. A wide fertile central plain is
skirted on the west by bare limestone hills 1,000 to 1,200 ft. high,
which fall gently landwards, but with steep sea cliffs culminating
northwards in Mount Skopos (ancient Efatos, 1,600 ft.). On the
east the plain is also limited by a low ridge. These hills are still
densely clothed to the summit with olives, figs, myrtles, laurels,
oranges, aloes, vines and other sub-tropical plants. The central
plain is an almost continuous stretch of gardens and vineyards,
with a few cornfields and pastures. The peculiar dwarf vine, the
"currant" (from Corinth) of commerce, is the staple export of.
Zante, as of the neighbouring mainland: it grows to 3 ft.,
begins to yield in seven years and lasts a century. Earthquakes
are frequent and at times disastrous. During recent times the
most destructive were those of 1811, 1820, 1840 and 1893. Other
volcanic indications are the oil springs on the coast, and in the
bed of the sea near Cape Skinari on the north, and especially the
bituminous wells in a swamp near the coast village of Chieri,
mentioned by Herodotus (iv. 195). These still yfHd pitch.
Zante, capital and seaport, on the cast side, with a population in
1923 of 13,431, occupies the site of ancient Zacynthus, said to
have been founded, like the neighbouring citadel of Psophis, by
Zacynthus, son of Dardanus, a legendary Arcadian chief.
Traditionally Zacynthus belonged to Ulysses, king of Ithaca,
and was peopled by settlers from Achaea or Arcadia. It figures
occasionally in history as a base for belligerents. Thus during the
Peloponnesian War and again in 374 B.C. the Athenians used it;
in 357 it was the headquarters of Dion on his expedition against
Syracuse; in 217 it was seized by Philip V. of Macedon. The
Romans captured it in 211, but restored it temporarily to Philip;
in 191, to keep it out of the hands of Greek powers, they annexed
it themselves. In 86 it was raided by Mithradates' admiral
Archelaus. Under the Roman Empire, Zante was included in the
province of Epirus. In the nth century it passed to the Norman
kings of Sicily; after the Fourth Crusade it belonged at various
times to the despots of Epirus, the emperors of Constantinople,
and the Orsini counts of Cephalonia. After remaining from 1357
to 1482 in the hands of the Tocco family it became a Venetian
possession. In 1797 it was ceded to France, and after a short
occupation by the Russians was brought under British protection ;
in 1864 it was ceded with the other Ionian islands to Greece.
The long Venetian occupation is reflected in the appearance,
character, and to some extent even the language and religion of
the Zantiots. Nearly all the aristocracy claim Venetian descent;
most of the upper classes are bilingual, speaking both Greek and
Italian; and a considerable section of the population are Roman
Catholics. Even the bulk of the people, although mainly of
Greek stock, form in their social usages a connecting link between
the Hellenes, whose language they speak, and the Western
nations by whom they were so long ruled.
See B. Schmidt, Die Insel Zakynthos (Freiburg, 1899),
ZANZIBAR, a sultanate and British protectorate of East
Africa. The sultanate, formerly of much larger extent (see p. 935,
History) is now reduced to the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba,
some adjacent islets and the nominal sovereignty of a strip of
coastland — 10 m. deep — forming the protectorate of Kenya (see
KENYA COLONY). The islands of Pemba and Zanzibar have a col-
lective area of 1,020 sq.m. and a population (1924 census), of
202,665; Zanzibar island, 115,016; Pemba island, 87,649.
Topography. — The island of Zanzibar lies at a mean distance
of 20 m. from the mainland, between 5° 40' and 60° 3O7 S. Pemba
(q.v.) to the north, and the more distant Mafia (to the south),
form with Zanzibar an independent geological system, resting on
a foundation of coralline reefs, and constituting a sort of outer
ZANZIBAR
935
coastline, which almost everywhere presents a rocky barrier to
the Indian ocean. All three are disposed parallel to the mainland,
from which they are separated by shallow waters, mostly under
30 fathoms, strewn with numerous reefs dangerous to navigation,
especially in the Mafia channel opposite the Runji delta. (Mafia
island is now part of Tanganyika Territory.) Some 6 m. N. of
Zanzibar and forming part of the coral reef is the small, densely-
wooded island of Tumbatu. Its
inhabitants are excellent sailors.
Zanzibar island is 47 m.%long
and 20 m. broad at its greatest
breadth. It has an area of 640
sq. miles. The island, called
Unguja in Kiswahili, is not exclu-
sively of coralline formation, sev-
eral heights of reddish ferrugin-
ous clay rising in gentle slopes
400 to 450 ft. in the centre, and
to double that height in the north.
The forests which formerly cov-
ered the island have largely dis-
appeared ; the eastern half is now
mostly covered with low scrub.
The western part is noted for the
luxuriance of its flora.
The great heat and excessive ronti«N MISSION!
moisture of the atmosphere ren- SWAHILI NATIVES OF ZANZIBAR
der the climate trying to Europeans. The year is divided into two
seasons, according to the direction of the monsoons. The north-
east monsoon sets in about the end of November, the south-west
monsoon in April. The "hot season" corresponds with the north-
east monsoon, when the minimum readings of the thermom-
eter often exceed 80° F. In June to September the minimum read-
ings drop to 72°, the mean annual temperature being about 80°.
Rain falls in every month of the year. December, April and May
are the rainiest months, August to October the driest. The average
annual rainfall (18 years' observations) is 65 inches. (In 1859 as
much as 170 in. were registered.)
Inhabitants. — On the east side of Zanzibar island the inhabi-
tants, a Bantu-speaking race of low development, probably repre-
sent the aboriginal stock. They are known as Wahadimu and are
noted as good fishermen, cattle raisers and skilled artisans. In the
west, and especially in the capital (for which, see below), the popu-
lation is of an extremely heterogeneous character, including full-
blood and half-caste Arabs, Hindus, Goanese, Parsis, Persians,
Baluchs, Swahili of every shade, and representatives of tribes
from many parts of East Africa. The Arabs number about 16,500;
the Indians and other Asiatics 14,000. The whites number (1921)
295, Besides the port of Zanzibar there are no large towns.
Chuaka is a health resort facing the Indian Ocean.
Economic Conditions. — Up to about the end of the i9th cen-
tury Zanzibar was the entrepot for all the trade of East Africa,
from Somaliland in the north to the Zambezi in the south. Its
modern development dates from the occupation of the islands by
the Muscat Arabs about 1830. Under the Seyyid Said the cultiva-
tion of the clove, now the staple product of both Zanzibar and
Pemba, was made compulsory. But Zanzibar depended on its
active transit trade in ivory, slaves, cotton goods and rice.
Many merchants from India settled in Zanzibar and — apart from
the traffic carried on by dhows with Arabia and the Persian gulf —
trade fell largely into their hands, the Indian rupee becoming the
standard currency. In 1872 a great cyclone destroyed the clove
plantations in Zanzibar ; a calamity which led the people of Pemba
to grow cloves on a large scale. The Zanzibari, however, set about
replanting, and in ten years the output exceeded the figures of
1872. In 1873 the highly profitable slave trade was declared ille-
gal, though illicitly it was carried on for the next 25 years.
Domestic slavery continued and it was by slave labour that the
clove and other shambas (plantations) were worked by their Arab
proprietors. In 1897 the legal status of slavery was abolished and
slavery in the sultanate finally ceased in 1907. Many Arabs failed
to adapt themselves to the new conditions and their shambas
passed into the hands of natives; while in time the bulk of the
labour was done by negroes from the mainland, chief among them
the Wanyamwezi. Rates of pay are high, and in poor seasons
profits are precarious, but with Government help, such as a bonus
on bearing trees, free storage and better transport, the clove in-
dustry has continued to develop. Zanzibar and Pemba produce
about 90% of the world's crop of cloves. All land suitable for
cloves being under cultivation, the planting of the coconut re-
ceived a new impetus, and in 1928 there were over 3,500,000 trees
in the two islands. And, in spite of the competition of Mombasa,
Tanga and Dar-es-Salaam, Zanzibar retained the local distributing
trade. It is well served by many shipping lines, giving direct com-
munication with Europe, India and South Africa.
The average clove crop for the 20 years ending 1924 was
512,000 fraslas; the crop for 1926-27 was over 825,000 fraslas.
(A frasla equals 35 Ib. avoirdupois.) For copra the average yield
for ten years ending 1923 was 534,000 fraslas; in 1924 the yield
was the highest recorded, being 988,000 fraslas. The copra, how-
ever, is generally of poor quality. Prices for cloves varied
greatly; from 17-12 rupees per frasla in 1912-13 to 13-19 rupees
in 1926-27; in 1896 the price had been 4*34 rupees. Imports con-
sist mainly of cotton piece-goods, rice and other foodstuffs.
The loss of part of the transit trade was shown, not so much
in any actual decrease in tonnage entering the port, which was
2,638,000 gross in 1927, as in the growth of the trade of the main-
land ports, especially Mombasa. Imports were valued at £1,103,-
ooo in 1913, at £2,223,00 in 1924, and at £1,771,000 in 1927.
Exports in 1913 were valued at £1,048,000; in 1924, at £2,286,000;
and at £1,828,000 in 1927. These figures include Government im-
ports. Trade is mostly with India, Tanganyika and Great Britain.
The chief source of revenue is the customs. Revenue increased
from £275,000 in 1913 to £589,000 in 1923, and was £540,000 in
1927. Expenditure in 1913 was £248,000; in 1923, £480,000; and
in 1927, £622,000.
Administration. — The virtual, if not the titular head of the
administration is the British resident. There is an executive coun-
cil of which the sultan is president, and a legislative council, over
which the resident presides and on which sit nominated unofficial
members. Mohammedan law is administered for Arabs and natives
in the sultan's court. There is a British court for British and for-
eign subjects and for all cases where one of the parties is a non-
native. Similar arrangements prevail in the area (the Kenya
Protectorate) leased by the sultan on the mainland. Decrees of
the sultan are binding when count er-signed by the resident.
HISTORY
From the earliest times of which there is any record the African
seaboard from the Red sea to an unknown distance southwards
was subject to Arabian influence and dominion. Egyptians,
Chinese and Malays also appear to have visited the coast. At a
later period the coast towns were founded or conquered by Persian
and Arab Mohammedans who, for the most part, fled to East
Africa between the 8th and nth centuries on account of the
religious differences of the times, the refugees being schismatics.
Various small states thus grew up along the coast, Mombasa seem-
ing to be the most important. These states are sometimes spoken
of as the Zenj empire, though they were never, probably, united
under one ruler. Kilwa (q.v.) was regarded as the capital of the
"empire." The seaboard itself took the name of Zanqnebar (cor-
rupted to Zanzibar by the Indian traders), the Bilad ez-Zenj, or
"Land of the Zcnj" of the Arabs, a term which corresponds to the
Hindu-bar, or "land of the Hindu," formerly applied to the west
coast of India. By Ibn Batuta, who visited the coast in 1328, and
other Arab writers the Zenj people are referred to in a general
way as Mohammedan negroes; and they are no doubt still repre-
sented by the Swahili or "coast people," in whose veins is a large
admixture of Asiatic blood. The Zenj "empire" began to decline
soon after the appearance of the Portuguese in East African waters
at the close of the isth century. To them fell in rapid succession
the great cities of Kilwa with its 300 mosques (1505), Mombasa
the "Magnificent" (1505), and soon after Malindi and Mukdishu
the "Immense" (Ibn Batuta). The Portuguese rule was troubled
936
ZANZIBAR— ZAPOROZHE
by many revolts, and towards the end of the i6th century the
chief cities were ravaged by the Turks, who came by sea, and by
the Zimbas, a fierce negro tribe, who came overland from south
of the Zambezi. On the ruins of the Portuguese power in the i?th
century was built up that of the Imams of Muscat. Over their
African dominions the Imams placed valis or viceroys, who in
time became independent of their overlord. In Mombasa power
passed into the hands of the Mazrui family. The island of Zanzibar,
conquered by the Portuguese in 1503-08, was occupied by the
Arabs in 1730, and in 1832 the town of Zanzibar, then a place of
no note, was made the capital of his dominions by the Sayyid Said
of Muscat, who reconquered all the towns formerly owing alle-
giance to the Imams, Mombasa being taken by treachery in 1837.
On the death of Said in 1856 his dominions were divided between
his two sons, the African section falling to Majid, who was suc-
ceeded in 1870 by his younger brother Bargash ibn Said, com-
monly known as sultan of Zanzibar. At that time besides the
islands of Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia, the sultan's dominions
extended along the East African coast from Cape Delgado north-
wards to and including some of the Somali ports, with an undefined
extension inland. Bargash, however, lived to witness the dis-
memberment of his dominions by Great Britain, Germany and
Italy (see AFRICA) and in March, 1888, left to his successor, Sayyid
Khalifa, a mere fragment of the territories over which he had once
ruled. The mainland territories were divided, Italy acquiring the
northern part, Great Britain the central part (now the Kenya
protectorate) and Germany the southern part (now Tanganyika
Territory) as well as Mafia island. The division was first by
lease; subsequently Germany and Italy purchased the sovereign
rights in their respective areas. The Sayyids Majid and Bargash
acted largely under the influence of Sir John Kirk (q.v.) who from
1866 to 1887 was consular representative of Great Britain at
Zanzibar. Had an offer by Bargash been accepted the whole of
his mainland dominions would have been leased to a British com-
pany in 1877. By Sir John's efforts a treaty for the suppression
of the slave trade in the sultanate was concluded in 1873.
British Protectorate.— On Nov. 4, 1890, what was left of the
sultanate was proclaimed a British protectorate, in comformity
with conventions by which Great Britain on her part ceded Heli-
goland to Germany and renounced all claims to Madagascar in
favour of France. On the death of the then sultan, Sayyid Hamed
bin Thwain, in Aug. 1896, his cousin, Sayyid Khalid, proclaimed
himself sultan, and seized the palace. The British Government dis-
approved, and to compel Khalid's submission the palace was bom-
barded by warships. Khalid fled to the German consulate, whence
he was removed to German East Africa, and Hamed bin Moham-
med, brother of Hamed bin Thwain, was installed sultan by the
British representative (Aug. 27, 1896). The Government was
reconstituted under British auspices in Oct. 1891, when Sir Lloyd
Mathews was appointed prime minister, a title afterwards changed
to first minister. In 1897 after a long agitation the legal status of
slavery was abolished, compensation being given to the slave
owners, mostly Arabs, who had used slave labour for the clove
plantations. In 1913 the control of the protectorate was trans-
ferred to the Colonial Office. At first the British agent and consul
general in Zanzibar also administered the East Africa Protectorate
(Kenya colony). This arrangement ceased in 1904; the Colonial
Office (in 1913) made the governor of the East Africa Protector-
ate high commissioner for Zanzibar, local affairs being entrusted to
a British resident, who took over the functions of first minister.
But the governor had little time to spare for the sultanate and
the office of high commissioner was abolished in 1925. Since then
the British resident has been directly responsible to the Colonial
Office. An advisory council was created but was replaced in 1926
by a nominated legislative council.
Although the administration was controlled by the British
resident the sultan continued to exercise much authority. Sayyid
Khalifa bin Harud (born 1879), who became sultan in 1911, was
a great-nephew of Bargash. He worked in full agreement with the
British and as the leading Muslim prince in East Africa his moder-
ating influence did much to steady Muslim opinion in that part of
Africa during the World War. The most dramatic incident of the
war, for Zanzibar, was the sinking of the ancient British cruiser
"Pegasus'* by the German cruiser "Konigsberg" on Sept. 20,
1914, the "Pegasus" being at the time at anchor in Zanzibar road-
stead, undergoing repairs. During the War, in 1917, the Sayyid
Khalid, who had lived in German East Africa since his attempt
to seize the throne, surrendered to the British. He was deported
to St. Helena, but in 1921 was allowed to live in Mombasa, where
he died in 1927.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Precis of Information concerning . . . Zanzibar
(War Office, 1902) ; H. S. Newman, Banani, the Transition from Slav-
ery to Freedom in Zanzibar (1898) ; R. N. Lyne, Zanzibar in Contem-
porary Times (1905); J. E. Crastcr, Pcmba: The Spice Island of (
Zanzibar (1913); Maj. F. B. Pearcc (sometime British resident),
Zanzibar, the Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa (1920). See also
the annual reports issued by the Colonial Office, London, and consult
the bibliography under KENYA COLONY. (F. R. C.)
ZANZIBAR, an East African seaport, capital of the island
and sultanate of the same name, in 6° 9' S., 39° 15' E. Popula-
tion about 60,000. The town is situated on the western side of the
island 26 m. N.E. of the mainland port of Bagamoyo. Zanzibar*
is built on a triangular-shaped peninsula, about il m. long, which
runs from east to west, forming a safe and spacious roadstead, with
a minimum depth of water exceeding five fathoms. Harbour
improvements were made, leisurely, between 1920 and 1929 which
included a concrete wharf 800 ft. long, where ships can load and
unload; 700 ft. of quay frontage for dhow traffic; and a clove
depot and goods sheds. Viewed from the sea, the, town — which
has a thoroughly oriental aspect — presents a pleasan^, prospect
with its mosques, white, flat-topped houses, barracks, forts and
round towers. For the most part, Zanzibar consists of a laby-
rinth of narrow streets. Characteristic of the streets are the
carved and massive wooden doors, whose blackness contrasts with
the white stone of the bouses, and the bright red of the acacias in
the garden enclosures. The bazaar is a great centre of attraction.
The Anglican cathedral (built 1873-79), a semi-Gothic coral
building, occupies the site of the old slave market, which was
closed in 1873. The Roman Catholic cathedral is a fine building
in the Renaissance style.
The motley population of Zanzibar — the chief elements are
Arab, Indian and negro — is indicative of the commercial impor-
tance of the city. Its geographical position made it the key of
East Africa from Cape Guardafui to Delagoa Bay. "When you
play on the flute at Zanzibar" (says an Arab proverb) "all Africa
as far as the lakes dances." The Americans were the first among
white merchants to realize the possibilities of the port, and a
United States consulate was established as early as 1836. The
name Merikani, applied to cotton goods and blankets on the east
coast, is a testimony to the enterprise of the American trader.
The city was the headquarters of the Arabs who ravaged East
Africa for slaves and ivory during the major part of the igth
century, and was described by Henry Drummond in Tropical
Africa (1888) as a "cesspool of wickedness oriental in its appear-
ance, Mohammedan in its religion, Arabian in its morals." Never-
theless, Zanzibar in those days was the focus of all exploring
and missionary work for the interior.
ZAPARAN, a group of tribes of South American Indians
forming an independent linguistic stock. The Zaparos live in the
region of the Peruvian-Ecuadorian border, on the Curary and
Napo rivers and the lower Aguarico. They arc a tall, robust peo-
ple, rather light in skin colour, with prominent noses and are
said sometimes to have blue eyes. The men wear a tree-bast
poncho-like garment, ornamented with painted designs. The
women wear only a small fringed apron. Their houses are merely
thatched shelters with no sides. Their weapons are bows, spears
and blowguns, poison being used on the darts for the latter and
for their arrows. They depend mainly on hunting and fishing for
food, although growing some sweet potatoes and bananas.
See A. Simpson, "Notes on the Zaparos," Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Gr.
Brit, and Ire. vol. yii., pp. 502-510; G. Osculati, Explorazione delle
Region* Equatorial* etc. (Milano, 1854) ; Reinburg, "Folkore ama-
zonien," /. Soc. Americanistes de Paris (n.s.) vol. xiii. pp. 11-17.
ZAPOROZHE (formerly Alexandrovsk), a town of the
Ukrainian S.S.R., in 47° 5*' N., 35° 10' E., on the left bank of the
ZAPOTEC— ZARLINO
937
Dnieper river. Pop. (1926) 55,260, Its name means "beyond the
rapids," and it is situated south of the falls on which the Dnepro-
petrovsk hydraulic station is being constructed (1928). Plans
are in hand for widening the river so as to permit steamers to
reach the town from the Black sea. There is a motor factory and
five factories produce agricultural machinery; the town is also a
railway junction. Zaporozhe is opposite to Khortitsa Island, a
former camp of the Zaporozhian Cossacks and kurgans (tumuli)
are numerous in the district.
ZAPOTEC, a south Mexican nationality, the most important
of a group comprising also Mixtec and half a dozen other peoples,
all speaking tonal languages, and occupying a territory roughly
coterminous with the state of Oaxaca. The population in this
area of the so-called Zapotecan family, of which the Zapotec
proper held the south-eastern part, is still overwhelmingly Indian
in blood and largely native in speech. The ancient Zapotec were
an important people, who probably served as intermediaries of
culture between the Maya and the Nahua, but also developed
traits of their own. They excelled in finely modeled figure jars of
pottery. Their calendar appears to have been that of the. Maya
and Aztec ; their glyphs have not been read. Two important groups
of ruins in Zapotec territory lie at Monte Alban and at Mitla.
The former, which appear to be the earlier, comprise terraces and
pyramids on a hill, and inscribed stelae and tablets. Mitla has long
stone buildings, sunken or on low platforms, with stone columns,
veneers of stone cut into geometric patterns, and pictographic
frescoes. TJbe population speaking Zapotec numbered 231,000 in
1895; that speaking idioms of Zapotec family, about 450,000.
ZARA, a town on the east coast of the Adriatic, formerly
the capital of Dalmatia but now attached to Italy, and included
in Venezia Giulia. Italian territory includes an adjacent belt with
a total area of 42 sq.m., and a population of 18,623, of whom
over 18,156 (1926) live within the town. Zara in this sense forms
a small enclave on the coast of the Yugoslav oblast of Split.
The town is placed on the north-west end of a small, low-lying
peninsula separated by the Canale di Zara from the islands of
Ugliano and Pasman. It is about 73 in. N.W. of Split and
about 92 m. N. of E. from Ancona, with which it is connected by
steamer. The space between the peninsula on which the town
stands and the adjacent mainland forms a natural, deep-water
harbour, the entrance to which was in Venetian times blocked
by a chain. Surrounded on three sides by the sea the town was
rendered still more secure, after its capture by the Venetians in
1409, by the digging of a deep ditch on the fourth side, so as to
convert the tip of the peninsula into an island. When the forti-
fications were reconstructed by Sanmichele in the i6th century,
a gate, the Porta di Terrafirma, was erected to guard the single
entrance across the ditch on the landward side.
At the end of the loth century Zara passed for the first time
under Venice. For four centuries it was bandied about from
Venice to Hungary and back again. Finally, in 1409 it was sold
by the King of Hungary to the Republic and remained Venetian
till the Republic ceased to exist. It was then ceded to Austria,
passed temporarily into French possession, forming part of the
short-lived Illyrian kingdom, till in 1814 the French were driven
out and it remained Austrian till the end of the World War.
Its transference to Italy, when the rest of Daimatia became Yugo-
slav, was justified by the large Italian element in the population
and the continuity of Latin culture and speech. •
Of the churches one of the oldest is the secularized S. Donato,
probably dating from the early 9th century, and recalling S. Vitale
at Ravenna. The cathedral dates from the i3th century and its
treasury contains some good examples of Dalmatian silver work.
See T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero andlstrla (1887) and G.
Dainelli, La Dalmazia (with atlas, 1918).
ZARHON, a mountain in Morocco, altitude 3,600 feet,
9i m. N. of Meknes; it is covered with olive-trees and vines, and
has numerous villages; it is one of the most picturesque and
smiling regions of Morocco. (Jn the flanks of the Zarhon is the
town Mulai Idris Zarhoon, so called after Mulai Idris I., the
founder of the Moorish empire, who was buried there in A.D. 791.
The whole town is considered as a sanctuary. Not far from Mulai
Idris are the ruins of the Roman town of Volubilis (Oulili). See
L. Chatelain, Les fouilles de Volubilis (Casablanca, 1915).
ZARIA, a province occupying a central position in the North-
ern Provinces of the British protectorate of Nigeria. It has an
area of 23,695 sq.m. and a population (1926) of 1,031,567. The
province was enlarged in 1926 by the transference to it of the
Katsina emirate from Kano province (see KATSINA). The prov-
ince, of which a great portion consists of open rolling plains, is
watered by the Kaduna affluent of the Niger and its many tribu-
taries, and is generally healthy. There is an area of high land
(2,000 ft. and over) in the centre of the province which
in the south consists of parksland — "orchard brush." In the north
the country is more open and becomes semi-desert where the
Katsina emirate adjoins the French Niger colony. The chief
towns are Zaria, the capital of the emirate, 87 m. S.W. of Kano,
and Kaduna, the capital of the Northern Provinces. Both Zaria
and Kaduna are in direct railway communication with Kano,
Lagos and Port Harcourt, the Western and Eastern railways of
Nigeria having their junction at Kaduna. There is also a railway
from Zaria to the Bauchi tin-fields, and another railway goes N.W.
from Zaria towards Sokoto. There are over 1,000 m. of motor
roads in the province. Cotton is very extensively grown.
The ancient state of Zaria, also called Zcg-Zeg by the geog-
raphers and historians of the middle ages, was one of the origi-
nal seven Hausa states. It suffered all the fluctuations of Hausa
history, and in the i3th and early i4th centuries seems to have
been the dominating state of Hausaland. At later periods it
submitted in turn to Kano, Songhoi and Bornu. At the end of the
1 8th century it was an independent state under its own Moham-
medan rulers, but, like the rest of northern Hausaland, it was
conquered in the opening years of the i9th century by the Fula.
It remained a Fulani emirate up to the period of the British
occupation of Nigeria. The emir of Zaria professed friendliness to
the British, and in March 1902 the province was taken under
British administrative control. It was found that, notwithstand-
ing his friendly professions, the emir of Zaria was intriguing with
Kano and Sokoto, then, openly hostile to Great Britain, while he
continued to raid for slaves and to perpetrate acts of brutal
tyranny and oppression. He was deposed in the autumn of 1902,
and after the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903, which assured the
supremacy of Great Britain in the protectorate, another emir,
Dan Sidi, was appointed to Zaria.
ZARLINO, GIOSEFFO (1517-1590), Italian musical the-
orist, surnamed from his birthplace ZARLINUS CLODIENSIS, was
born at Chioggia, Venetia, in 1517 (not 1540, as Burney and Haw-
kins say). Studying in his youth for the Church, he was admitted
to the minor orders in 1539 and ordained deacon in 1541 at
Venice; but he soon devoted himself entirely to the study of
music under the guidance of Adrian Willaert, then choirmaster
at St. Mark's. Willaert, dying in 1562, was succeeded by Cipriano
di Rore, on whose removal to Parma in 1565 Zarlino was elected
choirmaster. Though now remembered chiefly as the earliest
advocate of a system of equal temperament for fretted and keyed
instruments and for his invaluable contributions to the theory of
music, he was both a practical musician and a composer. His
printed works consisted of a volume entitled Modulationes Sex
Vocum (Venice, 1566) and a few motets and madrigals scattered
through the collections of Scotto and other contemporary pub-
lishers, but he also produced and superintended the public per-
formance of some important pieces in the service of the republic.
The only example we possess of his compositions on a grand scale
is a ms. mass for four voices, in the library of the Philharmonic
Lyceum at Bologna. He died at Venice on Feb. 14, or, according
to some Feb. 4, 1590.
Zarlino'sjirst theoretical work was the Istitutioni Armoniche
(Venice, 1558; reprinted 1562 and 1573). This was followed by
the Dimostrationi Armoniche (Venice, 1571; reprinted 1573) and
by the Sopplimenti Musicali (Venice, 1588). Finally, in a com-
plete edition of his works published shortly before his death Zar-
lino reprinted these three treatises, accompanied by a Tract on
Patience, a Discourse on the True date of the Crucifixion of Our
Lord, an essay on The Origin of the Capuchins, and the Resolu-
ZAUSCHNERIA— ZECHARIAH
tion of Some Doubts Concerning the Correction of the Julian
Calendar (Venice, 1589).
The Istitutioni and Dimostrationi Armomche deal, like most
other theoretical works of the period, with the whole science of
music as it was understood in the i6th century. The earlier chap-
ters, treating chiefly of the arithmetical foundations of the science,
differ but little in their line of argument from the principles laid
down by Pietro Aron, Zacconi, and other early writers of the
Boeotian school; but in bk. ii. of the Istitutioni Zarlino boldly
attacks the false system of tonality to which the proportions of the
Pythagorean tetrachord, if strictly carried out in practice, must
inevitably lead.
Again, Zarlino was in advance of his age in his classification
of the ecclesiastical modes. These scales were not wholly abol-
ished in favour of our modern tonality in the i;th century. Eight
of them, it is true, fell into disuse; but the mediaeval Ionian and
Hypo-ionian modes are absolutely identical with the modern
natural scale of C; and the Aeolian and Hypo-aeolian modes
differ from our minor scale, not in constitution, but in treatment
only. Mediaeval composers, however, regarded the Ionian mode
as the least perfect of the series and placed it last in order.
Zarlino thought differently and made it the first mode, changing
all the others to accord with it. His numerical table, therefore,
differs from all others made before or since, prophetically assign-
ing the place of honour to the one ancient scale now recognized
as the foundation of the modern tonal system.
These innovations were violently opposed by the apostles of the
monodic school. Vincenzo Galilei led the attack in a tract entitled
Disc or so Intorno alle Opere di Messer Gioseffe Zarlino, and fol-
lowed it up in his famous Dialogo, defending the Pythagorean
system in very unmeasured language. It was in answer to these
strictures that Zarlino published his Sopplementi.
ZAUSCHNERIA, in botany, a genus of North American
plants of the evening-primrose family (Onagraceae), comprising
several species native to California and adjacent Mexico. They
are low, slightly shrubby perennials, with small narrow or ovate
leaves and large scarlet, fuchsia-like flowers. Z. calif ornica, known
as California fuchsia and Mexican balsamea and found on moun-
tain slopes, is planted in flower gardens.
ZEALAND (Dan. Sjaelland), the largest island of the king-
dom of Denmark, 2,636 sq.m. in area, lying between Fiinen (n
m. distant) on the west, and southern Sweden (only 3 m. distant
at the Sound) on the east. The surface is undulating, but little
above sea-level, and the outline very irregular, On the island are
the old cathedral city of Roskilde, the Danish capital, Copenhagen,
and the historic port of Helsing0r (Elsinore). (For further in-
formation, see DENMARK.)
ZEBRA, the name for the African striped members of the
horse tribe. The true or mountain zebra (Equus zebra) main-
tains a precarious foothold in the mountainous region of Cape
Colony and also inhabits Angola.
It stands about 4(1. at the
shoulder, with fairly long ears, a
tail scantily clothed with hair,
and a short mane. The ground
colour is white and the stripes,
absent only on the abdomen and
inside of the thighs, are black.
The lower part of the face is „ __
brown. The stripes on the haunch GR£VY*S ZEBRA CEQUUS GREVD
do not reach the median dorsal DISTINGUISHED BY ITS BLACK
stripe and there are a number of »T"i"» AND ASS-LIKE EARS
short stripes between the two. These are absent in BurchelFs
zebra (E, burehelli), which is a larger animal with smaller, more
completely white ears, a longer mane and a fuller tail. Burchell's
zebra extends from the plains north of the Orange river to north-
east Africa. The ground-colour of the body is pale yellowish-
brown, the stripes, which in the southern individuals do not
extend on to the limbs and tail, dark brown or black. Grant's
zebra (E. b. grand) is the northern, completely striped race which
lacks the characteristic "ghost" stripes between the main ones.
OeVy's zebra (E. zrevyi) inhabits Abyssinia and Somaliland
and is distinguished by its enormous ears and numerous, narrow,
black stripes. The species known as quagga (q.v.) is now extinct.
Zebras occur in large herds and are one of the staple articles of
diet of the lion. Their stripes result in a camouflage effect, caus-
ing them to fade away against the background, particularly at
night, when they principally feed. Zebras can be trained for
driving and riding, but only with difficulty. (See HORSE.)
ZEBU (Bos indicus), an Indian species of ox, characterized by
its light colour and the possession of a hump on the back. The
sacred bulls of India belong to this species, which is much used for
draught and farm work, and also supplies milk. (See CATTLE.)
ZEBULON, a tribe of Israel, named after the sixth son borne
by Leah to Jacob (Genesis xxx. 20). The fertile territory occu-
pied by the tribe lay roughly north-east of the plain of Jezreel,
but the boundaries between it and the neighbouring territories
of Naphtali, Asher and Issachar are ill-defined. The some-
what obscure text of Genesis xlix. 13 seems to imply that at one
time Zebulon extended to the sea-coast and marched with Phoe-
nician territory. The tribe appears to have furnished valiant
warriors, and receives Special mention in the Song of Deborah for
its martial exploits (Judges v. 14, 18).
ZECHARIAH, the eleventh in order of the "minor proph-
ets" of the Old Testament. He was associated with Haggai
(q.v.) in stimulating the re-building of the temple at Jerusa-
lem, begun in 520 (Ezra iv. 24) and completed in 516 (Ezra
vi. 15). A previous attempt made by return^fl exiles in 537
(Ezra i. i seq.9 iii. r sqq.) seems to have been checked by local
opposition and not renewed owing to economic pressure. In
520, however, the political disturbances of the Persian empire
(of which the Jewish community in Palestine was a negligible
part) were interpreted by these two prophets as a sign that
the Messianic expectations were now to be realized, and that
the "Day of Yahweh" was at hand. Haggai gave the first im-
pulse to the new attempt; two months later, Zechariah joined
him in encouraging the faint-hearted. His prophecies, exactly
dated in 520 (i. i, 7) and 518 (vii. i), are to be found in the
first eight chapters of the book now bearing his name. Their
central feature is a series of "night-visions" (i. 8, iv. i), in-
tended to show Yahweh's immediate and effective intervention
on behalf of His people. They are arranged with literary art in
connected sequence, beginning with the vision of horsemen who
report that the expected Messianic crisis has not yet come (i.
n, cf. Hagg. ii. 21 seq.), and culminating in the vision of Yah-
weh's war-chariots despatched to execute His vengeance upon
the heathen, especially on Babylonia (vi. 8). The six interven-
ing visions (all the eight are ascribed to a single night) reveal
in succession four horns, representing the heathen powers of
the four quarters of the earth, cast down by four craftsmen (i.
18-21), a man with a measuring line, whose narrow ideas of
the future city are replaced by the conception of a city with-
out walls because of its great extent, to which Yahweh's protec-
tion will be a wall of fire (ii. 1-5), the formal acquittal and
restoration of Joshua the high-priest, representing the com-
munity (iii. i seq.), the seven-branched lampstand, represent-
ing Yahweh's watchful eyes, with two olive-trees, representing
Joshua and Zerubbabel (iv. 1-14, but see the commentaries),
the flying roll which brings its ubiquitous curse on evil-doers
(thieves and false-swearers), and so cleanses the land of moral
evil (v. 1-4), the woman carried off in an ephah, representing
the removal of guilt (v. 5-11). These visions are now prefaced
by a call to repentance and the promise of forgiveness (i. 2-6),
in which Zechariah's appeal to "the former prophets" (like
the detail of an interpreting angel in the visions themselves)
reminds us that the great prophetic period (8th-6th centuries)
lies in the past, and that the conception of revelation itself has
lost something of its original simplicity and spontaneity.
The "night-visions" are followed, two years later (vii. i), by
a divine oracle which directs that the fasts kept throughout the
exile should now become festivals (viii, 18 seq.). The enquiry
which led to the oracle (vii. 3) is made the occasion of warn-
ing against the externality of fasting, of appeal for true conduct,
and of an idyllic picture of the. happiness of the coming Mes-
ZEDEKIAH— -ZEELAND
939
sianic age (note especially viii. 4, 5). In this happy future the
prophet expected that Zerubbabel would be the Messiah, and
the bringing of an offering of gold and silver from Jews in
Babylon led Zechariah to crown him symbolically in the name
of Yahweh (vi. 9-15; see the commentaries for the original
text). The darkness that fails on Jewish history with the com-
pletion of the second temple suggests that these words and
deeds may have thrust Zerubbabel into a dangerous political
prominence, leading to his removal by the Persian authorities,
and the eclipse of Messianic expectations.
The remainder of the present book of Zechariah (ix.-xiv.).
is of an altogether different character, and is now generally ad-
mitted to belong to a period later than the Persian (as indeed
the direct reference to Greece in ix. 13 implies). This portion
of the book is divided by the titles in ix. i, xii. i. ("The burden
of the word of Yahweh"), into two distinct collections, each of
which it seems necessary to divide again, so that we have four
groups of prophecies, distinguished by their subject-matter.
The first (ix.-xi. 3) deals with the recovery of Palestine by
Yahweh's victories over Syria, Phoenicia and Philistia (ix.
1-8), the coming of the Messianic king to the restored and vic-
torious Israel (ix. 9*17), the overthrow of the (foreign) "shep-
herds" or rulers, and the gathering of exiled Israelites (x.
1-12), closing with a figurative dirge over the fall of these
"shepherds" (xi. 1-3). The second group (xi. 4-17, with the
misplaced xiii. 7-9) describes the rejection of the prophet,
representing a worthy shepherd, and the accursed doom of a
worthless one, a purified third of the people alone remaining.
The third (xii., xiii. 1-6) pictures an attack of the nations upon
Jerusalem, in which Judah is first a foe and then a victorious
friend to the mother city; this is followed by elaborate mourn-
ing for an unnamed martyr (xii. 10, R. V. mg.), and the cleans-
ing of Jerusalem from idolatry and prophecy. The fourth divi-
sion (xiv.) describes the delivery of Jerusalem from the hea-
then, that it may become the metropolis of religion for all
the world. The last two of these divisions are of a markedly
eschatological character, and even the first two could be so re-
garded (so Sellin). These writings are perhaps the most ob-
scure of the Old Testament, chiefly because we have no suffi-
cient clue to the historical allusions, such as the cutting off of
three shepherds in one month (xi. 8), the pierced martyr
(xii. 10) and the antagonism of Judah and Jerusalem (xii. 2, xiv.
14). By some scholars' these chapters have been brought down
as late as the Maccabean age, the events of which are supposed
to explain these and other allusions. But the fact is that we are
almost wholly ignorant of Jewish history during the earlier part
of the Greek period (from 331 B.C.), to which these writings
might equally well belong.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For commentaries see W, Nowack, ffandkommentar
zum alien Test. iii. 4 (1897, 1904); J. Wcllhausen, Die kleinen
Prophete.n (1898) ; G. A. Smith, Book of Twelve Prophets, v. 2. (1898,
1927), Expositor's Bible; K. Marti, Dan Dodekapropheton (1904);
A. van Hoonacker, Les douzc petit s pr ophites (1908) ; S. R. Driver
in Century Bible (190$) ; H. G. Mitchell in Internal. Crit. Comment.
(1912) ; W. E. Barnes in Cambridge Bible, (1917) ; R. H. Kennett in
Peake's Commentary (1919) ; E. Sellin, Das Zwoljprophetenbuch
(1932). (H.W. R.)
ZEDEKIAH, son of Josiah, and the last king of Judah (2
Kings xxiv. 17 sqq.; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 10 seq.). He was appointed
king by Nebuchadrezzar after the capture of Jerusalem (597 B.C.)
and held his position under an oath of allegiance. After three
years he began an intrigue with Moab, Edom, Ammon, Tyre and
Sidon, and it is possible that he was summoned to Babylon to ex-
plain his conduct. Nevertheless, relations were maintained with
Egypt and steps were taken to revolt. The Babylonian army laid
siege to Jerusalem in 588 B.C., and a vain attempt was made by
Pharaoh Hophra to cause a diversion. After six months a breach
was made in the city, Zedekiah was captured and taken to
Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah. His sons were killed, and he was
blinded and carried to Babylon in chains where his predecessor,
Jehoiachin was already a captive.
ZEEBRUGGE, ATTACK ON: see BELGIAN COAST OPER-
ATIONS.
ZEEHAN, a town of Montagu county, Tasmania, 225 m.
N.W. of Hobart, on the Little Henty river. It is a railway centre
and focus of the silver-lead mining of the neighbourhood.
ZEELAND, the most southerly North sea maritime province
of the Netherlands, consists mainly of six deltaic islands between
the Grevelingen (the southern sea-exit of the Waal-Maas) and
De Hont or Western Schclde sea-channel, together with a strip
of the Flanders mainland lying south of De Hont. Belgium
borders it on the south; the Dutch provinces of North Brabant,
east, and South Holland, north, are its other neighbours. It is
707 sq.m. in area, and of the other ten Dutch provinces only
Utrecht is smaller. Very little of its entire surface is above sea-
level. Formed of the accumulated alluvium from the great rivers
and with little natural protection against the encroaching waves,
its life has been, marked by inundation catastrophes and by the
long, slow winning back of territory in the lee of successive ranks
of many miles of artificial dikes. (See NETHERLANDS : Dikes.)
Above a gateway of the old mint of the counts of Holland in
Middlcburg a sculptured lion of Zeeland rises through stone waves
and his "Luctor et emergo" is one of the most apposite of the
provincial mottoes. Its pop. (1926), 249,991, is, with the exception
of Dreute, the lowest in Holland and D rente is rapidly overhauling
it, but its fertile soil favours the cultivation of cereals, wheat, rye
and barley and of root crops. Its famous black and white cattle
and dairy produce are important exports.
The constituent islands are Walcheren to the south-west with
North Beveland and South Beveland in close proximity to the
east. North of the fairly wide waterway Ooster Schelde, which
at the eastern end has the significant name of Verdronken
(Drowned) Land, are Schouwen-en-Duiveland (westward), and
the smaller Tholen and still smaller St. Philipsland. All the islands
preserve archaic customs and costumes. Walcheren, though
not the largest island, is the most densely populated and nearest
to England with which Flushing (Vlissingen), its largest town, has
regular passenger and mail boat services via Harwich and Queen-
borough. Flushing (pop. 22,000) is not only a sea and canal port,
but also a gay resort. It is the/ railhead for the line which in
1866 first crossed the great railway darn between Walcheren and
South Beveland and now runs to Roosendaal (North Brabant)
the great railway junction for Belgium, Germany and north
Holland. The ship canal from Flushing divides Walcheren into
two unequal parts and passes Middleburg en route for Veere,
while steam trams connect Flushing and Middleburg with Dom-
burg. Domburg is a small seaside resort built over and round a
much older settlement with civic rights dating back to the i3th
century; in addition, numerous Roman antiquities found locally
suggest a still earlier origin. South-west of Domburg is the famous
Westkapelle dike. Middleburg, the capital of the province, is but
little smaller than Flushing. It is and has long been the real
focus of Dutch life in Zeeland and has many interesting buildings.
The small industries of Walcheren include ship-building, dis-
tilling, brewing and spinning, but it deservedly ranks as the flower
garden of Zeeland; in latter days it is cultivating a great variety
of products from hemp to the opium poppy and its orchards are
important. South Beveland and its small neighbour North
Beveland are even more important for fruit which, in their case,
is largely exported as jam. South Beveland has suffered much
from inundations, particularly in the south-west ; here, during the
1 6th century, the island of Borsselen was submerged but has
been gradually recovered. North Beveland, destitute of ship
canal or railway has no large settlements; it is intensively culti-
vated and shares with Schouwen and South Beveland an im-
portant oyster-breeding industry, Yerseke on the north-east coast
of South Beveland being particularly famed. Goes (pop. about
8,000) is the largest town of North Beveland, Schouwen contains
the greatest amount of elevated land in Zeeland and the well-
wooded tract* along the western seaboard introduces a less usual
scenic feature. The former natural seaway between Schouwen
and Duiveland has been closed by the damming of the Dykwater
but a canal still follows its line. On this is the old port of Zierik-
zee which has probably retained more of its mediaeval features
than any other Zeeland town; the Gothic church is represented
940
ZEEMAN— ZEEMAN EFFECT
by a mutilated tower and many of the small Dutch houses of
minute coloured bricks, and the old town gates belong to the
period of the Spanish assault on Zierikzee in 1576.
In the north of Schouwen is Brouwershaven. established as a
port by the brewers and wine merchants of Middleburg. Here
the English supporters (under Jacquelin of Bavaria) were defeated
by the troops of Philip of Burgundy. St. Philipsland is rather
inaccessible and has little of interest; Tholen, only little easier
of approach, has on its east coast a small ancient circular town
of the same name, noted for oysters and onions. In the still
smaller village of St. Martinsdyk little remains of its once mighty
14th-century castle — the home of the Borsselcs — but the village
church contains a tomb of Floris van Borssele. Stavenisse on the
west coast is modern and ugly. The strip of Zeeland-Flanders
gives the Dutch command of both banks of the Lower Schelde.
Here the busiest town is Terneuzen at the sea-end of the canal
(1825-27), running due south to Ghent; south-cast of it lies
Axel, formerly fortified but now noted only for the peculiar cos-
tumes of its peasant women.
ZEEMAN, PIETER (1865- ), Dutch physicist, was
born at Zonnemaire, Zealand, on May 25, 1865. He studied at
Leyden, where he held the following appointments: assistant in
physics (1890-94), Privat-dozent (1894-97) and lecturer (1897-
1900). In 1900 he was appointed professor of physics at
Amsterdam, and in addition director of the Physical institute,
Amsterdam, in 1908. Zeeman '$ best known work in physics is
on the splitting up of spectral lines in a magnetic field, known as
the Zecman effect. The theoretical explanation was first given by
Lorentz very soon after the effect was observed. The phenomenon
has been used by astronomers for the detection of magnetic effects
at the surface of the sun. More recently Zeeman has worked on
the propagation of light in moving media. He made observations
in water, quartz and flint glass, the bodies were given an oscil-
latory motion and instantaneous photographic methods were ap-
plied, making the exposure when the velocity was a maximum.
It was found that the results agreed with Lorentz's formula
rather than with that of Fresnel. The results of these observa-
tions are collected in Archives Neerlandaises des Sciences Ex-
actes (vol. x., 1927). Zeeman is a member of many learned soci-
eties, including the Royal Society, and has been the recipient of
many awards, including the Nobel Prize in 1902. He is the author
of several books on magneto-optics, which have been translated
into English and German.
ZEEMAN EFFECT, named after its discoverer, is the
term used to describe the phenomena produced in spectroscopy
(q.v.) by a magnetic field. When a substance, which emits a line
spectrum, is placed in a strong magnetic field, every line is split
up into several components each of which has a characteristic
change of frequency and characteristic polarization and intensity.
Magnetism produces many curious effects in matter (change of
electrical resistance, "Hall" effect, etc.), but the Zeeman effect
has an importance immensely greater than the rest because it has
proved to be one of the most powerful means of discovering the
nature of the forces in the atom. The first indication of a connec-
tion between light and magnetism was due to Faraday, who dis-
covered the magnetic gyration of light in 1845; i.e., when plane
polarized light goes through transparent matter in a magnetic field
the plane of polarization is rotated. With extraordinary insight he
conjectured that there ought to be a corresponding effect in the
emission of light, and almost the last experiment of his life was
to seek for it. He failed to detect it since the technique both of
spectroscopes and of magnetic fields was insufficiently developed,
but modern theory entirely bears out the correctness of his con-
jecture. In 1896 Zeeman made a similar attempt and was suc-
cessful. When a source of light, such as a metallic arc, was placed
between the poles of a powerful electromagnet, the lines of its
spectrum were split into components, some displaced to the red
and some to the blue, and each of these was polarized in a char-
acteristic way.
The experimental study of the Zeeman effect calls for little
comment. Even in the strongest magnetic fields available (say
30.000 gauss) the extreme components into which a line is split
are never more than about i A. U. apart, and there may well be
a dozen or so components between them, so that it is not only
necessary to have a powerful magnet, but also a spectroscope of
high resolving power. The consequent difficulties are very great,
but are not peculiar to the Zeeman effect, The polarizations of
the various components are shown by the ordinary methods used
for polarized light, and their intensities by means of an opaque
wedge according to the usual photometric practice, and only one
point calls for comment. Light passing through a diffraction grat-
ing has its intensity differently affected according as it is polar-
ized along or across the lines of the grating, and this might en-
tirely vitiate the comparison of the intensities of lines polarized
in these two ways. The difficulty is avoided by the use of a quartz
plate, which rotates the planes of polarization so that both types
are at 45° to the lines of the grating. It was only after this was
done that it was found possible to obtain correct values for the
intensities, with important consequencds for the general theory of
spectra.
The Normal Zeeman Effect.— Almost immediately after
Zeeman had made his,, discovery, Lorentz showed how it would
fit into the classical electric theory. His explanation has been
superseded in the light of later knowledge, but it still furnishes a
convenient description of the simpler features of the effect. It
explains what is called the "normal effect," though, as so often
happens with scientific nomenclature, it turns out that the normal
effect is of rather rare occurrence and is not in fact the most
primitive type. Lorentz supposed that the atom* contains an elec-
tron which describes free vibrations about a centre. 'I he restrain-
ing force is proportional to the distance from the centre and is the
same for all directions, so that the free period is independent of
the orbit of the electron. Such an electron will emit light of its
own frequency and with polarization completely determined by its
orbit. When there is no external magnetic field the orbits of the
various atoms in the source are orientated at random, and their
average effects give unpolarized light.
When an electron is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
force at right-angles to the direction of the field and also at right-
angles to its line of motion, and this force is to be superposed on
the other forces acting on the electron. The effect is most con-
veniently described by Larmor's theorem which asserts that the
field is equivalent to a rotation. This means that the actual motion
of the electron in the field is the same as the apparent motion
it would have without the Held, but now as seen by an observer
who is himself rotating at a suitable speed about an axis in the
direction of the magnetic force. The angular velocity of the
Larmor rotation is eH/2mc, where // is the strength of the field,
e and m the charge and mass of the electron and c the velocity of
light. Compared to ordinary standards this is a very high speed
even for quite weak fields (for the earth's magnetic field is about
a million rotations a second), but it is much smaller than the
speed with which it is to be compared, the electron's motion in
the atom.
The equivalence of magnetism and rotation is true whatever
other forces may act on the electron. In our case the effect
can best be seen by considering three special types of orbits ; the
general motion is merely a superposition of these. The first is a
motion along the line of the magnetic field, and this is evidently
unaffected by the rotation. The others are circular motions, both
in a plane perpendicular to the field, but in opposite directions.
The Larmor rotation must be added to one of these, and sub-
tracted from the other. If the original frequency was v there
will now be three frequencies, v and v ±eH/$ IT me, and we con-
clude that the magnetic field will split one line into three. More-
over each of the three will have a characteristic polarization, asso-
ciated with the corresponding motion of the electron. These po-
larizations vary according to the position of the observer, and are
most easily described by saying that the light-vector (electric
force) behaves like the perspective view that the observer has of
the motion of the emitting electron. Thus the light of frequency
v corresponds to the electron vibrating along the line of the field.
Viewed from anywhere it appears to describe a straight line, and
so the associated light is plane -polarized. From the poles (in the
ZEITZ— ZELLER
941
direction of the magnetic field) the electron will appear motion-
less, and so no light is emitted in this direction. At the equator
the apparent motion is a maximum and the light is polarized with
vector in the same direction as the field; for this reason the com-
ponent is called parallel. Next consider one of the circular mo-
tions; on the same principle it emits circularly polarized light
towards the poles, and plane-polarized light towards the equator
where the electron's motion is seen edgewise. From the direction
of its polarization at the equator this component is called per-
pendicular. One of the first tasks of Zeeman was to examine the
light in the polar direction, for, by finding whether the bluer com-
ponent gives right- or left-handed circularly polarized light, it is
possible to fix the sign of the Larmor rotation, and so to determine
the sign of the electron's charge e. Once this is done it is most
convenient to observe the effect from the equator, since in that
direction all three components are plane-polarized, and this is
much more convenient for investigation.
The Anomalous Zeeman Effect. — The experiments on some
spectral lines (in particular on the chief cadmium lines which are
used as fundamental standards of wave-length) entirely bore out
Lorentz's theory and gave a measure of e/nic, which in magnitude
and sign was in agreement with the value determined for free
electrons. This result, however, proved to be quite exceptional;
nearly all lines were found to give much more complicated split-
ting and this in many different ways, which are collectively re-
ferred to as the anomalous Zeeman effect. There are usually
many more%,than the three lines of Lorentz's theory, and often
none in the positions predicted by it; hut the scale of the pattern
is still proportional to the magnetic force and the polarizations still
fall into the three classes described, the central ones being parallel
and the outer perpendicular of the two types. Moreover the dis-
placement always bears a simple numerical ratio to that given by
the simple theory. The general rules are very complicated and
we may be content to describe a
single example, the yellow lines,
DI and Da, of sodium. These
two lines break up into 4 and 6
components respectively, in the
manner shown in figure. This is
0 0
p
1 1 >>
?0
,«/» 1 1
* | | 4*
V 1
1 ^
D,
tf»
the simplest case of the anoma- THE ANOMALOUS ZEEMAN EFFECT
lous effect, and theory now shows FO* THE D LINES OF SODIUM
it to be the most primitive effect of all, much more so than the
normal Lorentz triplet.
The anomalous Zeeman effect is connected with another im-
portant phenomenon, called the Paschen-Back effect after its dis-
coverers. As the magnetic field is increased, the components get
further apart, and for a strong enough field those of DI and D^>
ought to overlap one another. This does not occur, but a compli-
cated rearrangement takes place; some lines weaken in intensity
and disappear, others melt together and finally, when the magnetic
field is very strong indeed, a totally new pattern is observed in the
form of a single Lorentz triplet. A trace of the original two lines
remains, in that each component has a fine structure and is not a
simple line. The actual transition to the Paschen-Back effect can-
not be observed for the D-lines, because it would need quite un-
attainable strengths of field, but it is safely inferred from the be-
haviour of other lines of the same type which are originally much
closer together. Though we have only described one particular
example, it is universally true that in very strong fields every
multiplet of a spectrum is replaced by a single Lorentz pattern.
The disentangling of the very complicated patterns was made
possible by the quantum theory of spectra, according to which
there is a spectrum of levels underlying the spectrum of lines.
Every line is given in frequency by the difference in "height" be-
tween two levels, and the levels have much simpler characteristics
than the lines. The analysis was worked out with the help of
quasi-dynamical models, and its result was to express the dis-
placement, polarization and intensity of every line algebraically
in terms of the quantum numbers which describe the two asso-
ciated levels. (See QUANTUM THEORY.) From this analysis it
emerged that in the atom there are two kinds of system, one
of which exhibits the Larmor rotation, while the other shows a
rotation just twice as great. By the interaction of the two sys-
tems it is possible to explain both the anomalous Zeeman effect
and the Paschen-Back effect. For some time the existence of this
doubled rotation was mysterious, but it was finally traced to the
electron itself; the electron in addition to its electric charge is a
magnet and rotates in the magnetic field with twice the Larmor
speed. Even this is not the last word, for it has been shown that
it is only possible to make a picture of electrical phenomena which
rigorously reconciles the quantum theory with the theory of rela-
tivity by endowing the electron with magnetism in just the way
required for the Zeeman effect. Einstein's conception of relativity
was developed to explain a totally different category of phenom-
ena, and it is one of the most remarkable syntheses in the history
of physics that it should be possible to make it responsible for the
intricacies of the Zeeman effect.
We have described the most interesting aspect of the Zeeman
effect, and need only touch on a few others. There is the inverse
Zeeman effect where light is absorbed by matter in a magnetic
field; this follows exactly the same rules as the direct effect.
Faraday's magnetic gyration (see LIGHT) is another aspect of the
same thing. The theory of the effect is still very incomplete for
band spectra, and indeed for some classes of line spectra. In con-
clusion we may refer to a more practical use to which the Zeeman
effect has been put: by its means it is known that there are very
powerful magnetic fields in sun-spots, and also that the sun as a
whole has a magnetic field like the earth.
BIBLIOGKAPIIY. — A. Sommerfcld, Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines
(1923) ; E. N. da C. Andrade, The Structure of the Atom (1027). For
the magnetism of the electron, original papers must he consulted, of
which there arc a long series, culminating in P. A. M. Dirac, "The
Quantum Theory of the Electron," in Rov. Soc. Proc. A. (1928).
(C. G. D.)
ZEITZ, a town in the extreme south of the Prussian province
of Saxony, situated on the Weisse -(White) Elstcr, 28 m. by rail
S.S.W. of Leipzig on the line to Gera, and with branches to
Altenburg and Weissenfels. Pop. ((19:5) 34,589. Zeitz is an an-
cient place of Slavonic origin. From 968 till 1028 it was the scat of
a bishopric, afterwards removed to Naumburg, and styled Naum-
burg-Zcitz. In 1564 the last Roman Catholic bishop died, and
his dominions were thenceforward administered by princes of
Saxony. From 1653 till i/iS Zcitz was the capital of the dukes
of Saxe-Zeitz. It thereafter remained in the possession of the
electors of Saxony until 1815, when it passed to Prussia.
ZELLER, EDUARD '(1814-1908), German philosopher,
was born at Kleinbottwar in WUrttemberg on Jan. 22, 1814, and
educated at the University of Tubingen and under the influence
of Hegel. In 1840 he was Prhatdozent of theology at Tubingen,
in 1847 professor of theology at Bern, in 1849 professor of the-
ology at Marburg, migrating soon afterwards to the faculty of
philosophy as the result of disputes with the Clerical party. He
became professor of philosophy at Heidelberg in 1862, removed
to Berlin in 1872, and retired in 1895. His great work is his
Philosophie der Griechen (1844-52). He was one of the
founders of the Thcologische Jahrbticiier, a periodical which ac-
quired great importance as the exponent of the historical method
of David Strauss and Christian Baur. Like most of his con-
temporaries he began with Hegclianism, but later he saw the ne-
cessity of going back to Kant in the sense of demanding a critical
reconsideration of the epistemological problems which Kant had
made but a partially successful attempt to solve. None the less
his merits as an original thinker are far outshone by his splendid
services to the history of philosophy, in spite of the fact that his
view of Greek thought is somewhat warped by Hegelian formal-
ism. He died on March 19. igo8. Among his other works are:
Platonisclie Stndicn (1839); Gcsch. d. christlich. Kirche
(1898); Gesch. d. dentsch Philos. seit Leibniz (1873, I8?5);
Staat und Kirche (1873); Vber Bedeutung und Aufgabe d.
Erkenntniss-Theorie (1862); Vber telcolog. und median. Natur-
erklarung (1876); Philosoph. Aufsdtze (1887).
The Philosophie dcr Gricchen was translated into English (2 vols.,
1881) under the editorship of S. F. Alleyne. The Philosophie appeared
in an abbreviated form as Grundriss d. Gcsch. d. Griech. Philos. (1883 ;
5th cd. 1898) ; Eng. trans, by Alleyne and Evelvn Abbott (1866), under
the title, Outlines of the Hist, of Ck Philosofihv.
942
ZEMARCHUS— ZEND-AVESTA
ZEMARCHUS (ft. 568), Byzantine general and traveller.
The Turks, by their conquest of Sogdiana in the middle of the
6th century, gained control of the silk trade which then passed
through Central Asia into Persia. But the Persian king, Chosroes
Nushirvan refused to allow the old commerce to continue, and
(he Turks in 568 sent an embassy to Constantinople to form an
alliance with the Byzantines and "transfer the sale of silk to
them." The offer was accepted by Justin II., and in Aug. 568,
Zemarchus the Cilidan, "General of the cities of the East," left
Byzantium for Sogdiana. The embassy was under the guidance
of Maniakh, "chief of the people of Sogdiana," who had himself
come to Byzantium to negotiate the "Roman alliance." On
reaching the Sogdian territories the travellers- were offered iron
for sale, and solemnly exorcised; Zemarchus was made to "pass
through the fire'' (i.e., between two fires), and strange cere-
monies were performed over the baggage of the expedition. The
envoys then proceeded to the camp of Dizabul (or rather of
Dizabul's successor, he having just died) "in a hollow encom-
passed by the Golden Mountain," apparently in some locality of
the Altai. They found the khan surrounded by astonishing bar-
baric pomp — gilded thrones, golden peacocks, gold and silver
plate and silver animals, hangings and clothing of figured silk.
They accompanied him some way on his march against Persia,
passing through Talas or Turkistan in the Syr Darya valley.
Near the river Ockh (Syr Darya?) he was sent back to Con-
stantinople with a Turkish embassy and with envoys from various
tribes subject to the Turks. Halting by the "vast, wide lagoon"
(of the Aral sea?), Zemarchus sent off an express messenger, one
George, to announce his return to the emperor. George hurried
on by the shortest route, "desert and waterless," apparently the
steppes north of the Black sea; while his superior, moving more
slowly, marched 12 days by the sandy shores of "the lagoon";
crossed the Emba, Ural, Volga and Kuban (where 4,000 Persians
vainly lay in ambush to stop him) ; and passing round the western
end of the Caucasus, arrived safely at Trebizond and Constanti-
nople. For several years this Turkish alliance subsisted, while
close intercourse was maintained between Central Asia and
Byzantium; but from 579 the friendship rapidly began to cool
All this travel does not seem to have corrected the misappre-
hension that the Caspian was a gulf of the Arctic ocean.
See Menandcr Protector, Utpl Tlpto-p&jv 'Pco/uatai' vptis "Eflvij (De
Legationibm Romanorum ad Genles), pp. 295-302, 380-385, 397-404,
Bonn edition (xix.), 1828 (=pp. 806-811, 883-887, 899-907, in Migne,
Patrolog. Grace., vol. cxiii., Paris, 1864) ; H. Yule, Cathay, clx.-dxvi.
(Hakluyt Society, 1866) ; L. Cahun, Introduction a I'histoire de t'Asie,
pp. 108-118 (1896); C. K. Bcazley, Dawn of Modern Orography, i.
186-189 (1897). (C. R. B.)
ZEMGALS, GUSTAV (1871- ), president of the repub-
lic of Latvia, was born in Courland on Aug. 12, 1871. He was edu-
cated in Riga and studied law at the University of Moscow. Up
to the time of his election as president of the republic he was
a well known lawyer and notarius publicus in Riga, and took an
active part in the Co-operative movement. He was vice-president
of the Latvian National Council in 1918, and this council was
recognized by the Western European Powers as being the legiti:
mate representative body of the Latvian nation. It was he who
proclaimed the independence of Latvia on Nov. 18, 1918, in the
absence of Monsieur Tschakste, the president of the Latvian
National Council.
He was elected president of the republic of Latvia for three
years on April 8, 1927, in succession to the late J. Tschakste, the
first president of the republic of Latvia. President Zemgals was
elected by a great majority, receiving about 80 votes out of a
possible 100 in the Latvian parliament. He will hold office until
April 8, 1930, and may then be re-elected by the parliament. He
enjoys remarkable popularity among all classes of the population,
as he is keenly interested in the life and the progress of the people
of the country.
He was a member of the Constituent Assembly of Latvia and
had a seat in the first parliament (Saeima). He was lord mayor
of Riga and was minister of war from 1921-23.
ZEMUN, a town of Croat ia-Slavonia, Yugoslavia (German
Semlin), on the Danube opposite Belgrade. Pop. (1921) 18,524,
the majority being Serbs, the remainder Croats, Jews, Germans,
Magyars and Gipsies. Zemun is the seat of an Orthodox bishop;
but most of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics. Zcmun has an
important transit trade in grain, fruit, livestock and timber. On a
hill overlooking the Danube are the ruins of the castle of
Hunyadi Janos, who died here in 1456. Until 1881 the town be-
longed to the military frontier of Austro-Hungary.
ZENAGA, a Berber tribe of southern Morocco who gave
their name to Senegal, once their tribal home. With other tribes
under Yusef bin Tashfin, they crossed the Sahara and gave the
Almoravide dynasty to Morocco and Spain. The Zeirid dynasty
which supplanted the Fatimites in the Maghrib and founded the
city of Algiers was also of Zenaga origin. The Zenaga dialect
of Berber is spoken in southern Morocco and on the banks of the
lower Senegal, largely by the negro population.
ZENATA or ZANATA, a Berber tribe of Morocco in the dis-
trict of central Atlas. Their tribal home seems to have been south
of Oran in Algeria, and they early claimed an Arab origin, though
the Arabs called them descendants of Goliath, i.e., Philistines^ or
Phoenicians (Ibn Khaldun, vol. iii. p. 184 and vol. iv. p. 597).
They were formerly a large and powerful confederation, and took
a prominent part in the history of the Berber race. The Beni-
Marin and Wattasi dynasties of Zenata origin, reigned in Morocco
from 1213 to 1548.
ZEND-AVESTA, the original document of the religion of
Zoroaster (q.v.), still used by the Parsees at their bible and
prayer-book. The name "Zend-Avesta" has been* current in
Europe since the time of Anquetil Duperron (c. 1771), but the
Parsees themselves call it simply Avesta, Zend (i.e., "interpre-
tation") being specially employed to denote the translation and
exposition of a great part of the Avesta which exists in Pahlavi.
The origin and meaning of the word "Avesta" (or in its older
form, Avistdk) are alike obscure; it cannot be traced further back
than the Sassanian period. The term is now applied both to the
collection of writings and also to the language in which they are
composed. The Avesta is a work of but moderate compass (com-
parable, say, to the Iliad and Odyssey taken together), but no
single manuscript gives it in entirety.
Contents. — As we now have it, the Avesta consists of the fol-
lowing parts : —
1. The Yasna, the principal liturgical book of the Parsees, in
72 chapters (hditi, hd)y contains the texts read by the priests at
the solemn yasna (Izeshne) ceremony, the general sacrifice in
honour of all the deities. The arrangement of the chapters is
purely liturgical, although their matter in part has nothing to do
with the liturgical action. It falls into three sections of about
equal length: — (a) The introduction (chap. 1-27) consists mainly
of invocations. Yet it includes some interesting texts, e.g., the
Haoma (Horn) Yasht (9, n) and the ancient confession of faith
(12), which is of value as a document for the history of civili-
zation, (b) The Gathas (chap. 2^-54) contain the discourses,
exhortations and revelations of the prophet, written in a metrical
style and archaic language. The Gathas proper, arranged accord-
ing to the metres in which they are written, fall into five sub-
divisions (28-34, 43~46, 47-50, 51, 53). Between chap. 34 and
chap. 43 is inserted the so-called Seven-Chapter Yasna (haptan-
ghditi) , a number of small prose pieces not far behind the Gathas
in antiquity, (c) The so-called Later Yasna (Apard Yasnd)
(chap. 5-72) consists mainly of invocations. Special mention
ought to be made of the Sraosha (Srosh) Yasht (57), the prayer
to fire (62), and the great liturgy for the sacrifice to divinities of
the water (63-69).
2. The Vispered, a minor liturgical work in 24 chapters (karde),
is alike in form and substance completely dependent on the Yasna,
to which it is a liturgical appendix. The name Visperedt meaning
"all the chiefs" (vispe ratavo), has reference to the spiritual heads
of the religion of Ormuzd, invocations to whom form the contents
of the first chapter of the book.
3. The Vendidad, the priestly code of the Parsees, contains in
22 chapters (forward) a kind of dualistic account of the creation
(chap, i), the legend of Yima.and the golden age (chap. 2), and
in the bulk of the remaining chapters the precepts of religion with
ZEND-AVESTA
943
regard to the cultivation of the earth, the care of useful animals,
the protection of the sacred elements, such as earth, fire and water,
the keeping of a man's body from defilement, together with the
requisite measures of precaution, elaborate ceremonies of purifica-
tion, atonements, ecclesiastical expiations and so forth. Yet in
spite of an exaggerated casuistry the whole of Zoroastrian legis-
lation is subordinate to one great point of view : the war — preached
without intermission — against Satan and his noxious creatures,
from which the whole book derives its name; for "Vendidad" is
a modern corruption for vi-daevo-ddtem — "the anti-demonic
Law." The three concluding chapters are devoted to sacerdotal
medicine.
4. The Yashts, i.e., "songs of praise," except those inserted in
the Yasna, form a collection by themselves. They contain invo-
cations of separate Izacls, or angels, number 21 in all, and are of
widely divergent extent and antiquity. The great Yashts — some
nine or ten — are impressed with a higher stamp, and represent the
religious poetry of the ancient Iranians. They resemble the Rig-
Veda hymns, and are a rich source of mythology and legendary
history. Side by side with full, vividly coloured descriptions of the
Zoroastrian deities, they frequently interweave, as episodes,
stories from the old heroic fables. The most important of all, the
igth Yasht, gives a consecutive account of the Iranian heroic saga
in great broad lines, together with a prophetic presentment of the
end of this world.
5. The Khordah Avesta, i.e., the Little A vesta, comprises a
collection of shorter prayers designed for all believers — the laity
included — and adapted for the various occurrences of ordinary
life. I
There are also a considerable number of fragments from lost
books, e.g., the Nirangistan, as well as quotations, glosses and
glossaries.
The Larger Avesta and the Twenty-one Nasks. — In its
present form, however, the Avesta is only a fragmentary remnant
of the old priestly literature of Zoroastrianism. Native tradition,
carrying us back to the Sassanian period, tells of a larger Avesta
in 21 books called nasks or nosks, as to the names of which
we have several more or less detailed accounts, particularly
in the Pahlavi Dmkard (gth century A.D.) and in the Rivayats.
From the same sources we learn that this larger Avesta was only
a part of a yet more extensive original Avesta, which is said to
have existed before Alexander. But even of the remains of the
Avesta, as these lay before the author of the gth century, only a
small residue has survived to our time. Of all the nasks one only,
the i gth, has come down on us intact — the Vendidad.
It would be rash summarily to dismiss this old tradition of the
21 nasks as pure invention. The number 21, being a sacred
number, points, indeed, to an artificial arrangement of the ma-
terial. In the enumeration of the nasks we miss the names of the
books we know, like the Yasna and the Yashts. But we must
assume that these were included in such or such a nask, as the
Yashts in the iyth or Bakdn Yasht; or, it may be that other
books, especially the Yasna, are a compilation extracted for
liturgical purposes from various nasks. Further, the author of the
DInkard appears to have had before him the text of the nasks, I
or at all events of a large part of them: for he expressly states •
that the nth nask was entirely lost, so that he is unable to give the
slightest account of its contents. And, besides, in other directions
there are numerous indications that such books once really existed.
The numerous other fragments, the quotations in the Pahlavi
translation, the many references in the Bundahish to passages of
this Avesta not now known to us, all presuppose the existence in
the Sassanian period of a much more extensive Avesta literature
than the mere prayer-book now in our hands. The existence of a
larger Avesta, even as late as the gth century A.D., is far from
being a mere myth, and we may well believe the Parsees them-
selves, when they affirm that their sacred literature has passed
through successive stages of decay, the last of which is represented
by the present Avesta.
Origin and History.— While all that Herodotus (i. 132) has
to say is that the Magi sang "the theogony" at their sacrifices,
Pausanias is able to add (v. 27. 6) that they read from a book.
Hermippus, in the 3rd century B.C., is said by Pliny to have ex-
plained the doctrine which Zoroaster had composed in 20 times
100,000 verses. According to the Arab historian, Tabari, these
were written on 12,000 cow-hides, a statement confirmed by
Mas'udi, who further says that the book consisted of 2 1 parts, and
that Zartusht, who invented uthc writing of religion," wrote it in
Old Persian. These assertions sufficiently establish the existence
and great bulk of the sacred writings. Parsee tradition acfds a
number of interesting statements as to their history. According
to the DInkard, there were two copies, of which one was burned,
while the second came into the hands of the Greeks. One of the
Rivayats relates how after the villainy of Alexander, several high-
priests collected all the fragments that could be found. As to this
re-collection and redaction of the Avesta the DInkard gives vari-
ous details. One of the Arsacid kings, Vologeses (I. or III.?),
ordered the scattered remnants of the Avesta to be carefully pre-
served and recorded, and under several of the Sassanian kings in
the 3rd and 4th centuries the new redaction was completed.
The Avesta, as we now have it, belongs to the Sassanian period,
but it cannot be said to be of Sassanian origin. From the remnants
and heterogeneous fragments at their disposal, the diasceuast or
diasceuasts composed a new canon from the materials of the old.
In point, of detail, it is now impossible to draw a sharp distinction
between that which they found surviving and that which they
themselves added or revised. It may reasonably be supposed, not
only that they constructed the external framework of many chap-
ters, and also made some additions of their own, but also that
they fabricated anew many formulae and imitative passages on
the model of the materials at their disposal. All the grammatically
correct texts, together with those portions of the Avesta which
have intrinsic worth, the Gathas anjl greater Yashts, especially
the metrical passages, are indubitably authentic and taken ad
verbum from the original Avesta. f Opinions differ greatly as to
the precise age of the original textf . According to some, they are
pre-Achaemenian ; according to Darmestcter's former opinion,
they were written in Media under the Achaemenian dynasty;
according to some, their source must be sought in the east, accord-
ing to others, in the west of Ifan. But it is more correct to say
that the Avesta was worked a,t from the time of Zoroaster down
to the Sassanian period. Its oWcst portions, the Gathas, proceed
from the prophet himself. This conclusion is inevitable for every
one to whom Zoroaster is an historical personality. The rest of
the Avesta, in spite of the opposite opinion of orthodox Parsees,
does not even claim to come from Zoronsler. As the Gathas now
constitute the kernel of the most sacred prayer-book, viz., the
Yasna, they were the nucleus of a religious literature.
The Avesta now in our hands is but a small portion of the
book as restored and edited under the Sassanians. The larger
part perished under the Mohammedan rule and under the more
barbarous tyranny of the Tatars, when through conversion and
extermination the Zoroastrians became a mere remnant. The
understanding of the older Avesta texts began, to die away at an
early period. The need for a translation and interpretation became
evident ; and under the Later Sassanians the majority of the books,
if not the whole of them, were rendered into the current Pahlavi.
For the interpretation of the older texts the Pahlavi is of great
value where they are concerned with the fixed, formal statutes of
the church. But when they pass beyond this narrow sphere, as
particularly in the Gathas, it becomes defective and unreliable.
The Parsee priest, Ncryosangh, subsequently translated a portion
of the Pahlavi version into Sanskrit.
The manuscripts of the Avesta are, comparatively speaking, of
recent date. The oldest is the Pahlavi Vispered in Copenhagen,
dated 1258. Next come the four manuscripts of the Herbad
Mihirapan Kal Khusro at Cambay (1323 and 1324), two Vendi-
dads with Pahiavi in London and Copenhagen, and two Yasnas
with Pahlavi in Copenhagen and Oxford. The earliest mss. are
the best, though careful iyth and i8th century transcripts come
from Kirman and Yazd in Persia.
The first European scholar to direct attention to the Avesta
was Hyde of Oxford, in his Historic Religionis Vetentm Pcrsarum
eorumqne Magomm (1700), which, however, failed to awake any
944
ZEND LANGUAGE— ZENOBIA
lasting interest in the sacred writings of the Parsees. The merit
of achieving this belongs to the enthusiastic orientalist Anquetii
Duperron, the fruit of whose prolonged stay in India (1755-61)
and his acquaintance with the Parsee priests was a translation
(certainly very defective) of the Zend-Avesta. The foundation
of a scientific exegesis was laid by Burnouf. The interpretation of
the Avesta is one of the most difficult problems of oriental phi-
lology. Up to the present no kind of agreement has been reached
by conflicting schools, even upon some of the most important
points. Opinion is divided also as to the significance of the
Avesta in the literature of the world. Upon the whole, the Avesta
is a monotonous book. The Yasna and many Yashts in great
part consist of formulae of prayer which arc as poor in contents
as they are rich in verbiage. The book of laws (Vendidad) is
characterized by an arid didactic tone; only here and there the
legislator clothes his dicta in the guise of graceful dialogues and
tales, or of poetic descriptions and similitudes; and then the book
of laws is transformed into a didactic poem. Nor can we deny
to the Yashts, in their depiction of the Zoroastrian angels and
their presentment of the old sagas, a certain poetic feeling, at
times, and a pleasant diction. The Gathas are quite unique in their
kind. As a whole, the Avesta, for profundity of thought and
beauty, stands on a lower level than the Old Testament. But as
a religious book — the most important document of the Zoroastrian
faith, and the sole literary monument of ancient Iran — the Avesta
occupies a prominent position in the literature of the world. At
the present day its significance is decidedly underrated. The future
will doubtless be more just with regard to the importance of the
book for the history of religion in general and even of Christianity.
(For works on the theology of the Avesta see ZOROASTER.)
EDITIONS. — Zend-Avesta, ed. by N. L. Westergaard (Copenhagen,
1852-54), complete; F. Spiegel, Avesta (Vienna, 1853-58), only
Vendidad, Vispcrcd and Yasna, but with the Pahlavi translation ;
K. Geldner (Stuttgart, 1886-96). Translations. — Anquetii Duperron,
Zend-Avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroastre (Paris, 1771) ; Fr. Spiegel (Leipzig,
1853-63), both completely antiquated. Avesta traduit par C. de
Harlez, ed. 2 (Paris, 1881) ; The Zend-Avesta, Part I. Vendidad, Part
//. Sirdzahs, Yashts and Nydyish, tr. by J. Darmesteter, Part III,
Yasna, Vispercd, etc., by L. H. Mills (Oxford, 1880-87), in the Sacred
Books of the East; Le Zend-Avesta, traduction nouvclle par J.
Darmesteter (Paris, 1892-93) (Annaks du Musee Guimet) .
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Anquetii Duperron (see above) ; Haug, Essays on
the Sacred Language, etc., of the Parsis, especially in the new edition
by E. W. West (London, 1884) ; De Harlez, 'introduction to the
Avesta (Bombay, 1921) ; Max Duncker, Geschichte des Altrrtums,
vol. iv. ; Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, vol. i. (Stuttgart,
1884; 4th cd. 1921, does not yet include Persia); J. Darmesteter, in
the Introduction to his translation (see above) ; K. Geldner, Avesta-
Litteratur in the Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, by Geigcr and
Kuhn (Strasbourg, 1896), vol ii., i f.; E. W. West, Contents of the
Nasks, S. B. E. 37 (Oxford, 1892). (K, G.; E. J. T.)
ZEND LANGUAGE: see PERSIAN AND IRANIAN LANGUAGE.
ZENITH TELESCOPE, a form of telescope specially de-
vised for the accurate determination of the latitude of a station.
It is used both in geodetic surveys and also at fixed stations for
measuring the variation of latitude. The usual form of instrument
consists of a telescope which can be clamped at any angle to a
vertical axis and rotated about the vertical. Two stars of known
declination S\ and 52 are chosen which transit within a few
minutes of one another, the one north and the other south of the
zenith at nearly equal zenith distances. If </> is the latitude the
respective zenith distances are 5i— <£, north and <£-- d.^ south, so
that the small difference between them is ij+Sj — 20. Settings of
a micrometer wire are made on each star in turn, the telescope
being of course rotated from the north to the south direction
between the two observations; the small distance that the wire
has to be moved measures the quantity 5, -}-&>— 20 and hence
determines 0. This method, known as the Talcott method, de-
pends on securing accurate rotation about the vertical; usually
delicate spirit levels attached to the telescope are used to determine
the correction for imperfect fulfilment of this condition. In a
floating zenith telescope devised by B. Cookson and now employed
for latitude variation at Greenwich observatory, rotation about the
true vertical is obtained by floating the whole instrument in mer-
cury. The observations are made photographically; the trails- of
the pair of stars are shown close together on the plate, ind the
distance between them (equivalent to £i+$2 — 20) is measured
with a suitable micrometer.
ZENO, East Roman emperor from 474 to 491, was an Isaurian
of noble birth. Of his early life nothing is known; after his
marriage to Ariadne, daughter of Leo 1., in 468 he became
patrician and commander of the imperial guard and of the armies
in the East. In 471 he procured the assassination of Ardaburius,
the Goth, who had tried to occupy in the East the position held
by Ricimer in the West. In 474 Leo I. died after appointing as
his successor Leo the son of Zeno and Ariadne; Zeno, however,
succeeded in getting himself crowned also, and on the death of
his son in the same year became sole emperor. In the following
year, in consequence of a revolt fomented by Verina in favour
of her brother Basiliscus, he was compelled to take refuge in
Isauria, where he was obliged to shut himself up in a fortress.
The growing misgovernment of Basiliscus ultimately enabled
Zeno to re-enter Constantinople unopposed (476); his rival was
banished to Phrygia, where he soon afterwards died. The re-
mainder of Zeno's reign was disturbed by numerous other less
formidable revolts. Since 472 the aggressions of the two Ostro-
goth leaders Thcodoric had been a constant source of danger.
In 487 he induced Theodoric, son of Theodemir, to invade Italy
and establish his new kingdom. Zeno is described as a lax and
indolent ruler, but he seems to have administered ably the finances
of the empire. In ecclesiastical history the name of Zeno is
associated with the Henoticon or instrument of union, promul-
gated by him and signed by all the Eastern bishops, with the
design of terminating the Monophysite controversy/'
See J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), i, pp. 250-274;
E. W. Brooks in the English Historical Review (1893), pp. 209-238;
W. Barth, Der Kaiser Zeno (Basel, 1894).
ZENOBIA (Or. Z^w/Sia), queen of Palmyra, one of the
heroines of antiquity. Her native name was Septimia Bath-
zabbai, a name also borne by one of her generals, Septimius
Zabbai. This remarkable woman, famed for her beauty, her
masculine energy and unusual powers of mind, was well fitted
to be the consort of Odainatti (see ODAENATHUS) in his proud
position as Dux Orientis; during his lifetime she actively seconded
his policy, and after his death in A.D. 266-267 she not only suc-
ceeded to his position but determined to surpass it and make
Palmyra mistress of the Roman Empire in the East. Wahab-
allath or Athenodorus (as the name was Graecized), her son by
Odainath, being still a boy, she took the reins of government into
her own hands. Under her general-in-chief Zabda, the Palmyrenes
occupied Egypt in A.D. 270, not without a struggle, under the pre-
text of restoring it to Rome; and Wahab-allath governed Egypt
in the reign of Claudius as joint ruler with the title of 0a<riXe6s
(king), while Zenobia herself was styled /3a<nX£craa (queen). In
Asia Minor Palmyrene garrisons were established as far west as
Ancyra in Galatia and Chalcedon opposite Byzantium, and Zeno-
bia still professed to be acting in"thc interests of the Roman rule.
When Aurelian became emperor in 270 he quickly realized that
the policy of the Palmyrene queen was endangering the unity of
the empire. It was not long before all disguises were thrown off;
in Egypt Wahab-allath began to issue coins without the head
of Aurelian and bearing the imperial title, and Zenobia's coins
bear the same. The assumption marked the rejection of all
allegiance to Rome. Aurelian instantly took measures; Egypt was
recovered for the Empire by Probus (close of 270), and the
emperor himself prepared a great expedition into Asia Minor and
Syria. Towards the end of 271 he marched through Asia Minor
and, overthrowing the Palmyrene garrisons in Chalcedon, Ancyra
and Tyana, he reached Antioch, where the main Palmyrene army
under Zabda and Zabbai, with Zenobia herself, attempted to
oppose his way. The attempt, however, proved unsuccessful, and
after suffering considerable losses the Palmyrenes retired in the
direction of Emesa (now Horns), whence the road lay open to
their native city.
The queen refused to yield to Aufelian's demand for surrender
and drew up her army at Emesa for the battle which was to
decide her fate. In the end she was defeated, and there was
nothing for it but to fall back upon Palmyra across the desert.
ZENOBIUS— ZENO OF ELBA
945
1 miner nureiian loiiowea ner in spite of the difficulties of trans-
port, and laid siege to the well-fortified and provisioned city. At
the critical moment the queen's courage seems to have failed her ;
she and her son fled from the city to seek help from the Persian
king, they were captured on the bank of the Euphrates, and the
Palmyrencs, losing heart at this disaster, capitulated (A.D. 272).
Aurelian seized the wealth of the city but spared the inhabitants;
to Zenobia he granted life; while her officers and advisers, among
whom was the celebrated scholar Longinus, were put to death.
Zenobia figured in the conqueror's splendid triumph at Rome,
and by the most probable account accepted her fall with dignity
and closed her days at Tibur, where she lived with her sons the
life of a Roman matron. A few months after the fall of Zenobia,
Palmyra revolted again; Aurelian unexpectedly returned, de-
stroyed the city, and this time showed no mercy to the population.
Among the traditions relating to Zenobia may be mentioned
(hat of her discussions with the Archbishop Paul of Samosata on
matters of religion. It is probable that she treated the Jews in
Palmyra with favour; she is referred to in the Talmud, as pro-
tecting Jewish rabbis (Talm. Jer. Ter. viii. 46 b).
The well-known account of Zenobia b*y Gibbon (Decline and
Fall, i. pp. 302-312 Bury's edition) is based upon the imperial bio-
graphers (Historia Augusta) and cannot be regarded as strictly
historical in detail.
See A. P. Caussin dc Perceval Essai sitr I' hist, des Arabex, ii. 28 f.,
197 f. (3 vols., 1847-48) ; Tabari, i. 757 f. See further PALMYRA.
(G. A. C.; X.)
ZENOBIUS, a Greek sophist, who taught rhetoric at Rome
during the*reign of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138). He was the author
of a collection of proverbs in three books, still extant in an
abridged form, compiled, according to SuVdas, from Didymus
of Alexandria and Lucillus of Tarrha. Zcnobius is also said to
have been the author of a Greek translation of Sallust and of
a birthday poem (ytveO\ia.K6v) on Hadrian.
Editions by T. Gaisford (1836) and E. L. Leutsch-F. W. Schneide-
win (1839), and in B. E. Miller, M Manxes de literature zrecque
(1868) ; see also W. Christ, Griechische Literatiirgeschichte (1898).
ZENODOCHIUM (Gr. ^vodox^ov, £ei>os, stranger, guest,
6exe0-0eu,to receive), the name given by the Greeks to a building
erected for the reception of strangers.
ZENODOTUS, Greek grammarian and critic, pupil of Phi-
letas (q.v.) of Cos, was a native of Ephesus. He lived during the
reigns of the first two Ptolemies, and was at the height of his
reputation about 280 B.C. He was the first superintendent of the
library at Alexandria and the first critical editor (oiopOurns) of
Homer, in his recension of whom he undoubtedly laid a sound
foundation for future criticism. Having collated the different mss.
in the library, he expunged or obelized doubtful verses, transposed
or altered lines, and introduced new readings. He divided the
Homeric poems into books (with capitals for the Iliad, and small
letters for the Odyssey), and possibly was the author of the cal-
culation of the days of the Iliad in the Tabula Iliaca. He also
lectured upon Hesiod. Anacreon and Pindar. He is further called
an epic poet by Sui'das.
There appear to have been at least two other grammarians of
the same name: (i) Zenodotus of Alexandria, surnamed 6 tv
currei; (2) Zenodotus of Mallus, the disciple of Crates, who like
his master attacked Aristarchus.
See F. A. Wolf, Prolegomena ad Home-rum, s. 43 (1859 ed.) ; H.
Diintzer, De Zcnodoti studiis Homericis (1848) ; A. Romer, Vber die
Homerrecension des Zenodotus (Munich, 1885) ; F. Susemihl, Ge-
schichte der grieehischen Literatur in der Alexajidrinerzeit, i. p. 330,
ii. p. 14; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. (1906).
ZENO OF ELBA, son of Teleutagoras, born probably
towards the beginning of the sth century B.C. The pupil and the
friend of Parmenides, he sought to recommend his master's doc-
trine of the existence of the One by controverting the popular
belief in the existence of the Many. In virtue of this method of
indirect argumentation he is regarded as the inventor of "dialec-
tic," that is to say, disputation having for its end not victory
but the discovery of truth.
In Plato's Parmenides, Socrates, "then very young," discusses
with Parmenides and Zeno, "a man of about forty." But it may
be doubted whether such a meeting was chronologically possible.
Plato's account of Zeno's teaching (Parmenides, 128 scq.), how-
ever, is presumably accurate. In reply to those who thought that
Parmenides's theory of the existence of the One involved incon-
sistencies, Zeno tried to show that the assumption of the existence
of a plurality of things in time and space, carried with it more
serious inconsistencies. In early youth he collected his arguments
in a book, which, according to Plato, was put into circulation with-
out his knowledge.
Of the paradoxes used by Zeno to discredit the belief in plurality
and motion, eight survive in the writings of Aristotle and Sim-
plicius. They are commonly stated as follows: (i) If the Exist-
ent is Many, it must be at once infinitely small and infinitely
great — infinitely small, because its parts must be indivisible and
therefore without magnitude; infinitely great, because, that any
part having magnitude may be separate from any other part, the
intervention of a third part having magnitude is necessary, and
that this third part may be separate from the other two the inter-
vention of other parts having magnitude is necessary, and so on
ad infinitum. (2) In like manner the Many must be numerically
both finite and infinite — numerically finite, because there are as
many things as there are, neither more nor less; numerically
infinite, because, that any two things may be separate, the inter-
vention of a third thing is necessary, and so on ad infinitum.
(3) If all that is is in space, space itself must be in space, and so
on ad infinitiim. (4) If a bushel of corn turned out upon the floor
makes a noise, each grain and each part of each grain must make
a noise likewise; but, in fact, it is not so. (5.) Before a body in
motion can reach a given point, it must first traverse the half of
the distance; before it can traverse the half of the distance, it
must first traverse the quarter; and so on ad infinitnm. Hence,
that a body may pass from one point to another, it must traverse
an infinite number of divisions. But an infinite distance (which
the paradox does not distinguish from a finite distance infinitely
divided) cannot be traversed in a finite time. Consequently, the
goal can never be reached. (6) If the tortoise has the start of
Achilles, Achilles can never come up with the tortoise; for, while
Achilles traverses the distance from his starting-point to the Start-
ing-point of the tortoise, the tortoise advances a certain distance,
and while Achilles traverses this distance, the tortoise makes a
further advance, and so on ad infinitiim. Consequently, Achilles
may run ad infinitnm without overtaking the tortoise. (This para-
dox is virtually identical with [5], the only difference being that
whereas in [5] there is one body, in [6] there are two bodies,
moving towards a limit. The "infinity" of the premise is an
infinity of subdivisions of a distance which is finite; the "infinity"
of the conclusion is an infinity of distance.) (7) So long as any-
thing is in one and the same space, it is at rest. Hence an arrow
is at rest at every moment of its flight, and therefore also during
the whole of its flight. (8) Two bodies moving with equal speed
traverse equal spaces in equal time. But, when two bodies move
with equal speed in opposite directions, the one passes the other
in half the time in which it passes it when at rest. These paradoxes
arc probably properly regarded as dilemmas advanced in refuta-
tion of specific doctrines attributed to the Pythagoreans.
Great as was the importance of these paradoxes of plurality and
motion in stimulating speculation about space and time, their
direct influence upon Greek thought was less considerable than
that of another paradox — strangely neglected by historians of
philosophy — the paradox of predication. We learn from Plato
(Parmenides t 127 D) that "the first hypothesis of the first argu-
ment" of Zeno's book above mentioned ran as follows: "If exist-
ences are many, they must be both like and unlike (unlike, inas-
much as they are not one and the same, and like, inasmuch
as they agree in not being one and the same [Procius, On the
Parmenides, ii. 143]). But this is impossible; for unlike things
cannot be like, nor like things unlike. Therefore existences are
not many."
When in the second decade of the 4th century the pursuit of
truth was resumed, it was plain that Zeno's paradox of predica-
tion must be disposed of before the discussion of the problems
of knowledge and the problem of being could be resumed. Ac-
cordingly, in bk. 7 of the Republic, Plato directs the attention
946
ZEOLITES— ZEPHANIAH
of studious youth primarily, if not exclusively, to the concurrence
of inconsistent attributes; and in the Phaedo, 102 8-103 A,
taking as an instance the tallness and the shortness simultaneously
discoverable in Simmias, he offers his own theory of the imma-
nent idea as the solution of the paradox. Simmias, he says, has
in him the ideas of tall and short. Again, when it presently ap-
peared that the theory of the immanent idea was inconsistent with
itself, and moreover inapplicable to explain predication except
where the subject was a sensible thing, so that reconstruction be-
came necessary, the Zenonian difficulty continued to receive
Plato's attention. Thus, in the Parmenides, with the paradox of
likeness and unlikeness for his text, he inquires how far the cur-
rent theories of being (his own included) are capable of provid-
ing, not only for knowledge, but also for predication, and in the
concluding sentence he suggests that, as likeness and unlikeness,
greatness and smallness, etc., are relations, the initial paradox
is no longer paradoxical; while in the Sophist, Zeno's doctrine
having been shown to be fatal to reason, thought, speech and
utterance, the mutual Kowwla. 'of Mrj which are not a&rd tcaQ'
atrrb is elaborately demonstrated.
In all probability Zeno did not observe that in his controversial
defence of Eleaticism he was interpreting Parmenides's teaching
anew. While Parmenides had recognized, together with the One,
which is, and is the object of knowledge, a Many, which is not,
and therefore is not known, but nevertheless becomes, and is the
object of opinion, Zeno plainly affirmed that plurality, becoming
and opinion are one and all inconceivable. In a word, Parmen-
ides's tenet "The Ent is, the Non-ent is not," was with Zeno a
declaration of the Non-ent's absolute nullity. Thus, just as Em-
pedocles developed Parmenides's theory of the Many to the ne-
glect of his theory of the One, so Zeno developed the theory of
the One to the neglect of the theory of the Many. With the sev-
erance of its two members Eleaticism proper, the Eleaticism of
Parmenides, ceased to exist.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. W. A. Mullach, Fragmenta Philosophorunt
Graecorum (Paris, 1860) ; E. Zcller, Die Philosophic der Griechen
(Leipzig, 1876) ; P. Tannery, Pour I'histoire de la science Hellene
(1887) ; H. von Armin, Stoicorum veterum fragmenta (vol. i., 1905) ;
H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (1006-07) ; J. Burnet,
Early Greek Philosophy (1920). On the mathematical questions raised
by certain of Zeno's paradoxes, see G. Noel in the Revue de Meta-
physique et de Morale (vol. i., 1893) ; B. Russell, Principles of Mathe-
matics (1903) and F. Cajou, Hist, of Zeno's Arguments against
Motion (1915).
ZEOLITES, a family of minerals consisting of hydrated sili-
cates of alumina with alkalis or alkaline earths or both. The
water they contain is readily lost, and before the blowpipe it is
expelled with intumescence; hence the name zeolite, from the
Greek fetv (to boil) and Xt0o$ (a stone). In some other charac-
ters, as well as in their origin and mode of occurrence, they have
points in common. Several species have been distinguished, of
which the following are the more important: —
H4CaAl,(SiO,)«-f3H,0.
H4(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al2(Si03)d+3H20.
IWellsitc .
Phillipsite
Harmotome
Stilbite .
Gismondite
Laumontite
iLevynite,.
Analcite .
(Natrolite.
Natrolite iMesolite .
Group IScolccite .
lEdingtonite
Thomsonite
ma, Ca, K2)Al2SiAo4-3H20.
(K2, Ca)Al2(Si03)4+4H20.
H,(K2, Ba)Al2(SiO,)5
CaAla(SiOs)«+6H2O.
(Ca, Na«)Al,(Si04),+4HA etc.
(Na,. Ca)Ali(SiO,)4+6HaO.
NaAl(SiO,)2-fHaO.
Na,Al,SiaOIO-
(Ca,
CaAl2SiAo
(Na,, Ca)Al2(Si04)24-2jH*0.
Some of the chemical formulae given above are only approxi-
mate, since in some species the composition varies between certain
limits and can be best expressed by the isomojphous mixing of
different molecules. They are all readily decomposed by hydro* !
chloric acid, usually with the separation of gelatinous silica. By
the action of various reagents several substitution products have
been prepared artificially: thus, crystallized products, in which
the alkalis or alkaline earths are replaced by ammonium or silver,
etc., have been obtained.
The zeolites are often beautifully crystallized, and belong to
several crystal-systems. The crystals usually show evidences of
twinning, and when examined in polarized light they frequently
exhibit optical anomalies and a complex structure. The hardness
(3-5—5.5) and specific gravity (2.0-2-4) are comparatively low, and
so are the indices of refraction and the double refraction,
The water of zeolites presents many points of interest. Lau-
montite loses water on exposure to air, and the crystals soon
crumble to powder unless tjiey are kept in a moist atmosphere.
All the zeolites lose a portion of their "water of crystallization7*
in dry air (over sulphuric acid), and a considerable portion at a
temperature of 100° C, increasing in amount to 200° or 300°;
the actual amount lost depending not only on the temperature,
but also on the tension of aqueous vapour in the surrounding
atmosphere. In some species the remaining water is expelled only
at a red heat, and is therefore to be regarded as "water of consti-
tution." With the progressive loss of water there is a progressive
change in the optical characters of the crystals. When a partially
dehydrated and opaque crystal is exposed to moist air the water is
reabsorbed, the crystal becoming again transparent and regaining
its original optical characters. Not only may water be reabsorbed,
but such substances as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and alcohol
may be absorbed in definite amounts and with an evolution of
heat. The water of zeolites may therefore be partly driven off and
reabsorbed or replaced by other substances without destroying
the crystalline structure of the material, and it would thus seem
to differ from the water of crystallization of most other hydrated
salts.
Zeolites are minerals of secondary origin and in most cases
have resulted by the decomposition of the felspars of basic igneous
rocks: in fact their chemical composition is somewhat analogous
to that of the felspars with the addition of water, Nepheline and
sodalite are often altered to zeolites. They usually occur as
crystals lining the amygdaloidal and other cavities of basalt, mela-
phyre, etc. Usually two or more species are associated together,
and often with agate, calcite and some other minerals. Less fre-
quently they occur in cavities in granite and gneiss, and in
metalliferous veins (<?.£., harmotome) ; while only exceptionally
are they primary constituents (e.g., anakite) of igneous rocks.
Several species have been observed in the Roman masonry at the
hot springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains: and phillipsite has been
dredged from the deep sea. (L. J. S.)
ZEPHANIAH, the ninth of the minor prophets in the Bible.
His ancestry is traced to his great-grandfather Hezekiah, who
may, in spite of 2 Kings xx. 18, xxi, i, be the well-known king
of Judah (c. 720-690). This would agree fairly with the title
(i. i) which makes the prophet a contemporary of King Josiah
(c> 637), and this in turn appears to agree (a) with the internal
conditions (i. 4-6, cf. 2 Kings xxiii. 4, 5, 12) which, it is held,
are evidently earlier than Josiah 's reforms (621); (6) with the
denunciation of the royal household, but not of the (young) king
himself (i. 8, iii. 3); (c) with the apparent allusion in ch. i. to
the invasion of the Scythians (perhaps c. 626), and (d) with the
anticipated downfall of Assyria and Nineveh (ii. 13, 612 B.C.).
Although one single leading motive runs through the book of
Zephaniah there are abrupt transitions which do not depend, on
modern subjective considerations of logical or smooth thought,
but are material and organic changes representing different groups
of ideas. The instruments of Yahweh's anger (ch. i.) are not
so real or prominent on the political horizon as, for example,
in Isaiah, Jeremiah or Habakkuk. The Scythian inroad and its
results for Judah and Philistia are less important when it is
observed that the doom upon Philistia, the vengeance upon Moab
and Ammon, and the promises for Judah (ch. ii.), belong to a
large group of prophecies against certain historic enemies (Edom
included) who are denounced for their contempt, hostility and
intrusion. The prophecies are in large measure associated tradition-
ZEPHYRINUS— ZEROMSKI
947
ally with the fall of Jerusalem, and to some such calamity, and not
to the inroad of the Scythians, the references to the "remnant" and
the "captivity" refer, The anticipation of future events is of
course conceivable in itself; but the promises (in ch. ii.) pre-
suppose events other and later than those with which the Scythians
were connected. On the other hand, a prophecy relating to Scyth-
ians may have been re-shaped to apply to later conditions, and
on this view it is explicable why the indefinite political convul-
sions should be adjusted to the exile and why the gloom should
be relieved by the promise of a territory extending from the
Mediterranean to the Syrian desert (ii. 7, 9). After a period of
punishment (cf. book of Lamentations) Yahweh 's jealousy against
the semi-heathen Judah has become a jealousy for his people,
and we appear to move in the thought of Haggai and Zechariah,
where the remnant are comforted by Yahweh's return and the
dispersed exiles are to be brought back (cf. Zech. i. 14-17, viil
2-17). But in ch. Hi. other ideas are manifest. Israel's enemies
have been destroyed, her own God Yahweh has proved his
loyalty and has fulfilled his promises, but the city remains pol-
luted (vv. 1-7, cf. Isa. Iviii. seq.; Malachi). Once more doom
is threatened, and once more we pass over into a later stage
where Yahweh has vindicated his supremacy and Zion is glorified.
Instead of the realities of history we have the apocalyptical
feature of the gathering of the nations (v. 8) ; the thought may
be illustrated from Zech. xii. i.-xin. 6, where Jerusalem is at-
tacked, purged and delivered, and from Zech. xiv. where the city
is actually captured and half the people are removed into captivity
(cf. Zeph. iii. n purging, 15 removal of the enemy, 18-20 return
of the captivity). The goal is the vindication of Israel and of
Israel's God, and the establishment of universal monotheism (ii.
n, iii. 9 seq.). The foe which threatened Judah has become the
chastiser of Ethiopia and Assyria (ii.) and the prelude to the
golden age (iii., cf. Ezek. xxxviii. seq.).
If Jer. iv. 5-vi. 30 originally referred to the Scythians, it has
been revised to refer to the Chaldeans ; also in Ezek. xxxviii, seq.
a northern foe becomes associated with the great world-judgment.
Also, in Isaiah and Zechariah, notably, older and later groups of
prophecies are preserved, whereas here the new preludes and
new sequels suggest that the original nucleus has passed through
the hands of writers in touch with those vicissitudes of thought
which can be studied more completely elsewhere. It is not to be
supposed that the elimination of all later passages and traces of
revision will give us Zephaniah's prophecies in their original extent.
In fact the internal religious and social conditions in i. 4-6 or iii.
1-4 do not compel a date before Josiah's reforms. The doom
of Cush is still in the future in Ezek. xxx. 4 ; and if the impending
fall of Nineveh (ii. 13) implies an early date, yet it, is found in
writings which have later additions (Nahum), or which are
essentially later (Jonah, cf. Tobit xiv. 4 [LXX.], 8, 10, 15); cf.
also the use of Assyria for Babylon (Ezra vi. 22) or Syria (Zech.
x. 10). Historical references in prophecies are not always decisive
(Ezek. xxxii., for example, looks upon Edom and Sidon as dead),
and while the continued revision of the book allows the pre-
sumption that the tradition ascribing its inception to the time of
Josiah may be authentic, it is doubtful how much of the original
nucleus can be safely recognized.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The commentaries on (all or portions of) the Minor
Prophets by A. B. Davidson (Camb. Bible, 1896) ; G. A, Smith (1928) ;
W. Nowack (1903); K. Marti (1904; especially valuable); Driver
(Cent. Bib., 1906) ; Van Hoonacker (1908) . (S. A. C.)
ZEPHYRINUS, ST., bishop of Rome from about 198 to
217, succeeded Victor I. The controversies on doctrine and dis-
cipline that marked his pontificate are associated with the names
of Hippolytus and of Calixtus, his principal adviser and after-
wards his successor.
ZEPHYRUS, in Greek mythology, the west wind, son of
the Titan Astraeus and Eos, the dawn. He was the husband of
Chloris, the goddess of flowers, by whom he had a son, Carpus,
the god of fruit (Ovid, Fasti, v. 197).
See also FLORA; HARPIES; HYACINTHUS.
ZEPPELIN, FERDINAND, COUNT VON (1838-1917),
German airship inventor, was born at Constance, Baden, on July
8, 1838. He was educated for the army and received a commis-
sion at the. age of 20. He served, as a volunteer, in the Federal
array during the American Civil War and whilst in America made
his first balloon ascent*. Returning to Germany he saw active serv-
ice in the Austrian War of 1866 and in the Franco-German War
of 1870. In 1891 he retired from the army with the rank of gen-
eral and thenceforth devoted his energies to the study of aero-
nautics. In 1900 he built an airship, which rose from the ground
and remained in the air for 20 minutes, but was wrecked in land-
ing. In 1906 he made two successful flights at a speed of 30 m. an
hour, and in 1907 attained a speed of 36 miles. From that time
onwards his airship construction made steady progress and many
Zeppelin airships took part in the World War, though with heavy
losses under attack. (See AIRSHIP.) He died at Charlottenburg
on March 8, 1917.
See Eine Festgabe zu seinem 7$. Geburtstag von Luftsckijjbau
Zeppelin (Stuttgart, 1913).
ZERBST, a town of Germany, in the republic of Anhalt,
situated on the Nuthe, n m. N.W. of Dessau and 27 m. S.E. of
Magdeburg by railway. Pop. (1925) 19,469. Zerbst is an ancient
town, mentioned in 949, which in 1307 came into the possession
of the Anhalt family. It is still surrounded in part by old walls
and bastions. It contains five churches, one of which (St. Nicho-
las), built in 1446-88, is a good example of the late Gothic
style as developed in Saxony, with its spacious proportions, groined
vaulting, and bare simple pillars. The town hall dates from
about 1480, but it was disfigured by additions in the beginning
of the i?th century. The palace (1681-1750) has been used as
a depository of archives since 1872. There are several quaint old
houses, with high gables, in the market-place, in the middle of
which stand a Roland column, of about 1445, and a bronze figure
known as the Butter jwigfer (butter-girl), of uncertain origin and
meaning. There were here formerly a Franciscan monastery, with
fine cloisters, founded in 1250, a Cistercian nunnery of 1214, and
an Augustinian monastery of 1390, a hospital since 1525.
ZERMATT, a mountain village (5,315 ft. above sea-level)
at the head of the Visp valley and at the foot of the Matterhorn,
in the canton of the Valais, Switzerland. In 1920 it had 740 perma-
nent inhabitants, German-speaking and Roman Catholics. It is
22$ m. by rail from Visp in the Rhone valley, and there is also a
railway from Zermatt past the Riff el inns to the very top of the
Gornergrat (10,289 ^0- Formerly Zermatt was called "Pra-
borgne," and this name is mentioned in the Swiss census of 1888.
Its orginally Romance population seems to have been Teutonised
in the course of the isth century, the name "Matt" (now written
"Zermatt," i.e., the village on the meadows) first occurring at the
very end of that century.
See E. Whymper, Scrambles in the Alps (1871).
ZERO, the figure o in the Arabic notation for numbers
meaning nought, or cipher. The Sanskrit name for the figure was
sunya (void), and this term passed over into Arabic as aj-fifr, or
ssifr. The old Latin writers on arithmetic translated or transliter-
ated the Arabic word as zephyrum; this in Ital. took on such forms
as zeuero, zepiro, and became contracted to zero, borrowed by F.
zero, whence it came late into English. The Spanish form cifra,
more closely resembling the original Arabic, gave O.Fr. tifre,
mod. chiflre, also used in the sense of monogram, and English
"cipher" which is thus a doublet. Although no character for zero
is found in India before the 9th century, there is literary evidence
for the belief that it was known much earlier. In the Maya in-
scriptions in Central America there appears a character for zero,
but only in connection with the calendar.
ZEROMSKI, STEPHEN (1864-1925), Polish novelist, poet
and dramatist, was born at Strawczyn on Nov. 14, 1864. Banished
from Poland by the Russian Government early in his life, be first
attracted attention by a collection of tragic tales entitled The
Ravens and the Crows are Picking us to Pieces (1895, Eng, trans,
1906). In the publication of The Homeless (190x3) Zeromski
supplied a generic name for all his Polish heroes, His pessimistic
philosophy finds expression in the novel Aryman takes Revenge
(1904), while the triumph of evil over good is vividly treated in
The Story of Sin (2 vol., 1906) describing the slow and terrible
948'
ZETKIN— ZEUS
downfall of a woman of culture. In his epic poem Ashes (2 vol.,
1904) he delineates the minds of the Polish people after the
Partition and their efforts to liberate their country by serving in
the Napoleonic legions. During the World War Zeromskl published
his great trilogy The Fight with Satan — The Conversion of Judas
(1916), The Blizzard (1918), Charitas (1919) — a kind of epilogue
and synthesis of his previous work and at the same time an
autobiography of his own life. After the achievement of national
independence, Zeromski wrote his drama, The Broken Spell (1924)
in which the hero dedicates himself to the services of a resusci-
tated Poland. He died on Nov. 20, 1925.
See S, Brzozowski, O Stefan Zeromski (Warsaw, 1905) ; W. Jampol-
ski, Stefan Zeromski, the Spiritual Leader of the Race (Lwow, 1918).
ZETKIN, KLARA (1857- ), German communist, was
born on June 5, 1857, at Wiederan, Saxony, and educated at the
university of Paris, becoming a school teacher. She presently
became editor of Gleichheit, the organ of the Social Democratic
Party for women. Klara Zetkin was a member of the Communist
Party from its foundation in 1919, and was one of its most fiery
and brilliant orators. She then spent some years in south Russia.
She became a member of the Reichstag in 1920,
ZEUGLODON, the name given to a genus of extinct toothed
whales from Eocene deposits. These remains, which are of an
animal up to 40 ft. in length, are the oldest known fossils of the
order Cetacea (q.v.).
ZEUS, the Greek counterpart of the Roman god, Jupiter (q.v.
for the etymology of the name). It is probable that Zeus had
already been conceived as a personal and pre-eminent god by the
ancestors of the leading Hellenic tribes before they entered the
peninsula, which became their historic home. In the first place,
his pre-eminence is obviously pre-Homeric; for Homer attests
for us the supremacy of Zeus in his day, say 950 B.C.; and appre-
ciating how slow was the process of religious change in the earlier
period, we shall believe that the god had won this position long be-
fore the Homeric age. In the next place, we cannot trace the
origin of his worship back to any special stock or particular
locality; his unquestionable association with Olympus and Thes-
saly is only what we should expect, seeing that many at least of
the Greeks must have entered Greece that way.
To appreciate the Homeric Zeus, we must distinguish the lower
mythologic aspect of him, in which he appears as an amorous and
capricious deity lacking often in dignity and real power, and the
higher religious aspect, in which he is conceived as the all-father
(see GREEK RELIGION). In fact, later Greek religion did not
advance much above the high-water mark of the Homeric, although
the poets and philosophers deepened certain of its nobler traits.
But Homer we now know to be a relatively late witness in this
matter. Yet traces of a pre-deistic and animistic period survived
here and there; for instance, in Arcadia we find the thunder itself
called Zeus (Zeus KepaiwSs) in a Mantinean inscription, and the
stone near Gythium in Laconia, on which Orestes sat and was cured
of his madness, evidently a thunder-stone, was named itself Zeus
KaTTTrojras, which must be interpreted as "Zeus that fell from
heaven'* (Pausan iii. 22. i.); we here observe that the personal
god does not yet seem to have emerged from the divine thing
or divine phenomenon.
The day is now past when scholars could discover in the ritual
of Zeus Lukaios (see LYCAON), or the Dipolia, the cult of a wolf
—or ox-totem — somehow blended with Zeus; but certainly a
characteristic of his earliest ritual was human sacrifice. We find
it again in the story of the house of Athamas and in the worship
of Zeus Laphustios ("Zeus the Glutton"), of Thessaly (Herod,
vii. 197), and other examples are recorded. The cruel rite had
ceased in the Arcadian worship before Pliny wrote, but seems to
have continued in Cyprus until the reign of Hadrian. It was found
in the worship of many other divinities of Hellas in early times,
and no single explanation can be given that would apply to them
all. A hypothesis favoured by Frazcr, that the victim is usually
a divine man, a priest-king incarnating the god, may be well
applied to the Athamantid sacrifice and to that of King Lycaon;
for he derives his name from the divinity himself, and according
jto one version (Clemens, Protrept p. 31 P.) he offers his own
child; and the legend presents one almost unique feature, which
is only found elsewhere in legendary Dionysiac sacrifice, the
human flesh is eaten, and the sacrifice is a cannibalistic-sacrament,
of which the old Mexican religion offers conspicuous example.
Yet it is in this religion of Zeus that we see most clearly the
achievement of progressive morality; Zeus himself punishes and
abolishes the savage practice.
We can now consider the special attributes of the anthro-
pomorphic god. His character and power as a deity of the sky,
who ruled the phenomena of the air, so clearly expressed in Homer,
explains the greater part of his cult and cult-titles. More personal
than Ouranos and Helios — with whom he has only slight associa-
tions— he was worshipped and invoked as the deity of the bright
day (Amarios), who sends the rain, the wind and dew (Ombrios,
Huetios, Ourios), and such a primitive adjective as diipetes
applied to things "that fall from heaven," attests the primeval
significance of the name of Zeus. But the thunder was his most
striking manifestation, and no doubt he was primevally a thunder-
god, (Kcrannias, Astrapaios). Much of his ritual was weather-
magic; the priest of Zeus Lnkaios in time of drought, was wont
to ascend Mt. Lycaeum and dip an oak-bough in a sacred fountain,
and by this sympathetic means produce mist (Pausan. viii. 38, 3).
A god of this character would naturally be worshipped on the
mountain-tops, and that these were very frequently consecrated to
him is shown by the large number of appellatives derived from the
names of mountains. But probably in his earliest Hellenic period
the power of Zeus in the natural world was not limited to the sky.
A deity who sent the fertilizing rains would come to be regarded
as a god of vegetation, who descended into the earth and whose
power worked in the life that wells forth from the earth in plant
and tree. Homer calls the god of the lower world Zeus Katach-
thonios (Iliad, ix. 457), and the title of Zeus Chthonios, which
was known to Hcsiod, occurred in the worship of Corinth (Hesiod,
Works and Days, 456; Pausan. ii. 2, 8).
A glimpse into a very old stratum of Hellenic religion is afforded
us by the records of Dodona. A Dodonean liturgy has been
preserved which, though framed in the form of an invocation and
a dogma, has the force of a spell-prayer — "Zeus was and is and
will be, O great Zeus: earth gives forth fruits, therefore call on
Mother Earth" (Pausan. x. 12, 10). Zeus, the sky-god, is seen
here allied to the earth-goddess, of whom his feminine counterpart,
Dione (q.v.), may have been the personal form. And it is at
Dodona that his association with the oak is of the closest. His
prophet-priests, the Selloi, "with unwashed feet, couching on the
ground" (Homer, Iliad, xvi. 233), lived about the sacred oak,
which may be regarded as the primeval shrine of the Aryan god,
and interpreted its oracular voice, which spoke in the rustling of
its leaves or the cooing of its doves. Zeus, we may believe, long
remained at Dodona such as he was when the Hellenic tribes first
brought him down from the Balkans, a high god supreme in heaven
and in earth.
We may also believe that in the earliest stages of worship he
had already acquired a moral and a social character. The Homeric
view of him as the all-father is a high spiritual concept, but one
of which many savage religions of our own time are capable. The
family, the tribe, the city, the simpler and more complex organisms
of the Hellenic polity were specially under his care and direction.
In spite of the popular stories of his amours and infidelities, he
is the patron-god of the monogamic marriage, and his union with
Hera (q.v.) remained the divine type of human wedlock.
He was also the tutelary deity of the larger organization of the
phratria; and the altar of Zeus Phratrios was the meeting-point
of the phratereSj when they were assembled to consider the
legitimacy of the new applicants for admission into their circle
(Demosth. Contra Macartatum, 1078, i.).
His religion also came to assist the development of certain legal
ideas, for instance, the rights of private or family property in
land; he guarded the allotments as Zeus Klarios (Pausan. viii.
53, 9), and the Greek commandment, "thou shalt not remove thy
neighbour's landmark," was maintained by Zeus Horios, the god
of boundaries, a more personal power than the Latin luppiter
Terminus (Plato, Laws, 842 E).
ZEUXIS— ZIEM
949
His highest political functions were summed up in the title
Polieus, a cult-name of legendary antiquity in Athens, and frequent
in the Hellenic world.
His consort in his political life was not Hera, but his daughter
Athena Polias. He sat in her judgment court M Ua\\adLyt where
cases of involuntary homicide were tried (Corp. Inser. Attic, iii.
71 and 273). With her he shared the chapel in the council-hall
of Athens dedicated to them under the titles of Boulaios and
Boulaidy "the inspirers of counsel," by which they were worshipped
in many parts of Greece (Antiphon Vi. p. 789; Pausan. i. 3. 5; cj.
Corp. Inser. Attic, iii. 683). The political assembly and the law-
court were consecrated to Zeus Agoraios, and being the eternal
source of justice he might be invoked as Dikaiosunos "The Just."
As the god who brought the people under one government he
might be worshipped as Pandemos (Corp. Inser. Attic, iii. 7);
as the deity of the whole of Hellas, he became Pankellenios, per-
haps about the time of the Persian wars, when thanksgiving for
the victory took the form of dedications and sacrifice to "Zeus
the Liberator" Eleutherios (Simonides, Frag. 140 [Bergk] ; Strab.
412). Finally, in the formulae adopted for the public oath, where
many deities were invoked, the name of Zeus was the master
word.
It remains to consider briefly certain moral aspects of his cult.
The morality attaching to the oath, so deeply rooted in the con-
science of primitive peoples, was expressed in the cult of Zeus
Horkios, the god who punished perjury (Pausan. v. 24. 9). The
whole history of Greek legal and moral conceptions attaching to
the guilt of homicide can be studied in relation to the cult-appel-
latives of Zeus. The Greek consciousness of the sin of murder,
only dimly awakened in the Homeric period, and only sensitive
at first when a kinsman or a suppliant was slain, gradually expands
till the sanctity of all human life becomes recognized by the
higher morality of the people ; and the names of Zeus Meilichios,
the dread deity of the ghost-world whom the sinner must make
"placable," of Zeus Hikesios and Prostropaios, to whom the
conscience-stricken outcast may turn for mercy and pardon, play
a guiding-part in this momentous evolution.
But it was in the poets and philosophers that this evolution
attained its end. Most of them were believers in a supreme power,
present always and everywhere, and some of them — Empedocles,
Aeschylus, Plato — gave to this supreme power the name of Zeus.
"Zeus, whosoever he is, — if this name be pleasing unto him, by
this name do I call him, — weighing all things in the balance,
nought can I conjecture save only Zeus." (Aeschylus, Agamemnon,
1 60 et seq.; cj. frag. 70, Naucks 2nd ed.). He is the spirit of the
world, the law of the universe, the universal reason, and all other
gods are only parts or manifestations of him (cf. Diog. Laert. vii.
147). Moreover, as we may see from the "hymn" of Cleanthes
(frag. 48), and from St. Paul's quotation from it or Aratus (Acts
xvii., 28 — Arat, phaen. 5), he was conceived by the Stoics as
the father of the human race, who "alone of mortal things that
live and move upon the earth" were created in his image.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For older authorities see Pressler-Robert, Griech-
ische Mythologie (1894), i., pp. 115-159; Gotterlehre, ii., pp. 178-216;
among recent works P. O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii., pp.
1100-21 (igo6) ; L. R. Farndl, Cults of the Greek States, i., pp.
35-J78 (1896) ; Daremberp and Saglio, Dictionnairc. des antiqwUs
grecques et romaines, s.v., "Jupiter"; A. B. Cook, Zeus (1914-25) ; for
cult-monuments and art-representations, Overbeck, Kunst-Afytholo-
git> i.
ZEUXIS, one of the best known Greek painters, flourished
about 420-390 B.C., and described himself as a native of Heraclea,
probably the town on the Black Sea. He was, according to one
account, a pupil of Demophilus of Himera in Sicily, the other
statement being that he was a pupil of Neseus of Thasos. After-
wards he appears to have resided in Ephesus. His known works
are —
i. Zeus surrounded by Deities.
a. Eros crowned with Roses.
3. Marsyas bound.
4. Pan.
5. Centaur family.
6. Boreas or Triton.
7. Infant Heracles strangling the
serpents in presence of his
parents, Alcmena and Am-
phitryon.
8. Alcmena, possibly identical
, with 7.
9. Helena at Croton.
10. Penelope.
11. Menelaus.
12. Athlete.
13. An old Woman.
14. Boy with grapes.
15. Grapes.
1 6. Monochromes.
17. Plastic works in clay.
In ancient records we are told that Zeuxis, following the ini-
tiative of Apollodorus, had introduced into the art of painting a
method of representing his figures in light and shadow, as opposed
to the older method of outline, with large flat masses of colour for
draperies, and other details, such as had been practised by Poly-
gnotus and others of the great fresco painters. The new method
led to smaller compositions, and often to pictures consisting of
a single figure, on which it was more easy for the painter to dem-
onstrate the various means by which he obtained perfect roundness
of form. The effect would appear strongly realistic, as compared
with the older method, and to this was probably due the origin
of such stories as the contest in which Zeuxis painted a bunch
of grapes so like reality that birds flew towards it.
ZHITOMIR or JITOMIR, a town in the Ukrainian S.S.R.,
in 50° 19' N., 28° 40' E., on the Teterev river, a left bank tribu-
tary of the Dnieper, and at the terminus of a branch railway from
Bcrdichev. The opposition to private trade has diminished its
former prosperity as a Jewish merchant city and its population
(1926) was 69,465 as against 80,787 in 1900. There are iron-
smelting works, and a brewing industry, in connection with which
a hop fair is held in early September. Its position on the road
west from Kiev gave it early importance and it dates back to the
time of the Scandinavian Askold and Dir (9th century). The
Tatars plundered it in the i3th, i4th and lyth centuries. In 1320
it became part of Lithuania, but was afterwards annexed by Po-
land and when the Cossacks rose against their chief Bogdan
Chmiclnicki (1648) they sacked the town. Russia occupied it,
along with the rest of the Ukraine, in 1778.
ZHOB, a valley and river in the north-east of Baluchistan,
India. The Zhob is a large valley running from the hills near
Ziarat first eastward and then northward parallel to the Indus
frontier, till it meets the Gomal river at Khajuri Kach. Its im-
portance is due to its being the shortest route between the North-
West Frontier Province and Quetta; it dominates all the Pathan
tribes of Baluchistan by cutting between them and Afghanistan.
Up to the year 1884 it was practically unknown to Europeans,
but the Zhob Valley Expedition of that year opened it up, and
in 1889 the Zhod Valley and Gomal Pass were taken under the
control of the British Government. The Zhob Valley was the
scene of punitive British expeditions in 1884 and 1890. In 1890
Zhob was formed into a district or political agency, with its head-
quarters at Fort Sandeman. It was much disturbed during the
third Afghan war of 1919. The district has an area of 9,626 sq.m.;
pop. (1921) 56,668, mostly Pathans of the Kakar tribe.
See A. W. C. McFall, With the Zhob Field Force (1895) ; R. Bruce,
Forward Policy (1900); T. H. Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901);
Zhob District Gazetteer.
ZHUKOVSKY, VASILI ANDREYEVICH (1783-
1852), Russian poet, born in the government of Tula, on Jan. 29,
1783, was the earliest of the Russian poets of the golden age of
Russian poetry, and a precursor of Pushkin. The volume of his
original work is small, consisting of a few beautiful lyrics and
elegies. His greatest work was the opening up of the knowledge
of English and German poetry in Russia by a series of translations.
Bruckner (Gesch. v. Russ. Lit.) calls him "the most original trans-
lator in the world's literature." He began by a translation of
Gray's Elegy; he went on to the more famous poems of the
English romanticists, and it has been asserted that in some cases
his versions have greater poetic power" than their originals. He
turned Fouque's Undiuc into Russian verse. His last great work
was a version of the Odyssey (1847). Zhukovsky was tutor to
Alexander II., and he used his favour at court to help both
Pushkin and Gogol. His last years were spent in Germany, and
he died at Baden-Baden in 1852.
ZIEM, FELIX FRANCOIS GEORGE PHILIBERT
(1821-1911), French painter, was born at Beaune (C6te d'Or)
in 1821. He studied at the art school of Dijon, where he gained
the grand prix for architecture. In 1839 he went to Rome ancl
950
ZIETEN— ZINC
from 1845 to 1848 travelled in the south of France, Italy and the
East, where he found the glowing sunlight and the rich colour
peculiarly suited to his temperament. Many of his paintings are
in American private collections, but two cf his finest pictures,
'The Doge's Palace in Venice" (1852), and a marine-painting,
are at the Luxembourg museum, and a "view of Quai St. Jean,
Marseilles" at the Marseilles gallery.
See Felix Ziem, by L. Rogcr-Mil£s (Libratrie de I'art, Paris) .
ZIETEN, HANS JOACHIM VON (1699-1786), Prussian
general-field-marshal, began his military career as a volunteer in
an infantry regiment. In 1741 Frederick the Great made him
colonel of the newly formed hussar regiment, and his promo-
tion was rapid. He served with distinction in the first Silesian
War, and still more in the second. His hussars, reorganized in the
short interval of peace, were considered the best of their arm
in Europe. Zieten fought the brilliant action of Moldau Tein
almost on the day he received his commission as major-general.
In the next campaign he led the famous Zietenritt round the
enemy's lines to deliver the king's order to a distant detachment.
When the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756 Zieten had just
been made lieutenant-general. At Reichenbcrg and Prag he held
important commands. At the disastrous battle of Kolin (June 18,
1757) his left wing of cavalry was the only victorious corps of
troops, while at Leuthen he was brilliantly successful. Almost
the only error in his career of battles was his misdirection of the
frontal attack at Torgau, but he redeemed the mistake by his
brilliant assault on the Siptitz heights. At the peace, he retired,
and died in 1786.
ZIGGURAT, in architecture, a common temple form in
Chaldea and ancient Babylonia and Assyria, which consists either
of a stepped pyramid or of a somewhat similar shape in which
the flat terraces of the ordinary stepped pyramid are replaced by
an inclined plane ascending spirally from the ground to the sum-
mit. Ziggurats were usually great mounds of sun-dried brick with
the exterior walls faced with a coating of burned, glazed brick
or tile. On the summit there was frequently a shrine to the deity
to whom the temple was erected. It is probable that the ziggurat
form originated in the attempt to obtain high observatories from
which the stars, so important in Chaldean religion and magic,
might be observed.
ZIGZAG, in architecture and the dcconitive arts, an orna-
ment formed by a succession of chevrons. It usually takes the
shape of a band, changing direction at points equidistant from
each other by angles usually acute, in such a manner that alternate
segments are parallel to each other. The zigzag is one of the most
primitive ornamental forms, both on pottery and in textiles. In
Egyptian work it is frequently used for tomb ceilings and walls,
evidently imitating matting or cloth decorations. Its most impor-
tant architectural use is in some of the Romanesque styles, espe-
cially the Norman work in France and England.
ZIMBABWE, a Bantu name, probably derived from the two
words zimba ("houses") and mabgi ("stones"), given to certain
ruins in south-east Africa. The mediaeval Portuguese applied it
as a generic term for the capital of any considerable chief and to
several distinct places. From about 1550 onwards the Zimbabwe
generally referred to by Portuguese writers was at a spot a little
north of the Afur district, not far from the Zambezi. Before this
the capital of the Monomotapa was situated much farther south,
and it may plausibly be identified with the extensive ruins near
Victoria (Mashonaland), now generally called Zimbabwe.
These ruins, discovered by Adam Renders in 1868 and explored
by Karl Mauch in 1871, became well known to English readers
from J. T. Bent's account of the Ruined Cities of Mashonaland.
The explorations conducted in 1905 proved that the mediaeval
objects were necessarily contemporaneous with the foundation of
the buildings, and that there was no super-position of periods of
any date whatsoever. The plan and construction of Zimbabwe
are by no means unique, and this site only differs from others in
Rhodesia in respect of the great dimensions and the massiveness
of its individual buildings. It may therefore be dated to a period
not earlier than the i4th or ifth century A.D, and attributed to
the same Bantu people the remains of whose stone-fenced kraals
are found between the Limpopo and the Zambezi.
The three distinct, though connected, groups of ruins at Zim-
babwe are commonly known as the "elliptical temple," the
"acropolis," and the "valley ruins." The first is doubly mis-
named; it is not a temple and its contour is too unsymmetrical
to be described properly as elliptical It is an irregular enclosure
over Sooft. in circumference, with a maximum length of 292ft.
and a maximum breadth of 22oft, surrounded by a dry-built
wall of extraordinary massiveness. This wall is in places over
3oft. high and i4ft. wide, but is erratic in outline and variable in
thickness. On the south and south-east, the wall is decorated by a
row of granite monoliths beneath which runs a double line of
chevron ornament. The interior has been much destroyed by the
ravages of gold-seekers and amateur excavators. The scheme
was a combination of such a stone kraal as that at Nanatali with
the plan of a fort like those found about Inyanga. The only
unique feature is the occurrence of a large and a small conical
tower at the southern end.
The "Acropolis" is a hill rising aooft. to ^ooft. above the valley,
fortified with the minutest care and with extraordinary ingenuity.
The principles of construction, the use of stone and cement, are
the same as in the "elliptical" kraal; there is no definite plan, the
shape and arrangement of the enclosures being determined solely
by the natural features of the ground. Between this and the
"elliptical" kraal are the "valley ruins," consisting of smaller
buildings, perhaps the dwellings of traders who bartered the gold
brought in from distant mines. Zimbabwe was probably the dis-
tributing centre for the gold traffic carried on in the rfiiddle ages
between the Monomotapa and the Mohammedans of the coast.
Set ARCHAEOLOGY ; AFRICA (Central and South) ; MONOMOTAPA ;
D. Randall-Maclvcr, Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906) ; Journal of Anthrop.
Inst., vol. xxxv.; Geog. Journal (1906). See also Mauch 's report in
Ausland (1872), which is of bibliographical interest; Bent's Ruined
Cities of Mashonaland (1892) ; R. N. Hall, Great Zimbabwe (1905) ;
Prehistoric Rhodesia (1909).
ZIMMERMANN, ARTHUR (1859- ), German diplo-
mat was born May 8, 1859, at Frankenstein. After having been
vice-consul at Shanghai and acting consul in 1900 at Tientsin, he
entered the Foreign Office in 1902 and rose by 1910 to be a direc-
tor of the political section. In 1911 he was appointed under-
secretary, and in Nov. 1916 secretary of state in succession to
Von Jagow. In this capacity he addressed to America the note of
Jan. 31, 1917, on the subject of U-boat warfare. He was also
the author of the invitation of Jan. 19, 1917, to Mexico to enter
into alliance with Germany and to sound Japan as to her willing-
ness to co-operate. For Mexico the price of this alliance was to
be the American States of New Mexico, Texas and Arizona. This
proposal, which was sent through the medium of Von Eckhardt,
the German minister to Mexico, was intercepted in America and
President Wilson was in a position to publish it on March i, 1917.
The disclosure was one of the primary causes resulting in Amer-
ica's declaration of war upon Germany. Zimmermann retired on
Aug. 5, 1917, shortly after the resignation of Bethmann Hollweg.
ZINC, a metallic chemical element (symbol Zn, atomic num-
ber 30, atomic weight 65-38). Zinc as a component of brass had
currency in metallurgy long before it became known as an indi-
vidual metal. The word zinc (in the form zinken) was first used
by Paracelsus, who regarded it as a bastard or semi-metal; but the
word was subsequently used for both the metal and its ores.
Moreover, zinc and bismuth were confused, and the word spiautcr
(the modern spelter) was indiscriminately given to both these
metals. In 1597 Libavius described a "peculiar kind of tin" which
was prepared in India, and of which a friend had given him a
quantity. From his account it is quite clear that this metal was
zinc, but he did not recognize it as the metal of calamine. It is
not known to whom the discovery of isolated zinc is due; but we
do know that the art of zinc-smelting was practised in England
from about 1730. The first continental zinc-works were erected
at Ltege in 1807.
Occurrence. — Zinc does not occur free in nature, but in com-
bination it is widely diffused. The chief ore is zinc blende, or
sphalerite (see BLENDE), which generally contains, in addition to
zinc sulphide, small amounts of the sulphides of iron, silver and
ZINC
95*
cadmium. It may also be accompanied by pyrites, galena, arsen-
ides and antimonides, quartz, calcite, dolomite, etc. It is widely
distributed, and is particularly abundant in Germany (the Harz,
Silesia), Austro-Hungary, Belgium, the United States and in
England (Cumberland, Derbyshire, Cornwall, North Wales).
Second in importance is the carbonate, calamine (q.v.) or zinc
spar, which at one time was the principal ore; it almost invariably
contains the carbonates of cadmium, iron, manganese, magnesium
and calcium, and may be contaminated with clay, oxides of iron,
galena and calcite; "white calamine" owes its colour to much clay;
"red calamine" to admixed iron and manganese oxides, Calamine
chiefly occurs in Spain, Silesia and in the United States. Of less
importance is the silicate, Zn2Si04-H2p, named electric calamine
or hemirnorphite; this occurs in quantity in Altenburg near Aix-
la-Chapelle, Sardinia, Spain and the United States (New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Missouri, Wisconsin). Other zinc minerals are
willemite (q.v.)9 Zn2SiO4, hydrozincite or zinc bloom, ZnCOaaZn
(OH) 2, zincite (q.v.) or red zinc ore, ZnO, and franklinite,
3(FeJZn)O.(Fe,Mn)2O8.
Production. — Until about 1833 the supply of zinc was almost
entirely obtained from Germany, but in this year Russia began to
contribute about 2,000 tons annually to the 6,000 to 7,000 de-
rived from Germany. Belgium entered in 1837 with an output of
about 2,000 tons; England in 1855 with 3,000; and the United
States in 1873 with 6,000 tons. The last country now produces
about one-hqJf of the world's supply. The present state and gen-
eral trend fcf the industry is shown by the following statistics for
output of smelter and electrolytic zinc (in metric tons) for the
chief producing countries and for the world's production.
IQ20
1925
1926
Belgium
84,260
1 70,860
190,216
Canada
16,798
kU,9i<>
55,999
France
19,655
64,260
72,455
Germany
95,758
58,623
68,292
Great Britain
24,500
38,671
!8,278*
Jaoan .
JS,745
14,100
17,000
Poland
5,301
IM,34I
124,094
Spain ,
9,^47
15,122
16,061
U.S.A.
420,365.
504,057
555,i87
Total (all countries) .
714,946
1,110,027
1,219,412
*Fall attributable to general strike and consequence*.
Properties. — Zinc is bluish white, with a high lustre when
fractured. It fuses at 419° C and under ordinary atmospheric
pressure boils at 918° C. Its vapour density shows that it is mon-
atomic. The molten metal on cooling deposits crystals belonging
to the hexagonal system, and freezes into a compact crystalline
solid, which may be brittle or ductile according to circumstances.
If zinc be cast into a mould at a red heat, the ingot produced is
laminar and brittle ; if cast at just the f using-point, it is granular
and sufficiently ductile to be rolled into sheet at the ordinary
temperature. According to some authorities, pure zinc always
yields ductile ingots. Commercial "spelter" always breaks under
the hammer; but at 100° to 150° C it is susceptible of being rolled
out into a very thin sheet. Such a sheet, if once produced, remains
flexible when cold. At about 200° C, the metal becomes so brittle
that it can be pounded in a mortar. The specific gravity of zinc
cannot be expected to be perfectly constant ; according to Karsten,
that of pure ingot is 6-915, and rises to 7-191 after rolling. The
coefficient of linear expansion is lyXio"8 between 20° and 100°.
The specific heat is 0-0929 from 18° to 100°. Compact zinc does
not tarnish much in the air. It is fairly soft, and clogs the file.
If zinc be heated to near its boiling-point, it catches fire and
burns with a brilliant light into its powdery white oxide, which
forms a reek in the air (lana philosophica, "philosopher's wool").
Boiling water attacks it appreciably, but slightly, with evolution
of hydrogen and formation of the hydroxide, Zn(OH)2. A rod
of perfectly pure zinc, when immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, is
so very slowly attacked that there is no visible evolution of gas;
but, if a piece of platinum, copper or other more electro-negative
metal be brought into contact with the zinc, it dissolves readily,
with evolution of hydrogen and formation of the sulphate. The
ordinary impure metal dissolves at once, the more readily the less
pure it is. Cold dilute nitric acid dissolves zinc as nitrate, with
evolution of nitrous t oxide. At higher temperatures, or with
stronger acid, nitric oxide, NO, is produced besides or instead of
nitrous oxide. Zinc is also soluble in soda and potash solutions,
but not in ammonia.
Applications. — Zinc is largely used for "galvanizing" iron,
sheets of clean iron being immersed in a bath of the molten metal
and then removed, so that a coat of zinc remains on the iron, which
is thereby protected from atmospheric corrosion. For the same
purpose zinc may be sprayed on to other metals, or it may be
deposited electrolytically. It is also a constituent of many valuable
alloys; brass, Muntz-metal, pinchbeck and tombac are examples.
Zinc forms only one oxide, ZnO, from which is derived a well-
characterized series of salts. It is chemically related to cadmium
and mercury, the resemblance to cadmium being especially well
marked; one distinction is that zinc is less basigenic. Zinc is
capable of isomorphously replacing many of the bivalent metals,
e.g., magnesium, manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt and cadmium, in
certain salts.
Zinc Oxide, ZnO, is manufactured for paint by two processes
— directly from the ore mixed with coal by volatilization on a
grate, and by oxidizing the vapour given off by a boiling bath of
zinc metal. The oxide made by the latter method has generally a
better colour, a finer texture, and a greater covering power. It
is an infusible solid, which is intensely yellow at a red heat, but
on cooling becomes white. This at least is true of the oxide pro-
duced from the metal by combustion; that produced from the
carbonate, if once made yellow at a red heat, retains a yellow
shade permanently. Crystalline zinc oxide is obtained by heating
the nitrate, or by heating the chloride in a current of steam. It
is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in all aqueous acids, with
formation of salts. It also dissolves in aqueous caustic alkalis, in-
cluding ammonia, forming "zincates" [e.g., Zn(OK)2]. Zinc
oxide is used in the arts as a white pigment (zinc white) ; it has
not by any means the covering power of white lead, but offers the
advantages of being non-poisonous and of not becoming dis-
coloured in sulphuretted hydrogen. It is used also in ointments,
as a polish for glass, and in dental cements.
Zinc Hydroxide, Zn(OH)2, is prepared as a gelatinous precipi-
tate by adding a solution of any zinc salt to pure aqueous caustic
potash. It is a white powder, is insoluble in water, but soluble in
excess of alkali and in acids.
Zinc Peroxide, obtained from zinc sulphate and barium perox-
ide, or by electrolysis of neutral zinc chloride solutions in the
presence of hydrogen peroxide, is a valuable antiseptic, being
odourless and non-irritant ; it is much used for skin troubles under
various proprietary names (e.g., dermogen), and as produced com-
mercially contains about 50% of ZnOa together with hydroxide
and moisture.
Zinc chloride, ZnCl2, is produced by heating the metal in
dry chlorine gas, or by heating a mixture of zinc sulphate and
sodium chloride. It condenses as a white translucent mass, boil-
ing at about 700°. Its vapour density at 900° C corresponds to
ZnCU. It is extremely hygroscopic and is used in synthetical
organic chemistry as a condensing agent. It dissolves in a frac-
tion of its weight of even cold water and in any proportion of boil-
ing water, forming a syrupy solution. A solution of zinc chloride
is easily produced from the metal and hydrochloric acid; it can-
not be evaporated to dryness without considerable decomposition
of the hydrated salt into oxychloride and hydrochloric acid, but it
may be crystallized as ZnCla-HaO. A concentrated solution of zinc
chloride converts starch, cellulose and a great many other organic
substances into soluble compounds; hence the application of the
fused salt as a caustic in surgery and the impossibility of filtering
a strong ZnCl8 solution through paper. (See CELLULOSE.) The
solution is also used as a flux in soldering.
Zinc chloride solution readily dissolves the oxide with the forma-
tion of oxychlorides, some of which are used as pigments, ce-
ments and for filling teeth in dentistry. A solution of the oxide
in the chloride has the property of dissolving silk, and hence is
employed for removing this fibre from wool.
952
ZINC
Zinc sulphide, ZnS, occurs in nature as blende (q.v.)t and is
artificially obtained as a white precipitate by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen into a neutral solution of a zinc salt. It dissolves in
mineral acids, but is insoluble in acetic acid.
Zinc sulphate, ZnSCh+y^O, or white vitriol, is prepared by
dissolving the metal in dilute sulphuric acid, concentrating, and
cooling the solution. The hydrated salt crystallizes out on cooling,
forming colourless orthorhombic prisms, usually small and needle-
shaped. They are permanent in the air. According to Poggiale,
100 parts of water dissolve respectively of (7H20) salt, 115-2
parts at o°, and 653-6 parts at 100°. At 39° C.the crystals lose
one, and at 100° six of their molecules of water; the remaining
molecule goes off at 250°. The anhydrous salt, when exposed to
a red heat, breaks up into oxide, sulphur dioxide and oxygen.
An impure form of the salt is prepared by roasting blende at a
low temperature. In the arts it is employed in the preparation of
varnishes, and as a mordant for the production of colours on
calico. A green pigment known as Rinmann's green is prepared
by mixing 100 parts of zinc vitriol with 2-5 parts of cobalt nitrate
and heating the mixture to redness, to produce a compound of the
two oxides. Zinc sulphate, like magnesium sulphate, unites with
the sulphates of the potassium metals and of ammonium into
crystalline double salts, ZnS04-R2SO4-f 6H20, isomorphous with
one another and with the magnesium salts.
Zinc Carbonate, ZnCOa, occurs in nature as the mineral cala-
mine (<7.i>.), but has never been prepared artificially, basic carbo-
nates, ZnC03-*Zn(OH)2, where x is variable, being obtained by
precipitating a solution of the sulphate or chloride with sodium
carbonate; the basic salt is used as a pigment.
Of zinc phosphates we notice the minerals hopeite,
Zn3(P04)2-4H20, and tarbuttite, Zn3(P04)2-Zn(OH)2, both found
in Rhodesia.
Analysis. — From neutral solutions of its salts zinc is precipi-
tated by sulphuretted hydrogen as sulphide, ZnS — a white pre-
cipitate, soluble, but by no means readily, in dilute mineral acids,
but insoluble in acetic acid. In the case of the acetate precipita-
tion is quite complete; from a sulphate or chloride solution the
greater part of the metal goes into the precipitate ; in the presence
of a sufficiency of free HC1 the metal remains dissolved ; sulphide
of ammonium precipitates the metal completely, even in the
presence of ammonium salts and free ammonia. The precipitate,
when heated, passes into oxide, which is yellow when hot and
white after cooling; and, if it be moistened with cobalt nitrate
solution and re-heated, it exhibits a green colour after cooling.
Zinc may be quantitatively estimated by precipitating as basic
carbonate, which is dried and ignited to zinc oxide. It may also
be precipitated as zinc ammonium phosphate, NH4ZnPO4, which
is filtered on a Gooch crucible and dried at 105°. Volumetric
methods have also been devised.
PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS
Zinc chloride is a powerful caustic, and is prepared with plaster
of Paris in the form of sticks for destroying warts, etc. The salt
is a corrosive irritant poison when taken internally. The treat-
ment is to wash out the stomach or give such an emetic as apo-
morphine, and, when the stomach has been emptied, to administer
demulcents such as white of egg or mucilage. Numerous other
salts of zinc, used in medicine, are of value as containing this
metal. Certain others are referred to in relation with the im-
portant radical contained in the salt. Those treated here are the
sulphate, oxide, carbonate, oleate and acetate. All these salts are
mild astringents when applied externally, as*they coagulate the
albumen of the tissues and of any discharge which may be present.
In virtue of this property they are also mild haemostatics, tending
to coagulate the albumens of the blood and thereby to arrest
haemorrhage. Lotio Rubra, the familiar "Red Lotion," a solu-
tion of zinc sulphate, is widely used in many catarrhal inflarama-
tions, as of the ear, urethra, conjunctiva, etc. There are also
innumerable ointments.
These salts are extensively employed internally especially in the
treatment of the more severe and difficult cases of nervous disease.
The sulphate is an excellent emetic in cases of poisoning, acting
rapidly and without much nausea or depression. For these reasons
it may also be given with advantage to children suffering from
acute bronchitis or acute laryngitis. See also Zinc peroxide
(above).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For chemistry of zinc, see J. W. Mellor, Compre-
hensive Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 4 (1923) ; J. N. Friend,
Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 3, Pt. 2 (by J. C. Gregory and
Mrs. M. S. Burr) (1926) ; Smith, The Zinc Industry (1918) ; for statis-
tics and technological advances, see G. A. Roush and A. Butts, The
Mineral Industry (annually). (X.; A. D. M.)
ZINC PRODUCTION
The United States is the principal producer of both zinc ore
and spelter. The Joplin area in Missouri has long been the
principal mining region, but large deposits are worked in the
Upper Mississippi region, Franklin Furnace (New Jersey) and,
since the application of improved methods of zinc concentration,
in the western States. Australia is next to the United States as
a zinc producer, most of the ore being obtained from the Broken
Hill district (New South Wales). Tasmania also has important
deposits and occurrences are known in Australia.
In Canada, the most important deposits of the metal occur in
British Columbia and Quebec, these two provinces sharing prac-
tically the whole of the Canadian production in the proportions of
four-fifths and one-fifth respectively. The principal countries in
Europe participating in the zinc industry are Germany, Italy,
Poland and Spain. For many years Germany ranked second only
to the United States. Her most important deposits were in Upper
Silesia, which yielded about three-fourths of the total German
production. Before the World War the European industry was
almost wholly controlled by the German zinc convention.
In Italy the chief mines now worked are in Sardinia, though
occurrences of ore are found in Lombardy, Piedmont and Tus-
cany. During the post-War period Poland produced more zinc
ore than any other European country, her richest mines being
situated in Silesia; her exports in 1923 amounted to 80,000 long
tons. In Spain the chief zinc-mining centres are in the provinces
of Santander and Murcia. The ores of Santander are mainly
calamine, while those of Murcia are principally blende and galena.
Mention should be made of the zinc-ores mined in the United
Kingdom. These are almost invariably blende associated with
galena, and occur chiefly in North Wales, the north of England,
the Isle of Man and at Dumfries in Scotland.
In the following table the production of zinc in the principal
countries of the world is set out for the three years, 1918, 1923
and 1925.
Long Tons
>
1918
1923
IQ2S
United States .
Australia ....
Canada ....
Germany ....
Italy
462,435
9,444
11,227
232,000
1,169
455,745
4i,i53
26,972
39,400
3,622
5n,559
45,698
34,358
57,705
6,374
Poland
Spain
United Kingdom
Belgium ....
France ....
Japan ....
Netherlands
Yugoslavia.
Sweden ....
Norway ....
15,644
50,000
9,096
18,052
39,203
90,000
10,746
33,000
144,677
48,541
13,671
16,185
2,400
1,194
3,722
112,507
140,300
42,000
179,130
70,000
14,000*
20,778
2,196!
4,59«
6,698
* Approximate. fCrude and refined zinc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— L. C, Ball, "The Etheridge Mineral Field," Queens-
land Geological Survey, No. 245 (1915); J. C. Mouldcn, "Zinc; Its
Production and Industrial Applications," Jour. Roy. Soc. Arts, vol. 64,
pp. 49S-5I3, 5i7-529 (1916) ; A. Stansfield, "Canadian Zinc Re-
sources," Canadian Mining Institute Bull. 52 (1916) ; W. L. Uglow,
"Lead and Zinc Deposits in Ontario and in Eastern Canada," Rep.
Ontario Bur. Mines, vol. 25, pt. 2 (1916) ; J. C. Brown, "Geology and
ore deposits of the Bawdwin Mines," Records Geol. Surv. India, vol.
48 (1917); Zinc Ores, Imperial Institute Monographs on Mineral
Resources (1917) ; A. M . Sen, "Notes on the Occurrence of Lead, Zinc
and Antimony Ores in Mysore," Dept. Mints and Geology, Mysore
ZINCITE— ZINZENDORF
953
State, pp. 9-20 (1917) ; T. E. Lones, Zinc and its Alloys (1919) ; W.
Versfeld, "The Base Metal Resources of the Union of S. Africa," Dept.
Mines and Industry of Union of S. Africa (1919). For full bibliog-
raphy see Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau, The Mineral Industry
of the British Empire and Foreign Countries, 1013-20, pp. 91-104
(1921). (N. M. P.)
ZINCITE, a mineral consisting of zinc oxide (ZnO), crystal-
lizing in the hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the hexagonal
system. Distinct crystals are of rare occurrence; they have the
form of a hexagonal pyramid terminated at one end only by
a basal plane. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal
plane, and usually the mineral is found as platy foliated masses.
The blood-red colour and the orange-yellow streak are charac-
teristic features. The hardness is 4-5, sp.gr., 5-6. Some man-
ganese is usually present replacing zinc. It is known only from
Sterling Hill and Franklin Furnace in Sussex county, N.J.
ZINDER, a town on the northern margin of the central Sudan.
Pop. 6,000. It forms part of the French colony of the Niger, of
which the capital, at first Zinder, was in 1926 moved to Niamey.
Its ruler was formerly subordinate to Bornu, but with the decline
of that kingdom shook off the yoke of the* sultan, and on the con-
quest of that country by Rabah (q.v.) seems to have maintained
his independence. The country of which Zinder is the capital is
known as Damerghu. It is semi-fertile, and supports considerable
numbers of horses and sheep, besides troops of camels. By the
Anglo-French agreement of June 1898 it was included in the
French sphere. The explorer Cazemajou was assassinated there
in 1897, b*t the town was occupied in July 1899, after a slight
resistance. A French post (named Fort Cazemajou) was built
outside the town on a mound of huge granite blocks. Zinder was
the first point in the Sudan reached by F. Foureau after his great
journey across the Sahara via Air in 1899. Subsequently Com-
mandant Gadel, from his headquarters at Zinder, mapped and
pacified the surrounding region, and sent out columns of mehar-
istes (camel-corps) which occupied the oasis of Air and Bilma
in 1906. Zinder is a large and fine town surrounded with high
earthen walls, very thick at the base and pierced with seven gates.
See Cazemajou, in Bui. Com. de I'Afrique Fran^aise (1900) ; F.
Foureau, in La Geographie (December 1900), D'Alger au Congo par le
Tchad (Paris, 1902); Joalland, in La Geographie, vol. iii. (1901) ; E.
Arnaud and M. Cortier, Nos Con fins Sahariens (Paris, 1908) ; C. Jean,
Les Touareg du Sud-Est (Paris, 1909).
ZINGARELLI, NICCOLO (1752-1837), Italian composer,
was born at Naples on April 4, 1752, the son of Riccardo Tota
Zingarelli, a singing-master and soloist. His first dramatic work,
/ quattro Pazzi, was produced at the conservatorio in 1768. He
then gave violin lessons for a time, but in 1781 produced his
first opera, Montesuma, at the San Carlo and afterwards in Vienna,
where it was highly commended by Haydn. He finally settled in
Milan, with introductions to the viceregal court, and over a
period of eleven years produced a series of operas for the Scala,
an oratorio of the Passion, and several cantatas. In 1 789 he went
to Paris to write an opera for the Academic royalc dc rnusique.
This work, U Antigone, for which Marmontel provided the libretto,
was performed on April 30, 1790, but Paris was no place for
Zingarelli during the Revolution, and he fled into Switzerland and
returned to Milan early in 1791.
In 1792 he won the appointment, by open competition, of
master of the chapel at the cathedral. He first achieved an inter-
national reputation by a series of comic operas, beginning with
La Secchia rapita in 1793. His finest work was, however, Romeo
and Juliet, played at the Scala in 1796. From 1794-1804 Zingarelli
was master of the chapel at Loreto, and during this time, although
he also wrote operas, he was chiefly inspired to compose sacred
music, contributing largely to the enormous collection of manu-
script works, the property of the church, known as the Annuale
di Loreto. In 1804 he went to Rome as master (maestro di
capella) of the Sistine chapel and in 1805 produced one of his
most successful works, "The Destruction of Jerusalem," which
held the stage for five years. His last opera, Berenice, received a
hundred consecutive performances.
At the "King of Rome" celebrations, when Napoleon ordered
a Te Deum to be sung in Rome, Zingarelli 's principles did not
allow him to undertake the performance, and on his refusal he
was arrested and brought before the emperor in Paris. But
Napoleon at once released him and provided him with a pension.
Zingarclli's post in Rome had been taken by Fioravanti, but in
1813 he was appointed director of the Real Collcgio di Musica at
Naples and in 1816 maestro di capella at the cathedral. Zinga-
relli's gilt for melody was remarkable. He was a deeply religious
man and was rigorous in his exclusion of secular music from
church performances. He died in 1837.
ZINNIA, in botany, a genus of the family Compositae, con-
taining about a dozen species of half-hardy annual or perennial
herbs or undershrubs, natives of the southern United States and
Mexico. The numerous single and double garden forms are mostly
derived from Zinnia dedans, and grow about 2 ft. high, producing
flowers of various colours, the double ones being about the size of
asters, and vory handsome. The colours include white, yellow,
orange, scarlet, crimson and purple. Zinnias do best in a rich deep
loamy soil, in a sunny position. They should be sown on a gentle
hotbed at the end of March and planted out early in June.
ZINOVIEV, GRIGORY EVSEEVICH (1883- ),
Russian politician, was born in Sept. 1883 at Elisavetgrad (Zin-
ovievsk). He studied chemistry and later law at Bern. He was
a revolutionary before he was 20, and in 1903 met Lenk|. He
joined the Left or Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social Demo-
cratic party, of which Lenin was head. He was head o{ the
Bolshevik party in Bern and during 1903-4 started Bolshevik
propaganda in South Russia. Apart from his activities abroad,
he came into prominence in Russia during 1906-8 as a member
of the Bolshevik St. Petersburg committee of the R.S.D.P., by
his organization of the attempted Kronstadt rising after the
dispersal of the first Duma, his editorship of the Bolshevik paper
Vpered (Forward), and of The Social Democrat, the central organ
of the party. In 1908 he was arrested and imprisoned but was
released, the authorities being unaware of his identity. He then
went abroad and did not return until the revolution in 1917.
During these nine years Zinoviev worked hard for his party.
He was a member of the central committee, co-editor of the prin-
cipal Bolshevik publications, and representative of the party at
the Copenhagen congress of the International. In 1912 he went
with Lenin to Galicia to control from the nearest possible point
the growing labour movement in Russia. In Galicia he founded
the foreign bureau of the central committee, which guided the
party work in Russia and the activities of the Bolshevik group
in the Duma. During the World War the conflict between the
Bolshevik party and the Social Democrats increased. Zinoviev
edited with Lenin Against the Tide, a work of propaganda against
the World War; and at the Zimmerwald conference (1915) they
began to organize the Communist International. On the outbreak
of the March revolution (1917) they returned to Russia and be-
gan to prepare the way for the revolution. Zinoviev was co-editor
of Pravda and, after its suppression, of The Proletarian and
The Worker. He thus became one of the leading figures in Russia.
In 1919 he was elected president of the Communist International,
and after the death of Lenin in 1924 was one of the most zealous
upholders of pure "Leninism." His influence lasted until 1926,
but in June of that year he was expelled from the political bureau,
and eventually from the Communist party. But he presently
made his peace with the dominant section, and received a minor
post. Zinoviev is best known in England by the controversy over
the "Red Letter" to English communists alleged to be his, which •
was a factor in the British general election of 1925.
ZINOVIEVSK, a town of the Ukrainian S.S.R., in 48° 32'
N., 32° 18' E., on the Ingul river. Pop. (1926) 64,502. Its indus-
tries include smelting, distilling, brewing, soap-making, brick-
making, saw-milling and the manufacture of makhorka tobacco.
The town is on the railway and is a collecting centre for the
grain growing and sheep rearing district around it. It was founded
in 1754 and named Elisavetgrad after the Empress Elizabeth.
After the 1917 revolution it was re-named in honour of the Bol-
shevik leader, Zinoviev.
ZINZENDORF, KlCOLAUS LUDWIG, COUNT OF
ZINZENDORF AND POTTENDORF (1700-1760), German religious
and social reformer, was born on May 26, 1 700, at Dresden. Both
954-
ZION— ZIONISM
his parents belonged to the Pietist circle, and the lad had Philipp
Jakob Spener for his godfather. His school days were spent at
Halle amidst Pietist surroundings, and in 1716 he went to the
University of Wittenberg, to study law and fit himself for a
diplomatic career. Three years later he was sent to travel in
Holland, in France, and in various parts of Germany. During a
lengthened visit, at Castell he fell in love with his cousin Theodora;
but her mother objected to the marriage, and Theodora married
Count Henry of Reuss. Zinzendorf took this rebuff as a call to
special work for God, and he now resolved to settle down as a
Christian landowner, spending his life on behalf of his tenantry
at Berthelsdorf. His intention was to carry into practice the
Pietist ideas of Spener.
The ''band of four brothers" (Rothe, pastor at Berthelsdorf;
Melchior Schaifer, pastor at Gorlitz; Francis von Wattewille, a
friend from boyhood; and himself) set themselves to create a
revival of religion. From the printing-house at Ebersdorf large
quantities of books and tracts, catechisms, collections of hymns
and cheap Bibles were issued; and a translation of Johann Arndt's
True Christianity was published for circulation in France. Zinzen-
dorf seems to have doubted the wisdom of Speners plan of not
separfting from the Lutheran Church, and began to think that
true Christianity could be best promoted by free associations of
Christians, which in course of time might grow into churches with
no State connection. Zinzendorf offered an asylum to a number of
persecuted wanderers from Moravia (see MORAVIAN BRETHREN),
and built for them the village of Herrnhut on a corner of his
estate of Berthelsdorf. The refugees who came to this asylum
(between 1722 and 1732 — the first detachment under Christian
David) from various regions where persecution raged, belonged
to more than one Protestant organization. Zinzendorf devoted
himself to them.
Gradually Zinzendorf was able to organize his refugees into
something like a militia Christi, based not on monastic but on
family life. He established a common order of worship in 1727,
and soon afterwards a common organization, which has been de-
scribed in the article MORAVIAN BRETHREN. He travelled widely
on behalf of the Moravians, visiting America in 1741-42 and
spending a long time in London in 1750. Missionary colonies had
by this time been settled in the West Indies (1732), in Greenland
(i733), amongst the North American Indians (1735); and before
Zinzendorfs death the Brethren had sent from Herrnhut mis-
sionary colonies to Livonia and the northern shores of the Baltic,
to the slaves of North Carolina, to Surinam, to the negro slaves
in several parts of South America, to Travancore in the East
Indies, to the Copts in Egypt and to South Africa.
In 1752 Zinzendorf lost his only son, Christian Renatus, whom
he had hoped to make his successor; and four years later he lost
his wife Erdmute, who had been his counsellor and confidante in
all his work. Zinzendorf remained a widower for one year, and
then (June 1757) contracted a second marriage with Anna Nitsch-
mann. He died on March 9, 1760, leaving John de Wattewille,
who had married his eldest daughter Benigna, to take his place
at the head of the community.
See A. G. Spangenberg, Lcben des Graf en von Zinzendorf (Barby,
I772-7S) ; L. von Schrautenbach, Der Graf v. Zinzendorf (Gnadau,
1871; written in 1782, and interesting because it gives Zinzendorfs
relations to such Pietist rationalists as J. K. Dippcl) ; F. Bovet,
Le Comte de Zinzendorf (1860; Eng. trans. A Pioneer of Social
' Christianity, by T. A. Seed, 1896) ; B. Becker, Zinzendorf im Verhalt-
niss z. Philosophic u, Kirchenthum seiner Zeit (Leipzig, 1886) ; H.
Romer, Zinzendorfs Leben und Werken (Gnaudau, 1900), and other
literature mentioned under MORAVIAN BRJETIIRKN.
ZION, a city of Lake county, Illinois, U.S.A., on Lake Michi-
gan, 45 m. N. by W. of Chicago. It is served by the Chicago and
North Western and the Chicago, North Shore and Milwaukee
railways. Pop. 5,580 in 1920, 20% foreign-born white, and was
estimated locally at 6,500 in 1928. It is the centre of a fruit-
growing, truck-gardening and dairying district, and has a variety
of manufacturing industries. Zion City (as it was called at first)
was founded in 1901 by John Alexander Dowie (q.v.) to be the
headquarters of the "Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in
Zion," It was chartered as a city in 1902.
ZION, originally the name of the Jebusite stronghold at Jeru-
salem captured by David (2 Samuel v.). This was probably on
the southern part of the eastern hilL Above it was built the
temple, and later the name was extended to the whole hill. Finally
it became a synonym for the city of Jerusalem, whose inhabitants
are personified as "the daughter of Zion/' See JERUSALEM.
ZIONISM is the lineal heir of the attachment to Zion which
led the Babylonian exiles under Zerubbabel to rebuild the Temple,
and which flamed up in the heroic struggle of the Maccabees
against Antiochus Epiphanes.
During the middle ages, though the racial character of the
Jews was being transformed by their Ghetto seclusion, the national
yearning suffered no relaxation. The nationalist spirit of the
mediaeval Jews is sufficiently reflected in their liturgy, and
especially in the works of the poet, Jehuda Halevi.
The strength of the nationalist feeling was practically tested
in the i6th century, when a Jewish impostor, David Reubeni
(c. 1530), and his disciple, Solomon Molcho (1501-1532), came
forward as would-be liberators of their people. Throughout
Spain, Italy and Turkey they were received with enthusiasm by
the bulk of their brethren. In the following century the influence
of the Christian Millennarians gave a fresh impulse to the
national idea. Menasseh ben Israel (1604-1657) co-operated with
English Millennarians to procure the resettlement of the Jews in
England as a preliminary to their national return to Palestine.
In 1666 a leader appeared at Smyrna, in th^ person of a Jew
named Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676), who proclaimed ihimself the
Messiah. The news spread like wildfire, and despite the opposition
of some of the leading rabbis, the Jews everywhere prepared for
the journey to Palestine. Throughout Europe the nationalist ex-
citement was intense. Even the downfall and apostasy of Sabbatai
were powerless to stop it. The bulk of the people refused for a
whole century to be disillusioned.
The reaction arrived in 1778 in the shape of the Mendelssohnian
movement. The growth of religious toleration, the attempted
emancipation of the English Jews in 1753, and the Judeophilism
of men like Lessing and Dohm, showed that a new era was at
hand. Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) sought to prepare his
brethren for their new life as citizens of the lands in which they
dwelt, by emphasizing the spiritual side of Judaism and the neces-
sity of Occidental culture. His efforts were successful. The
nationalist spirit showed signs of yielding before the hope or the
progress of local political emancipation. In 1806 the Jewish
Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon virtually repudiated the nation-
alist tradition. The new Judaism, however, had not entirely
destroyed it. It had only reconstructed it on a different founda-
tion. Mendelssohnian culture, by promoting the study of Jewish
history, gave a fresh impulse to the racial consciousness of the
Jews. From this race consciousness came a fresh interest in the
Holy Land. It was an ideal rather than a politico-nationalist
interest — a desire to preserve and cherish the monuments of
the ancient national glories. It took the practical form of
projects for improving the circumstances of the local Jews by
means of schools, and for reviving something of the old social
condition of Judea by the establishment of agricultural colonies.
In this work Sir Moses Montefiore, the Rothschild family, and
the Alliance Israelite Universelle were conspicuous. More or less
passively, however, the older nationalism still lived on — especially
in lands where Jews were persecuted — and it became strengthened
by the revived race consciousness and the new interest in the Holy
Land. Christian Millennarians also helped to keep it alive. Lord
Ashley, afterwards Lord Shaftesbury, Col. Gawler, Walter Cres-
son, the United States consul at Jerusalem, James Finn, the
British consul, Laurence Oliphant and many others organized and
supported schemes for the benefit of the Jews of the Holy Land
on avowedly Restoration grounds. Another vivifying element
was the re-opening of the Eastern Question and the championship
of oppressed nationalities in the East by the Western Powers. In
England political writers were found to urge the re-establishment
of a Jewish State under British protection as a means of assuring
the overland route to India (Hollingsworth, Jews in Palestine,
1852). Lord Palmerston was not unaffected by this idea (Finn,
ZIONISM
955
Stirring Times, vol. i. pp. 106-112), and both Lord Beaconsfield
and Lord Salisbury supported Laurence Oliphant in his negotia-
tions with the Porte for a concession which was to pave the way
to an autonomous Jewish State in the Holy Land. George Eliot's
Daniel Deronda, which appeared in 1876, was a striking illustra-
tion of the sympathy with which Jewish national aspirations were
regarded by cultivated Western minds.
In the middle of the igth century, Zionism, or what the next
generation of Jews was to know as Zionism, was already being
preached in western Europe by Moses Hess (1812—1875) and in
eastern Europe by Hirsch Kalischer (1795-1874) and Perez
Smolenskin (1842-1885). A powerful impetus was given to the
movement by the rise and spread of anti-Semitism, which, in one
form or another, began to harass the Jews and embitter their
lives in nearly every part of Europe. In Russia it reached its
climax in 1882, when murder and pillage raged unchecked through
the Jewish pale of settlement. It was in this fateful year that the
immediate precursor of Theodor Herzl, the founder of the Zionist
organization, appeared in the person of Leo Pinsker of Odessa
(1821-1871), whose "auto-emancipation" was a plea for the
solution of the Jewish problem by the re-establishment of a
Jewish nation living its own life on Jewish soil. The "back to
Zion" movement soon began to assume a practical form. A
society known as Choveve Zion ("Lovers of Zion") was formed
for the purpose of promoting Jewish colonization in Palestine.
A new chapter opened in 1896 with the publication of a
pamphlet entitled The Jewish State by Theodor Herzl (q.v.).
In his "Jewish State" he elaborated in detail a scheme for the
establishment of an autonomous Jewish commonwealth in Pales-
tine under the suzerainty of the sultan.
The sultan of Turkey at first appeared to be favourably dis-
posed. The Armenian massacres had inflamed the whole of Europe
against him, and for a time the Ottoman Empire was in very
grave peril. Dr. HerzPs plan provided the sultan, as he hoped,
with a means of securing powerful friends. Through a secret
emissary, the Chevalier de Newlinsky, whom he sent to London
in May 1896, he offered to present the Jews a charter in Palestine
provided they used their influence in the press and otherwise to
solve the Armenian question on lines which he laid down. The
English Jews declined these proposals, and refused to treat in
any way with the persecutor of the Armenians. When, in the
following July, Dr. Herzl himself came to London, the Macca-
baean Society, though ignorant of the negotiations with the sultan,
declined to support the scheme. None the less, it secured a large
amount of popular support throughout* Europe and in 1897 the
first international Zionist congress met at Basle. The congress
established the Zionist Organization for the purpose of giving
effect to the following programme: "Zionism strives to create
for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by public law.
The congress contemplates the following means to the attainment
of this end: (i) The promotion on suitable lines of the coloniza-
tion of Palestine by Jewish agricultural and industrial workers.
(2) The organization and binding together of the whole of Jewry
by means of appropriate institutions, local and international, in
accordance with the laws of each country. (3) The strengthening
and fostering of Jewish national sentiment and consciousness.
(4) Preparatory steps towards obtaining Government consent
where necessary to the attainment of the aim of Zionism."
In 1901 and again in 1902 Dr. Herzl had audiences with the
sultan, Abdul Hamid, but the negotiations led to nothing. He now
sought from the British Government a grant of territory on an
autonomous basis in the vicinity of the Holy Land, which would
provisionally afford a refuge and a political training-ground for
persecuted Jews. A site was suggested in the Sinai peninsula, but
owing to the waterless character of the country the project was
given up. Then Joseph Chamberlain suggested the iminhabited
highlands of the East Africa Protectorate, and in 1903 the British
Government made the Zionist Organization a provisional offer
of an area of 6,000 sq.m. in the Guas Ngishu plateau. This offer
was warmly appreciated as a mark of British goodwill, but it
gave rise to sharp differences of opinion between a minority who
urged its acceptance and a much larger body of Zionists who
were alarmed aLany suggestion of the diversion of Zionist energies
from Palestine. In the end the project was shelved by the Seventh
Zionist Congress (1905).
Meanwhile Zionism, had suffered an irreparable blow by the
death of Dr. Herzl (1904). He was succeeded by David Wolff -
sohn, a banker of Cologne. The movement was further shaken by
the dissensions which followed the rejection of the East African
project. Israel Zangwill led an influential minority which com-
bined with certain non-Zionist elements to found a rival organiza-
tion under the name of the ITO (Jewish Territorial Organization)
with a view to taking over the East African offer or establishing
an autonomous place of refuge elsewhere. On the other hand, the
Zionist Organization had now dedicated itself irrevocably to
Palestine, and under the auspices of Wolffsohn fresh negotiations
were opened with the Porte. These, however, were rendered
hopeless by the Turkish revolution, which postulated a united
Ottoman nationality, and resolutely set its face against any ex-
tension of the racial and religious autonomies under which the
integrity of the empire had already severely suffered.
A Zionist bibliography has been published by the Federation of
American Zionists. Besides the works already cited in the body of this
article, see, on the early nationalist movement Graetz, Geschichte dcr
Judsn, under the heads of the various pseudo-Messiahs and their adher-
ents. Jewish agricultural colonies will be found discussed very fully in
The Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. i. pp. 240-262. For early Zionist projects
see Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, No. 8, pp.
75-n8; Laurence Oliphant, Land of Gilt-ad; Mrs. Oliphant, Life, of
Laurence Oliphant, pp. 168 ci seq. The Zionist movement since 1895
is fully recorded in its official organ, Die Welt (Vienna). For proceed-
ings of the Congresses see the Official Protocols published for each year
by (he society, aErez Israel" of Vienna; also Herzl, Der Baseler Con-
gress (Vienna, 1897). On the movement generally, see Herzl's Zionist-
isfhf Schriften, edited by Dr. Leon Kellner ; Ten Years of Zionism
(Cologne, 1907) ; Nordau, Zionism, its History and its Aims (1905) ;
J. de Haas, Zionism, Jewish Needs and Jewish Ideals; also articles by
I. Zangwill in Cosmopolis (Oct. 1897), Contemporary Review (Oct.
1899) and Fortnightly Review (April 1910) ; Dr. G aster in Asiatic
Quarterly Review (Oct. 1897) ; H. Bentwich in Nineteenth Century
(Oct. 1897), and Fortnightly Review (Dec. 1898) ; Reich in Nineteenth
Century (Aug. 1897) ; Lucien Wolf in Jewish Quarterly Review (Oct.
1904: "The Zionist Peril"). On the ITO .srr pamphlets and leaflets
published by the Jewish Territorial Organization; also the Report of
the Commission on Cyrenaica (1909). (L. W.; X.)
LATER PERIOD
As the prospects of obtaining a charter from the sultan gradu-
ally receded, sharp differences of opinion developed within the
Zionist ranks. The "practical" Zionists, who included most of the
Zionist leaders in Russia, pressed for an immediate start to be
made in Palestine. The "political" Zionists, whose strength WPS
in western and central Europe, still clung to the charter as an
essential prc-rcquisite, protesting that Zionist resources should not
be dissipated on petty colonization. The "practical" Zionists won
their first important success in 1908, when a Zionist agency was
established at Jaffa. The political field was not abandoned, but
the movement now began to throw itself more and more vigor-
ously into the actual settlement of Jews on the soil of Palestine.
For this purpose its main financial instrument was the Jewish
National Fund, which in 1914 owned property in Palestine to the
value of £144,000, as compared with £35,000 in 1909 and £11.000
in 1907, when its active operations began. The marked quickening
of the pace which dates from 19 TO reflects the change in the
direction of Zionist policy, though the resources of the movement
were still small in comparison with those which were lavished
upon the Jewish settlements in Palestine by Baron Edmond de
Rothschild. It was Baron Edmond who came to the assistance of
the struggling colonists in 1883, and it was due mainly to him that
a number of Jewish agricultural colonies were already in existence
in Palestine when his efforts began to be supplemented by those
of the Zionist Organization. In 1914 Palestine had a Jewish
population of about 90,000, including about 13,000 settlers in 43
agricultural colonies. The total number of Jewish immigrants
between 1882 and 1914 has been estimated at about 45,000. In
the period immediately before the World War, the Zionist Organi-
zation showed a growing tendency to interest itself in the revival
of Hebrew culture in Palestine as well as in the settlement of
ZIONISM
Jews on the land. In 1913 the Eleventh Zionist Congress, while
approving an ambitious programme of rural colonization, also
resolved that steps should be taken towards the early establish-
ment in Jerusalem of a Hebrew university.
The outbreak of the World War, followed almost immediately
by the intervention of Turkey on the side of the Central Powers,
brought Zionist work in Palestine to a standstill and threatened
the integrity of the Zionist Organization. The movement was
essentially international, and its complicated constitution was un-
workable in a world at war. At the end of 1914, a Zionist bureau
was established on neutral soil at Copenhagen. Meanwhile, the
American Zionists, acting on their own initiative, had already set
up a "Provisional Executive Committee for General Zionist
Affairs" under the chairmanship of Mr. (later Supreme Court
Justice) L. D. Brandcis. This body remnined active throughout
the war and played a part of growing importance.
A new world was in the making, and it was now at least con-
ceivable that the Zionists might secure something like the charter
on which they had originally staked their hopes. Political Zion-
ism was again in the ascendant. The initiative was taken by a
group of Zionists in Great Britain, headed by Dr. Chaim Weiz-
mann of Manchester university. The Zionists now proposed
that Great Britain should make it an avowed part of her policy to
provide in the peace settlement for the establishment in Palestine
of a national home for the Jews.
By the beginning of 1916 the British Government had come to
the conclusion that Zionism deserved to be taken seriously. In a
memorandum dated March 13, 1916, the British ambassador in
Petrograd (Leningrad) informed the then foreign minister, M.
Sazonov, that "the attention of His Majesty's Government, had
recently been drawn to the question of Jewish colonization in
Palestine/' and that "a numerous and most influential section of
Jewry in all countries would highly appreciate the proposal of an
agreement concerning Palestine which would fully satisfy Jewish
aspirations."
The Balfour Declaration. — Meanwhile, a new situation was
developing in the Eastern theatre of war, and a British conquest
•of Palestine was becoming a possibility of the near future. At
the same time, the hour of decision was approaching in the
United States, where there was a Jewish population of over
3,000,000, while Russia, where the Jews were still more numerous,
was steadily drifting into chaos. A declaration in favour of
Zionism would help to rally Jewish opinion throughout the world
to the side of the Allies. Further, the settlement in Palestine of
a Jewish population attached to Great Britain by ties of interest
and sentiment might well be of value in guaranteeing the perma-
nent security of the approaches to the Suez canal. To these
practical motives was added a genuine desire to contribute towards
the solution of the Jewish problem, in which British statesmen had
shown themselves sympathetically interested long before the war.
All these considerations played their part in bringing the British
Government into closer relations with the Zionist leaders. With
Sir Mark Sykes as the principal intermediary, an exchange of
views began in Feb. 1917, with the result that on Nov. 2 the
foreign secretary, Mr. Balfour, wrote to Lord Rothschild: —
"Dear Lord Rothschild — I have much pleasure in conveying to
you on behalf of His Majesty's Government the following declara-
tion of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations, which has been
submitted to and approved by the Cabinet: 'His Majesty's Gov-
ernment view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a
national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best en-
deavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being
clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice
the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities
in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in
any other country.' I should be grateful if you would bring this
Declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation."
The Balfour Declaration, as it has come to be called, was the
act of Great Britain, but it was issued with the knowledge and
concurrence of the Allied Powers. France formally associated
herself with the Declaration in Feb. 1918, and Italy in the fol-
lowing May. As for the United States, President Wilson had
personally intervened to make it clear that he would welcome a
British pronouncement in favour of Zionism, and soon after the
Declaration was issued, he publicly expressed his satisfaction.
In 1922 resolutions associating the United States with the policy
embodied in the Declaration were unanimously adopted by both
Houses of Congress. At the instance of Great Britain, a Zionist
delegation was given a hearing by the Peace Conference in Paris
on Feb. 27, 1919, but it was not until April 24, 1920, that the
Supreme Council of the Allies, at its meeting at San Remo,
formally agreed that Palestine should be placed under a British
mandate and that Great Britain should be responsible for carry-
ing the Balfour Declaration into effect.
British Mandate for Palestine. — In Dec. 1920, the proposed
terms of the Palestine mandate were submitted by the British
Government to the League of Nations for confirmation by the
Council. There was a succession of unforeseen delays, but a slightly
modified draft was eventually approved by the Council at its meet-
ing in London on July 24, 1922. A few weeks earlier, the British
Government had issued a statement of British policy in Palestine,
in which it interpreted the Balfour Declaration as meaning,* "not
the imposition of a Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of
Palestine as a whole, but the further development of the existing
Jewish community, in order that it may become a centre in which
the Jewish people, as a whole, may take, on grounds of religion
and race, an interest and a pride." The mandate came into full
operation on Sept. 29, 1923. In its final form, it recites the
Balfour Declaration in the preamble, and includes among its
provisions various articles dealing with Jewish immigration.
Although a Zionist commission was sent to Palestine with the
approval of the British Government in the spring of 1918, little
practical work could be done until well after the close of the war.
The foundation stone of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
was laid on Mount Scopus in July 1918, but the Zionist commis-
sion was mainly pre-occupied with relief work in the liberated
areas, where the Jewish settlements had suffered severely.
Zionism, at Work. — The return to normal conditions was
marked by the San Remo decision of April 1920, which was fol-
lowed by the establishment in Palestine of a civil administration
in the following July. Subject to the general control of the Gov-
ernment, the Zionist Organization was now for the first time in a
position to bring in immigrants and to purchase land. Between
1918 and 1927 about 95,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine, of
whom 33,801 entered in 1925. During the same period there were
about 23,000 Jewish emigrants, of whom about half were post-war
settlers, leaving a net immigration of about 72,000. The Jewish
population, which was about 95,000 in 1914, was reduced during
the war to about 55,000. It was returned at 84,000 at the census
of Oct. 1922, was officially estimated at 108,000 in March 1925.
and had risen to about 159,000 at the end of 1927. The area of
land in Jewish possession rose from 177 sq.m. in 1914 to 390
sq.m. in 1927, and the population of the Jewish agricultural settle-
ments from 13,000 to 30,000. With the exception of about 20
sq.m. of State and waste lands, all the land acquired since the
war has been bought, often at inflated prices, in the open market,
and in addition to the heavy expenditure in which they have thus
been involved, the Jewish National Fund and other Jewish bodies
have had to sink large amounts of capital in improvements, in-
cluding in particular the drainage of marshes. There has been a
considerable increase, which has been particularly marked since
1924, in the Jewish population of the three leading towns, Jeru-
salem, Jaffa and Haifa. In -the neighbourhood of Jaffa, the Jews
have built up the separate township of Tel Aviv, which had in
March 1927 a population of 37,000, as compared with 13,000 in
Dec. 1922, and 2,000 in Aug. 1914. The rapid growth of the
towns is connected with the industrial development of Palestine,
which in turn is largely due to the influx of private Jewish capital.
In 1927 it was estimated that since 1920 513 industrial enterprises
had been established in Palestine, representing in the aggregate an
investment of £1,500,000, of which more than 90% was Jewish.
An important factor in the industrial and general development of
Palestine is the Palestine Electric Corporation, which has been
largely financed from Jewish sources and which is already supply-
ZIRCON— ZIRCONIUM
957
ing Jaffa and Haifa with electric light and power.
Education. — Since the war, the Zionist Organization has largely
extended the scope of its educational work in Palestine. At the
end of 1927 it controlled 222 schools of various grades, with 730
teachers and 18,611 pupils. A Jewish technical institute was
opened at Haifa in Feb. 1925 and the Zionist Organization also
maintains an agricultural institute at Tel Aviv. In April 1925,
Lord Balfour formally inaugurated the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, consisting, in its first stages, of three research insti-
tutes, devoted respectively to chemistry, microbiology and tropical
medicine and Jewish and oriental studies. In all these institu-
tions the language of instruction is Hebrew, which has already
become the Jewish vernacular in Palestine and is the mother-
tongue of the whole of the new generation. An important branch
of Zionist work in Palestine is that represented by the Hadassah
Medical Organization, which at the end of 1927 maintained four
hospitals and 39 clinics, five laboratories and a Rontgen insti-
tute.
The entire expenditure of the Zionist Organization is defrayed
by voluntary contributions from Jews i^ all parts of the world.
On Aug. 31, 1927 the total receipts of the Palestine Restoration
Fund and the Palestine Foundation Fund since 1917 amounted to
£4,000,269. During approximately the same period, the Jewish
National Fund, which exists for the purchase of land in Palestine,
raised independently a further £1,634,987, making a total of
£5,635,256. Including the expenditure of other Jewish bodies,
such as the Palestine Jewish Colonisation Association, and the
investmerfts of private individuals, the Jewish capital brought
into Palestine since the War was estimated at the end of 1927
at a total of at least £10,000,000.
In giving the Zionist Organization a recognized status as the
Jewish agency for Palestine, the mandate at the same time re-
quired the organization to take steps to secure the co-operation
of all Jews who were willing to be associated with it in the estab-
lishment of the Jewish national home. With this end in view,
the organization opened negotiations in 1923-24 with repre-
sentative Jewish bodies in Great Britain, the United States and
elsewhere. In 1925 the i4th Zionist Congress adopted a scheme
for the reconstitution of the Jewish agency on a broader basis,
and in 1927 a body known as the Joint Palestine Survey Commis-
sion was set up by agreement between the Zionist Organization
and an influential group of American Jews not formally associated
with the Zionist movement. The commission consisted of Sir
Alfred Mond (later Lord Melchett), together with one German
and two American colleagues. Its object was to survey the whole
field of Jewish activities in Palestine and to frame a long-term
programme of constructive work.
The appointment of the joint commission clearly foreshadowed
closer co-operation between Zionists and non-Zionists and showed
that Jews of all schools of thought were preparing to sink their
differences in a concerted effort to further the development of
Palestine and the establishment of the Jewish national home.
While the commission was at work, the situation in Palestine
itself took a marked turn for the better. The unexampled pros-
perity of 1925, when immigration reached its peak, was followed
by a period of depression which continued for nearly two years
and was reflected in unemployment on a scale which caused
serious anxiety. Immigration came almost to a standstill and
Jews began to emigrate. It was not until the beginning of 1928
that the clouds began to lift. Little by little the demand for
labour increased. By the spring of 1928 work had been found
for nearly -the whole of the able-bodied Jewish unemployed, and
it was clear that the worst was over. The new Palestine had been
severely tested, but it had weathered the storm and was at length
within sight of smoother waters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — R. Gottheil, Zionism (1914) ; H. Sacher, ed., Zion»
ism and the Jewish Future (1917) ; N. Sokolow, History of Zionism.
2 vol. (1919) ; Zionism, Handbook prepared under the Historical Sec-
tion of the Foreign Office, No. 162 (1920) ; Annual Reports on the
Administration of Palestine, 1920-21, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1926,
1927; H. M, Kallen, Zionism and World Politics (1921) ; Memoranda
submitted to the League of Nations by the Zionist Organization (1922,
1924, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1928) ; L. Simon and L. Stein,, ed., Awakening
Palestine (1923) ; Reports of the Zionist Executive to the Zionist Con-
gress (1923, 1925, 1927) ; Report of the High Commissioner on the
Administration of Palestine, 1920-25 (White Paper, Colonial No. 15,
1925) ; L. Stein, Zionism (1925) ; Basil Worsfold, Palestine of the
Mandate (1925) ; Report of Joint Palestine Survey Commission (1928).
(L. ST.)
ZIRCON, a mineral composed of zirconium silicate, some-
times used as a gem-stone. It is believed that the name comes
from the Arabic zargun, and is essentially the same as "jargoon,"
the name given to certain varieties of zircon. The mineral crystal-
lizes in the tetragonal system, generally in combinations of square
prisms and square pyramids (figs. 48 and 49, CRYSTALLOGRAPHY).
It is isomorphous with cassiterite and rutile, and like these may
form geniculated twins. There is no distinct cleavage, and the
mineral breaks with a conchoidal fracture. The hardness is about
7-5. The specific gravity has a very wide range, extending from
4-0 to rather more than 4-7, being thus greater than that of any
other gem-stone. Rarely colourless, zircon is usually brown or
red, sometimes orange, yellow, green or blue, and occasionally
parti-coloured or zoned. Whilst common zircon is opaque, the
gem-varieties are transparent.
The effect of heat on zircon is remarkable. Most coloured zir-
cons, exposed to a high temperature, either change or lose their
colour, but this loss is attended by a gain in brilliancy. The
"Matura diamonds" of Ceylon are zircons which have been thus
artificially decolorized. Certain zircons when heated in a Bunsen-
ilame glow with an orange incandescence, whilst others may emit
an orange glow when ground on a copper-wheel fed with diamond-
dust. Some zircons when heated undergo remarkable changes in
specific gravity and refractive indices, and the suggestion has been
made that there are at least three modifications of zirconium sili-
cate. Zircon is used as a source of zirconia in various prepara-
tions, for incandescent gas-mantles, etc. It was in this mineral
that zirconia was originally discovered by M. H. Klaproth in 1789,
whilst it has been found to contain small amounts of hafnium.
When fit for use as a gem-stone it is often known as "noble" or
"precious zircon." The red and orange stones are termed hyacinth
( </.i>.) and jacinth, whilst those of all other colours, as also the
colourless transparent zircons, are called jargoons (q.v,). The
gem varieties are found in detrital deposits, especially in Ceylon,
New South Wales, Queensland and Siam, with sapphire, etc.
Zircon is an accessory constituent of many rocks, especially
granite, and it forms an important constituent of the zircon-
syenite of Norway. Being but little subject to alteration, it is
common in secondary deposits, as in auriferous and other sands,
occurring usually in small characteristic crystals.
ZIRCONIUM, a metallic chemical element, so-called from
the identification of its oxide, zirconia, by Klaproth (1789) in the
mineral zircon (symbol Zr, atomic number 40, atomic weight
91-2). It was first isolated by J. J. Berzelius in 1824, who heated
potassium zirconifluoride, K2ZrIr6, with potassium and obtained
an iron grey powder, which was, however, impure.
Preparation. — Preparation of the pure metal is difficult, owing
to the facility with which zirconium combines with hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, boron, carbon and silicon and forms alloys with
such metals as aluminium and magnesium. Specimens containing
more than 99-6% of zirconium were obtained by pressing the
impure metal into rods which could be used as electrodes. When
an electric arc was struck across such electrodes in an atmosphere
of hydrogen or ammonia under n mm. pressure, the metal of the
positive electrode fused and fell in iron grey drops on the negative
electrode. This procedure is allied to the method for obtaining
pure zirconium by heating its hydride or nitride in vacno. By
electrical heating of zirconium tetrachloride with sodium in an
evacuated bomb, ductile metal was produced which when
fashioned into rods gave a shiny surface on burnishing and a
similar product was obtained in the reduction of zirconia by
metallic calcium. Pure zirconium is deposited on a heated
tungsten filament when the vapour of zirconium iodide is passed
over the filament. Colloidal zirconium has been obtained by
dialysis of the reduction product of potassium zirconifluoride with
potassium. The melting point of zirconium has been variously
given as 1.530° C and 1,700° C. Its specific gravity is 6-4.
958
ZITHER— 2I2KA
COMPOUNDS
Ferrozirconium (20% Zr), employed as a scavenger in steel cast-
ings, is made by heating zirconia and ferric oxide with aluminium
in graphite crucibles. The addition of about 0-34% of zirconium
to armour plating steel containing 3% of nickel adds to the tensile
strength of the metal.
Hydrofluoric acid, even when dilute, hot concentrated sulphuric
acid and aqua regia attack zirconium energetically, whereas hydro-
chloric and nitric acids dissolve it very slightly. It is oxidized on
fusion with alkali hydroxides or nitre. At red heat zirconium
reduces boric oxide, silica, titania and metallic oxides such as
chromic oxide. Its great affinity for oxygen explains the employ-
ment of zirconium and its alloys as cleansing agents (scavengers
for oxygen and nitrogen) in metallurgy. The commercially im-
portant zirconium minerals are (i) baddeleyite (brazilite), the
native zircoriia found in large quantities in Brazil (Sao Paulo
and Minas Geraes); (2) zirkelite, a mixture of brazilite with
zircon silicates, also found in Brazil; (3) zircon, ZrSiO-i, mined
in Colorado. Following on their discovery of hafnium (q.v.)
Coster and Hevesy report (1923) that most zirconium ores con-
tain very appreciable quantities of this new element, the amount
rising in certain instances to 10 or 20%.
Crystallised zirconia, ZrOj, is obtained in colourless quadratic
crystals by heating zirconium tetrafluoride with boric oxide.
Owing to its refractory character and high melting point (given
as 2,653^10° C or as 3,000° C) it has been recommended for
furnace linings, crucibles, muffles and pyrometer tubes. It has
also been used in enamels and in porcelain and opaque glasses.
The first incandescent mantles made by A. v. Welsbach consisted
principally of zirconia but -this oxide is now superseded by thoria
and ceria. In the Nernst lamp the incandescent body is chiefly
zirconia (85%) with yttrium oxides (15%). Zirconium tetra-
fluoride, ZrF4, obtained by heating zirconia with ammonium
fluoride in highly refracting crystals, dissolves in water to form
the hydrate, ZrFi^HiO, and combines with alkali fluorides to
yield several types of double fluorides employed in the isolation
of the metal by reduction with potassium or sodium. The com-
monest type is exemplified by the potassium salt, K^ZrFs.
Zirconium tetrachloride, prepared by passing chlorine saturated
with the vapour of carbon tetrachloride over zirconia heated
in a silica tube at 600° C, is a white crystalline sublimate volatilis-
ing at 300° C and hydrolysed by water to zirconyl chloride,
ZrOCU, which forms a crystalline octahydrate. Zirconium sul-
phate, Zr(S04)i,4H20, forms colourless crystals prepared by
dissolving zirconia in concentrated sulphuric acid and diluting
slightly with water. It is also regarded as a zirconyl acid sulphate,
tZrO(S04)2]H2,3H20.
Other Salts. — Many other zirconyl salts are known including
the nitrate which crystallises from aqueous solutions as
ZrO(N03)2,2H20. Zirconium tetra-acetylacetone, Zr{CH(CO-
CH3)2}4,ioH20, obtained by the interaction of zirconyl nitrate,
acetylacetone and aqueous sodium carbonate, crystallises from
alcohol or acetylacetone in anhydrous colourless prisms melting
at 193-195° C. When zirconium tetrachloride reacts with acetyl-
acetone, benzoylacetone or dibenzoylmethane in anhydrous media,
compounds are obtained of the general formula [ZrDk3]Cl, where
Dk is the univalent diketone radical (G. T. Morgan and A. R.
Bowen, 1924).
Zirconium carbide, ZrC, a hard metallic substance, produced
from zirconium and carbon in the electric furnace (H. Moissan
and Lengfeld, 1896) is used as an abrasive and for cutting glass.
A mixture of this carbide (90%) with ruthenium (10%) has
been suggested as a filament for incandescent lamps.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. P. Venahle, Zirconium and its Compounds
(1922); B. S. Hopkins, Chemistry of the Rarer Elements (1923);
U. R. Evans, Mttah and Metallic Compounds, vol. 11 (1923) ; T. E.
Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, vol. vii. (1927).
(G. T. M.)
ZITHER, a name applied in modern Germany to the ancient
cithara (7.^.), to the cittern (q.v.), and to a derived instrument
which is a kind of psaltery, consisting of a shallow, horizontal
sound-chest with strings stretched above it which are plucked and
thrummed, wilh plectrum and fingers, by the performer. (See
illustration.) Zithers, which are made in various sizes, are the
favourite instruments of the peasants in the Swiss and) Bavarian
highlands, and are sometimes heard also in the concert halls in
Germany. The Streichzither, or bowed zither, is another variety of
the instrument. There are four strings cor-
responding to those of the violin or viola,
but the tone is nasal and glassy.
ZITTAU, a town of Germany, in the
extreme south-east of the republic of
Saxony, on the left bank of the Mandau,
near its confluence with the Neisse, by rail
48 ra. E.S.E. of Dresden and at the junc-
tion of lines to Reichenberg, Hermsdorf,
Gorlitz, Oybin and Lobau. Pop. (1925)
38,353. Zittau is of Wendish origin
(Chytawa is its Wendish name), and was
made a town by Ottocar II. of Bohemia.
was one of the six towns of the Lusa-
, tian League (1346), at which period it
AN ANCIENT MUSICAL IN- bejonged to Bohemia. It suffered severely
STRUMENT HAVING 36. in* the Hussite wars and in the Thirty
38 OR 42 STRINGS Years' War.
ZIWAR, AHMAD PASHA (1864- ), G.C.M.G.
(1925), Egyptian statesman, was born at Alexandria on Nov. 14,
1864, the son of Ziwar Bey. He was educated at the college of
Lazarists, Alexandria, and at the Jesuit university of St. Joseph,
Beirut. He studied law at Aix-en-Provenca, and held office as
supreme judge at the Cairo court of appeal from i8g<f to 1913,
when he became governor of Alexandria. From 1918 to 1924
he held various government offices, being for a time minister
of education and also minister plenipotentiary in Rome.
At the end of 1924 Ziwar Pasha formed a ministry in succession
to the Zaghlul ministry, which had been compelled to resign in
November after the murder of Sir Lee Stack. Ziwar Pasha re-
established good relations with Great Britain and took action to
prevent political agitation among young students. He also came
to an agreement with the British government on the rights of
Egypt in the waters of the Blue Nile. In the elections of Febru-
ary-March, 1925 the parties opposed to Zaghlul obtained a very
small majority of 6, and Ziwar Pasha then formed a coalition
cabinet, which proved to be short-lived, for the new chamber
immediately chose Zaghlul as its president. Ziwar Pasha there-
upon immediately resigned and advised the king to dissolve parlia-
ment. But the elections had to be postponed owing to the need
of framing a new electoral law. Ziwar withdrew his resignation,
and continued to direct the government. He spent some months
in Europe, and on his return proceeded to reconstruct his cabinet.
Ziwar resigned on June 5, 1926.
2l2KA, JOHN (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general and
Hussite leader, was born at Trocnov in Bohemia. He lost an eye
in the civil wars under Wenceslaus IV. Connected with the court
from his youth, he held the office of chamberlain to Queen
Sophia. The Hussite movement first brought him into prominence.
When a temporary armistice was concluded between the partisans
of King Sigismund and the citizens of Prague, Zizka joined the
advanced Hussites at Tabor, helped to organize the new military
community and became one of the four "captains of the people"
(hejtmane) at its head. On receiving an appeal from the citizens
of Prague to help against Sigismund, king of the Germans and
king of Hungary, who had invaded Bohemia, claiming the crown
as the heir of his brother Wenceslaus, the Taborites marched to
Prague and on July 14, 1420, largely through Zizka's heroism,
repulsed an attack by Sigismund's forces, on their position on the
Vitkov hill, where the suburb of fcizlcov now stands, forcing
Sigismund to raise the siege. On Aug. 22, 1420, the Taborites left
Prague and returned to Tabor.
2i2ka was now engaged in constant, and invariably successful,
warfare with the partisans of Sigismund, particularly with the
powerful Romanist, Ulrich of Rosenberg. At the meeting of the
Estates of Bohemia and Moravia at Caslav (June i, 1421),
2i2ka was elected member for Tabor to the provisional govern-
ment. He summarily suppressed some disturbances by the
ZLATOUST— ZODIACAL LIGHT
959
Adamite sect, continued his campaigns against the Romanists
and adherents of Sigismund, and, having captured a small castle
near LitomfcHce (Leitmeritz), retained possession of it — the only
reward for his great services that he ever received or claimed.
According to Hussite custom, he gave the biblical name of
''Chalice" to this new possession, and henceforth adopted the
signature of "Ziika of the Chalice." In 1421, while besieging the
castle of Rabi, he lost the use of his remaining eye. Though now
totally blind, he retained his command, and on Jan. 6, 1422,
severely defeated Sigismund at Nebovid, Kutna Hora, and again
at NSmecky Brod (Deutschbrod) on Jan. 10. Early in 1423
internal dissensions among the Hussites led to civil war. Zilka, as
leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the
Utraquist nobles at Horic on April 27, and when the armistice of
Konopist (June 24) was followed by renewed civil war, he once
again defeated the Utraquists, under Borek, at Strachov, near
Kralove* Hradec (Aug. 4, 1423).
Ziika now made a brilliant, although unsuccessful attempt to
invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King
Sigismund. In 1424, civil war having again broken out in Bo-
hemia, Ziika decisively defeated the Praguers and Utraquist
nobles at Skalic (Jan. 6), and at Malesov (June 7). In Sep-
tember he marched on Prague, but on the i4th of that month
peace was concluded between the Hussite parties who agreed to
make a combined attack on Moravia, part of which was still held
by Sigismund's followers. 2i£ka was given the command, but
before reaching the frontier, he died of the plague at Pribyslav
(Oct. ii, 1424).
See Count ^LUtzow, Bohemia: an Historical Sketch (1896) ; Louis
L6ger, Jean Ziika in "Nouvelles iiudes Slaves," deuxieme sine (1886).
ZLATOUST, a town in the Uralsk Area of the Russian S.F.
S.R., 1,925 ft. above sea-level on the Ai, a tributary of the Ufa
river, in 55° 10' N., 59° 40' E., on the "Ufa-Chelyabinsk railway.
Pop. (1926) 47,707. The town has smelting works and manu-
factures machinery; there is a meteorological and magnetic
observatory.
ZLOTY, the new monetary unit of Poland. Following the
collapse of the Polish mark, instituted immediately after the
World War, the zloty was substituted in 1924. It was then made
equivalent to the old franc, at a parity of 25-22 zlotys to the
pound sterling, and was backed partly by gold and gold exchange,
and partly by other forms of security. Events soon showed that
the new currency had been introduced before the country was
ready to support it, and during 1925 and 1926 renewed deprecia-
tion set in. In 1927 a second attempt at stabilization was made.
A foreign stabilization loan was issued, and the proceeds used to
give a gold exchange backing to the new zloty. This second
attempt proved successful, and the zloty has been maintained at
its par value (see CURRENCY).
ZNAIM: see ZNOJMO.
ZNOJMO (Znaim), in Moravia, Czechoslovakia, on the Dyje.
A settlement is believed to have existed here from prehistoric
time. The present town was founded in 1226 on the site of the old
capital, destroyed in 1145. Lying at the junction of old granites
and tertiary strata Znojmo manufactures clay products and stone-
ware. It is also famous for its extensive fruit and vegetable farms,
which supply bottling factories. Among its old buildings are a i2th
century Romanesque castle chapel (the Heiden-Tempel) a i4th
century Gothic church and a i5th century town hall with Gothic
tower (250 ft). Pop. (1921) 21,197.
ZOBEIR RAHAMA (1830-1913), Egyptian pasha and
Sudanese governor, came of the Gemaab section of the Jaalin,
and was a member of a family which claims descent from the
Koreish tribe through Abbas, uncle of Mohammed. He was the
most energetic and intelligent of the Arab ivory and slave traders
who about 1860 established themselves on the White Nile and in
the Bahr-el-Ghazal. Nominally a subject of Egypt, he raised
an army of several thousand well-armed blacks and became a
dangerous rival to the Egyptian authorities. At the height of
his power Zobeir was visited (1871) by Georg Schweinfurth, who
found him "surrounded with a court which was little less than
1869 an expedition sent from Khartum, into the Bahr-el-Ghazal
was attacked by Zobeir and completely defeated, its commander
being slain. Zobeir represented that he was blameless in this
matter, received a 'pardon," and was himself appointed governor
of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where he was practically independent. In
1873 lie attacked the sultan of Darfur, and the khedive Ismail
gave him the rank of bey and sent troops to co-operate. After he
had conquered Darfur (1874), Zobeir was made a pasha, but he
demanded the governor-generalship of the new province, and
went to Cairo in the spring of 1876 to press his title. The Egyptian
authorities prevented his return, though he was allowed to go
to Constantinople at the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War.
In 1878, however, his son Suleiman, having got possession of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal, defied the authority of General Gordon, the new
governor-general. Gordon sent Romolo Gessi against Suleiman
and his ally Rabah (q.v.)y who was subdued after an arduous
campaign and executed.
During the campaign Zobeir oifercd, if he were allowed to
return to the Sudan, to restore order and to pay a revenue of
£25,000 a year to the khedive. Gordon declined this help, and
subsequently, for his instigation of the revolt, Zobeir was con-
demned to death, but the trial was a farce, the sentence was
remitted, and he remained at Cairo, now in high favour with the
khedival court. In March 1884, Gordon, who had been sent to
Khartum to effect, if possible, the relief of the Egyptian garri-
sons in the Sudan, astonished Europe by requesting that Zobeir,
whose son he had overthrown and whose trade he had ruined,
should be sent to Khartum as his successor. Zobeir, described
by Sir Reginald Wingate, who knew him well, as "a quiet, far-
seeing, thoughtful man of iron will — a born ruler of men'*
(Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan, book v.), might have been
able to stem the mahdist movement. But to reinstate the notorious
slave-dealer was regarded in London as too perilous an expedient,
even in the extreme circumstances then existing, although Colonel
Stewart (Gordon's companion in Khartum), Sir Evelyn Baring
and Nubar Pasha in Cairo, and Queen Victoria and Mr, Glad-
stone, all favoured such a course. In March 1885 Zobeir was
arrested in Cairo by order of the British government for treason-
able correspondence with the mahdi and other enemies of Egypt,
and was interned at Gibraltar. In August 1887 he was allowed to
return to Cairo, and after the reconquest of the Sudan was per-
mitted (1899) to settle in his native country. He established
himself on his estates at Geili, some 30 m. N. of Khartum, where
he died on Jan. 5, 1913.
See GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE, and the authorities there cited.
ZODIAC, in astronomy and astrology, a zone of the heavens
within which lie the paths of the sun, moon and principal planets
(6 fo><5i<u6j KUfcXos from fw6ioj> "a little animal"). It is bounded
by two circles equidistant from the ecliptic, about 18 degrees
apart; and it is divided into 12 signs, and marked by 12 constel-
lations. These 12 constellations, with the symbols of the signs
which correspond to them, are as follows: —
Aries, the Ram T Libra, the Balance =0r
Taurus, the Bull # Scorpio, the Scorpion lt\
Gemini, the Twins H Sagittarius, the Archer ft
Cancer, the Crab @ Capricornus, the Goat V3
Leo, the Lion £3 Aquarius, the Water-carrier ««
Virgo, the Virgin Iff Pisces, the Fishes X
In the technical sense of the word the 12 "signs" are geometri-
cal divisions 30 degrees in extent counting from the position of
the sun at the vernal equinox. In the time of Hipparchus the
signs corresponded fairly closely with the constellations; that is
to say, the first sign (called Aries) corresponded with the constel-
lation Aries. Owing to precession there is now a discrepancy
amounting to the breadth of a whole sign, so that the sign Aries
is occupied by the constellation Pisces. (See CONSTELLATION.)
ZODIACAL LIGHT, a faint illumination of the sky, sur-
rounding the sun and elongated in the direction of the ecliptic
on each side of the sun. It is lenticular in form, brightest near
the sun, and shades off by imperceptible gradations, generally be-
960
ZOFFANY— ZOLA
time it was never observed except in or near the zodiac ; hence its
designation. The most favourable time for evening observation
in the northern hemisphere is during the months of February and
March. In the tropics, where the ecliptic is nearly perpendicular
to the horizon, it may be seen after the end of twilight on every
clear evening, and before twilight on every clear morning, unless
blotted out by moonlight. It then presents a nearly vertical wedge-
shaped form, the base of which extends 15° or 20° on each side
of the point at which the ecliptic intersects the horizon. The point
of the wedge is quite indefinite, the extremely diffuse light grad-
ually fading into invisibility at a height which may range from
50° to 70° or even more, according to the keenness of the ob-
server's vision.
It is clear that the light proceeds from a region surrounding
the sun, lenticular in form, the axis of the lens being nearly per-
pendicular to the ecliptic, while the circumference extends at least
to the orbit of the earth. The hypothesis which best explains all
the phenomena is that the light is that of the sun reflected from
an extremely tenuous cloud of particles having the form and extent
described, and becoming more and more tenuous as the earth's
orbit is approached until, immediately outside the orbit, it fades
into complete invisibility. It has been shown by Path that the
spectrum is identical with that of sunlight.
Intimately connected with the zodiacal light is the Gegenschein,
or counter-glow, a faint illumination of the sky in the region op-
posite the sun, which may generally be seen by a trained eye when
all the conditions are favourable. The Milky Way renders it in-
visible during the months of June, July, December and January.
Its light is so faint and diffuse that it is impossible to assign di-
mensions to it, except to say it covers a region of several degrees
in extent. Barnard, the most successful observer, assigns diam-
eters of 5° or even 10° or more. The explanation is uncertain.
ZOFFANY, JOHANN (1733-1810), British painter, whose
father was architect to the prince of Thurn and Taxis, was born
in Frankfort-on-Main. He ran away from home at the age of
13 and went to Rome, where he studied art for nearly 12 years.
In 1758 he left for England, and after undergoing some hardships
was brought into fashion by royal patronage, and in 1769 was
included among the foundation members of the Royal Academy.
He went to Florence in 1772 with an introduction from George
III. to the grand duke of Tuscany, and remained until 1779.
He lived (1783 to 1790) in India, executing some of his best-
known paintings; but the last 20 years of his life were spent in
England. He died in 1810 and was buried in Kew churchyard.
ZOGU, AHMED (1893- ), King of the Albanians, was
head of the Zogolli, one of the four ruling families of the Mati
district and was educated at a Monastic school in Constantinople.
He first distinguished himself as a supporter of the prince of Wied
in 1914. During the World War he fought for the Austrians.
He became minister of the interior (Jan.-Nov. 1920), and organ-
ized resistance to the Yugoslav incursions during the autumn.
He was minister for war in the "Sacred Union" cabinet (Oct.-
Dec. 1921), and again distinguished himself against the Yugoslavs.
As minister of the interior in Djafer Ypi's cabinet (Dec. 1921-
Dec. 1922), he suppressed a serious irredentist movement in
March 1922, and succeeded in disarming the lowlanders. Becoming
prime minister in Dec. 1922, he governed with ability, pursuing^
sound anti-irredentist and constructive policy. Towards the end
of 1923, however, he was accused by the Democratic party of
obstructing in the interests of the landowners' various progressive
and agrarian reforms. Following an attempt upon his life he
resigned in Feb. 1924, but his influence remained. A revolt against
him and his colleagues took place in June, and he sought refuge
in Yugoslavia. But skilfully turning to his advantage Yugoslavian
policy, he returned to Albania in Dec. 1924 and ousted his suc-
cessor, Archbishop Fan Noli. His election as president of the
Albanian republic on Feb. i, 1925, ushered in a period of internal
tranquillity. By his obvious patriotism and conciliatory attitude
towards his political opponents he eventually gained the support
of all but the extreme reactionaries and he was proclaimed king
at Tirana on Sept. i, 1928, to be crowned a year later. (See
ALBANIA.) (J. Sw.)
ZOILUS (c. 400-320 B.C.), Greek grammarian of Amphipolis
in Macedonia. Zoi'lus appears to have been at one time a
follower of Isocrates, but subsequently a pupil of Polycrates.
Zoi'lus was chiefly known for the acerbity of his attacks on Homer
(which gained him the name of Homeromastix, "scourge of
Homer"), chiefly directed against the fabulous element in the
Homeric poems. Zoi'lus also wrote against Isocrates and Plato,
who had attacked the style of Lysias of which he approved. The
name Zoi'lus came to be generally used of a spiteful critic.
See U. Friedlander, De Zoilo aliisque Homeri Obtrectatoribus
(Konigsberg, 1895) ; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship
(2nd ed. 1906).
ZOISITE (named after Baron Zois who first observed it), a
rock-forming mineral of the composition of HCaaAlaSiuOjs, crystal-
lizing in the rhombic system. Crystals are usually prismatic, deeply
striated parallel to their length and have a perfect oio cleavage.
Two varieties are optically distinguishable; in a-zoisite the
plane of the optic axes is parallel to the cleavage (oio), while in
/3-zojsite it is normal to this plane. The resemblance to .the
monoclinic clinozoisite of the same chemical composition (see
EPIDOTE) is revealed when the crystallographic orientation of
zoisite is adjusted so that the plane of cleavage is basal (ooi) and
the zone of elongation and striation the b axis. The colour of the
mineral is white or grey, but a manganiferous variety (thulite) is
pink and pleochroic. The hardness is 6-5 and the sp.gr. 3-3.
Zoisite is characteristically a product of Dynamic metamor-
phism and is an essential constituent of saussurite, the^zoisite of
this aggregate being derived from the anorthlte molecule of
plagioclase. It is chiefly developed in crystalline schists.
Thulite occurs with blue vesuvianite at Telemarken in Norway
and with withamite gives the red colour to the well known porfido
rosso antico or hornblencle-porphyrite of Djebel Dokhan in Egypt.
Zoisite has not been prepared synthetically. (C. E. T.)
ZOLA, EMILE EDOUARD CHARLES ANTOINE
(1840-1902), French novelist, was born in Paris on April 2,
1840, his father being an engineer, part Italian and part Greek,
and his mother a Frenchwoman. The father seems to have been
an energetic, visionary man, who, dying while his only son was a
little lad, left to his family no better provision than a lawsuit
against the municipality of the town of Aix. It was at Aix,
which figures as Plassans in so many of his novels, that the boy
received the first part of his education. Thence he proceeded,
in 1858, to Paris. His first book, Conies a Ninon, appeared
on Oct. 24, 1864, and attracted some attention, and in Jan. 1866
he determined to abandon clerking and take to literature. Vigorous
and aggressive as a critic, his articles on literature and art in
Villemessant's paper L'£vdnement created a good deal of interest.
So did the gruesome but powerful novel, Therese Raquin (1867).
Meanwhile, with characteristic energy, Zola was projecting some-
thing more important: the creation of a world of his own, like
that of Balzac's Com^die Humaine — the history of a family in
its various ramifications during the Second Empire. The history
of this family, the Rougon-Macquart, was to be told in a series
of novels containing a scientific study of heredity — science was
always Zola's ignis fatuus — and a picture of French life and
society. The first novel of the series, La Fortune des Rougon,
appeared in book form at the end of 1871. It was followed by
La Curee (1874), Le Venire de Paris (1874), La Conquete de
Plassans (1875), La Fwte de I'Abbe Moiirei (1875), Son Excel-
lence Eugene Rougon (1876) — all books unquestionably of im-
mense ability, and in a measure successful, but not great popular
successes. Then came L'Assommoir (1878?), the epic of drink,
and the author's fortune was made. Edition followed edition. He
became the most discussed, the most read, the most bought
novelist in France — the sale of L'Assommoir being even exceeded
by that of Nana (1880) and Le Debacle (1892). From the
Fortune des Rougon to the Docteur Pascal (1893) there are some
20 novels in the Rougon-Macquart series, the second half of
which includes the powerful novels Germinal (1885) and La Terre
(1888). In 1888 Zola departed from his usual vein in the idyllic
story of Le Reve. Zola also wrote a series of three romances
on cities, Lourdes, Rome, Paris (1894-98), novels on the "gospels"
ZOLLVEREIN— ZONING
961
of population (Ficonditl) and work (Travail), a volume of plays,
and several volumes of criticism.
Zola played a very important part in the Dreyfus affair, which
convulsed French politics and social life at the end of the igth
century. At an early stage he came to the conclusion that Dreyfus
was the innocent victim of a nefarious conspiracy, and on Jan.
13, 1898, with his usual intrepidity, he published in the Aurore
newspaper, in the form of a letter beginning with the words
Jf accuse, a terrible denunciation of all those who had had a hand
in hounding down that unfortunate officer. Zola's object was a
prosecution for libel, and a judicial inquiry into the whole affaire,
and at the trial, which took place in Paris in February, a fierce
flood of light was thrown on the case. The chiefs of the army
put forth all their power, and Zola was condemned. He appealed.
On April 2, the Cour de Cassation quashed the proceedings. A
second trial took place at Versailles, on July 18, and without
awaiting the result Zola, by the advice of his counsel and friends,
and for reasons of legal strategy, abruptly left France and took
refuge in England. Here he remained in hiding, writing Fecondite,
till June 4, 1899, when, immediately on 'hearing that there was to
be a revision of the first Dreyfus trial, he returned to Paris.
On the morning of Sept. 29, 1902, Zola was found dead in the
bedroom of his Paris house, having been accidentally asphyxiated
by the fumes from a defective flue. He received a public funeral,
at which Captain Dreyfus was present. Anatole France delivered
an impassioned oration at the grave. At the time of his death
Zola had just completed a novel, Verite, dealing with the incidents
of the Dreyfus trial. A sequel, Justice, had been planned, but not
executed. Zola's literary position would have more than quali-
fied him for the French Academy. He was several times a candi-
date in vain. (F. T. M.)
See £mile Zola, Novelist- and Reformer (1904), giving a full account
of his life and work, by E. A. Vizctclly, who translated and edited
many of his works in English ; also P. Alexis, fimile Zola, Notes d'un
ami (1882); F. Brunetierc, Le Roman Naturaliste (1883); Journal
des Goncourt (1888-92) vols. iii., v. and vi.; E. Hennequin, Quelques
Ecrivains frangais (1890) ; R. H. Shcrard, fimilc Zola: a biographical
and critical study (1903) ; A. Laportc, £mile Zola, Vhomme et I'&uvre
(1894) with a bibliography. L. Dcffoux and E. Zavie, Le Groupe de
Medan, £mile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, etc. (1920) ; R. Oehert, E.
Zola als Theaterdichter (ig2o) ; E. Rostand, Deux Romanciers de
Provence: H. d,'Urfe et E. Zola (1921) ; E. A. A. L. Seilliere, E. Zola
(1923) ; A. Baillot, E. Zulu, Thomme, le penseur, le. critique (1924) ;
M. Josephson, Zola and his Time (1929). For the proceedings against
Zola see Le Proces Zola (2 vols., 1898).
ZOLLVEREIN, a certain form of Customs Union, but de-
noting specially the system in force among the German slates
between 1819 and 1871 (see CUSTOMS UNION, TARIFF, and
GERMANY: History). The name is the Ger. Zoll, toll, customs,
and Verein, union.
ZONARAS, JOANNES (JOHN), Byzantine chronicler and
theologian, flourished at Constantinople in the i2th century. Under
Alexius I. Comnenus he held important official positions, but in
the succeeding reign he retired to Hagia Glykeria (one of the
Princes' Islands), where he reluctantly yielded to the pressure of
his friends to compose a profane history. This work, 'ETriro/^
'Icrropuoj/ (compendium of history), in eighteen books, extends
from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius (1118).
Zonaras is chiefly valuable for preserving in his work the first
twenty-one books of Dio Cassius (Zon. 7-8).
Complete edition in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxiv. cxxxv.
cxxxvii. Translation in Gary's Dio Cassius, Loeb Classical Library.
ZONE, EQUISIGNAL, a term in radio denoting the region
in which the two distinctive signals from an equisignal radio
beacon (q.v.) are received with equal intensity.
ZONING. The zoning of cities has had considerable influence
on their architecture and on the preservation of their amenity. As
practised in modern times it is a new movement and is still in
the experimental stage.
Zoning in Europe. — What has come to be called zoning in
English-speaking countries had its first inspiration and derived
its name from the building regulations applied in Central Europe
before 1909. Since 1875 German and Swedish cities have applied
zoning regulations to the zones around their built areas, with a
view to controlling the heights and densities of buildings in town
extensions. The effect of the German laws, and of the fairly rigid
control exercised under them, has been to procure a greater
spaciousness and uniformity of development than would have oc-
curred under ordinary building regulations.
When the Town Planning Act was passed in England in 1909,
it had for its general object the control of the development of land
likely to be used for building purposes. In so far as it provided
for regulation of heights, densities and uses of buildings it related
primarily and almost solely to entirely new building development.
The fact that it is so limited has prevented it from being an effec-
tive instrument in procuring architectural control. But part of its
object is to provide such control over new developments. Section
59 (2) in the original Act of 1909 was as follows:
''Property shall not be deemed to be injuriously affected by reason
of the making of any provisions inserted in a town planning scheme,
which, with a view to securing the amenity of the area included in
the scheme or any part thereof, prescribe the space about buildings or
limit the number of buildings to be erected, or prescribe the height or
character of buildings, and which the Ministry of Health, having regard
to the nature and situation of the land affected by the provisions,
consider reasonable for the purpose."
It is noteworthy that the purpose for which the restrictions
in an English scheme are imposed is to secure the "amenity of the
area." For the reason given, the law has not influenced the re-
development of built-upon areas. Being primarily intended to
regulate residential buildings it has had little effect also on the
architecture of other buildings. It has introduced into England a
spacious type of development for the cottages of the working
classes. On the whole, it has improved cottage architecture *and
introduced a better arrangement and grouping of buildings.
In town planning schemes public authorities may take power to
approve or disapprove the elevation of, and the materials to be
used in, buildings. For the purpose of exercising this power the
authority must constitute a special advisory committee of those
members of which one shall be an architect nominated by the
Royal Institute of British Architects.
Zoning in the United States. — Contrary to what has hap-
pened in England zoning in the United States has been too
limited in its application to undeveloped areas and has been
chiefly applied to areas already built upon.
In New York zoning has exercised a greater influence on archi-
tecture than in any other city. New York was the first city in
the western continent to impose zoning regulations. Its Zoning
Resolution was passed in 1916 and had for its object the restric-
tion of the height and bulk of buildings and the regulation of
their uses. It did not directly attack the problem of density,
except by restricting height and bulk.
New York was zoned just when the steel frame and the elevator
had begun to have a profound influence on building and archi-
tecture (Q.V.). During the 12 years since the passing of the Act
(1916-28) enormous changes have taken place in the city, and
an extensive rebuilding programme has been carried out.
The zoning law in New York is intended to relieve street con-
gestion, for, other things being equal, it is obvious that such
congestion is directly proportionate to the bulk of the buildings
flanking the street. The Paris law limits the straight vertical
height to 20 metres; above that, additional storeys must remain
within the arc of a circle of fixed radius. The London regulations
permit of 80 ft. vertical height and two supplementary storeys
which must remain behind a sloping line of 75 deg. from the
horizontal. In New York the vertical height is now determined
by the width of the street, but varies according to the "zone"
or district in which the given property is situated. These districts
are classified as follows: "One-time" districts, "one-and-one-half-
time" districts, "two-time" districts and "two-and-one-half-time"
districts. That is to say, the straight^ertical height may be equal
to the width of the street in residence zones; it may be one-and-
one-half times the width of the street in certain residence and
business zones; twice the width in the principal business centres
and two-and-one-half times in the Wall Street financial section.
For the purpose of the law, no street is considered less than 50 ft.
or more than 100 ft. wide. Additional storeys above the vertical
962
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
height must remain back of a line drawn from the centre of the
street through a point on the top front of the vertical height.
The salient feature of New York is its towers, and it was con-
sidered wise, in framing the zoning law, to permit the erection
of a tower, which may rise to an indefinite height (limited only
by structural possibilities and economic conditions), upon 25%
of the total lot area. This has resulted in a very surprising and
interesting form of architecture (q.v.). In Paris certain buildings
of 'a monumental nature, either religious or governmental, may
exceed the height limit. In London, towers purely for architectural
embellishment but not for human occupancy, may pass the legal
height. In New York no restriction is made as to occupancy of
the tower provided that the building remains within the given
"envelope." Furthermore, the so-called "dormer" permit allows
certain portions of the front of each building to rise slightly in
excess of the maximum vertical height to give variety of outline.
Above this the buildings are usually stepped back, forming a pyr-
amidal series of terraces which vie with the storeyed magnificence
of the hanging gardens of Babylon. The law has produced two
other interesting results: first, the virtual elimination of interior
light courts, these being cut in the side in order to preserve a base
for the central tower; second, the tendency to assemble larger and
larger plottage so that the 25% tower will be large enough to war-
rant construction of a great number of tower storeys.
The example of New York has been followed in hundreds of
American cities, where no part of city planning has been so popu-
lar as zoning. No effect of zoning has impressed itself on the
public consciousness more than its effect on the architectural
treatment of buildings.
The important needs in connection with the further develop-
ment of zoning, as a means of promoting art and amenity in con-
nection with city building, whether directly owing to extended
power under restrictive legislation, or indirectly by further use
of existing powers, are: the inclusion of zoning as part of com-
prehensive city plans so that it will deal constructively with build-
ing expansion and reconstruction of complete urban areas com-
prising all parts of a city or a region; the further extension of
zoning in regard to restriction of density, parallel with further
strengthening of provisions in regard to heights and uses, so as
to secure more light and air in buildings, a better display of
buildings and less congestion on adjacent streets than at present.
Further restriction on height should be based on the principle that
the primacy need is to obtain adequate spaces about buildings of
all heights, and not to obtain lower buildings as an object in itself.
(See also TOWN PLANNING.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. B. Williams, Law of City Planning and Zoning
(New York, 1927); Ministry of Health,* London, Town Planning—
Model Clauses (1928) ; Report of Committee on City Plan (New
York, 1928). (T. AD.)
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS (ZOOLOGICAL PARKS), insti-
tutions in which wild animals are kept in captivity. The first
zoological garden of which we have information was founded in
China by the first emperor of the Ch6u dynasty, who reigned
about 1 100 B.C. This was called the "Intelligence Park," and ap-
pears to have had a scientific and educational object. The ancient
Greeks and Romans kept in captivity large numbers of leopards,
lions, bears, elephants, antelopes, giraffes, camels, rhinoceroses and
hippopotami, as well as ostriches and crocodiles, but these were
destined for slaughter at the gladiatorial shows. In later times
royal persons and great feudal magnates frequently kept menag-
eries of wild animals, aviaries and aquaria, and it is from these
that the modern public gardens have taken their origin. Henry
I. (1100-35) established a menagerie at Woodstock, Oxfordshire,
England. This was transferred to the Tower of London appar-
ently in the reign of Henry III., and kept up there until at least
1828. Philip VI. had a menagerie in the Louvre at Paris in 1333,
Charles V. maintained collections at Conflans, Tournelles and in
Paris, and Louis XI. formed a menagerie at Plessis les Tours in
Touraine, which after his death was re-established at the Louvre
in Paris and enlarged by collections obtained in North Africa. It
was destroyed by Henry III. Henry IV. had a small collection,
which included an elephant. Louis XIII. kept some animals at
Versailles, whilst his son Louis XIV. founded the famous "M£nag*
erie du Pare" at Versailles, which received many animals from
Cairo, was maintained for over a century, and furnished much
valuable material to French naturalists and anatomists. It grad-
ually decayed, however, and was almost extinguished by the mob
in 1789. In 1793, the Paris museum of natural history was re-
established by law, and Button's idea of attaching to it a menag-
erie was carried out; the latter, as the collection in the Jardin
des Plantes, still survives. In Germany the elector Augustus I.
founded a menagerie at Dresden in 1554. In the New World, ac-
cording to Prescott, King Nezahualcoyotl had zoological gardens
at Tezcuco in Mexico in the middle of the i5th century, whilst
in the next century Cortes found aviaries and fishponds at Izta-
palapan, and Montezuma II., emperor of Mexico in the beginning
of the 1 6th century, maintained large collections of animals.
Africa. — The zoological gardens at Giza, Cairo, a government
institution, are beautifully laid out and particularly rich in African
animals. The Khartum zoological gardens are free to the public
and are under the control of the municipality, but the collection
of animals is under the game preservation department. The Trans-
vaal zoological gardens at Pretoria are a government institution.
America, North.— The zoological park at Bronx Borough,
New York, opened in 1899, is one of the largest in the world. It
is controlled by the Zoological Society of New York, with repre-
sentatives of the municipality of the City of New York, is
financed largely out of municipal funds, and is open free to the
public five days a week. The park occupies nearty 3ooac. and con-
tains many fine buildings, but its special feature is a ser^s of spa-
cious enclosures for large herds of bison and deer. The na-
tional zoological park at Washington (D.C.), was founded by
Congress in 1889-90 "for the advancement of science and the in-
struction and recreation of the people." The site was purchased
by the United States Government, and all the expenses come from
national funds, the management being vested in the Smithsonian
Institution. The park consists of about 26sac. of undulating
land with natural woods and rocks, traversed by a gorge cut by
Rock Creek, a small tributary of the Potomac. The zoological
gardens in Fairmount park, Philadelphia, resemble the gardens of
the Zoological Society of London, on which they were modelled.
They are controlled by the Zoological Society of Philadelphia,
founded in 1859. There are many other good collections in the
United States and several in Canada.
America, South. — The zoological gardens at Buenos Aires are
supported by the municipality. At Para, Brazil, is a good collec-
tion attached to the Museum Goeldi, and there arc less important
collections at Rio de Janeiro, Lima and Bahia.
Asia. — There are many small collections in different parts of
Asia, but the only garden of great interest is at Alipore, Calcutta,
supported chiefly by gate-money and a donation from the Govern-
ment, and managed by an honorary committee. It was established
in 1875 by the government of Bengal.
Australia and New Zealand. — There are zoological gardens
at Melbourne (founded 1857), Adelaide, Sydney and Perth, and
small gardens at Wellington, New Zealand.
Europe* — There are a large number of zoological gardens in
Europe, but those of real importance are not numerous. The
garden and large menagerie of the Royal Zoological Society of
Antwerp were founded in 1843, anc^ have been well maintained.
The gardens of the Zoological Society of London in Regent's park,
founded in 1826, extend to only about 35ac,, but the collec-
tion, if species and rare animals be considered rather than the
number of individuals, has always been the finest in existence.
It has been a pioneer in modern methods, such as radiant heat,
artificial sunlight and adequate ventilation. It has purchased a
property of nearly 5ooac. in the Chilterns, 3om. from London,
to develop as an open air "Zoo." The Royal Zoological Society of
Ireland, founded in 1830, maintains a fine collection in the Phoenix
park at Dublin, and has been specially successful in the breed-
ing of lions. The Bath, Clifton and West of England Zoological
Society owns zoological gardens, well situated on the edge of
Clifton Downs. The new zoological park near Edinburgh occupies
an extensive and beautiful site and has specialized in open air dis-
plays. The Zoologisk Have at Copenhagen, founded in 1859, con-
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
963
tains a good collection, with a specially well-designed monkey-
house. At Lyons and at Marseilles in France there are beautifully
situated gardens with small collections, in each case owned and
controlled by the municipalities. In Paris there are two well-known
gardens. That of the Jardin des Plantes founded in 1793, is under
the control of the museum authorities. It is open free to the pub-
lic and generally contains a good collection of mammals. The
larger and better known Jardin d'Acclimatation in the Bois de
Boulogne is owned and conducted by a private company, but
since the World War has fallen into decay. Germany contained in
4914, 20 zoological gardens, most of which have recovered pros-
perity since the World War. The Tiergarten at Berlin was founded
in 1844, and belongs to a private company. The collection is
extremely good. The gardens at Cologne, founded 1860, con-
tain many interesting features, in particular one of the finest
aviaries in Europe. The gardens of the Zoological Society of Ham-
burg, founded in 1863, contain a fine collection and display many
ingenious devices for the housing of the animals. More recently
C. Hagenbeck constructed a remarkable zoological park at Stel-
lingen. The best-known gardens in Hoyafnd are at Amsterdam,
owned by the society "Natura Artis Magistra." In addition to
the menagerie, founded in 1838, the society owns a fine aquarium,
and supports a museum and library. The garden at Rotterdam is
also of high interest.
MANAGEMENT OF ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
Supply of Animals. — A certain number of wild animals are
born in captivity and from time to time the possession of a suc-
cessful stock enables one collection to supply many others. At
one time London was able to supply many Continental gardens
with giraffes, and Dublin and Antwerp have had great successes
with lions, whilst antelopes, sheep and cattle, deer and equine ani-
mals are always to be found breeding in one collection or another.
But wild animals have to be obtained to replenish the stock.
The conditions of success are that the wild creatures should be ob-
tained as young as possible, kept in their native localities until
they have become accustomed to man and to such food as they
can be given at their ultimate destinations.
Area and Site. — The areas occupied vary from about 3ooac.
(New York) to about Sac. (Clifton, England). In the larger gar-
dens, however, the greater part of the space is engaged by a few
extensive enclosures for numerous herds of herbivorous animals.
With regard to situation, the ideal would be to have the collection
placed in the open country, far from centres of population. But
as menageries are supported for the public and in most cases by
the public, such a site is impractical, and if the soil, drainage and
exposure are reasonably good, experience shows that a thriving
collection may be maintained near a large town.
Hygiene. — The first requisite is strict attention to cleanliness.
A collection of animals must be compared with public institutions
such as barracks or infirmaries. There must be an abundant sup-
ply of fresh air and of water, and a drainage system as complete
as possible. The buildings should be constructed on the most
modern hospital lines, with smooth walls and rounded corners, so
that complete cleansing and disinfecting is possible. Sunlight
is even more important than warmth and the London zoological
society has led the way in the use of glass transparent to ultra-
violet rays, and of powerful electric light when there is no sun.
New arrivals should be quarantined, until it is certain that they
are in a satisfactory condition of health.
Feeding. — The food must be as varied as possible, and special
attention should be given to the frequency and quantity of the
supply. It is important that no more should be supplied at a time
than is necessary, as most animals rapidly foul their food, and
except in a few special cases, wild animals are peculiarly liable
to the evil results of stale or putrid substances. Quantities can be
learned from experience, and from watching individual cases; fre-
quency varies within very wide limits, from reptiles which at most
may feed once a week and fast for long periods, to the smaller
insectivorous birds which require to be fed every two or three
hours, and which in the winter dark of northern latitudes must
be lighted up once or twice in the night to have the opportunity
of feeding. Knowledge of the habits of animals and experience
are the best guides. Many authorities attempt to restrain
visitors from feeding the animals in their charge, but such a re-
striction, even if practicable, is not all gain, for animals in captivity
are less inclined to mope, and are more intelligent and tamer, if
they become accustomed to regard visitors as pleasant sources of
tit-bits. (See also AVIARY, AQUARIUM.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. V. A. Peel, The Zoological Gardens of Europe
(1903); Bulletins oj the Zoological Society of New York; Annual
Reports of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington; G. Loiscl,
Rapport snr une mission sdentifique dans les jardins el etablissements
zoologiques publics et prives du Royaume-Uni, de la Belgique et des
Pays-Bas, et des £tats-Unis et du Canada, ct conclusions gtnerales
(1907-08) ; S. S. Flower, Notes on Zoological Collections Visited in
Europe in 1007; Reference List of the Zoological Gardens of the
World (1914). (P. C. M.)
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE is the system on
which names are given to the various divisions of the animal
kingdom. Those divisions range from the great branches or
Phyla, through Classes, Orders, and Families, with occasional
intermediate groupings, down to Genera and Species. For the
meanings of those terms, see ZOOLOGY. It can hardly be said that
any system governs the names of categories higher than Fami-
lies; essentially the existing system relates to genera and species.
The system arose in response to three needs: first, to have
a name intelligible in all countries; second, to fix on a single
name for each kind or species of animal, and thus to avoid the
confusion due either to the application of the same name to quite
different kinds, or to a multiplicity of names for a single kind
(there are 136 English names for the salmon and sea-trout);
third, to provide names for the many thousands of newly-discov-
ered species existing now or in past ages, and without a name
in any language.
The starting point may be said to have been the binary system
of nomenclature adopted by Linnaeus in the loth ed. of his
Sy sterna Naturae (1758). In order to meet difficulties, a code,
drawn up by H. E. Strickland and a committee, was accepted by
the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1842,
and held the field till 1881. Increasing difficulties then led to the
promulgation of other codes by various societies and individ-
uals, until the consequent diversity of practice forced the need
for agreement on the notice of the International Corjgress of
Zoology (Paris, 1889), and it requested R. Blanchard to report.
The difficulties not having been overcome, the third congress
(Leyden, 1895) appointed an international commission with
C. W. Stiles as secretary. This eventually submitted a unanimous
report at Berlin (1901); the rules were adopted and published
by the congress (1902). At subsequent congresses, down to that
in Budapest (1927), slight amendments have been made, and the
rules as they now stand have been separately issued by the
Biological Society of Washington. A series of "opinions" deliv-
ered by the Commission, interpreting the rules and applying them
to doubtful cases, has been published by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, Washington.
The basis of the rules is the law of priority: "The name of
a genus or species can only be that name under which it was first
designated." Nearly all the other rules lay down the conditions
to which the application of this law must conform. Since the
rigid application of the law would sometimes lead to confusion,
and since the Commissioners sometimes cannot agree whether an
author has conformed to the conditions or no, the congress has
decided that in rare cases the rules may be suspended and an
arbitrary decision given.
The chief difficulty has been that of deciding precisely for what
genus or species an author proposed a certain name. Only when
an author gives a differential diagnosis, and fixes on a single
specimen (holotype) as the standard of his new species, or a single
species (genotype) as the standard of his new genus, can subse-
quent workers be sure of his meaning. These practices are now
followed by every competent systematist, and the International
Congress has decided that no generic or specific name published
after Dec. 31, 1930, shall be valid unless it is accompanied by an
adequate descriptive diagnosis and, in the case of a generic name,
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
• [NOTOGAEA
by the designation of a well defined genotype.
Modern practice constructs family names by adding idae to
the root of the name of a contained genus, and sub-family names
by adding inae, e.g., Fclidae and Felinae from Felis. The name
of a subgenus is placed in () after the generic name, e.g., Vanessa
(Pyrameis) cardui. A subspecies is denoted by a second trivial
name added to the specific name, e.g., Ratio, esculenta marmorata.
Trivial names are written with a small initial letter; generic and
subgeneric, with a capital initial. A proper name following the
trivial name is that of the first proposer of that name; if his
name be in (), it indicates that by him the species was placed
in some other genus, e.g., Psittacus linnaei (Wagler).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The publications mentioned above deal with the
Rules. For indexes to names, see Zoological Record (1865, in progress,
London, Zool. Soc.) ; S. H. Scudder, Nomendator ZooloRtcus (1882-84,
U.S. Natl. Mus., Washington) ; C. D. Shcrborn, Index Animalium
(1902, in progress, Cambridge University and British Museum) ; No-
menclator Animalium Generum et Subgenerum (1926, in progress, Ber-
lin, Preuss. Akad. Wiss.). (F. A. B.)
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. Zoological distribution, also
known as zoo-geography, is the science dealing with the distribu-
tion of animals over the surface of the globe. It is concerned not
only with present conditions but also with those of former geo-
logical periods and with the mode in which the present arrange-
ment has arisen. The study of the present distribution of animals
may be of two extreme types, whose fields overlap. It is possible
to investigate the details of the occurrence of a species in a small
district, relating the facts discovered not only to the physical and
chemical conditions of its environment but also to its neighbours
both plant and animal. Such a study (still very undeveloped) is
called ecology (q.v. and see also DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS).
On the other hand, it has long been known that it is possible to
divide the land of the world into regions separated from other
land masses either entirely, as in the case of Australia and New
Zealand, or very nearly, as in the case of Africa. Such regions
may possess characteristic faunas and the investigation of the
nature of these and an elucidation of the resemblances and differ-
'enccs which they present, form the subject matter of that aspect
of zoological distribution dealt with here.
To those early naturalists who believed in the independent
creation of all the species of animals, their irregular distribution
over the world must either have presented no problem or have
been inexplicable. When, however, Charles Darwin showed that
the existing distribution received a ready explanation on the theory
of the evolutionary origin of species, and that its details might be
used to throw light on the mechanism that had brought about
evolution, the whole subject acquired a new interest and within a
few years the main lines of the accepted division of the world into
zoological regions were established by P. L. Sclater and his
followers.
The differences which separate the7 faunas of the zoological
regions are not dependent on climate or temperature. For ex-
ample, the mammal fauna of North America is, on the whole,
very similar to that of northern Asia and Europe, whilst the
faunas of Patagonia and Australia, which present a similar range
of climatic conditions, differ completely not only from those of
the northern areas but also from each other. Furthermore, the
mammal fauna of South America is a unit, although that con-
tinent stretches throughout the Tropics and into the Antarctic
regions of Tierra del Fuego. Thus the factors which have led to
the distribution of existing animals into regions are not discover-
able in present day conditions but must lie in the past, and they
can only be discovered by an investigation of the history of the
animals which composed the fauna, and of the changes in the
distribution of land and water, which have taken place during
geological time.
The zoo-geographical regions at present recognized are as
follows : —
1. Palaearctic, including Europe with Iceland; Asia, including
Japan, north of the Himalayas and of the Yangtze-kiang water-
shed; Persia and Asia west of the Indus; and Africa north of the
Sahara, including the Azores.
2. Ncarctic, comprising the whole of America north of Mexico.
Geological Time of Fauna
Tertiary or Cainozoic Period
Recent series
Pleistocene series
Pliocene series
Miocene scries
Oligocene series
Eocene series
Secondary or Mesozoic Pe-
riod
Cretaceous system
Jurassic system
Triassic system
Primary or Palaeozoic Period
Permian system
Carboniferous system
Devonian system
Silurian system
Ordovician system
Cambrian system
Archaean
These two regions are conveniently grouped as Holarctica.
To the south of Palaearctica lie two distinct regions, each a
peninsula projecting from the great northern land mass into the
wide seas of the southern hemisphere. They are:
3. The Ethiopian region, comprising the whole of Africa south
of the Sahara, with Madagascar and the Mascarine islands.
4. The Oriental region, comprising India and Ceylon, Siam and
southern China, and the Malay archipelago.
Bearing a somewhat similar relation to the Nevctic region is: —
5. The Neotropical region, comprising the whole ofc America
from Mexico southward, and the Antilles.
Finally more isolated than any is: —
6. The Australasian region, including Australia with Tasmania
and New Guinea, New Zealand and the islands of the Pacific.
Many minor modifications of these regions have been suggested
which, although they may be useful, especially in the study of
certain groups, are not of great significance. Max Weber has
grouped these six regions into three main realms, as follows: —
T. Arctogaea comprising Holarctica, the Ethiopian and Oriental
regions.
2. Neogaea, comprising the Neotropical region.
3. Notogaca, comprising the Australian region.
This arrangement has the. merit of emphasizing the Distinctness
of the two last faunas. ,
NOTOGAEA AND NEOGAEA
Notogaea. — Notogaea is by far the most distinct of the three
realms. That portion of the area which alone is inhabited by mam-
mals (New Guinea, Australia and Tasmania) is the home of the
only monotremes which are known; Proechidna restricted to New
Guinea, and Echidna and Ornithorhynchus in the other two, areas.
The great bulk of the other mammals are marsupials belonging to
the two great divisions Polyprotodonta and Diprotodonta. Poly-
protodont marsupials still exist in South America in several genera
of the Didelphidae, and one species (the Virginian opossum) ex-
tends northwards into Canada. The other group, the Diprotodonta,
have no representatives outside Notogaea. Coenolestes from South
America, which was at first regarded as a diprotodont, has now
been shown by a complete investigation of its anatomy to be
nothing but a peculiarly modified didelphid. The only eutherian
mammals found in Notogaea are rodents and bats, together with a
pig in New Guinea, the native dog or dingo in Australia, and man
himself throughout the realm. There is every reason to believe
that the pig and dog were introduced by man and may be disre-
garded in considering the earlier history of the region. The bats
present no special features; some of them indeed belong to forms
with a world-wide range. The rodents on the other hand are often
of peculiar genera not found elsewhere, but are all members of
the Muridae, which have unusual powers of dispersal.
Thus Notogaea so far as its mammal fauna is concerned is re-
markable not only for the presence of many animals entirely
peculiar to it, but also by the absente of all representation of the
higher eutherian orders. There are no insectivores, carnivores,
edentates, ungulates or primates, orders whose members are to be
NOTOGAEA]
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
965
found in all other regions. The absence of these forms receives a
simple and complete explanation if Notogaea has been separated
from all other land-masses since a period which preceded the
evolutionary development of these orders, or indeed of the basal
eutherian stem from which they arose. Existing palaeontological
evidence suggests that this period cannot have been later than
the end of the Cretaceous times, and may be pushed back at least
as far as the end of the Lower Cretaceous if certain Mongolian
discoveries be correctly interpreted.
The Australian polyprotodonts form a series, the more primitive
of which are small mammals of insectivorous and commonly
FlG. 1. — ZOO-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD
arboreal habits. These forms have their headquarters in Australia,
in which the majority of forms are found, but some of them ex-
tend on into New Guinea and into the Aru and neighbouring
islands. From this primitive group have arisen forms (Myrme-
cabins) , which have very small teeth and are committed to a diet
of ants; others (the bandicoots), which are in part herbivorous,
although they certainly also eat animal food.- One of them is a little
hopping animal, superficially recalling the jerboas. On the other
hand there is a series of forms which become progressively more
and more highly specialized for a carnivorous diet, resulting
finally in Thylacinus, an animal as large as the collie-dog, ca-
pable of killing and eating sheep. Other representatives of the
Polyprotodonta occur in South America and as far north as Canada,
but these belong to two living families, one which is closely similar
to the native cats of Australia, whilst the other represents an
aberrant side-branch of South American origin, which parallels
superficially the Diprotodonta. During early Tertiary times, opos-
sums similar to those now living in North America ranged over
North America and Europe, and a perfectly typical member of
the same family is known from the Upper Cretaceous rocks of the
United States. Thus the possession in common of Polyprotodonta
by Arctogaca and Neogaea on the one hand and Notogaea on
the other, does not necessarily imply that these realms were con-
nected with one another after the end of the Cretaceous. The
fact that the polyprotodonts of Notogaea have radiated into such
diverse forms whilst those of Arctogaea are restricted essentially
to one type, may be explained by the absence of the competition
of eutherian mammals in one case, and its presence in the other.
The diprotodont marsupials are peculiar to Notogaea. The
diprotodonts as a group are herbivorous. The most primitive
family, that of the phalangers, contains many animals all essen-
tially arboreal in habit, varying in size from that of a mouse to
that of a cat. They take in Australia much the same place that is
occupied by the squirrels and monkeys in other parts of the world,
and they often present, as in the development of a flying or rather
gliding habit, a remarkable parallel to certain squirrels and to the
flying "lemur" Galeopithecus. One interesting derivative of the
phalangers is the koala or native bear, a large animal which lives
entirely on the leaves of the eucalyptus trees. From the same
group has arisen the wombat, a large, very powerfully-built, bur-
rowing animal, strictly herbivorous in habit, with a remarkable
dentition paralleling that of the larger rodents such as the capy-
bara, in its adaptations. Finally the kangaroos and their allies
form a very distinct group of terrestrial animals fitted by their
elongated hind-legs and long tail for a progression by a series of
jumps. Their dentition is so arranged as to allow them to crop
grass as do the artiodactyls and as they occur in large numbers in
relatively open country, they are similar to this group in their
general diet and habits.
Thus the Australian marsupials have experienced an adaptive
radiation which has fitted them for most of the modes of life
known amongst eutherian mammals and the fact that no diproto-
dont, either living or extinct, is known from any other part of
the world, is a clear indication that the evolution of the group took
place in Australia and that it was made possible by the absence
of the competition of higher mammals.
It should be possible to establish the truth of the above view
by studies of the Australian fossil marsupials. At present, how-
ever, except for a single specimen, which is clearly a diprotodont
marsupial, and probably a phalanger, from the Upper Miocene
of Wynyard, Tasmania, no prc-Pleistocene mammals are known.
The Pleistocene mammals include an interesting human skull
presenting the characters of the living Australian aborigines, the
dingo, some rodents of Australian type and a very large series of
marsupials, including representatives of extinct animals. It is an
interesting feature that in Pleistocene time the large carnivorous
Tasmanian wolf and Tasrnanian devil, at present restricted to
Tasmania, occurred widely spread in Australia, and it is customary
to attribute their disappearance on that continent to competition
with the dingo, that animal having never reached Tasmania.
The large carnivorous marsupial, Thylacoleo found in Pleisto-
cene deposits all over Australia is remarkable in that it is re-
lated not to the carnivorous polyprotodonts but to the otherwise
exclusively herbivorous diprotodonts. Of this order several gi-
gantic forms are found, a kangaroo, Macropus titan, perhaps 12
feet in height, Diprotodon and its allies, not closely related to any
living forms, but as large and heavily built as a rhinoceros, and
the giant wombat Phascohnns, which attained a similar size. Thus
what little is known of their fossil history emphasizes still more
the peculiarity of the Australian marsupials.
It is clear that man did not arise in Australia and that he is
as certainly an immigrant into that continent as he is in those
Pacific islands, where the date and manners of his coining are re-
corded. .From the occurrence of a fossil human skull in the
Pleistocene of Queensland, we know that the human immigration
took place as early as Pleistocene times, and from the fact that
this skull belongs to the species Homo sapiens, which is not known
in the early or indeed the middle Pleistocene, it follows that
the human immigration was in late Pleistocene times.
With the exception of a rat, of the genus Mus, the Australian
rodents belong to genera not found elsewhere, but all are mem-
bers of the family Muridae, which is not geologically ancient.
It is certain that they represent the result of the evolution in situ
of some immigrant form, but it is impossible to determine the
time at which their introduction took place: it is, however, ex-
ceedingly unlikely that it was earlier than the Pliocene. The ab-
sence of larger eutherian mammals shows that they cannot have
entered over a continuous land-bridge but must have crossed by
some other mode not available to larger forms. On the other
hand, one at any rate, of the diprotodont marsupials of Australian
origin has migrated out of the region, Phalanger itself being found
in Timor and even as far as Celebes. It also must have crossed
by some accidental mode of transport, for which, being arboreal
it is peculiarly well fitted.
Neogaea. — The mammal fauna of Neogaea, that is of South
America, is less peculiar than that of Notogaea. It contains no
monotremes but there are many living marsupials, the most
abundant being the opossums of the family Didelphidae; the
other forms, belonging to two genera of which Coenolestes is the
more important, have ancestors in the Miocene deposits of South
America and-were certainly evolved in that region and have never
spread beyond it. Except for certain shrews in Central America, no
insectivores are found on the South American continent, but one
peculiar family, the Solenodontidae, is restricted to certain islands
of the West Indies. It belongs to the sub-order Zalambdodonta,
which has living representatives in Africa and Madagascar and
966
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
[MODERN ARCTOGAEA
has been found fossil in a perfectly typical form in the Basal
Eocene of North America. The most characteristic South Ameri-
can mammals are, however, the "edentates" belonging to the
group Xenarthra. These fall into three groups, the sloths, the
ant-eaters and the armadillos, none of which, except for the oc-
currence of an armadillo in Texas, is now living outside the region.
The rodents of South America, which are numerous, belong in
the main to peculiar families; the cavis, chinchillas and agoutis
are not found elsewhere, whilst another important group, the
octodonts are represented by forms both in South America and
in Africa. There are also representatives of the Myomorpha and
tree-porcupines. The Carnivora include dogs, bears and cats, to-
gether with many raccoons peculiar to the area. The perissodactyls
are represented only by the tapir, whilst the artiodactyls include
the peccaries and llamas which are peculiar -to South America,
together with certain deer related to North American forms. The
Primates are represented by the group Platyrrhina which is re-
stricted to South America, and by man.
It is clear from this account that the South American mammal
fauna is sharply marked off from all others by the possession of
groups of animals peculiar to it, but that it is linked with the
North American fauna by the presence of deer, bears, cats and
dogs. The condition of South America differs from that of
Australia in the increased number and variety of those animals
which may 'be regarded from the existence of their relatives else-
where, as immigrants into an area which has long been separated.
The abundance and varied nature of those mammal groups peculiar
to South America, such as the Xenarthra and Platyrrhina, would
suggest that these animals had undergone their evolution in isola-
tion as had the Australian marsupials. It is possible to test the
truth of this idea by an investigation of the fossil history of these
and other forms, and in South America, unlike Australia, it is
possible to do this not only for one horizon but for the whole
Tertiary period.
In Pleistocene times South America was inhabited by a fauna
far more varied in character and including much larger animals
than those now living there. Of the groups which appear to be
of South American origin, the Xenarthra were represented not
only by armadillos of modern type, but also by the giant armoured
glyptodonts and the enormous ground-sloths; each of these
groups being sufficiently varied to be divided into three families.
The rodents are of the same types as those now living and the
Platyrrhina are present. Extinct groups of hoofed mammals are
found, falling within the Notoungulata and including most varied
animals. There are the following sub-orders: Typotheria, the
Pleistocene form being an animal about as large as a pig with
a gnawing dentition; and Toxodontia, with a skull two feet in
length and a dentition not unlike that of the typotheres ; and the
order Litopterna with one Pleistocene form about as large as a
camel but possibly of aquatic habits.
Living alongside these autochthonus animals were carnivores
including not only the ancestors of those forms which still exist
but also a sabre-toothed tiger, Smilodon; and a bear, Arctotherium,
now extinct. The perissodactyls include horses, in part belonging
to the modern genus Equns, and in part to four extinct genera.
Proboscidea are represented by several forms less advanced in
structure than true elephants and commonly referred to as masto-
dons.
Thus except that it is richer both in the number of groups rep-
resented and in the size of the individuals, the Pleistocene fauna
of South America resembles the recent one in that it contains a
mixture of mammals which had originated in situ with immigrants
from the north. When we pass backwards to Miocene times, as
represented in the Santa Cruz beds, we find an even fuller and
more varied representation of the true South American groups,
and a complete absence of those which we had assumed to be
immigrants. It is natural to believe that the continents of North
and South America became connected by a land-ridge sometime
between the Miocene and the Pleistocene, and the truth of this
conclusion is established by the fact that giant ground sloths
and glyptodonts first appear in the North American fauna in
Pliocene times.
The mammal fauna of the Miocene of South America contains
the following elements. The marsupials include not only opossums
essentially of modern type, but also a variety of carnivorous
animals closely similar to the Tasmanian wolf, but some like
Borkyaem, greatly exceeding that animal in size. Relatives of
the living Coenolestes occur. There is an animal Necrolestes,
which is supposed to be an insectivore related to the Zalambdo-
dont golden moles of South Africa. All the rodents, which are
extremely numerous and varied, belong to the South American
families of tree-porcupines, cavies, chinchillas and agouties. There
are a few unmistakable platyrrhine monkeys. Amongst the eden-
tates, no representatives of the living sloths and ant-eaters have
been found, probably because these animals are restricted to
tropical forests and the known mammal fauna is that of the more
open, less well watered and considerably colder plain. The
armadillos are very varied; the glyptodonts, small compared with
their descendants of Pleistocene times, to some extent bridge the
gap between the normal armadillos from which they sprang and
the later glyptodonts. The ground-sloths, of relatively small Size,
include the ancestors oP the later forms and the three families
into which these creatures are divided can already be recognized.
The Notoungulata include an immense range of animals adapted
to very varied habits. The Typotheria, then small forms which
filled the place occupied at present by rabbits, fall into three dis-
tinct families, whilst the Toxodontia include an abundance of
forms smaller than their Pleistocene successors. VThe Entelonychia
include a remarkable animal, Homalodontotherium, vtfth stilted
fore-legs and digging claws. The Litopterna, another extinct
family represented by a single type in Pleistocene times included
forms which parallel the horses in the reduction of the toes in
foot and hand to one. Yet another extinct order, Astrapotheria,
includes gigantic creatures unlike any other forms.
This then is the true fauna of Neogaea, made up entirely of
animals which arose within the area and whose evolutionary history
can to some extent be traced in still earlier Tertiary horizons. It
includes three groups which have been believed to have had
relatives in other parts of the world. These are Necrolestes,
originally described as an insectivore, but really of uncertain
affinities. Coenolestes and its allies supposed to be diprotodont
marsupials but which are certainly aberrant didelphids; and the
carnivorous marsupials such as Borhyaena, which present a re-
markable resemblance to the Tasmanian wolf. It has been held
by many writers that these forms are indeed closely allied and
that their occurrence in such widely separated localities is to be
explained by the former existence of a practicable land-bridge
over the Antarctic continent. Additional evidence in support of
this view will be discussed at a later stage in this article, but it
seems on the whole most probable that Borhyaena represents the
result of a course of evolution starting from a didelphid which
has been remarkably parallel to the independent process which
produced Thylacmns from a dasyurid stock.
MODERN ARCTOGAEA
The remaining realm, Arctogaea, is much more extensive and
less compact than those which we have considered, and it is most
convenient to begin its discussion by a consideration of the exist-
ing distribution of animals in the various regions of which it is
composed.
Nearctic Regions-Covering as it does the whole of North
America except the lowlands of Mexico, the Nearctic region ex-
hibits extreme variations in geographical qualities. In the extreme
north there is a completely snow-covered arctic area, to the south
of which there is a continuous belt of coniferous forest extending
from Alaska to New England. In the extreme south lies the
Sonoran region which has a warm temperate climate and is
largely composed of great tree-less plains, although at the mouth
of the Mississippi it includes much forest, and in California
passes into deserts where the day temperature may be extraor-
dinarily high, reaching in the Mohave desert 120° F.
In the Arctic zone there are polar bears, arctic foxes, musk
oxen, reindeer, lemmings and arctic hares, all of these animals
extending round the North Pole over the northern lands of Asia
MODERN ARCTOGAEAJ
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
967
and Europe as well as those of North America.
The wooded region includes shrews and the American moles
among insectivores ; the Canadian porcupine, chipmunks, musk-
rats, woodchucks, lemmings, beavers and tail-less hares amongst
rodents. The carnivores are represented by pumas and lynx, the
grey wolf, foxes, bears, otters, skunks, raccoons, wolverines,
marten, weasels and the American badger. The artiodactyls are
MIOCENE
PLIOCENE
PLEISTOCENE
RECENT
FlG. 2. — MAP ILLUSTRATING THE SPREAD OF THE CAMELIDAE FROM
THEIR EVOLUTIONARY HOME IN NORTH AMERICA
deer of types found in Asia and in Europe — the wapiti, moose
and woodland reindeer; mountain sheep, and the peculiar Rocky
Mountain^goat; bison extremely close to those of Europe, and in
certain regions the American deer.
The Sonoran region of the south includes opossums and arma-
dillos, which are immigrants from South America. American types
of shrews and moles represent the Insectivora. The rodents in-
clude prairie dogs, pocket gophers, cotton rats and kangaroo rats,
true and flying squirrels, whilst ground squirrels and rabbits occur
throughout the region. Amongst the Carnivora are pumas, lynx,
bears, American badgers, raccoons, skunks, coyotes, timber wolves,
etc. The characteristic artiodactyls are pronghorned antelopes,
plains bison, and American deer, together with peccaries. The
region is characterized by the absence of all perissodactyls, Pro-
boscidea, and Primates, of "edentates" and marsupials (other than
the few immigrants from South America), of antelopes, true pigs
and hippopotami.
Palaearctic Region.— The Palaearctic region greatly resembles
the Nearctic in the general character of its mammalian fauna.
It contains no monotremes, marsupials, edentates, hyracoids,
Proboscidea, or Primates over the greater part of its area, though
representatives of the last three groups occur in the Mediterranean
region, which forms a transition between the Palaearctic and the
Ethiopian regions. The following groups of animals are common
to Palaearctic and Nearctic areas: — hares and picas, beavers,
marmots, susliks, voles and lemmings; martens and weasels,
wolverines, brown bears, wolves and foxes; elk, reindeer, wapiti,
bison, big-horned sheep and musk ox either in identical or closely
allied species. On the other hand the Palaearctic area includes cer-
tain wild sheep, goats, saiga antelope, chamoix, many peculiar deer,
camels and true pigs, which are not known in America. It pos-
sesses also a number of horses and asses, though no other perisso-
dactyls. The desmans and some other insectivores are peculiar
to the Old World, as are the dormice, hamsters and jerboas
amongst the rodents, and the tiger and panda amongst the
carnivores.
Africa. — The fauna of Africa is on the whole strikingly unlike
that of the Palaearctic region, and the intervening Mediterranean
area does comparatively little to bridge the gap. The mammal
fauna is remarkable in that it includes a great variety of species
and probably a greater number of individuals of large animals
than that of any other region. There are no monotremes or mar-
supials. The aard-vark and the pangolin (Mams) are curious
forms, often classified as edentates, but probably not closely re-
lated to one another nor to the South American forms included in
that order. The Insectivora include amongst the Zalambdodonta
the golden moles and the Potamogalidae known from no other re-
gions of the world, and also the elephant shrews and the Macro-
scelididae, representative of a group, the Menotyphla, of which
the other forms are the tree-shrews of the Malayan sub-region.
There are many pe,cqliar rodents, jumping hares (Pedetes), mole-
rats (Bathyergidae), crested rats (Lophiomys) and cane-rats, to-
gether with many members of the Muridae and true hares. The
Carnivora include true dogs, the hunting dog (Lycaon) and the
long-eared fox (Otocyon), spotted hyaenas and the Manhaar
jackal (Protcles), etc. There are several mongooses and civets.
The cats are represented by the lion, leopard and cheetah in addi-
tion to very numerous smaller forms; ratels, zorillas and otters
represent the Mustelidac. There are elephants belonging to the
sub-order Loxodon, and hyraxes, of two genera which spread
northwards into Syria but are otherwise exclusively Ethiopian.
The perissodactyls are represented by zebras and wild asses, to-
gether with two species of rhinoceroses. Amongst the artiodactyls
there are found true pigs together with the forest and wart-hogs.
The hippopotamus is widely distributed throughout the region,
whilst a dwarf form is restricted to the west coast in the neigh-
bourhood of Liberia. The Giraffidae, including true giraffes and
okapis, are restricted to the region; the chevrotains of the genus
Dorcatherium are similar to those found in Madagascar. Deer are
completely absent but the hollow-horned ruminants include not
only buffaloes but also an extraordinary number of peculiar genera
of antelopes. Sheep and goats penetrate into the region only in
the mountains of Abyssinia.
The Primates of the Ethiopian region include lemurs belonging
to two groups, the Lemuriformes, which are restricted to Mada-
gascar and the Lorisiformes, which do not occur there but are
represented by the galagos and pottos, allied to animals living
in the Oriental region. Monkeys belonging to the two sub-families
of Cercopithecinae and Semnopithecinae occur throughout the
forested regions. The most characteristic members of the latter
are the typical baboons with short tails and elongated muzzles;
these animals are terrestrial in habit and usually live in large
tribes; they are at present confined to Africa and Arabia. The
dense forests of western equatorial Africa are the home of the
giant apes, the chimpanzee and gorilla which are restricted
to the region.
Oriental Region. — The Oriental region proper includes the
whole of India except the Punjab, Ceylon, Malaysia and the
Malay archipelago, including Java, Sumatra and ftorneo, but not
Celebes, which forms a transition with Notogaea. The region con-
tains no monotremes or marsupials. The "edentates" are repre-
sented by the single genus nwms. The Zalambdodont insectivores
are unrepresented, whilst the dilambdodonts include as special
forms Gymnura and Hydromys which are essentially spineless
hedgehogs, and a variety of shrews of the genus Soriculus. The
Menotyphla are represented by tree-shrews, Tupaia and Ptilocer-
cus. Galaeopithecus represents a distinct order. The rodents in-
clude amongst many forms of wide distribution certain endemic
genera of which the flying squirrels are perhaps the most striking.
The carnivores include lions, leopards, tigers, cheetahs and many
smaller cats; bears, wolves, foxes and dholes; striped hyaenas,
civets and mongooses. The perissodactyls include a single horse,
two species of rhinoceroses belonging to different genera to
those which occur in Africa, and a tapir restricted to the forests
of the Malayan sub-region. Pigs belonging to several species, and
chevrotains of the genus Tragultis are not found elsewhere. There
are certain deer belonging to genera peculiar to the region, a few
antelopes, the nilghai and black buck, also many and unusual
forms of oxen, the buffalo, the gaour, and in Celebes alone the
very primitive form, Anon. In the mountains the tahr (Cerorus),
gorals and takin are curious forms whose relatives are to be met
with in the Palaearctic region and possibly in the Rocky Mountain
goat of North America. Two groups of lemurs occur within the
area, the Lorisiformes, including the slender and slow lorises;
and the Tarsiformes with the single living genus, Tarsius. Semno-
pitheces and cercopitheces are widely distributed, though baboons
are absent from this region.
The gibbons (Hylobates) are found only in the Malayan sub-
region and the orang occurs in Borneo.
968
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
[ANCIENT ARCTOGAEA
ANCIENT ARCTOGAEA
Inspection of the foregoing li^ts which represent the existing
fauna of the various zoo-geographical regions, will show that
although they are distinct from one another and mingle only
incompletely in the transition regions, certain animals such as
the tapirs, may occur in widely separated areas not now connected
by a practicable land-bridge. The whole distribution of these
mammals is inexplicable on the basis of the present distribution
of land, water and mountain ranges; it can only be understood
in the light of the history of the evolution of mammals, now
known through the work of three generations of palaeontologists
in very considerable detail. Perhaps the simplest method of ex-
plaining this history is to take the mammalian orders in suc-
cession and discuss the time and place of origin of their more
important families and genera.
Monotremata. — It is clear that the monotremes are a group
of very ancient origin, probably Triassic, but that the1 existing
forms are highly specialised and closely related to one another.
The only fossil forms known are Pleistocene and belong to the
existing genera.
Marsupialia. — Polyprotodont marsupials of the family
Didelphidae occur in the Upper Cretaceous of North America.
Their remains are found in Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene of
North America and Europe and they have inhabited South America
throughout the Tertiary. The South American carnivorous bor-
hyaenids appear to be autochthonous, whilst the Australian dasy-
urids have no relatives outside Notogaea. The pseudo-diproto-
donts, the coenolestids, are represented in South America from
the Oligocene to the present day, and have no other relatives.
The true diprotodonts have always been Australian; Wynyardia
from the Middle Miocene of Tasmania is the oldest known form.
Edentata. — The group Edentata includes three completely
distinct orders which have probably no close relationship with
one another. These are the Xenarthra, the Tubulidentata and
the Pholidota. The earliest certainly known members of the
Xenarthra occur in the Colpodon beds of South America, per-
haps Oligocene, and in the Notostylops beds of the Eocene. Very
important is the occurrence in the Lower and Middle Eocene of
North America of animals (Metacheiromys) which are plausibly
regarded as aberrant armadillos without body armour. In the
Basal Eocene and in the Lower and Middle Eocene of West and
North America there occur animals, the Ganodonta, which may
be ancestral to the Gravigrada, the giant ground sloths. If these
relationships be substantiated it will follow that North and South
America were connected by a land-bridge at the beginning of
Tertiary time. It is none the less certain that the later evolution
of the Xenarthra took place in an isolated South America not
again connected with the northern hemisphere until Pliocene
times.
The Tubulidentata include only the single genus Orycterofws,
which on grounds of its comparative anatomy is probably of
ungulate derivation. Extinct species of this genus, or of one
closely allied, occur in Pontian (Lower Pliocene) rocks in Persia,
Samos, Greece and the south of France, but no earlier forms
are certainly known, a humerus from the Oligocene of France
being not really determinable.
The Pholidota, including the genus Manis, are represented as
fossils only by certain very doubtfully determined fragments
from the European Oligocene and Miocene.
Insectivora. — The order Insectivora includes a large number
of forms only distantly related to one another. The Menotyphla
at present represented by the elephant shrews of Africa and the
tree-shrews of Malay, probably also covers a number of forms
whose remains are found in Europe, Mongolia, and North America
in rocks of various ages from the Basal Eocene into the Oligocene.
It must be admitted however, that the evidence on which these
forms are referred to the group, is very slender.
The Zalambdodontidae including the solenodons of the Antilles,
Potamogale and the golden moles of Africa, together with the
Madagascan tenrecs include not only a perfectly characteristic
skull from the Basal Eocene of North America but other forms
extending as high as the Oligocene. Xenotherium from the Oligo-
cene of North America is supposed to be a golden mole, and
Necrolestes from the Upper Miocene of Patagonia has also
been placed in the neighbourhood of that group; in neither
case however is the systematic position quite certain. At any
rate the group is of such antiquity that its members have had
the whole Tertiary period in which to wander over the world
and may hence reach any part of it which has been connected
by land within that period.
The remaining insectivores, the Dilambdodonta, are first
found in the Lower Eocene; the living families are of com-
paratively modern introduction. The erinaceoids first appear in
the Oligocene of Europe, North America and Mongolia. The
shrews and moles have a similar distribution, whilst the primitive
family of lepticids is confined to the Oligocene and Eocene of
North America. Thus the Dilambdodonta appear originally to
have been of northern origin, occurring throughout the whole
of Arctogaea and entering the southern peninsulas at some late
period. Galeopithecus has perhaps ancestors in the Eocene of
North America and of Europe.
Carnivora. — In Basal Eocene times Europe and North Amer-
ica were inhabited by primitive carnivores belonging to sub-orders
the majority of which were not related to any living form. These
extinct groups, the Acreodi and pscudo-Creodi, are represented
in Europe, Mongolia, and North America in the Eocene and
Oligocene, and one or two members of the latter group reached
northern Africa in Oligocene times. One form at any rate lived
on in India to the Miocene but none ever reached South America.
The ancestors of the true carnivores, which fall within tke family
Miacidae, occur in Basal Eocene and Eocene rocks in Europe,
Mongolia and North America. From this family there arose a
whole scries of forms from which the civets (Viverridae), rac-
coons (Procyonidae), dogs (Canidae) and Mustelidae arose.
The Viverridae are represented in the Eocene of Europe al-
though not in that of America. They have a long history in the
F.uropean Tertiary and appear in the Upper Miocene and later
deposits of northern India: from a viverrid stock the Hyaenidae
seem to have originated. The first forms known, both of the
existing genus itself and of the intermediate genus Ictitherium,
occur in the Pontian Lower Pliocene fauna, which stretches with
minor modifications in its character from China to Portugal: no
member of the group reached America.
The mustelids first appear in exceedingly similar forms of
weasels in the Oligocene of Europe, Mongolia and North America.
During its later history the group appears to have been European
FlG. 3.— MAP ILLUSTRATING THE SPREAD OF THE PROBOSCIDEA FROM
THEIR ORIGINAL HOME IN AFRICA
and North American, the otters and badgers being Old World
and occurring in late Miocene or Pontian times in the Oriental
region.
The Canidae (dogs) have a long, very elaborate and still incom-
pletely understood evolutionary history both in the Old and
New Worlds. One interesting feature is an early separation of
the dhole-like dogs from the others, dating from Oligocene
times. The Oligocene forms of this group are entirely North
American, but a , single member at any rate seems to occur in
the Upper Miocene of Europe. The living representatives are
ANCIENT ARCTOGAEAJ
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
969
South American, African and Oriental, regions which were
certainly not inhabited by members of this group until late
Tertiary times.
The Procyonidae are first represented by Lower Miocene
forms in North America, and no members of the group appear
to have reached Mongolia or Europe. An apparent exception is
provided by two animals, Aelurus (the panda), now living in
the Himalaya, first known from Upper Pliocene deposits in west
Europe, and Aeluropus (the giant panda), living in Tibet, found
fossil in the Pleistocene of Burma. The ancestry and affinities
of these forms are however still uncertain.
The amphicyonine dogs, which are represented in the Oligo-
cene of North America, occur during Miocene times in both
Europe and North America; from this group the Ursidac (bears)
appear to have arisen, Ursawts being from the Middle Miocene
of France and possibly related forms occur in Europe, India,
China and North America. They first appear in South America
in Pleistocene times.
The Felidae (cats) belong to two independent groups, the
Machaerodontinae (sabre-tooth cats) ^and the Felinae (true
cats). Both families occur in the Oligocene of North America
and Europe, and their descendants are found in these localities at
every horizon between that and the Pleistocene. At this stage the
former became extinct, whilst, the latter has living representatives
in both sub-regions. The Middle Miocene of central Africa contains
the remains of a feline, and the Oriental region has been inhabited
by both sabre-tooth and true cats since Miocene times. Cats of
both type^ first appear in South America in Pliocene deposits. The
group appears to be of northern origin and to have colonised the
southern projections of Arctogaea during the Miocene at a time
when many migrations were taking place.
The Proboscidea first appear in Upper Eocene rocks in
Egypt as a small animal, Moeritherinm, which presents the first
traces of their characteristic specialisations. In the Lower Oli-
gocene of Egypt this animal is still found and is there accompanied
by its descendant Palaeomastodon. This genus gave origin to
the later Proboscidea, its immediate descendants being included
under the somewhat vague term "mastodon." Mastodons appear
in the Lower Miocene of North Africa, Baluchistan and Europe
and by Mid-Miocene times had reached China and North Amer-
ica. Subsequently in Upper Pliocene times mastodons of special
type migrated southwards and lived on into Pleistocene times in
South America.
The true elephants arose from the mastodons, and their earliest
representatives are found in the Pliocene of India. Thence they
migrated outwards, reaching Europe in the Pliocene and North
America in Pleistocene times, but they never reached South
America.
All the Holarctic members of the order died out at the end
of Pleistocene times, one of them, the mammoth, which became
adapted to Arctic conditions, living along the front of the great
ice-cap which covered northern Europe and North America,
until the ice finally disappeared, perhaps about 8000 B.C.
Hyracoidea. — The Lower Oligocene rocks of Egypt which
contain the remains of Palaeomastodon yield also several genera
of large hyracoids. The next representatives of this order are
very small animals found in Middle Miocene rocks near Victoria
Nyanza, and in South West Africa. In the Lower Pliocene Pon-
tian fauna of Samos and Pikermi near Athens, they are rarely
represented by a very large form. The existing animals are
Ethiopian, except for a few individuals found in Syria and
Arabia. The order thus appears to have arisen and carried out
its evolution in Africa. The Lower Oligocene of Egypt also
contains the remains of two orders, the Barytheria and Em-
brithopoda, no representatives of which are found elsewhere. Its
fauna is therefore very isolated and contains only certain creo-
donts and anthracotheres of northern origin.
Notoungulata. — This extinct order of herbivorous mammals
was until recently known only from South America, where it
exhibits a number of evolutionary series. Most of these series
can be traced upwards from the Eocene (Notostylops beds) of
Patagonia into the Miocene or Pleistocene, although it has to
be recognised that most of such series are only approximate.
A single lower jaw of a member of this order has been found
in the Lower Eocene of North America, and more 'abundant
remains of a different genus occur in rocks (the Gashato beds
in Mongolia) whose age is not certainly known but is probably
Basal Eocene. This animal appears to be the most ancient
member of the family yet discovered, and suggests that the
group was of northern origin, although its later evolution took
place entirely in Neogaea.
Condylarthra.— - The Basal Eocene of North America con-
tains numerous remains of small animals which appear to repre-
sent a primitive group from which other ungulates have arisen.
The descendants of some of these forms lived on into the Lower
Eocene and in a modified form, as the Amblypoda, even to the
Upper Eocene. These latter forms had their headquarters in
North America, but a single representative of them, of Upper
Eocene age, has been found in Mongolia. The Basal and Lower
Eocene of Europe contain a few animals which are probably
condylarthrans, and the earliest Eocene members of the Litop-
terna (a group restricted to South America) are essentially
identical in structure. Thus this group gives a further indication
of the uniformity of the Basal Eocene fauna throughout the
Palaearctic region, and of the probable derivation of the South
American fauna from members of this widespread group of
animals, which, becoming isolated about the beginning of Ter-
tiary time, and not being exposed to the competition of the
northern groups, carried on an adaptive radiation, leading to
the evolution of many very peculiar groups.
Perissodactyla. — Perissodactyls first appear at the bottom of
the Lower Eocene in Europe and North America as small ani-
mals, presenting a very uniform structure and including the
ancestors of the half-dozen families into which the group becomes
divided.
The first of these, the Equidae (horses), is represented in North
America at every stage of the Tertiary from the Lower Eocene
to the Pleistocene. The remains of these animals provide the
longest and most complete evolutionary series known; certain
peculiarities, however, show that it is not entirely genuine but is
built up from a series of forms constantly migrating into the
area from northern Asia. It is therefore very remarkable that
no remains of horses have been found below the Lower Pliocene
in Mongolia and China. Horses extremely similar to those of
North America, but forming a less complete evolutionary series,
are found in Lower, Middle and Upper Eocene rocks in western
Europe, and this region possesses the only representatives of
a small group, the palaeotheres, which, derived from a horse-
stock, reached a large size and very peculiar structure as early
as the Upper Eocene, becoming extinct in Lower Oligocene times.
No representatives of the true horses are found in Europe
in the Oligocene, and the single form, Anchitherium, which occurs
in the Middle and Upper Miocene, belongs to an aberrant group
of forest animals which is also represented from the Middle
Miocene to the Lower Pliocene in North America and in the
Lower Pliocene of China. Only in the Lower Pliocene Pontian
fauna from China to Portugal and in India, do we again meet
with typical members of the horse family in individuals o( the
genus Ilipparion. The living genus Equus, which is not a descen-
dant of Hipparion, appears suddenly in the Upper Pliocene of
India and western Europe. South America received its horses
in Pliocene times from North America, the peculiar genera of
that continent having arisen from a North American Pliocene
genus.
The Tapiridae have a probable ancestor in the Lower Eocene
of North America and unquestionably ancestral tapirs occur in
the Oligocene of Europe and North America. The group appears
to have survived in North America until Pleistocene times, reach-
ing South America after the two continents became connected
in the Pliocene. In Europe and Japan a Lower or Middle Miocene
form is known, and the living genus is represented in Upper
Miocene and Lower, Middle and Upper Pliocene deposits. A
gigantic form twice the size of the existing ones occurs in the
Pleistocene of China. No representatives of this family appear
970
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
[ANCIENT ARCTOGAEA
to have been discovered in the Tertiary rocks of India, but it
is clear that the existing Bornean form must have reached that
region from the Palaearctic region.
The lophiodonts, a group allied to the -tapirs but restricted
to Eocene and Oligocene times, include cursorial forms, and
occur not only in North America and Europe but also very
abundantly in Mongolia.
The rhinoceroses present a very complicated evolutionary
story not yet fully understood. One primitive group of animals,
the amynodonts, somewhat hippopotamus-like in their adapta-
tions, occur in Eocene and Oligocene rocks in Europe, Mongolia,
Burma and North America. The cursorial hydracodonts are
known only from the Eocene and Oligocene of North America
and Mongolia, whilst their associates of such genera as Dicerather-
ium occur both in Europe and North America. The evolution
of the more normal rhinoceroses is still so little understood that
it is impossible to discuss their migration; it is however, clear
that creatures essentially ancestral to the living Sumatran rhi-
noceroses occur widely spread in the Upper Pliocene and Pleisto-
cene of Europe, in association with forms allied to the African
rhinoceroses. The living Indian rhinoceros has apparently been
derived from forms present in that area in Pliocene times. One
remarkable extinct rhinoceros, Elasmotherium, found in the
Lower Pleistocene of Russia and Siberia, and very rarely in
Germany, has an ancestor in the Pliocene of China.
The Titanotheriidae is a small family of perissodactyls whose
first representatives are found at the top of the Lower Eocene
of North America. They underwent a very rapid evolution in that
continent, soon attaining a gigantic size and a very highly special-
ised character. In the Middle Eocene of Transylvania a single
lower jaw has been found. In the Upper Eocene of Mongolia
typical members of American genera of similar age are to be
found; fragments of very nearly allied animals have been de-
scribed from Upper Eocene rocks in Burma, and in the Lower
Oligocene of North America and Mongolia their remains are
abundant. A few fragments have occurred in presumably Oli-
gocene rocks in Eastern Europe, but none have been found in
the thoroughly explored deposits of this age in western Europe,
The only remaining group of perissodactyls, the chalicotheres,
has a possible ancestor in the Middle Eocene of the United States.
It then occurs in the Oligocene both of Europe and North Amer-
ica, is found in Middle Miocene times in India, and is a member
of the Pontian fauna of southern Europe. It occurs in the
Pleistocene of Central Africa after it had died out in other parts
of the world.
The history of the Perissodactyla is of very great importance
for the study of geographical distribution as so many fossil
forms of the group are well known that relationships existing
between the various members can be established with greater
certainty than is the case in any other order of mammals. Further-
more many of its members were strange looking animals whose
abundant and unmistakable fossil remains make the evidence
with regard to its distribution during past times of peculiar reli-
ability. Judging solely from the perissodactyls, it would appear
that in Lower Eocene times Europe, Mongolia and North Amer-
ica formed a continuous land-surface, presenting such a variety
of vegetation as to allow of the free passage of forest as well
as of plain animals. In Upper Eocene times Europe became
partially separated from North America, so that certain groups,
the palaeotheres and the titanotheres, which are swamp and
forest forms, were unable to migrate freely from one region to
the other. Horses however still occurred in very similar forms in
the two regions. In Oligocene times this differentiation of fauna
became exaggerated, the two areas becoming completely separated
from one another. The intense earth movements of Miocene
times so altered the geography of the world as to re-unite the
Palaearctic and Nearctic regions and many forms are common
to the two regions at this period. In the succeeding Lower Plio-
cene rhinoceroses are very abundant and varied in the Palaearctic
and Oriental regions, whilst they arc much more seldom found
in America. Oligocene Africa had no perissodactyls but by mid-
Miocene times a rhinoceros had reached that continent. South
America was colonized by horses and tapirs in Upper Pliocene
times, but no member of the group ever reached Notogaea.
Artiodactyla. — General discussion of the past distribution
of the artiodactyls is rendered difficult by the uncertainty which
exists as to the classification of that group.
In the Lower Eocene of North America and Europe occur the
most primitive forms, and their successors in the Middle and
FlG. 4.— MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF
THE GREAT APES
Upper Eocene are similar in these two region^, but in Upper
Eocene times certain special groups make their appearance which
are restricted to one or other of the two continents. In North
America the ancestors of the camels are found at this time and
the entirely American family of the oreodonts is represented.
In Europe the Anoplotheriidae take the place of these latter
forms, and the long-Jived family of the Anthracotheriidae appears
as small animals.
In the Oligocene the . descendants of all these groups are
found and a strange creature Elotheriwn, resembling a gigantic
long-legged pig, is represented by very similar forms from both
sides of the Atlantic. In this period both in Europe and North
America there are peccary-like creatures, and perhaps true pigs
in Europe: the anthracotheres reached America at this time but
only one of the very large number of European and Indian genera
ever reached that continent.
In the Lower Miocene in Europe and Baluchistan there was an
amazing variety of anthracotheres ranging from forms as small as
a sheep to great creatures as big as a hippopotamus. The last rep-
resentative of the anthracotheres occurs in rocks of probable
Upper Pliocene age in India and Tunis.
It is quite possible that the hippopotamus arose from the
anthracotheres. The animal is clearly of Oriental origin, reaching
north Africa and Europe in the Upper Pliocene, and being wide-
spread over Java, India, Europe, Africa and Madagascar in
Pleistocene times.
The camels carried out the whole of their evolution in North
America in which they are now extinct. They first left that
continent in Lower Pliocene times, a large member of the group
occurring in the Lower Pliocene of China, and in India in rocks
perhaps of somewhat later date. The llamas reached South
America in the Pliocene and a llama-like form survived in North
America into Pleistocene times.
The higher artiodactyls (Pecora) are represented in the Upper
Eocene of Europe and North America by small animals resem-
bling the existing tragulines. This group of primitive artiodactyls
includes one animal Archaeomeryx from the Upper Eocene of
Mongolia, which is the earliest known form capable of being
regarded as a direct ancestor for the Pccora. In Oligocene deposits
in Europe, and in Lower Miocene times in Europe and North
America occur the remains of animals which are more certainly
deer. Deer have a continuous representation in both continents
from that time to the present day but the earlier American forms
appear to be related to the Virginian .deer and its allies, the typical
genera being of Asiatic and European origin. The antelopes and
their allies first appear in the Lower Miocene of Europe, and the
group appears to be definitely of Old World origin. It is abun-
CONDITIONS OF DISTRIBUTION] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS
971
dantly represented in the Pontian fauna from China to Spain and
is now the most conspicuous element in the Ethiopian region.
Antelopes first appear in North America in the Upper Miocene,
but are extremely rare there. The history of the group is however
still uncertain. The true oxen are clearly derivatives of the
antelopes, and the earliest known and most primitive forms occur
in the Lower Pliocene of India: they reached Europe in Upper
Pliocene times and America only in the Pleistocene. The ancestry
of the goats and sheep is still uncertain but the first definite mem-
bers of the group appear in the Pliocene of India. In North
America from the Middle Miocene to the present day there occurs
a distinct family of Pecora, the Antilocapridae, represented now
only by the prong-horned antelope. No member of the group has
ever been found elsewhere.
According to Pilgrim, the earliest known relative of the giraffe
is found in the Lower Miocene of Baluchistan: in the Lower
Pliocene the group is represented by very varied forms, some
gigantic, some indistinguishable from the living giraffes and others
nearly similar to the okapi. These occur throughout the entire
distribution of the Pontian fauna from China, Persia, South
Russia, Samos and Pikermi. Their remains are not found in
German deposits of the same age. No fossil giraffes are known
from Africa, the only continent at present inhabited by the
family, nor did any member of the group ever reach North
America.
Primates. — The lowest division of the Primates, the Lemur-
oidia, is fijst recognised with certainty in rocks of Lower Eocene
age in North America and Europe. These remains belong to two
very distinct groups, the Lemurif ormes, with a complete dentition
and a comparatively elongated face, and the Tarsiiformes, in
which the tooth-row is shortened, the eyes are large, the olfactory
region and face very small, and the lower jaws meet in front at
an acute angle. Representatives of these two groups are found in
the Middle and Upper Eocene in Europe and America, and both
continue in the Oligocene of Europe, but disappear at this period
in North America. The two groups are then unknown in the
northern hemisphere, but the Lemuriformes reappear in the
Pleistocene of Madagascar in a most varied series of forms, and
the Tarsiiformes are represented by the single living genus Tarsius
in the East Indies. Nothing is certainly known of the remaining
group of lemurs, the Lorisiformes, but it is conceivable that
Pronictycebus from the Upper Eocene of France represents their
ancestor.
The higher Primates fall into two completely separate divisions:
the platyrrhine and catarrhine apes respectively. Of these the
platyrrhines are first found in the Miocene of Patagonia, and none
of them occur outside that continent. The first catarrhine is
Parapithecus from the Egyptian Oligocene, a primitive form
presenting distinct points of resemblance to the tarsioids. Asso-
ciated with this animal is Propliopithecus, which is beyond
question a member of the highest family, the anthropoid apes.
The earliest members of the lower families of Old World apes
occur in the Lower Pliocene throughout the range of the great
Pontian fauna. Their distribution presents one or two points of
interest, e.g., the typical baboon is known from the Pleistocene of
India, and another strange form closely allied to the living
gelada has been found in the east African Pleistocene. The giant
apes have a more complete representation as fossils, a fact which
is remarkable when the relative rarity of the living groups is
taken into account. Pliopithecus from the Middle and Upper
Pliocene of Europe appears to be essentially an ancestor of the
gibbons, whilst the genus DryopitJiecus has a wide distribution in
Europe and Asia in the Middle Miocene and in somewhat later
rocks. The closely allied Sivapithecus has been claimed as a
human ancestor but really presents no definite evidence of such
affinities. From Dryopithecus and its immediate allies the living
giant apes certainly arose, and such evidence as exists is con-
sonant with the view that man also came from the same stock.
CONDITIONS OF DISTRIBUTION
The outline of the history of land-mammals contained in the
preceding pages shows that the present distribution of a mammal
may tell us nothing whatsoever about the place of its origin, or
the time at which it came into its existing habitat. All the great
land-masses of the world except Australia and Madagascar have
been continuous with one another at some time during the Tertiary
period smd representatives of all the higher orders have been
enabled to cross the bridges between them. The fact that each
continent none the less has a distinctive fauna, is due to the
extinction which has overtaken the members of every group in
some portions of its former range, the differences in the period
at which the union of the continents took place, and the peculiari-
ties in the geographical conditions of the bridges which made them
available to certain forms whilst they could not be crossed by
others. The geographical conditions which may act as barriers
to the free migration of mammals are very varied. A wide strait
of sea cannot be crossed by most mammals but there is evidence
that certain creatures have in fact reached islands by some rare
and casual mode of distribution not available to most forms.
Madagascar. — Perhaps the best evidence of the possibility of
such transference is afforded by Madagascar. Taking the Pleisto-
cene and recent faunas of that island together, we find that it is
inhabited by very many genera of lemuriform lemurs, varying in
size from animals no bigger than a squirrel to a form with a skull
more than a foot in length. Although all the living and the
majority of the extinct forms arc strictly arboreal spmc of the
larger lemurs were terrestrial and even perhaps aquatic in their
habits. There is however no doubt that all these forms despite
their very varied appearances are extremely closely related and
that they may all have arisen from a form resembling Lemur
itself.
The only other important element in the Madagascan fauna is
the group of many genera included in the zalambdodont insecti-
vores. All these belong to the single family Centetidae and may
have arisen from a single form. The carnivores are represented
by a few genera of Viverridae, all extremely peculiar in their
structure; the largest and most interesting is the fossa, an animal
whose true relationships are obscure. There is another viverrid,
Eitpleres, with very small widely-separated teeth like those of an
insectivore, and finally there is a much more typical viverrid,
perhaps belonging to Viverrus itself. The rodents are included in
the single family Nesomyidae, peculiar to the island. The only
other forms are bats, including the fruit-bat Pteropus not found
in Africa, a pig of the genus Potamochoerns and a pigmy hippo-
potamus now extinct.
This fauna is clearly quite different from that of any other part
of the world and gives a sound basis for the establishment of
Madagascar as an independent region. We know that Hippo-
potamus only came into existence about at the end of the Miocene
times and that it first reached Africa in the Pliocene : it is there-
fore clear that it must be a relatively recent immigrant. If it had
crossed over a land-bridge it would necessarily have been accom-
panied by those other elements of the African fauna which live
in close association with it. We should in fact expect to find in
Madagascar representatives of those antelopes which live in the
forests or swamps which border rivers, the Cape buffaloes and ele-
phants, true monkeys, and an assemblage of carnivores which
prey upon them. The complete absence of such forms implies
that the hippopotamus did not cross on dry land and it is probable
that it reached Madagascar by swimming. The pig is also a water-
loving form and may also have swum across. It is clear from
their many peculiarities that the viverrids have lived longer in
Madagascar: they cannot have crossed on land because of the
absence of any associates, and it is most improbable that they
swam. The lemurs represent a group well established in Eocene
times and their wide radiation again implies a long residence.
Finally the centetids are known to have existed in North America
in the Basal Eocene. Neither group could have crossed land-
bridges without bringing with them other forms, so that it seems
clear that they were transported by some other method, the only
plausible suggestion is that they crossed on rafts of tangled
vegetation washed down from the great rivers, fore-runners of
the Limpopo and Zambezi, which drained Africa throughout
Tertiary times.
972
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS [CONDITIONS OF DISTRIBUTION
Madagascar, in the absence from its fauna of most ungulates
and carnivores, is representative of all those islands which have
never been connected with the great northern land-masses during
Tertiary times. Of such "oceanic islands" the next largest is
New Zealand, which possesses no mammals whatsoever except two
bats, each the sole representative of a peculiar genus. New
Caledonia and most of the Pacific islands are of the same type,
whilst the islands of the Malay archipelago have a fauna derived
from that of Asia, modified by the occasional influx of a few
marsupials from the Australian region.
The foregoing discussion will have shown that only when the
history of the animals involved is known in detail, is it possible
to interpret an existing geographical distribution, and as this
condition is only fulfilled in the case of the mammals and there
imperfectly, it is unnecessary to discuss the distribution of other
groups in detail. There are, however, certain features of general
interest presented by individual members of other groups.
Birds. — Amongst the birds, the large cursorial and flightless
forms belonging to the Ratitae, are represented by the emus and
cassowaries of Notogaea, the rheas of South America and the
ostrich of Africa and Arabia. Extinct ostriches were abundant
in Pleistocene times in China and Mongolia, and have been
found in the Upper Tertiary of India and the Lower Pliocene of
Samos, in association with that great fauna which we have seen
to include the ancestors of the living African animals. In addition,
in the Pleistocene of Madagascar, there is a series of birds
(Aepyornis) one of which is the largest known bird, standing
some 12 ft. high, with an egg with a capacity of 2 gal. A similar
group of forms, very variable as to size and proportions, lived
in New Zealand long enough to be hunted by the Maoris, and
filled in that island the role more normally assumed by ungulates.
The occurrence of these giant flightless birds in continental areas
is interesting because flightless representatives of other groups are
generally restricted to islands where they were not exposed to
the attacks of carnivorous mammals: of such forms the most
familiar is the dodo, probably allied to the pigeons, and formerly
living in Mauritius, whilst a similar form occurred in Rodriguez.
The Chatham islands were inhabited by a whole series of flight-
less rails.
Reptiles. — The reptiles present an example of a group of
animals whose distribution is limited by temperature. The body-
temperature is not uniform, but varies with the surroundings and
is kept very slightly above by muscular activity. As the rate of
the heart-beat alters with the temperature, being greatest when
warm and becoming very slow as freezing point is approached, it
is clear that reptiles can only exhibit much activity in warm
climates. In most reptiles an egg, similar to that of a bird, is laid
in the ground and incubated not by the warmth of the mother's
body but by the sun or by decaying vegetation. As development
proceeds at a negligible rate at low temperatures, reptiles are only
capable of reproducing their kind within a belt of the earth's
surface where the summer temperature is fairly high. The
British Isles are very nearly at the extreme northern limit of
reptile existence, and are inhabited by very few forms; the mud
tortoise, Etnys, which lives in Belgium, being incapable of main-
taining itself in England. Even within this belt the distribution of
certain forms is restricted to the warmer regions. The crocodiles,
for example, are in the main tropical, although they reach as far
north as the Mississippi in North America and the Yellow river
in China.
Amphibia. — The distribution of Amphibia presents some
interesting and puzzling features. The Gymnophiona, probably
the most archaic group, are strictly confined to the Tropics and
occur in the Neotropical, Ethiopian and Oriental regions. The
Urodela, a very ancient group, are not now represented in
Notogaea, an area which it seems certain they must once have
reached. They are at present most abundant and varied in the
temperate zone of eastern Asia and North America. The distribu-
tion of frogs cannot be intelligently discussed owing to our lack
of knowledge of the history of the group.
Freshwater Fishes.— The distribution of freshwater fish does
not fall easily into the zoo-geographical regions established for
the mammals, a fact which is remarkable because the bony fish
are in the main a Cretaceous and Tertiary group. The most
archaic of living vertebrates, the lung-fish Neoceratodus, now lives
solely in two small rivers in southern Queensland, but remains
of the same genus have been found in the Pleistocene of South
Australia. Ceratodus itself is a Triassic form found widely spread
all over the world in fresh-water deposits. It is clear that the
present restricted distribution has resulted from the extinction
of this fish over the greater portion of its former range. The other
two dipnoans, Lepidosiren of South America and Protopterus of
tropical Africa, are very closely related to one another, but
differ materially from Ceratodus. A specimen of Protopterus
has been found in the Oligocene of Egypt, proving that the group
is an ancient one, and its present distribution must depend on
factors incapable of analysis. Polypterus and its close relative
Calamokhthys, which are the much modified descendants of the
Palaeozoic Palaeoniscidae, are now restricted to tropical Africa,
but isolated scales perhaps of the same type occur in the Eocene
of Egypt. The sturgeons, belonging to a group which first appears
in the Lower Jurassic, are remarkable for their restriction to the
temperate waters of the northern hemisphere, where are found
all the members of the two existing families. That the only two
other living ganoids, the bowfin and the garfish, live in temperate
parts of North America, and that both are known from the
Eocene of Europe, shows yet again how present distribution may
give no clue to former extent of range. ^
One peculiar family of bony fish, the cichlids, extrqordinarily
abundant in the great lakes of equatorial Africa, is represented
in equal numbers in tropical America, a phenomenon which with
the similar distribution of lungfishes and octodont rodents has led
to a belief that South America and Africa were connected by a
land-bridge until late in Tertiary times. The distribution of
mammals makes this view untenable, and when the fossil history
of the cichlids comes to be known, it will probably be found
either that they once occurred in the northern hemisphere or
that the African and American forms are not really closely re-
lated. It is impossible to deal in this article with the distribution
of invertebrates but the matter is dealt with in the articles dealing
with individual groups.
Marine Animals. — The distribution of marine animals de-
pends on many factors. To a considerable extent it is controlled
by temperature, many marine forms being capable of life and
reproduction only within a narrow range of temperature variation.
The seas may be divided into the open oceans and the shallow
waters into which detritus derived from the land is carried by
rivers.
In the ocean, animals may inhabit three region^; they may live
in the surface layers (40 fm.) to a depth where the light inten-
sity becomes negligible ancj growths of plants is no longer possible:
or they may inhabit the mid-waters (roughly 40—2,000 fm.)
depending ultimately for their food-supply on the remains of dead
animals and plants from the surface: or they may live on the
ocean bottom even at depths approaching 3,000 fathoms. The
fauna of the sea-bottom lives under remarkably uniform condi-
tions; light is absent, the temperature is not far above freezing
point, all the food which reaches this region has fallen from the
surface of the sea and the bottom is usually soft mud. The abyssal
fauna is nearly uniform over the whole world : it includes the great
majority of known species of the primitive hexactinellid sponges,
and most of the phyla of the animal kingdom are represented,
often by forms peculiar in structure and belonging to groups
restricted to deep water. Although a more detailed study shows
that species and genera may range over only comparatively small
areas of the ocean floor, the abyssal fauna is nevertheless re-
markably distinct from all others, nearly all its members being
recognizable as such at sight.
The free-swimming fauna of the mid-water includes certain'
radiolarians and medusae. The Crustacea are represented by
many forms of prawns, usually bright red in colour, and by a
gigantic ostracod. The Mollusca include pteropods and cuttle-
fish, but the most abundant forms are fish, very characteristic in
their possession of light-producing organs, their black, and in
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES
973
shallower water, silvery colour, and the presence of very large
or excessively small eyes.
The pelagic fauna of the surface layers of the ocean, consists
mainly of transparent animals of 'delicate structure; it includes
the foraminiferan Globigerina and many radiolarians, innumer-
able representatives of the dinoflagellates, some brilliantly phos-
phorescent, medusae and the floating siphonophores, familiar as
• NEOCERATODUS
+ FOSSIL CERATODUS
FIG. 5. MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF
THE DIPNOI AND THE PLACES OF EXTINCT MEMBERS OF THE GENUS CERA-
TODUS
the "Portuguese man-of-war." The arrow-worm Sagitta is often
abundant and certain polychaet worms are of universal occurrence.
The Crustacea include immense numbers of copepods, usually
very small forms living on diatoms. Other small Crustacea be-
longing to the Ostracoda are plentiful, whilst of the higher
Crustacea, the schizopods may form a large proportion of the
catch. The pelagic molluscs belong largely to the pteropods:
lamellibranchs are absent and gastropods represented by a few
special forms. Cephalopods probably form an important element
in the pelagic fauna and tunicates belonging to the appendicular-
ians, salps and Pyrosoma occur abundantly. The oceanic surface
fishes include forms allied to the herrings, with many representa-
tives of the mackerels, flying-fishes and gar-fishes.
The distribution of those animals living near the coast depends
very largely on local features such as the nature of the bottom,
the salinity, the acidity of the water, the temperature and tem-
perature range, the nature of the currents, and other factors which
can only be determined in each individual case. It is therefore
impossible to deal with them in this article, but an account will
be found in the article DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.
In the foregoing account it has been assumed that the great
continents have been stable in the sense that they contain within
themselves great areas, such as Mongolia, Eastern Canada, West
Australia and South and Central Africa, which have been dry
land for a period vastly greater than that within which the
adaptive radiation and distribution of the mammals has taken
place. The truth of this assumption is abundantly demonstrated
by geological observations, but the further belief that these old
land masses have always occupied the same positions with respect
to one another and to the poles has been seriously questioned by
A. Wegener.
Wegener holds that in Upper Carboniferous times the whole
of the dry land of the world was concentrated into one great
continent, subdivided to some extent into independent areas by
shallow seas, but essentially continuous. The south pole lay
within this land mass in what is now Portuguese West Africa.
The present continents have arisen from this mass by an actual
horizontal displacement, the present coasts, or more accurately
the margins of the continental shelfs which face one another
across the Atlantic and Indian oceans having formerly been in
actual contact. By such drift not only have the Americas become
torn away from the western coast of Europe, Africa and Antarc-
tica and Asia from its eastern coast, but the island festoons, New
Zealand, the Antilles, Madagascar, etc., have been detached from
the neighbouring coast of a continent. These great movements
naturally produced great pressures on those continental margins
which lay in the direction of motion, and led to the uprising of
the coastal mountain ranges which are a; marked feature of the
earth's morphology.
The continental drift did not take place freely, the large land
masses twisted round with respect to one another and became
deformed, so that their margins in many cases no longer fit
accurately, and small land bridges between the continents per-
sisted long after the main masses had become widely separated.
This remarkable view has been accepted by some geologists
and has a great mass of geological evidence behind its basal
assumption.
Wegener was first led to the investigation of its possibility by
a consideration of the evidence from the distribution of animals
for the former existence of a land bridge between Africa and
Brazil. Wegencr's view has the very great merit of explaining
simply the remarkable facts of the distribution of that peculiar
flora, the Glossopteris flora, which in South America, the Falkland
Islands, South Africa, Madagascar, India and Australia occurs in
late Carboniferous and Permian rocks, usually in association with
boulder clays and other evidences of an ice-bound land and
arctic climate. It accounts satisfactorily for the occurrence of
the little fresh-water reptile Mesosaurus in Brazil and South
Africa, and for similarities in the Triassic reptilian faunas of those
regions and the extreme resemblance between the land and
shallow sea faunas of North America and Europe in Carbonif-
erous times.
But a continuation of these and other land bridges into late
Tertiary times which has been suggested on the evidence of the
present distribution of land snails, earthworms and similar
groups, seems to be negatived by the distribution of mammals,
where, as W. D. Matthew has shown, the existing distribution of
land masses together with a few former land bridges, such as
that which connected Asia and America through the Aleutian
Islands, are sufficient to account for ail the observed facts. The
evidence of mammals far outweighs in value that of every other
group, because for them alone have we any considerable knowl-
edge of the history of the individual groups. (D. M. S. W.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — T. Arldt, Handbuch d. Paltiogeographie (Leipzig,
1917) ; W. Eagle Clarke, Atlas of Zoogeography (1911) ; C. Darwin,
The Origin of Species; W. D. Matthew, Climate and Evolution (Annal.
N.Y. Academy of Science, vol. xxiv., 1915) ; C. H. Merriam, "The
Geographical Distribution of Life in North America, especially Mam-
mals," Proc. Bio. Soc. Washington, vol. vii., 1892 ; W. Michaelsen,
Die geographische Verbreitung der Oligochaetes (1903) ; H. F. Osborn,
The Age of Mammals (1910); R. F. Sharif, The History of the
European Fauna (1899) ; A. R. Wallace, The Geographical Distribution
of Animals (1876) ; A. Wegener, The Origin of Continents and Oceans
(1924).
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. For societies dealing with
biology generally or which concern both botany and zoology, see
SOCIETIES, LEARNED. The first International Ornithological Co-ti-
gress was held at St. Petersburg. BRITISH ISLES: London, Zoologi-
cal Society (1826, inc. 1829), with gardens in Regent's Park, Proc.
(1830, etc.), Trans. (1835, etc.), Zool. Record (ann.); Brit.
Ornith. Union (1859, inc. 1885), The Ibis (quarterly, 1859, etc.),
Avic. Soc. (1894), Avic. Mag. (monthly, 1894, etc.); Roy. Soc.
for Protec. of Birds (1889, mc- X9°4)» Ann. Rept., Bird Notes
and News (monthly); Entom. Soc. (1833), Trans. (1834, etc.),
Journ. of Proc. (1834, e^c-) I S. Lond. Entom. and Nat. Hist. Soc.
(1872), Proc.; Assoc. of Econ. Biol. (1913), Ann. of Appl. Biol.;
Malacolog. Soc. (1893), Proc. (1893, etc.); Palaeonto graph. Soc.
(1847); Internat. Assoc. of Poultry Instruc. and Invest. (1912),
Ann. Rept.; Selbome Soc. (1885), Selborne Mag., Bird Lover.
Manchester: Conch. Soc. of Gt. Brit, and Ireland (1876), Journ.
of Conch. Dublin, Roy. Zool. Soc. of Ireland (1832), with
gardens in Phoenix park, Ann. Rept. (1833, etc.). Edinburgh,
Zool. Soc. of Scotland, with gardens, Ann. Rept.; Animal Diseases
Res. Soc. (1922), with an institute. Plymouth, Marine Biol.
Assoc. (1884), with a station. Millport, Scot. Marine Biol. Assoc.
(1893), with a station. INDIA: Calcutta, Zool. Soc. (1875) with
gardens at Alipore. EGYPT: Cairo, Soc. Roy. entom. d'Egypte
(1907), Bull. (1902, etc.), Mem. (1909, etc.). CANADA: Guelph.
Canad. Entom. Soc. (1868), Canad. Entomologist. Agassis,
Entom. Soc. of Brit. Col. (1901), Proc. (ann.), Quart. Bull.
974
ZOOLOGY
Truro, Acadian Entom. Soc. (1915), Proc. AUSTRALIA: Adelaide,
5. Austral Zool. and Acclim. Soc. (1892), with gardens, Report,
Melbourne, Roy. Australasian Ornith. Un. (1901), The Emu;
Roy. Zool. and Acclim. Soc. of Viet. (1864), with gardens (1870)
in Royal park, Report; Sydney, Roy. Zool. Soc. of N.S.W. (1879).
UNITED STATES: Washington; Entom. Soc. (1884), Proc.;
Amer. Soc. of Mammalo gists (1919), Joum. of Mammalogy;
Amer. Ornith. Union (1883), The Auk (quarterly); Palaeonto-
logical Soc. (1908); Helminthological Soc. (1910). New York:
Zool. Soc. (1895), with aquarium, Ann. Rept., Zoologica, Bull.
(fortnightly) ; Nat. Assoc. of Audubon Societies, with sanctuaries
in various States and a big junior section, Bird Lore; Amer.
Fisheries Soc.; Amer, Bison Soc.; N. Y. Entom. Soc. (1892),
Journ. (quarterly, 1892-1925); Game Conserv. Soc. (1912), The
Game Breeder (monthly). Berkeley, Cooper Ornith. Club (1893),
The Condor; Pac. Coast Entom. Soc. (1901), Proc. (quarterly,
1901, etc.). Boston, Cambridge Entom. Club (1874), Psyche.
Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn Entom. Soc. (1872, 1885), Bull.
(monthly). Cambridge, Mass.: New England Zool. Club (1899),
Proc. (1899, etc.); Nuttall Ornith. Club (1873), Bull. (1876-83,
continued by A.O.U. as The Auk), Memoirs (1886-1923). Gains-
ville, Fla.: Florida Entom. Soc. (1916), Flor. Buggist (1917-20),
Flor. Entom. (quarterly). Lafayette, Entom. Soc. of Amer. (1906),
Ann. (quarterly). Lincoln, Nebraska Ornith. Un. (1899), Proc.
Melrose Highlands, Mass., Amer. Assoc. of Econ. Entom. (1889),
Journ. of Econ. Entom. Minneapolis, Amer. Soc. of Zool.
Ottawa, Kansas, Wilson Ornith. Club (1881, reorg. 1902), Wilson
Bull. Philadelphia, Delaware Valley Ornith. Club (1890), Cassinia
(ann.); Zoolog. Soc. (1859), Report (ann.), Bull, (bi-monthly);
Amer. Entom. Soc. (1859), Proc. (1861-66), Trans. (1867, etc.).
Salem, Mass., Essex County Ornith. Club. San Diego, Cal, San
Diego Zool. Soc., with gardens (1916). San Francisco, Pac. Coast
Entom. Soc. (1901), Proc., Pan Pac. Entom.; Audubon Assoc.
of the Pac. (1917), The Gull (monthly). Toledo, Ohio, Zool. Soc.
(1900), Zoo Books. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS: Honolulu, Haw. Entom.
Soc. (1904), Proc.
GERMANY: Berlin, Deutsche Zool. Gesell. (1890), Verhand-
lungen (ann.), Zool. Berichte (1922, etc.); Deutsche Ornith.
Gesell. (1850), Journ. f. Ornith. (1853, etc.); Deutsche Gesell. f.
Sdugetierkunde (1926); Deutsche Entom. Gesell. (1856), Deut.
Entom. Zeitsch. Bremen, Entom. Verein (1912), Jahresbericht.
Breslau, Vereifi f. schlesische Insektenkunde (1847), Zeitsch. f.
Entom. Dresden, Verein sacks. Ornith. (1922), Mitteilungen;
Ornith. Verein z. Dresd. (1897); Entom. Verein "Iris" (1862),
Deutsche Entom. Zeitsch. Iris (1889, etc., yearly). Frankfort-
a-M., Internat. Entom. Verein (1886), Entom. Zeitsch; Internal.
Gesell. z. Erhaltung d. Wisents (1923), Berichte; Deut. Malacol.
Gesell. (1868), Archie. /. Molluskenkunde (1869-1920 as Nach-
richtsblatt), Jahrb. (1874-87), Ahandlungen (1922, etc.). Guben,
Internat. Entom. -Bund Guben (1907), Int. Entom. Zeitsch.
Halle, Entom. Gesell. (1907), Mitteilungen (1907-16). Ham-
burg, Entom. Verein f. Hamb.-Alt. (1899), Jahresberichte (1911,
etc.). Cologne, Confer, d. Direk. zool. Garten (1887), Zeitsch. f.
Sdugetierkunde. Leipzig, Ornith. Verein Leipz.; Entom. Gesell.
(1875). Munich, Muncliner Entom. Gesell. (1905), Mitteilungen;
Deutsche Gesell: f. angewandte Entom. (1913), Zeitsch. f. angew.
Entom., Flugoschriften, Schddlingstafeln, Anz. /. Schadlingskunde ;
Ornith. Gesell. in Bayern (1897), Verbundl. Stettin, Entom.
Verein z. Stett. (1838), oldest entomological society in Germany,
Stett. Entom. Zeitung (1840, etc.).
FRANCE: Paris, Conf. Internat. p. I'tttude des Spizooties; F6d.
nat. des Soc. d'Avic. de France; Soc. centr. d' Agriculture et de
Peche (1889), Bull.; Soc. entom. de France (1832), Ann. (1832.
etc.), Bull. (187$, etc.), L'Abbeille; Soc. Zool. de France (1876),
Bull. (1876, etc.), Mem. (1888, etc.); Soc. centr. d'Avic. de
France (1891), La Revue avkole (monthly); Soc. ornith. et
mammalog. de France (1921), Rev, franf. d'ornith., Rev. franf.
de Mammal.; Soc. centr. d'Ajricult., de SMcicult. et de Zool.
agric.; Soc. de Sptliologie (1895). Bordeaux, Soc. d'£tude et de
Vulg. de la Zool. agric. (1902), Rev. de Zool agric. et appl.
BELGIUM: Antwerp, Soc. roy. de zool. (1843), with gardens
(1843), museum and aquarium. Brussels, Soc.. roy. zool. (1863),
Ann. (1870, etc.); Soc. entom. de'Belg. (1856), Butt, et Ann.,
Mim.; Un. des Entom. Beiges (1896), Lambillionea. BULGARIA:
Sofia, Balgarsko Entom. DruL (1909). CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Prague,
teskoslov. Spol. Entom. (1904), Ada Soc. Entom. Bohem.;
teskoslov. Spol. Zool.; Ceskoslov. Spol. Ornith. (1926). Teplitz-
Schonau, Entomologenklub f. Tep.-Schonau u. Umgebung (1893).
DENMARK: Copenhagen, Entom. Foren. (1868), Entom. Meddel-
esler; Danish ornith. Foren. (igo6),D.o.F. Tidskr. ITALY: Brescia,
Soc. della Caccia. Genoa, Soc. Entom. Ital. (1869), Boll. (1869,
etc.), Mem. (1922, etc.). Naples, Un. zool.ital. (1900), Monitore
zool. Ital., Rendiconti d. Assem. e Conv. zool. naz., Arch. Zool.
HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Ned. Dierk. Vereen. (1872), with a
station at Helder; Tijdsch. (1875, etc.); Koninlijk Zool. Genoot-
schap (1838), Bijdr. tot de Dierk. (1848, etc.); Ned. Entom.
Vereen. (1845), Tijdsch. v. Entom. (1857, etc.). Utrecht, Ned.
Ornith. Vereen. , Ardea. POLAND: Warsaw, Polskie towarz anat.-
zool. (1922); Towarz. Miloinikow Akw. i Terraj. (1923), Akw.
i Terrarjum; Polskie towarz. zootech. (1922), Rozprawy Biol.
Lwow, Polshi zwiazek entom. (1922), Pol. Pesino Entom.
SWEDEN: Stockholm, F<ntomol. foren. (1879), Entom. Tidskr.
(1880, etc.), Sv. Insektfautta (1900, etc.). SWITZERLAND: Berne,
Schw. entom. gesell. (1859), Mitteilungen (1862, etc.). RUSSIA:
Leningrad, Russk. entom. obSt. (1860). Horae Soc. Entom. Russ.
(1861-1916), Rev. Russ. d'Entom. (1901, etc.). Moscow, Russk.
protistol. ObU. (1920), Arch. Russ. de Protistologie. Kiev,
KijivSka asoc. zool. SPAIN : Zaragosa, Soc. qntom. de Espana
(1918). HUNGARY: Budapest, Magyar Rev. d Tdrsas^g (1910),
Fol. Entom. Ung.
JAPAN: Tokyo, Zool. Soc. (1879), 2ool. Mag. (monthly),
Annot. Zool. Jap. ARGENTINE: Buenos Aires, Soc. Entom. Argent.
(1925), Revista, Bole tin.
ZOOLOGY, the science which is concerned with the study
of animals. Its scope embraces all conceivable modes of study,
not only of individual animals, but of entire faunas and of the
relation of animals with one another, with plants and with the
non-living environment.
The number of animals, both living and extinct, which has been
investigated is very great, perhaps approaching two million
separate forms. It is, therefore, necessary to provide every dif-
ferent kind of animal with a name by which it can be recognized
by zoologists in all countries, and to establish a classification by
which the name of any animal may be determined.
The more obvious and easily discovered characters which dis-
tinguish animals from one another are those of their external
appearance; body shape, nature of appendages, sense organs,
character of the skin and its derivatives, colour and size, enable
the ordinary man to identify the animals with which he is brought
into contact, either as enemies, or as the objects of his sports and
the source of his food supplies, or from the interest of their
attractive appearance and habits.
The earliest attempts to name and classify animals were based
exclusively on these characters, and the smaller divisions of a
classification are still necessarily founded on them.
But it soon became obvious that, from external appearance
alone, it was impossible to provide a key to the whole animal
kingdom, and zoologists were driven, to a study of the internal
structure of animals.
The necessary beginning of such studies is an investigation of
the anatomy of individual animals, The French anatomists of
the 1 8th century published a series of works, each dealing with
the anatomy of a single specified individual, and disclaimed any
belief that the facts that they recorded would necessarily be true
for any other individual, even though it was apparently of the
same kind.
Anatomical investigations of this character were carried out at
first entirely by dissection of the animal's carcass with knives,
scissors and other implements, a technique which, in skilful hands,
can yield an astonishing amount of accurate information, but
which is necessarily incapable of revealing many structures, either
because they are too small to be seen or otherwise undiscoverable.
The progress of anatomy has depended very largely on advances
in methods of investigation.
CLASSIFICATION BY STRUCTURE]
ZOOLOGY
975
The most important of all such is that which came from the
introduction of the microscope. The possibility of magnifying an
animal at once greatly extended the scope of zoology, because it
enabled the structure of very small animals to be investigated
and, indeed, revealed an immense variety of forms, previously
unknown because they were too small to be seen with the naked
eye. At the same time microscopical examination showed that
the organs of which an animal was composed were themselves
complex, each consisting of a variety of tissues themselves con-
structed of smaller units, the cells. Work along all these lines is
still continuing; each year sees the publication, though in decreas-
ing numbers, of accounts of the structure of additional animals,
and corrections of former accounts of anatomical detail, so that
zoologists have now reliable accounts of the structure of an
immense number of animals from all regions of the animal
kingdom.
These accounts are, in part, based on dissection, but in most
cases depend on microscopical investigations made by many
methods. The fact that the cells which ^compose animals, and the
various substances of which they are formed, have different chemi-
cal and electrical affinities for dyes, makes it possible to differenti-
ate between them by staining animals, or parts of animals, before
subjecting them to microscopical examination. The application of
this method was made possible by the discovery of processes by
which an animal may be cut into a series of slices, sections often
only one-hundredth of a millimetre thick. From a study of such
a series of sections it is possible to reconstruct the whole anatomy
of a microscopic animal in very great detail. But in many cases
the object of such investigations is not to discover the anatomy
of a whole animal, but to describe the fine structure of some one
organ, such as an eye or ear, elucidating the arrangement of the
cells of which it is composed. For such studies the term histology
(q.v.) has been introduced. They only acquire significance when
they are linked up with concurrent physiological investigations,
so that an attempt can be made to relate the observed structures
with the function that they subserve during the animal's life.
From histology has sprung the science of cytology (q.v.),
which is devoted to the discovery and elucidation of the visible
structures within cells themselves. These researches have proved
to be of such great significance for zoology in general that they
will be referred to in later portions of this article.
It very soon became clear, largely, in all probability, through
the investigations of the anatomy of man, that, within certain
limits, the structure of all individuals of any particular kind of
animal was the same. It thus became possible to compare the
structures of different animals with one another, and thus to gain
an understanding of the nature of their differences.
Comparative anatomy has gradually led zoologists to the con-
clusion that the variations in structure which occur amongst
animals are not haphazard in their nature, but that they are
systematic, so that every animal conforms to one of a very
limited number of fundamental plans of structure. There is,
for example, a single pattern underlying the structure of two
animals differing superficially so greatly as a fish and a bird, or a
sea cucumber and a starfish. On this fundamental basis all kinds
of variations may be imposed, so that the animals which exhibit
them may be fitted for life under most varied conditions.
CLASSIFICATION BY STRUCTURE
Thus it is possible to draw up a classification of the animal
kingdom based entirely on resemblances of structure. But any
such process involves a deliberate choice from the great number
of separate characters visible in an animal of certain structures
as those on which weight shall be placed in judging its position
in the classification. This process involves extended comparisons
between widely differing animals, structures which are widely dis-
tributed through the animal kingdom being used for the discrimi-
nation of the more fundamental groups, whilst those which are
less widely spread serve for the establishment of smaller divisions.
Though very simple in principle, this process of zoological classi-
fication is difficult in practice, requiring much judgment in those
who are devoted to it.
The difficulties are of many different kinds ; they may arise from
the necessity of drawing arbitrary lines oi division in nearly con-
tinuous series of forms, or they may depend on the existence of
gaps in the series so large that the structures of the animals that
they separate may differ so greatly that there is a real difficulty
in discovering whether or not a comparison is possible.
It was to meet difficulties of the latter type that the science of
morphology (q.v.) came into existence.
The classifications of the animal kingdom drawn up by zoolo-
gists before 1859 endeavoured to give a strictly objective repre-
sentation of the facts of animal structure and of the structural
relationships of animals to one another. The resulting series of
groups, each included in others of higher order, was devoid of all
symmetry and of ail evidence of plan. It was unintelligible to
men who believed that the whole system, in all its detail and com-
plexity, had arisen at the fiat of a Creator. But the real nature
of this classification at once became clear with the resuscitation by
Darwin of the theory of evolution (q.v.) and its universal accep-
tance. The natural classification of animals, though founded on
the resemblances in structure, is really of the nature of a genealogi-
cal tree, expressing the actual blood relationships between animals,
a tree imperfect, not only from failure of analysis of the available
evidence, but also from the gaps and breaks which necessarily
exist in it from the fragmentary nature of our knowledge of
extinct animals.
Thus a classification drawn up on evolutionary lines necessarily
takes account of time; it cannot be expressed by a linear arrange-
ment, or even on a surface, but involves at least a third dimension.
This tree, representing as it does the branching out of the
animal kingdom during the long course of evolution, itself depen-
dent not only on the intrinsic properties of living nfctter but also
on the local peculiarities of the inorganic environment, is neces*
sarily devoid of obvious symmetry; it includes branches tenta-
tively put forth which, after a longer or shorter period, proved
unsuccessful, as well as those which survive to-day.
This conception altered the whole meaning of the classinca-
tory groups; instead of regarding them as having a real existence,
as permanent and sharply marked categories, zoologists realized
that they were of human origin, representing little more than a
convenient mode of expressing definite conceptions of relation-
ships.
The group names which are now in use are in order of ascending
scope, species, genus, family, super-family, sub-order, order, class
and phylum. It is believed by many zoologists that the smallest
group, the species (q.v.), differs somewhat in its nature from the
others. A species may be defined as a group of individual animals,
whether alive or dead, which agree with one another in their
structure, within close but variable limits, and are capable of
breeding together. In the nature of the case it is impossible to
give any general quantitative expression to the permissible amount
of variation, and, in practice, the determination of the limits of
a species depends on the judgment of the taxonomist. The second
part of the definition, the possibility of breeding from any two
individuals of the species of different sexes, cannot be extensively
used because many animals will not, in fact, breed in captivity,
although under natural conditions they would be fertile, and
because the vast majority of species are only known from the
dead specimens preserved in museums.
Darwin's conception of the mode of origin of species was that
by some one or more of different processes, under the control of
natural selection, a group of individuals of a species and their
descendants gradually diverged from the normal type, until by the
slow accumulation of changes they came to differ so greatly from
it in their structure that they were, in most cases, no longer fertile
with the original type of individual, and presented morphological
characters sufficiently distinct to acquire specific status. On this
hypothesis of its origin it is clear that a species is an artificial
group, in that no two observers will draw the line which separates
it from the parent , species at the same point. At the same time,
if only the living representatives of the new and the parent species
be considered, the groups may appear completely discrete.
Modern work on genetics, the investigation of the nature of
976
ZOOLOGY
[ANIMAL KINGDOM DIVISIONS
heredity (<?.v.), has suggested that the initiation of a new species
may depend, not on a continuous process of change, in which the
stages may be of infinitely small magnitude, but on a discontinu-
ous variation, in which each change is a definite step, even if a
very small one, and the individual which exhibits it differs from
its parents in every cell of its body from the moment of its
formation. Such definite steps may, in some cases, be found to
depend on a modification, presumably of a chemical nature, in a
particular structure, a gene, in a chromosome of one or both of the
germ cells from whose fusion the new individual arose,
If such a view of the nature of evolution be true, it is clear
that a species is a natural group, in that it begins at a definite
place and time by a definite event; that, like Athena, it sprang
fully developed from its parent.
What little evidence exists suggests, however, that few species
are actually distinguished from their parent species by their
possession of a single mutant character, that, in general, they
must have arisen by the accumulation in one individual of a
number of such mutations (q.v.). Indeed, in certain cases the
differences between two species, although they may be supposed
to arise from modification of the chromosomal mechanism, ap-
pear to depend, not on the change of individual genes, but on
much grosser events, such as the fragmentation of the chromo-
somes themselves.
Genus. — The term genus indicates a sub-division of the animal
kingdom which includes one or more species. Its limits, except
in so far as they are made certain by the existence of a considerable
morphological gap between one species and its neighbour, are
entirely arbitrary, depending on the judgment of the writer.
It is evident that the doubt as to the real existence of genera
is of the samc*fcharacter as that which occurs in the case of species;
indeed, in this case it seems certain that the single term covers
two quite independent classes of groups. It may imply that the
group of species included within the genus have all arisen from
a single species, which itself presented the generic characters,
having, by evolution, come to differ in structure from its own
parents and from sister species to a greater extent than species
within a genus usually do. It is probably this conception which
is usually present in the minds of taxonomists. But palaeontol-
ogists in general hold a very different view of the nature of a genus*
It is widely believed by them that evolution has been to a large
extent orthogenetic, that is, that all the species which fall within
a small group pursue parallel evolutionary courses, so that, as time
goes on, their members exhibit changes of structure which are
of similar nature in all, although they have been independently
acquired. To the group made artificially to include all the allied
species which are in the same stage of evolutionary advance it
is customary to apply the term genus. A group so defined differs
from that which is ordinarily understood by the name, in that its
members have not arisen from a single species, itself capable of
inclusion within the genus.
The accepted scientific name of a species is a binomial phrase
consisting of the generic name, which is placed first, and a trivial
name proper to the species. The whole compound is the specific
name. The terms employed should be formed from Latin or
Greek roots, and the whole is regarded as Latin, so far as the
termination, and agreement between the adjectival trivial and
nominal generic name are concerned. (See ZOOLOGICAL NOMEN-
CLATURE.)
The Sub-Family.— The next highest group, the sub-family,
includes a group of genera, held together by structural resem-
blances. Its name is always made by adding to the root of the
name of one of the genera included in it, the termination -inae.
Sub-families are grouped into families, whose names, formed
as are those of sub-families, are characterized by the termination
-idae.
Neither of these groups has a definite connotation, each, except
in so far as it is bounded by morphological gaps between neigh-
bouring genera, gaps which depend on our very incomplete knowl-
edge of fossil forms, is of the nature of an artificially circum-
scribed assemblage.
Families. — Families are grouped into orders, and orders into
classes, divisions of the animal kingdom which usually include
large numbers of species, held together by the common possession
of very fundamental structures.
The primary division of the animal kingdom is into phyla.
Each phylum is sharply characterized by the possession of a plan
of structure in the adult which is peculiar to it, differing from
that proper to every other phylum in such ways that it is, in
general, incapable of derivation from any other. As the adult t
structure of an animal represents a condition finally arrived at, at
the end of a developmental history which begins with a single
fertilized egg cell or zygote it necessarily follows that in certain
fundamental features, at any rate, the modes of development of
all the members of a phylum will agree with one another and differ
from those of representatives of other phyla. This is indeed the
case, but there do exist resemblances in the early development
between members of different phyla which have led zoologists to
discuss the possibility of relationship between one phylum and
another of a kind which must have existed in the early stages of
evolution, at a time when^the first fundamental branching out .of
the animal kingdom took place.
Thus a study of animal development (see EMBRYOLOGY) is
necessary for the establishment of a natural classification.
The labours of zoologists have now resulted in the establish-
ment of a classification of animals, based entirely on morphology,
which is unlikely to be seriously modified in its broad outlines
by further work. The minor classification, into orders and smaller
groups, is still disputed, although even here the differences be-
tween taxonomists lie more largely in the minor points of the
grade to which a group belongs, or the position of its boundaries,
than in a real clash of opinion as to mutual relationships.
This classification makes it possible for any competent zoologist
to determine an animal, which is unknown to him, at any rate so
far as its family or genus is concerned. It is thus of immense
practical value, not only to the pure, academic zoologist, but also
to those whose work has a direct economic bearing. The first
thing which has to be done in an attempt to control an injurious
insect is to discover its name, because only when this is known
is it possible to find out whether the pest is imported or of
local origin, and whether it is known and controlled in other parts
of the world.
National museums exist in order that they may play the part
of dictionaries, ensuring the accurate determination of all animals
which may prove of interest either scientifically or commercially.
DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
The primary division of the animal kingdom is into two groups,
one including all those animals whose body is composed of a
single cell, the other all those whose body is built up from many
cells. (See CELL; CYTOLOGY.)
The first group, usually regarded as a phylum, the Protozoa
(q.v.), may be defined as including all animals in which the body,
when fully developed, consists of a single cell which carries out
all the activities of a living animal; or of a colony of cells, exhibit-
ing either no differentiation, or, in certain cases, distinguished from
one another by the setting apart of one or more cells for repro-
ductive purposes.
The group is very extensive, and the animals included within
it vary extremely in size and in structure. The single cells which
compose the entire bodies of most of its members may be far
more elaborately organized than any of the cells of higher ani-
mals; they may contain one or many nuclei, and these nuclei
may present a differentiation of function.
The cytoplasm may itself possess an elaborate structure, in-
cluding contractile myonemes, flbrillae and neuroid fibrils which
control locomotary activities. It may possess a definite food
track and permanent contractile vacuoles for excretion and the
control of the water content of the organism. Indeed, it is far
from improbable that some Protozoa are the degenerate descend-
ants of multicellular animals.
The life history of Protozoa is often very elaborate, and the
group exhibits many stages in the development of a sexual mode
of reproduction, from such simple cases as those in Ciliata, where
ANIMAL KINGDOM DIVISIONS]
ZOOLOGY
977
two identical feeding individuals come into association and ex-
change nuclei, to a fully developed sexuality where a large egg
is fertilized by a small mobile spermatozoa as in the malarial para-
site. It is, in fact, known that in some cases these gametes
undergo a process of maturation of which the essential part is
a halving of the number of chromosomes in the nucleus by a
meiosis identical in principle with that which occurs in all multi-
cellular animals.
The multicellular animals, or Metazoa, are distinguished from
Protozoa by the fact that their bodies are composed of a number
of cells, which are not equipotent, but differ from one another in
structure, function and origin. Each of these cells is associated
with others of the same kind so as to form a tissue, and the tis-
sues fulfil definite functions in the life of the animal of which
they form a part. A Metazoan animal is an individual, a unit
whose cells are subordinated to the whole. Unlike the cells of
Protozoa, they are not, in general, capable of a complete inde-
pendent existence, and cannot, unless they be germ cells, repro-
duce the whole body of which they form a part.
Thus the Metazoan body exhibits a differentiation, its separate
functions being performed by definite cells or congeries of cells,
whilst the diverse functions of a Protozoan are carried out by dif-
ferentiated portions of an undivided mass of cytoplasm.
It follows, as a necessary concomitant of the cellular differ-
entiation of a Metazoan body, that all such animals must undergo
a definite course of embryonic development whereby, by repeated
cell division and differentiation of the cells so formed, the adult
body ariseS from the single cell, the zygote or fertilized egg cell
in which the individual begins its existence. With very rare ex-
ceptions, all clearly secondary, all Metazoa reproduce sexually,
the male and female gametes, the spermatozoa and ova, being
formed in definite organs, the gonads, and possessing markedly
divergent characters. The ovum is always relatively large, pos-
sesses some food reserves, and is the only functional cell of four
formed by the last two divisions of the process of maturation.
The spermatozoan is a small cell, in which the cytoplasm is found
only in very small amount, and the food reserve is only large
enough to enable it to swim for the short period which is neces-
sary to reach an ovum. It always possesses some locomotor
apparatus and is usually of uniform and very characteristic
structure.
The Metazoa fall into two divergent branches of very different
importance. The group Parazoa includes only the sponges (q.v~),
whilst the equivalent group of Enterozoa includes the remainder
of the animal kingdom.
A Parazoan is an animal which, when adult, .is permanently
fixed to a substratum. Its body is composed of tissues which
provide it with an external surface, and surround a cavity usually
very complex and often irregular in shape, through which a cur-
rent of water is caused to pass by the activity of the flagella borne
by the cells which surround it. The cavity of a sponge, the canal
system, is always in communication with the sea by inhalant and
cxhalant openings; the latter arc oscula, the former differ in
their morphological nature in different sponges.
Some part of the canal system is always lined by an epithelium
composed of cells, choanocytes, which possess a single flagellum,
whose base arises within a cup formed by an extremely delicate
protoplasmic membrane which projects from the free surface of
the cell. This collar can be retracted, and serves in some way, not
yet understood, to affect the current of water caused by the
lashing of the flagellum.
These collar cells are found only in Parazoa amongst the Meta-
zoa, but identical cells form the bodies of a group of Protozoa,
the Choanoflagcllata. The collar cells not only serve to main-
tain the current of water, which, passing continuously through
a sponge, brings to it its food and oxygen, but are the actual
nutritive mechanism, engulfing food particles and digesting them.
From them also arise the gametes. The remainder of a sponge
consists of an external epithelium, protective in nature and an
intervening mesoglosa containing cells of many different types
and skeletal elements of varied nature.
During the development of a sponge the cells which, in the
adult, are collar cells, form an external layer and serve for the
locomotion of the free swimming embryo, whilst all the other
cells of the body, including those which form the external sur-
face of the adult, lie .internal to them, often as a compact rhass.
(See INVERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY.)
The Entevozoa form a complete contrast to the Parazoa. They
present many grades of structural complexity, of which the lowest
is that presented by the members of the phylum Coelenterata
(q.v.), from which all the others have ultimately been derived.
The primitive Enterozoan has a body consisting of a sac, whose
cavity, the archenteron, or primitive gut, opens to the exterior
by a single aperture, through which food enters and the faeces are
expelled; it thus combines the functions, and, indeed, probably
gave origin to both mouth and anus.
The body-wall of a primitive Enterozoan consisted of two
epithelia placed back to back, their cells being attached to a base-
ment membrane common to both.
The epithelium which lines the single cavity is the cndoderm;
its cells are primitively concerned only with food, carrying out
the processes of digestion, assimilation and food transport, and
also giving rise to the germ cells.
The outer layer, the ectoderm, is that part of the animal which
is brought into direct contact with the environment; it is respon-
sible for protection, locomotion, the perception and capture of
food, respiration and the excretion of nitrogenous waste products.
In it arises the nervous system and sense organs which are
necessary for the adjustment of the animal's behaviour to ex-
ternal circumstances. During the development of such an animal,
the endoderm arises from cells which at no time lie external to
those which compose the ectoderm.
The complexity of structure which may be built up on so simple
a plan as that of a Coelenterate is very considerable, but can-
not approach that which is, in fact, found amongst Metazoa.
The first step in further evolution was the addition of a further
layer of cells, the mesoderm, not necessarily epithelian in ar-
rangement, between the ectoderm and endoderm.
In the majority of Coelenterates the basement membrane, which
lies between these two primitive epithelia, becomes greatly thick-
ened as a mesoglosa, into which cells wander chiefly, if not ex-
clusively, from the ectoderm. In one living group of animals
(the Ctenophora) this migration takes place precociously, so
that a special mass of cells, derived from the embryonic ecto-
derm, is set apart as a mesoderm. From this the whole muscu-
lature of the adult arises.
All the Enterozoa we have so far considered possess no cavity
other than the archenteron, the gonads being masses of cells,
derived ultimately from the endoderm, which lie in pockets in
free communication with the primitive gut. The next stage in
development involves the separation of these pockets from the
gut, either by an actual pinching off or by a migration of the
cells which will form the gonad into the mesoderm and their sub-
sequent arrangement into a vesicle. The independent cavity so
formed is held to be the beginning of the coclom. This cavity,
whatever its extent, is a morphological entity, independent of the
entcron or true gut, and of the bloodspaces and of all other
cavities, including that of the blastocoel, which is formed during
early embryonic life by the separation of the first formed cells, or
blastomeres. Part at least of the mesoderm arises from the walls
of the coelom in all animals which possess that structure. (See
EMBRYOLOGY.)
The presence of a coelom, even if it be no more extensive
than the cavity of a gonad, thus enables us to divide all En-
terozoa into two groups or grades, the Acoelomata and the
Coclomata.
The establishment of the coelom, by- isolating the gonads, and
the increasing importance of the mesoderm, made the problem of
the nutrition of the whole animal more difficult. In the Acoelo-
mata food transport was carried out by the development of canals
along which food particles could be transported by ciliary cur-
rents throughout the body. This mechanism is replaced in all
higher animals by a blood vascular system, consisting of canals
or spaces through which a fluid can be caused to travel to every
978
ZOOLOGY
[ANIMAL KINGDOM DIVISIONS
part of the animal. This fluid, in its passage through the vessels
which lie on the wall of' the gut, becomes charged with food sub*
stances in solution, and is capable of giving them up to any
organ which requires them.
By its mere presence as a circulating fluid which passes through
the whole body and is not itself actively metabolic, the blood
must serve as a carrier of oxygen, even though a poor one, Its
respiratory function becomes far more important in higher ani-
mals with the introduction of respiratory pigments, carried by
the blood, capable of forming easily dissociated compounds with
oxygen.
The same factors which led to the introduction of a vascular
system were responsible for the initiation of a definite excre-
tory system, at first in the form of a system of tubes, of ecto-
dermal origin, ending blindly in a hollow cell with a bunch of
cilia lying in the cavity. Subsequently, when the coelom became
an extensive cavity surrounding the gut, these primitive tubes,
the nephridia, became connected with it, usually through the
intervention of other structures, the coelomoducts, whose pri-
mary function was the transmission of the gametes to the exterior.
The classification which results from the application of these
and other criteria is as follows: —
ANIMALIA
Grade A. Phylum i. Protozoa (q.v.)
Class i. Rhizopoda
Sub-class i. Sarcodina
,, 2. Heliozoa
„ 3. Foraminifcra
,, 4. Radiolaria
Class 2. Mastigophora
Sub-class i. Flagcllata
,, 2. Choanoflagellata
3. Dinoflagellata
„ 4. Cystoflagellata
Class 3. Infusoria
Sub-class i. Ciliata
,, 2. Suctoria
Class 4. Sporozoa
Sub-class i. Telosporidia
,, 2. Neosporidia
Grade B. Metazoa
Branch Parazoa
Phylum 2. Porifcra (see SPONGES)
Class i. Hexactinellida
,, 2. Calcarea
„ 3. Tetraxonida
„ , 4. Myxospongida
Branch Enterozoa
Phylum 3. Coelenterata (q.v.)
Class i. Hydromedusae
„ 2. Scyphomcdusae
„ 3. AntJhozoa
Sub-class i. Alcyonaria
,, 2. Zoantharia
Phylum 4. Ctenophora (q.v.)
Sub-class i. Tcntaculata
2. Nuda
Phylum 5. Platyhelmia
Class i. Turbcllaria
„ 2. Trematoda (flukes)
„ 3. Cestoda (tapeworms)
„ 4. Temnocephaloida
Phylum 6. Nemertina (q.v.)
„ 7. Nemathelmia
Class i. Nematoda (q.v.) (round worms)
,, 2. Chaetosomatida
„ 3. Desmoscolecida
„ 4. Nematomorpha (q.v.)
Phylum 8, Chaetognatha (q.v.)
,, g. Aeanthocephala (q.v.)
„ 10. Rotifera (wheels, animalcules)
„ i i. Chaetopoda (see ANNELIDA)
Class i. Archiannellida
2. Polychaeta
3. OHgochaeta (earthworms, etc.)
4. Hirudinae (leeches)
5. Myzostoraida
6. Echiuroidea
Phylum 1 2. Arthropoda (q.v.)
Class i. Onycnophora
Class 2. Chilopoda
„ 3, Diplopoda
„ 4. Pauropoda
„ 5. Symphyla
„ 6. Hexapoda or Insccta (see INSECT, ENTO-
MOLOGY)
„ 7. Arachnida (q.v.)
„ 8. Trilobita
„ 9. Crustacea (q.v.)
„ 10. Tardigrada
,, ii. Lingua tulida
Phylum 13. Mollusca (q.v.)
Class i. Solenogestres
,, 2. Amphineura (chitons, etc.)
„ 3. Gastropoda (snails, etc.)
„ 4. Scaphopoda (tusk shells)
„ 5. Lamelhbranchiata (bivalves)
„ 6. Cephalopoda (squids, octopuses, etc.)
Phylum 14. Polyzoa (q.v.)
Class i. Endoprocta
„ 2. Ectoprocta
Phylum 15. Phoronidea
„ 16. Gephyraea (q.v.)
Class i. Sipunculida
„ 2. Priapuloida
Phylum 17. Brachiopoda (a.v.) (lamp shells)
Phylum 1 8. Echinoaerma (q.v.)
Branch Pelmatozoa
Class i. Cystida
,, 2. Blastoidea
„ 3. Edrioastcroidea
„ 4. Crinoidea (sea lilies)
Branch Eleutherozoa
Class i. Stelleroidea (starfish, brittle stars)
„ 2. Echinoidea (sea urchins)
„ 3. Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
Phylum 19. Chordata (Vertebrata)
Sub-phylum Hemichorda (q.v.)
Class i. Enteropneusta
„ 2. Pterobrachiata
Sub-phylum. Urochorda
Class Tunicata (q.v.) (sea squirts, etc.)
Sub-phylum. Cephalochorda (see AMPHIOXUS)
Class Cephalochorda
Sub-phylum. Craniata
Class i. Cvclostomata (q.v.) (lampreys, hagfish, etc.)
Sub-class i. Cephalaspidomorpha
„ 2. Pteraspidomorpha
Class 2. Pisces (sec Fismcs)
Sub-class i. Chondrichthyses (cartilaginous fish)
„ 2. Osteichthyses (bony fish)
Class 3. Batrachia or Amphibia (q.v.)
„ 4. Reptilia (q.v.)
„ 5. Aves (see BIRD, ORNITHOLOGY)
„ 6. Mammalia (q.v.)
Sub-class i. Prototheria (Monotremata)
„ 2. Multituberculata
,, 3. Triconodonta
„ 4. Metatheria (Marsupialia)
„ 5. Eutheria (Placentafia)
The following small groups should perhaps be regarded as phyla :
Phylum 20. Archaeocyathea
„ 21. Mesozoa (q.v.)
„ 22. Gastrotricha (q.v.)
This classification of the animal kingdom is of importance be-
cause it establishes the possibility of an evolutionary explana-
tion ; it is, in fact, in its mixture of irregularity and system, ex-
actly what would be expected if the animal kingdom owed its
nature to a chain of contingencies stretching back to the beginning
of life on the earth.
A zoological classification drawn up in the way which has
been described, rests only on evidence of one kind, it depends
on morphological resemblance alone, and no extension of observa-
tions to a consideration of new structures can materially con-
tribute to its justification.
Palaeontology (q.v.), by bringing in the new element of time,
affords a real confirmation of some parts of the classification, even
though, in essence, the nature of the evidence it employs is the
same as that used by taxonomists who work only with animals
which are still extant.
MULLER'S THEORY]
ZOOLOGY
979
MULLER'S THEORY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
One principle, which, though no longer regarded as a satisfac-
factory causal explanation of a great class of facts, has led to
much invaluable zoological work, in the theory formulated by
Fritz Miiller, that every animal, in its growth from the egg to
the adult condition, passes in turn through stages which recapitu-
late its evolution from a primitive form, or in other words, that
ontogeny (the individual development) repeats phylogeny (the
development of race).
The attempt to apply this principle led zoologists to investigate
in great detail the embryology and later development of some one
or more members of each of the greater groups, and to make es-
pecial efforts to obtain evidence about the life history of those ani-
mals, which were believed to be of exceptional interest because
they stood near to the points of branching of the phylogenetic
tree.
These studies, though they can scarcely be said to have been
successful in their primary intention, formed the foundation of
new developments in morphology, and provided a great mass of
facts, which were in themselves of the Jiighest interest, and in
many cases have given information of great evolutionary impor-
tance. (See EMBRYOLOGY.) But embryology was already a sepa-
rate branch of study before the formulation of the biogenetic law;
it arose or was revived during the Renaissance, became of absorb-
ing interest with the introduction and steady improvement of
the microscope and of appropriate technical methods, and has
entered on^ new lease of life from the application to it of experi-
mental methods.
Cytology (q.v.), the science which is concerned with cells, be-
gan with the microscopists of the late iyth and i8t.h centuries.
Their work, and that of those who succeeded them, led zoologists
to the conception that the bodies of all animals (and plants) arc
either composed of a single mass of living matter, or are com-
posed of a great number of such units, each independent from,
though influenced by its neighbours.
The fact that nearly every Metazoan is, when it first becomes
an independent individual, a single cell, renders it certain that
an investigation of the structure and other properties of cells must
form the basis of any fundamental study of development.
The early recognition by the botanist, Robert Brown, that
each cell contained a body, the nucleus, which had a definite shape,
and was clearly marked off from the surrounding liquid substance
of the cell, and the even earlier discovery of the existence of a
streaming of cell substance in plants, and of the formation and
migration of food vacuoles in Protozoa, led to attempts to in-
vestigate the morphology of cells. Such researches became much
easier when methods of fixing (i.e., killing by coagulating the pro-
teins they contained) and staining cells were invented, and the
vast majority of the many thousands of papers on cytology
which exist are founded on materials which have been subjected
to such treatment.
The greatest single discovery made by cytologists was that of
mitosis or karyokinesis, an elaborate mode of multiplication of
cells by division into two, which is found in very nearly the same
form in all Metazoa and higher plants and in many Protista.
Details of this process will be found in the article CYTOLOGY.
Its importance lies in the fact that it ensures a qualitatively and
quantitatively exact division of the nucleus between the two
daughter cells. Mitosis commences with the formation within
the nucleus of a long, tangled thread, along which are placed
masses of a substance, chromatin, recognized by the intense
stain it takes from such basic dyes as haematoxylin. This
thread contracts and breaks up into short lengths, chromosomes,
which are present in pairs, with the exception that one of them
may either differ from its partner in appearance or lack one alto-
gether.
Subsequently, the membrane which separates the nucleus from
the surrounding cytoplasm disappears and the chromosomes are
set free. Meanwhile, two small granules, the centrosomes, have
placed themselves at opposite poles of the cell, and by their activ-
ities have altered the nature of the cytoplasm which surrounds
them, so that it acquires a radially arranged structure. These
rays, proceeding from the neighbourhood of the two centro-
somes, meet and form a spindle of threads to which the chromo-
somes become attached. Each chromosome then splits longitudi-
nally, the halves which result being drawn to the opposite poles
of the spindle. From these two aggregates of half chromosomes,
two new nuclei are formed and the cytoplasm of the cell is divided
into two parts, one associated with each nucleus.
It is believed, on the strong though indirect evidence of genetics,
and on the basis of certain experiments on developing animals
(see EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY), that by this process the
daughter cells receive nuclei which are exactly identical with one
another and with the parent nucleus.
As all the divisions by which the cells which compose the
body of a Metazoan are of this kind, it follows that the nucleus
of any one cell in such an animal is the exact equivalent of that
of every other cell, and that the differences which actually exist
between such cells depend either on the position which they hold
in the body, that is to the influence of their neighbours, or of
the outer environment, or to the character of the cytoplasm they
received at some cell division.
This conception at once shows the importance of an examina-
tion of the cytoplasm. Examination of living cells taken from
the body of a Metazoan seldom reveals any structures except drops
of fat, yolk spheres and similar non-living substances stored in
the cell for future use. But by the application of special methods
of fixation and staining and a careful use of solvents, it is possi-
ble to find in all cells several classes of bodies whose behaviour
suggests that they are actual portions of that mechanism on which
the life of the cell depends. In a few fortunate cases these struc-
tures can actually be seen in living cells, and are thus probably
not, as has been suggested, merely artificial products of the long
process of preparation by which they are usually made visible.
Thus the cytoplasm of a cell is so complex that it can possess a
definite morphology, which might, in part, provide an explanation
of the diversity of cells which have been derived from a single
source.
It is clear that the most favourable material on which to test
such a hypothesis is the segmenting egg of a marine Metazoan,
because there the whole process of cell division, and of the grad-
ual differentiation of cells can be watched under the microscope
in living material.
In such animals as the sea urchin Echinus, the egg consists of a
surface membrane, which surrounds a liquid cytoplasm within
which the nucleus floats a little excentrically. In most cases there
is no visible evidence that any part of the cytoplasm differs
from any other part. This cell, after fertilization divides re-
peatedly, and the cells which are formed appear to be all exactly
similar up to the time when 64 of them are present. At this
stage the embryo is a sphere with a wall one cell thick sur-
rounding a liquid-filled cavity. The arrangement of the cells is
clearly haphazard, they owe their mutual positions to sliding
movements, which, in other cases, can be shown to depend on the
ordinary laws of surface tension. But in time this sphere of cells
exhibits polarity, one end of it tucks itself within the other, and
the animal acquires anterior and posterior ends. Is this polarity
the result of an invisible polarity present in the egg or not?
The egg of a mollusc or of a polychaet worm usually presents
as little evidence of structure as that of an Echinoid, but its
development is of very different type. In either case the first
division produces two cells which may differ from one another
visibly. The second cleavage divides each of these into equal
parts, whilst the third is unequal, separating small micromeres
from the poles of the large megameres. These cells do not lie in
tiers, the quartette of micromeres is so disposed that each one
lies in the groove between two megameres. Although this posi-
tion is that which would naturally be reached by sliding of cells
under the forces of surface tension, it does not, in fact, arise in
that way, but is predetermined by the direction of the axes of
the spindles which bring about the mitoses of the third cleavage.
Thus, in this case it is certain that something within the egg
determines both the character and position of the individual
blastomeres. Indeed, the fate of each cell in such an embryo is ab-
980
ZOOLOGY
[MULLER'S THEORY
solutely determined ; it will form a definite structure or part of a
structure in the adult.
The fact that, in certain cases at any rate, the fate of a
blastomere may be determined from the time of its origin, led
to attempts to discover the mechanism which lies hidden in its
parent cell. Such a mechanism may involve a localization of
definite substances, recognizable by chemical means. If substances
which determine the fate of a blastomere be present in definite
parts of its parent, it should be possible to remove them artifi-
cially, and thus inhibit the development of those characters for
whose appearance they are responsible.
The simplest case is that of a separation of the first two blasto-
meres; if this be done each will develop independently of the
other. In some cases a complete embryo of half the normal size
will develop from each, in others a complete half -sized embryo
from one, and one incomplete by the absence of certain parts
from the other, whilst, in a few cases, half an embryo arises
from each, the individual blastomeres segmenting as if the other
were actually present.
Thus it seems certain that the cytoplasm of a fertilized egg may
actually possess a structure which determines the course of its
further development. But this predetermination of the fate of a
cell by its structure can only be partial; it can be tested by
experiments on regeneration (q.v.).
If, for example, the leg of a newt be amputated, the cut end of
the stump rapidly heads over, and a small white conical accumu-
lation of cells appears at its extremity; this grows in such a way
that it eventually attains exactly the size and structure of the
part of the leg which was originally cut off. In such a case it
is clear that cells which, in an unmutilated animal, would never
have formed part of a limb, have not only been stimulated to
grow out, either by the effect of the wound or by the removal
of the inhibiting influence of a complete leg, but have been com-
pelled by a control exercised by some structure or structures in
the rest of the animal, fo do so in such a way as to acquire a
definite structure.
Regeneration experiments, suitably designed, may throw much
light on the whole problem of the control of development; but
allied to them are others in which, instead of allowing normal
regeneration to take place, part of the animal is transplanted to a
new situation, where it is exposed to the control of a new environ-
ment, and should, if capable of modification, take on a structure
appropriate to its new position.
Of these experiments the most important are those which have
been carried out on the embryos and larvae of Amphibia. It has
been discovered that fragments of one amphibian embryo im-
planted in another will grow even if the two belong to different
species or even genera. This fact enables implants of a larva
whose cells appear black to be grafted on to larvae whose cells
are white. In this way it is possible to follow with great cer-
tainty the fate of the implanted fragment. These experiments
have shown that the greater part of the surface of a newt's gas-
trula is indifferent, a set of cells which, if left in their natural
position, would become part of the skin covering an external
gill, may, if transplanted, become part of the brain or form
the retina of an eye. Continued exploration by this method has
shown that only one small region, that of the dorsal lip of the
blastopore, has its fate determined; it is an organizer, which, if
introduced into any Urodele blastula into which it becomes in-
corporated, will determine the establishment of an embryo whose
parts stand in a definite relation to it. (See EXPERIMENTAL
EMBRYOLOGY.)
But this organizer can be seen to arise from a particular part
of the cytoplasm of the fertilized egg, the grey crescent, a struc-
ture which appears at fertilization at a point immediately opposite
to that at which the spermatozoan enters.
It has then to be considered whether it is the entrance of the
spermatozoan which establishes a structure in the fertilized egg
or whether such a localization exists in the unfertilized but ripe
ovum. Evidence on this point may be sought by two methods:
An attempt may be made to destroy any structure the unfertilized
ovum possesses by making use of the difference in specific gravity
which exists between the cytoplasm and its inclusions, either by
merely inverting the egg or by the more powerful forces which
are available in a centrifuge. The eggs with their contents so
rearranged may be fertilized immediately, and an attempt made
to correlate any abnormalities presented by the embryos resulting
from such fertilizations with the displacements which may be
observed by cytological methods in eggs similarly treated. As a
control, eggs which have been fertilized must be subjected to
exactly the same treatment. An easier, though much more indi-
rect mode of investigation is through genetics,
VARIATION
No two animals, even belonging to the same brood, are
alike; whilst exhibiting a close similarity to their parents and
to one another, each will differ from all others either to a small
extent or even very considerably in one or many respects. The
investigation of the nature and causes of these variations, and of
the extent to which they are passed on from one generation to
the next, forms a most important part of the science of zoology.
It is clear, even on a cursory investigation, that variations may
be either of such a kind that they form a continuous series con-
necting one extreme of structure within the species with the
other, or may represent definite steps between which no inter-
mediates can be found. This distinction between continuous and
discontinuous variation is one of the greatest importance for a
clear understanding of the problems at issue.
Very many discontinuous variations are meristic; the. change in
the number of rays in a fish's fin or of vertebrae in its vertebral
column is necessarily carried out by steps between which there
are no conceivable intermediates. But similar discontinuities may
occur in characters which might be expected to vary continuously;
there is, for example, no series of intermediates connecting the
black coat of a melanic jaguar with the normal spotted pattern. It
has long been known, from observation of domesticated animals,
that such sports appear sporadically without obvious, cause, and
that they make their appearance fully developed. Precision has
been added to these old observations by long-continued breeding
experiments, notably those carried out with the fruit fly Droso-
phila. These have shown that discontinuous variations, mutations
((/.i>.), arise continuously, that the same mutation appears inde-
pendently again and again and does so at a uniform rate, differing
from that at which other mutations occur. The number of ob-
served mutations in this form is very large; it already exceeds 400.
These mutations, although they affect most profoundly some one
structure, actually alter many apparently unassociated parts of the
animal. They may produce such gross modifications of structure
that the resulting mutant is non- viable and dies at some definite
point of the life history, or they may have so small an effect
that only long experience will enable an observer to recognize
their existence. They may even produce no visible effect in indi-
viduals bred under normal conditions.
There are certain experiments which seem to show that the
rate of appearance of mutations may be greatly increased by
exposing the animals to X-rays.
Some of the mutations which appear in the species Drosophila
melanogaster, which has been most fully investigated, are repeated
in exactly the same form in the other species of the genus, and
analogy with plants, and the character of the variations which
exist in other groups of animals, such as the rodents and land
snails, suggest that similar mutations must be capable of arising
in all the species included within large groups such as families.
Furthermore, the same part of the animal may, in some cases,
be caused to vary in the same direction by a number of inde-
pendent mutations, whose effects may be cumulative when they
are present together in a single individual. In such a case the
extreme conditions may be connected by a series of intermediates,
each a distinct step, which may be so small that an appearance
of continuous variation may exist.
It is, therefore, most difficult to decide whether any apparently
continuous variation is truly such, or whether it is not more
justly interpreted as the result of a large series of small steps.
This difficulty is increased by the fact that the external conditions
LAMARCK'S THEORY]
ZOOLOGY
under which its development has taken place affect to some degree
the character of every adult animal. That modifications in struc-
ture through use do take place is obvious. The highly-developed
arm muscles of a blacksmith clearly owe their size to continuous
exercise. But the influence of the environment may show itself
in much more subtle ways. A single egg of a bee may develop
either into a worker or a queen, castes which exhibit great morpho-
logical differences, according to the food that it is given and the
size of the cell in which it is housed. The brine shrimp Artemia
assumes very different forms if it is grown in water of different
salinities.
The effect of such variations, which are induced by the action
of the environment during the life of a single animal, will be to
hide the clear-cut steps which theoretically exist in a series of
variales differing by small mutations.
It is, therefore, impossible by mere inspection to decide whether
or not an apparent case of continuous variations is truly such.
It may represent congenital variation or it may merely depend
on "acquired" variations. As the greater part of the variability
which is observable in a population appears continuous, it is neces-
sary to have methods which will allow its character to be recorded,
so that it may be studied.
As (he problem is one which is concerned with a population, this
method must be statistical. The first step in any such investiga-
tion is to determine the character, the variation of which is to be
recorded, and to decide how it is to be expressed in numerical
terms. In auch a case as the height of man, or the length of any
of his parts, measurements in any units with a determined accuracy
are possible, but if the character be a mental one, or is concerned
with colour, the only possible procedure is to break up the whole
range of variation into a series of arbitrary stages. The masses of
figures which result from the measurement of a great number of
individuals may then be arrayed by grouping together all those
individuals who, in respect to the character under investigation,
fall between two definite numerical points. If, now, the numbers
of individuals within each of these groups be entered on a graph,
whose coordinates are the number of individuals and the magni-
tude of the variant character, it will usually be found that these
points lie in a curve, which has a maximum height at some definite
value and reaches the base line at values which represent the ex-
treme variations. Such a curve usually conforms to a definite
shape, which can be expressed by an equation, and the whole of
whose qualities can be determined from two expressions. The
character of this curve, that of normal variation, implies that the
variations which it records are due to chance events. If they be
constrained in any way, either by external circumstances or by a
tendency to division of the population into groups, the curve will
be distorted and give evidence of the condition.
The statistical study of animal populations has become an inde-
pendent discipline, biometry, of great value in the investigation,
not only of such problems as those which are presented by fishery
investigations, but also in relation to the government of human
population.
The variations which occur within the limits of a species, defined
as a mutually fertile group of animals, are of very great impor-
tance because they provide the raw material on which evolution is
based. Only such variations as are heritable, that is, can be handed
on from parent to offspring, can be of any value in bringing about
the divergencies in structure on which evolution depends.
It is thus necessary to consider individually the possibility, and
the mode, of inheritance of the three classes of variations which
we have recognized.
LAMARCK'S THEORY
The problem of the "inheritance of acquired characters," that
is, of the possibility or the reverse of the transmission to his off-
spring of a variation from the normal mode of a species which
an individual owes, not to anything innate in the fertilized egg
from which he himself arose, but to the influence of the environ-
ment, either directly exercised or represented by a reaction on the
part of the animal, has claimed the attention of leading zoologists
since Lamarck postulated it as an essential part of his theory of
evolutionary mechanism.
This hypothesis was based on the belief that every animal
tends to change its structure and habits during its individual
existence in such ways that it becomes better fitted for life under
the conditions to which it is subjected. If the characters so ac-
quired be transmitted to its offspring, which in turn become adap-
tively modified, there will in time arise a group of individuals dif-
fering "specifically" from the original progenitor. Thus the ac-
quired characters whose inheritance was postulated were of the
special character of "direct adaptations" to definite environmental
conditions, and represent special responses of the animal. Un-
fortunately, the reliable evidence in favour of such inheritance is
extremely scanty, and no case is of exactly the nature required
by Lamarck.
A number of zoologists have conducted experiments to test the
possibility of the hereditary transmission of the results of injury.
The vast numbers of experiments, made unintentionally by
breeders, in the cropping of the ears and tails of dogs and other
domestic animals, and the similar operations on man, have yielded
negative results. Deliberate experiments of the same kind have
been equally unsuccessful. But it may be argued that the reaction
of the animals to such mutilation, involving merely the formation
of a new skin over the wound, are not comparable to those which
result in a direct adaptation.
Very few attempts have been made to alter the character of an
animal by changing its environment, and to test the heritability
of the modifications. Experiments on the desert mouse, Peromys-
cus, give no positive results, and a series of experiments claiming
to establish such a transmission in the case of Amphibia and rep-
tiles is under very grave suspicion, and has not yet been repeated.
The most satisfactory experiments are of an entirely different
type. During the latter part of the iQth century it was observed
that, in certain districts, South Lancashire, West Yorkshire,
Northumberland, North Kent, in England, in some of the indus-
trial districts of Germany, and near Pittsburgh, U.S.A., some
moths were gradually changing their appearance. The change con-
sisted in the occurrence of melanic individuals, in which the wing
pattern became obscured by a nearly uniform black coloration.
Such types were at first rare, but they gradually increased in num-
ber to such an extent that the original types of some of the species
can no longer be found in some of these areas. It is quite certain
that this occurrence of melanism is causally connected with the in-
dustrialization of the areas in which it is found, because, in coun-
try districts, the original wild type remains unaccompanied by the
black forms. The change was formerly accounted for by a natural
selection of the favoured melanics, but the origin of the variation
was left unexplained.
Dr. Heslop Harrison has attempted to discover the cause of
this melanism by a series of experiments based on the suggestion
that it is induced by the direct action on the animal, or on its
contained germ cells, of the mineral salts which arc deposited from
smoke on ail the food plants in industrial areas. These experiments
were carried out, in part, with a moth which had never been known
in a melanic form, and consisted in feeding the caterpillars on clean
food as a control, on plants collected in a smoky, "melanic" area,
and on plants artificially infiltrated with manganese or lead salts.
During the course of the experiments melanic individuals appeared
amongst the moths resulting from the larvae which had been fed
on the contaminated food, and their descendants, although fed on
clean food, still exhibited the melanism whose inheritance con-
formed to the Mendelian type.
It is to be noted that this melanism was fully developed at its
first appearance, and that, although it represents a reaction of
the animal to the chemical agent applied, it has not been shown,
and it is most improbable that this reaction is of any value to the
individuals which present it. Thus the primary postulate of
Lamarck is not met. Furthermore, it is not certain that this melan-
ism is an "acquired character" in the ordinary meaning of that
term. It is, perhaps, more probable that it results from a direct
action of the metal ions on the germ cells, and that hence the
original melanic individuals possessed that character from their
initiation at fertilization, and would have displayed it even if they
982
ZOOLOGY
[MENDELISM
had been fed throughout on untreated food.
Indeed, it is perhaps legitimate to regard this case as a parallel
to the effect of X-rays in increasing the ( rate of production of
mutations in Drosophila. These experiments, though they have
every appearance of reliability, require confirmation, because the
number of cases in which melanism has been induced is very
small. There is, therefore, no single case in which an inheritance
of an "acquired character" of the type which is required by a
Lamarckian explanation of evolution can be proved to have oc-
CUITed- MENDELISM
Such variations as those which we have described as discontin-
uous, which arise fully formed by mutation, seem always to be
heritable, and to be handed on from parents to offspring in ac-
cordance to definite laws, those of Mendelian or alternate inheri-
tance, (See HEREDITY.) These laws were first formulated by
Gregor Mendel, abbot of Briinn, in 1865, as the result of experi-
ments in the hybridization of garden plants, but they remained
unappreciated until 1900.
The typical Mendelian experiment, involves the selection of
two individuals which differ by a single definite character and
are members of lines which breed true for this character. These
individuals are then crossed and the character of all the resulting
first hybrid generation (/ i) examined. It will in all cases be
found that the whole / i generation is uniform with respect to the
character under consideration, and that in nearly all cases it resem-
bles one or other of the parents and does not exhibit a blend of
their peculiarities. The character which appears in the first hybrid
generation is said to be dominant, that which is hidden recessive.
The whole of the individuals of the / i generation are allowed to
mate at random, and the resulting second hybrid generation / 2
examined. It is found that the recessive character has reappeared
in them, and that the individuals displaying it form one quarter
of the whole. Thus the factor, whatever it be, which, when
present in the fertilized egg, causes the appearance of the recessive
character, must have been present in the individuals of the / i gen-
eration, uncontaminated by the simultaneous presence of that
which causes the production of the dominant character. The com-
plete fusion of the reproductive cells which occurs at fertilization,
and the nature of the cell divisions which form part of the develop-
ment of the animal, make it clear that all ordinary cells through-
out the body of the hybrid will contain the factor for both dom-
inant and recessive characters.
The nature of -the phenomenon of segregation, the reappearance
of both parental types in the second hybrid generation, can be in-
vestigated by breeding each member of that generation with its
like. It is then found that recessive individuals bred together never
produce dominants, rendering it clear that they do not contain
the factor for the production of that character. The individuals
which possess the dominant character are of two kinds; one-third
of them, when bred with their like, produce only dominants, the
other two-thirds produce dominants and recessives in a three to
one proportion.
This occurrence receives a complete explanation if, in the
process of formation of the gametes, each receives either the factor
for the production of the dominant or that for the recessive char-
acter, but not both, that is, that the gametes are "pure" with
respect to these characters.
The observed ratio of dominant to recessive individuals in the
/ 2 second hybrid generation can only occur if the original hybrids
produce equal numbers of the two kinds of gametes, and the
mating of these gametes is entirely haphazard.
It follows, therefore, that the individuals which are produced
irr the experiment are of two kinds, those which produce only one
sort of gamete, either dominant producing or recessive, which are
hence called homozygous, and those which produce equal numbers
of the two types of gametes, the heterozygous form. Furthermore,
the morphology of the individuals presenting the dominant char-
acter will not enable us to distinguish the homozygous from the
heterozygous animals.
It is thus essential to distinguish between the phenotype, the
appearance of an animal, and the genotype, its constitution, as
determined by that of the gametes from whose fusion it arose.
The simplicity of this explanation of the Mendelian ratio soon led
zoologists to look for structures of the germ cells which would
provide a suitable mechanism,
The fact that, in such a case as that which we have considered,
it is immaterial which parent exhibits the dominant character,
suggests that it is very improbable that this mechanism lies in the
cytoplasm, because the amount of extra nuclear material con-
tributed to the zygote by most Metazoan spermatozoa is extremely
small in amount, although it seems to include a representation of
most cell organs. Attention is thus directed to the nucleus. From
the fact that the only permanent or more accurately, persistently
recurring structures within the nucleus are the chromosomes, and
that the number of these bodies is constant in all members of a
species, it is clear that either the number of chromosomes in the
nucleus of the gametes is half that in body cells, or that after
fertilization the number in the zygote nucleus is in some way
halved. In fact, in animals and plants both mechanisms may b.e
found, but that which is universal in Metazoa is the reduction of
the number in the gamtte nucleus.
A full amount of the details of the process by which this result
is reached will be found in the article CYTOLOGY ; the fundamental
phenomenon is that during the first stage of a division of a germ
cell the chromosomes which compose a pair come together and
lie side by side, so accurately adjusted to one another that they
present the appearance of a single longitudinally split, chro-
mosome. In many cases the original chromosomes theit. split longi-
tudinally, so that the nucleus appears to contain a number of
threads, each composed of four chromosomes lying side by side.
The number of such threads is necessarily half that of the chro-
mosomes present during the division of an ordinary cell of the
animal. (See CYTOLOGY.)
By two divisions which follow rapidly on one another, the four
elements which build up each of these threads (paired chromo-
somes) become distributed into four cells, which, in the case of
the male, are all functional spermatozoa, whilst in the female
three are functioniess, whilst the fourth is a mature or ripe ovum.
When fertilization takes place the nuclei of the ovum and
spermatozoan swell up, become exactly similar in size and char-
acter, and chromosomes appear within them. From the nature of
the process of maturation it is clear that each will contain only
half the number present in the normal body ceil. These nuclei
then fuse, and the chromosomes present in them neither fuse, nor
are they united in pairs, but each becomes attached to the spindle,
splits longitudinally and is separated into two halves at the first
cleavage division which immediately follows. Thus each cell of the
new individual contains two complete sets of chromosomes, one
derived from its female, the other from its male parent. The
accuracy of this statement has been confirmed by observation of
special cases in which one or more of the chromosomes of one of
the parents is visibly different from the corresponding chromosome
of the other.
When gametes come to be formed it is apparent that each will
receive a single complete set of chromosomes, a haploid group,
and that this group need not be purely maternal or paternal in
nature, but will owe its constitution to chance, certain chromo-
somes coming from one and the rest from the other parent.
This process of gamete formation and fertilization obviously
affords a mechanism which will completely account for the ob-
served facts of a simple case of Mendelian heredity, if the factors
which determine the development of the alternative characters lie
in a chromosome.
Furthermore, it should follow that, in a cross involving two pairs
of Mendelian characters, one of two things must happen. If the
factors involved lie in the same chromosome the two characters
will stick together in heredity, if they lie in different chromosomes,
each should be inherited independently of the other, and the
phenotypic nature of the individuals of the / 2 second hybrid
generation will be determined by chance. Innumerable cases of
each kind are now known.
In the case of Drosophila it has been shown that there are four
groups of mutations, which are linked together in their inheritance.
ANIMAL ECOLOGY]
ZOOLOGY
983
These linkage groups differ very greatly in size. One includes only
three mutant genes, two include about 80 each, whilst the fourth
includes more than 200. If the linkage be dependent on the situa-
tion of the factors which produce these mutations in the same
chromosome, it should follow that Drosophila should have a hap-
loid number of four chromosomes. This is the case, and the indi-
vidual chromosomes differ in length much as do the linkage
groups.
Thus there is a very great probability that the factors which de-
termine Mendelian heredity lie in the chromosomes. It remains
to determine their distribution. It is clear from the fact that many
mutations may co-exist in the same individual without inter-
ference, that the factors determining them are discrete entities;
to them is given the name gene. It was observed first in Droso-
phila, and since in other animals and plants, that the linkage be-
tween genes which lie in the same chromosome is not absolute,
that in a certain definite proportion, differing for every two muta-
tions considered, a process which is called "crossing over" occurs ;
that is, genes which, as they lie in the same chromosome, should
enter a single gamete, do not do so. This* has been explained by a
fracture of the chromosome involved between the two genes, and
a reunion of its parts, not with each other, but with appropriate
fragments of the homologous chromosome when the two lie side
by side during the process of maturation. By arguments based on
this hypothesis it has been shown that all the unexpected oc-
currences in the heredity of the mutations of Drosophila can be
accounted^ or if the genes have a linear and fixed distribution along
the chromosomes. Indeed, maps of the chromosomes of this ani-
mal, showing the location of each gene have been published.
The genes whose existence has been established in this way have
many peculiar properties. They are extremely small bodies; their
centres need be no more than four protein molecules apart, so that
they must be composed of so small a number of molecules that
the ordinary laws of physics and chemistry, which are statistical
statements applicable only to bodies containing great numbers of
molecules, need not necessarily be accurately followed by them.
The genes are clearly capable of growth and division, because
many hundreds or thousands of cell divisions lie between the
original zygote nucleus and the gametes which ultimately arise
from it. They are individual, and extremely stable because they
must persist throughout long evolutionary cbawis. Nevertheless,
they must be capable of such modification as ii necessary to cause
the appearance of a mutation. It is possible that they owe this
power to their minuteness. Thus genes present many of the char-
acters of living organisms, in at least as high a degree as cells
themselves. It has, in fact, been suggested that they are similar
to the elements of the viruses which are responsible for many
diseases.
It now remains to consider the possibility of a hereditary trans-
mission of continuous variations. We have already seen that it is
not certain that any such exist, and a consideration of the nature
of any conceivable hereditary mechanism rather suggests that they
do not. It is certain that the whole mechanism which determines
the course of development exists in the fertilized egg, in part in
the nucleus, in part certainly in the cytoplasm. Any congenital
variation must result from some change in this mechanism, and
such change must, in the end, be of a "chemical nature/' including
under that head all modifications of the relationship of the mole-
cules with each other. But such changes must, in an ultimate
analysis, be definite steps, not connected with one another by in-
termediates. Thus it is difficult to believe in the existence of true
heritable continuous variations.
The only possible mode of investigating the inheritance of an
apparently continuous variation is a statistical one. Two indi-
viduals which differ from one another are crossed and their off-
spring bred together, either with or without selective mating.
The character under investigation is measured in the original par-
ents and in all their descendants, and by an appropriate technique
mathematical expressions of their resemblance to the original
parents and to each other can be established. The results so ob-
tained may be of very great value in discussions of the probable
course of change of a population, which is the basis of evolution.
But the mode by which these results are obtained is such that they
can tell us nothing about individuals; they are applicable only to
population. (See BIOJMETRY.)
These results are probably not much less valuable for their spe-
cial purpose if the variation considered be indeed dependent on a
large number of genes, each exhibiting a Mendelian inheritance,
and not truly continuous. The existence of this condition may be
suggested by the fact that, if it obtains, the first hybrid generation
will exhibit a smaller range of variation than that of the popula-
tion of which the original parents were members, and that a long-
continued course of inbreeding will much reduce the variability of
the resulting population.
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
The aspects of zoology which we have so far considered are
morphological in their outlook; in them it is form and not function
which is the centre of interest. Even the development of genetics
has led to the explanation of observed differences of structure by
an inferred structure in chromosomes. But from the very begin-
ning of zoology a different point of view has been adopted by some
investigators. To the common man the activities of an animal
are far more interesting than its structure, and professional
zoologists, after an interval of half a century, are recognizing the
justification for his belief. Thus a steadily increasing, though still
small proportion of zoological research is devoted to physiology
(q.v.), to the study of animal function. Such studies may, as in
the recent remarkable developments of muscle physiology, be
carried out without any reference to observed structural parts,
but sooner or later, and in most cases from their beginning, they
have to be brought into relation with morphology.
Animals are alive, and they live in a world presenting a wide
range of variation of conditions, both inorganic and organic. The
study of the relations between an animal and its environment,
which is called bionomics or ecology (q.v.), is that proper to the
field naturalist; it must be based on observation of natural con-
ditions, interpreted by experiments designed to eliminate or
evaluate the many factors which are involved. Such studies were
first made an integral part of the science of zoology by Darwin.
It is curious and unfortunate, though understandable, that whilst
the reactions of Darwin's work on morphology and taxonomy were
immediate and salutary, those studies which formed the main part
of his life work were neglected by professed zoologists in general,
and their further developments rapidly became fantastic because
little or no attempt was made to test the validity of the innumer-
able hypothetical explanations of "observed" facts which were
enunciated.
It has always been known that the distribution of animals over
the world is not uniform; every schoolboy is aware that kangaroos
are found only in Australia, and that the sea coast is inhabited
by many birds which are seldom or never found inland. Study of
this irregular distribution can be carried out in two ways; the
fauna of some one natural area may be compared with that of
others, or the detailed distribution of the animals within a small
area may be discussed.
The results of the first type of investigation are fully treated
in the article ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. They are of, interest from
the light that they shed on the course of evolution, especially
in regard to the migrations of animals and the existence of
evolutionary centres. The value of these conclusions depends
entirely on the extent to which the taxonomic divisions which are
recognized, and the relationship of animals which are implied in
them, are true representations of fact.
It is apparent that the existing distribution of animals cannot
be accounted for on a basis of the geography of to-day, and a
study of zoo-geographical regions necessarily leads the student
into the perilous fields of palaeogeography. The results reached
by an investigation of the distribution of the larger groups of
animals must be shown to be consistent with one another; and
with the distribution of land, water and mountain chains in past
time which may be inferred from geological evidence. The only
method of controlling the accuracy of the conclusions which are
reached lies in palaeontological evidence, which gives definite in-
formation, even although partial, about the distribution of many
984
ZOOLOGY
[ANIMAL ECOLOGY
animals in the various periods of geological time.
Bionomics, or ecology (g.v.), is a study of a very different kind,
still largely undeveloped, but capable of becoming of the highest
importance, not only to theoretical zoology, but to those who are
engaged in the commercial exploitation of animals and plants,
and to all men who are exposed to the risk of infection by animal-
borne diseases.
It is obvious that every animal is so far fitted for life that it is
capable of maintaining itself under certain conditions. The field
naturalists of the period before Darwin had observed that many
structures of animals, even if very grotesque, played a definite
part in their lives, and they reached the conclusion that every part
and peculiarity of an animal had a definite function, being designed
by the Creator to render service to the animal in that state of life
in which it lived. This belief was at once seized on by theologians,
as evidence of the existence of a beneficent Creator. Lamarck
and Darwin both accepted the zoological aspect of these views, and
the latter brought to their support a vast mass of observations
drawn either from his own world-wide observations or from the
reports of other writers. (See EVOLUTION; ADAPTATION.) But
both Lamarck and Darwin rejected the idea that these "adapta-
tions," whereby an animal was specially fitted for life in a definite
environmental niche, were the result of deliberate design; each
put forward a theory which purported to explain how they could
here arise under the action of intelligible forces during the course
of evolution.
The Lamarckian explanation, which has already been referred
to, requires an inheritance of acquired characters of a kind which
cannot be proved to occur, and has never met with any general
acceptance.
Darwin's theory of natural selection provides, at the least, a
complete formal explanation of all, or nearly all, evolution. But
it still rests on an insecure basis. Darwin was the first zoolo-
gist to realize that an incredibly small proportion of all the animals
which are born on the globe survive to maturity. The world popu-
lation of herrings has probably been sensibly constant for a very
long period, although each individual female herring lays many
millions of eggs during its lifetime. Of these millions only a few
individuals reach maturity and breed in their turn. The remainder
die at some early stage, most of them serving as food for other
animals. Darwin enquired whether the animals which survived
were in any way different from those which perished ; appealing to
the facts of variation, which he collected for the first time, he
claimed that it is obvious that, in general, the survivors will owe
their escape to the fact that they were better fitted in some way
or ways for life under the conditions to which they were subjected.
That this view expresses a general truth can scarcely be doubted,
but it is unsatisfactory that only very few (about 17) attempts
have ever been made to establish its truth in individual cases, and
to measure the intensity of the selection which is so exercised.
Having established the existence of a natural selection, Darwin
proceeded to discuss whether or not the variations which secured
the survival of the selected individuals would be inherited by their
offspring. He appealed to the experience of breeders of domesti-
cated animals, and thus, for the first time, brought the study of
heredity into zoological science.
The evidence of breeders, imperfect though it was, justified
Darwin in claiming that the favourable variations of the animals
spared by natural selection would be passed on to their descend-
ants. If, then, these in turn varied and new favourable varia-
tions were selected, the process would be repeated, with the result
that after many generations the stock under consideration would
have changed so as to become much better adapted to the condi-
tions under which it lived. The knowledge of heredity which we
now possess shows nothing which invalidates Darwin's postulates,
and his doctrine is still available.
Darwin and his followers applied this conception to the explana-
tion of a vast series of curious structures in animals and plants,
and introduced subsidiary hypotheses such as that of sexual selec-
tion (q.v.) to explain special groups of cases. But only in very
few of these many cases was any attempt made to show by direct
observation and experiment that a structure did, in fact, fulfil the
function for which it was supposed to be adapted. In many cases
the suggested explanation became so far fetched as to be gro-
tesque, with the result that a number of living zoologists have
come to disbelieve in the existence of adaptation as an important
phenomenon, and to have a contempt for those who still discuss
it Nevertheless, the existence of such evolutionary series as
those of the horse and many others shows that a steady improve-
ment of the mechanism of limbs has taken place as an adaptation
to some special type of locomotion. And no zoologist who has
any extended acquaintance with animals under their natural condi-
tions can doubt that each is, in fact, very well fitted for the life
it leads. Of late years the pendulum of opinion has been swinging
back towards an essentially Darwinian position.
It is clear that any study of the relations existing between an
animal and its environment must begin with an evaluation of the
properties of the latter. Many circumstances make it more easy
to express the conditions of a body of water, and especially of
the sea, in figures, than those of a land area, and it is hence not.
surprising that the science of oceanography (Q.V. — see also FISH-
ERIES) was founded and 'has been developed by zoologists.
The earliest studies of the sea from this special standpoint by
Edward Fofbes showed that in the temperate zone the sea floor
could be divided into regions on a basis of depth, and that each of
these zones was inhabited by a characteristic group of animals.
Forbes's zones, the littoral, laminarian, continental shelf, conti-
nental slope and abyssal regions, have been further subdivided by
later work, and on them has been superposed a Subsidiary
grouping according to animal communities, which depends ulti-
mately on the nature of the bottom. But in all these investigations
the character of the sea water itself has been supposed to be con-
stant. In fact, it varies in nature from season to season, and in
some regions from day to day, even locally from hour to hour.
The more important qualities of the sea from a biological stand-
point are its mean temperature and the daily and seasonal range
in temperature; the amount of suspended matter and its chemi-
cal nature and physical state; the concentration of salts in solu-
tion, the amount and relative proportions of the ions of calcium,
magnesium, potassium and sodium present; the concentration of
hydrogen ions and the extent to which changes of such concen-
tration is hindered by buffering; the absolute amounts of phos-
phates, nitrates, silica, and perhaps other substances present; the
amount and the (Sutracter of absorption of light which it effects ;
its viscosity and the amount of oxygen and carbon-dioxide in
solution. All these qualities can be determined by physical and
chemical measurements and definitely recorded in figures. They
have been so studied, intensively and at regular intervals in those
areas such as the seas off the west European coast and some of
those off Canada and the United States where fisheries are impor-
tant, and more generally by the great series of expeditions, of
which the first and greatest was that of H.M.S. "Challenger,"
devoted to the study of the ocean and its life all over the world.
Variations in these qualities may affect animals either directly
or through the plants, diatoms and peridinians, which form the
basis of all marine life. Plants require for their growth carbon-
dioxide, water, phosphates and nitrates, in addition to other ele-
ments which are always present in the sea in adequate amount;
from these materials they can form the living protoplasm of their
bodies and build up reserve stores of food. This process involves
an expenditure of energy which plants, and plants alone, can
obtain from sunlight. Thus variation in light intensity and dura-
tion will directly alter the amount of plant growth and thus deter-
mine the amount of animal life which can exist in any body of
sea. But in British waters the total amount of plant life is deter-
mined, not by an insufficiency of daylight, but by the exhaustion
of the stock of phosphates and nitrates in solution in the sea.
The penetration of light through sea water is so poor that no
effective growth of plants is possible at a greater depth than some
40 fathoms. Thus all animal life below this depth is dependent
on food which is carried down from the surface layers of the
ocean. This transference is effected either by animals which
migrate through a definite belt of water or by the slow descent
of dead animals and plants.
ANIMAL ECOLOGY]
ZOOLOGY
985
But variations in the quality of sea water may affect ani-
mals much more directly. Temperature seems to be the limiting
factor for very many animals ; it may act in many ways. A high
temperature may produce irreversible changes in the physical
state of the protoplasm, either of some one organ or of an animal
as a whole, or it may disorganize its controlling mechanism. Low
temperatures may slow down the rate of living to such an extent
that growth becomes impossible. These effects may be exerted
on any part of the life history; reproduction may become impos-
sible at a temperature at which the adult lives successfully.
Any change of the concentration of salts in the sea, by alter-
ing the osmotic pressure it exerts, directly affects all animals
whose surface has the properties of a semi-permeable membrane,
because changes in it lead either to abstraction of water from the
animal or absorption of water by it at a rate which may become
too great to be coped with. The efficiency of such changes as a bar
to dispersion is shown by the very small fauna of brackish water.
Variations in the concentration of metallic ions may affect ani-
mals by destroying the physico-chemical mechanism on which the
maintenance of its surface depends, or by rendering the processes
of fertilization and cleavage impossible. The hydrogen ion con-
centration produces similar, though more intense effects. Varia-
tions in the amount of oxygen available clearly modify the activi-
ties of all animals, because the whole of their metabolism is based
on a series of oxidizations and reductions. The real nature of the
relationship between any animal and its environment can only be
discovered* by experiment. The factors involved are so numerous
that it is evident that the problem can never be solved by observa-
tion of the natural occurrence of the species. Only by varying the
conditions of the medium, one at a time, and observing the effects
of these changes, not only on the whole animal at each stage of its
life history, but also on its isolated organs, will it become possi-
ble to appreciate the real nature of the correlation which un-
doubtedly exists between the organism and its surroundings.
One of the most fundamental parts of this relationship is that
which concerns food. Although every animal is ultimately de-
pendent on plants for its nutrition, it may feed on other animals
and be connected only by a food-chain with the basal source. The
first step is thus to trace as fully as possible the series of forms
involved in this chain, which can only be done by long-continued
observation. The next is to work out the action of the feeding
mechanism, so as to determine to what extent the animal is re-
stricted to food of definite size or nature. Then it becomes impor-
tant to investigate how far the food which actually enters the
mouth can be made useful, which involves a study of the diges-
tive enzymes, and of the conditions under which they will act.
Finally, the problems of absorption and transport of food must be
considered. The next stage is to add precision to the facts so
learnt by determining the amount of food which can be collected
and digested under definite conditions, and, so far as is possible,
the mode of its utilization, whether for maintenance, general
activities or for growth.
The respiratory mechanisms of the animal are necessarily in-
volved in such studies; they may be dealt with in the form of the
gross requirements of the animal over a period, or the detailed
use of oxygen varying with such circumstances as exposure during
an intcrtidal period may be determined.
The mode of transport of oxygen, its storage and the power
that an animal possesses of incurring an oxygen debt, all form
parts of such investigations. Indeed, the physiology of the chosen
animal must be studied as a whole. When this has been done, not
for one but for many animals, a science of comparative physiology
will become possible; it will be parallel to comparative anatomy,
based on evolution, and devoted to an understanding of the
changes which have taken place in physiological activities, changes
which must always have been such that the animals in which they
were exhibited were workable wholes at every stage. Even with
our present exceedingly scanty knowledge, the possibility of such
a comparative physiology has become clear.
The chemical relationship which exists between many respira-
tory pigments, including haemoglobin, the colouring matter
of red blogd, and cytochrome, a respiratory pigment found in
all cells of all pla/its and animals, points the way to many further
investigations. But physiological investigations of a different
kind are equally valuable. Cells, whether they compose the whole
body of a Protozoan 'or are units in that of a Metazoan, have a
physiology some parts of which can be determined. As cells come
into contact with one another and with their surroundings only
through their surface, it is evident that any knowledge of the
nature and peculiarities of that surface will be of value in the
solution of such problems as those presented by the process of
cleavage and of histogenesis. The factors which are involved in
the ordinary process of cell division, those which determine the
position of the spindle and the movements of the chromosomes
can clearly only be investigated by physiological methods.
An understanding of the mechanism which underlies the attain-
ment of a definite structure at the end of development involves
chemical and physical researches. Only certain special parts of
this story have so far proved attackable. Fertilization (q.v.), the
most fundamental point in all Metazoan development, can be
analysed. Its effects are twofold; it causes the first of a great
series of cell divisions to take place, and it brings together in a
single individual, qualities which have existed separately in two.
It is certain, from the morphological studies of cytologists and
geneticists, that the second effect is brought about by the fusion
of the cytoplasms and nuclei of the two gametes, and the resulting
regainment of a diploid set of chromosomes. It might be sup-
posed that the last occurrence was responsible for the initiation
of cleavage, but it has been shown that it is possible to cause
cleavage to begin, and even to continue to maturity, by a variety
of chemical and physical treatments, and that the artificially par-
thenogenetic individuals so formed may retain a haploid num-
ber of chromosomes. (See PARTHENOGENESIS.)
Thus the way is cleared for an investigation of the first effect
in isolation; by physiological investigations it can be shown to
involve a change in the character of the cell membrane which
makes it permeable, and begins an active metabolism, and other
changes in the cytoplasm which lead to the development of asters
and a spindle.
Thus fertilization is multifold; some of its effects can be
brought about by non-living agents, whilst others require a living
cell. It will clearly be possible to investigate the mode of action
of genes, and thus to gain a new line of attack on the problems
of development. The most promising point for such an attack is
on the determination of sex, which has been shown to be con-
trolled in normal cases by a balance between the actions of one
special pair of chromosomes, and the remainder. But in a few
cases the sex of an animal may be changed long after the nuclear
character has been fixed at fertilization. The physiological
mechanisms which are involved are still unknown, though clearly
open to investigation.
Finally, the ductless glands, and especially the thyroid, have
been shown to exercise a control over the development of an
animal. Unless their secretions be present at the right time and
in adequate amount, the whole process of development may stop
or be diverted, the remainder of the mechanism failing to act.
Thus physiological investigations are those which seem likely to
add most to the content of zoology in the future. They will, how-
ever, do so not in isolation, but when brought into contact with
morphology and ecology and with a study of the natural conditions
of life of the animals on which they are carried out. One particu-
lar group of such studies, those of "Animal behaviour" (see
PSYCHOLOGY, COMPARATIVE) is of the greatest potential value,
not only because its subject is of vital importance in all bionomics,
but also because of its great influence on psychology.
It seems evident that the success of such animals as the spar-
row and starling, the rabbit and grey squirrel, which, introduced
by man into new localities, have there developed into pests, is due
as much to their "mental" characters, to morale, as to any special
favourable qualities of their structure and general physiology.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ZOOLOGY
Finally, it is necessary to say a few words about the economic
importance of zoology. The breeding of domestic animals is a
986
ZORILLA— ZOROASTER
great industry, after the. rearing of food plants, the largest and
most widespread that there is. It has been extraordinarily suc-
cessful in producing breeds of sheep, cattle and horses, fitted for
all conditions and uses, But its methods have been purely em-
pirical, and consequently thus necessarily slow and wasteful in
application.
It is certain that the application of modern genetics to animal
breeding will lead to advances as great as those which have already
been effected in the establishment of new races of cultivated
plants. (See ANIMAL BREEDING, BREEDS AND BREEDING.)
The damage that animal pests, especially insects, do to crops,
amounts perhaps to more than a hundred million pounds a year.
These ravages can only be controlled by methods laid down by
zoologists. The establishment of these methods depends on a full
investigation of the life history and habits of the pest, and of all
the factors in its surroundings which influence it. Climatic con-
ditions, distance from water, alternative sources of food, the
efficiency and mode of application of poisons, parasites and dis-
eases of the pest, and animals that prey on it, have all to be inves-
tigated by the ordinary methods of bionomical research. (See
ENTOMOLOGY: Economic Entomology.)
Fisheries (q.v.) present many problems, variations of the catch
from season to season, the extent to which the breeding stock is
becoming depleted, new fishing grounds, the possibility of artificial
culture arc all problems of the greatest complexity which fall
within the province of the zoologist.
The control of insect-borne diseases of man must rest on meas-
ures determined by zoologists, and their work may touch human
affairs even more directly. (See PARASITOLOGV.) The results of a
differential fertility of different sections of a nation's population,
and of a mixing of races are things of the greatest importance to
Governments, and should receive their attention to a much greater
extent than they in fact do. But they can only be investigated by
men who include zoology in their equipment, whether they be
biometricians or followers of some other school. (See BIOMETRICS;
EUGENICS; POPULATION.)
The purpose of this article is to indicate, very imperfectly, the
interrelationships of the various types of study which are included
under the wide heading of zoology. Each is more fully explained
in a separate article, to which reference should be made.
The more important of these are : — The articles dealing with the
separate phyla and other groups; PROTOZOA; SPONGES; COELEN-
TERATA; PLATYHELMIA; NEMERTINA; NEMATODA; ANNELIDA;
ARTHROPODA; MOLLUSCA; POLYZOA; BRACHIOPOD^; VERTEBRATA;
CYTOLOGY; HISTOLOGY; EMBRYOLOGY; HEREDITY; EVOLUTION;
PALAEONTOLOGY; ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS; ECOLOGY; MORPHOLOGY;
BIOMETRY; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGY; ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR.
(D. M. S. W.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. Sedgwick, Student's Text Book of Zoology (3
vojs., 1898-1909, new ed., 1927) ; E. B. Wilson, The Cell in Develop-
ment and Heredity (1900); The Cambridge Natural History (10
vols., 1900-09) ; E. Ray Lankester (ed.), A Treatise on Zoology (8
vols., 1909-09); O, Hertwig (ed.), Handbuch der Entwickdungslehre
der Wirbelthiere (8 parts, Jena, 1901-6) ; J. Murray and J. Hjort, The
Depths of the Ocean (1912) ; T. H, Morgan, etc., The Mechanism of
Mendelian Heredity (1915) ; E. W. Macbride and J. G. Kerr, Text-
book of Embryology (2 vcls., 1918-19) ; R. Goldschmidt, The
Mechanism and Physiology of Sex Determination (1923) ; H. S.
Jennings, Behaviour of the Lower Organisms (N.Y., 1923) ; G. N.
Calkins, The Biolo&y of the Protozoa (Philadelphia, 1926) ; T. H.
Morgan, Experimental Embryology (N.Y., 1927) ; see also W. Kiiken-
thal and T. Krumbach (eds.) , Handbuch der Zoologie (in prog.) .
ZORILLA, the name of several African carnivorous mam-
mals, allied to the badger (T oxide a), but lightly built and long
tailed, superficially resembling skunks. They comprise the genera
Jctonyx and Poecilictis. (See CARNIVORA.)
ZORN, ANDERS (1860-1920), Swedish artist, was born at
Mora, in the province of Dalecarlia, Sweden, on Feb. 18, 1860.
He began his artistic career as a water-colourist, adopting the
style and tastes of Egron Lundgren under whom he studied. He
became well-known in Sweden through the exhibition in 1880 of a
small girl's head, entitled "Mourning," now in the National
Museum, Stockholm. An increasing reputation brought him orders
for many portraits and he earned the means to travel. His first
trip to Spain greatly advanced his work through contact with vivid
colourings in nature and in life. In the three years following he
maintained a studio in London and afterwards travelled in eastern
Europe and in Algiers. These years saw the best of his water-
colours, such as "Our Daily Bread," "Gipsy Forge," "Caique
Rower/' "Algiers Harbour," "Lapping of the Waves," "En
premiere," "The Fish Market at St. Ives" and "Rositi Mauri."
From 1887 to 1893 he lived chiefly in Paris, though making long
visits to Sweden in the summer. In these years he took up oil
painting. Also he abandoned the realist manner and became
primarily an impressionist and colourist. In 1893 he made his
first visit to the United States as Swedish commissioner accom-
panying that country's art exhibit at the Columbian Exposition
in Chicago. He made six subsequent trips, and painted portraits
of many American millionaires as well as of Cleveland, Taft,
Roosevelt, Hanna, Hay and others. After 1896 he began to spend
more of his time in Mora, where he loved and encouraged the
Dalecarlian peasant life and customs. He died there on Aug. 22,
1920.
As a painter Zorn is "an excellent example of the matured im-
pressionistic group. He won renown for his characteristic and
picturesque portraits in which, owing to his sensitive study of
values, he gives proper play to light and half-tones. In addition
to millionaires, international celebrities, and members of royal
families, he painted red-cheeked Swedish girls, country peasant
women, and old artisans at their work, and some of his best pic-
tures, such as the studies of his mother in "Mona," of«ihe watch-
maker "Djos Mats," the smith "Bosl Anders," and the fiddler
"Hins Anders," belong in the latter categories. He loved the nude,
especially the play of water on or around the body. "Naked,"
"After Bathing," "En premiere," "Renaissance," "By Lake
Siljan," "Improvised Bath," and "Mother and Daughter" are
among the best of these. In later years he turned more and more
to Dalecarlian peasant subjects of which should be mentioned
"Midsummer Dance," "Dance at Gopsmor," "Vallkulla," "Early
Christmas Service" and "Watering the Horses."
Zorn's status as an etcher is still in controversy between those
who would rank him among the masters and those who feel he
has been over-rated. He learned the art from his fellow-country-
man, Axel Haig, in 1882, but did not do important work in the
medium until 1889. At his best, especially in the series of etched
portraits of Renan, Anatole France, Proust, Rodin and Verlaine in
France, of the Scandinavians Strindberg and Carl Larsson, of
Grover Cleveland, Henry Marquand and Senator Mason in Amer-
ica, of the old artisans of Mora in "Djos Mats," "An Old Sol-
dier," and "Vicke," and in "Mona" and "The Toast," he shows
genius of the highest sort. Of his nudes "Early Morning," "My
Model and My Boat," "Edo," "Precipice," "Wet," "Sappho," all
enjoyed favour, but he pursued the theme until it became monoto-
nous, and many of his later plates were quite common in con-
ception. Zorn also Won fame as a sculptor, one of his most popu-
lar pieces in Sweden being the statute of Gustavus Vasa at Mora
(1901). The "Faun and Nymph," "Morning Bath" and "Broken
Pitcher" also show his high ability in this field.
See T. Hedberg, Anders Zorn (1901 and 1910) ; F. Servaes, Anders
Zorn (1910) ; E. MalmberR, Larsson, Liljefors, Zorn (1919) ; K.
Asplund, Anders Zorn: his Life and Work (1921); The Etchings of
Anders Zorn, introduction and notes by £. M. Lang (1923); Anders
Zorn (1925) in Modern Masters of Etching series.
ZORNDORF, a village of Prussia, in the Oder valley, north-
east of Custrin. It is famous as the scene of a battle in which
the Prussians under Frederick the Great defeated the Russians
under Fermor, on Aug. 25, 1758 (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR).
ZOROASTER, the founder of the national religion of the
Iranian people from the time of the Achaemenidae to the close
of the Sassanian period. The name (Zctfpotarr/wjf) is the corrupt
Greek form of the Iranian Zarathustra (new Persian, Zarduski).
Its signification is obscure. Zoroaster was famous in antiquity
as the founder of the wisdom of the Magi. His name occurs first
in a fragment of Xanthus (29), and in the Alcibiades of Plato
(L p. 122), who calls him the son of Oromazdes. Occidental
writers sometimes call him a Bactrian, sometimes a. Median or
2OROASTER
9*7
Persian (cf. Jackson, Zoroaster, 186). According to Pliny (Nat.
Hist. vii. 15), he laughed on the very day of his birth — a state-
ment found also in the Zardusht-Ndma — and lived in the wilder-
ness upon cheese (xi. 97). Plutarch speaks of his intercourse
with the deity, and compares him with Lycurgus and Numa
(Numa, 4). Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch's contemporary, declares
that neither Homer nor Hesiod sang of the chariot and horses of
Zeus so worthily as Zoroaster, of whom the Persians tell that,
out of love to wisdom and righteousness, he withdrew himself
from men, and lived in solitude upon a mountain. The mountain
was consumed by fire, but Zoroaster escaped uninjured and spoke
to the multitude (vol. ii. p. 60). Plutarch, drawing partly on
Theopompus, speaks of his religion in his I sis and Osiris (cc.
46-47). He gives a faithful sketch of the doctrines, mythology
and dualistic system of the Magian Zoroaster.
Agathias remarks (ii. 24), with truth, that it is no longer pos-
sible to determine with any certainty when he lived and legislated.
"The Persians," he adds, "say that Zoroaster lived under Hy-
staspes, but do not make it clear whether by this name they mean
the father of Darius or another Hystaepes. But, whatever his
date, he was their teacher and instructor in the Magian religion,
modified their former religious customs, and introduced a varie-
gated and composite belief."
He is nowhere mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions of the
Achaemenidae, although Darius and his successors were Zoroas-
trians. The Avesta, our principal source for the doctrine of Zoro-
aster, is comparatively reticent; on the subject of his person and
his life with regard to his date it is, naturally enough, absolutely
silent. The i^th section, or Spend Nask, which was mainly con-
secrated to the description of his life, has perished; while the
biographies founded upon it in the 7th book of the Dinkard (Qth
century A.D.), the Shdh-Ndma, and the Zardusht-Ndma (isth cen-
tury) are full of wonders and fabulous histories and miraculous
deliverances.
The personality of Zoroaster is historic, but in the later Avesta,
and in writings of more recent date, he is presented in a legendary
light and endowed with superhuman powers. At his appearing
all nature rejoices (Yasht, 13, 93); he enters into conflict with
the demons and rids the earth of their presence (Yasht, 17, 19);
Satan approaches him as tempter to make him renounce his faith
(Vendidad, 19, 6).
The Gathas alone within the Avesta claim to be the ipsissima
verba of the prophet, and are expressly called "the Gathas of the
holy Zoroaster" (Yasna, 57, 8), his actual expressions in pres-
ence of the assembled congregation, the last genuine survivals of
the doctrinal discourses with which — as the promulgator of a
new religion — he appeared at the court of King Vlshtaspa.
The person of the Zoroaster in these hymns is a mere man,
standing always on the solid ground of reality, whose only arms
are trust in his God and the protection of his powerful allies.
He had to face forms of outward opposition, the unbelief and
lukewarmness of adherents, even his own misgivings as to the
truth and final victory of his cause. The range of the emotions
which find their immediate expression in these hymns is wide and
the whole breathes originality, is psychologically accurate and
just, so that in the Gathas. we have the beginnings of the Zoro-
astrian religion. They give no historical account of the life and
teaching of their prophet, but are general admonitions, assevera-
tions, solemn prophecies, directed to the faithful or to the princes,
and are generally dialogues with God and the arch-angels, whom
he repeatedly invokes as witnesses to his veracity with many
allusions to personal events which later generations have for-
gotten. Their extent is limited and their meaning is frequently
dubious and obscure.
The Person of the Prophet,— As to his birthplace the testi-
monies are conflicting. According to the Avesta (Yasna, 9, 17),
Airyanem Vaejo, on the river Daitya, the old sacred country
of the gods, was the home of Zoroaster. There on the river
Dareja, if the passage (Vend., 19, 4) is correctly interpreted, stood
the house of his father; and the Bundahish (20, 32 and 24, 15)
says expressly that the river Dareja lay in Airan Vej, on its bank
was the dwelling of his father, and that there Zoroaster was born.
According to the Bundahish (29, 12), Airan Vej was situated in
the direction of Atropatene, and consequently Airyanem Vaejo fe
generally identified with the district of Arran on the river
Aras (Araxes), close by the north-western frontier of Media.
Other traditions make him a native of Rai (Ragha,'Pd7cu). Ac-
cording to Yasna, 19, 18, the zarathushtrdtema, or supreme head
of the Zoroastrian priesthood lived in Sassanian times, in Ragha.
The Arabic writer ShahrastanI endeavours to reconcile the two
traditions by the theory that his father lived at Atropatene, while
the mother was from Rai. In his home he is said to have enjoyed
the celestial visions and the conversations with the arch-angels
and Ormazd mentioned in the Gathas. There, too, according to
Yasht, 5, 105, he prayed that he might convert King Vishtaspa.
He then appears to have quitted his native district. On this point
the Avesta is wholly silent; an obscure passage (Vasna, S3, 9)
intimates that he found an ill reception in Rai. Finally, in the
person of Vishtaspa, a prince resident in east Iran, he gained
the powerful protector and faithful disciple of the new religion
whom he desired — after almost superhuman dangers and diffi-
culties, which the later books depict in lively colours. In the
epic legend, Vishtaspa was king of Bactria; in the later Avesta
he became a half-mythical figure, the last in the series of heroes
of east Iranian legend. In the Gathas he appears as a quite his-
torical personage; to his power and good example the prophet is
indebted for his success. In Yasna t 53, 2, he is spoken of as a
pioneer of the doctrine revealed by Ormazd. In the relation be-
tween Zoroaster and Vishtaspa lies the germ of the state church
which afterwards became subservient to the dynasty and sought
its protection from it.
Among the grandees of the court of Vishtaspa were two
brothers, Frashaoshtra and Jamaspa, both, according to the later
legend, vizirs of Vishtaspa. Zoroaster's wife, Hvovi, was the
daughter of Frashaoshtra, and the husband of his daughter, Pou-
rucista, was Jamaspa. The role of intermediary was played by
the pious queen Hutaosa. Apart from this, the new prophet relies
especially upon his own kindred (hvaetush). His first disciple,
Maidhyoimaongha, was his cousin: his father was, according t6
the later Avesta, Pourushaspa, his mother Dughdova, his great-
grandfather Haecataspa, and the ancestor of the whole family
Spitama, for which reason Zarathushtra usually bears this sur-
name. His sons and daughters are repeatedly spoken of. His death
is nowhere mentioned in the Avesta; in the Shdh-Ndma he is said
to have been murdered at the altar by the Turanians in the
storming of Balkh.
As to the date of Zoroaster; King Vishtaspa has no place in
any historical chronology, and the Gathas give no hint on the
subject. According to the Arda. Viraf, i, 2, Zoroaster taught
some 300 years before the invasion of Alexander. Assyrian in-
scriptions relegate him to a more ancient period. Eduard Meyer
(see Ancient Persia), conjecturally puts the" date of Zoroaster at
1000 B.C., with Duncker (Geschichte des Alt erf urns, 4, 78). This
may be too high: but, in any case, Zoroaster belongs to a pre-
historic era. Probably he belonged to the old school of Median
Magi, and appeared first in Media as the prophet of & new faith,
but met with sacerdotal opposition, and turned his steps eastward.
In the east of Iran the novel creed first acquired a solid footing,
and subsequently reacted with success upon the West.
Zoroastrianism. — Zoroaster taught a new religion rooted
in the old Iranian— or Aryan — folk-religion, of which we can
form some representation by comparison with the religion of the
Veda. The Aryan folk-religion was polytheistic. Worship was
paid to popular divinities, such as the war-god and dragon-slayer
Indra, to natural forces and elements such as fire, but the
Aryans also believed in the ruling of moral powers and of an
eternal law in nature. On solemn occasions the inspiring drink
soma (haoma) was consumed by the devout. Numerous coin-
cidences with the Indian religion survive in Zoroastrianism, side
by side with astonishing diversities.
In the Avesta the evil spirits are called daeva (Modern Persian
div), while the Aryans of India gave the name of deva to their
good spirits, the spirits of light. An alternative designation for
deity in the Rig-Veda i* asura. In the later hymns of the Ri£-
988
ZOROASTER
Veda and in later Indiafc only evil spirits are called asuras, while
in Iran the corresponding word ahura was, and is, the designation
of God the Lord. Ahura indicates the more sublime and awful
divine character, for which man entertains reverence and fear:
daeva denotes the kind gods of light, the anthropomorphic deities.
Zoroaster elevated the conception of the Ahura, and he degraded
the daivas (daevas) to the rank of malicious powers and devils.
Jn one Ahura, he concentrated the whole of the divine character,
and conferred upon it the epithet of "the wise" (mazddo). The
Wise Lord (Ahuro Mazddo— later Orntazd) is the primaeval spirit-
ual being, the All-father, who was existent before ever the world
arose, From him that world has emanated, and its course is gov-
erned by his foreseeing eye. His guiding spirit is the Holy
Spirit, which wills the good: yet it is not free, but restricted, in
this temporal epoch, by its antagonist and own twin-brother
(Yasna, 30, 3), the Evil Spirit (angro mainyush, Ahriman), who
in the beginning was banished by the Good Spirit by means of the
famous ban contained in Yasna, 45, 2, and since then drags out
his existence in the darkness of Hell as the principle of ill. In the
Gathas the Good Spirit of Mazda and the Evil Spirit are the two
great opposing forces in the world, and Ormazd himself is to a
certain extent placed above them both. Later the Holy Spirit is
made directly equivalent to Ormazd; and then the great watch-
word is: "Here Ormazd, there Ahriman!" The very daevas are
only the inferior instruments, the corrupted children of Ahriman,
from whom come all that is evil in the world. The daevas, at-
tacked by Zoroaster as the enemies of mankind, are still, in the
Gathas, the perfectly definite gods of old popular belief — the
idols of the people. Zoroaster regarded them as spurious deities,
and their priests and votaries as idolaters and heretics. In the
later, developed, system the daevas are the evil spirits in general,
> and their number has increased to millions. Some have names;
and among them the old Aryan divinities emerge here and there,
e.g., Indra and Naonhaitya. With some, of course, such as the
god of fire — the connection with the good deity was indissoluble.
Other powers of light, such as Mitra the god of day (Iranian
Mithra), survived in popular belief till the later system incorpo-
rated them in the angelic body. The authentic doctrine of the
Gathas had no room either for the cult of Mithra or for that
of the Haoma. Beyond the Lord and his Fire, the Gathas only
recognize the archangels and certain ministers of Ormazd, who
arc personifications of abstract ideas. The essence of Ormazd
is Truth and Law (asha— Veclic rta) : this quality he embodies, and
its personification (though conceived as sexless) is always his
constant companion. The essence of the wicked spirit is false-
hood: and falsehood, as the embodiment of the evil principle, is
more frequently mentioned in the Gathas than Ahriman himself.
Zoroaster says that he had received from God a commission to
purify religion (Yasna, 44, 9) from the grossly sensual elements
of daeva worship. This self-contained theory of the universe and
logical dualist ic principle were destined to terminate in mono-
theism. Later sects sought to rise from it to a higher unity in
other ways. Thus the Zarvanites represented Ormazd and Ahri-
man as twin sons proceeding from the fundamental principle of
all — Zrvana Akarana, or limitless time.
Ethically, too, the new doctrine stands on a higher plane, and
represents, in its moral laws, a superior civilization. It is the re-
ligion of the settled grazier and the peasant, while the ruder
daeva-cult holds its ground among the uncivilized nomadic tribes,
who sacrificed the cow, the gity of Ormazd to man, a sacred animal.
The Doctrine of Zoroaster may be summarized as follows:—
At the beginning of things there existed the two spirits who
represented good and evil (Yasna, 30, 3). Both spirits possess
creative power, which manifests itself positively in the one and
negatively in the other. Ormazd is light and life, and creates all
that is pure and good — in the ethical world of law, order and
truth. His antithesis is darkness, filth, death and produces all
that is evil in the world. Until then the two spirits had counter-
balanced one another. The ultimate triumph of the good spirit
is an ethical demand of the religious consciousness and the quint-
essence of Zoroaster's religion.
The evil spirit with his wicked hosts appears in the Gathas
much less endowed with the attributes of personality and individu-
ality than does Ahura Mazda. Within the world of the good
Ormazd is Lord and God alone. In this sense Zoroastriamsm
is often referred to as the faith of Ormazd or as Mazdaism.
Ormazd in his exalted majesty, the ideal figure of an Oriental
king, has in conjunction with himself a number of genii — for the
most part personifications of ethical ideas. These are his crea-
tures, his instruments, servants and assistants. They are compre-
hended under the general name of antes hd spentd (' 'immortal
holy ones") and are the prototypes of the seven amshaspands of
a later date. These are — (i) Vohu Mano (€ih><Ha), good sense,
i.e., the good principle, the idea of the good, the principle that
works in man inclining him to what is good; (2) Ashem, after-
words Ashem Vahishtem (Plutarch's dX^cta), the genius of truth
and the embodiment of all that is true, good and right, upright
law and rule — ideas practically identical for Zoroaster; (3)
Khshathrem, afterwards Khshathrem Vairlm (tbvonla.), the power
and kingdom of Ormazd, which have subsisted from the first but
not in integral completeness, the evil having crept in like tares
among the wheat : the tyne is yet to come when it shall be fully
manifested in all its unclouded majesty; (4) Armaiti (0o^ia), due
reverence for the divine, verecwtdia, spoken of as daughter of
Ormazd and regarded as having her abode upon the earth; (5)
Haurvatat (TrXoDros), perfection; (6) Ameretat, immortality.
Other ministering angels are Geush Urvan ("the genius and de-
fender of animals"), and Sraosha, the genius of qbedience.
As soon as the two separate spirits (cf. Bunaahish^.i9 4) en-
counter one another, their creative activity and at the same time
their permanent conflict begin. The history of this conflict is the
history of the world. All creation divides itself into that which
is Ahura's and that which is Ahriman's.
In the soul of man is the object of the war. Man is a creation of
Ormazd, who therefore has the right to call him to account. But
Ormazd created him free in his determinations and in his actions,
wherefore he is accessible to the influences of the evil powers.
Man takes part in this conflict by all his life and activity in the
world. By a true confession of faith, by every good deed, word
and thought, by continually keeping pure his body and his soul,
he impairs the power of Satan and strengthens the might of good-
ness, and establishes a claim for reward upon Ormazd; by a false
confession, by every evil deed, word and thought and defilement,
he increases the evil and renders service to Satan.
The life of man falls into two parts — its earthly portion and
that which is lived after death. The lot assigned to him after
death is the result and consequence of his life upon earth. On
the works of men here below a strict reckoning will be held in
heaven (according to later representations, by Rashnu, the genius
of justice, and Mithra). All the thoughts, words and deeds of
each are entered in the book of life as separate items — all the
evil works, etc., as debts. Wicked actions cannot be undone, but
in the heavenly account can be counterbalanced by a surplus of
good works. Only in this sense can an evil deed be atoned for by
a good deed. Of a real remission of sins the old doctrine of
Zoroaster kr^ows nothing, whilst the later Zoroastrian Church
admits repentance, expiation and remission. After death the soul
arrives at the cinvato peretu, or accountant's bridge, over which
lies the way to heaven. Here the statement of his life account is
made out. If he has a balance of good works in his favour, he
passes forthwith into paradise (Card demdna) and the blessed
life. If his evil works outweigh his good, he falls finally under the
power of Satan, and the pains of hell are his portion for ever.
Should the evil and the good be equally balanced, the soul passes
into an intermediary stage of existence (the Hamestakdns of the
Pahlavi books) and its final lot is not decided until the last judg-
ment. This court of reckoning is called dkd. The course of law
cannot be turned aside by sacrifice, nor by the grace of God. .
In the Gathas Zoroaster speaks usually in general terms of
the divine commands and of good and evil works, of the re-
nunciation of Satan, adoration of Ormazd, purity of soul and
body, and care of the cow. Ceremonial worship is hardly men-
tioned. The Gathas contain revelations concerning the last things
and the future lot, whether bliss or woe, of human souls, promises
ZORRILLA— ZOUAVE
989
for true believers, threatenings for misbelievers, and Zoroaster's
firm confidence as to the future triumph of the good.
Zoroaster believed that the calling of a prophet took place
precisely when it did with special reason. It was, he held, the final
appeal of Ormazd to mankind at large. The fulness of time was
near, the kingdom of heaven was at hand. Through the whole of
the Gathas runs the pious hope that the end of the present world
is not far distant. He himself hopes, with his followers, to live to
see the decisive turn of things, the dawn of the new and better
aeon. Qrrnazd will summon together all his powers for a final
decisive struggle and break the power of evil for ever; by his help
the faithful will achieve the victory over their detested enemies,
the daeva worshippers. Thereupon Ormazd will hold a general
ordeal. Forthwith begins the one undivided kingdom of God in
heaven and on earth. This is called, sometimes the good kingdom,
sometimes simply the kingdom. Here the sun will for ever shine,
and all the pious and faithful will live a happy life, which no evil
power can disturb, in the eternal fellowship of Ormazd and his
angels. Every believer will receive as his guerdon the inexhausti-
ble cow and the gracious gifts of the Vohu Mano.
Later Development. — For most of the people Zoroaster's
doctrine was too abstract. In the later Avesta are Mithra and
popular divinities like the angel of victory, Verethraghna, Anahita
(Anaitis), the goddess of the water, Tishrya (Sirius), and other
heavenly bodies, invoked with special preference. The Gathas
know nothing of the belief in the Fravaslti, or guardian angels of
the faithful. Fravashi properly means "confession of faith," and
when personified comes to be regarded as a protecting spirit.
With the new teaching arose a widely spread priesthood
(athravano) who systematized its doctrines, organized and car-
ried on its worship, and laid down the minutely elaborate laws of
the Vendidad for the purifying and keeping clean of soul and
body, such as the numerous ablutions, bodily chastisements, love
of truth, beneficial works, support of comrades in the faith, alms,
chastity, improvement of the land, arboriculture, breeding of
cattle, agriculture, protection of useful animals, as the dog, the
destruction of noxious animals* and the prohibition either to burn
or to bury the dead. These are to be left on the appointed places
(dakhmas) and exposed to the vultures and wild dogs. In the
worship the drink prepared from the haoma (Indian soma) plant
had a prominent place. Worship in the Zoroastrian Church was
devoid of pomp; it was independent of temples. Its centre was
the holy fire on the altar. The fire altars afterwards developed to
fire temples. In the sanctuary of these temples the various sacri-
fices and high and low masses were celebrated. As offerings meat,
milk, show-bread, fruits, flowers and consecrated water were used.
The priests were the privileged keepers and teachers of religion.
They only performed the sacrifices (Herodotus, i. 132), educated
the young clergy, imposed the penances; they in person executed
the ceremonies of purification and exercised a spiritual guardian-
ship and pastoral care of the laymen. Every young believer in
Mazda, after having been received into the religious community
by being girt with the holy lace, chose a spiritual guide (ratu).
In cschatology a change took place. The last things and the
end of the world are relegated to the close of a long period of
time (3,000 years after Zoroaster), when a new Saoshyant is to
be born of the seed of the prophet, the dead come to life, and a
new incorruptible world begins.
Zoroastrianism was the national religion of Iran, and was pro-
fessed by Turanians as well. The worship of the Persian gods
spread to Armenia and Cappadocia and over the whole of the Near
East fStrabo, xv. 3, 14; xi. 8, 4; 14, 76). Of the Zoroastrian
Church under the Achaemenides and Aeracides little is known.
After the overthrow of the dynasty of the Achaemenides a period
of decay set in. Yet the Aeracides and the Indo-Scythian kings
as well as the Achaemenides were believers in Mazda. The na-
tional restoration of the Sassanides brought new life to the Zoro-
astrian religion and long-lasting sway to the Church. Protected by
this dynasty, the priesthood developed into a completely organized
state church, which employed the power of the state in enforcing
strict compliance with the religious law-book hitherto enjoined by
their unaided efforts only. The head of the Church (Zara-
Thushtrotema) had his seat at Rai in Media and was the first
person in the state next to the king. Tha formation of sects was
at this period not infrequent (cf. MANICHAEISM). The Moham-
medan invasion (636), with the persecutions of the following cen-
turies, was the death-blow of Zoroastrianism. In Persia itself
only a few followers of Zoroaster are now found (in Kerman and
Yezd). The PARSEES (q.v.) in and around Bombay hold by
Zoroaster as their prophet and by the ancient religious usages, but
their doctrine is a pure monotheism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, — T. Hyde, Hhtoria rclixionh vrlcrum Persarunt
(1700) ; F. H. H. Windischmann, Zor oast rise he Studien (1863) ; C. P.
Tiele, Ceschiedenis van den Godsdienst (Amsterdam, 1876), German
trans. L. O. J. Soderblom, Kompendium dcr ReliKionsgeschichte (Brcs-
lau, 1903), Enir. trans. J. E. Carpenter, Outline of the History of
Religions (1877), and Die Religion bci den iranischen Volkcrn (Gothu,
1898, Eng. trans. G. K. Nariman, Bombay, 1912, etc.) ; Dosabhai
Franji Karaka, History of the Parsis (2 vols., 1884) ; Z. A. Rags/in,
The Story of Media, Babylon and Persia (1888) ; E. Lehmann, Zara-
thushtra (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1899, 1902) ; A. V. W. Jackson, Zoroas-
ter, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (1899); and in the Grundriss dcr
iranischen Philologic (vol. ii., Strassburg, 1896-1904) ; Rastanji Edulji
Dastoor Peshotan Sanjana, Zaralhushtra and Zarathushrianism in the
Avesta (Bombay, 1906) ; J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism (1913) ;
J. Herbe), Indo-frdnischen Qucllen und For'schimgen (Leipzig, 1924,
etc.) . See also E. W. West, "Marvels of Zoroastrianism" in the Sacred
Books of the East, vol. xlvii. (ed. F. M. Mueller, 40 vols., 1879-91) ;
A. J. Carnoy, "Zoroastrianism," in Encyclopaedia oj Religion and
Ethics (cd. J. Hastings, 1908-25). See also ZEND-AVESTA.
ZORRILLA, JOS£ (1817*1893), Spanish poet and drama-
tist, was born at Valiadolid and read law at the University of
Toledo, but after a year of idleness there, he fled to Madrid and
started a paper which was suppressed by the Government. He then
fell into great poverty, but was brought into notice by an elegiac
poem, declaimed at Larra's funeral in Feb. 1837. His Cantos del
trovador (1841), a collection of national legends' versified with in-
finite spirit, secured for the author the place next to Espronceda in
popular esteem. National legends also supply the themes of his
dramas, though in this department Zorrilla somewhat compromised
his reputation for originality by adapting older plays which had
fallen out of fashion. For example, in El Zapatero y d Key
he recasts El montanes Juan Pascual by Juan de la Hoz y Mota;
in Don Juan Tenorio he adapts from Zamora's No hay dcnda que
no sc paguet y Convidado de picdra, and from the elder Dumas's
Don Juan de Marana (which itself derives from Les antes dn
pnrgatoire of Prosper Merimee). But his rearrangements usually
contain original elements', and in Sancho Garcia, El Rey loco,
and El Alcalde Ronquillo he apparently owes little to any prede-
cessor. In 1855 he emigrated to Mexico where he was protected
by the Emperor Maximilian. He returned in 1866 to find himself
a half-forgotten classic. His old fertility was gone, and new
standards of taste were coming into fashion. He was always poor,
and for some 12 years after 1871 he was in the direst straits. A
small pension secured him from actual want in his old age, and
the reaction in his favour became an apotheosis. In 1889 he was
publicly crowned at Granada as the national laureate.
ZOSIMUS, bishop of Rome from March 18. 417 to Dec. 26,
418, succeeded Innocent I. and was followed by Boniface I. For
his attitude in the Pelagian controversy, see PELAGIUS. He took a
decided part in the* protracted dispute in Gaul as to the jurisdic-
tion of the see of Aries over that of Viennc, but without set-
tling the controversy.
ZOSTEROPS, a genus of birds inhabiting various part's of
the Old World and especially common in Australia and New
Zealand. In New Zealand, the most, familiar species (Z. cacrnles-
cers) is called white-eye or blight-bird, the last an allusion to its
clearing the fruit-trees from blight.
ZOUAVE, the name given to certain infantry regiments in (he
French Army. The corps was first raised in Algeria in 1831 with
one and later two battalions, and recruited solely from the
Zouaves, a tribe of Berbers, dwelling in the mountains of the
Jurjura range (see KABYLES). In 1838 a third battalion was
raised and the regiment thus formed was commanded by La-
moridere. Shortly afterwards the formation of ihc Tirailleurs
algMens, the Turcos, as the corps for natives, changed the en-
listment for the Zouave battalions, and they became, as they
99°
ZOUTPANSBERG— ZUG
now remain, a purely French body. Three regiments were
formed in 1852, and a fourth, the Zouaves of the Imperial
Guard, in 1854. The Crimean War was the first service which
the regiments saw outside Algeria. There are now six regiments,
of three battalions each, stationed in North Africa.
The Papal Zouaves were formed in defence of the Papal
states by Lamoricierc in 1860. After the occupation of Rome
by Victor Emmanuel in 1870, the Papal Zouaves served the
government of national defence in France during the Franco-
Prussian War, and were disbanded during the siege of Paris.
ZOUTPANSBERG, a district forming part of the Low Veld
of the northern Transvaal. It is, for the most part, low-lying un-
dulating country, bounded on the north by the Limpopo river.
The principal hills are the Zoutpansberg, which consist of three
parallel ranges, which are due to the dislocation of Waterberg
rocks with strike faults. Copper is mined at Messina, near the
Limpopo, and gold has been found at several places. Owing to
its isolation and malaria, the district has been little developed,
and the population was regarded as typical "backveld Boers."
A railway has been built, linking Messina with the Transvaal
system, and with Lourengo Marques.
ZUCCARELLI, FRANCESCO (1702-1788), Italian
painter, was born at Pitigliano in Tuscany, and studied in Rome
under Morandi, and Nelli. He was a foundation member of the
Royal Academy and had the patronage of royalty and of many
wealthy English collectors, for whom he executed his principal
works-^-generally landscapes with classic ruins and small figures.
A large number of them are at Windsor Castle.
ZUCCARO, the name of two Italian painters.
I. TADDEO ZUCCARO (1529-1566), one of the most popular
painters of the so-called Roman mannerist school, was the son
of Ottaviano Zuccaro, an almost unknown painter at St. Angelo
in Vado, where he was born in 1529. He was employed by popes
Julius III. and Paul IV., by Delia Rovere, duke of Urbino, and
other patrons. His best frescoes were a historical series painted
on the walls of a palace at Caprarola, built for Cardinal Ales-
sandro Farnese, for which Taddeo also designed rich decorations
in stucco relief after the style of Giulio Romano and other pupils
of Raphael. Nearly all his paintings were in fresco, very large
in scale, and often in chiaroscuro. He died in Rome in 1566.
II. FEDERIGO ZUCCARO (c. 1539-1609) was in 1550 placed under
his brother Taddeo's charge in Rome, and worked as his assist-
ant; he completed the Caprarola frescoes. Federigo was perhaps
the most popular artist of his generation. Probably no other
painter has ever produced so many enormous frescoes crowded
with figures on the most colossal scale, extravagant in attitude.
His first work of this sort was the completion of the painting
of the dome of the cathedral at Florence in 1579; the work had
been begun by Vasari but left unfinished at his death. Federigo
was recalled to Rome by Gregory XIII. to continue in the Pauline
chapel of the Vatican the scheme of decoration begun by Michel-
angelo during his failing years, but he left Italy owing to a quarrel
with members of the papal court. He visited Brussels, and there
made a series of cartoons for the tapestry-weavers. In 1574 he
went to England, where he received commissions to paint the por-
traits of Queen Elizabeth, Mary, queen of Scots, Sir Nicholas
Bacon, Sir Francis Walsingham, Lord High Admiral Howard and
others. Federigo was soon recalled to Rome to finish his work on
the vault of the Pauline chapel. In 1585 he accepted an offer by
Philip II. of Spain to decorate the new Escorial at a yearly salary
of 2,000 crowns. He returned to Rome in 1588 and there founded
in 1595, under a charter confirmed by Sixtus V., the Academy of
St. Luke, of which he was the first president. Its organization sug-
gested to Sir Joshua Reynolds the plan for the English Royal
Academy.
He also wrote on art, see L'Idea de' Pittori, Scultori, ed
Architetti (Turin, 1607), and two volumes (Bologna 1608) de-
scribing his visit to Parma and a journey through central Italy.
He died at Ancona in 1609.
ZUG, the smallest undivided canton of Switzerland, is cen-
trally situated. Of its 92-6 sq.m., 83-6% are productive, forests
covering 20-1 sq. miles. Of the unproductive area, 12-6 sq.m. are
covered by lakes, 2-8 by the Aegeri See (wholly within the can-
ton), and the balance by part of the Lake of Zug. The pear-
shaped Rossberg mass, with its central summit (Wildspitz, 5,193
ft.) thrusts its pointed end (Zugerberg, 3,261 ft.) north-north-
west into the canton. Its steep western flanks fall to the Lake of
Zug, the less steep eastern slopes descend to the basin and waters
of the Aegeri See. Still eastwards, the land rises to the Hohe Rone
mass (4,055 ft.) near its eastern boundary. From Aegeri a gorge
carries the river Lorze to the low land at the north end of the
Zugerberg, round which it curves to enter the lower end of the
Lake of Zug. The Lorze leaves this lake slightly west of its point
of entrance and flows north-north-west, over fertile lowlands, to
its junction with the river Reuss — the latter stream forming the
north-west boundary of the canton. Zug thus holds a strategical
position at the entrance to the higher land. Railways connect the
capital both with Lucerne and with Zurich, while lines running
along the shores of the Lake of Zug join at the Arth-Goldau
station of the St. Gotthard railway. (See SCHWYS.) An electric
railway connects Zug and Oberaegeri ; 2$ m. distant, on the south-
cast of the lake, is Morgarten, the site of the great victory of the
Confederates over the Habsburgs (1315). In 1920 the total pop-
ulation was 31,569, of whom 30,262 were German-speaking, 949
Italian-speaking, and 246 French-speaking, while 27,579 were
Catholics, 3,841 Protestants and 29 Jews. Since 1828 the canton
has formed part of the diocese of Basle. All towns are small. Zug
(pop. 9,500) is the largest ; north of it is Baar, and^wcst-north-west
is Cham, which, though next in order of size, are merely large vil-
lages. The canton forms a single administrative district and
contains n communes. By the Constitution of 1814 the "Lands-
gemeinde," or primitive democratic assembly, which had existed
since 1376, became an electoral body to choose a cantonal council.
In 1848 the remaining functions of the Landsgemeinde were abol-
ished. The 1873-76 Cantonal Constitution was largely replaced
by the present one in 1894. The legislature (Kantonsrat) of 79
deputies has one member to every 400 inhabitants, and the seven
members of the executive (Regierungsrat) are elected directly by
popular vote.
The earlier history of the canton is closely linked with that of
its capital, Zug (see below) ; subsequently violent disputes about
the distribution of the French pensions took place (1728-38). In
1798 its inhabitants opposed the French, and during the period of
the Helvetia republic it was one of the districts of the huge canton
of the Waldstatten, but became a separate canton again on the fall
of the republic (1803). As one of the six Catholic cantons, it
joined the Sonderbund (1845) and shared in the war of 1847. In
1848, and again in 1874, it voted against the acceptance of the
proposed Federal Constitution.
ZUG, capital of the Swiss canton of that name, a picturesque
little town at the N.E. corner of the lake of Zug, and at the foot
of the Zugerberg (3,255 ft.), which rises gradually, its lower slopes
thickly covered with fruit trees. Pop. (1920), 9,499, mainly Ger-
man-speaking and Roman Catholics.
The town, first mentioned in 1240, is called an oppidum in
1242, and a cast-rum in 1255. In 1273 it was bought by Rudolph
of Habsburg from Anna, the heiress of Kyburg. After this it was
governed by a bailiff, appointed by the Habsburgs, and a council,
and was much favoured by that family. Several country districts
(Baar, Menzingen, and Aegeri) had each its own "Landsge-
meinde" but were governed by one bailiff, also appointed by the
Habsburgs; these were known as the "Aeusser Amt," and were
always favourably disposed to the Confederates. On the 27th
of June 1352 both the town of Zug and the Aeusser Amt entered
the Swiss Confederation; but in September, 1352, Zug had to
acknowledge its own lords again, and in 1355 to break off its con-
nection with the league. About 1364 the town and the Aeusser Amt
were recovered for the league by the men of Schwyz, and from
this time Zug took part as a full member in all the acts of the
league. In 1379 the German king Wenceslaus exempted Zug
from all external jurisdictions, and in 1389 the Habsburgs re-
nounced their claims, reserving only an annual payment of twenty
silver marks, and this came to an end in 1415. In 1385 Zug joined
the league of the Swabian cities against Leopold of Habsburg,
ZUO— ZULULAND
991
and shared in the victory of Sempach. Between 1379 (Walchwil)
and 1477 (Cham) Zug had acquired various districts in her own
- neighbourhood, principally to the north and the west, which were
ruled till 1798 by the town alone as subject lands. At the time
of the Reformation Zug clung to the old faith and was a member
of the "Christliche Vereinigung" of 1529. In 1586 it became a
member of the Golden League.
ZUG) LAKE OF, one of the minor Swiss lakes, north of that
of Lucerne. It is formed by the Aa, which enters the southern
extremity of the lake. The Lorze enters at its northern end, but
i£ m. further W. issues from the lake to pursue its course towards
the Reuss. The lake has an area of about 15 sq.m., is about 9 m.
long, 2^ m. wide, and has a maximum depth of 650 ft., while its
surface is 1,368 ft. above sea-level. Most of the lake is in the
canton of Zug, but 3^ sq.m. at the southern end is in Schwyz,
while £ sq.m., to the N. of Immensee is in Lucerne.
ZUHAIR [Zuhair ibn Abl Sulma Rab!' a ul-Muzani] (6th
century), one of the six great Arabian pre-Islamic poets. Of
his life practically nothing is known save that he belonged to
a family of poetic power; his stepfather, Aus ibn Ha jar, his
sister, Khansa, and his son, KaT> 
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